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<body>
<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59092 ***</div>
<div id="cover" class="img">
<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="The Story of Man in Yellowstone" width="500" height="726" />
</div>
<div class="box">
<div class="img">
<img src="images/pic03.jpg" alt="" width="385" height="90" />
<p class="pcap">Greetings from Wonderland Park Naturalist
Merrill D. Beal</p>
</div>
<p class="center">THE STORY
<br />of
<br />MAN IN YELLOWSTONE</p>
<p class="tbcenter">REVISED EDITION</p>
<p class="tbcenter">THE YELLOWSTONE LIBRARY AND MUSEUM
<br />ASSOCIATION
<br />Yellowstone Park, Wyoming</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig1">
<img src="images/pic04.jpg" alt="" width="532" height="799" />
<p class="pcap">A Yellowstone geyser in action</p>
</div>
<div class="box">
<h1>The Story
<br />of
<br />Man In Yellowstone</h1>
<p class="tbcenter"><span class="large"><b><i>By</i>
<br />MERRILL D. BEAL</b></span>
<br /><i>Seasonal Park Naturalist,
<br />Yellowstone National Park;
<br />Professor of History,
<br />Idaho State College</i></p>
<p class="tbcenter"><b>Approved by the National Park Service</b></p>
<p class="center small">Yellowstone Interpretive Series
<br />Number 7
<br />Revised Edition
<br /><i>Illustrated</i>
<br />1960</p>
<div class="img">
<img src="images/pic04a.jpg" alt="YELLOWSTONE LIBRARY AND MUSEUM ASSOC." width="200" height="198" />
</div>
<p class="center small"><i>Published By</i>
<br />The Yellowstone Library and Museum Association
<br />Yellowstone Park, Wyoming</p>
</div>
<p class="tbcenter">Copyright, 1949
<br />By The Caxton Printers, Ltd.
<br />Caldwell, Idaho</p>
<p class="center">Copyright, 1956
<br />By The Yellowstone Library and
<br />Museum Association
<br />Yellowstone Park, Wyoming</p>
<p class="center">Copyright, 1960
<br />By The Yellowstone Library and
<br />Museum Association</p>
<p class="tbcenter">Printed and bound in the United States of America
<br />by the WHEELWRIGHT LITHOGRAPHING COMPANY,
<br />Salt Lake City, Utah</p>
<p class="tbcenter">To</p>
<p>The men in the National Park Service Uniform,
protectors and interpreters of Yellowstone. Indeed,
to all National Park Service personnel and
others who subscribe to the purposes for which
the area was reserved.</p>
<p class="tb">This book is published by the Yellowstone Library and Museum
Association, a non-profit organization whose purpose is
the stimulation of interest in and the furtherance of the educational
and inspirational aspects of Yellowstone’s history and
natural history. The Association cooperates with and is recognized
by the National Park Service of the United States Department
of the Interior, as an essential operating organization.
It is primarily sponsored and operated by the Naturalist Division
in Yellowstone National Park.</p>
<p>As one means of accomplishing its aims the Association has
published a series of reasonably priced books and booklets
which are available for purchase by mail throughout the year
or at the museum information desks in the park during the
summer.</p>
<h3>YELLOWSTONE INTERPRETIVE SERIES</h3>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr class="th"><th><i>Number</i> </th><th><i>Title and Author</i></th></tr>
<tr><td class="l">1. </td><td class="l"><i>Wild Animals of Yellowstone National Park</i> by Harold J. Brodrick</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">2. </td><td class="l"><i>Birds of Yellowstone National Park</i> by Harold J. Brodrick</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">3. </td><td class="l"><i>Yellowstone Fishes</i> by James R. Simon</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">4. </td><td class="l"><i>The Story of Old Faithful Geyser</i> by George D. Marler</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">5. </td><td class="l"><i>Reptiles and Amphibians of Yellowstone National Park</i> by Frederick B. Turner</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">6. </td><td class="l"><i>Yellowstone’s Bannock Indian Trails</i> by Wayne F. Replogle</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">7. </td><td class="l"><i>The Story of Man in Yellowstone</i> by Dr. M. D. Beal</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">8. </td><td class="l"><i>The Plants of Yellowstone</i> by W. B. McDougall and Herma A. Baggley</td></tr>
</table>
<p>Orders or letters of inquiry concerning publications should be
addressed to the Yellowstone Library and Museum Association,
Yellowstone Park, Wyoming.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div>
<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">PREFACE</span></h2>
<p>Yellowstone National Park lives as a cherished memory in
the minds of millions of people. Greater still is the number who
anticipate a visit to this Wonderland. To nearly all, the Park
stands as a symbol of the enrichment of the American way of
life. And well it might, because it is a geological paradise, a
pristine botanical garden, and an Elysium for wild game. But
most important of all, it is a place of recreation for countless
thousands who come to find a temporary escape from the pressure
of a highly artificial life. Thoughtful people assent to the
opinion of Wordsworth:</p>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">The world is too much with us; late and soon,</p>
<p class="t0">Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers;</p>
<p class="t0">Little we see in Nature that is ours;</p>
<p class="t0">We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon!</p>
<p class="t0">This Sea that bares her bosom to the moon;</p>
<p class="t0">The winds that will be howling at all hours,</p>
<p class="t0">And are up-gathered now like sleeping flowers;</p>
<p class="t0">For this, for everything, we are out of tune;</p>
<p class="t0">It moves us not. —Great God! I’d rather be</p>
<p class="t0">A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn;</p>
<p class="t0">So might I, standing on this pleasant lea,</p>
<p class="t0">Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn;</p>
<p class="t0">Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea;</p>
<p class="t0">Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn.</p>
</div>
<p>After many years of indifference to the claims of nature, the
American people are coming into accord with the wise teachings
advanced by John Muir more than fifty years ago. Today, legions
<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span>
of tired, nerve-shaken, over-civilized people realize that going to
the mountains is like going home. They have found a brief sojourn
in the wilderness a necessity of life. There is a balm in the
sun, wind, and storm of mountain heights. There is healing in
willow parks and gentian meadows. Cobweb cares of the world’s
spinning give way before the vibrant touch of Mother Earth
when her children venture boldly into unbeaten paths. There they
may attune their ears to strange sounds; their lungs respond to
pine sap air. Jumping from rock to log, tracing rivers to their
sources, brings men up from panting puffs to deep-drawn breath
in whole-souled exercise unto a newness of life.</p>
<p>The story of Yellowstone has been told many times, but seldom
does one catch that elusive something that so mightily impresses
the sensitive visitor. The theme is at once so inspiring and grand,
the details so varied and minute, as to challenge one’s finest discrimination
to seize upon the major features and bring them into
relief. There is still much that is primitive in Wonderland, and
in this setting it is appropriate to envision the salient traits of the
Old West. Hereabouts was once enacted a colorful panorama of
frontier life. There were Indians, trappers, miners, cowboys,
rustlers, poachers, soldiers, and settlers. A description of these
picturesque people and their ways might bring enjoyment to
many. Perhaps the spirit of appreciation that characterizes this
history is its chief claim upon the attention of Yellowstone visitors.</p>
<p>This monograph was written for them, and it represents a
synthesis of many lectures that evolved in their presence, in the
afterglow of Yellowstone campfire programs. Visitors whose enjoyment
of life seems particularly enhanced by a visit to the Park
may find the reason therefore in those lines:</p>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">One impulse from a vernal wood</p>
<p class="t0">May teach you more of man,</p>
<p class="t0">Of moral evil and of good,</p>
<p class="t0">Than all the sages can.</p>
<p class="lr">—<span class="smaller">WORDSWORTH</span></p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div>
<p>In the interest of economy of time in reading this history, it is
suggested that chapters three, four, and ten might be skimmed.
However, a knowledge of the Indians and trappers whose haunts
and activities impinged upon the Park area is essential to a full
appreciation of Yellowstone National Park in its western setting.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div>
<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</span></h2>
<p>Former Superintendent Edmund B. Rogers and Park Naturalist
David de L. Condon gave me access to the records of the Park.
Their interest in advancing the knowledge of Yellowstone has
been keen and constant.</p>
<p>My Yellowstone Park ranger-colleagues also served as sources
of information and occasional critics. It is probable that each of
them will be able to identify an element of his own thought or
expression in the narrative. As my campfire lectures evolved into
a unified monograph, guidance was received from professional
historians. They have been more critical than the rangers but
not less kind.</p>
<p>At the State College of Washington, Dr. Herman J. Deutsch
and Dr. Claudius O. Johnson made the college’s Northwest Collection
available. They also joined their colleagues, Dr. W. B.
Thorson and Dr. C. M. Brewster, in making many fine and comprehensive
criticisms, which combined to strengthen the narrative.
Several of my colleagues at Idaho State College gave direction
and increased purpose to the discussion of conservation and
wild life principles. They are Dr. Ray J. Davis, Albert V. S.
Pulling, and DuWayne Goodwin. Dr. Carl W. McIntosh, president
of the college, has extended many courtesies. Professor
Wallace E. Garets edited the manuscript.</p>
<p>Former Yellowstone National Park Naturalist, Dr. C. Max
Bauer, gave encouragement from the inception of the study and
reviewed the final draft. Other National Park officials from
<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span>
whom wise council and valuable suggestions were received include
Dr. Carl P. Russell, former National Park Supervisor of
Interpretation, and Dr. Alvin P. Stauffer, Chief of Research and
Survey. The collaboration of J. Neilson Barry was invaluable in
the exposition of the discovery phase in the chapter on John
Colter. J. Fred Smith, Delbert G. Taylor, and Mr. and Mrs.
George Marler have also given material support to this effort.</p>
<p>The illustrations are principally the work of William S. Chapman,
North District Ranger.</p>
<p>The support of Yellowstone Park Superintendent Lemuel A.
Garrison and Chief Park Naturalist Robert N. McIntyre in bringing
forth this Third Edition under the auspices of The Yellowstone
Library and Museum Association is indeed appreciated.</p>
<p>Lastly, gratitude is due my wife, Bessy N. Beal, and our son,
David, and his wife, Jean, for the typing of the manuscript and
for the rendering of much additional service to this enterprise.
<span class="lr"><span class="smaller">MERRILL D. BEAL</span></span></p>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0"><span class="smaller">IDAHO STATE COLLEGE</span></p>
<p class="t"><span class="smaller">POCATELLO, IDAHO</span></p>
<p class="t2">June 10, 1960</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div>
<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">INTRODUCTION</span></h2>
<p>It is interesting and significant that this book, telling the story
of man in the area of our oldest National Park, should be available
soon after a season of record-breaking public use of the
area. During the travel year 1948, one million thirty-one thousand
five hundred and thirty-one people visited Yellowstone National
Park.</p>
<p>The discoverer of The Yellowstone Country early in the nineteenth
century, and re-discoverers through the years prior to
1872, as well as all visitors to the Park before the advent of
modern highways and automobiles probably gave no thought to
the reality and problems of a million visitors a year.</p>
<p>Dr. Beal’s well documented and carefully prepared book brings
us through the history of man in a wilderness, through that
period of history before annual visitation of a million visitors
in that wilderness. Readers will find the story of the before-one-million-visitors-years
most interesting. It is a period, especially
since the establishment of the National Park in 1872, in which
we as a nation were experimenting for the most part in wilderness
preservation and, at the same time, encouraging its use. Dr.
Beal’s book covers a period in U.S. history when shameful exploitation
of natural resources was common practice. The preservation
of The Yellowstone Country as a National Park is an
action during the period of exploitation, an action of which we
can all be proud. The story of man in Yellowstone is a fascinating
one. It can also be a challenge to everyone to assume responsibility
<span class="pb" id="Page_14">14</span>
in continued preservation of Yellowstone National Park
so that future generations may benefit from all of the things that
unimpaired natural areas can offer by way of recreation, education,
and inspiration.</p>
<p><span class="lr"><span class="smaller">JOHN E. DOERR</span></span>
<span class="lr"><i>Former Chief Naturalist, National Park Service</i></span></p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div>
<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">OUTDOORS</span></h2>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">O, give me a bit of the great outdoors</p>
<p class="t">Is all that I ask of you,</p>
<p class="t0">Where I may do whatever I like</p>
<p class="t">And like whatever I do.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">Where the sky is the boundary up above</p>
<p class="t">And the earth is the measure below,</p>
<p class="t0">And the trail starts on where the sun comes up</p>
<p class="t">And ends where the sun sinks low.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">Where the wind blows sweet as a baby’s breath,</p>
<p class="t">And the sun shines bright as its eyes,</p>
<p class="t0">And the showers come and the showers go</p>
<p class="t">As the tears when the little one cries.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">And the brook runs merrily through the glade,</p>
<p class="t">Singing its gladdening song,</p>
<p class="t0">And the pine trees murmur their soothing sighs,</p>
<p class="t">Still bearing that song along.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">Yes, carry me back to the lake’s white shores</p>
<p class="t">With its deer and its lily pad.</p>
<p class="t0">Where the loon calls out into the moonbeams bright</p>
<p class="t">Through the mist on the waters sad.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">Let me hear the elk’s far cry</p>
<p class="t">As it sweeps through the forest deep,</p>
<p class="t0">Where the silence hangs as over the dead</p>
<p class="t">At rest in eternal sleep.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">I’ll pitch my tent by some lonesome pine,</p>
<p class="t">By the rippling water’s edge,</p>
<p class="t0">With the great outdoors as my garden,</p>
<p class="t">And the willows round as my hedge.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">And surrounded by pretty flowers,</p>
<p class="t">That perfume the gentle breeze,</p>
<p class="t0">I’ll idle away the whole long day,</p>
<p class="t">In the shade of my old pine trees.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">And I’ll watch on yonder mountain</p>
<p class="t">The colors change with the day,</p>
<p class="t0">And I’ll follow each shadow creeping</p>
<p class="t">So silently on its way.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">And then I’ll give thanks to God above</p>
<p class="t">And in gratitude I’ll pause,</p>
<p class="t0">And I’ll love, not hate, each care that comes</p>
<p class="t">In that great big home—Outdoors.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="lr">—<span class="smaller">FRANK L. OASTLER</span></p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div>
<h2 class="center">TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
<dl class="toc">
<dt class="small">PAGE</dt>
<dt><a href="#c1"><span class="sc">Preface</span></a> 7</dt>
<dt><a href="#c2"><span class="sc">Acknowledgments</span></a> 11</dt>
<dt><a href="#c3"><span class="sc">Introduction</span></a> 13</dt>
<dt><a href="#c4"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Poem</span> </span>“OUTDOORS”</a> 15</dt>
<dt><a href="#c5"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter I</span> </span>YELLOWSTONE—GEM OF THE MOUNTAINS</a> 23</dt>
<dt><a href="#c6"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter II</span> </span>JOHN COLTER’S FIRST DISCOVERY OF YELLOWSTONE</a> 30</dt>
<dt><a href="#c7"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter III</span> </span>INDIANS IN AND AROUND YELLOWSTONE</a> 59</dt>
<dt><a href="#c8"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter IV</span> </span>PORTRAIT OF A TRAPPER BRIGADE</a> 71</dt>
<dt><a href="#c9"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter V</span> </span>WERE INDIANS AFRAID OF YELLOWSTONE?</a> 84</dt>
<dt><a href="#c10"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter VI</span> </span>SECONDARY VISITATIONS BEFORE 1869</a> 92</dt>
<dt><a href="#c11"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter VII</span> </span>JIM BRIDGER: MAN AND LEGEND</a> 106</dt>
<dt><a href="#c12"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter VIII</span> </span>FINAL DISCOVERY IN 1869 AND 1870</a> 116</dt>
<dt><a href="#c13"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter IX</span> </span>CREATION OF YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK</a> 136</dt>
<dt><a href="#c14"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter X</span> </span>THE LAST ROUNDUP</a> 147</dt>
<dt><a href="#c15"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter XI</span> </span>CHIEF JOSEPH’S TRAIL OF BLOOD</a> 165</dt>
<dt><a href="#c16"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter XII</span> </span>TRAVEL AND ACCOMMODATIONS—NEW BUSINESSES</a> 192</dt>
<dt><a href="#c17"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter XIII</span> </span>“THE YELLOWSTONE IDEA”</a> 219</dt>
<dt><a href="#c18"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter XIV</span> </span>GENERAL ADMINISTRATION</a> 238</dt>
<dt><a href="#c19"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Chapter XV</span> </span>THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE</a> 265</dt>
<dt><a href="#c20"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Appendix I.</span> </span>YOUNG MEN CAMPING IN YELLOWSTONE</a> 281</dt>
<dt><a href="#c21"><span class="cn"><span class="sc">Appendix II.</span> </span>PROBLEM OF COLTER’S ROUTE IN 1807</a> 285</dt>
<dt><a href="#c22"><span class="sc">Bibliographical Note</span></a> 299</dt>
<dt><a href="#c23"><span class="sc">Bibliography</span></a> 301</dt>
<dt><a href="#c24"><span class="sc">Subject Index</span></a> 310</dt>
</dl>
<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div>
<h2><span class="small">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</span></h2>
<dl class="toc">
<dt><a href="#fig1">A Yellowstone geyser in action</a> <i>frontispiece</i></dt>
<dt><a href="#fig2">Sacajawea with Lewis and Clark</a> 33</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig3">Manuel Lisa’s fort built in 1807</a> 39</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig4">Eastern section of Colter’s route</a> 46</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig5">Map of 1814 depicting Lewis and Clark route</a> 48-49</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig6">Colter and Potts under attack</a> 53</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig7">Mountain Indian clan</a> 62</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig8">Family of Sheepeater Indians</a> facing 66</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig9">Beaver at work</a> 72</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig10">Part of a trapper brigade</a> 75</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig11">Gun and powder horn</a> 79</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig12">Remnants of Sheepeaters’ wickiup</a> facing 86</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig13">Horse and travois transportation</a> 89</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig14">Trapper observing Riverside Geyser</a> 97</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig15">Jim Bridger</a> 109</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig16">Rare species of aquatic life</a> 119</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig17">Bighorn resentful toward invaders</a> 125</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig18">Part of Washburn-Langford-Doane party in camp</a> 133</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig19">Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden</a> facing 136</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig20">The Hayden expedition in camp</a> facing 138</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig21">President Ulysses S. Grant signing the Yellowstone National Park Bill</a> 143</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig22">The iron horse in buffalo country—an early Wyoming scene</a> facing 154</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig23">Strong medicine against the Indians</a> facing 158</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig24">Chief Joseph, war chief of the Nez Percé</a> 167</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig25">A general map of Chief Joseph’s flight</a> 171</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig27">George F. Cowan stands up to Nez Percé warriors</a> 174</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig26">Radersburg tourist party marker</a> facing 173</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig28">Detail map showing Nez Percé movements in Yellowstone Park</a> 179</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig29">Indian war club and peace pipe</a> 191</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig30">Stagecoach</a> 193</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig31">“Yankee Jim”—James George</a> facing 198</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig32">“Uncle” John Yancey</a> 203</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig33">Golden Gate drive</a> 209</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig34">“Beaver Dick”—Richard Leigh—and family, 1871</a> facing 238</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig35">Superintendent Philetus W. Norris</a> facing 240</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig36">Old Fort Yellowstone</a> 243</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig37">Poacher caught in the act</a> 249</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig38">Wild and dangerous despite appearances</a> 255</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig39">Grizzly, king of the Rockies</a> 257</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig40">Cavalry troops in Park patrol</a> 263</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig41">Park ranger-naturalist and tourist group</a> 271</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig42">Madison Junction Historical Museum</a> 275</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig43">Park Ranger</a> 278</dt>
<dt class="jl"><i>APPENDICES</i></dt>
<dt><a href="#fig44">Young men camping in Yellowstone</a> facing 282</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig45"><span class="cn">Figure I. </span>Yellowstone section of Colter’s route</a> 287</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig46"><span class="cn">Figure II. </span>Western section of Colter’s route</a> 289</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig47"><span class="cn">Figure III. </span>“Double-Entry” map of Yellowstone</a> 293</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig48"><span class="cn">Figure IV. </span>A section of fictitious geography</a> 295</dt>
<dt><a href="#fig49"><span class="cn">Figure V. </span>Western section of Colter’s route</a> 297</dt>
</dl>
<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div>
<h1 title=""><span class="small">THE STORY
<br />of
<br />MAN IN YELLOWSTONE</span></h1>
<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div>
<h2 id="c5"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter I</span></span>
<br />YELLOWSTONE—THE GEM OF THE MOUNTAINS</h2>
<p>Yellowstone National Park was one of the last regions in
the United States to come into the scope of man’s knowledge.
This fact is partly responsible for its development as a wild animal
retreat. Grizzlies and people do not go well together under natural
conditions. Yet nature has bequeathed a rare portion of her
treasure upon this enchanting land that forms the crown of the
Rockies. Within the confines of what the world calls Yellowstone
the visitor may find great and wondrous manifestations of natural
handiwork. Indeed, nature seems to have indulged in several
grand orgies of creation. Here are lofty mountain majesties and
shining rivers of silver and green wind athwart the heights and
plateaus like living, breathing things. Everywhere the air is pierced
by lodgepole pines. Erect they stand, bristling with fierce determination,
while prone beneath their feet lie their uprooted brethren
in tangled disorder and various degrees of decay.<a class="fn" id="fr_1" href="#fn_1">[1]</a></p>
<p>The whole plateau is dotted by myriad alpine lakes of surpassing
beauty. Surely it is comparable to a vast sponge which receives
a five-foot mantle of snow annually. From this precipitation
sufficient water is derived to feed a legion of springs and streams.
“The altitude renders it certain that winter comes early and tarries
<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span>
late; in fact, it is almost always in sight and liable to drop in
any day.”<a class="fn" id="fr_2" href="#fn_2">[2]</a></p>
<p>Deep and delicately etched canyons involuntarily shock the
visitor as he views their kaleidoscopic grandeur. Massive mountains
display their mighty ramparts in a silhouette that is unmistakable
and unforgettable. Indeed, some of these serrated spires
once served as pilots to the wayfarer; and Indians named them
“Pee-ah,” meaning large and permanent.<a class="fn" id="fr_3" href="#fn_3">[3]</a> So are they still, mute
testaments of the ages.</p>
<p>Surely such an impressive alternation of rivers, forests, lakes,
canyons, and mountains is in itself complete. Someone has said,
“Yellowstone has everything except a cave and a glacier.” Actually,
there are caves and glaciers in the Park’s environs, but the
most unique feature of all this Wonderland is its thermal activity.
Thousands of hot springs and hundreds of geysers reveal strange
secrets of the inner earth. Mammoth Hot Springs Terraces represents
the actual process of a mountain turning inside out.</p>
<p>Yellowstone Park is roughly located between longitude 110°
W. and 111° W. and latitude 44° N. and 45° N. In respect to
Wyoming, the Park is located in the northwestern corner, encroaching
slightly upon Montana and Idaho. The area comprehends
three thousand, four hundred and seventy-two square
miles, and the average elevation is eight thousand feet above sea
level. Occupying a central portion of the Rockies’ greatest girth,
the Park’s scenic position is most strategic. From the top of Mt.
Washburn a majestic rock-ribbed panorama is disclosed. It is
indeed a vast area, surrounded by lofty mountain ranges, some
of whose towering peaks are reflected in Lake Yellowstone. This
comprehensive view reminds one of a gigantic amphitheatre or,
from another angle, a colossal orange juicer with the Yellowstone
<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span>
River as its spigot. At the river’s outlet from the Park at North
Gate the elevation is five thousand, three hundred and fourteen
feet above sea level, whereas the maximum height of eleven thousand,
three hundred and sixty feet is achieved on the summit of
Eagle Peak on the southeastern boundary.<a class="fn" id="fr_4" href="#fn_4">[4]</a> Cartographers have
segregated the most conspicuous elevations into seven plateaus,
three ranges, four ridges, and several minor units of mountains
and hills.<a class="fn" id="fr_5" href="#fn_5">[5]</a> Thirty-two mountain peaks loom above the ten-thousand-foot
level, and another six exceed the eleven-thousand-foot
scale.<a class="fn" id="fr_6" href="#fn_6">[6]</a></p>
<p>The Continental Divide winds among the Park’s southern
plateaus in the manner of a serpent. From these circumstances,
Yellowstone Park has become truly the wondrous land of water
and the source of that life-giving liquid to lands hundreds of
miles away in all directions. Nowhere else does water so well
display its varied charms. From the Divide’s snowy, timber-rimmed
pockets, icy rivulets flow into sylvan pools, thence to
rushing rivers with thundering waterfalls. Other water issues
from steaming vents and towering geysers connected with the
earth’s internal heat and weaves vaporous trails into streams
called warm or fire rivers.<a class="fn" id="fr_7" href="#fn_7">[7]</a></p>
<p>Great rivers have their origins in its alpine parks, from whence
they follow their devious courses to the several seas. Oh, the rivers
of Wonderland, what strength and beauty they possess! There
<span class="pb" id="Page_26">26</span>
is the Yellowstone itself, arising upon Yount’s Peak and its vicinity
among the high Absarokas. It rolls northward through that
vast lake of limpid blue referred to by the natives as “the smile
of the Great Spirit.” From the famous Fishing Bridge outlet it
flows tranquilly again beyond Hayden Valley, but soon it flashes
into milk-white cascades, a transitional phase of noisy preparation
for its two great falls. These awe-inspiring plunges are one
hundred and nine and a sheer three hundred and eight feet, for
the Upper and Lower Falls respectively. At each point the river’s
mighty volume sets up an awful tumult of sound, earth tremor,
and spray in the immediate environs. The river’s pulsating reverberation
seems to follow its imprisoned rush along a tortuous
path for many miles toward the Missouri.</p>
<p>Another stream arises in the southeast corner of the Park that
possesses equal might and great utility. By the natives it was
known as “Pohogwa,” or river of the sagebrush plains. The
French called it La Maudite Riviere Enragee, meaning accursed,
mad river, but American frontiersmen renamed it the Snake.<a class="fn" id="fr_8" href="#fn_8">[8]</a>
The latter name lacks something of the romance in the others but
aptly describes this stream which everywhere exhibits some characteristic
of reptilian behavior.</p>
<p>Two other interesting rivers arise in the Park and join a third
a hundred miles beyond the northwest boundary of Yellowstone.
The Madison’s tributaries derive from meadowlands beyond
Upper Geyser and Norris Geyser basins.<a class="fn" id="fr_9" href="#fn_9">[9]</a> The Madison is a moss-bottomed
stream with lusty aquatic life. The Gallatin, which
heads in the range of the same name, has a dashing manner. It
has carved its way among forests both living and petrified. Each
river follows a parallel course until they merge with the Jefferson
at Three Forks. As the triumvirate roll away together, one remembers
<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span>
the unity and friendship that characterized the three men
for whom they were named.</p>
<p>Other sinuous streams are the tuneful Bechler, laughing Lamar,
and sculpturing Shoshone. These streams possess attractions
that appeal to fishermen, hikers, photographers, and artists. In
Yellowstone, the two-ocean-drainage courses are almost as intricate
and snug as a child’s hands folded in prayer. At either
Isa Lake, or Two Ocean Pass, a pebble tossed in one stream
would start vibrations upon the “water-nerve endings” of Atlantic
and Pacific river systems. In fact, the Yellowstone country is the
apex of North America; it is essentially the Great Divide.</p>
<p>Yellowstone’s summer climate is invigorating and delightful.
Frequent, but fleeting, rainstorms tend to modify the prevailing
atmospheric aridity. Evenings and nights are invariably cool. The
highest temperature ever recorded at Mammoth was 92.4°, while
the lowest on record was 66° below zero. This record low was
taken at Riverside Station near West Gate on February 9, 1933.<a class="fn" id="fr_10" href="#fn_10">[10]</a></p>
<p>Such is the physical setting of this mountainous country. Its
western slope was called the land of “Ee-dah-how.” This was a
Shoshone exclamation that means “Behold! the sun is streaming
down from the mountain tops; it is sunup, time to get up!”<a class="fn" id="fr_11" href="#fn_11">[11]</a></p>
<p>It is expedient that a brief review of early American history
should be given as a setting for the major interests in the drama
of Yellowstone. The history of Wonderland falls logically into
three periods: Archaeological characteristics and association;
Modern discovery and exploration; Development as a pleasuring
ground by the United States Government.</p>
<p>The greater part of the Yellowstone area was a part of the
Louisiana Purchase, whereas that portion under the Snake River
drainage appertained to the great Pacific Northwest. All of the
territory involved once belonged to Spain. However, the Spanish
<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span>
claim was relinquished in a series of treaties beginning with San
Ildefonso in 1800, wherein the province of Louisiana was retroceded
to France under the dictation of Napoleon Bonaparte.
The balance of Spanish interests above the forty-second parallel
was extinguished in favor of the United States in 1819.</p>
<p>American acquisition of Louisiana from France grew out of
several considerations. The frontiersmen of the Ohio Valley were
chafing under foreign commercial restrictions at New Orleans.
The officials of the government were distressed at the prospect of
having the strong-willed Napoleon as a neighbor. President Jefferson
cogently expressed the general concern by saying, “... from
this moment we must marry the British fleet and nation.”<a class="fn" id="fr_12" href="#fn_12">[12]</a> However,
the alarm was soon dispersed by an eminently successful negotiation.
Jefferson had instructed Robert Livingston, the American
Minister to Paris, to buy New Orleans and West Florida.
The early part of the spring of 1803 found Napoleon hard pressed
for money and disgusted with native resistance against his government
in Haiti, led by the remarkable Negro, Toussaint L’Ouverture,
whom Bonaparte called the “gilded African.” By March,
Napoleon realized that the Peace of Amiens was about to be
ruptured and war with England resumed. In these circumstances
he decided to dispose of his American holdings. This notable decision
was effected while His Imperial Majesty was taking a bath.
Consequently it was one of the cleanest decisions that he ever
made! It was then that the “Little Corporal” directed J. M. Talleyrand
to say, “What would you give for the whole of Louisiana?”<a class="fn" id="fr_13" href="#fn_13">[13]</a>
Livingston, who was a trifle deaf anyway, could hardly
believe what he heard. After some parleying the deal was closed
by Livingston and Monroe for $15,000,000; of this amount
$3,750,000 was diverted to American citizens to meet private
claims against the French government. Livingston showed prophetic
<span class="pb" id="Page_29">29</span>
insight when he said to Monroe, “We have lived long,
but this is the noblest work of our whole lives....”<a class="fn" id="fr_14" href="#fn_14">[14]</a> More than
a dozen states have been carved out of the 827,987 square miles.
It is probable that Old Faithful Geyser alone is worth far more
than the original purchase price, should good taste allow an assignment
of monetary value to such a natural wonder.</p>
<p>Notwithstanding the marvels of this alluring land, Yellowstone
lay dormant, forbidding and inhospitable, until the last
quarter of the nineteenth century. Why was its call to conquest so
long unheeded? Seldom has an area so long ignored made such a
phenomenal rise to fame. The answer to this question is fully explored
in this narrative.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div>
<h2 id="c6"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter II</span></span>
<br />JOHN COLTER’S DISCOVERY OF YELLOWSTONE</h2>
<p>It is a fairly well-attested fact that America was first discovered
by Leif Ericsson about 1000 <span class="sc">A.D.</span><a class="fn" id="fr_15" href="#fn_15">[15]</a> However, as Mark Twain
put it, “America did not stay discovered,” and therefore Columbus
is not to be denied. So it was with Yellowstone. The most
significant feature of its early history lies in the inconclusive nature
of the early reports concerning its position and character.</p>
<p>Yellowstone’s isolation was not effectively invaded and broken
until the decade of 1860. This narrative will explain how early,
trapper observations drifted into oblivion, and later, miner excursions
faded into indifference. Hence, the first conclusive visitations
were those made by the Folsom-Cook party in 1869 and
the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition of 1870. Why did
Wonderland remain unknown to the world so long? Surely the
answer is found in its relative inaccessibility. Yellowstone is a
sequestered region, mountain-locked by the Absaroka, Teton,
Gallatin, Beartooth, and Snowy ranges. Here, then, is a plateau
a mile and a half above sea level, encircled by a still loftier quadrangle
of rocky barriers. Some of these culminate in peaks and
ridges that rise 4,000 feet above the level of the enclosed table
land.</p>
<p>Of course there were a few yawning, ever-difficult canyon approaches,
<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span>
cut by foaming mountain torrents and several high,
snow-choked passes suitable for late summer use. However, they
were far removed from the principal arteries of pioneer travel,
and they still remain apart from the main avenues of trade. Even
now, these same bulwarks of nature, and their concomitants of
snow and wind, exclude traffic from the region for half the
year. Consider, then, the situation when all travel was on foot
or horseback, and bases of supply were far away from all approaches
to this mountain crown. Adequate mountain exploration
necessitated large parties and elaborate outfits in the middle
nineteenth century.</p>
<p>From these circumstances it is easy to understand why Lewis
and Clark missed Yellowstone. They adhered quite closely to
the Missouri River thoroughfare. However, as an incident of
an extensive side trip on their return, Clark and a detail of ten
took an alternate route that eventually brought them upon the
Yellowstone River near the present site of Livingston, Montana.<a class="fn" id="fr_16" href="#fn_16">[16]</a>
Previously, while at Fort Mandan, they had learned that the
Minnetaree Indian name for the river was “Mitsiadazi,” which
means Rock Yellow River. The French equivalent, Roche Juane,
was also in common use among the Indians and trappers, although
when or by whom the name was given is unknown. American
trappers called the river “Yallerstone!” A segment of the
stream was trapped in 1805 by Antoine Larocque’s party of
North West Company trappers. They struck the river at a point
twenty trapping days above its mouth, which was reached on
September 30.<a class="fn" id="fr_17" href="#fn_17">[17]</a></p>
<p>The fact of the name’s currency is further attested by Patrick
<span class="pb" id="Page_32">32</span>
Gass’ significant journal entry on July 1, 1806: “Perhaps Capt.
Clarke [sic] who goes up the river here, may also take a party
and go down the Riviere Juane, or Yellowstone River.”<a class="fn" id="fr_18" href="#fn_18">[18]</a> Beyond
the Indian stream names, little information concerning the area
was ascertained by Lewis and Clark at that time.</p>
<p>While Lewis and Clark did not add any knowledge of Yellowstone
Park to their epic-making report, still it was a member of
the party who first viewed its exotic beauty. However, before
delineating Colter’s discovery, the picture of the Park’s isolation
should be explored further.</p>
<p>The first thrust toward the Yellowstone country was made by
the French explorer de Verendrye, who came near the northeastern
border in 1743 when he crossed the lower Yellowstone
River, leaving Wonderland still undiscovered.<a class="fn" id="fr_19" href="#fn_19">[19]</a></p>
<p>By 1810, the Missouri Fur Company established posts on the
mouths of the Bighorn and at Three Forks of the Missouri.
Notwithstanding these locations, there was little penetration of
the “top of the world,” as the Crow Indians called the Yellowstone
country. Blackfoot Indian hostility forced the abandonment
of the post at Three Forks and in the fall of 1810, Major
Andrew Henry, one of the partners, led a small party into the Pacific
Ocean drainage. They went up the Madison River, thereby
skirting the Gallatin Range which bounds the Park on the west.
They crossed a low pass and came upon a beautiful lake. Henry’s
name was given the lake (Henrys Lake) and also to its outlet
(Henrys Fork of the Snake River), which they followed about
forty miles below its debouchment into Snake River Valley. In
a pleasant spot some four miles below the present St. Anthony
Falls they erected Fort Henry, but they did not prosper there
and, feeling discouraged and insecure, abandoned that post. In
1811, Henry released his trappers, and while they returned to
the east by various routes all of them missed the Yellowstone region.<a class="fn" id="fr_20" href="#fn_20">[20]</a></p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div>
<div class="img" id="fig2">
<img src="images/pic05.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="592" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Sacajawea with Lewis and Clark.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div>
<p>As Henry’s men circled eastward a much larger expedition
was threading its course between the Wind River Mountains
and the Tetons. In 1811, Wilson Price Hunt led the “Overland
Astorians,” a band of sixty trappers, toward the Pacific. They
reached Henry’s deserted post early in August. It is probable
that a member of this party inscribed a rock “calling card” that
reads: “Fort Henry 1811 by Capt. Hunt.” This marker is now
included in the historical collections of the Yellowstone Park
museums. It was found at the fort site in 1933 and donated
to the museum by Seasonal Park Ranger-Naturalist Merrill D.
Beal.<a class="fn" id="fr_21" href="#fn_21">[21]</a> Hunt’s party unfortunately decided to switch from horses
to hurriedly-made canoes, which were launched upon Snake
River near the fort. The hardship, privation, and recurring peril
experienced by this band are among the most severe ever encountered
by civilized men. Although they were obliged to separate
into three groups in order to subsist each part finally reached
the mouth of the Columbia. In 1812, a smaller party called the
“Returning Astorians,” under Robert Stuart, probably discovered
South Pass.<a class="fn" id="fr_22" href="#fn_22">[22]</a></p>
<p>Notwithstanding the extensive peregrinations of these splendid
wayfarers, Lewis and Clark, Andrew Henry, and Wilson
Price Hunt, Wonderland, large though it is, remained a place
<span class="pb" id="Page_35">35</span>
apart. Only one white man had been sufficiently venturesome
to gain entrance into the enchanted land.</p>
<p>John Colter was the son of Joseph and Ellen Shields Colter.
He was born in or near Staunton, Virginia, probably in 1775.<a class="fn" id="fr_23" href="#fn_23">[23]</a>
Little is known of Colter’s youth except that the family moved
from Virginia to the vicinity of Mayville, Kentucky, when he
was about five years old. As John grew to manhood it is evident
that he possessed a restless urge to be in the wilderness. An unparalleled
opportunity to satisfy this desire came upon the arrival
of Captain Meriwether Lewis on his voyage down the Ohio
River. From this contact Colter joined the Lewis and Clark Expedition
at Louisville, Kentucky, on October 15, 1803.<a class="fn" id="fr_24" href="#fn_24">[24]</a> The
following spring they were on their way up the Missouri. Doubtless
he was already experienced in woodcraft and the use of firearms.
Strong, active, and intelligent, he soon won the rank and
privileges of a hunter.</p>
<p>Colter’s fitness for the business of exploration was early recognized
and universally accepted.<a class="fn" id="fr_25" href="#fn_25">[25]</a> For two years he shared the
expedition’s many trials and triumphs, but they had obviously
failed to satisfy his desire for adventure. Before the explorers returned,
intrepid fur traders were moving westward along the
great Missouri artery as was their custom. Two Illinoisans, John
Dickson and Forest Hancock, were encountered west of the Mandan
Indian Villages in what is now the state of North Dakota.
They had high expectations of fortunes in fur, and from them
Colter caught the trapping fever. This was early in August of
1806. They evidently recognized John Colter as a man after their
<span class="pb" id="Page_36">36</span>
own hearts and offered to furnish him an equal share of their
supplies. Then, and there, they became boon companions, and
Colter requested an honorable discharge from government service.
This wish was granted with the understanding that no one else
would request such consideration.<a class="fn" id="fr_26" href="#fn_26">[26]</a></p>
<p>The government party gave their comrade powder, lead, and
other articles that would be useful to him. Is this not evidence
that he was in the best possible standing with the company? Indeed,
he was an admirable embodiment of the American scout.
He was a person of sturdy, athletic frame, above the average
height. He was physically quick, alert, enduring, a fine shot,
the ideal frontiersman. His greatest asset was an extraordinary
coordination of thought and action. This balance, combined with
an abundance of energy, made Colter particularly dynamic.
Patient and loyal, he performed his duties faithfully. In tribute
to him a creek tributary to the Clearwater River, near Lapwai,
had already been named Colter Creek. In numerous references
to him his associates did not once hint of any mean or selfish act.
He was constantly possessed by good temper, and he was of
the open-countenanced Daniel Boone type cast.<a class="fn" id="fr_27" href="#fn_27">[27]</a> Surely Colter
was fully qualified for high adventure because he was, indeed,
a two-fisted man with the sinews of a bear and the surefootedness
of a cougar. He was wholly unafraid of wild animals, savages, or
elements.</p>
<p>From August until the spring of 1807, this trio of Dickson,
Hancock, and Colter trapped and traded along the upper Missouri.
Then Colter gathered his pelts and started for St. Louis in
a canoe. At the mouth of the Platte River, toward the end of
June, he met Manuel Lisa.<a class="fn" id="fr_28" href="#fn_28">[28]</a> They also struck up a friendship and
<span class="pb" id="Page_37">37</span>
bargain. Colter was still set for adventure and his new friend had
such an assignment. In this meeting the strongest and boldest of
the early American trappers of the West met the greatest Missourian
trader. Upon hearing Manuel Lisa’s plans, the travel
and weatherworn Colter turned westward for the second time,
as a member of the Lisa party.</p>
<p>Manuel Lisa proposed the establishment of posts on both sides
of the Continental Divide. His plan was to send men along the
course of every stream and out among the wandering tribes of
Indians, until the commerce of the entire country was in the control
of the Missouri Company. He had with him some of the
most intrepid Kentucky and Tennessee hunters, rawboned backwoodsmen
with their long-barrelled flintlocks, which they usually
carried across their knees while on the boat. It was a larger undertaking
than any before, and he needed fighters who were experienced
and daring from the start.</p>
<p>As they neared the mud-hutted village of the Arickaras the
warriors swarmed forth but soon backed up before the leveled
muskets of Lisa’s hunters. The traders went ashore and smoked
the pipe of peace with the chiefs. This heretofore warlike tribe
thereupon became temporarily pacified and sought presents and
traffic in scarlet cloth and trinkets. The trappers purchased ponies
from these Indians and struck westward toward the Yellowstone
Valley. In amazement they viewed the bad lands on the north
of the Bighorn. The party arrived at the mouth of the Bighorn
River on November 21 and began the building of Fort Raymond,
usually called “Manuel’s Fort,” which was their first
trading post.<a class="fn" id="fr_29" href="#fn_29">[29]</a> They feared the Blackfeet Indians and considered
it expedient to abide temporarily in the land of the friendly
Crows.</p>
<p>According to the authoritative report of Henry M. Brackenridge,
Colter was appointed to carry the news of this undertaking
<span class="pb" id="Page_38">38</span>
to all the Indian tribes in the south.<a class="fn" id="fr_30" href="#fn_30">[30]</a> Since this is an original
reference to Colter’s assignment it should be quoted:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>He [Lisa] shortly after despatched Coulter [sic], the hunter ... to
bring some Indian nations to trade. This man, with a pack of thirty
pounds weight, his gun and some ammunition, went upwards of five
hundred miles to the Crow nation; gave them information, and proceeded
from thence to several other tribes....<a class="fn" id="fr_31" href="#fn_31">[31]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Thus, this rugged and dynamic man, now in his early thirties,
entered the wilderness on foot and alone, into an area unknown
to his race. The journey was a simple business enterprise. As he
journeyed southward, he contacted the many Crow clans.</p>
<p>Although practically everyone assumes that John Colter discovered
Yellowstone National Park in the early winter of 1807-08,<a class="fn" id="fr_32" href="#fn_32">[32]</a>
few realize that there is no conclusive evidence to support the
claim. Therefore, a review of the proof is essential. The record
is brief: Colter did leave Fort Manuel (Raymond) in the fall
of 1807.<a class="fn" id="fr_33" href="#fn_33">[33]</a> Yet the direction he took is not definitely mentioned,
and no incident was specifically recorded of any unique visitation.
Still, soon after this journey, Colter related strange tales of weird,
natural phenomena.<a class="fn" id="fr_34" href="#fn_34">[34]</a> Few of the stories he told were chronicled
in detail. However, it is a matter of record that he claimed to
have seen a large petrified fish nearly fifty feet long,<a class="fn" id="fr_35" href="#fn_35">[35]</a> numerous
hot springs and geysers,<a class="fn" id="fr_36" href="#fn_36">[36]</a> and a great lake.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div>
<div class="img" id="fig3">
<img src="images/pic06.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="485" />
<p class="pcap">Manuel Lisa’s Fort built in 1807.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_40">40</div>
<p>Evidence that Colter saw a geyser basin is flimsy indeed. Notwithstanding
the uncertainty of Colter’s large travel experience,
it is obvious that somewhere, sometime, he saw something that
impressed him mightily. He must have waxed enthusiastic, because
his recital evoked so much ridicule from the trapper fraternity.
For a half a century, everywhere in the West, the mountain
men argued and joked pro and con about the mythical marvels
of “Colter’s Hell.” By 1837, the story had become common knowledge
by reason of the following reference in Washington Irving’s
first edition of <i>The Adventures of Captain Bonneville</i>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A volcanic tract ... is found on ... one of the tributaries of the
Bighorn.... This ... place was first discovered by Colter, a
hunter belonging to Lewis and Clarke’s [sic] exploring party, who
came upon it in the course of his lonely wanderings, and gave such
an account of its gloomy terrors, its hidden fires, smoking pits, noxious
streams, and the all-pervading “smell of brimstone,” that it
received, and has ever since retained among trappers the name of
“Colter’s Hell.”<a class="fn" id="fr_37" href="#fn_37">[37]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Irving’s description is significant because it is evidence of the
“Colter’s Hell” tradition current at that time. However, the location
assigned is incorrect. No gloomy terrors or hidden fires
exist on Stinking Water (now Shoshone River). As in other explorations
<span class="pb" id="Page_41">41</span>
of the Colter case, Irving made guesses and assumptions.</p>
<p>Nothing has ever been found that states precisely when or
where Colter saw the wonders of Yellowstone. Yet, the fact persisted
that sometime between 1806 and 1810, somewhere between
the Jefferson and Shoshone rivers he saw them! And strange
enough, in the fullness of time, his spacious claims were wholly
vindicated. This strange circumstance, therefore, presents the student
of early Western exploration with one of the most difficult
problems in regional history. Does the full discovery of Yellowstone
Park in 1870, <i>ipso facto</i>, prove the tradition of John Colter’s
earlier visitation?<a class="fn" id="fr_38" href="#fn_38">[38]</a></p>
<p>In the Colter case there are only two elements of primary
evidence. First, it is a matter of record that he made a journey
from Fort Manuel in the fall of 1807 and subsequently returned
with an astonishing story of natural wonders. Secondly, a famous
map was published in 1814, based upon the compilations of
Lewis and Clark. Upon this Map of 1814 appears a dotted line
marked “Colter’s Route in 1807.”<a class="fn" id="fr_39" href="#fn_39">[39]</a> It is generally assumed that
the dotted line actually marks the route of Colter’s journey from
Fort Manuel. Although the route charted cannot be accepted
literally, it is an important documentary link, worthy of the
utmost study. There is little upon the map that would confirm
the existence of Yellowstone’s marvels beyond the phrases “Boiling
Spring,” and “Hot Spring Brimstone,” but every trapper
encountered boiling springs and waters impregnated with bubbling
gases having sulphurous odors. These were not unusual.
<span class="pb" id="Page_42">42</span>
Hence, there is nothing indicated along that dotted line that
would guarantee anything extraordinary.<a class="fn" id="fr_40" href="#fn_40">[40]</a></p>
<p>Still, the known facts of Colter’s journey toward the headwaters
of the Bighorn in the fall of 1807 and the representation of his
extensive exploration to the west, a part of which is now Yellowstone
National Park, upon the Map of 1814 is highly significant.
For one thing, it proves that William Clark, who supplied the
map sheets to Samuel Lewis,<a class="fn" id="fr_41" href="#fn_41">[41]</a> the Philadelphia cartographer,
was particularly impressed by Colter’s journey, otherwise it would
not have been incorporated upon this very important document.</p>
<p>According to this map, John Colter traveled in a southwesterly
direction from the mouth of the Bighorn River.<a class="fn" id="fr_42" href="#fn_42">[42]</a> He must
have mapped the area because his route cast of the Absaroka
Range (Yellowstone’s eastern boundary) conforms so accurately
with existing geographic conditions that his journey to the Park’s
border may be followed like tracks in the snow. From Fort
Manuel he ascended Pryors Fork some fifty miles to Pryors
Gap.<a class="fn" id="fr_43" href="#fn_43">[43]</a> Passing through this opening, he crossed westward to Clarks
Fork, which he ascended to Dead Indian Creek. From there he
evidently quartered a divide to the south, which brought him
upon a river called Mick-ka-appa, where he first smelled sulphur.
So he renamed the stream Stinking Water River. It is known
today as the North Fork of Shoshone River. In ascending this
stream, Colter quickly gained elevation, and in a hanging valley
about midway up the range he found a clan of Indians for
whom he was obviously searching. On the Map of 1814 they
are identified as “Yep-pe, Band of Snake Indians, 1000 Souls.”</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_43">43</div>
<p>From these denizens of both prairie and mountain, Colter undoubtedly
first learned of the Yellowstone marvels. The acquisition
of this interesting information at a point in relatively close
proximity to the features, together with other favorable conditions,
impelled him to project an exploration of the “enchanted
land.” After listening to eloquent descriptions of the natural
phenomena nothing could be more natural than for such an adventurous
explorer to experience an intense desire to visit the
country. Remember, his mission of informing the clans concerning
the establishment of Fort Manuel at the mouth of the Bighorn
River had been performed. Now he was on his own with
leisure time on his hands. Although the season was advanced,
late November often finds the Park open for travel. Tribal accounts
describing a vast wilderness of multiform grandeur made
the restless trapper burn with curiosity. One can easily envision
him weighing the factors of distance, time, and the known hazards,
until he struck a favorable balance. His sign talk in council
with the chiefs could probably be sifted out and summarized
in these terms: “Less than two hundred miles ... the trails are
known by your scouts, and they are still open.... A matter of
five or six suns ... your horses are fat and strong ... game is
plentiful.... Well, what are we waiting for?”</p>
<p>Such an appraisal of the situation is in complete accord with
the known realities. Colter was an experienced explorer; he knew
how to conduct an expedition. This procedure eliminates the
element of foolhardiness so conspicuous in the usual picture visualized
of a solitary trapper on snowshoes, wending an uncertain
course among river labyrinths running in various directions,
mountain ranges of interminable lengths, and gargoylian lakes.
Instead, the enterprise now conforms to a standard characteristic
of Colter’s levelheaded courage and judgment. Of course
he may have gone alone and on foot, but if so why, after leaving
the Yellowstone country, did he depart from the straight-of-way
down Clarks Fork toward Fort Manuel and head back to the
<span class="pb" id="Page_44">44</span>
Yep-pe village as the map so clearly shows? Logic insists that
Indian scouts were with him, or at least that he had borrowed
a horse from them, which he was obliged to return. Thus, Colter’s
famous journey into the land of scenic mystery was efficiently
accomplished late in November. With the aid of Yep-pe Indian
leaders, if not under their guidance, he had gone where no white
man had ever been before, and he still reached Manuel’s Fort in
good season, or else the Map of 1814 would not have been inscribed
“Colter’s Route in 1807.”</p>
<p>But, where precisely in Yellowstone Park did Colter travel?
This question poses an extremely difficult problem in research.
(The serious student will find the many ramifications involved
in the problem explored more fully in the Appendix.) Unfortunately
the dotted line appearing on the Map of 1814, marked
“Colter’s Route in 1807,” is of no help whatever in answering
the question. In fact, the map complicates the problem because
the geography depicted on the western loop, or so-called Yellowstone
Park section of the map, is wholly fictitious. Unlike the valid
section east of the Absarokas, the western section bears no similarity
to anything in Yellowstone Park, Wyoming, Idaho, Montana,
America, the world, or the moon! It is, in fact, a plat of
bogus geography comparable only to the kind found in Jonathan
Swift’s <i>Gulliver’s Travels</i>. In short, it is obvious that “Colter’s
Route in 1807,” beyond the Yep-pe village, was not properly
described because it depicts him as visiting the drainage of all
the river systems within a radius of five hundred miles of that
Indian encampment. The most obvious errors in that part of the
map which impinges upon the western section of this so-called
“Colter’s Route” are:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>(1) Three Forks are shown to the northeast instead of
northwest.</p>
<p>(2) Lake Biddle, usually identified as Jackson Lake, could
only be Brooks Lake and be on the Bighorn drainage. Jackson
<span class="pb" id="Page_45">45</span>
Lake lies due south about fifty miles, on the other side of the
Continental Divide.</p>
<p>(3) The Rio Del Norte (Green River of the Colorado)
is far and away to the south. It is grotesquely misplaced.</p>
<p>(4) The South Fork of Snake River is not depicted,
neither is the Jackson Lake area.</p>
<p>(5) Upper Yellowstone River is not shown, and Lake
Eustis (presumed to be Lake Yellowstone) is fantastic in all
respects.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In view of these egregious errors it is a monumental mistake
to insist, as so many authors in effect have done, that Colter was
a human helicopter who hopped all over the Rocky Mountains
in connection with his Yellowstone exploration. Actual geography
and common sense prove that he could not possibly have made
such an extensive journey, particularly so late in the season.
Just as certainly, geography and common sense attest that in
traveling a normal western loop essential to yield conformity with
the map’s figure eight<a class="fn" id="fr_44" href="#fn_44">[44]</a> Colter would have seen precisely the type
of country the Map of 1814 does not depict, but which, nevertheless,
is actually there! A normal half circle would have brought
him upon the Upper Yellowstone River, South Fork of Snake
River, Yellowstone Lake, and the thermal areas at Thumb of
Lake and Hayden Valley. These paint pots, hot springs, and
geysers, particularly Dragon’s Mouth and Mud Volcano, satisfy
the descriptions he made and easily meet the requirement of
the terms on the map, “Boiling Spring,” “Hot Springs Brimstone,”
and also Washington Irving’s reference “... of gloomy
terrors, hidden fires, smoking pits, noxious streams....” In
effect, these areas alone would qualify as “Colter’s Hell.”</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_46">46</div>
<div class="img" id="fig4">
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">J. N. Barry</span><br />Eastern section of Colter’s route.</p>
</div>
<div class="img">
<img src="images/pic07.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="632" />
<p class="pcap">A true sketch of the Cody, Wyoming, area as it is mapped today.</p>
</div>
<div class="img">
<img src="images/pic07a.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="604" />
<p class="pcap">The east sector of Colter’s route as depicted on the Map of 1814. Note the
conformity with actual geography. The only material difference is in names.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_47">47</div>
<p>It is now possible to accurately sketch both parts of Colter’s
famous journey. Firstly, from Fort Manuel he reached the Yep-pe
Indian camp and returned to the mouth of the Bighorn River
where Fort Manuel was built, exactly as the map depicts. It is
because of the accuracy of this section of the Map of 1814 that
Colter’s Yellowstone course may be now traced like tracks in the
snow. Secondly, from the Yep-pe Indian camp, Colter ascended
“Elk-Wapiti Creek” to its source; then crossing a range he came
upon a mitten-shaped mountain, which he labeled “fossil.”<a class="fn" id="fr_45" href="#fn_45">[45]</a>
From this landmark he probably descended Pass Creek to Thorofare
Creek, which he followed to the Upper Yellowstone River.
Then he ascended Atlantic Creek and crossed the Continental
Divide at Two Ocean Pass. From here he descended Pacific
Creek, skirted Big Game Ridge, and crossed the South Fork of
Snake River, within the present confines of the Park. Thence,
along Chicken Ridge, from whence he could frequently view
South Arm, he headed toward Flat Mountain Arm, crossed Solution
Creek, and struck West Thumb.<a class="fn" id="fr_46" href="#fn_46">[46]</a> The validity of this
itinerary is wholly sustained by the genuine features of this area
as they appear upon the Map of 1814. Indeed, the route seems
obvious and indisputable in view of the actual conditions existing.
There are alternative routes within certain limitations. On
a crude map where there are numerous similar streams various
combinations are possible.<a class="fn" id="fr_47" href="#fn_47">[47]</a></p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_48">48</div>
<div class="img" id="fig5">
<img src="images/pic08.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="842" />
<p class="pcap">Section from map of 1814 depicting Lewis and Clark route. Its
legend reads: “A map of Lewis and Clark’s Track, Across the
Western Portion of North America, From the Mississippi to the
Pacific Ocean; By Order of the Executive of the United States
in 1804, 5, 6. Copied by Samuel Lewis from the Original
Drawing of Wm. Clark.”</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_50">50</div>
<p>Leaving West Thumb, Colter circled the Lake to its outlet and
followed it to the Hayden Valley thermal area. Dragon’s Mouth
and the Mud Volcano were undoubtedly features contributing
to the impression he carried away and transmitted to others. Even
the “Hot Springs Brimstone” characterization on the Map of
1814 mildly suggests violent thermal activity. The phrase also
suggests that Colter mapped a geyser basin.<a class="fn" id="fr_48" href="#fn_48">[48]</a></p>
<p>Colter’s return route from Hayden Valley supplies the final
link in the figure eight. To reach the Yep-pe Indian camp he
might have veered to the northeast, crossed Yellowstone River at
a ford below Dragon’s Mouth, and ascended Pelican Creek or one
of the tributaries of the Lamar River. After crossing the Absarokas,
he evidently descended one of the creeks that empty into
Clarks Fork. No one on earth can be certain about this part of his
journey. There is no reference anywhere, and the Map of 1814
gives no clue. Still, he did reach a tributary of Clarks Fork, which
he followed to its junction with Dead Indian Creek, thence to the
Yep-pe band. As stated above, Colter left the Yep-pe village in
returning to Fort Manuel by a different route than the one that
brought him there. This fact, together with his return to the
Yep-pe Indian camp, is of the first importance in assessing the
validity of Colter’s Yellowstone discovery.</p>
<p>While Colter’s journey in Yellowstone proper was not comprehensive,
still he was definitely oriented and reasonably precise.
Truly, Colter crossed the eastern and central parts of Yellowstone’s
Wonderland, and he observed its features closely. Companions
were duly apprised of these marvels. Members of the
Lisa party thereafter referred to the region as “Colter’s Hell.”
In May, 1810, when he reached St. Louis, William Clark was
officially informed. It was then that Clark believed in Colter’s
story and passed it on to Nicholas Biddle and Samuel Lewis who
<span class="pb" id="Page_51">51</span>
were in Philadelphia. Notwithstanding considerable misapprehension
as to facts, Colter’s journey was nevertheless depicted
after a fashion on the remarkable Map of 1814. Upon this evidence
alone, John Colter became accredited as the first white
man to enter the Yellowstone Park country, hence its first discoverer.
Here, indeed, was a man worthy of making a great discovery.
He was a dreadnaught, if there ever was one; completely self-reliant;
unafraid of forests, deserts, rivers, or mountains, including
all of their denizens; yet withal, a serious-minded person of
integrity. He is entitled to everlasting credit in the field of western
geographical exploration.</p>
<p>Eventually, Colter found himself back in Lisa’s Fort. He had
discovered the interesting Two Ocean Pass across the Rocky
Mountains into the Snake River drainage. He was the first white
man to touch upon the northeastern perimeter of majestic Jackson
Hole country. Then, as the climax of all, he was the first to
climb still higher and gaze upon the marvels of a never-to-be-forgotten
land. Has it ever been the fortune of any other man to
explore such a vast domain of virgin territory? It is a strange
paradox that, accustomed as mountain men were to impressive
manifestations of nature, Colter’s relation of Yellowstone’s wonders
only won him the distinction of a confirmed prevaricator.<a class="fn" id="fr_49" href="#fn_49">[49]</a></p>
<p>While Colter’s experience after 1807 has little bearing upon
the history of Yellowstone, it is a part of the heritage of the Old
West and therefore essential for the unity of the narrative.<a class="fn" id="fr_50" href="#fn_50">[50]</a> In
<span class="pb" id="Page_52">52</span>
the autumn of 1808, Colter and a companion named Potts invaded
the hunting grounds of the Blackfeet Indians in the vicinity
of Three Forks forming the Missouri. Early one morning they
were setting a line of traps along either the Jefferson, Madison, or
Gallatin rivers, about a day’s travel from their point of junction.<a class="fn" id="fr_51" href="#fn_51">[51]</a>
As they were silently paddling the canoe, they heard a resounding
noise that resembled the muffled pounding of feet. Colter was apprehensive
about Indians, and since perpendicular banks obstructed
their view he advised hiding. However, his impulsive
companion accused him of cowardice; why run from buffalo?
Almost within the moment a band of “Black Devils” burst
through the thicket into full view. Colter kept cool and rowed
for the bank. As they drew closer to the enemy, Potts dropped his
paddle and picked up his rifle. This gesture was interpreted as an
act of defiance by the Blackfeet braves. A stalwart savage leaped
into the water and snatched Potts’ rifle out of his hands. Whereupon,
with an air of mastery that Indians respect, Colter stepped
to the bank, wrested the weapon from the warrior’s grasp, and
returned it to Potts.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_53">53</div>
<div class="img" id="fig6">
<img src="images/pic09.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="545" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Colter and Potts under attack.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_54">54</div>
<p>The Blackfeet were now swarming through the brush, but
Colter, calm and poised, raised his hand palm forward in the
peace signal. Potts, now convinced that flight was the only hope,
nosed the canoe toward mid-stream. Suddenly a bowstring
twanged, and Potts cried out, “Colter, I’m wounded.” Colter
urged him to come ashore, but instead he leveled his rifle at an
Indian and fired. Instantly a score of arrows entered his body or,
in Colter’s language, “he was made a riddle of,” and he slumped
lifeless in the canoe.<a class="fn" id="fr_52" href="#fn_52">[52]</a> Calm and flintlike Colter stood his ground.
As the chief sized up the situation, a dozen warriors identified the
survivor as the white man who raised havoc among them in a
battle with a band of Crow Indians.<a class="fn" id="fr_53" href="#fn_53">[53]</a> This knowledge caused the
braves to clamor for setting him up as a mark to shoot at, but
their chief interfered. He stood in great dignity and said, “This
is a brave warrior. We will see how bravely he can die.”<a class="fn" id="fr_54" href="#fn_54">[54]</a> Then,
seizing the victim by the shoulders, he asked him if he could run
fast. To this query Colter replied with a chop-fallen air that he
was slow. Actually, he was an excellent sprinter. Several hundred
Indians swarmed about, working up their emotions toward the
victim. First they denuded him, then motioned him to move forward
perhaps a hundred yards, from whence he was signalled to
run toward a “v” shaped open prairie of some six miles expanse.
Colter had drawn a chance to save himself if he could! He accepted
the challenge and resolved to make the most of it. As the
war whoops sounded, Colter was away with the dash of an
antelope. He bounded and ran until his lungs burned within him,
and he ruptured a blood vessel in his nose. On he sped, mile after
mile, until the chorus of Indian yells grew fainter and fainter. All
of Colter’s muscles cried out for a moment’s respite. He looked
around and beheld a spear-armed warrior some twenty yards behind
him, coming fast to split him in two. Upon impulse, Colter
whirled in his tracks, and running obliquely, gave the signal for
mercy. The reply was a thrust spear, but the brave made a false
step, stumbled, and fell. He was obviously astonished at Colter’s
gory appearance. The badly launched spear struck in the ground
and was broken off. In a surge of hope and strength, the powerful
Colter lunged like a stag at bay, and overpowering the Indian, he
seized the barbed half and impaled his fallen foe to the earth!</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_55">55</div>
<p>If the Blackfeet had possessed a spirit of chivalry they would
have called quits to this ordeal by running and combat. Here was
a man who had outrun the cream of the redskin sprinters and,
unarmed, had slain an armed warrior. Surely such a performance
should have won the captive’s freedom. But the Blackfoot code
made no allowance for heroic behavior in the enemy.</p>
<p>On came the braves, more ruddy than usual by reason of their
exertions and more fleet than normal because of the caliber of
the quarry. Colter needed no spear now; he fairly vaulted until
he gained the river bank, and diving into the stream he concealed
himself under a jam of driftwood or beaver dam that impinged
upon an island. Here he secreted himself while they howled and
thrashed about for hours, yelling, as Colter said, “like a legion
of devils.” When darkness came, like an angel of mercy, he
dragged his aching body from its watery prison, silently swam
across the river, and started the second excruciating lap in his
race for life.<a class="fn" id="fr_55" href="#fn_55">[55]</a> Manuel Lisa’s Fort was two hundred miles away.</p>
<p>After seven days of hiding and nights of painful travel and
exposure he found his way through Bozeman Pass and eventually
reached the fort at the mouth of the Bighorn. During this “ordeal
by travel” he had no sustenance other than roots known as
<i>psoralea esculenta</i>, or sheep sorrel.<a class="fn" id="fr_56" href="#fn_56">[56]</a> Again there was momentary
disposition among the trappers to question Colter’s veracity, but
the evidence was unimpeachable, and it was written plainly where
all might see. He seemed only a shadow of his former self.</p>
<p>According to James, even this terrible experience did not daunt
the lion-hearted trapper, “Dangers seemed to have for him a kind
of fascination.”<a class="fn" id="fr_57" href="#fn_57">[57]</a>
Colter could not reconcile himself to the loss of
<span class="pb" id="Page_56">56</span>
the traps he had dropped in the river during the attack. Soon
after his recovery, he ventured again into the forbidden Three
Forks region. At his first night’s camp he was attacked, but he
contrived to escape. Whereupon, he vowed to his maker that he
would never return.<a class="fn" id="fr_58" href="#fn_58">[58]</a></p>
<p>Acting upon this resolution Colter started his third voyage
down the Missouri. While he was resting in one of the upper
Minnetarre villages, probably in September of 1809, Manuel
Lisa arrived. The Three Forks country was his destination and
Colter must show him the way.</p>
<p>By midwinter a strong detachment was on its way, headed by
Pierre Menard as bourgeois commander, Andrew Henry as field
captain, and John Colter as guide. The party arrived at Three
Forks on April 3, 1810 and built a post. Within a fortnight the
Blackfeet attacked. Five trappers were killed, and most of the
horses and equipment disappeared. It was a crushing blow to the
enterprise, and for Colter, the final straw. James states that Colter
came into the fort, spoke of his promise to God, repented of his
foolhardy return, and said, “If God will only forgive me this time
and let me off I will leave the country day after tomorrow and
be d——d if I ever come into it again.”<a class="fn" id="fr_59" href="#fn_59">[59]</a> Several days later he
and a companion slipped through the Indian lines and in due time
reached Fort Manuel. From there the two men departed for St.
Louis in a dugout and reached that frontier capital on the last
day of May. They had negotiated the distance of 2,500 water
miles in the incredible time of thirty days.<a class="fn" id="fr_60" href="#fn_60">[60]</a> Is it any wonder that
other trappers referred to “Colter’s large experience”?</p>
<p>For over five years he had been among barbarian people, and
of certain torments he had more than enough. His life had been
<span class="pb" id="Page_57">57</span>
one of hard toil and high adventure; now he would seek peace
and quiet.</p>
<p>Captain Meriwether Lewis had passed away, but William
Clark was a person of authority. He was Brigadier General of
Militia and Superintendent of Indian Affairs. To Clark, Colter
gave geographical data, a part of which appeared on the map
published in 1814 in the Biddle-Allen edition of the journals.
Colter was unable to collect the wages due him as a member of
the famous expedition so he brought suit against the Lewis estate
and secured partial compensation. His trapping claims for services
to Thomas James were unavailing as the latter could not collect
from the fur company. While in St. Louis attending to this
vexatious business he undoubtedly related his experiences to General
William Clark. The latter, in turn, passed the story along to
John Bradbury, the English scientist, and James M. Brackenridge,
an American author. Such men accepted his report at face
value. Concerning him, James wrote, “His veracity was never
questioned among us.”<a class="fn" id="fr_61" href="#fn_61">[61]</a> Lesser people were more incredulous,
and Colter’s reputation suffered accordingly.</p>
<p>Colter took up a tract of bounty land on the south bank of the
Missouri in the vicinity of Dundee village, Franklin county.
There the great wanderer, with his bride Sally, turned to the
prosaic routine of farming. Wilson Price Hunt’s expedition found
him there and offered him a position as guide. Bradbury said he
accompanied them for several miles, balancing in his mind the
charms of his bride against those of the Rocky Mountains. However,
the life of steady habits won, but not for long, as he died of
jaundice in 1813.</p>
<p>During the subsequent half century Colter’s reputation evolved
<span class="pb" id="Page_58">58</span>
by degrees through the following stages: bare-faced prevaricator,
devil-take-care mountain roamer, accidental discoverer of Yellowstone
National Park. From the present perspective he appears
much more than a scout and explorer. He was something of an
economist and prophet, because he is said to have told Henry M.
Brackenridge that where he had been, “a loaded wagon would
find no obstruction in passing over the Rocky Mountains.”<a class="fn" id="fr_62" href="#fn_62">[62]</a></p>
<p>On Yellowstone maps a single conspicuous feature commemorates
Colter’s work. It is Colter’s Peak near the southeastern point
of Yellowstone Lake. May it ever stand aloof, towering and quite
inaccessible; a fitting monument to a gallant scout. Such a man
should never be forgotten because he was master of the untamed
West.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_59">59</div>
<h2 id="c7"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter III</span></span>
<br />INDIANS IN AND AROUND YELLOWSTONE</h2>
<p>A description of the Indian background is an integral part
of all early American history. An appreciation of the “Old West”
is impossible without an understanding of the Indian problem.</p>
<p>Yellowstone was not the original homeland of any distinct
Indian tribe. In comparatively recent time, probably about 1800,
it became the refuge for a small and degenerate band of Tukuarika,
or sheep-eating Indians. They had formerly lived in the
Montana and Dakota country but had been driven into seclusion
by the powerful Blackfoot nation. The several branches of Shoshones
residing in Yellowstone environs were Bannocks, Snakes,
Tukuarikas, and Flatheads. The Crows came from other Indian
sources. All of these Indians possessed certain racial characteristics
of the red race. In view of various conflicting ideas, a few observations
about the people as a whole are expedient.</p>
<p>Indians are human beings possessing the sensibilities and emotions
of white men. However, their manner of living and conception
of life has been relatively low. Even so, it is difficult to
generalize upon them as a people. As Chief Washakie once said,
“Indians very much like white men—some good, some bad.” It
is generally conceded that they were proud, so haughty in fact
that they lacked that quality of mind so essential to progress or
adjustment, humility or teachability. They could not learn because
they would not admit that they lacked anything. They were
<span class="pb" id="Page_60">60</span>
the “chosen people.” Originally they looked upon the hard-working
white people as slaves and referred to them by no other
name.</p>
<p>As a rule Indian braves were arrogant lords, not to be degraded
by menial toil. It was enough for them to expose themselves to the
hardships of fighting and hunting. They would proudly bring
home the trophies of war and the hunt. They were also diligent
in caring for their weapons and horses in preparation for future
exploits. Much leisure time was expended upon personal ornamentation
and in talking about the news of the day and affairs of
the tribe. The Indians’ inordinate pride was revealed in every
movement. The men in particular possessed a free and easy bearing.
This natural grace of action was probably facilitated by their
practice of living in a semi-nude condition.<a class="fn" id="fr_63" href="#fn_63">[63]</a></p>
<p>Indians were much more cunning and adroit than the wildest
game. They were fleet and stealthy, deceitful and cruel. To gain
an advantage over prey or an enemy by strategy was their greatest
joy and constituted the primary requisite for leadership. To be
mentioned by one’s tribesmen as a great warrior or a cunning
horse thief was the highest ambition of an Indian, and many were
past masters at both these hazardous hobbies. The greatest among
them was the one with the most “coups” to his credit, such as
scalps, stolen horses, and captured enemies. Making coups entitled
the brave to wear an eagle feather in his hair and emblazon
it upon his robe; by this token he was distinguished for heroic
action.<a class="fn" id="fr_64" href="#fn_64">[64]</a></p>
<p>On the whole they were revengeful and vindictive. If an injury,
real or fancied, were done to them by a particular person, it
was a solemn duty to retaliate either against him or someone
else. Many cases can be adduced to sustain this principle. In 1809,
<span class="pb" id="Page_61">61</span>
a trapper named Carson accepted a banter from a band of
Arickaras to shoot among their enemy Sioux, who were across
the Missouri a half mile away. The reckless trapper shot and
killed one of the Sioux warriors. The following year three white
men were slain by the Sioux to expiate this crime. The Indian
code demanded blood for blood, the more the better. They were
seldom inclined toward chivalry; mercy had no part in their code.
It was hard, relentless, and primitive. By the strong hand they
lived, and by the strong arm only were they awed. Forays, feuds,
battles, that was the life! They painted, dressed, danced, and
prayed for war.</p>
<p>And yet, in a way, they had poetic souls. The beauty and
grandeur of nature revealed itself in their dignified bearing.
Many were majestic in appearance, poised of manner, and eloquent
in speech. Some of them were gifted storytellers who entertained
their hearers. Others were great speakers who instructed
them in the legendary lore of the tribe. Still others were artists,
musicians, skilled artisans in many lines; and there were medicine
men.</p>
<p>Tribal organization was based upon the family unit, which
was monogamous, except in the case of the chief men who usually
had several wives. The chief’s lodge occupied a central position
in the village, with other leaders’ abodes surrounding. The
women, too, observed a style of dress in keeping with their respective
stations. Heredity in leadership was unknown; men became
chiefs by reason of their cunning and courage in war, wisdom in
council, and generosity toward the tribesmen.<a class="fn" id="fr_65" href="#fn_65">[65]</a></p>
<p>In the matter of economics most mountain Indians were novices.
It is undoubtedly true that early American settlers received
important initial aid from the Indians in raising crops. They
taught the whites how to raise the very products that still constitute
the backbone of American production: maize, potatoes,
<span class="pb" id="Page_62">62</span>
tobacco, cotton, squash, and beans. But instead of improving
along with the settlers, they generally preferred the ways of their
fathers. They did not lack the means for the production and
preservation of food so much as the energy and ability to anticipate
future necessity.</p>
<p>In the Rocky Mountains, where nature was quite inhospitable
(without irrigation), the natives were even less thrifty than elsewhere.
When food was plentiful they would gormandize to the
uttermost, living contentedly. When confronted by famine they
would languish in starvation. Natural forces battered them
roughly. There was fasting, but there were buffalo brains and
tongues too—earth’s supreme dish!</p>
<div class="img" id="fig7">
<img src="images/pic10.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="183" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Mountain Indian clan.</p>
</div>
<p>The women and girls were practically slaves to their husbands
and brothers. They were inured in hardships and possessed much
forbearance and self-denial. Their homemaking work was arduous.
They dressed all game and gathered nuts, berries, fuel, and
roots. They made bows, arrows, lodges, travois, and clothing. The
packing and moving, striking lodges and general routine was
women’s work.<a class="fn" id="fr_66" href="#fn_66">[66]</a> There was never the slightest disposition to complain
among them; in fact, they were inclined to despise a brave
<span class="pb" id="Page_63">63</span>
who departed from the usual patterns. He would be called “old
woman” and his squaw, if any, often received a castigation.
Maidens were required to be modest, wear robes at all times, and
look seriously upon life. Marriages were arranged by parents with
the consent of near relations. The desires of the young people were
given consideration, if reasonable, but the decision was made by
the girl’s father.</p>
<p>Meat was the mainstay of life among Indians, and a considerable
supply was available before white men came. In spite of
inadequate weapons, the natives had numerous effective methods
of securing wild game. Most hunters were masters of what was
called the cabalistical language of birds and beasts. By this means
they were able to approach many animals closely and slay them.
Bison were sometimes driven into natural arenas where a gory
slaughter ensued. Occasionally these great beasts were maneuvered
into runs, from which they were stampeded pellmell over a precipice.<a class="fn" id="fr_67" href="#fn_67">[67]</a>
Generally they were simply chased and shot down at full
gallop. This procedure required great dexterity in loading and
discharging weapons. Of course the hunter’s full attention was
given to the target because his hunting horse took care of himself.
He anticipated every move of the prey. With eyes flashing,
nostrils distended, and foam flowing from his mouth, the trained
steed sprang after the deceptive buffalo in swift execution of his
master’s will.</p>
<p>The war horse was even more highly prized than a hunter.
Animals of exotic appearance had double or treble value over
ordinary steeds and were claimed by the chiefs. The proud warrior
went to as much pains to adorn his horse as he did himself. Nothing
could induce him to neglect or mistreat his favorite.</p>
<p>In their palmy days, the Indians largely confined their efforts
to pursuit of big game. In later years they had reluctant recourse
to smaller animals. Rabbits were encircled—sometimes by a chain
<span class="pb" id="Page_64">64</span>
of fire. Ground squirrels were drowned out, and all types of
animal life were utilized for food. The products of the buffalo,
deer, elk, antelope, goat, bear, beaver, and numerous small animals
and fish gave them strength for the pursuit of more game
and the enemy. Many different combinations of meat, roots, nuts,
and berries were known to the Indians. Pemmican was a mixture
of pounded dried meat, grease, and service berries. When properly
prepared and packed in skins this food would keep indefinitely.<a class="fn" id="fr_68" href="#fn_68">[68]</a></p>
<p>The camas and yamp plants were the Indian’s bread. These
roots are about an inch in diameter, and they have a sweetish
taste while fresh, but they are more palatable when baked in
earthen ovens. Either of these roots contains nutriment sufficient
to support life, and often mountain Indians were obliged to subsist
on this slender fare.</p>
<p>From a white man’s viewpoint the dominant element in Indian
religion was superstition. A stark animism prevailed in every cult.
They believed that the different animals had either good or evil
spirits and that they should be revered or feared according to
their nature. The sun in particular was an object of worship.
Each young man diligently sought his own strong medicine. The
ritual varied but usually involved solitude, exertion, fasting, and
extreme exposure. During this vigil the youth received a new
name and a symbol of power. In due time these signs of maturity
were manifest among the tribe and a status therein was secured.</p>
<p>Illness and death were attributed to the influence of evil spirits.
The chief remedy for sickness was the sweat house. This was a
mystic shrine both for temporal and spiritual blessing. The health
seekers would rub their bodies with the tips of fir boughs, and
thus the steam would effectively penetrate their bodies in a few
minutes. Several sweats, each followed by a dip in a stream, constituted
a bath, except when the spiritual interest predominated.
<span class="pb" id="Page_65">65</span>
In that case the votary might remain in the sweat house for hours
or even days.</p>
<p>In respect to amusement Indians had unusual interest. That
they were stoical at all times is an erroneous idea. They laughed
and joked and engaged in many games.<a class="fn" id="fr_69" href="#fn_69">[69]</a> Their singing was
largely extemporaneous, accompanied by instruments of the
crudest type. A horse race had tremendous appeal for the
“bucks,” who sometimes gambled away everything they possessed,
including their wives and children. In general, the social life of
Indians was notable for its excesses. Certain seasonal festivals
were held in which the element of worship was interwoven with
hilarity. Before going upon a hunt the Indians were wont to
clothe some of the hunters in hides of the game, buffalo, or elk.
These “bucks” would then cavort around in the manner of the
game desired. In all this there was an air of expectancy and supplication.</p>
<p>Smoking was another semi-sacred ceremony by which oaths
and agreements were secured. A ritual was usually observed. They
relied heavily upon innumerable supernatural symbols and routines.</p>
<p>Such were the general characteristics and customs possessed
by all of the mountain Indians. A marked degree of differentiation
among them would justify a brief description of each. Of
course these differences are only apparent to the discerning eye.
Factors of physiognomy, dress, and speech are recognizable upon
close observation.<a class="fn" id="fr_70" href="#fn_70">[70]</a> However, it is not an easy matter to express
these different characteristics in words.</p>
<p>The Bannocks (also Bannacks)— This name is derived from
the Shoshoni word “bamp,” which means “hair,” and “nack,”
which signifies “a backward motion.” It is also said that these
Indians made cakes from acorn flour, pulverized grasshoppers,
and currant jelly which so resembled the Scotch bannock cake
<span class="pb" id="Page_66">66</span>
in shape and flavor that some Scotch trapper applied this name
to the tribe. There were approximately two thousand Bannocks in
1810, and they claimed the country southwest of Yellowstone. It
was this tribe which made a deep trail across Yellowstone in going
to and returning from their buffalo hunts. Bannocks were tall,
straight, athletic people, possessed of more physical courage than
most Indians. In a defensive way they were the most warlike of all
Indians.</p>
<p>The Shoshoni or Snake Indians— This tribe of natives lived in
the upper Snake River Valley. According to Alexander Ross, the
Snake Indians were so named because of their characteristic quick
concealment of themselves when discovered. “They glide with the
subtility of the serpent.” However, Indians interpreted the word
“Shoshoni” as meaning “inland.”<a class="fn" id="fr_71" href="#fn_71">[71]</a> Father DeSmet stated: “They
are called Snakes because in their poverty they are reduced like
reptiles to the condition of digging in the ground and seeking
nourishment from roots.”<a class="fn" id="fr_72" href="#fn_72">[72]</a> They lived in peace with the Flatheads
and Nez Percés in the north and were at war with the
Blackfeet, Crows, Bannocks, and Utahs. The Snakes were dependable
participants in the trappers’ rendezvous so often held in
the Green River Valley in the second quarter of the nineteenth
century. TyGee was a leading chief during much of the nineteenth
century. The Targhee Forest was named after this Snake
chieftain. They were a short, very dark, heavy-set people, with
small feet and hands but large chests and shoulders. Their disposition
was quite peaceful and friendly toward other people,
although they were very suspicious. They were excellent horsemen
and good fighters when aroused. The whole nation consisted
of about a thousand, but it was broken into bands, some of which
were vital and murderous while others, such as the “Diggers,”
were degraded and impoverished. Their great and constant occupation
was to obtain food, and they were disposed to eat almost
anything.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig8">
<img src="images/pic11.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="537" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">Photo by W. H. Jackson</span><br /><i>Family of Sheepeater Indians</i></p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_67">67</div>
<p>Tukuarikas or Sheepeater Indians— “Tuku” means “mountain
sheep” and “arika,” “eat,” or “Sheepeater.” They were a
slender, wiry people who possessed neither ponies nor firearms
but used bows and arrows effectively. They wore furs and skins
and lived among the rocks in the Gardner River canyon in Yellowstone
and in the Salmon River Mountains of central Idaho.
There were some two hundred Indians in the Yellowstone tribe.
Their main support was from game and fish. These Indians did
not possess any distinctive culture of their own, but, hermit-like,
they seemed concerned only to carry on by themselves until
further notice.</p>
<p>The Flatheads— This tribe lived in western Montana. The
Flatheads roamed the prairie between Glacier National Park and
the Bitter Root Range. Lake Flathead was their favorite rendezvous.
These Indians supposedly derived their name from an
ancient practice of shaping or deforming the head during infancy.
However, in 1830, Ferris claimed that not one living proof of that
practice could be found among them. They called themselves
“Salish” and spoke a language remarkable for its melody and
simplicity. They were noted for humanity, forbearance, and
honesty. They were certainly one of the few tribes in the Rocky
Mountains who could boast that they never killed or robbed a
white man nor stole a single horse.</p>
<p>The Blackfeet— This was a branch of the great Algonquian
Nation. They were the Ishmaelites of the west; indeed, they were
the most “teutonic” of all American Indians. Their hands were
against every man, and the hands of all men, both red and white,
were against them.<a class="fn" id="fr_73" href="#fn_73">[73]</a> Their habitat was the Marias River Valley
in Montana, but they were known as the devils of the mountains
<span class="pb" id="Page_68">68</span>
and prairies. All who knew them agreed with trader Bird’s observation
made to Kenneth McKenzie: “When you know the
Blackfeet as well as I do you will know that they do not need any
inducements to commit depredations.” They were always hostile
and predatory, and their wanderings were most extensive. The
tribal name, meaning “Siksi,” “black,” and “kah,” “foot,” alluded
to feet made black by roving through the ashes of regions
devastated by fires. The Blackfeet were great meat eaters and
because of their energy they were generally well supplied. They
had horses and guns from an early time, and they wore leather
clothing, often highly decorated with beadwork.</p>
<p>The Absaroka or Crow Nation— Absaroka means sparrow
hawk. The name was derived from a species found in Mexico.
Does that imply a southern origin? Surely the name suggests their
nefarious traffic in stolen horses. They would steal them on one
side of the range and dispose of them on the other.<a class="fn" id="fr_74" href="#fn_74">[74]</a> This was
the strongest band of mountain Indians. That is to say, Crowland
was a transitional area that skirted the east slope of the Rockies
along the Yellowstone and Bighorn rivers. Therefore, these people
were masters of both plain and defile. They were notorious
travelers. They roved in several villages of six or seven hundred
each. In fact, the phrase “all-pervading Crows” implies the character
of their winging flight from mountain to prairie. Indeed, they
prided themselves upon their superiority over all other nations.
The men were tall, active, intelligent, and brave. They had a
particular penchant for adornment. Rows of elk’s teeth trimmed
their garments. Men wore long hair; women, short. They referred
to themselves as “Absaroka” with great esteem. The tribal slogan
was “Bac’ dak Ko’m Ba wiky,” meaning “While Crow live, Crow
carry on.”</p>
<p>They were a well-disciplined people. Women were given a
voice in council but were most noted for their industry and skill.
<span class="pb" id="Page_69">69</span>
According to Warren A. Ferris, Crow women were notoriously
unfaithful, which, if true, was measurably contrary to the general
condition among Indians. Among the men lust for fame was
the end and purpose of life. Crow war psychology was a blend of
cruelty, vanity, greed, foolhardiness, and magnificent courage.
Old Sapsucker was the most famous Crow Chieftain. He won
this distinction by many years of fighting. Horses were at once
their passion and glory. Even infants of two years could ride,
while older youths rode horses that careened and dashed up and
down among the most dangerous places. The nation of 3,500
people owned some 10,000 horses. Adult Crow horsemen were
unexcelled. They combined agility and dignity to an unusual degree.
Mounted on fine-mettled animals, without saddle or bridle,
and bounding bare-bodied over the prairie in the panoply of
speed and power, they were fine pictures to behold!</p>
<p>Crows made free booty of everything that chanced in their
way. Horses in particular were the objects of their depredations.
They developed astonishing skill and audacity in capturing them.
As horse thieves they were world-beaters. “No legislative body on
earth ever made an appropriation with half the tact, facility, and
success.” The following represents the mature judgment of James
Stuart:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>One thing is certain: They can discount all the thieves I ever saw or
heard of; in short, they have to be seen to realize their superiority
over all thieves, either white, red, or black, in the world. They would
steal the world-renowned Arabs poor in a single hour.<a class="fn" id="fr_75" href="#fn_75">[75]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Other mountain Indians whose activities had less bearing upon
the Yellowstone area were the Herantsa or Gros Ventres. They
referred to themselves by the former name; whereas the latter was
a French designation. Of course, it was inappropriate because
they did not have large paunches. Their homeland was the Wind
River range.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_70">70</div>
<p>East of Wind River lies the Laramie Plains, and there lived a
band named Cheyennes. They were civil, well-behaved people,
cleanly in their persons and decorous in their habits. The men
were tall and vigorous, with aquiline noses and high cheek bones.
Some were almost as naked as ancient statues and might well
have stood as models for that purpose.</p>
<p>East of the Crow and Cheyenne homelands ranged various
divisions of the great Siouan family. The Sioux of Dakota, Arapaho,
Omaha, and Mandan were the most distinct clans on the
near-eastern slope of the Rockies. These tribes were typical of the
plains Indians and as mutually hostile as any of the others.<a class="fn" id="fr_76" href="#fn_76">[76]</a></p>
<p>Indian proper names were more appropriate than those given
by the settlers. Some of the latter were commonplace, stupid, and,
at times, ribald. The aboriginal tribes sensed the magnificence
of nature. Therefore, their characterizations were both significant
and euphonious. Montana was derived from “Tay-a-be-shock-up,”
“country of the mountains” or “land of the everlasting hills.”
Wyoming means “land of shining prairies.” Utah means “the
home of the high-ups,” and Idaho, “sun descending upon the
mountains.”</p>
<p>All in all, the Indian regime of life was a curious blend of love
and hate, of work and warfare. Indian life had as many facets as
there were periods, places, and tribes involved.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_71">71</div>
<h2 id="c8"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter IV</span></span>
<br />PORTRAIT OF A TRAPPER BRIGADE</h2>
<p>The character of the barbarian elements that encircled the
Yellowstone area has been given. Their position was sufficiently
menacing to prevent penetration of the continental crown except
by a chosen few. The relation of the trapper’s activity to the Park
can only be appreciated by an examination of the subject himself.</p>
<p>The Rocky Mountain fur trappers were a distinct group. They
were just as singular in dress, interests, skills, and general characteristics
as the cowboys and miners who succeeded them. When
was their genesis and exodus? It falls entirely within the scope of
nineteenth century history. Hence, the record is clear; it has few
legendary figures. However, a generalized characterization would
seem appropriate. Their predecessors were the earlier explorers
of several nations, French, Spanish, English, with a sprinkling of
other races. All of these elements pressed ever westward, chained
by neither time nor distance. In their migrations from Kentucky
to the River of the West (Missouri) excitement had become as
necessary as life itself; adventure, as the breath of their nostrils.
Until 1810 those woodsmen found hunting and trapping on the
plains sufficiently challenging, but after the return of Lewis and
Clark they donned buckskin suits and moved into the Rockies.
From these shining mountains they were not to emerge until they
learned by heart the geography upon the sundown side of the
wide Missouri.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_72">72</div>
<p>The French couriers of the woods were best endowed by nature
for this roving life. Their easygoing temperament inclined them
toward song and laughter. Their courage and gallantry adorned
the barren path of life with the varied hues of their mercurial
spirits. They never failed to adjust to the circumstances at hand,
and the speculative character of enterprise could not wear them
down. The Englishman had the necessary foresight and tenacity
to effect such an organization and procedure as best calculated
to bring adequate financial returns.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig9">
<img src="images/pic12.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="531" />
<p class="pcap">Beaver at Work.</p>
</div>
<p>However, the supreme mountain scouts were of American vintage.
The best in the west were cool, longheaded, deadly-shooting
backwoodsmen from Kentucky and Virginia. They had what it
took to deal with Indian treachery, wild beasts, and constant
danger in a thousand forms. The fur business demanded men of
great force and energy. Hence, the successful trappers were hard-working,
<span class="pb" id="Page_73">73</span>
hard-fighting men inured to hardship and exposure.
Their vanity was in fast riding, straight shooting, prowess in trapping
and trailing, and enduring privation without wincing. However,
most of them were capable of complete relaxation in the
fashion of drinking and gambling. In fact, they were “white
Injuns” and proud of the same class of achievements. The tides of
trapper fortune were capricious. One year they rolled with promise;
the next were empty as a beach. The competition was always
keen, and they were ever on the move. “Old Roustabout,” “Perpetual
Motion,” “Never Quit,” and “Knock ’Em Stiff Hawkeye”
were current nicknames in the Order. Some of them became
veritable walking maps possessed of uncanny perception of distance,
condition, and landmarks. All this knowledge was susceptible
to sudden erasure by one deft blow of a tomahawk. Surely
every trapper fully understood the meaning of the old Hudson
Bay Company motto, “A skin for a skin.”</p>
<p>The passing of time, together with kindly, indiscriminate sentimentality
toward the lore of the Old West, has enveloped all of
her buckskin-fringed denizens in an enchanting blanket of romance.
Legend endows them with a uniform mantle of heroism
and self-sacrifice. No great effort ought to be made to drag
frontiersmen from these generous folds of fiction, because such a
course might evoke the other extreme of shouting “Ichabod.”
However, a correct comprehension of reality should be the intelligent
observer’s constant aim.</p>
<p>Tramping this western wilderness was hardy-man’s-pie, and
one may search in vain for “cream puffs” in the trapper fraternity.
Among this advance guard of the human flood were turbulent
spirits. Surely persons of the wild and reckless type have their
place in pioneering the way for the more conforming populace.
Although they were generally of a kindred spirit, no company
personnel ever conformed to a particular type. Indeed, a more
heterogeneous assemblage could not be imagined. Some were
cross-grained and lazy; some, young or superannuated; others,
<span class="pb" id="Page_74">74</span>
half-breed and faithless—a real challenge to the leadership of
their employer. In time the ordinary men were weeded out, but
those remaining were still as diverse as humans could be.</p>
<p>However, it was not as conscious agents of civilization that
these rowdies entered the west. They reacted to the eternal impulse
of personal curiosity and profit. For such ends they willingly
perambulated the dreariest wastes, always at home, living
from meal to meal, from day to day. Chance and danger were
their daily lot and they gained the rare capacity to accept whatever
came with good graces. Pleasant experiences produced
rollicking good humor; hardships and trying scenes were soon
forgotten. They became absolutely fearless, for destruction stalked
them on every side in the form of famine, blizzard, wild beasts,
and wilder savages. Death was a constant threat, but its grimaces
only tended to develop men of nerve and hardihood who delighted
in reckless feats. The trapper’s universal insensibility to
danger proves that the human mind, habituated to constant risk,
becomes callous like the body subjected to exposure. There was
the hazard of perishing from hunger and thirst, of being cut off
by war parties of the Sioux who scoured the plains, of having
their horses stolen by Absarokas who infested the skirts of the
mountains, or of being butchered by the Blackfeet who lurked
among the defiles.</p>
<p>Trapping did not require literacy, but skill was indispensable
to success. The trapper had his A-B-C’s to master. Any neglect of
these lessons was at his peril. They were fur, meat, and danger.
Signs of beaver, buffalo, and Indians must be read with the utmost
accuracy. How did he perfect his craft?</p>
<p>Beginning with the objects about him, the trapper observed
everything minutely. He learned to read the meaning of a turned
leaf, a broken twig, and the behavior of domestic and wild
animals. He achieved an intimate association with nature, and
she talked to him. Not only did he form indelible impressions of
topography by discerning senses, but he talked about them
around the campfire. Each trapper learned from the others. One
referred to this process as the Rocky Mountain college course.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_75">75</div>
<div class="img" id="fig10">
<img src="images/pic13.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="506" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Part of a Trapper Brigade.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_76">76</div>
<p>By reason of such apprenticeship frontiersmen were able to
differentiate buffalo and grizzlies at astonishing distances. They
read the clouds, understood bird flights, and sensed ambuscades.
Practiced eyes, ears, and noses enabled them to classify Indians as
to tribe, place, and even intent. They could converse with the
representatives of many different nations and tribes. A smattering
of French, Spanish, and several Indian languages—supplemented
by signs—made conversation possible under all circumstances.</p>
<p>The trapper was not always at liberty. There were organization
responsibilities. The fur brigade was under strict discipline. A
junior partner in the company was usually in charge, and he was
the law. There was a semi-military set of regulations regarding
division of work; guard duty was rigorously enforced; efficient
service and prompt obedience were required of every trapper.</p>
<p>Sometimes terrific exertion was involved in reaching a given
trapping ground at the most opportune time. Upon one occasion
Alexander Ross fairly forced his caravan to cleave a road through
a snowbound pass. Said he:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Making this road through the snow (seven feet deep) took the united
labour of fifty men and 240 horses, with all the other available means
within our power, for twenty-one days. It must be allowed to have
been an arduous undertaking, with such a medley of people and so
difficult to manage; and more so, when it takes into consideration
that our supper at night depended on the good or bad luck of our
hunters during the day. To their exertions and perseverance, indeed,
no small merit was due.<a class="fn" id="fr_77" href="#fn_77">[77]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Such a time of travail was enough to elicit an occasional prayer
from these sons of the wild. Men of few words, they could say
what was needed in simple eloquence:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Oh, God, may it please Thee, in Thy divine providence, to still guide
and protect us through this wilderness of doubt and fear, as Thou
<span class="pb" id="Page_77">77</span>
hast done heretofore, and be with us in the hour of danger and difficulty
as all praise is due to Thee and not to man. Oh, do not forsake
us, Lord, but be with us and direct us through.<a class="fn" id="fr_78" href="#fn_78">[78]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>One of the greatest among trappers was brigade leader Jedediah
Smith, sometimes called “The Knight in Buckskin.” Carrying
a Bible and a rifle, he was equally proficient with each and
had complete reliance upon both.</p>
<p>Mr. Ross has left a fine description of trapping routine:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A safe and secure spot, near wood and water, is first selected for
the camp. Here the chief of the party resides with the property. It is
often exposed to danger, or sudden attack, in the absence of the
trappers, and requires a vigilant eye to guard against the lurking
savages. The camp is called headquarters. From hence all the trappers,
some on foot, some on horseback, according to the distance they
have to go, start every morning, in small parties, in all directions,
ranging the distance of some twenty miles around. Six traps is the
allowance for each trapper; but to guard against wear and tear, the
complement is more frequently ten. These he sets every night, and
visits again in the morning; sometimes oftener, according to distance,
or other circumstances. The beaver taken in the traps are always
conveyed to the camp, skinned, stretched, dried, folded up with the
hair in the inside, laid by, and the flesh used for food. No sooner,
therefore, has a hunter visited his traps, set them again and looked
out for some other place, than he returns to the camp to feast and
enjoy the pleasures of an idle day....<a class="fn" id="fr_79" href="#fn_79">[79]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In this account there is an element of suppressed excitement and
danger. Taking game is invariably a thrilling experience. Besides
that, the covetous savages were frequently so menacing as to
require almost constant vigil along the trap line. Trapper camps
remained stationary only so long as two-thirds of the men were
getting satisfactory results.</p>
<p>Setting beaver traps involved keen judgment, a deft touch, and
<span class="pb" id="Page_78">78</span>
precise arrangement. Indeed, it was a considerable art. Joe Meek
left an accurate picture of his technique:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>He has an ordinary steel trap weighing five pounds, attached to a
chain five feet long, with a swivel and ring at the end, which plays
round what is called the float, a dry stick of wood about six feet long.
The trapper wades out into the stream, which is shallow, and cuts
with his knife a bed for his trap, five or six inches under water. He
then takes the float out the whole length of the chain in the direction
of the center of the stream, and drives it in, so fast that the beaver
cannot draw it out; at the same time tying the other end by a thong
to the bank. A small stick or twig, dipped in musk or castor (found
in certain glands of the beaver) served for bait, and is placed so as to
hang directly above the trap, which is now set. The trapper then
throws water plentifully over the adjacent bank to conceal any footprints
or scent by which the beaver would be alarmed, and, going
to some distance, wades out of the stream. In setting a trap, certain
things are to be observed with care; first, that the trap is firmly fixed,
and at proper distance from the bank—for if the beaver can get on
shore with the trap, he will cut off his foot to escape; second, that the
float is of dry wood, for should it not be, the animal will cut it off
at a stroke, and swimming with the trap to the middle of the dam,
be drowned by its weight. In the latter case, when the hunter visits
his trap in the morning, he is under the necessity of plunging into the
water and swimming out, to dive for his game. Should the morning
be frosty and chilly, as it very frequently is in the mountains, diving
for traps is not a pleasant exercise. In placing the bait, care must be
taken to fix it just where the beaver, in reaching it, will spring the
trap. If the bait stick be placed high, the hind foot of the beaver will
be caught, if low, the forefoot.<a class="fn" id="fr_80" href="#fn_80">[80]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Each trapper had two horses, one to ride and one to carry his
trapping equipment and furs. Sometimes good fortune yielded a
fur harvest that exceeded the trapper’s carrying capacity. In that
case he employed a device called a cache. A dry spot of earth on
an incline was selected, well-camouflaged from Indian view. A
hole large enough for a man to crawl into was then dug. As depth
<span class="pb" id="Page_79">79</span>
was attained it was widened to the desired proportions. Furs well
wrapped would keep indefinitely in a properly constructed cache.</p>
<p>Essentials in the trapper’s equipment were a bowie knife, ammunition,
a hatchet, a revolver, and a rifle. The trapper’s powder
horn and bullet pouch, with flint and steel and other “fixins,”
were thrown over his left shoulder. These articles were his constant
companions, ever ready for action.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig11">
<img src="images/pic14.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="98" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Gun and Powder horn.</p>
</div>
<p>Wearing apparel was pretty much standardized—a five-piece
suit of buckskin, including smoked skin moccasins which would
not shrink from the frequent wettings incident to the trapping
season. The pants, shirt, long coat, and hat were made of the
same material. Fringes at the seams gave a dash of ornamentation
and hastened drying. Clothing was mostly “homemade” during
the wintertime.</p>
<p>These accouterments were not only durable, but they were comfortable
as well, and they were pleasant to the eye. That the latter
item was a desideratum there can be no doubt. Indian maidens
were fair to behold, and after all the trapper was human.</p>
<p>This phase of the trapper’s life was cogently summarized by
one observer:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>From all that I hear I conclude that in the palmy days of the fur
trade, the bands of white trappers in the West were little more than
bands of white Indians, having their Indian wives, and all the paraphernalia
of Indian life, moving from place to place, as the beaver
became scarce, and subsisting like the Indians upon the products of
the country.<a class="fn" id="fr_81" href="#fn_81">[81]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<div class="pb" id="Page_80">80</div>
<p>Squaw men were both numerous and respected. Lisa, Bridger,
Provot, Ogden, Meek, Carson, Rose, McKenzie, and Beckwourth
were wise and judicious men. They well knew the utility of the
willing, efficient, and respectful Indian women for their own
sakes. Then, too, there were political considerations which account
for the fact that in some cases several squaws were taken
at once, or in rapid succession. Marriage has always been employed
as a means of ingratiation by the outsider. It may be said
to their credit, with a few exceptions, genuine mountain men
were faithful to their Indian wives.<a class="fn" id="fr_82" href="#fn_82">[82]</a></p>
<p>The Earl of Dunraven has left an excellent description of a
squaw man’s camp which he visited in Yellowstone Park during
the summer of 1874:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>These men looked very happy and comfortable. Unquestionably
the proper way for a man to travel with ease and luxury in these
deserts is for him to take unto himself a helpmate chosen from the
native population. No amount of art, industry, and study can rival
the instinct displayed by savages in making themselves comfortable,
and in utilizing for their own benefit all the accidents of Nature.
Nobody can choose a camp as they can: nobody knows how to make
a fire so quickly or so well: nobody can so wisely pick a shady, cool
place in summer heat, or choose one sheltered from wind and storms
in winter. With an Indian wife to look after his bodily comforts, a
man may devote himself to hunting, fishing, or trapping without a
thought or care. He may make his mind quite easy about all household
matters. His camp will be well arranged, the tent-pegs driven
securely home, the stock watered, picketed, and properly cared for,
a good supper cooked, his bed spread out, and everything made comfortable;
his clothes and hunting-gear looked after, the buttons sewn
on his shirt—if he has got any shirt or any buttons; and all the little
trivial incidents of life which, if neglected, wear out one’s existence,
he will find carefully attended to by a willing and affectionate slave.</p>
<p>They had a lot to tell us also about their travels and adventures,
about the wood and water supply, and the abundance or deficiency of
game. So we sat down on bales of beaver-skins and retailed all the
civilized intelligence we could think of; and the women came and
<span class="pb" id="Page_81">81</span>
brought us ember for our pipes, spread out robes for us and made
us at home; and the little fat, chubby children, wild and shy as young
wolves, peered at us from behind the tent out of their round, black,
beady eyes.<a class="fn" id="fr_83" href="#fn_83">[83]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The premier social event among mountain men was the annual
rendezvous. This institution was inaugurated on Green River in
July, 1824, by General William H. Ashley, owner of the interests
that evolved into the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. The Ashley
men traveled to the fur region in concert. Upon arrival, they
were divided into “brigades” and dispersed into various districts
with instructions to reassemble at an appointed time and place.
In this manner the rendezvous became a sort of roving trading
place; it served in lieu of a post. These shifting locations were
occasioned by the need of forage for large numbers of horses. For
sixteen years this combination of market, fiesta, and carousal held
sway in such romantic spots as Green River, Ogden’s Hole,
Pierre’s Hole—now Teton Basin in Idaho—and the Horse Creek-Green
River country south of Jackson’s Hole in Wyoming. In her
book, <i>The River of the West</i>, Frances Fuller Victor tells of a rendezvous
held by Jim Bridger and his trappers. The place was
Hayden Valley; the season, 1838.<a class="fn" id="fr_84" href="#fn_84">[84]</a></p>
<p>Thither the company men, free trappers, and Indians foregathered.
The business of exchange and supply was quickly
transacted with beaver skins serving as money. Then came the
celebration, and what a gala event it was. Trappers sought to
indemnify themselves for the sufferings and privations of a year in
the wilderness. Squaw men parted with their “hairy bank notes”
in order to bedeck their spouses in bright cloth and gewgaws.
Here were men with reputations to sustain, proud men with a
streak of wild vanity: “Old Knock Him Stiff,” “Old Straightener,”
“Dead-Eye Dick,” “Broken Hand,” Kit, Joe, and Jim.
<span class="pb" id="Page_82">82</span>
Most mountain men were openhanded, and they squandered a
year’s earnings in a few days of prodigal indulgence. Coffee and
chocolate were prepared; the kegs were emptied; all pipes were
kept aglow; free and generous spirits moved by day and night.<a class="fn" id="fr_85" href="#fn_85">[85]</a>
Truly this burnt and seamy-faced band was an all-American aggregation.</p>
<p>The veterans boasted “most enormous adventures” in mountain
experience. Each represented himself as more than a match
for any possible array of Indians or grizzlies. Narrations waxed
romantic in the desire to astonish the new recruits. Extravagant
and absurd as their yarns were, there was always a current of
rude, good humor that allowed each listener to believe as little as
he liked. There were rollicking, fiery, boisterous, swaggering
southerners; quiet, steel-eyed northerners; mercurial French; loquacious
Irish; calculating Scots; greedy middlemen; shrewd
dealers; squaw men; Indian haters; Indians of many nations;
pals; rivals; and enemies. Everyone was invited; no one was
missing. It was a self-propelling circus, one show a year, the antecedent
of roundup, rodeo, fair, and tournament.</p>
<p>Contests of skill were carried to a point of jeopardizing life.
There were William Tell episodes and no mistakes, trials of speed
and strength for both horse and man. There was plenty of flirting,
feasting, carousing, and outright debauchery. All were on
friendly terms today, but each was unconsciously aware that tomorrow
their relationships would change, and woe unto him
who was caught unaware!</p>
<p>The rendezvous was perhaps the most colorful, spontaneous,
lusty, and romantic institution ever known among civilized men.
It was conceived, nurtured, and abandoned within a score of
years (1824-1840). A fleeting climax to a picturesque band—they
came from everywhere, wrote a saga that reads like an epoch
from a long-forgotten age, then vanished from the scene.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_83">83</div>
<p>Actually they did not make a definite exit; they just faded
away. Some, like Colter, turned into prosaic farmers; others became
guides, only to lag superfluously upon the stage; some
turned to trade; some, to government appointments as Indian
agents. A few lingered on as trappers, sighing for the life that
was gone forever. Trappers of the Great West—they had given
their all and there were no regrets. Their levity and valor, their
hardships and pleasure, what a medley it made. One of the
French Canadians has left this testimonial:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I have now been forty-two years in this country. For twenty-four I
was light canoe-man; I required but little sleep, but sometimes got less
than I required. No portage was too long for me; all portages were
alike. My end of the canoe never touched the ground till I saw the
end of it. Fifty songs a day were nothing to me. I could carry, paddle,
walk, and sing with any man I ever saw. During that period, I saved
the lives of ten Bourgeois, and was always the favourite, because
when others stopped to tarry at a bad step, and lost time, I pushed on—over
rapids, over cascades, over chutes; all were the same to me.
No water, no weather, ever stopped the paddle or the song. I have
had twelve wives in the country; and was once possessed of fifty
horses, and six running dogs, trimmed in the first style. I was then
like a Bourgeois, rich and happy; no Bourgeois had better-dressed
wives than I; no Indian chief finer horses; no white man better harnessed
or swifter dogs. I beat all Indians at the race, and no white
man ever passed me in the chase. I wanted for nothing; and I spent
all my earnings in the enjoyment of pleasure. Five hundred pounds,
twice told, have passed through my hands; although now I have not
a spare shirt to my back, nor a penny to buy one. Yet, were I young
again, I should glory in commencing the same career again.<a class="fn" id="fr_86" href="#fn_86">[86]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The significance of the fur trade is graphically depicted by the
National Park Service with charts, diagrams, illustrations, models,
and dioramas in the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial,
Scotts Bluff, Guernsey Lake, Fort Laramie, Grand Teton and
Yellowstone National parks.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_84">84</div>
<h2 id="c9"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter V</span></span>
<br />WERE INDIANS AFRAID OF YELLOWSTONE?</h2>
<p>Beginning with the origin of Yellowstone as a National Park
the idea became current that Indians were afraid of the area. The
opinion is still widely held that they considered it a cursed domain,
unfit for habitation. While it is true that superstition and
taboo loomed large in primitive experience, there is no reason
to suppose that Indians gave Wonderland a wide berth.<a class="fn" id="fr_87" href="#fn_87">[87]</a> Rather,
there is an abundance of material evidence that controverts this
view. Furthermore, the proposition is at once illogical and untrue
historically.</p>
<p>How, then, did this fiction originate? Probably the major reason
is found in the fact that, with the exception of a small band
of recluse-like Tukuarikas, or Sheepeaters, Indians did not live
permanently in Yellowstone. This fact alone suggests that the
region was not regarded as an appropriate abode. Only a pygmy
tribe of about four hundred timid souls deemed it a suitable homeland.</p>
<p>These people were the weakest of all mountain clans. They
did not possess horses. Their tools were of the crudest type; they
lived in caves and nearly inaccessible niches in cliffs along the
Gardner River, especially in wintertime. These more permanent
camps were carefully chosen in the interest of security against
<span class="pb" id="Page_85">85</span>
other Indians. Superintendent Norris discovered one of them by
accident:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>In trailing a wounded bighorn I descended a rocky dangerous pathway.
In rapt astonishment I found I had thus unbidden entered an
ancient but recently deserted, secluded, unknown haunt of the
Sheepeater aborigines of the Park.<a class="fn" id="fr_88" href="#fn_88">[88]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>This campground was a half mile in length and four hundred
feet at its widest point, with a similar depth, “and hemmed in
and hidden by rugged timber-fringed basaltic cliffs....”</p>
<p>In summer, the Sheepeater Indians ventured further into the
interior, following the game upon the higher plateaus. There they
erected:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>skin-covered lodges, or circular upright brush-heaps called wickiups,
decaying evidences of which are abundant near Mammoth Hot
Springs, the various firehole basins, the shores of Yellowstone Lake,
the newly explored Hoodoo regions, and in nearly all of the sheltered
glens and valleys of the Park.<a class="fn" id="fr_89" href="#fn_89">[89]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In 1874, the Earl of Dunraven discovered such a camp just
west of Mary Mountain on the head of Nez Percé Creek.</p>
<p>Superintendent Norris and his associates focused their eyes
particularly upon evidences of Indian occupancy. In a dozen
places they observed rude but extensive pole and brush fences
used for wild animal driveways.<a class="fn" id="fr_90" href="#fn_90">[90]</a> An especially strategic camp
was discovered near the summit of a grassy pass between Hoodoo
and Miller creeks. From this skyline perch, marked by forty
decaying lodges, an entire tribe could command a view of all
possible approaches for many miles. Fragments of white men’s
chinaware, blankets, bed clothing, and male and female wearing
<span class="pb" id="Page_86">86</span>
apparel bore mute but mournful witness of border raids and
massacres. This was an Absaroka summer retreat.</p>
<p>However, there are few such evidences discernible today because
snows are heavy and wind fallen trees profuse, while the
character of Indian structures was flimsy. In fact, these Indians,
on the whole, left fewer enduring signs of their dwelling places
than beaver. Several log wickiups still stand in a pleasant fir
grove in the triangle formed by Lava Creek and Gardner River
above their point of union. These wickiups are readily accessible
from the Tower Falls highway one half mile east of the Gardner
River bridge.</p>
<p>What happened to the timid Tukuarikas? They simply vanished
from the scene as the white men invaded their refuge. They
left without a contest for ownership or treaty of cession. That is
the way most Americans would have had all Indian tribes behave!</p>
<p>All mountain Indian tribes visited Yellowstone. We-Saw, Shoshoni
guide for Captain W. A. Jones in 1873, said his people
and also the Bannocks and Crows occasionally visited the Yellowstone
River and Lake.</p>
<p>For one thing, Obsidian Cliff had the effect of a magnet upon
them. It was their arsenal, a lance and arrowhead quarry. Arrowheads
and spears originating here have been found in an area
extending many miles in every direction. The obsidian chips,
from which implements were assiduously shaped by the Indians,
still litter the side hills and ravines in chosen areas all over the
Park. Many fine specimens of arrowheads, knives, scrapers, and
spears have been found at various places. The most notable finds
have been around the base of Mt. Holmes, along Indian Creek,
at Fishing Bridge, near West Thumb, in the Norris and Lower
Geyser basins, and about the Lamar Valley. Actually, these artifacts
have generally turned up wherever excavation for modern
camps has been made.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig12">
<img src="images/pic15.jpg" alt="" width="553" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><i>Remnants of Sheepeaters’ Wickiup</i></p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_87">87</div>
<p>In P. W. Norris’ <i>Fifth Annual Report, 1881</i>,
there is a comprehensive
analysis of the problem of Indian occupancy. Diagrams
of four steatite vessels found in widely separated places
are represented. Drawings of arrowheads and sinkers also occur,
and figures 10 to 24, inclusive, depict the natural sizes of scrapers,
knives, lance, spearheads, and perforators, mostly chipped from
Park obsidian.<a class="fn" id="fr_91" href="#fn_91">[91]</a> These artifacts were found in various places,
such as caverns, driveways, at the foot of cliffs, and along creeks.
Said Norris: “Over two hundred such specimens were collected
this season.”<a class="fn" id="fr_92" href="#fn_92">[92]</a></p>
<p>In his report of 1878, Mr. Norris states: “Chips, flakes, arrowheads
and other Indian tools and weapons have been found by
all recent tourists in burial cairns and also scattered broadcast
in all these mountain valleys.”<a class="fn" id="fr_93" href="#fn_93">[93]</a></p>
<p>Is it any wonder Indian artifacts are scarce in Yellowstone
today? Still, they are frequently found when excavations are
made. Winter snows, animal trampings, land slides, and floods
have covered them. A few isolated items of discovery should be
noted: arrowheads have recently been found on Stevenson Island,
in lake gravel pits, about Buffalo Ranch, in the sewer line,
near South Entrance, on the Game Ranch, around Norris, Lower,
and Midway geyser basins, and at Fishing Bridge.<a class="fn" id="fr_94" href="#fn_94">[94]</a></p>
<p>Another evidence of Indian visitation was evinced by a network
of trails. One of these followed the Yellowstone Valley across
the Park from north to south. It divided at Yellowstone Lake, the
principal branch adhering to the east shore and leading to Two
Ocean Pass where it intersected the great Snake and Wind River
trail. Since Indian trails multisected the Yellowstone area it is
obvious that the region was a sort of no-man’s land. Undesirable
as a homeland, it was used as a summer retreat by many Rocky
<span class="pb" id="Page_88">88</span>
Mountain tribes. From this circumstance it may be assumed
that an autumn seldom passed without a clash between the Bannocks
and the Crows or the Shoshonis. Surely, the shrill notes
of Blackfeet warwhoops have echoed in these vales. Campsites
were well chosen both from the viewpoint of preserving secrecy
and desirability as watchtower sites.</p>
<p>The most important trail, however, was that known as the
Great Bannock Trail. The Bannocks of southeastern Idaho made
an annual trek to the Bighorn Basin for buffalo. Their trail
followed Henrys Fork of Snake River to Henrys Lake, an ancient
Bannock rendezvous. From this notable camp the trail went up
Howard Creek and crossed the Continental Divide at Targhee
Pass. Upon reaching the Upper Madison Valley, the route
passed Horse Butte and angled north of West Yellowstone townsite.
A camp at Great Springs (now Cory Springs) was situated
near the Park boundary.</p>
<p>In Yellowstone National Park, the Bannock Trail winds its
devious way across the northern part. There are a half-dozen
deviations from the main artery. Wayne Replogle suggests that
weather conditions determined these alternations. High ground
would be chosen enroute to the plains, but the return trip could
be made along the streams. Other considerations might include
security, grazing, and game. Entering the Park upon Duck
Creek the Trail swung northward across Campanula Creek,
paralleled Gneiss Creek to the point of crossing, then quartered
southward, crossing Maple Creek and Duck Creek, on toward
the head of Cougar Creek and its ample pasture lands.</p>
<p>From this area the Trail goes almost due north to White
Peaks, which are skirted on the West. The Gallatin Range
was crossed via a saddle north of White Peaks. The Trail then
dropped upon the headwaters of Indian Creek and followed
down to Gardner River. The route then looped to the left,
across Swan Lake flats, on through Snow Pass, down the decline
to Mammoth Hot Springs. From Mammoth the Indian
<span class="pb" id="Page_89">89</span>
thoroughfare struck right, recrossed Gardner River, and followed
Lava Creek toward Tower Fall.</p>
<p>The Yellowstone River ford was located just above Tower
Fall, near the mouth of Tower Creek. Vestiges of the trail may
still be discerned along both banks of Yellowstone River. Other
evidences, such as deep grass-sodded furrows, may be seen in
the vicinity of junction of the Lamar River and Soda Butte
Creek. One branch paralleled Soda Butte Creek to the divide
and then descended Clarks Fork to the bison range. The alternate
route continued along the Lamar to a secondary divide
between Cache and Calfee creeks. This hog’s back was then
followed to the summit, and the descent was down Timber
Creek to its confluence with Clarks Fork. The deep ruts worn
by travois in these pilgrimages are still obvious in many places,
although unused for three quarters of a century.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig13">
<img src="images/pic16.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="181" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Horse and Travois Transportation.</p>
</div>
<p>Can anyone doubt that the Bannocks made frequent and extensive
excursions beyond this thoroughfare? Surely their young
men ranged far and wide, prying into every nook and cranny
of Wonderland. They undoubtedly fished in the great lake and
river, hunted elk and bighorn, bathed in warm springs, and
reveled in the beauties of the landscape. Any other view of the
evidence would impute undue naïveté to human nature. After
all, Indians were children of nature; the earth was their mother.
In Yellowstone Mother Earth was especially intriguing. They
might not understand her; they might entertain great respect for
her strange manifestations, but cringing trepidation? Hardly!
<span class="pb" id="Page_90">90</span>
But weren’t they afraid of the geysers? In 1935, White Hawk
and Many Wounds visited the Park. They were members of
Chief Joseph’s band when it crossed the Park in 1877. When
asked if the Nez Percé Indians were afraid of the geysers and
hot springs they said no and implied that they used them in
cooking.<a class="fn" id="fr_95" href="#fn_95">[95]</a> Still the critic objects, saying the geyser and spring formations
were all intact when the first white men came. Primitive
people were seldom guilty of wanton spoliation. Hence, missing
incrustations were not essential evidence of Indian visitation.
They left nature’s beauty as they found it, a proper example for
all who might follow after.</p>
<p>Did Indians ever hear the legendary overhead sounds in the
vicinity of Shoshone and Yellowstone lakes—those strange half-minute
tunes like the humming of bees or echo of bells?<a class="fn" id="fr_96" href="#fn_96">[96]</a>
Perhaps they did. Any phenomenon audible to white men with the
naked ear would be discernible to them because they were sensitive
to nature and her communion was always welcomed. However,
since Indians were without records and formal procedures
for obtaining and preserving scientific knowledge they were tremendously
limited in understanding. They operated upon a
single dimension of experience. For instance, they could never
realize that the fish they took from Lake Yellowstone was a
Pacific Ocean species which could only have reached these inland
lakes via the Snake River system, signifying that, in ages past,
the great lake must have possessed an outlet in that direction.
All such problems awaited the scientists, but red men still knew
much in their own right.</p>
<p>Surely then, Indians were summertime visitors in Yellowstone.
They literally swarmed around the lakes. The most unimpeachable
testimony on this point comes from trapper accounts of
actual encounters. This phase of the case is discussed in the following
<span class="pb" id="Page_91">91</span>
chapter. Their known presence in the wooded area was
the greatest deterrent to the white man’s interest. Few men voluntarily
risk their lives for a view of nature’s wonders. It is a historical
fact that the Washburn-Langford-Doane party saw Crow
Indians along the north environs of the Park and actually followed
a fresh line of tracks into the Yellowstone area. Thus the
scenic exploitation of Wonderland was not feasible until the
Indians were rounded up and confined to the reservations. This
program was accomplished in the states surrounding Yellowstone
between 1860 and 1877.</p>
<p>This process of racial adjustment was not accomplished without
minor repercussions upon Yellowstone. The exciting Nez
Percé flight of 1877 is considered separately in <a href="#c15">Chapter XI</a>.
However, the very next year the Bannocks conducted an impressive
horse-stealing foray against the property of laborers and tourists.
These episodes resulted in unfavorable publicity from the
standpoint of tourist interest in visiting Wonderland. In consequence
two important steps were taken by the officials. In 1880
Superintendent Norris made a tour of all the Rocky Mountain
Indian reservations. His mission was to secure solemn promises
from the tribes to abide by the terms of their Washington treaties
and in particular to stay away from the Park.<a class="fn" id="fr_97" href="#fn_97">[97]</a></p>
<p>These agreements were widely advertised, and in order to
further neutralize any fear of Indian trouble a policy of minimizing
past incidents was evolved. The recent invasions were
represented as unprecedented, actually anomalous. Indians had
never lived in Yellowstone, were infrequent visitors because they
were afraid of the thermal activity! It was not a conspiracy
against truth, just an adaptation of business psychology to a
promising national resort.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_92">92</div>
<h2 id="c10"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter VI</span></span>
<br />SECONDARY VISITATIONS BEFORE 1869</h2>
<h3>Parties in Search of Fur</h3>
<p>The streams of the Rocky Mountains were thoroughly exploited
by the trappers in the twenties and thirties. Notwithstanding the
paucity of evidence concerning Yellowstone visitations, it is unreasonable
to believe her great rivers were neglected. These phantomlike
trapper men went everywhere, saw everything, tarried
only long enough to strip furry coverings from the beaver, and
vanished. On rare occasion a bit of artifact shows up: an initialed
rock or tree, a broken trap or flintlock, a group of steel-cleaved
trees, a trapper cabin, a rifle pit or cache.<a class="fn" id="fr_98" href="#fn_98">[98]</a> These evidences bear
mute testimony that hunters passed through Yellowstone. In
1880, Colonel P. W. Norris discovered an initialed tree one half
mile above the Upper Falls. The significant legend, <i>J.O.R. August
19, 1819</i>, had every indication of authenticity.</p>
<p>In 1822, trappers engaged by Andrew Henry and General
William H. Ashley entered the Rocky Mountains. Within that
decade some of the men had unquestionably visited the Park
area. Evidence of one such visit exists in a letter published in
the <i>Philadelphia Gazette</i>, September 27, 1827, and reprinted in
the <i>Niles Weekly Register</i> (Baltimore) the following week, October
<span class="pb" id="Page_93">93</span>
6, 1827. Daniel T. Potts wrote this particular letter at Sweet
Lake in the Rocky Mountains on July 8, 1827, and sent it to
his brother Robert T. Potts of Philadelphia. This letter, which
constitutes the first printed account of Yellowstone phenomena,
is now on file in the Yellowstone Park Library at Mammoth. The
section of the letter definitely descriptive of the Park area follows:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>... the Yellow-stone has a large fresh water lake near its head on
the verry [sic] top of the Mountain which is about one hundrid [sic]
by fourty [sic] in diameter and as clear as crystal on the south borders
of this lake is a number of hot and boiling springs some water and
others of most beautiful fine clay and resembles that of a mush pot
and throws its particles to the immense height of from twenty to
thirty feet in height. The clay is white and pink and water appear
fathomless as it appears to be entirely hollow underneath. There is
also a number of places where the pure sulphor [sic] is sent forth in
abundance one of our men visited one of these whilst taking his recreation
at an instan [sic] the earth began a tremendious [sic] trembling
and he with dificulty [sic] made his escape when an explosion
took place resembling that of thunder. During our stay in that quarter
I heard it every day....<a class="fn" id="fr_99" href="#fn_99">[99]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Again, it is a matter of written record that Jedediah Smith and
his associates “worked the country lying between the sources of
the Missouri and Yellowstone rivers, finally going into winter
quarters on the Wind River” in 1829. He was probably the man
to whom Superintendent Norris referred:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I have always given much credence to a well-endorsed campfire
legend of a mountaineer named Smith, having, prior to the days of
Bonneville, written a narrative of his explorations of the Firehole
regions, and being killed before its publication.<a class="fn" id="fr_100" href="#fn_100">[100]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>It was in 1829 when Joseph Meek became separated from
his associates of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company and wandered
<span class="pb" id="Page_94">94</span>
for five days in a southerly direction in the area that divides
the drainage between the Madison and Gallatin rivers. The factors
of time and place are entirely consistent with the report he gave:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Being desirous to learn something about the progress he had made,
he ascended a low mountain in the neighborhood of his camp, and
behold! the whole country beyond was smoking with vapor from
boiling springs, and burning gases issuing from small craters, each
of which was emitting a sharp whistling sound.<a class="fn" id="fr_101" href="#fn_101">[101]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Meek thought himself reminded of the city of Pittsburgh as he
had once seen it on a winter morning. Meek also said that blue
flames and molten brimstone issued from certain craters. Of
course the brimstone was a slight exaggeration, but he undoubtedly
believed it to be true.</p>
<p>There are still other references strongly indicative of the movements
of those silent sons of the wilderness in Yellowstone. However,
the journal of Warren A. Ferris, an employee of the American
Fur Company, positively proves that he observed some of
its mysteries. He first heard stories of astonishing marvels from
a party of trappers at the rendezvous in 1833. These trappers
confirmed other reports that were current, affirming that geysers
really were as extensive and remarkable as generally represented.
Backed by the united testimony of more than twenty men on
the subject, Ferris decided to go there himself for the specific purpose
of enjoying such an experience as would be afforded by
water volcanoes.</p>
<p>In company with two Pend d’Oreille Indians he journeyed from
Camas Creek through the “piny woods” to the Madison River,
which he followed to the Upper Geyser Basin, where he camped.
During the night of May 19, the thud and resounding of violent
thermal action assailed him. Allow him to relate the story:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>When I arose in the morning, clouds of vapor seemed like a dense
fog to overhang the springs from which frequent reports or explosions
<span class="pb" id="Page_95">95</span>
of different loudness, constantly assailed our ears. I immediately
proceeded to inspect them, and might have exclaimed with the
Queen of Sheba, when their full reality of dimensions and novelty
burst upon my view, “The half was not told me.”</p>
<p>From the surface of a rocky plain or table, burst forth columns of
water, of various dimensions, projected high in the air, accompanied
by loud explosions, and sulphurous vapors, which were highly disagreeable
to the smell. The rock from which these springs burst forth
was calcarious [sic], and probably extends some distance from them
beneath the soil. The largest of these wonderful fountains projects
a column of boiling water several feet in diameter to the height of
more than one hundred and fifty feet—in my opinion; but in declaring
that it could not be less than four times that distance in height—accompanied
with a tremendous noise. These explosions and discharges
occur at intervals of about two hours. After having witnessed
three of them, I ventured near enough to put my hand into the
water of its basin, but withdrew it instantly, for the heat of the water
in this immense cauldron was altogether too great for comfort, and
the agitation of the water, the disagreeable effluvium continually
exuding, and the hollow unearthly rumbling under the rock on
which I stood, so ill accorded with my notions of personal safety,
that I retreated back precipitately to a respectful distance. The Indians
who were with me were quite appalled, and could not by any
means be induced to approach them. They seemed astonished at my
presumption in advancing up to the large one, and when I safely
returned, congratulated me on my “narrow escape.”—They believed
them to be supernatural, and supposed them to be the production of
the Evil Spirit. One of them remarked that hell, of which he had
heard from the whites, must be in that vicinity. The diameter of the
basin into which the water of the largest jet principally falls, and
from the centre of which, through a hole in the rock of about nine
or ten feet in diameter, the water spouts up as above related, may be
about thirty feet.—There are many other smaller fountains, that did
not throw their waters up so high, but occurred at shorter intervals.
In some instances, the volumes were projected obliquely upwards
and fell into the neighboring fountains or on the rock or prairie. But
their ascent was generally perpendicular, falling in and about their
own basins or apertures. These wonderful productions of nature are
situated near the centre of a small valley, surrounded by pine covered
hills, through which a small fork of the Madison flows. Highly
<span class="pb" id="Page_96">96</span>
gratified with my visit to these formidable and magnificent fountains,
jets, or springs, whichever the reader may please to call them, I set
out after dinner to rejoin my companions. Again we crossed the Piny
Woods and encamped on the plains of Henry’s Fork.<a class="fn" id="fr_102" href="#fn_102">[102]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Ferris not only wrote the foregoing account in his journal, but
his sense of its importance impelled him to expand it for publication.
He submitted his “Life in the Rocky Mountains” to
several papers. Subsequently the narrative appeared in the <i>Literary
Messenger</i> of Buffalo, New York, in issues running during
the early forties. The scholarly observations of Mr. Ferris were
reprinted in <i>The Wasp</i>, a Mormon organ of Nauvoo, Illinois,
on August 13, 1842. It was the best article prepared before 1870.
Henceforth, the lack of knowledge about Yellowstone must be
charged to common indifference and skepticism. The facts had
all been well attested but slenderly disseminated.</p>
<p>Foremost among all trapper visitations in point of extent and
accuracy were those of Osborne Russell. Between 1835 and 1839
he accompanied three specific Yellowstone expeditions. The first
party, which numbered twenty-four, was organized at Fort Hall
in June, 1835. Instructions directed them to proceed to Yellowstone
Lake and return, hunting and trapping the intervening territory.
Their route of travel was northeast to Jackson Hole, thence
into the Absarokas. No one in the group had ever entered Yellowstone
until July 28, when they descended the mountains into what
they called “Secluded Valley.”</p>
<p>The point of ingress was probably the upper Lamar drainage.
There they encountered a small band of friendly Snake Indians,
rich in pelts which they sold for a “song.” Mr. Russell revealed
an unerring instinct of appreciation for the area in his first and
subsequent visits. Said he:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We stopped at this place and for my own part I almost wished I
could spend the remainder of my days in a place like this, where
happiness and contentment seemed to reign in wild, romantic splendor,
surrounded by majestic battlements which seemed to support
the heavens and shut out all hostile intruders.<a class="fn" id="fr_103" href="#fn_103">[103]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<div class="pb" id="Page_97">97</div>
<div class="img" id="fig14">
<img src="images/pic17.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="675" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Trapper observing Riverside Geyser.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_98">98</div>
<p>While his impression of security was to prove incorrect the reaction
to grandeur was wholly sustained.</p>
<p>One trapper was lost, and after a futile search they reluctantly
crossed the Yellowstone River. Their next camp was in Gardner
Hole, named for trapper Johnson Gardner, formerly an Ashley
employee, who had worked the area several years before. Russell’s
party then crossed the Gallatins and joined Jim Bridger’s
company in making a stand against the marauding Blackfeet.</p>
<p>The next season found Russell attached to Bridger’s party and
again on his way to Wonderland. They entered from the southeast
along Yellowstone River. By mid-August they reached the
lake. Two weeks were spent in trapping the lake and Gardner
Hole streams. Russell again expressed his unqualified partiality
for this region.</p>
<p>Mr. Russell’s final and most significant visit occurred during
July and August of 1839. Upon this occasion there were only
four in the party. They entered the Park by way of Snake River,
passed the lakes now called Lewis and Shoshone, and visited the
geyser basins. The white formations reminded the trappers of
some ancient cities’ ruins. Mr. Russell’s description of Grand
Prismatic Spring is satisfactory as of today. From the Firehole
Basin they circled the Park clockwise and came to rest on Pelican
Creek, near Yellowstone Lake’s outlet. The date was August 28,
1839; the time of day, 4:00 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> Russell had taken a swim in
the lake; White was sleeping; the Canadian and Elbridge were
hunting elk. In these circumstances a large band of Blackfeet
made a surprise attack. Russell and White were both wounded
but managed to escape. The next day they were joined by the
Canadian. Together, and on foot, the three trappers wound a
<span class="pb" id="Page_99">99</span>
tortuous course to the Thumb of Lake, and thence south to
Jackson Lake. After many harrowing experiences and much
discomfort they reached Fort Hall on September 6. A week later
Elbridge also reached the fort, and in a short time they were all
ready for new adventure.</p>
<p>Another party of forty men went through almost the identical
experience in 1839. They entered the area via the Snake River,
crossed the Divide, and trapped the upper Yellowstone to the
lake. Near its outlet they fought Piegan Indians and lost five
men, with the same number wounded.<a class="fn" id="fr_104" href="#fn_104">[104]</a> Yellowstone was not a
choice trapping ground and the risks involved by reason of remoteness
and Indian menace offset the margin of profit.</p>
<p>Upon interrogation relative to Yellowstone, Captain Bonneville
said, “You ask me if I know of the thermal springs and
geysers. Not personally, but my men knew about them, and called
their location the ‘Fire Hole.’”</p>
<p>From these sources it is apparent that many trappers traversed
the “crest of the world,” and its secrets were common knowledge
among the whole fraternity. The evaluation placed upon these
singular experiences would naturally depend upon the judgment
of the several hunters. Father DeSmet took the liberty of placing
their reactions upon a superstitious basis. He said the region
was considered an abode of evil spirits. The eruptions were supposed
to result from combat between infernal spirits. This was
probably the view of some, but all hunters were not such tyros in
natural science. Indeed, it is quite reasonable to suppose that
at least a few were first-rate naturalists. However, some of them
were killed in the wilderness; others withdrew to other fields
of interest; and none of them envisioned any lively public concern
over scenery. A few had gone to the trouble of recording
<span class="pb" id="Page_100">100</span>
and relating their experiences only to be laughed to scorn or
made the butt of jokesters. Why should honest men like Colter,
Meek, and Ferris go out of their way simply to be dubbed outlandish
prevaricators? Of course, the answer is found in the fact
that as a class they deliberately brought such a reputation upon
themselves. Take the case of Joe Meek. Upon one occasion his
party was floundering about in the Gallatin Valley. Meek suggested
that their bewilderment might be lessened by climbing
a high peak and getting their bearings. No one would accompany
him so he went alone. When he returned there was considerable
interest in his experience. Naturally his ego expanded;
he took on a knowing air. He erroneously contended that he could
see the Yellowstone, Missouri, and Snake rivers from the lofty
height. Later, the brigade leader sent Moses “Black” Harris to
another high point to reconnoiter. When he returned the men
pressed him for information, and, not to be outdone, he declared
that he saw “the city of St. Louis, and one fellow drinking
a beer.”<a class="fn" id="fr_105" href="#fn_105">[105]</a></p>
<p>Therefore, two conditions combined to withhold the knowledge
of Yellowstone wonders from the world. The men who
knew of her marvels were seldom equipped to describe or interpret
them, and the public was in no better state to accept them.
Hence, this trapper lore was barren of result, locked up as it
was in the minds of generally illiterate men. It all but perished
with them and had no definite bearing upon the final and conclusive
discovery. For more than a generation the tales of trappers
were bandied around on the lips of indifferent mountaineers.
In this rough dress the wonders of Yellowstone were either received
with uncivil incredulity or as a joke to be indulgently
humored.</p>
<p>Conclusive evidence of the trappers’ discovery and exploration
of Yellowstone has been adduced. The fur traders were
well acquainted with every portion of it, but their knowledge
<span class="pb" id="Page_101">101</span>
passed with them. Only a tradition persisted. In 1860 the elements
of this tradition came within a rifle shot of conversion
to truth. During the latter fifties the United States government
had a corps of Topographical Engineers in the upper Missouri
country. Only a double assignment to Captain W. F. Raynolds
saved the Park from official discovery in June, 1860. He was
directed to explore the country from which the headwaters of
the Yellowstone, Gallatin, and Madison rivers originated. He
was also told to be on hand north of the Canadian border on
July 18 to observe the eclipse of the sun.</p>
<p>The expedition traversed the Wind River Valley, crossed Union
Pass, and turned north. From a position nearly opposite Two
Ocean Pass the party attempted to knife its way through the
Absaroka Mountains, but it was June, and the defiles were choked
with snow. Guide Jim Bridger pleaded with them to swing south
and enter the plateau from Snake River. He told them they
couldn’t get through, that even a “bird wouldn’t fly over there
without takin’ a supply of grub along.” But the time was short,
and Captain Raynolds reluctantly turned away from the prospect
of verifying “marvelous tales of burning plains, immense
lakes and boiling springs,” to witness the certain obliteration of
Old Sol. It was a lucky choice for the future of Yellowstone because
discovery in 1860 could hardly have been so propitious
as it was a decade later.</p>
<h3><span class="sc">Parties in Search of Gold</span></h3>
<p>Another series of partial exploration was inaugurated in the
early sixties by the Argonauts. Nature’s distribution of precious
metals is rather far-flung in western America. Therefore, miners
were not inclined toward geographic discrimination. Spirit brothers
to the trappers, they searched the Rockies with wonderful
energy and daring. Deep snow, arctic cold, yawning precipices,
and fierce Indians were all defied in their eager quest for a new
<span class="pb" id="Page_102">102</span>
Eldorado. It would have been strange indeed if they had missed
the Yellowstone country.</p>
<p>Gold seekers were hardy, optimistic, and foot-loose. Ever impatient
of restraint, they responded like mercury to the fever
of a “gold excitement.” To them every range, mountain, and
gulch offered a challenge that required acceptance. Actuated
by a single thought, these colorful adventurers literally swarmed
to the Pacific coast in ’49. Subsequently, a backwash rolled over
into Nevada and Idaho. In the sixties Montana received a portion
of the overflow. The Bitter Root Range was prospected with
a “fine tooth comb.” In feverish haste these prospectors encompassed
the whole of Yellowstone. However, this vast volcanic
plateau provided little inducement to tarry, while other regions
in close proximity yielded one of the greatest treasure troves
on earth. In the decade of 1860, Alder Gulch, Bannock, Virginia,
Leesburg, Butte, Helena, and Anaconda were magic names.
What chance for attention had Yellowstone’s mountain-locked
mysteries in such a maelstrom of lusty life and immediate material
reward?</p>
<p>The DeLacy party represents the most notable gold-inspired
visitation. This party, consisting of twenty-seven men, left Virginia
City on August 3, 1863. They crossed southeastern Idaho,
thence to Jackson Hole. They followed the Snake River into the
Park and discovered the fact that Lewis and Shoshone lakes
were a branch of the Snake River drainage. In fact, the larger
lake was named DeLacy, but unfortunately it was later renamed
Shoshone by the Hayden Survey. DeLacy’s party crossed the
Divide, and on September 9 they entered the Firehole Basin
where they “nooned.” They were actually in the midst of the
Lower Geyser Basin, picking their way cautiously because “the
ground sounded hollow beneath our feet.” Allow Mr. DeLacy
to describe their reactions:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The water of these springs was intensely hot, of a beautiful ultramarine
blue, some boiling up in the middle, and many of them of
<span class="pb" id="Page_103">103</span>
very large size, being at least twenty feet in diameter and as deep.
There were hundreds of these springs, and in the distance we could
see and hear others, which would eject a column of steam and with
a loud noise. These were probably geysers, and the boys called them
“steamboat springs.” No one in the company had ever seen or heard
of anything like this region, and we were all delighted with what we
saw.<a class="fn" id="fr_106" href="#fn_106">[106]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Had Walter W. DeLacy been more of a naturalist and less the
prospector he might have achieved the distinction of being the
real and effective discoverer of Yellowstone. However, he and
his associates were looking for gold, and while they saw many
wondrous things they failed to appreciate them. They were in a
hurry. Even so, the time was not ripe for any special interest
in Wonderland. Montana was only a name signifying rowdy
mining camps. There were no newspapers to herald the discovery,
no telegraph to transmit the news. Indeed, general attention was
focused upon the Civil War.</p>
<p>However, DeLacy drew a more accurate map of the area than
had been drafted before. Actually, he alone correctly represented
the drainage of the Shoshone basin as tributary to the Snake
River, a point which even later explorers such as Folsom, Washburn,
and Hayden failed to observe. He also kept a daily journal,
but it was not published until 1876. Walter W. DeLacy was,
therefore, just another explorer who failed to take “time by the
forelock” and, hence, lost an opportunity to win considerable
fame.</p>
<p>While the DeLacy party prospected the southwestern section
of the Park, a similar group, led by a man named Austin, explored
the eastern periphery for the same purpose and with better
success.</p>
<p>James Stuart might logically have been Yellowstone’s honor
man, but the breaks were against him. He and his brother Granville
were outstanding leaders in Montana’s pioneering. In the
<span class="pb" id="Page_104">104</span>
spring of 1863 James Stuart led an exploratory party into the
lower Yellowstone. They were searching for gold, but fate so
arranged that six miners who intended to join them (the Fairweather
party) had the great good fortune of finding the famous
Alder Gulch, whereas the main expedition under Stuart experienced
a serious battle with the Crows, in which two men were
killed and three wounded.<a class="fn" id="fr_107" href="#fn_107">[107]</a> After their unpleasant encounter
this party encircled the entire “crest of the world,” traveling sixteen
hundred miles.</p>
<p>James Stuart was a natural leader of men and a superb Indian
fighter. In 1864 he organized and directed a frontier militia to
punish Indians for the outrages before mentioned and others
perpetrated in the vicinity of Deer Lodge. This party crossed the
lower Yellowstone River, skirted the Absarokas to Shoshone River,
thence proceeded westward. At least a part of the expedition returned
by way of Yellowstone Lake and Canyon, but Stuart was
not in that particular division. Because of his sterling worth and
vast experience he was the unanimous choice for leader in the
final discovery effort of 1870, but misfortune dogged him to the
last. He was summoned for jury service, and the court refused
to excuse him for a pleasure trip!</p>
<p>In 1864 H. W. Wayant and William Hamilton led a party
of approximately forty miners, with horses and pack train, into the
Lamar Valley. Their horses were stolen by Indians near Soda
Butte, but the mules would not stampede. Wayant, Harrison, and
ten others with their mules ascended Cache Creek to Index Peak.
Later they circled back by way of Amethyst Mountain to Tower
Falls.</p>
<p>Later in the same year, 1864, a small company of miners, including
George Huston, Rube Libby, George Hubbard, Soos,
<span class="pb" id="Page_105">105</span>
Lewis, and a Mexican, made a cursory trip in the Park area.
They entered the region from the west and ascended the main
Firehole River. They were startled by the eruption of the Giantess
and other geysers, but they passed by with a glance and dismissed
them as of slight importance.<a class="fn" id="fr_108" href="#fn_108">[108]</a> An account of this journey was
discussed with L. M. Freeman, a newspaper reporter, at Emigrant
Gulch. He arranged to have it published in the <i>Omaha
Herald</i>.<a class="fn" id="fr_109" href="#fn_109">[109]</a> Other prominent miners whose explorations in Yellowstone
are well known were C. J. Baronett, Bart Henderson, H.
Sprague, Frederick Bottler, Adam Miller, and Adams and Crandall.
The latter two were killed by Indians in the Hoodoo region
in 1870, while Adam Miller and two companions narrowly escaped.<a class="fn" id="fr_110" href="#fn_110">[110]</a>
It would appear that probably a dozen nondescript
mining groups had some contact with the region during the
sixties. Yet these miner meanderings did not definitely confirm
the actual existence of Wonderland, even though they added
another chapter to an increasingly impressive legend. However,
the persistence of this marvelous legend between 1820 and 1870
was largely due to the influence of Jim Bridger.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_106">106</div>
<h2 id="c11"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter VII</span></span>
<br />JIM BRIDGER—MAN AND LEGEND</h2>
<p>It is customary to assign an extraordinary disregard for truth
to Jim Bridger. At times he appears as a rantipole hero, and
undoubtedly he drew the long bow to unparalleled tension in
matters of adventure. Still, he achieved excellent recommendations
for reliability and trustworthiness from all the government
officials who had business in the West. Surely Bridger was such
a contradictory personage as to warrant investigation. Jim was
the son of James and Chloe Bridger. He was born in Richmond,
Virginia, on March 17, 1804. The Bridgers moved to St. Louis
about 1812. The father died in 1816, and Jim became a flatboat
operator; then, an apprentice in Phil Creamer’s blacksmith shop.
There his interest was first pointed to the West. In 1822 he became
a member of Andrew Henry’s party and departed for the
Indian country. There is some evidence that he was the young
man in the detail which deserted Hugh Glass in the time of his
great need in 1823.</p>
<p>Bridger was a large man, fully six feet high, all rawhide and
mountain-wise. He was wiry in action, with a quick, dangerous
movement in handling weapons. His hair was auburn; his eyes
were light blue. They were keen, friendly eyes in conversation but
veritable hawk eyes for the game trail which he followed at maximum
speed. Jim was shrewdly intelligent, although he could
neither read nor write. He learned to speak French and Spanish
<span class="pb" id="Page_107">107</span>
from other trappers. In addition, he spoke several Indian languages,
and he was able to communicate with all tribesmen by
means of sign language. Indeed, he had a reputation as an entertainer
among the natives. However, it is said that he exercised
reserve and caution because he was suspiciously alert against
deception of any kind. His very life depended upon accurately
seeing and interpreting the signs of the wilderness. When serving
as a guide for the army Jim once reported a thin column of smoke
many miles away. Several officers trained field glasses upon the
designated point without seeing any. They expressed their doubt
of its existence. Jim was indignant: “Dam paper-collar soldiers,
a tellin’ thar ain’t no smoke, when I seen it!” He was sure of his
ability to outsee them even with the aid of field glasses, and he
was right!<a class="fn" id="fr_111" href="#fn_111">[111]</a></p>
<p>A frontiersman named Vaughn left an account of his introduction
to this master guide in 1850:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>... On they came, a big, strong, broad-shouldered, flaxon-haired,
and blue-eyed man in the lead, riding as fine a saddle animal as I
ever saw. They were now quite close; they came within a few paces
and stopped.</p>
<p>“How?” exclaimed the big man.</p>
<p>“How, how,” we exclaimed, shaking hands with him in turn.</p>
<p>“Who are you?” he asked, “free trappers?”</p>
<p>“No,” I replied, “we belong to the Company. And you?”</p>
<p>“My name is Bridger,” he said, “Jim Bridger. Maybe you’ve heard
of me.”</p>
<p>We had. There wasn’t a man west of the Mississippi River who
did not know him or know of him, for he was the greatest hunter,
trapper, and Indian fighter of us all.<a class="fn" id="fr_112" href="#fn_112">[112]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Yes, Bridger was the real tobacco chew, “thirty-third degree”
mountain man, and he certainly knew his way around. Every
ridge and canyon of the Rockies dropped their last shadows of
<span class="pb" id="Page_108">108</span>
oblivion before his restless energy. He spent his winters in trapping
and his summers in exploration. On most of these trips he
chose to go alone, relying upon his faithful horse, trusty rifle, and
hatchet of the finest steel. One excursion took him so far north
that only the North Star served as guide. He followed the McKenzie
River to the Arctic Ocean. This journey took eighteen
months.<a class="fn" id="fr_113" href="#fn_113">[113]</a> The rivers, mountains, and valleys of the Rockies were
as one great plantation to him. He knew them all and kept a
picture of the whole area in his mind. He was possessed by an
insatiable curiosity. In wandering about the untouched West
he kept poking into the off-trail corners to feast his eyes on
strange wonders of hidden fairylands.</p>
<p>Bridger’s services were always in demand. He started with the
Missouri Fur Company. Later he became one of Ashley’s men.
By 1830 he was recognized as one of the most daring and effective
trappers of the West. This won him a partnership in the newly
organized Rocky Mountain Fur Company. After the disbanding
of this firm he became identified with John Jacob Astor’s American
Fur Company. Naturally he realized the evanescent character
of the fur business. In 1843 this insight impelled him to
establish Fort Bridger on Black’s Fork of Green River. Here he
developed one of the great frontier institutions. It was an oasis
in the desert. Here the weary traveler found respite from the
toil of his journey. While wagons were being repaired, stock
exchanged, and provisions replenished, the wayfarers got acquainted
with the gracious host. Bridger generously imparted
his valuable mountain information to the public. Frequently
he rendered service as a guide, for which he was liberally rewarded.
His unerring judgment of distance and contour, together
with a photographic memory of detail, enabled him to make
nice corrections on the drafts of map makers. There is no gainsaying
the fact that Jim Bridger was a man of affairs.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_109">109</div>
<div class="img" id="fig15">
<img src="images/pic18.jpg" alt="" width="543" height="800" />
<p class="pcap">Jim Bridger.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_110">110</div>
<p>In the autumn of 1824 some of Ashley’s men were trapping
the headwaters of Bear River. They were uncertain of its course,
and Bridger was chosen to explore the stream to settle the bet.
When he reached Great Salt Lake he scooped up a handful of
its saline water. Spitting and coughing, he is reported to have
said, “Hell, I’m on the shores of the Pacific.”</p>
<p>Naturally of mild and gracious manner, Bridger possessed
a Yankee wit that enabled him to take care of himself. This fact
is attested by his ability to get along with the Indians, among
whom he was known as Chief “Big Throat.” He prided himself
in being able to outdo the “sarpints” in every field of action.
Bridger’s experience with Indians made him very skeptical. This
caution is expressed in his warning to Colonel Henry B. Carrington
on the Powder River Expedition of 1866:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Better not go too fur. Thar’s Injuns enough lyin’ under wolf-skins er
skulkin’ on them cliffs, I’m a-tellin’ ye. They foller ye allus. They’ve
seen ye ev’ry day, an’ take it frum me—when ye don’t see any of ’em
that’s jest the time to watch out fer their devilment.<a class="fn" id="fr_114" href="#fn_114">[114]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>However, he was wise in making alliances with them. Three times
he married Indian squaws, a Flathead, a Ute, and a Shoshoni.
These affiliations gave him greater security in his travels. Upon
one occasion, when reference was made to this multiple spouse
arrangement, someone asked Jim: “Which is which is which?”
Quick as a flash came his rejoinder: “Thar all witches!”</p>
<p>From the Flathead wife two children were born, Josephine and
Felix. Both were educated in St. Louis. His Ute wife died at the
birth of a daughter, Virginia. Buffalo milk was utilized to nourish
the infant, and she later returned her father’s care by looking
after him in his declining years. His Shoshoni wife also had two
children, Mary and William.</p>
<p>During his indefatigable peregrinations Bridger gained intimacy
with Yellowstone. He must have had a soul-loving zest for the
<span class="pb" id="Page_111">111</span>
wonderful and beautiful, or he wouldn’t have noticed nature’s
handiwork in the first place. Early in his experience he noted the
disbelief that greeted his relations. Observing that unimaginative
people regarded him as a liar, he evidently concluded to adopt the
old poacher’s proverb about keeping the game when given the
name. Why not embroider his tales in proportion to the listener’s
credulity? Anyway, much entertainment was expected from a
guide. Jim was not one to disappoint a tenderfoot. One young
unsophisticate, attached to a government party, approached “Old
Gabe” (Jim’s nickname) in a patronizing manner upon one
occasion. “Mr. Bridger, they tell me that you have lived a long
time on these plains and in the mountains.” “Young feller,” said
“Gabe,” “you see that thar butte yonder? Well, siree, that mountain
was nuthin’ but a hole in the ground when I come here!” It
is said that two robbers entered his room at Fort Bridger. He
awoke from sleep and said, “What air ye lookin’ fer?” One of
the desperados replied, “We are lookin’ for your money.” Bridger
then answered, “Jest a minnit an’ I’ll git up and help ye.” The
robbers did not wait.<a class="fn" id="fr_115" href="#fn_115">[115]</a></p>
<p>When asked about some of his extravagant statements he
quietly intimated that there was no harm in fooling people who
pumped him for information and would not even say “thank ye.”
Like most of his contemporaries, Jim didn’t think it proper to spoil
a good story just for the sake of the truth. He could reel off story
after story with astonishing spontaneity. These yarns were related
in a solemn dead-pan gravity that was very effective.</p>
<p>Some of Bridger’s more notable experiences and stories follow
a pattern worthy of perpetuation in the literature of the Old West.
In October 1832, while hunting in the Beaverhead country,
Bridger’s party was attacked by the Blackfeet. In this skirmish
Jim received two long iron arrowheads in his back, one of which
was embedded there for three years. It was removed by Dr. Marcus
<span class="pb" id="Page_112">112</span>
Whitman under circumstances that showed the strength and
endurance of both surgeon and patient.</p>
<p>Perhaps this experience was the basis of the story he told about
an encounter with the Blackfeet tribe. Said Jim:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The pesky devils made a circle all aroun’ me, ten Injuns deep.
Then they pounce on top of me and hack me with their tommy
hawks. The varmints stomp and club me until I faint dead away.<a class="fn" id="fr_116" href="#fn_116">[116]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>At this point his voice would choke up with emotion. Finally,
someone would make bold to inquire, “What did they do next,
Jim?” Whereupon he would earnestly reply, “Them danged
cussed Induns kilt and sculped me!”</p>
<p>What did Bridger actually know about Yellowstone? Probably
his first visit was in 1829. He was also a member of a trapping
party that worked the Bighorn Basin north, then passed over to
Three Forks, and trapped to their sources during 1830. Therefore,
they were in the western part of the Park. Dr. F. V. Hayden
called Bridger the best mountain man the West had ever produced
and said he learned of the marvels of Yellowstone from him in the
early fifties. It is reasonable to believe that the old scout saw and
appreciated all of the major features of Wonderland, with the
possible exception of the Upper Geyser Basin. His descriptions
of spouting springs, strange to say, fall far short of the standard
set by the Old Faithful group.<a class="fn" id="fr_117" href="#fn_117">[117]</a></p>
<p>Several of the most famous Bridger yarns were embroidered
upon a Yellowstone backdrop. It was this unique element that
made them unconscious conservers of fact. A certain residuum of
truth seems to be present in each of his tales if one searches carefully
enough. There were occasional implications so freighted with
the earmarks of reality that genuine curiosity was piqued. Amusement
<span class="pb" id="Page_113">113</span>
was often tempered by wonder; perhaps there was something
in the old mountaineer’s ravings!</p>
<p>There was the celebrated Obsidian Cliff fiasco. Its perpendicular
volcanic glass properties were advertised in this yarn: “Oncet
I camp yonder in a purty meadow. Wantin’ meat I went lookin’
fer an elk. I seen a beaut a right smart spell yonder. Comin’ close,
I let him have it. Bejabers, he didn’t make a move. I moved nigh
onto him—took a dead bead. Same result. Says I, I’ll get so darn
nigh the report o’ the gun’ll kill him. So I did. The blame critter
didn’t look up. O’ course, I thought he was deaf, dumb, and blind.
I was so bloomin’ mad I grab my blunderbuss by the shank an’
start runnin’ direct fur him, intendin’ to smash him slam-bang
on the haid. Well siree, ye’d never believe it! What I act’lly hit
was the side of a glass mountain ... crawlin’ to the top, what
do I see but that same elk way yonder, feedin’ as peaceable as ye
please.” Thus he gave a quaint representation of an interesting
feature of nature.</p>
<p>Bridger boasted the knowledge of a choice campground hidden
among the inner labyrinth of Yellowstone’s canyon. The marvel
of this place was in its curious delayed-action echoes. “In fact,”
said Jim, “it’s a natural alarm clock which I winds up so: when
campin’ thar I beds myself down, and jist afor I goes to sleep I
raises my haid from the saddle an’ hollers, ‘Time to get up, you
sunuvagun’; an’ sure as shootin’, the echo comes a bouncin’ back
at the crack o’ dawn!”</p>
<p>Still another extravaganza, with a basis in fact, had a bearing
upon the northeast corner of the Park. Jim averred that the entire
region was under the curse of an old Crow chieftain. All things
became lifeless, plants, animals, rivers, and even the light of sun,
moon, and stars had a petrified cast. “Yes, siree, thar’s miles o’
peetrefied hills, covered with layers o’ peetrefied trees, and on ’em
trees air peetrefied birds a singin’ peetrefied songs!” Sometimes for
the sake of spice and variety he used the word putrified instead
of peetrefied.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_114">114</div>
<p>There can be little doubt that he actually knew of a spot in the
great lake where a cast hook and line would catch a cutthroat.
Then a semicircular swerve would bring him slowly to shore.
Upon taking the fish from the hook it would be found well-cooked
and ready for eating!</p>
<p>Jim’s Alum Creek episode tips heavily on the ludicrous side.
“We was ridin’ east o’ the river along the side o’ a creek. ’Twas
boggy an’ goin’ was slow. When the cañon narrowed we guide our
hosses into the stream. ’Twasn’t no time till the hosses’ feet shrunk
to pin points, an’, by tarnation, we went twenty miles in a jiffy.
Them thar waters was so strong o’ alum as to pucker distance
itself!”</p>
<p>Is there any wonder that a classic mantle of exaggeration should
invest Bridger with an enduring title of Münchausen? However,
underneath Jim’s tough, frontier-beaten exterior, obvious self-esteem,
and braggadocio, there was a genuine and picturesque sincerity.
He was not only colorful in acting an interesting frontier
role, in which the setting was fully exploited, but he was a reliable
geographer as well. Captain J. W. Gunnison received such
a precise account of Yellowstone from Bridger as to enable him to
write the following vivid description without reference to any
other source:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>He [Bridger] gives a picture, most romantic and enticing, of the
headwaters of the Yellowstone. A lake, sixty miles long, cold and
pellucid, lies embosomed among high precipitous mountains. On the
west side is a sloping plain, several miles wide, with clumps of trees
and groves of pine. The ground resounds with the tread of horses.
Geysers spout up seventy feet high, with a terrific, hissing noise, at
regular intervals. Waterfalls are sparkling, leaping and thundering
down the precipices, and collect in the lake, and for fifteen miles
roars through the perpendicular canyon at the outlet. In this section
are the “Great Springs”—so hot that meat is readily cooked in them,
and as they descend on the successive terraces, afford at length delightful
baths. On the other side is an acid spring, which gushes out
<span class="pb" id="Page_115">115</span>
in a river torrent; and below is a cave, which supplies “vermillion”
for the savages in abundance.<a class="fn" id="fr_118" href="#fn_118">[118]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Surely this evidence speaks well of the great scout’s capacity
to impart the whole truth to those who were prepared to receive
it. Bridger was evidently an unconscious believer in the scripture,
“I am made all things to all men, that I might by all means save
some.” He persisted in his way of life among the mountains until
late in the seventies. He could not withdraw from the companionship
of the free and generous spirits around a campfire. However,
his demeanor became more subdued with age. There was upon
him much of the dignity of an Indian chief. After all, to the red
men he was Chief Big Throat, also the Blanket Chief.</p>
<p>Before retiring, Bridger managed a visit to Washington, D. C.,
where he was introduced to the President of the United States.
After staring at him in amazement for a minute, he turned to the
congressman and remarked, “Looks jest like any other man, don’t
he?”<a class="fn" id="fr_119" href="#fn_119">[119]</a></p>
<p>After many years Bridger retired to a farm near Kansas City,
Missouri. In 1884 the uncrowned king of Rocky Mountain scouts
passed beyond, and thereby an epoch was ended.</p>
<p>In respect to his Yellowstone explorations, it is worthy of note
that long before his death Bridger succeeded in kindling a lively
interest among others. In fact, partly due to his efforts a consuming
curiosity was preying upon the minds of several leading Montana
residents. These citizens proved competent to find and interpret
the great features of natural history.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_116">116</div>
<h2 id="c12"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter VIII</span></span>
<br />FINAL DISCOVERY IN 1869 AND 1870</h2>
<p>During the year 1867 several garbled accounts of monstrous
wonders were reported to the <i>Montana Post</i> at Virginia City by
returning prospectors. On July 29 the <i>Post</i> stated that an expedition
to the Yellowstone country was being organized to explore
the region as far as Yellowstone Lake. The project evidently fell
through, but the notice accurately gauged the sentiment of Montana
people.</p>
<p>By 1867 a dozen ranking citizens, later to be known as the
Washburn-Langford-Doane party, held one common opinion
concerning the Yellowstone rumors; namely, that it was high time
some reputable authority should ascertain the facts. These men
made tentative plans for an exploration that year and also in
1868, but the urge was not strong enough to impel definite preparations
until 1869.</p>
<h3><span class="sc">The Folsom-Cook-Peterson Exploration</span></h3>
<p>Even this effort proved abortive, due to Indian unrest and the
failure of the military at Fort Ellis to furnish an escort. However,
there were several men living at Diamond City on the Missouri
River, forty miles below Helena, who were enrolled and waiting
to join the Helena party. When word arrived of the postponement
they decided to set out by themselves. This little expedition consisted
of Hon. David E. Folsom, C. W. Cook, and William Peterson.
<span class="pb" id="Page_117">117</span>
Folsom and Cook were unusually intelligent men, with large
experience in ranching and mining affairs. They were capable
of executing a purposeful exploration of this character. Mr. Peterson’s
precise status is not so well known. He was born in Denmark,
served many years as a sailor, came to Montana as a miner, and
later made a modest fortune as a stockman in Idaho. He was no
doubt a resourceful member of the party, but his educational deficiency
prevented him from making any contribution to the literary
side of the enterprise.<a class="fn" id="fr_120" href="#fn_120">[120]</a></p>
<p>They left Diamond City on September 6, after making arrangements
to be away for six weeks. Their provisions and armaments
were adequate for any emergency which three men might be expected
to meet and survive. They had three riding horses and two
for the packs. Among the usual camping equipment were listed
a field glass, a pocket compass, and a thermometer.</p>
<p>Bozeman was their last station of supply. From there they
ascended a tributary of the East Gallatin River, and crossed the
divide onto the headwaters of Trail Creek, which lies on the Yellowstone
drainage. By September 14 they were at the junction of
the Yellowstone, near Tower Falls. They followed the East Fork
of Yellowstone River (now Lamar) for a day and then doubled
back to Tower Creek. The scenery at this point intrigued them:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>... Yesterday we caught glimpses of scenery surpassing in grandeur
anything we have before seen so we concluded to lay over one day
and give it a more thorough examination....<a class="fn" id="fr_121" href="#fn_121">[121]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>They were speaking of the overhanging cliffs and the second canyon
of the Yellowstone directly beneath, also of the classic falls
on Tower Creek.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_118">118</div>
<p>They reached Grand Canyon on September 21, after two
weeks’ travel. From there they journeyed to the extreme west end
of the lake and thence to Shoshone Lake, which they mistakenly
considered the head of Madison River. Here they saw species
of rare aquatic fowl, such as the whistling and trumpeter swans.
Crossing the Continental Divide, which they called the “Dike,”
they emerged into the Lower Geyser Basin. They made precise
observations of the geysers and hot springs throughout the area
and were enthusiastic over their performance. There was no lack
of appreciation in this party.</p>
<p>On the night of October 1, three thoughtful men conversed in
their Firehole River camp. William Peterson observed that it
would not be long before settlers and prospectors began coming
into the district and taking up the land around the geysers and
canyons. Charles Cook sincerely hoped that people might have
free access to the area to enjoy its beauty, while David Folsom expressed
the opinion that the government should not allow anyone
to locate in the vicinity.</p>
<p>Fifty-three years later, upon the occasion of the Park’s Golden
Anniversary, observed on July 14, 1922, at Madison Junction, the
matured reflection of Charles W. Cook was recorded:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>None of us definitely suggested the idea of a national park. National
parks were unknown then. But we knew that as soon as the wonderful
character of the country was generally known outside, there
would be plenty of people hurrying to get possession, unless something
were done.</p>
<p>We all had this thought in mind when we came out a few days
later, and told others what we had seen.<a class="fn" id="fr_122" href="#fn_122">[122]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<div class="pb" id="Page_119">119</div>
<div class="img" id="fig16">
<img src="images/pic19.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="455" />
<p class="pcap">Trumpeter Swan, a rare species of aquatic life.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_120">120</div>
<p>Folsom, in particular, had a lively interest in the idea of preserving
the phenomena, and he discussed the subject with H. D.
Washburn, N. P. Langford, and others. Indeed, Mr. Peterson
later remarked that their own astonishment was so profound that
they thought surely no one would believe half of what they could
tell. However, upon the solicitation of a friend, Cook and Folsom
prepared a joint article from their diaries for publication. The
account was rejected by <i>The New York Tribune</i>, <i>Scribner’s</i>, and
<i>Harper’s</i> as “they had a reputation that they could not risk with
such unreliable material.” Finally it appeared in the July 1870
issue of the <i>Western Monthly</i> of Chicago. The editors deleted the
account considerably and printed an emasculated narrative. It is
affirmed that among the items left out was the germ of the grand
idea advocating the creation of a national park.</p>
<p>Much credit is due these three gentlemen for accomplishing a
difficult and dangerous mission without military escort. It was
purely a private venture, lasting thirty-six days, and may be considered
as having been eminently successful. In fact, it was the
first expedition to make a complete and authentic report of its
exploration.</p>
<h3><span class="sc">The Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition</span></h3>
<p>It was these articulate reports of Folsom, Cook, and Peterson
that electrified the natural interest of Helena’s intellectual leadership.
Thereafter, Langford and his associates were burning to effect
a grand expedition and achieve conclusive results. General
Phil Sheridan gave the project his blessing and the assurance of a
military escort.</p>
<p>A congenial personnel was sifted out, consisting of Hon. Nathaniel
P. Langford, Hon. Cornelius Hedges, Hon. Truman C.
Everts, Hon. Samuel T. Hauser, Walter Trumbull, Benjamin
Stickney, Jr., Warren C. Gillette, and Jacob Smith. James Stuart
was selected as leader, but he was deprived of that privilege by
jury service. Thereupon, Surveyor General Henry D. Washburn
was given the honor of taking command. He was a worthy leader,
having achieved the rank of Major General in the Civil War. He
<span class="pb" id="Page_121">121</span>
had also served two terms in Congress. Altogether it was a hand-picked
company. The men were uniformly young and energetic,
with the exception of Everts who was fifty-four. Several of them
had served as Vigilantes. Indeed, they were men of intelligence,
action, and high integrity. With one exception the men were
serious-minded and mature. They early sensed the hazards of the
endeavor and struggled manfully to reduce them to a minimum.</p>
<p>Elaborate preparations were made in point of equipment and
provisions. Two packers, Reynolds and Bean, and two colored
cooks were employed, and the whole enterprise, although private,
took on a semiscientific, quasi-military character from the start.
Washburn possessed a copy of the Folsom-Cook diary and a map
made by Walter W. DeLacy.<a class="fn" id="fr_123" href="#fn_123">[123]</a> In addition, he had numerous conversations
with these men, and he was, therefore, the beneficiary
of their experience. They left Helena on August 17, 1870. Four
days later they were at Fort Ellis. Here they listened to the post
order detailing Lieutenant Gustavus C. Doane, one sergeant, and
four privates “to escort the Surveyor-General of Montana to the
falls and lakes of the Yellowstone and return....” The soldiers
in the party were Sergeant William Baker and Privates John Williamson,
George W. McConnell, William Leipler, and Charles
Moore.</p>
<p>There was no allusion to thermal phenomena or any exotic
features whatsoever. Judge Hedges subsequently characterized the
general temper of the explorers in respect to those particulars:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I think a more confirmed set of skeptics never went out into the
wilderness than those who composed our party, and never was a
party more completely surprised and captivated with the wonders
of nature.<a class="fn" id="fr_124" href="#fn_124">[124]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The complete expedition now comprehended nineteen men,
thirty-five horses and mules, and adequate supplies for a month’s
<span class="pb" id="Page_122">122</span>
journey. Leaving Fort Ellis, they ascended the Yellowstone River
to its junction with the Gardner. This brought them within five
miles of the Mammoth Hot Springs, but ignorance of the fact
precluded their visitation. Instead, they crossed over the plateau
and reached Tower Creek where they camped on August 27. All
members were delighted with the hot springs and fumaroles in
that area.</p>
<p>Around the campfire they evolved a name-giving policy and
enjoyed great sport incident to its first application. They adopted
a self-sacrificing resolution. Natural features should not be given
the names of the present personnel or their relatives and friends.
Instead, all wonders must bear the most appropriate cognomens
possible. This was a noble gesture, and while it was not strictly
observed one wishes that their demonic impressions might have
been less vivid. Here was the Devil’s Slide; there, Hellbroth
Springs; yonder, Brimstone; now, Devil’s Hoof, Den, Kitchen,
and Ink Well; again, Hells Half Acre and Hell Roaring Mountain.
Surely their concepts of Christian theology rendered them
acutely conscious of the attributes and environment of His Satanic
Majesty.</p>
<p>The first controversy arose over naming the falls. “What shall
we name these sentinel-guarded falls?” “Minaret is the proper
name,” said young Trumbull. “What’s a minaret?” queried Jake
Smith. Trumbull gave a classical description of Moslem architecture
and drew his analogy to this similitude. Sam Hauser objected
on the ground that the name was not “fitten” in western America
where there weren’t any mosques. Hence, he proposed the
more expressive name “Tower.” The council deliberated, expanded,
and talked big. Minaret was the most significant, had a
deeper meaning, more symbolical. Therefore, General Washburn
christened them “Minaret Falls.”<a class="fn" id="fr_125" href="#fn_125">[125]</a></p>
<p>But Sam Hauser was a politician; he later became governor
<span class="pb" id="Page_123">123</span>
of Montana. During the night he confidentially circulated the
rumor that Walter Trumbull had a girl friend by the name of
Minnie Rhett. Trumbull denied the statement, said it was a
canard, a roarback, a plain lie! However, the seed of doubt had
been sown, and at breakfast Hauser’s point was won. The name
was Tower Falls. Later it transpired that the future governor’s
girl friend was a Miss Tower! Surely there was genuine political
statesmanship in this party, and its genius was clearly manifest
before the journey’s end.</p>
<p>The party skirted Mount Washburn on the twenty-ninth and
spontaneously named it for their honored leader, because he was
the first to climb its summit. Said Washburn, “I saw the canyon
and the lake. There are unmistakable columns of steam in the
distance. This is a glorious region.” Whereupon the entire party
hustled upward, frightening the resentful bighorn en route. Upon
reaching the summit silence prevailed while these subdued men
paid unconscious tribute to the Powers That Be. Standing there
upon a natural observatory, they looked down upon the whole
grand panorama, as does yonder eagle. Their vision darted a
hundred miles southward, where the Tetons glittered like purple
icebergs. Then nearer they beheld Lake Titicaca’s only rival, shimmering
in the sun. Lake Yellowstone’s deeply sinuous shores, scattered
islands, and fingerlike peninsulas gave it a mystic character.
Now their gaze followed the Yellowstone River crooking away
from the lake and then whirling toward them flashing in its canyon
cameo until it seemed to be biting at their very feet. From this
central apex the whole mountain-girt plateau conformed to the
shape of a mammoth saucer as its distant rim merged with the sky.</p>
<p>Another day found them standing on the brink of an imprisoned
river’s chasm, enchanted by the ponderous roaring of
the awful force below. So vast were the canyon’s alternating
gulfs and monoliths that lofty pines “dwindle to shrubs in the
dizziness of distance!” Bald eagles far below screamed in angry
protest upon this invasion of their secret eyries. Fishhawks hovered
<span class="pb" id="Page_124">124</span>
cautiously above, less fearful of new dangers than old. Nineteen
lonely men stood amazed by an environment at once both
grand and gloomy, mellow and terrible, an “empire of shadows
and turmoil.”<a class="fn" id="fr_126" href="#fn_126">[126]</a></p>
<p>Then the sun came out and the whole gorge flamed! They beheld
the marvelously variegated volcanic coloring as vivid and
broken as the field of a kaleidoscope. It was as though rainbows
had fallen from the sky and draped themselves like glorious banners
upon the chasm below. How did it all come about?</p>
<blockquote>
<p>All nature’s forces conspired to build this temple to her glory. The
smooth, sharp tongue of glacial ice first plowed the great furrow
deep into the bosom of the earth. Volcanic fires subdued the rigid
hardness of the riven rock. Steam from boiling springs tempered to
plastic yielding the surface of massive stone. And wind and water
came with all their energies and skill to carve and sculpture it to
befitting shapes. The air brought all its magic alchemy to bear upon
the ingredients of the rock to call thence the gorgeous pigments for
its coloring.<a class="fn" id="fr_127" href="#fn_127">[127]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Truly, here was a noble river, vibrating like a bundle of quivering
electric wires a mile below, yet notching the centuries, revealing
a record of geological time, and disclosing to men how God
writes history. It was a canyon full of interest even to the most
casual observer in the group. External senses were all appropriately
appealed to. Indeed, the hidden recesses of the inner self
were reached and stirred by the wild beauty and mystery of the
scene. The world would surely want to visit such a place.</p>
<p>As they reluctantly journeyed along the river toward the lake,
their ears were assailed by a series of resounding thuds. The
source was the combined agitations of Mud Volcano and Dragons
Mouth. These frightful vents reminded them of two vicious,
frothing animals chained in cavernous lairs. There they spewed
their foul compounds, as in terrible rage, growling and groaning
in their perpetual regurgitations. It was one of the fascinating,
if loathsome, sights in the Park.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_125">125</div>
<div class="img" id="fig17">
<img src="images/pic20.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="469" />
<p class="pcap">Bighorn resentful toward invaders.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_126">126</div>
<p>Later there was Yellowstone Lake, nestled serenely against its
buttress-based, snow-capped mountain guardians. Many people
have been made happy by its sparkling water. One capable writer
has left his impression:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>From a gentle headland, at last we overlooked the lake. It was like
the fairest dream which ever came to bless the slumbers of a child.
How still it was! What silence reigned! How lovingly it laid its hush
upon you!<a class="fn" id="fr_128" href="#fn_128">[128]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>It was the Washburn party that fancied a resemblance between
the lake and the human hand. Concerning this analogy Professor
R. W. Raymond made an amusing observation:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The gentleman who first discovered this resemblance must have
thought the size and form of fingers quite insignificant, provided
the number was complete. The hand in question is afflicted with
Elephantiasis in the thumb, dropsy in the little finger, hornet bites
on the third finger, and the last stages of starvation in the other
two.<a class="fn" id="fr_129" href="#fn_129">[129]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>What a struggle they had in threading their way through fir
and lodgepole forests east of the lake. The tanglewood was nearly
impenetrable; no trails to guide them except the dim and devious
ways of wild animals, “through which we toiled and swore our
way, coming out after several days tattered and torn, ragged,
bleeding and sullen.”<a class="fn" id="fr_130" href="#fn_130">[130]</a> In this welter it was every man for himself
after the general course had been determined. It was this
circumstance that eventuated in the painful despair of Truman
C. Everts.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_127">127</div>
<h3><span class="sc">Lost in the Wilderness</span></h3>
<p>In Yellowstone even now the wilderness is almost within rifle-shot
of the Grand Loop highway. Furthermore, the area’s conformation
to a vast plateau renders it relatively deficient in accessible
landmarks. Hedges and Stickney were inadvertently
separated from the party on September 8, but they stumbled upon
the camp by nightfall. The very next day Mr. Everts unintentionally
drifted away from his associates. By evening he was laboriously
embroiled in the forest labyrinth southeast of Lake Yellowstone.
Unconcerned the first night, he made himself comfortable, fully
assured of an early reunion the next day. From this point on, a
chronicle of his experience reveals a record of astonishing incompetency
and carelessness on his part. It is amazing that he escaped
fatal consequences.</p>
<p>Up bright and early he was retracing the trail; dismounting
to survey an engulfing situation, he left his horse untied, and it
bolted. Upon its disappearing back was his entire outfit. In his
excitement Everts then lost his spectacles, a grievous loss because
he was nearsighted. Later on he also lost two knives and one of
his shoes. The most valuable article on his person was his field
glass. It saved his life.</p>
<p>Another day passed; complacence now turned to frenzy, and
Everts fairly ran in circles. His voice gave out; his head whirled.
The pangs of hunger were extremely severe, and the close of the
second day found him in tears. A cold, dark night added terrors
of its own. There were howling coyotes and roaring lions—whether
real or fancied made little difference to a timid man.</p>
<p>Still, he reasoned upon his problem and resolved to fight his
way through. In his ill-conceived exertions he came upon a beautiful
little lake. He named it Bessie for his daughter. On its banks
were several hot springs and numerous patches of elk thistles.
In an agony of hunger he tasted a root; it was edible, better
<span class="pb" id="Page_128">128</span>
still when cooked in the boiling water. Then a storm came up.
It whipped him both in body and mind. He became lethargic,
satisfied to chew thistle roots and bake his backside on warm
spring incrustations. Seven days Everts hovered over this location.
This indecision on his part put him completely out of reach of salvation
by the Washburn party.</p>
<p>Then the skies cleared; the sun glistened upon the water. Its
reflection flashed an idea into his mind. “My opera glasses—fire
from heaven!” Oh, happy, hope-renewing thought! It worked;
he made a fire. With new purpose he bestirred himself; he would
make a break, but which way should he go? South to Snake
River? Yes, there were frontiersmen in Idaho. After many miles
of painful toil among the intricacies of hill and vale his faith
weakened. The goal—a notch in the mountain barrier—seemed
to recede as if in mockery of his feeble efforts.<a class="fn" id="fr_131" href="#fn_131">[131]</a></p>
<p>“I’ll go west into the Madison Valley—that’s shorter.” So he
stumbled off in that direction. A precipitous escarpment obstructed
his path; there was no pass. The distraught pilgrim
lighted a fire. It got out of control; he fled from its awful devastation.
In utter exhaustion he sat down to rest; whereupon, he
experienced an hallucination. An old clerical friend seemed to
be standing before him. He seemed to say, “Go back immediately,
as rapidly as your strength will permit. There is no food here,
and the idea of scaling these rocks is madness.” Amid serious
misgivings Everts decided to retrace the course of ingress. His
heart nearly failed him as he envisioned the unending panorama
of the Yellowstone River trail. Final resolution was helpful, and
he trudged on by day, rested by night, and gnawed on “Everts”
thistle betimes.</p>
<p>For two long weeks the party camped along the southwest
shore of the lake. From this base position they daily sent out
searching details, lighted signal fires, shot guns, posted notices,
<span class="pb" id="Page_129">129</span>
and cached food. No clues were found, and the time was far
spent. They regretfully concluded that their companion was either
hopelessly lost or well upon his way toward home. A foot of snow
had already fallen. The thirty-day rations had rendered thirty-two
days’ service. In these circumstances Cornelius Hedges expressed
his depression in his diary:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Had to lie in bed to keep warm, wished I was at home ... stormed
all night. We are in for it. Snowed all day ... the season is in our
favor, we shall make haste home as soon as the blockade raises.<a class="fn" id="fr_132" href="#fn_132">[132]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Therefore, they left the Thumb of the Lake and started toward
Firehole Basin on September 17. They were exultant over the
exploration; accurate journals were kept. It was generally felt
that their observations were of great value and the exploration
would be considered important. Allow Langford to describe their
reactions:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Strange and interesting as are the various objects which we have
met within this vast field of natural wonders, no camp or place of
rest on our journey has afforded our party greater satisfaction than
the one we are now occupying, which is our first camp since emerging
from the dense forest. Filled with gloom at the loss of our comrade,
tired, tattered, browned by exposure and reduced in flesh by
our labors, we resemble more a party of organized mendicants, than
of men in pursuit of Nature’s greatest novelties. But from this point
we hope that our journey will be comparatively free from difficulties
of travel.<a class="fn" id="fr_133" href="#fn_133">[133]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Having finished an assignment, they were thinking of home
and their neglected affairs. Notwithstanding the grandeur of
nature’s wonders in the Yellowstone Lake region they were about
to get the surprise of their lives. This marvel of wonders occurred
on the evening of September 18. Just as they emerged from the
woods into the Upper Geyser Basin, Old Faithful was shyly preening
<span class="pb" id="Page_130">130</span>
her billowy plume, and as the vanguard shouted, “Look!”
she gracefully mounted, wave upon wave, until a mighty torrent
vaulted heavenward, where it unfurled like a watery flag, as if
in welcome to its known immortalizers. Thus, the Fairy Queen
had the honor of first saluting those weary explorers, and never
since that eventful day has she failed any visitor.</p>
<p>In that gloryful presence Lieutenant Doane solemnly declared,
“The earth affords not its equal. It is the most lovely inanimate
object in existence.”<a class="fn" id="fr_134" href="#fn_134">[134]</a> To General Washburn, the Giantess, when
quiet, was like a hallowed fountain and in eruption, grandly
magnificent, with “each broken atom shining like so many brilliants
with myriads of rainbows dancing in attendance.”<a class="fn" id="fr_135" href="#fn_135">[135]</a> What
ecstasy! A whole kingdom of fairy spirits seemed determined to
outdo each other. There ensued an orgy of thermal activity.
During the short visit of twenty-two hours, twelve geysers were
seen in action. It was then that their experience waxed “more
and more wonderful until wonder itself became paralyzed.” In
this basin they overcame the tendency to apply the wretched
Satanic nomenclature so fully employed elsewhere. Instead, the
names bestowed bear witness to a profound appreciation. It was
for them alone that Old Faithful marked the hours by sending
up “a plume of spun glass iridescent and superb, against the
sky.”<a class="fn" id="fr_136" href="#fn_136">[136]</a> When the Giant played, “Our whole party went wild
with enthusiasm; many declared it was three hundred feet in
height.” The picturesque name “Broken Horn” was then proposed;
it is most descriptive and worthy of being retained. The
Grotto reminded them of</p>
<blockquote>
<p>... a miniature temple of alabaster whiteness, with arches leading
to some interior Holy of Holies, whose sacred places may never be
profaned by eye or foot.<a class="fn" id="fr_137" href="#fn_137">[137]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<div class="pb" id="Page_131">131</div>
<p>Geysers soon to become known as Giantess, Lion, Grand, Turban
(or Turk’s Head), Splendid, Beehive, Fan, Castle, Rocket, and
Grotto performed with unrivaled courtesy. What an array of
Titans! Surely the world would also want to know about this.</p>
<p>And then there were the pools, the amazing springs of Yellowstone—thousands
of them, all colors, a riot of aquatic pigmentation—Emerald,
Sapphire, Gentian, Grand Prismatic, Rainbow,
Topaz, and glamorous Morning Glory. The amazing intricacy of
color-blend in the water did not then excel in beauty the surrounding
border incrustations. Indeed, the most delicate embroidery
could not rival them in their wonderful variety and complexity.<a class="fn" id="fr_138" href="#fn_138">[138]</a></p>
<p>How was such symmetry of design created? Species by the score
of tiny plants called algae and diatoms thrive in hot water, temperatures
ranging from approximately 100° to 170° F. These
plants have the capacity to assimilate silica held in solution, and
as their lives are short they build sinter formations in the same
manner as coral reefs are fashioned. These algae are, therefore,
active geological agents in soil building on a considerable scale.<a class="fn" id="fr_139" href="#fn_139">[139]</a>
However, the intricate mineral incrustations and lacy embroidery
surrounding the boiling hot springs and geysers are entirely the
product of deposition due to evaporation.</p>
<p>As the party progressed through the hierarchy of basins, Upper,
Biscuit, Midway, and Lower, samples were taken and names
given to many thermal features. They were leaving the Firehole
region, but before an exit was made, or its spell broken, their
whole experience was given a proper evaluation, and the greatest
natural history idea of a millennium was born.</p>
<p>On the evening of September 19, the explorers were encamped
at the junction of the Firehole and Gibbon rivers. The setting
was an impressive one. A majestic mountain backdrop cast long
<span class="pb" id="Page_132">132</span>
shadows upon them. The silvery Madison glided away in the
foreground. On center stage, red embers of a neglected fire
sparked and glowed in contact with a fanning breeze.</p>
<p>The last scene was being enacted—the curtain was about to
fall. It was an hour of recapitulation. Thrills were relived, confidences
exchanged, speculations indulged. Then came the inevitable
question of Yellowstone’s destiny. The question was
posed, “Men and brethren, what shall we do?” “Why,” said Smith,
“we’ll fence it in; give me Old Faithful.” “I’ll take the Falls,”
echoed another. Serious consideration was given the idea of allowing
each explorer to pre-empt a choice section in the most
strategic location and pool the income for equal distribution.
Whereupon, the inspired mind of Cornelius Hedges proposed
and explained an idea that marked him as one of the far-sighted
men of his generation. Said he:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>There ought to be no private ownership of any portion of this
region. Rather the whole of it should be set apart as a great National
Park for all time as a reserve for the use and enjoyment of all the
people. Furthermore, each and everyone of us should make every
effort to have this purpose accomplished.<a class="fn" id="fr_140" href="#fn_140">[140]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The response was instantaneous and all but unanimous. The
next day Langford wrote in his diary, “I lay awake half of last
night thinking about it;—and if my wakefulness deprived my
bed-fellow [Hedges] of any sleep, he has only himself and his
disturbing National Park proposition to answer for it.”<a class="fn" id="fr_141" href="#fn_141">[141]</a></p>
<p>Within a week the <i>Helena Daily Herald</i> had printed the first
of a series of articles on “The Yellowstone Expedition.” Washburn,
Langford, Hedges, and Trumbull wrote separate accounts,
all of which were in general agreement that they had seen “the
most interesting country ... where are presented at once the
wonders of Iceland, Italy, and South America.”</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_133">133</div>
<div class="img" id="fig18">
<img src="images/pic21.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="566" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Part of Washburn-Langford-Doane party in camp.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_134">134</div>
<p>The members were banqueted and feted; specimens of petrifaction,
geyserite, and other strange items were displayed. Langford
gave a “Grand Lecture” to open the Helena Library Association
Lecture Course.</p>
<p>Hedges paid glowing tribute to the memory of Truman C.
Everts, thought to be deceased. Indeed, his disappearance did
as much as anything else to capture the public interest. Still
anxious to do everything possible in his behalf, a searching party
was immediately organized and sent off. On October 15, Jack
Baronett and George A. Pritchett, two well-known scouts, came
upon the prostrate Everts. It was his thirty-seventh day of travail.
They found him near the northern boundary of the Park, near
a mountain now bearing his name. The day was raw and gusty.
Against the prospect of an overcast sky he carried a firebrand in
his seared hands. His weight was halved; his whole system was
terribly out of order. Actually he was sinking under the conviction
that death was near. According to his own report rescue came
in the nick of time:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Groping along the side of the hill, I became suddenly sensible of
a sharp reflection, as of burnished steel. Looking up, through half-closed
eyes, two rough but kindly faces met my gaze.</p>
<p>“Are you Mr. Everts?”</p>
<p>“Yes. All that is left of him.”</p>
<p>“We have come for you.”</p>
<p>“Who sent you?”</p>
<p>“Judge Lawrence and other friends.”</p>
<p>“God bless him, and them, and you! I am saved!”<a class="fn" id="fr_142" href="#fn_142">[142]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Everts fell helpless into the strong arms of his preservers. They
carried him to a trapper’s cabin, and there he rested after swallowing
<span class="pb" id="Page_135">135</span>
a pint of bear grease. In time his recovery was complete, and
he lived to the ripe age of eighty-five. During these years he experienced
much satisfaction over the contribution he had made
in the discovery of Yellowstone, even at the high price of “Thirty
Seven Days of Peril.”</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_136">136</div>
<h2 id="c13"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter IX</span></span>
<br />CREATION OF YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK</h2>
<p>The return of Everts operated as a springboard for an attempt
to get government action. Graphic accounts of the exploration
in general filled the columns of the <i>Helena Herald</i> during October.
An article written by Cornelius Hedges, which appeared in
the issue of November 9, suggested an extension of Montana’s
southern boundary to include the whole Yellowstone region. He
also outlined the proposal for appropriation of the same for public
purposes. An excited public interest consumed every issue. Bursting
upon national attention, these highly entertaining narratives,
spontaneous and vivid like tales from Arabian Nights, carried
a large measure of conviction.</p>
<p>Nathaniel P. Langford went east to proclaim the discovery.
He first announced the good news to his own people in a public
meeting in Minneapolis. They gave him a responsive hearing,
which encouraged him for the work ahead.<a class="fn" id="fr_143" href="#fn_143">[143]</a> On January 19,
1871, a large crowd listened intently to his delineation at Lincoln
Hall in New York City. The people of Washington accorded similar
attention. In fact, one of the lectures was presided over by
Senator James G. Blaine, and one of the most alert auditors
was Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden who was soon converted to the
importance of the project and agreed to conduct a government
geological survey the following summer. Hayden’s leadership
was an important factor in making Yellowstone a live political
issue. Sam Hauser also visited Washington, D. C., and he was
subsequently joined by Truman C. Everts. Henry D. Washburn
started for the national Capitol, but he fell ill on the way and
died at his former home in Clinton, Indiana, on January 26,
1871. Walter Trumbull was serving as clerk of the Senate Judiciary
Committee, of which his father was chairman. Interesting
accounts of Yellowstone’s features by Langford and Trumbull
appeared in the May and June numbers of <i>Scribner’s</i> and the
<i>Overland Monthly</i>. The Firehole campfire resolution was bearing
fruit.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig19">
<img src="images/pic22.jpg" alt="" width="582" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><i>Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden</i></p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_137">137</div>
<p>Montana’s new but able territorial representative, Hon. William
H. Clagett, went assiduously to work upon the members
of Congress. In his view there was a great prize to be secured for
the benefit of all people and especially his constituents. A wonderland
was available for the taking. As yet there were no complications
of private ownership to arrest an alert government’s purpose.
The Congress responded with alacrity by making provision
for an official exploration. The sundry civil service act of March
3, 1871, carried an item of $40,000 for the construction of the
Hayden Survey, to complete “the season’s work about the sources
of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers.” In fact, the bill also
provided for a reconnaissance of the upper Yellowstone under
Captain J. W. Barlow and Captain D. P. Heap of the Army
Engineer Corps. Congress was not entering into the problem
halfway; it was actually doubling up.<a class="fn" id="fr_144" href="#fn_144">[144]</a></p>
<p>The chief officer, Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden, was an unusually
capable geologist. In addition, he possessed an inspiring personality
and statesmanlike views. There were nineteen scientists directly
under his command. The personnel included James Stevenson,
managing director; Henry W. Elliott and Thomas Moran,
<span class="pb" id="Page_138">138</span>
artists; Professor Cyrus Thomas, agricultural statistician and
entomologist; Anton Schonborn, chief topographer; William H.
Jackson, photographer; George B. Dixon, assistant photographer;
J. W. Beaman, meteorologist; Professor G. N. Allen, botanist;
Robert Adams, Jr., assistant botanist; Dr. A. C. Peale, mineralogist;
Dr. C. S. Trunbull, physician; Campbell Carrington, in
charge of zoological collections; William B. Logan, secretary; F.
J. Huse; Chester M. Dawes, son of Representative Henry L.
Dawes of Massachusetts; C. De V. Hegley and J. W. Duncan,
assistants. Barlow’s army detail also had a competent and well-balanced
personnel.<a class="fn" id="fr_145" href="#fn_145">[145]</a></p>
<p>A military escort, including Lieutenant Doane, rounded out
these expeditions and provided all that could have been desired
in point of training and ability. Each detachment had a retinue
of helpers. Two technical studies and scientific reports, which not
only substantiated but actually enhanced the findings of the previous
civilian explorations, resulted from these two expeditions.</p>
<p>Hayden’s party left Fort Ellis, near Bozeman, on July 15, 1871.
Upon reaching the junction of the Yellowstone and Gardner
rivers they elected to ascend the latter. It was a good choice because
within the hour they beheld a white mountain which resembled
a vast cascade of frozen snow. The Mammoth Hot
Springs Terraces “alone surpassed all the descriptions which had
been given by former travelers.”<a class="fn" id="fr_146" href="#fn_146">[146]</a></p>
<p>As this expedition progressed, the geological record was interpreted.
Thereafter, rocks were identified as travertine, gneiss,
rhyolite, dacite, basalt, breccia, geyserite, sinter, and obsidian.
Trees and plants were likewise classified, and in addition to geysers,
springs and pools there were fumaroles and <i>solfataras</i>.
Geological speculations were formulated relative to petrified forests,
Grand Canyon, the lake’s former Snake River outlet, and
the relationship of heat, water, and “plumbing” essential for
geyser action.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig20">
<img src="images/pic23.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="471" />
<p class="pcap"><i>The Hayden expedition in camp</i></p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_139">139</div>
<p>Henry Elliott and Campbell Carrington launched a canvas boat
and made a survey of Yellowstone Lake’s hundred-mile shoreline.
Later the temperatures of over six hundred hot springs were taken.
Sketches were made of many features, and significant names were
given, such as Architectural Fountain Geyser. Captain Barlow’s
division paid particular attention to the mapping of Snake River’s
headwaters. It also made a cursory survey of the Lamar River. Unfortunately
most of the data and accompanying photographs were
destroyed in the great Chicago fire. This delayed Barlow’s official
report until six weeks after the Park Bill was enacted. However,
an interesting summary appeared in the <i>Chicago Journal</i> for January
13, 1872. Thus, the report and collection of specimens and
photographs by Dr. Hayden represented the principal result of
the season’s endeavor.<a class="fn" id="fr_147" href="#fn_147">[147]</a></p>
<p>The beauty of Jackson’s photographs and Moran’s paintings
could scarcely be denied. Each represented the work of a master.
Dr. Hayden’s report to Secretary of Interior, Columbus Delano,
was received in February, 1872. He also contributed feature articles
to the <i>American Journal of Science and Arts</i> and <i>Scribner’s</i>.
Thus, a number of authorities had taken up the national park
cause without reservation. Indeed, after he became intrigued
with the idea of government development, Dr. Hayden’s efforts
were so impressive that many people regarded him as the true
originator of the movement. In fact, his own enthusiasm unfortunately
caused him to make pretensions for which he was severely
criticized by his colleagues in the effort.<a class="fn" id="fr_148" href="#fn_148">[148]</a> Although Dr. Hayden’s
contribution was invaluable, it was not exclusive. It was through
<span class="pb" id="Page_140">140</span>
the combined effort of the entire Montana delegation, and its
powerful friends, that Congress was made receptive and responsive.</p>
<p>On December 18, 1871, a bill to create Yellowstone National
Park was introduced simultaneously in both houses of Congress.
The direct sponsors were Delegate William H. Clagett of Montana
and Senator Samuel C. Pomeroy of Kansas. A thorough
canvass was made; photographs, specimens, and testimonials did
heavy duty in both the Senate and the House. Four hundred copies
of <i>Scribner’s</i> containing Langford’s articles were distributed
among the congressmen, and all were personally interviewed.
The advocates were few, but effective, and there was never any
doubt as to the outcome. In the Senate, Pomeroy’s efforts were
backed by George F. Edmunds, H. B. Anthony, and Lyman
Trumbull. They made an unsuccessful attempt to bring the bill,
S392, to a vote on January 22 and 23, but objections were raised,
and it came up in calendar order on the thirtieth. Senator Edmunds
appealed for unanimous support for the bill. Senators
Cameron of Pennsylvania and Morton of Indiana were curious
about the number of square miles in the proposed reservation.
Senator Pomeroy assured them that, although it was a large tract,
there were no arable lands therein because of the elevation.</p>
<p>The advocates were puzzled by the opposition exhibited by
Senator Cornelius Cole of California. He entertained grave doubts
as to the value of the bill. Settlers should not be excluded from
such a large area. As to the natural curiosities, they would remain.
<span class="pb" id="Page_141">141</span>
Edmunds replied that the region was north of 40° and
about seven thousand feet elevation. Pomeroy affirmed that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>... the only object of the bill is to take early possession of it by the
United States, and set it apart, so that it cannot be included in any
claims or occupied by any settlers.<a class="fn" id="fr_149" href="#fn_149">[149]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Opposition was removed from the discussion by the forceful
and tactful speech made by Senator Trumbull. He reviewed the
history of Yosemite and the Big Trees in California:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I think our experience with the wonderful natural curiosity, if I
may so call it, in the Senator’s own State, should admonish us of the
propriety of passing such a bill as this.... Here is a region of
country away up in the Rocky Mountains, where there are the most
wonderful geysers on the face of the earth.... It is possible that
some person may go there and plant himself right across the only
path that leads to these wonders, and charge every man that passes
along ... the gorges of these mountains a fee of a dollar or five
dollars....</p>
<p>I think it is a very proper bill to pass, and now is the time to
enact it.... Now, before there is any dispute as to this wonderful
country, I hope we shall except it from the general disposition of the
public lands, and reserve it to the Government.... At some future
time, if we desire to do so, we can repeal this law, if it is in anybody’s
way; but now I think it a very appropriate bill to pass.<a class="fn" id="fr_150" href="#fn_150">[150]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The matter was then presented for a vote, and it passed without
a call for the ayes and noes.</p>
<p>The progress of the Park Bill, H.R. 764, through the House
was just as sure, if not so speedy, as in the Senate. On February
27 Chairman Mark H. Dunnell of the Public Lands Committee
brought out a favorable report. He personally was convinced by
careful investigation that the bill should pass. Henry L. Dawes
clearly and forcibly explained its purpose and observed that it
went a step further than the Yosemite precedent. In this case
<span class="pb" id="Page_142">142</span>
“the title will still remain in the United States.... This bill
treads upon no rights of the settler ... and it receives the urgent
and ardent support of the legislature of that Territory [Montana],
and of the Delegate himself....”<a class="fn" id="fr_151" href="#fn_151">[151]</a></p>
<p>The roll call on February 28, 1872, showed 115 ayes, 65 noes,
and 60 not voting. George W. Morgan, the minority leader, was
opposed to the bill on partisan principles in general and his personal
dislike for Secretary Delano in particular. Within ten weeks
the measure had passed both houses by large majorities, and on
March 1, 1872, it received the signature of President Ulysses S.
Grant.</p>
<p>Upon passage of the act the <i>Helena Herald</i> printed a laudatory
editorial on “Our National Park,” while the Helena <i>Rocky Mountain
Gazette</i> considered the bill “as a great blow struck at the
prosperity of the towns of Bozeman and Virginia City ... if it
were thrown open to a curious but comfort-loving public.” Other
local papers joined the <i>Herald’s</i> side of the controversy.<a class="fn" id="fr_152" href="#fn_152">[152]</a></p>
<p>A mild national reaction was generally favorable to the reservation
idea. The bill even attracted attention abroad, as evidenced
by an article in the <i>London Times</i>, April 10, 1873, under
the caption, “A Very National Park.”</p>
<p>Who should receive the credit for this eminent accomplishment?
A careful examination of the facts warrants the conclusion
that the idea of establishing Yellowstone as a public reservation
had a dual birth. It was independently conceived in the minds
of two men. This view is attested by the deliberate statement of
N. P. Langford:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It is true that Professor Hayden joined with Mr. Clagett and myself
in working for the passage of the act of dedication, but no person
can divide with Cornelius Hedges and David E. Folsom the honor
of originating the idea of creating the Yellowstone Park.<a class="fn" id="fr_153" href="#fn_153">[153]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<div class="pb" id="Page_143">143</div>
<div class="img" id="fig21">
<img src="images/pic24.jpg" alt="" width="564" height="799" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />President Ulysses S. Grant signing the Yellowstone National Park Bill.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_144">144</div>
<p>In his <i>Westward America</i>, Howard R. Driggs states that the
pioneer artist, George Catlin, made a similar observation about
other parts of the Old West in the eighteen thirties. Surely it was
Hedges’ suggestion at Madison Junction campfire that initiated
the conception of a program which other men were well conditioned
to execute. N. P. Langford was the enthusiast, the zealous
crusader. William H. Clagett was the man at the helm, but he
was ably supported by the sage advice of Henry L. Dawes, representative
from Massachusetts, who probably formulated the
general principles of the measure.<a class="fn" id="fr_154" href="#fn_154">[154]</a> Dr. F. V. Hayden’s scientific
reports and unstinted support must be weighed heavily in
the scale. Senators Samuel C. Pomeroy and Lyman Trumbull
gave strength to the movement. The good will of General Phil
Sheridan was a constant factor. Beyond this spearhead of ability
and integrity the number of contributors broadens. It was an
altogether democratic effort, and little injustice results from the
omission of other efforts toward the cause. Most of them would
probably have had it so. It was a program for the benefit and
enjoyment of all people, rather than the personal aggrandizement
of a few.</p>
<p>The rapidity that characterized the government’s action in
this matter will always stand as a tribute to the common sense
and natural idealism of the Forty-second Congress. Judge Hedges’
idea had found ready acceptance as it journeyed along the legislative
course. The “Dedicatory Act,” as it is now called, was a
remarkably well-drawn bill, especially when it is remembered
that the issues involved were not only new in America but to the
entire world. It was a pioneer measure in the field of conserving
natural phenomena for recreational and spiritual appreciation.
<span class="pb" id="Page_145">145</span>
John Muir has cogently expressed the significance of the endeavor:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Fortunately, almost as soon as it—the Yellowstone region—was
discovered it was dedicated and set apart for the benefit of the
people, a piece of legislation that shines benignly amid the common
dust-and-ashes history of the public domain.<a class="fn" id="fr_155" href="#fn_155">[155]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The philosophy in the statement of the purpose was both
unique and basic. The reservation was “dedicated and set apart
as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment
of the people.” Conservation was keynoted in “the preservation
from injury or spoliation of all timber, mineral deposits,
natural curiosities or wonders within said park and for retention
in their natural condition.” There was a declaration against
“the wanton destruction of fish and game—and the capture or
destruction for the purpose of merchandise or profit.” Senators
Anthony and Tipton wanted to strike out the last phrase so there
would be no destruction of game for any purpose. Anthony said,
“We do not want sportsmen going over there with their guns,”
and Mr. Tipton, “... if the door is once opened I fear there will
ultimately be an entire destruction of all the game in the Park.”<a class="fn" id="fr_156" href="#fn_156">[156]</a>
Within a score of years their fears were fully vindicated, and their
wishes realized in the passage of a Protective Act on May 7, 1894.</p>
<p>Altogether, the Yellowstone National Park bill represents a
comprehensive glance into the principle of use without abuse.
Nature was to be preserved, protected, and not improved. Art
<span class="pb" id="Page_146">146</span>
could not embellish what God had wrought in Yellowstone. The
Act of Dedication became the touchstone of a national conservation
policy whose blessings are legion. The bill did not carry an
appropriation. It appears that the program was to be implemented
entirely by voluntary service. In the years that followed
there was a noble devotion which burned brightly, then waned,
and almost died before resuscitation came. Eventually Yellowstone
administrative experience evolved a program of surpassing
merit which served as an example for the whole nation in the
matter of managing certain phases of natural resources.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_147">147</div>
<h2 id="c14"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter X</span></span>
<br />THE LAST ROUNDUP</h2>
<p>Before Yellowstone could become accessible as a national playground
a certain evolution of security had to take place. Indian
tribes and buffalo herds were hindrances to both colonization
and travel. A double-action roundup was needed to clear the way
for an ephemeral phase, known as cattle days on the open range,
and ultimate colonization within the approaches of the Park.</p>
<p>The early clash of white trappers and Indians has been reviewed.
Passing of time worked no respite. Indeed, occasional
friction swelled into almost constant strife. As settlers multiplied,
the accumulation of past mutual grievances and suspicions rolled
in from other scenes of combat like a moving tide and then broke
into smaller waves, backwashing among the Rockies.<a class="fn" id="fr_157" href="#fn_157">[157]</a> What was
regarded as the natives’ overbearing superiority was well matched
by similar attitudes among the whites, but more important was
the latter’s greater strength.</p>
<p>Racial antagonisms and cultural conflicts swept every tribe
into the whirlpool. Each in turn wrecked itself against the might
of federal power. Finally, a crimson trail was stretched toward
Yellowstone when Nez Percé Joseph chose to make it a part of
his escape route.<a class="fn" id="fr_158" href="#fn_158">[158]</a> The Park area and its environs was by way of
becoming the Indians’ last refuge. Therefore, the destiny of Yellowstone
<span class="pb" id="Page_148">148</span>
itself was contingent upon a solution of the Indian
problem. Few people have the hardihood to seek pleasure at
their peril, and that was precisely the condition until 1880. Only
through complete Indian submission was the security issue brought
to rest. How the events unfolded in this conflict between the settlers
and the natives is a tale worth telling. Perhaps a brief exploration
of the mutual opinions of disrespect will help give one
a more balanced judgment of the factors that marshaled the two
races into almost perpetual strife. It is an appropriate setting for
the wind-up Indian scene, as narrated in the <a href="#c15">chapter</a> on Chief
Joseph’s flight and surrender.</p>
<p>In the outset, English colonial charters granted belts of land
to companies, or proprietors, without reference to Indian occupation.
Still, a native people was found almost everywhere, but
these savages were generally interested only in what might be
had for the taking, whether from nature’s bounty or an enemy
tribe. Here was a land with resources for the sustenance of a
thousand times their number. White men were given a generous
reception at first. Indians generally displayed an Arabian type
of hospitality and enjoyed showing homage to important visitors.</p>
<p>However, it became increasingly apparent that white and red
men had little in common. The former were quick to recognize
the Indians’ simplicity and to exploit it. If judged by civilized
standards, they were a people living as children, naïve and simple.
They roamed about seeking game and plunder. Something to eat,
a shred of clothing, a partial shelter, and a touch of adornment
sufficed. They would exchange much corn, meat, beaver, and
deerskins for a handful of beads, an iron hatchet, knife, ax, awl,
or—best of all—fire water. Articles of real value were first given
cheaply for items of scarcely any value at all. Mere curiosity
led them into many commercial pitfalls. Ross, the trader, said,
“Our people might have loaded a seventy-five-gun ship with provisions
bought with buttons and rings.”<a class="fn" id="fr_159" href="#fn_159">[159]</a></p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_149">149</div>
<p>In the opinion of the Indians, palefaces were weaklings under
torture. Still, white folks possessed strong medicine capable of
moving great boats upon water without paddles. They also set
great store upon boundaries on land and upon scratches on paper,
which they said meant the same thing yesterday, today, and forever,
and when a chief touched the quill to make his mark at the
end of a writing it might bring trouble for years to come. Of
course, the whites then said it was a treaty of cession by which
the tribe had agreed to move the Indian village away and leave
the settlers alone. These strange white people had a passion for
killing trees continually, for making more tobacco than they could
smoke, and for sending most of it away in their ships. White men
were always working, mostly at tasks fit only for squaws, and
they were fond of getting other white men and black men, and
even trying to get red men, to work for them. Palefaces rarely
moved their houses or changed their wives, and they would eat
little more in harvest, or after a kill, than at any other time. Their
restraints and their lack of restraint were equally unaccountable;
and their numbers were ever swelling and their demands ever
continuing for more and more land. They were, in truth, unfriendly
neighbors, unwilling to blend the colony with the tribe;
but they were firm, and on occasion impolite, in living their own
lives and crowding the red men out. This brought battle now and
then and a few blond scalps to dangle, but in war, too, the whites
were unreasonable. They would not wait for Indian summer to do
battle, and when once they took the path they were not content
with raids, ambushes, and surprise attacks, but they would persist
in a campaign under staunch command long after sensible, spasmodic
Indian folk had grown weary.<a class="fn" id="fr_160" href="#fn_160">[160]</a></p>
<p>Thus, we may fancy, thought the Algonquins, Iroquois, Mohicans,
Tuscaroras, and the Cherokees, the more sedentary eastern
tribes early to experience the white man’s aggression. At length
<span class="pb" id="Page_150">150</span>
they concluded that their first welcome had been unwise and
wrecked themselves in efforts to drive the invaders out, but even
in this purpose the tribes could not unite. Alliances reluctantly
made between them were carelessly broken in the hour of peril.
There is record of few confederations of Indian tribes that acted
with any degree of unity. The ordinary tribal relationships were
hostile. Indeed, every Indian tribe had at least one implacable
enemy. As Chief Little Plume once said, “As long as there remains
a Crow and a Piegan, so long will there be war.”<a class="fn" id="fr_161" href="#fn_161">[161]</a> Even in their
campaigns with the white men they were inconstant and uncertain
and quite as much the victims of treachery and double dealing
as they were perpetrators of such offenses.</p>
<p>In what light was the Indian held by the white settlers of
America? It has already been noted that Europe’s Christian sovereigns
and their governors disregarded the Indians’ tribal ownership.
They were primitive, pagan, and of ill repute. Human
beings they were, perhaps, but with a hazy past, precarious present,
and reckless future. If they could be converted to Christianity,
well and good. That blessing would adequately compensate for
the loss of their hunting grounds. Salvation in heaven was far
better than savagery on earth.</p>
<p>Hence, we learn that the Pilgrim Fathers first “fell upon their
knees and then upon the aborigines.” Roger Williams, William
Penn, Zebulon Pike, John C. Calhoun, and Brigham Young
raised dissenting views, but theirs were as voices crying in the
wilderness. Other more self-seeking councils prevailed. Many
were the voices raised in condemnation.</p>
<p>General Phil Sheridan, in his oft-quoted comment, said, “There
is no good Indian but a dead Indian.... If a white man steals,
we put him in prison; if an Indian steals, we give him a blanket.
If a white man kills, we hang him; if an Indian kills, we give him
a horse to put the blanket on.”<a class="fn" id="fr_162" href="#fn_162">[162]</a></p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_151">151</div>
<p>Another characterization from a Montana frontiersman goes,
“An Indian’s heart is never good until he is hungry and cold.”</p>
<p>Jim Stuart, than whom no man had more occasion to harshly
judge Indians about Yellowstone, made the following observation:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Arro-Ka-Kee” or The Big Rogue [eminently appropriate, that
name], stood six and a half feet high in his moccasins and weighed
two hundred and seventy-five pounds. He was accompanied by
“Saw-a-bee Win-an,” who was a good Indian, although not dead,
which I note as an exception to the general rule.<a class="fn" id="fr_163" href="#fn_163">[163]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The Earl of Dunraven professed to express the Sportsman’s
viewpoint when he said that Buffalo Bill and Texas Jack had the
same feeling for Indians that they entertained toward game. That
is to say, “They love them, and they slay them.”</p>
<p>To the typical frontiersman, the Indian was a savage, ready
to pounce on careless settlers, scalp them, burn their homes, and
carry off their loved ones—in short, a “varmint.” To the romantic
writers, the Indians were children of nature, dwellers in shady
forests and peaceful plains, earth’s true nobility! Of course, the
romantic writers seldom saw the natives and never lived with
them. These errors, and many others, have been accepted as first-hand
accurate observations. Indeed, the whole American Indian
policy has been called a tragedy of errors, beginning with the
naming of the race “Indian.”<a class="fn" id="fr_164" href="#fn_164">[164]</a></p>
<p>Given this background of Indian ways, what might reasonably
have been expected in the way of biracial adjustment? So little
was the question of Indian welfare considered before 1880 that
one cannot yet determine just what course might have solved the
problem and brought about successful assimilation. First the English,
and then the Americans, just muddled along, bribing here,
cajoling there, and ultimately forcing everywhere, until this once
<span class="pb" id="Page_152">152</span>
proud and militant race was reduced to an inconsolable remnant,
broken, defeated, and forlorn, but not forsaken.</p>
<p>Even when the white man’s heart was good toward his red
brother there was conflict in policies. Some thought his only salvation
was in the adoption of agriculture and stock raising, but
such a program was ruinous to the fur traders. The natives were
the sinews of that business. The contrast in economy and culture,
rival claims to land, and mutual feelings of superiority presented
a gulf too vast for peaceful desires to overcome. It was the realization
of this fact that impelled the wise Alexander Ross to say,
“Peace in reality was beyond our power; it was but an empty
name.”<a class="fn" id="fr_165" href="#fn_165">[165]</a> White men’s activities and aggressions, under whatever
guise, progressively deranged the Indians’ economy. From every
frontier came incessant demands for the reduction of Indian
lands. Memorials to Congress, complaints to Indian commissioners,
blistering editorials in local newspapers, all mark a stage in
frontier development. Settlers were intolerant of checks upon their
expansion, and few, indeed, were the officials who had the temerity
to “arrest the tide of empire in the Territories.”</p>
<p>Against this ominous force the Indians could only writhe and
twist. The uneven contest waged for two and a half centuries, extending
from Jamestown to the Pequot War and from Tippecanoe
to Custer’s defeat in the battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876. It is
a tale of red fury and white vengeance such as might properly
appertain to an age of barbarism but which presents an incongruous
picture in a Christian land. It is correct to say that Indian-American
relations were never improved but always embittered
until the natives were reduced to the point of decimation.</p>
<p>Actually, the activities of fur trappers were not bitterly resented
by the natives. Notwithstanding their excessive exploitation of the
game there were compensations. A measure of accommodation
resulted, which does not imply that there was any lack of violence.
Theft, rivalry, and sheer joy of conflict were motives always
<span class="pb" id="Page_153">153</span>
operating. But there was a community of interest existing between
the trapper and Indian which was impossible between the settler
and Indian. Primitive existence was based upon tribal land and
native game; both of these methods were denied by white settlers.
Two types of economy were in conflict, and the red man’s sun was
already beginning to set. The clash is brought into clear relief in
the story of the buffalo.</p>
<p>The bison is America’s largest game animal, and for centuries
it was most plentiful. Native to both plains and mountains it was
a truly monarchial beast. A Spanish conquistador, Cabeza de
Vaca, left an account of his observation upon the Texas plains in
1532: “The cows came from the north, and are found all over the
land for over four hundred leagues.”<a class="fn" id="fr_166" href="#fn_166">[166]</a></p>
<p>Several years later Coronado’s report stated that they “had seen
nothing but cows and sky.” Ample supporting evidence sustains
the fact that the number was legion. In 1832, Captain Bonneville
stated, “As far as the eye could reach the country seemed absolutely
blackened by innumerable herds.” No census was ever
taken, but competent authority suggests that sixty million head
was a conservative estimate for the American plains in the early
nineteenth century. Dependable calculations place the number
persisting until 1870 at one fourth that number. At the end of the
century the species was on the verge of extinction.</p>
<p>How did this remarkable diminution transpire? Here, indeed,
is a roundup of mammoth proportions and far-reaching consequences.
Bison were the natives’ base of life, their tribal grubstake,
a divine heritage. Only by wise conservation of this wild
animal wealth were they enabled to maintain such a free and easy
life.</p>
<p>After the Civil War railroads were projected into the buffalo
country. Construction camps employed professional hunters to
provide fresh meat. William F. Cody held a contract for the
<span class="pb" id="Page_154">154</span>
Union Pacific. It was this circumstance that gave him the name
“Buffalo Bill.” Such hunters set amazing records for a day’s
slaughter. Wasteful as this practice was, much greater prodigality
emanated from the camps of certain foreign and American sportsmen
and celebrities. Russian grand dukes, English lords, German
counts, and American “no-a-counts” were alike in their insatiable
instinct of destruction.<a class="fn" id="fr_167" href="#fn_167">[167]</a> In way of extenuation it is fair to state
that the emotional strain of bison chasing was overpowering.</p>
<p>However, it was the railroad itself that dealt the deadliest blow.
Bison robes were too bulky to be handled by pack train, and only
marginal profits accrued to wagon masters, but the effect of the
iron horse was revolutionary. During the early seventies several
lines conducted hunting excursions at low rates, guaranteeing
shots from the windows. These facilities, supplemented by horse-and-wagon
outfits, made the conquest of buffalo easy, especially
when a definite profit was in view. That condition developed
when the tanneries discovered bison hides could be used in leather
wear. Thereafter, hides sold from $1.00 to $4.00 each, and a party
of six hunters could kill and skin fifty or more in a day. In 1873,
the Santa Fe alone carried 754,529 hides to eastern markets.<a class="fn" id="fr_168" href="#fn_168">[168]</a>
The traffic in buffalo hides grew and prospered and finally degenerated
into debauching butchery.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig22">
<img src="images/pic25.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="485" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">Courtesy Union Pacific Ry.</span><br /><i>The iron horse in Buffalo country—an early Wyoming scene</i></p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_155">155</div>
<p>Thus, for a score of years, hundreds of expert riflemen combed
the plains. They were armed with heavy Sharps and Winchester
rifles, which boomed relentlessly at the ponderous bellowing herds.
They took away the hides, brains, and tongues, leaving the rest
to waste. It was wanton business written in crimson carcasses that
dissolved into whitened bones. The railroad, therefore, destroyed
frontier isolation and quickened the process of transforming a
wilderness into a settled community. This increase in the tempo
of frontier life was most apparent in the solution of the Indian
problem.</p>
<p>As the great train, piled high with hides, rumbled away its
reverberations were echoed by a more ominous rumble in the disconsolate
camps of the red men. This was the final aggression,
the ultimate grievance, and it set the people’s teeth on edge. This
inexorable white advance broke the natives’ hearts. Once again,
it was demonstrated that Indians and white men could not live
together. It meant the annihilation of their way of life—their very
existence—and a tragic fate—starvation.</p>
<p>Why did the government wink at this great imposition? Because
after the railroad came colonization was imminent, but
land overrun by wild Indians and buffalo could not be occupied.
The herds had to be greatly diminished and the Indians, confined.
The destruction of the bison was the most expedient means
of bringing a recalcitrant race into subjection.<a class="fn" id="fr_169" href="#fn_169">[169]</a> The nomads
cagily rejected federal treaties until the bison commissary was
destroyed. Then it was either fight or surrender. Several tribes
elected to fight, to try to drive the white man back across the
Missouri River. How much chance did they have in this belated
effort? Indians were able warriors. They were slow to project,
cautious to proceed, and firm to execute. Always cunning in
strategy and subtle in ambush, they were certain to surprise.<a class="fn" id="fr_170" href="#fn_170">[170]</a> An
<span class="pb" id="Page_156">156</span>
awareness of their limited numbers made them expert in decoy
tactics and careful of their lives. Vigilant and watchful, they
waited patiently for the advantage in time. They were quick and
precise in estimating the strength of an enemy. Their code did not
require a fight on equal terms. Indians, as a class, never equaled
white men in the use of the rifle; however, they soon learned to
improve the interval between firing and reloading.</p>
<p>Extremely superstitious, they carried certain charms about their
persons, the efficacy of which was never doubted. Thus protected,
they charged fearlessly into an affray. Too, youth was considered
the proper time to die, and young men sometimes sought death,
lending an air of fanaticism to the attacks.</p>
<p>Red men were greatly exhilarated by victory. They would vault
and yell in fiendish glee as they flourished the gory scalps of their
victims. By 1850, however, the destiny of Indian folk was established.
Thereafter, their cries seldom bore the shrill staccato notes
of victory but rather the mournful wail of defeat.</p>
<p>The legend of “Big Foot,” great chief of the Flathead tribe,
had been fulfilled. In 1804 he is supposed to have assembled his
warriors in council and related this message:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>My heart tells me that the Great Spirit has forsaken us; he has
furnished our enemies with his thunder to destroy us, yet something
whispers to me, that we may fly to the mountains and avoid a fate,
which, if we remain here, is inevitable. The lips of our women are
white with dread, there are no smiles on the lips of our children.
Our joyous sports are no more, glad tales are gone from the evening
fires of our lodges. I see no face but is sad, silent, and thoughtful;
nothing meets my ears but wild lamentations for departed heroes.
Arise, let us fly to the mountains, let us seek their deepest recesses
where unknown to our destroyers, we may hunt the deer and bighorn,
and bring gladness back to the hearts of our wives and
our children!<a class="fn" id="fr_171" href="#fn_171">[171]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Flight of the Indians to the mountains delayed, but did not
preclude, the final conquest of their domain. They were only
<span class="pb" id="Page_157">157</span>
reserved for the last roundup. Eventually each tribe was brought
to its respective day of reckoning. The government’s policy was
not always crystal clear. It fluctuated between the extremes of the
“Quaker Peace Policy” and “Fire and the Sword Practice.” However,
the goal was the same; “blanket” Indians were to become
“farmers,” live in fixed abodes, and “walk the white man’s
road.”<a class="fn" id="fr_172" href="#fn_172">[172]</a></p>
<p>After the Civil War the execution of this business was taken in
hand by resolute fighting men. Hence, the military spirit was
hardened toward the red men. Inexorably the race was pressed
toward the appointed end. This work was accomplished by a series
of military actions during the sixties and seventies.</p>
<p>In eastern Idaho Colonel Patrick Connor wrought swift vengeance
on the Bannock nation in 1863. More than two hundred
Indians were killed, a loss which forever broke down their force
and effectiveness. This tribe was guilty of many depredations
against migrants, miners, and Mormon settlers. Its forlorn remnants
were assigned to the Fort Hall Reservation.</p>
<p>The plains tribes went on the war path in 1864. Colonel Chivington’s
command surprised and almost annihilated a peaceful
band of Arapahos and Cheyennes in the Sand Creek massacre.
What Chivington neglected General Custer completed four years
later in the destruction of Black Kettle’s village. In frontier parlance
there was always battle when the Indians were killed and
a massacre when the whites were the victims.<a class="fn" id="fr_173" href="#fn_173">[173]</a></p>
<p>In 1871 Generals Sherman and Sheridan projected a plan that
eventuated in the complete conquest of the Kiowa and Comanche
nations, but the Sioux were the most formidable obstacle to the
colonization of Wyoming and Montana. They stood immovable
astride the country lying between the headwaters of the Powder
<span class="pb" id="Page_158">158</span>
and Yellowstone rivers. This was the heart of the Sioux country—their
last and favorite retreat. There, grass grew lush, and cool,
sweet streams teemed with trout. Wild berries flourished, and a
hunter could take his pick of buffalo, bear, elk, deer, antelope, and
sheep. The great Sioux Chieftains, Red Cloud and Crazy Horse,
together with Sitting Bull, the medicine man, protested bitterly in
1864 when John Bozeman, John Jacobs, and others began traveling
across these lands.<a class="fn" id="fr_174" href="#fn_174">[174]</a></p>
<p>Federal ultimatums to assemble upon designated reservations
were spurned by the Sioux, and a campaign of coercion was invoked
with Brigadier Generals Alfred H. Terry and George Crook
on far-flung phalanx and Colonel George A. Custer as the spearhead
of the advance. Whether through reckless bravery, error of
judgment, or necessity, Custer rushed into a treacherous situation,
and his entire command (265 men) was annihilated. The
day was June 25, 1876; the place, Little Bighorn River. It was
a red letter event in the history of the Sioux, but it was a fleeting
victory because the military, ably led by Colonel Nelson A. Miles,
persisted in the campaign, and within a few months the mighty
Sioux were either upon their appointed reservations or in exile.
One of the last scenes in this solemn drama was enacted in June,
1881, at Miles City, Montana. Sixteen hundred Sioux, formerly
under the leadership of Chief Rain-in-the-Face, were loaded on
government steamboats for the Standing Rock Reservation in
Dakota. Deep mourning issued from their camp on Tongue
River:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>For two days and nights the Indians, and more especially the squaws,
kept up their dismal howlings on taking farewell of their beloved
homes and hunting grounds.<a class="fn" id="fr_175" href="#fn_175">[175]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<div class="img" id="fig23">
<img src="images/pic26.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="499" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">Courtesy Union Pacific Ry.</span><br /><i>Strong medicine against the Indians</i></p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_159">159</div>
<p>As the buffalo and Indian went out, the Texas longhorn and
“long drive” came in. The long drive lay across the tablelands of
western Texas into Kansas, crossed the Santa Fe Trail at Dodge
City, passed over the headwaters of the Salmon and across the
Republican, and reached the South Platte at Ogallala. From this
camp it followed the Oregon Trail to Fort Laramie, and then
veered north over the Bozeman road.<a class="fn" id="fr_176" href="#fn_176">[176]</a> The Texas Longhorn
rolled up from the Southwest like a tidal wave once the way was
opened. In fact, wild “speckled cattle” had been sharing part of
the Texas plains for generations. Now, cattle raising became the
great bonanza for a period.</p>
<p>The American cattle industry started back in 1521 when seven
calves of Andalusian breed landed in Mexico. Gregorio was the
pioneer ranchman on the continent. His flocks literally covered
“a thousand hills.” In spite of his vaquero’s diligence, some of his
stock strayed and formed the nucleus of a mighty herd.<a class="fn" id="fr_177" href="#fn_177">[177]</a> From
buffalo to range cattle is not a wide step; it was the capacity of
the winter range to carry bison that suggested the cattle industry.</p>
<p>Conditions for stock raising were ideal in Texas. Millions of
acres were plush carpeted with grama, mesquite, buffalo, and
bluestem grasses. Early settlers gathered this wild stock into
princely domains, and a new industry was born. The greatest
problem was getting the cattle to market. New Orleans, Mobile,
and Cuba were reached from Shreveport by boat. Still, there were
the thriving northern cities where prices doubled those in Texas.</p>
<p>The first authenticated northern drive came in 1846 when
Edward Piper drove one thousand Texas steers to Ohio. By 1865
Texas boasted one-eighth of all the cattle in America, as against
a local population of less than half a million people. Somehow
these cattle had to be gotten to market.</p>
<p>Returning Confederate veterans, broke but adventurous, saw
the challenge of the open range and seized it. Loose, wild stock
and “mavericks” were soon in the clutches of men and mustangs
as wild as they. The first cowboys to make the long drive had need
<span class="pb" id="Page_160">160</span>
to be tough. There were many hazards menacing their way—non-treaty
Indians, white thieves, floods, cyclones, and ever threatening
stampedes. Sometimes the distance between water was more
than a day’s travel.</p>
<p>Cattle kings were men of great energy and enterprise. They
took big risks, sometimes winning large profits and occasionally
losing just as handsomely. Chisum, Hittson, Kennedy, O’Connor,
and King were charmed names in the cattle fraternity. They nurtured
their stock on hundred-thousand-acre ranches and then sent
them forth to forage upon the public domain. It is estimated that
six million head grazed their way to market over the Chisholm,
Great Western, Shawnee, and other trails.</p>
<p>This wealth of the cloven hoof was entrusted to young athletes
equally adept in forking a hoss, shooting a gun, and hurling a
lariat. Cowboys were capable of both long, patient application
to duty and vigorous relaxation when opportunity afforded. As a
class they were steady and dependable. They delivered their
charges in good condition at such shipping points as Sedalia,
Abilene, Wichita, Ogallala, Glendive, and Miles City. This migration
of cowmen and their herds was a strong, tremendous movement.
It came with a rush and a surge, and in ten years it had
subsided.</p>
<p>Even as the iron horse gave birth to the long drive, just so surely
did it eventually destroy the big cattle business itself. Homesteaders
came with the advance in transportation. There was a gradual,
but irresistible, invasion of the open range. The “nesters” enclosed
public domains. Thus, as the Indian gave way before the soldier
and the hunter, so the cowboy yielded to the farmer. Ranches
soon absorbed the eight million acres formerly overrun by bison
and cattle.</p>
<p>There were still several regions ideally suited for stock raising—Montana,
Wyoming, and Idaho. Toward these remote areas men
looking for new, free grassland, timber, and water headed their
cattle. The quest led them into the several great valley approaches
<span class="pb" id="Page_161">161</span>
to the Yellowstone Plateau. On both slopes of the great divide
plants and grass grow steadily during summer, and the dry atmosphere
cures and ripens them as they mature. This type of feed is
highly nutritious and conducive to the development or perfection
of form and strength of bone and muscle.</p>
<p>Among the pioneer ranchmen of the Rockies was Nelson Story.
He netted more than ten thousand dollars in the placer mines of
Alder Gulch. This sum he invested in a thousand Texas longhorns
in 1866. With twenty-seven trail-hardened cowboys he
brought the cattle to Montana. It was a tremendous undertaking
to get them through a veritable gauntlet of hostile Indians and
desperate white thieves. Three of his men were killed before they
reached the end of Bozeman Trail.<a class="fn" id="fr_178" href="#fn_178">[178]</a> Gold dust in exchange for
beef proved more profitable than taking it from the placers themselves.
Even the poorest ox would bring a hundred dollars, and so
the traffic increased.</p>
<p>At this time the able Sioux chief, Red Cloud, served notice
upon the government that he would kill every white man who
traveled along that trail. It was not an idle boast; the record
shows nearly two hundred casualties in the last six months of
1866. In fact, the Bozeman Trail became one long battleground,
scene of such Sioux victories as the Fetterman and Wagon Box
massacres. However, the military persisted, and with constant
operations stemming from Forts Kearney and Smith the trail was
kept open.<a class="fn" id="fr_179" href="#fn_179">[179]</a></p>
<p>In 1870 more than 40,000 Texas cattle reached Wyoming,
<span class="pb" id="Page_162">162</span>
Montana, and Idaho. Six years later the mountain Indians were
largely liquidated. The removal of Red Cloud, Crazy Horse, and
Sitting Bull opened the way for new cattle commonwealths. By
1880 the federal census reported 428,279 head in Montana and
521,213, in Wyoming. Soon the stockmen evolved a considerable
network of mountain trails. The main artery went up the Yellowstone
to Fort Custer and thence into Wyoming via Forts McKinney,
Reno, and Fetterman to Cheyenne for shipping.</p>
<p>New names entered the stage with the growth of the cattle
business such as Granville Stuart, James Fergus, A. J. Davis, John
Ming, John Grant, Conrad Kohrs, R. S. Ford, Ancenny, Poindexter,
Iliff, Flowerree, and George Searight.<a class="fn" id="fr_180" href="#fn_180">[180]</a> Then there were
the famous companies, The Union Cattle Company, The Swan
Land and Cattle Company, North American, Powder River,
Prairie, and Horseshoe being among the major names. Professor
Dan E. Clark states that twenty Wyoming companies were organized
in 1883, with individual capitalization from ten thousand
to three million and a combined value of twelve million dollars.<a class="fn" id="fr_181" href="#fn_181">[181]</a>
In Montana, though, the Stock Growers Association represented
an ownership of half a million head of cattle in 1884. The Eastern
Montana Stock Growers Association of the same state claimed a
capital investment of thirty-five million dollars.<a class="fn" id="fr_182" href="#fn_182">[182]</a></p>
<p>Under the impetus of such flourishing activity, the great river
valleys stemming out of the Yellowstone Plateau were soon dotted
by ranches. Wind, Snake, Madison, Gallatin, and Yellowstone
valleys each received its quota. None of them quite reached the
Park land, but Frederick Bottler’s range almost impinged upon
the northern border. It is probable that rancher invasion of the
actual Park area was minor, if there was any. However, there
<span class="pb" id="Page_163">163</span>
was a rustler element that quite assuredly knew part of Yellowstone
country.</p>
<p>The decade overlapping the sixties and seventies was the twilight
period in frontier history. A transition was progressing from
semi-lawlessness to orderly government. The arrogant Henry
Plummer and his wicked gang of Innocents were liquidated by
Montana Vigilantes in 1864, but another nefarious activity was
taking heavy toll from the cattlemen. Horse and cattle rustlers
found a lucrative business in preying upon the large herds grazing
the open range. These cunning men would establish a rendezvous
in some sequestered place like Teton Basin or the upper Madison
Valley. From such a position they would make forays upon the
stock owned by the big interests. The worst offenders, and those
most difficult to apprehend, were men who at some time had been
connected with the cattle business. Sometimes they altered the
brands, but often a crisscross plan of shipment was followed; that
is, Wyoming and Montana stock was whisked down to the Utah
market; while Idaho material went east to Cheyenne. Men such
as “Teton” Jackson, Ed Harrington, and Bob Tarter worked both
sides of the Divide. The high meadows in and near Yellowstone
were ideal for their purpose. It is also claimed that the notorious
Butch Cassidy gang, long ensconced upon the Green River, made
occasional forays among stock ranging near the southeastern
borders of the Park.</p>
<p>It is a fact that the Washburn-Langford-Doane party encountered
representatives of the rustler element upon their last day
in the Park area. Mr. Langford left this account:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Mr. Hauser and Mr. Stickney all through the day were a few
miles in advance of the rest of the party, and just below the mouth
of the canyon they met two men who manifested some alarm at the
sight of them. They had a supply of provisions packed on riding
saddles and were walking beside their horses. Mr. Hauser told them
that they would meet a large party up the canyon, but we did not
see them, and they evidently cached themselves as we went by. The
<span class="pb" id="Page_164">164</span>
Upper Madison in this vicinity is said to be a rendezvous for horse
thieves.<a class="fn" id="fr_183" href="#fn_183">[183]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>It was actually an area of operation for the Murphy and Edmonson
gang of desperadoes. Langford and Doane came upon three
of their horses which they caught and pressed into service during
the rest of the journey.<a class="fn" id="fr_184" href="#fn_184">[184]</a> In 1874 the Earl of Dunraven remarked
that the Yellowstone traveler had to keep a sharper lookout for
white horse thieves than for redskin robbers.</p>
<p>By 1873 stock losses by rustling were so great as to force counter
measures. The Wyoming Stock Growers Association hired a large
force of detectives and inspectors. The movements of every newcomer
were watched with suspicious vigilance; blacklists were circulated.
The penalties for mis-branding and marking were
doubled, and prosecution was swift and vigorous. These hard-hitting
policies soon brought the problem under control.</p>
<p>Thus ended the major evil of another era, and the rustlers were
hustled into that Shangri-la of frontier romance where “happy
ghosts,” as Professor Paxson has said, “will endure forever, a
happy heritage for the American mind.”<a class="fn" id="fr_185" href="#fn_185">[185]</a></p>
<p>By 1880 the hostile human barriers, red and white, had been
removed from the way. The West’s unsettled areas were so broken
as to destroy the frontier line. Yellowstone was still a wilderness,
but it was accessible to man.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_165">165</div>
<h2 id="c15"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter XI</span></span>
<br />CHIEF JOSEPH’S TRAIL OF BLOOD</h2>
<p>The Nez Percé Indians were first encountered in 1805 by the
Lewis and Clark Expedition. They were at home in the region of
eastern Oregon and western Idaho. The Wallowa Valley, “land
of winding water,” was their especial habitat. They referred to
themselves as “Nim-i-pu,” “the real people.” The name Nez
Percé or “pierced noses” was a French cognomen of doubtful
validity.</p>
<p>The Nez Percé were not highly centralized in tribal organization.
There were several factions, but in the third quarter of the
19th century, Tu-eka-kas, or Old Joseph, as the Reverend Henry
H. Spaulding called him, was a ranking chief. The Nez Percé
befriended the Lewis and Clark party by taking care of their
horses. Thenceforth their policy was one of cooperation and
friendship with the white man, combined with a stern insistence
upon their rights. Joseph hoped for biracial adjustment. To
this end he always befriended the government, but it was understood
that his domain should never be invaded.</p>
<p>Federal Indian treaties made after 1855 brought white settlers
ever closer to the Nez Percé domain. Certain unprincipled Oregon
people looked greedily upon the choice lands of Wallowa. As
the pressure increased there was neither political will nor honor
to curb the aggressors. Hence, the noble Nez Percé, like all red
men before them, were thrown on the defensive.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_166">166</div>
<p>Old Joseph sensed the impending issue, and before his death in
1871 he exacted a promise from his son, Young Joseph, that he
would never give up Wallowa.<a class="fn" id="fr_186" href="#fn_186">[186]</a> Years of increasing pressure
brought a full vindication of Old Joseph’s fears and a realization
of responsibility to his son.</p>
<p>By 1876 the federal government was yielding to local demands
for Nez Percé evacuation, and a commission brought in the usual
report. The non-treaty Indians had no standing and should be
made to conform. They should be required to join the other tribes
on the Lapwai Reservation.</p>
<p>General O. O. Howard was directed to enforce the decree. The
Nez Percé were greatly distressed. Several conferences were held.
Young Joseph resisted manfully. By this time he was in his thirty-seventh
year. Fully mature, he stood six feet tall, and his rugged
body disclosed tremendous energy and sinew. His mind was keen,
but his spirit was disciplined. He was ready for his work.</p>
<p>The military authority gave Chief Joseph thirty days to get his
people on the reservation; June 14, 1877 was the deadline.<a class="fn" id="fr_187" href="#fn_187">[187]</a> In
vain Joseph pleaded for an extension of time until fall. Orders
had been given by the military. Joseph also gave orders. His
people gathered in their stock and prepared for the migration;
it was better for deer to be penned up than to fight the grizzly.
There were many soldiers at Howard’s back; the odds were too
great. They must surely obey or perish.</p>
<p>Other Nez Percé leaders were not so wise. Chiefs Tu-hul-hul-sote
and White Bird wanted to fight. They were chiefs in their
own right and had large followings. Still, Joseph was willing to
sacrifice honor and prestige by resisting war.<a class="fn" id="fr_188" href="#fn_188">[188]</a>
He valued his people’s blood above his own pride. While the great man humbly
revealed his integrity, trouble brewed in darker minds.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_167">167</div>
<div class="img" id="fig24">
<img src="images/pic27.jpg" alt="" width="550" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">Courtesy of Haynes, Inc.</span><br />Chief Joseph, war chief of the Nez Percé.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_168">168</div>
<p>An old man in White Bird’s band was taunting young Wal-ait-its,
whose father, Eagle Blanket, had been slain by a white
settler in 1876. “You are brave! Why don’t you go and show it by
killing the man who killed your father?” The goad fired him to
a fever of revenge. He and two companions sprang upon their
horses. When they returned to the council, four white men had
answered the last call. Wal-ait-its shouted, “Why do you sit here
like women? The war has begun already.” Tu-hul-hul-sote had
organized a war party. Joseph still hoped for a peaceful settlement.
It could not be. The war fever spread, and Indian blood
was on fire. He must either lead or step aside. He chose to defend
his people and their cause.<a class="fn" id="fr_189" href="#fn_189">[189]</a></p>
<p>On the morning of June 17 a battle took place in White Bird’s
Canyon. Captain Perry, assisted by Lieutenants Theller and
Parnell, was approaching with two troops of cavalry. Joseph had
taken command. He quickly conceived of a daring triple-action
assault. With instinctive judgment he chose strategic positions and
gave brisk orders. He moved among his men, encouraging them,
and directing them from place to place. He seemed an all-pervading,
dominating force. He deployed his braves upon the heights.
Protected by rocks and brush, they threaded a bobbing course
upon the beleaguered cavalry. Dismounting and aiming deliberately,
they decimated the ranks of soldiery.<a class="fn" id="fr_190" href="#fn_190">[190]</a></p>
<p>White Bird Canyon stands next to the Custer and Fetterman
massacres as the Waterloo of white troops before Indians, but the
conditions were in no way identical. The advantages were equally
balanced at White Bird.</p>
<p>Young Joseph had proved himself a great war chief in a single
engagement. From this time forth his destiny was with him. He
<span class="pb" id="Page_169">169</span>
was the last mighty Indian, and his name was Hin-mut-too-yah-lat-kekht,
meaning “Thunder strikes out of water and travels to
loftier heights.” Wherever one touches him he is great; every incident
and circumstance discloses a big man. He exercised unerring
judgment in strategy and tactics. Years afterward Joseph said,
“The Great Spirit puts it into the heart of man to know how to
defend himself.”</p>
<p>The defeat of Perry threw General Howard’s command into a
frenzy of activity. Orders went out for reinforcements, and troops
moved toward Lewiston from every direction. By the last of June,
Howard was in the field. The wily Indian leader had moved his
entire nation beyond the raging Salmon River where he made a
stand. Said Howard, “A safer position was unchoosable, nor one
more puzzling and obstructive.”<a class="fn" id="fr_191" href="#fn_191">[191]</a></p>
<p>Howard’s soldiers experienced great difficulty in going where
Joseph’s whole band had gone. This was just the prelude to a
game of hide and seek that lasted from late June to early October
and lengthened into a dozen engagements as the two forces moved
eastward for the space of sixteen hundred miles.</p>
<p>In the weeks that followed, General Howard learned to respect
his adroit and formidable foe. Joseph’s forces never exceeded
three hundred warriors. The whole band numbered about seven
hundred. General Howard’s command numbered five hundred
and eighty regulars, and it was later augmented by four separate
commands in the course of the pursuit. The forces of Joseph and
Howard came to grips on the banks of Clearwater River. There
the Nez Percé fought with such courage and precision that the
battle must be written up as a draw.<a class="fn" id="fr_192" href="#fn_192">[192]</a></p>
<p>Joseph was now ready to fight to a finish, but his captains voted
for a retreat. Again he bowed to the will of the majority. They
were destined to pursue a “trail of tears” during the next three
<span class="pb" id="Page_170">170</span>
months. It was a march as dramatic as the “flight of a Tartar
tribe.”<a class="fn" id="fr_193" href="#fn_193">[193]</a> The band was on the move, over the Lolo Trail—a terrific
route. They lived on the country—roots, berries, and game.</p>
<p>Joseph could cope with one enemy, but the military resources
of the whole Western Department baffled him. He found his exit
from the Bitter Roots obstructed by Captain Charles C. Rawn
from Fort Missoula. Rawn demanded surrender; Joseph parleyed
until his forces outflanked Rawn’s position and escaped. At this
juncture we see his humanity in making a treaty of forbearance
with the settlers in Bitter Root Valley.</p>
<p>The entire Nez Percé tribe was overtaken and attacked at daybreak,
on the Big Hole, by General John Gibbon’s force of one
hundred and eighty soldiers, augmented by some of the erstwhile
peaceful settlers. The slaughter on both sides was: whites, twenty-nine
killed, forty wounded; Indians, eighty-three dead, wounded
undetermined (fifty-three of the dead were women and children).<a class="fn" id="fr_194" href="#fn_194">[194]</a>
Joseph commented bitterly, “The Nez Percé never make war on
women and children.” Notwithstanding the confusion of this surprise
attack, Joseph’s band recovered and moved on. Howard
was still on their trail.</p>
<p>Several Salmon City, Idaho, freighters fell before the drunken
wrath of some of Joseph’s braves on Birch Creek. In Camas
Meadows Howard maneuvered for a stand. The result was the
loss of many mules and horses. Worse still was the mortal wounding
of three soldiers and serious injury of five others. Just as Howard
was expecting to pounce upon his prey, the crafty chief
whirled around and inflicted a surprising blow, escaping almost
scot free.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_171">171</div>
<div class="img" id="fig25">
<img src="images/pic28.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="578" />
<p class="pcap">A general map of Chief Joseph’s flight.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_172">172</div>
<p>Several days later the Nez Percé were trailing up the Madison
River within the Park. They were strangers in Yellowstone and
the most unwelcome tourists it has ever known. Within this
identical week Secretary of War William T. Sherman and an
escort of five concluded a tour and left for Fort Ellis. They did
not see “any signs of Indians, and felt at no moment more sense
of danger than we do here.”<a class="fn" id="fr_195" href="#fn_195">[195]</a> A few days later they were cognizant
of their lucky break. Near Madison Junction the Nez
Percé met a prospector named Shively whom they pressed into
service as a guide. A few days later they seized another miner
named Irwin, and held him for a while.</p>
<h3><span class="sc">The Radersburg Tourists</span></h3>
<p>The Nez Percé spent the night of August 23 in camp on the
banks of the Firehole River, above the narrows. At daybreak the
next morning several Indians appeared in the camp of some
tourists from Radersburg, Montana. The personnel of this party
were Mr. and Mrs. George F. Cowan; Mrs. Cowan’s brother and
sister, Frank and Ida Carpenter; Charles Mann; William Dingee;
Albert Oldham; A. J. Arnold; and Henry Myers. A prospector,
named Harmon, was also associated with the Cowan party at this
time.</p>
<p>These people were just preparing to break up the “home” camp
located at this terminus of the wagon road. For the past week they
had been enjoying themselves on horseback visits to the geyser
basins, and several of them had been to the lake and canyon.</p>
<p>Dingee asked the Indians, “What are you?” “Snake Injun,”
one replied. Later they admitted they were Nez Percé and made
a demand for coffee and bacon. Cowan refused to give them any,
and as one who called himself “Charley” attempted to give a
signal the stern Cowan peremptorily ordered him to “keep hands
down!” Right there a special resentment was engendered toward
the “older man.” Frank Carpenter asked them if any harm was
in store for the party. The spokesman said, “Don’t know, maybe
<span class="pb" id="Page_173">173</span>
so.” He gave them to understand that since the Big Hole Battle
the Nez Percé were double-minded toward the white man.<a class="fn" id="fr_196" href="#fn_196">[196]</a></p>
<p>The worried little party held a hasty consultation, and in view
of their limited arms and ammunition they decided, with serious
misgivings, to make an appeal to the chiefs for their deliverance.</p>
<p>They, therefore, hooked up the team, saddled their horses, and
joined the Indian caravan, which turned eastward and journeyed
up Nez Percé Creek. After proceeding a couple of miles the wagon
was abandoned, its contents rifled, and the spokes knocked out for
whip handles. By midday the Radersburg case had come to the
attention of the chiefs. A council was held at the base of Mary
Mountain in which it was decided that the tourists were to be
liberated. Poker Joe spoke for the chiefs:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Some of our people knew Mrs. Cowan and her sister at Spokane
House. The soldiers killed many Nez Percé women and children on
the Big Hole. But we do not hurt Montana people. You may go.
Take old horses and do not spy.<a class="fn" id="fr_197" href="#fn_197">[197]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>They were relieved of their saddles, guns, and horses, worn-out
animals being substituted for the latter. The white men nodded
acceptance of these extraordinary terms. They were glad to part
with the tribe and retrace their course. Within a half hour, two
of the white men, Arnold and Dingee, abandoned their horses and
ducked into the forest. Hidden Indian scouts were obviously expecting
just such behavior. A few minutes later seventy-five braves
swooped upon Cowan’s party, demanding the missing members.
Cowan could only plead ignorance. Whereupon, Charley said,
“You will have to come back.” The little band again turned eastward
with leaden spirits.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_174">174</div>
<p>Angry Indians were milling around on all sides, each waiting
for the other to start an attack. Suddenly Um-till-lilp-cown, one
of the three Idaho murderers, fired at Cowan, hitting him in the
thigh.<a class="fn" id="fr_198" href="#fn_198">[198]</a> At the same time Oldham felt a twinge on both checks
as a bullet passed through his face. Carpenter saw an Indian
aiming at him, and thinking some of the Nez Percé might be
Catholics he made the sign of the cross. His act may have disconcerted
the warrior for he did not fire. Oldham managed to get
away through a thicket, while Cowan was so stunned he fell to
the earth. His wife jumped down from her horse and clasped him
to her bosom, but they dragged her away. Another shot, from
close range, struck him in the forehead. His wounds were considered
fatal, and he was left to die. At this juncture Poker Joe
arrived from the chiefs, who had got word of the attack, and he
stopped the onslaught.</p>
<p>In the shuffle and commotion that ensued, Myers, Harmon,
and Mann made their getaway. Mann felt a bullet whiz through
his hat as he ran among the trees. Each man went in a different
direction and carried the impression that he was the sole survivor.
This was the opinion of each of the separated contingents. Each
considered all missing ones as obviously dead.</p>
<p>The unscattered survivors, including Mrs. Cowan, her brother
Frank, and sister Ida, were again taken captives. Although their
treatment during the next twenty-four hours was considerate, it
was a period of great mental anguish for them. They spent the
night by Chief Joseph’s campfire, and considering the circumstances
their attitude toward him was most interesting. Mrs.
Cowan said of him:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>My brother tried to converse with Chief Joseph, but without avail.
The Chief sat by the fire, sombre and silent, foreseeing in his gloomy
meditations possibly the unhappy ending of his campaign. The
“noble red man” we read of was more nearly impersonated in this
Indian than in any I have ever met. Grave and dignified, he looked
a chief.<a class="fn" id="fr_199" href="#fn_199">[199]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<div class="img" id="fig26">
<img src="images/pic29.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="470" />
<p class="pcap">Radersburg tourist party marker.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_175">175</div>
<div class="img" id="fig27">
<img src="images/pic30.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="563" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />George F. Cowan stands up to Nez Percé warriors.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_176">176</div>
<p>On the evening of the twenty-fifth the captives were provided
with two horses and released near the Mud Volcano. “They must
not go too fast”; therefore no saddle for Ida or horse for Frank
were provided. Poker Joe directed them to go down the river
“quick.” This they did as rapidly as their broken-down ponies
would carry them. Burdened with grief and care, they made their
way over Mount Washburn and beyond Tower Falls where they
came upon a detail of soldiers who supplied their most urgent
necessities and found them a ride to Bozeman.</p>
<p>In going down Yellowstone Valley they were the recipients of
much sympathy from the settlers. As they entered Bozeman, Lieutenant
Doane and a considerable number of Crow Indian scouts
and soldiers were leaving for the Park. Carpenter joined Doane’s
command, with the intention of returning to the scene of the
attack and attending to the burial of his brother-in-law. In mourning,
Mrs. Cowan and her sister continued on to Radersburg.</p>
<p>But Cowan was a sturdy being; he would not die. It was nearly
sundown when he regained consciousness. Wounded in thigh and
head, he yet pulled himself up from his rocky “grave.” Unfortunately
an Indian sentinel observed his movement, drew a bead,
and fired. Cowan dropped with a fresh wound in his left side. He
now felt that they had “fixed” him beyond all hope of recovery.
However, he remained conscious and lay motionless until darkness
settled.</p>
<p>Then he started a crawling retreat toward Lower Geyser Basin,
nine miles away.<a class="fn" id="fr_200" href="#fn_200">[200]</a> What an eternity August 24 must have seemed!
Were his wife and friends safe? He had little basis for hoping so.
Could he make a getaway, and was it worth the effort? About
midnight he apprehended motion among the cinquefoil. It was an
<span class="pb" id="Page_177">177</span>
Indian scout, raised to elbow posture, listening. Cowan remained
perfectly quiet until the watchman relaxed; then he circled the
danger zone by more than a mile. Onward he dragged his tortured
body, alternately resting and crawling. He finally reached the
deserted wagon where his bird dog faithfully waited. She growled
and menaced until recognition dawned, then hovered over him
like a protecting mother. There was no food anywhere to be
found, but he gathered up the sheets of Carpenter’s diary. Cowan
pressed doggedly on toward the campground in the Lower Geyser
Basin. During the third day a band of Indians came by his hiding
place. They were friendly Bannocks of Howard’s command, but
he did not know and took no chance.</p>
<p>On the twenty-seventh he reached the old camp, found
matches, and gathered spilled coffee grains and an empty can.
These netted him a cup of coffee. He passed the night there. The
following day he crawled over by the road, and that effort taxed
his strength to the limit. It was enough, as relief came in the form
of two of Howard’s scouts, Captain S. G. Fisher and J. W. Redington.
The latter said, “Who in hell are you?”</p>
<p>“I’m George Cowan of Radersburg.”</p>
<p>“You don’t say! We’ve come to bury you.”</p>
<p>They rendered first aid, provided food, and left Cowan by a
roaring fire with the assurance that the main force would gather
him up within two days. Mr. Fee has deftly described the abrupt
termination of that hard earned felicity:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Cowan ate enough to keep himself alive and lay down in silent
joy to sleep the night through. Towards morning he was awakened
by awful heat, and found to his dismay that the vegetable mold he
was lying on had taken fire and encircled him with flames. He rose
on hands and knees and suffering terribly, crawled across the charred
area to safety. His hands and legs were badly burned.<a class="fn" id="fr_201" href="#fn_201">[201]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In the meantime his scattered companions were being united.
Mr. Harmon was the first to reach General Howard’s encampment
<span class="pb" id="Page_178">178</span>
at Henrys Lake. Arnold and Dingee arrived after several
days and nights of hardship. Myers and Oldham were encountered
by Howard’s scouts. The latter was in a pitiful state. His
tongue was so swollen, as a result of his wound, that he could not
speak. Shock and exposure to the cold nights, together with lack
of food for four days, had left its mark upon them all.</p>
<p>Howard reluctantly took the whole delegation along, and on
August 29 they joined Cowan in the Lower Geyser Basin. Arnold
said Cowan was a “most pitiful looking object. He was covered
with blood, which had dried on him, and he was as black as a
negro.” Here Cowan learned of his wife’s safety, and that news,
together with his friend Arnold’s “unremitting attentions,” pulled
him through. The army surgeon ministered to the physical wounds
of the men but no sympathy was forthcoming. The Radersburg
men desired to return home by way of Henrys Lake, but they were
bundled along with the command, over roads that were:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>simply horrible and almost impassable for wagons. At times we were
compelled to lower them over precipices with ropes, and again we
would hitch a rope to a wagon and pull it up the hill by man power.<a class="fn" id="fr_202" href="#fn_202">[202]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In the meantime Frank Carpenter, along with Lieutenant
Doane’s command, pressed toward the Park. They found Henderson’s
ranch buildings in flames. A band of renegade Nez Percé
were spreading terror in their wake. Camp was established there
anyway, and a courier arrived, directing Lieutenant Doane to
mark time until joined by Colonel Charles C. Gilbert and the
Seventh Infantry. Carpenter’s plan to return and bury Cowan
was again frustrated. A promise to perform that function, given by
a frontiersman named Houston induced Carpenter to return to
Bozeman. There he learned that all members of the party were
safe and accounted for except Cowan. The news that Cowan was
still alive reached him a few days later when he met the two
scouts who had found Cowan just a week before. Perhaps no one
else could have convinced him his friend was alive.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_179">179</div>
<div class="img" id="fig28">
<img src="images/pic31.jpg" alt="" width="651" height="700" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">M. D. Beal</span><br />Detail map showing Nez Percé movements in Yellowstone Park.</p>
</div>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr class="th"><th colspan="2">Legend:</th></tr>
<tr><td class="c">- - - - - - </td><td class="l">Route of main band of Nez Percé Indians.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="c">x x x x x x </td><td class="l">Route of marauding band to the north and back to main band.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="c">X </td><td class="l">Cowan party camp west of Fountain Geyser.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="c">1 </td><td class="l">Nez Percé camp in lower Geyser Basin.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="c">2 </td><td class="l">Where Cowan party was attacked and Cowan shot.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="c">3 </td><td class="l">Mary Lake and Mary Mountain.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="c">4 </td><td class="l">Nez Percé camp and crossing of Yellowstone River near Mud Volcano.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="c">5 </td><td class="l">Helena party camp on Otter Creek where Indians attacked.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="c">6 </td><td class="l">Mammoth Hot Springs.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="c">7 </td><td class="l">Baronett’s Bridge across Yellowstone River.</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_180">180</div>
<p>A telegram to Mrs. Cowan brought her posthaste from Radersburg.
She reached Bottler’s ranch, a distance of one hundred and
seventy-five miles, in thirty-one hours. The reunion was effected
on September 24, exactly one month from the date of the attack.</p>
<h3><span class="sc">The Helena Tourist Party</span></h3>
<p>Other Yellowstone visitors were caught in the Nez Percé net as
it rolled across the Park. It has been sufficiently indicated that
Chief Joseph maintained a role of dignified restraint, but there
were unprincipled factions under less responsible leadership which
he could not keep under his thumb. While the main tribe was
slowly weaving its course through the Park some of the reckless
young men were foraging far and wide. It is also correct to
observe that bitter resentment had been smoldering toward the
entire white race since the battle of Big Hole. The Nez Percé were
inclined to regard every white man as an enemy.</p>
<p>This Indian psychology, or “bad heart,” helps account for the
conduct of a marauding band of White Bird’s “bucks” toward a
party of Helena tourists north of Hayden Valley. There were ten
men in this company: A. J. Weikert, Richard Dietrich, Frederick
Pfister, Joseph Roberts, Charles Kenck, Jack Stewart, August
Foller, Leslie Wilkie, L. Duncan, and a negro cook named Benjamin
Stone.</p>
<p>On the morning of August 25 this party was traveling along
between Sulphur Mountain and Mud Volcano when they observed
a body of horsemen fording the river. They correctly
<span class="pb" id="Page_181">181</span>
apprehended that the mounted men were hostile Nez Percé.<a class="fn" id="fr_203" href="#fn_203">[203]</a>
Thereupon, the tourists hastily repaired to the timber near the
forks of Otter Creek and formed camp. It was a well-chosen position
and might have been defended effectively if the natural advantages
had been utilized.</p>
<p>However, no harm came to them that day or night. The next
morning Weikert and Wilkie went reconnoitering in the vicinity
of Alum Creek where they encountered a detail of the marauders.
The white men retreated speedily, but Weikert was hit in the
shoulder in the exchange of fire.</p>
<p>In the meantime the camp on Otter Creek was raided. Instead
of posting a lookout the campers were huddled together, waiting
for dinner, and hoping they would continue to escape notice. Mr.
Kenck’s mind was active with forebodings; addressing the elderly
colored cook, he said, “Stone, what would you do if the Indians
should jump us?” Stone laconically replied, “You all take care
ob yoursel’ and I’ll take care ob me.”<a class="fn" id="fr_204" href="#fn_204">[204]</a> In that instant the Nez
Percé struck. The eight tourists scattered like surprised deer.
Kenck was hit and killed; Stewart was shot, fell, and was overtaken.
He pleaded so earnestly for his life that he charmed their
savage impulse and was spared. Dietrich fell in the creek and remained
there four hours.</p>
<p>Ben Stone ran as fast as his old legs would carry him, but in
midstream they gave out, and he lay prone in the water. The
red men left as suddenly as they came. When Wilkie and Weikert
arrived they fell in with some of the others and started for Mammoth.
Joseph Roberts and August Foller had slipped away, and
as it later transpired they went west to Madison River and thence
to Virginia City and home. The other seven reached Mammoth,
where Dietrich and Stone unfortunately decided to remain pending
<span class="pb" id="Page_182">182</span>
the arrival of Roberts and Foller. Dietrich had promised
young Roberts’ mother that he would be responsible for his safe
return.</p>
<p>On August 31, Weikert and McCartney, the “hotel” owner,
left for the Otter Creek campground to look for the two missing
men and to inter the remains of Mr. Kenck. The latter business
accomplished, they were returning when the renegades, who had
just committed a fresh deed of vengeance at Mammoth, met them
at the falls of East Gardner River. A lively skirmish ensued, in
which Weikert’s horse was killed and the others got away, before
a sheltered position was reached. The desperadoes withdrew, and
the white men pursued a cautious course to Mammoth. It was in
this stage of their journey when McCartney, observing that Weikert
was pale as a ghost, asked, “Do I look pale?” “No,” replied his
friend, “Do I?” McCartney answered, “No.” Each was trying
hard to “buck up” the other’s morale.<a class="fn" id="fr_205" href="#fn_205">[205]</a></p>
<p>Upon reaching Mammoth they learned about Dietrich’s fate.
On August 31 he and Stone saw a band of Indians pass McCartney’s
place. They were Nez Percé on their way to Henderson’s
ranch which they ransacked and burned. The next day, when
they returned, Ben Stone made a precipitous exit from the cabin
and ran up Clematis Gulch. Dietrich, evidently believing the
Indians friendly, stood in the doorway. They shot and killed him.
Several days before he had expressed a premonition of death to
Weikert. In view of this condition his conduct was attributed to
inexperience.</p>
<p>Ben Stone, it will be remembered, was the colored cook who
had a narrow call in the Otter Creek melee. This second escapade
was even a closer shave. Stone evidently possessed sufficient of the
quaint humor characteristic of his race to warrant the perpetuation
of an amusing frontier tale.</p>
<p>Following is the story, as related by Stone to the men at Henderson’s
ranch, before he had fully recovered from his scare. The
<span class="pb" id="Page_183">183</span>
account begins at the end, wherein the negro was challenged by a
sentry as he approached the camp:</p>
<p>“‘Halt, who comes dar?’ ‘Ben Stone.’ ‘Come in, Ben Stone.’
An’ you bet I come a-runnin’.” Then he rehearsed the day’s activities
in this wise:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I seed de Injuns comin’ aroun’ in de foah-noon dis mornin’. I
tole Dietrich we had better be a gettin’ out ob dis, but he kept a
sayin’ ‘I’ll neber go back to Mrs. Roberts widout Joe.’ ’Bout ’leven
or twelve o’clock Dietrich says, ‘I’ll go down an’ change de hosses,
re-picket dem, while you git dinnah, Ben.’ ‘I say “all right.”</p>
<p>“Well, while he was gone a changin’ ob de hosses, I looked out
ob de doah an’ seed a Injun stick his head up ober a rock out in
front ob de house. I didn’t wait for no lebe, I didn’t, an’ dropped
eberyting an’ bolted trew de back doah, I did, up into de timbah
an’ laid down awaitin’ for somethin’ to do next. I seed de Injuns all
’bout de house an’ pears like dey was mighty anxious to fine me,
but I wasen’t anxious to fine dem. It war gettin’ along towards night,
and I clim a tree. Purty soon a big Injun rode right down under de
tree a searchin’ aroun’ for me. I jes hel’ my bref an’ say to myself,
‘Oh Mr. Injun; good Mr. Injun, don’t look up dis way!’ Boys, I
’clare to goodness I could hab touched dat Injun’s head wif my foot—but
I didn’t!</p>
<p>“Bye’m-bye de Injun go away down towards de springs an’ I
got down on to de ground an’ strike for de side ob de mountain
whar I laid down. I was a layin’ in de brush, when all ob a sudden
I heerd a crackin’ in de brush. Den, boys, I got right down on
my knees an’ prayed (an’ I hope de God Almighty forgive me,
I neber prayed before sense I lef’ my modder’s knee), but I jes got
down an’ say ‘O Lod God A’mighty, jes help me out ob dis scrape
an’ I will neber interfere wid you no moah!’ I heerd dis noise an’
a crashin’ in de bushes again, an’ I jes laid down wid my face to de
ground an’ I spected to feel de tom hawk in de back of my head.
All ob a sudden I turned ober and dar I seed a big black bar a
lookin’ at me. Boys, I neber was so glad to see a bar afore in all my
life. De bar he got up an’ run, an’ I got up an’ run to de top ob
de mountain when I saw youah camp fire an’ heah I’ is—bress de
Lod!”<a class="fn" id="fr_206" href="#fn_206">[206]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<div class="pb" id="Page_184">184</div>
<p>At the conclusion of this delineation two of Lieutenant Doane’s
friendly Indian scouts rushed toward Stone with arms extended,
exclaiming “How, how!” The distraught negro nearly fainted
from a fresh attack of fright. No amount of explanation could
convince him they were not after his scalp. Indeed, he was certain
that the larger buck was Chief Joseph himself!<a class="fn" id="fr_207" href="#fn_207">[207]</a></p>
<p>Finally his friends Weikert and McCartney arrived, and thereafter
his emotions switched around to unrestrained gratitude to
his maker. The rest of the night was given over to lusty expressions
of praise and hallelujahs. When objections were raised Stone
replied that God had saved his life twice and he was going to
thank Him as long and loud as he liked. Lieutenant Doane was
forced to post a guard to maintain the peace.</p>
<p>At this time word arrived that Roberts and Foller were in Virginia
City. The remains of poor Dietrich, who had been sacrificed
so unnecessarily, were taken to Helena by Weikert. He also took
the remains of Charles Kenck there for final interment.</p>
<p>General Howard leisurely pursued the fleeing Nez Percé marauders
up the Lamar Valley after repairing Baronett’s bridge
which they had partially burned. In the meantime, Joseph’s main
band had crossed Yellowstone River, near Mud Volcano, and followed
the east bank toward the lake. Shively, their captive guide,
directed them up Pelican Creek to its source. Here Joseph’s scouts
reported the presence of miners on the Lamar and Howard’s spies
in the area. The scouts further noted that Colonel Sturgis and
eight troops of the Seventh Cavalry from the Crow Agency on
the Little Rosebud were in position astride the regular Absaroka
Pass near Hart (Heart) Mountain. Joseph was now cut off between
the commands of Howard and Sturgis.</p>
<p>This situation demanded desperate action. The threat of interception
brought forth a masterful stratagem from the Red Napoleon.
<span class="pb" id="Page_185">185</span>
Upon reaching the Lamar-Shoshone Divide, Joseph
turned abruptly southward. Was he striking for Stinking Water?
Sturgis could not risk this chance. He, therefore, whirled in that
direction, pursuing a parallel course—the summit dividing their
forces.</p>
<p>Joseph’s feint worked; he passed by Sturgis’ right flank. He now
doubled back beyond the main Absaroka gateway, toward Clarks
Fork, and plunged through a “hidden” pass located by his feverish
scouts. He fairly hurled his people over the rocky barrier and
dropped them pell-mell down to Clarks Fork.<a class="fn" id="fr_208" href="#fn_208">[208]</a> It was his task
to get the protection of the Crow Indians, cross the Buffalo country,
and reach Canada and safety.</p>
<p>By the time Colonel Sturgis had discovered the deception General
Howard arrived. Indeed, he was already painfully pursuing
the elusive foe through the awful earth gash Joseph had taken.
When the two officers met there was an impressive demonstration
of cussing. Wasn’t there a unit in the whole United States’ Army
that could outwit this red devil?</p>
<p>Spurred by the barbed goad of frustration and anger, Sturgis
pressed on in hot pursuit. On September 13, his troops were in
their saddles at 5 <span class="sc">A.M.</span> When they drew rein at 12 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> sixty
miles had been negotiated. Joseph’s band was still ahead! By
daybreak the soldiers were on the trail again. They halted on the
lower Yellowstone, near Billings. Discouragement pervaded their
ranks; by common consent the Seventh Cavalry was ready to
quit.<a class="fn" id="fr_209" href="#fn_209">[209]</a> They felt a comrade’s compassion for General Howard’s
command.</p>
<p>Two miles away the Nez Percé were headed for the mouth of
Canyon Creek. “Let’s beat ’em to it,” and away they sped. The
Indians gained the protection first. Officers Benteen, Otis, French,
and Merrill’s battalions maneuvered bravely and well, but the
<span class="pb" id="Page_186">186</span>
watchful Nez Percé kept them back. There was rapid sharp shooting
on both sides. When they finally broke through the Indians
had disappeared.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Strewn upon the dusty battlefield were a dozen dead horses,
five soldiers dead and eleven wounded. Night fell, and a cool
wind drummed a funeral dirge upon the mind of many a restless
soldier. When General Howard arrived the next day Sturgis
was still on the trail. A band of Crow Indians had joined the
white forces and were spoiling for a fight, but Sturgis had already
wind-broken his horse and run out of rations. The Indian
pace was too fast for him, but the rapidity of this flight forced
them to abandon nine hundred horses.<a class="fn" id="fr_210" href="#fn_210">[210]</a>
However, Chief Joseph’s
pony supply was augmented by a wholesale seizure from the
Crows. He had crossed the Musselshell; next he would ford the
Missouri which would bring them within the protection of Montana’s
northern wastelands. Canada was not far away. Howard
could never catch him now. Perhaps there would be time to kill
some buffalo, feed their weary ponies, and rest their squaws.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>He was reckoning without the telegraph and the ambitious interest
of Colonel Nelson A. Miles at Fort Keogh on Tongue River.
On September 17, a rider brought Howard’s S. O. S.; immediately
Colonel Miles was all action. That very day he had three
hundred and eighty-three men across Tongue River and on the
march. Twenty-four hours later they were fifty miles away. They
crossed the Musselshell River and marched on to the Missouri,
where a steamboat ferried them across. Ever crowding men and
beasts, he caught up with the Nez Percé on the twenty-ninth of
September.</p>
<p>Joseph had made sure that Howard and Sturgis were far behind.
In fact, they were deliberately slow. “We must not move
too fast lest we flush the game.” Actually both of their commands
<span class="pb" id="Page_187">187</span>
were much depleted. The real job was up to Miles; they were providing
the decoy. This time it worked.</p>
<p>Again, as at Big Hole, Joseph failed to anticipate trouble from
other quarters than Howard’s. The one-armed general was six
days’ march in the rear. Surely they could relax now. Upon
reaching the Bear Paw Mountains he considered his position
secure. He posted no scouts. Joseph obviously believed they had
crossed the international boundary. Later, as he looked back in
retrospection, he said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I sat down in a fat and beautiful country. I had won my freedom
and the freedom of my people. There were many empty places in
the lodges and the council, but we were in a land where we would
not be forced to live in a place we did not want. I believed that
if I could remain safe at a distance and talk straight to the men
that would be sent by the Great Father, I could get back to the
Wallowa Valley and remain in peace. That is why I did not allow
my young men to kill and destroy the white settlers after I began
to fight. I wanted to leave a clean trail, and if there were dead
soldiers on that trail, I could not be to blame. I had sent out runners
to Sitting Bull to tell him that another band of red men had been
forced to run from the soldiers of the Great Father, and to propose
that we join forces if we were attacked. My people were recovering
their health and the wounded getting better of their hurts.<a class="fn" id="fr_211" href="#fn_211">[211]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Joseph’s coveted felicity was roughly arrested on the dawn of
September 30. His brief respite was assailed by the dual forces of
nature and men. Snow flurries whipped the lodge flaps. Horses
milled restlessly. An Indian youth slipped out to reconnoiter. He
perceived the rapid approach of a formidable force of cavalry.
The alarm was given.</p>
<p>Instantly the Nez Percé camp was churning with commotion.
A hundred ponies were laden with squaws and papooses. They
fled north under an escort of sixty braves. The balance of the encampment
fairly clawed out positions of defense along a crescent-shaped
ravine called Snake Creek.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_188">188</div>
<p>By this time the military was in position. Colonel Miles sized
up the situation at a glance and barked commands: “Captain
Hale, draw up on the south flank.” “McHugh, mount the Hotchkiss
and wheel forward.” “Infantry, deploy and follow cavalry
charge; swing the four-pound howitzer to north.” “Troops of
Second Cavalry, surround enemy pony herd.” “Lieutenant McClernand,
retrieve the fleeing train.” “Main cavalry, ready for
frontal assault.” He surveyed the resulting formation, raised his
arm, and shouted, “Attack!”<a class="fn" id="fr_212" href="#fn_212">[212]</a></p>
<p>Reins were loosed, spurs clicked, and away rolled a thundering
avalanche of mounted might. The charging line raced headlong
toward the Indian camp. It was the same speed and precision
that had broken the power of the Sioux and Cheyenne nations.
The Nez Percé grimly waited. At a hundred yards they opened
fire, and the battle broke with a roar.</p>
<p>In the wake of the charge were fifty-three soldiers dead or
wounded. K Troop lost over sixty per cent of their complement.
Joseph’s camp was cut in twain, but the position could not be
forced, and the cavalry passed through. The Nez Percé settled
deeper into their entrenchments, and a state of siege ensued.
However, the Colonel’s pony detail succeeded in rounding up the
Indian ponies. The Nez Percé were now on foot. That night a
six-inch mantle of snow fell. Continuous fire was sustained the
next day. Then a parley was arranged. Joseph was promised a safe
conduct. He accepted but was made a prisoner. However, the
Nez Percé captured an officer named Jerome and held him as
hostage for Joseph. Terms were proposed. Miles demanded unconditional
surrender, but Chief Joseph exacted a promise to
return his people to the Lapwai Reservation. This Miles granted.<a class="fn" id="fr_213" href="#fn_213">[213]</a></p>
<p>On October 4, the fifth day of the siege, Joseph led his haggard
people out of their camp. His head was bowed in awful solemnity.
As he approached a cluster of officers, including General Howard,
<span class="pb" id="Page_189">189</span>
he straightened up and dismounted with dignity. Impulsively he
presented his rifle to Howard, but the general motioned him to
“Bear Coat” Miles.</p>
<p>After disarmament the great chief stepped forward, raised his
arm in a sweeping motion toward the reddening sun, and intoned
the requiem of a dying race:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Tell General Howard that I know his heart. What he told me
before I have in my heart. I am tired of fighting. Our chiefs are
killed. Looking Glass is dead, Tu-hul-hul-sote is dead. The old men
are all dead. It is the young men who now say yes or no. He who
led the young men is dead. It is cold and we have no blankets. The
little children are freezing to death. My people—some of them
have run away to the hills and have no blankets and no food. No
one knows where they are—perhaps freezing to death. I want to
have time to look for my children and see how many of them I can
find. Maybe I shall find them among the dead. Hear me, my chiefs,
my heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now stands I will fight
no more forever.<a class="fn" id="fr_214" href="#fn_214">[214]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The Montana sun was going down; Hin-mut-too-yah-lat-kekht
had spoken as its rays flickered.</p>
<p>The officers came forward and shook his hand. As he turned
away, drawing his blanket over his head, the white soldiers discerned
five bullet holes in his blanket and wounds on his forehead
and wrist.</p>
<p>There was something about this leader that tugged at their
heart strings as he beckoned his children toward their prison
camp. There were four hundred and twelve survivors, including
forty-six wounded. Twenty-six Indians and twenty-seven white
men (plus Miles’ two Indian scouts) had been slain. Joseph’s conduct
in burying the dead and in ministering to his half-starved
and freezing people elicited the admiration of all. As the handsome,
plucky chieftain assuaged their sorrow he seemed greater
than any one man. Surely, here was the embodiment of the Nez
Percé, indeed, of all Indian people. In his person were combined
<span class="pb" id="Page_190">190</span>
elements both noble and tragic. He was the last best specimen of a
truly native race.</p>
<p>By nature Joseph was a modest man and inclined toward peace
and good will. Events forced him into a role that has won eternal
fame. Even General Sherman, who entertained no high sentiments
for Indians, could not withhold his meed of praise:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Thus has terminated one of the most extraordinary Indian wars
of which there is any record. The Indians throughout displayed a
courage and skill that elicited universal praise; they abstained from
scalping; let captive women go free; did not commit indiscriminate
murders of peaceful families and fought with almost scientific skill,
using advance and rear guards, skirmish lines and field fortifications.<a class="fn" id="fr_215" href="#fn_215">[215]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Other competent authorities have gone further. One ventured
the asseveration that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Had Joseph led thousands and had he been born of a people and
in a place less remote from the main currents of history, his name
would resound in our ears like thunder.<a class="fn" id="fr_216" href="#fn_216">[216]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>As it is, the tale of the Nez Percé retreat, surrender, and burning
years of their exile strike a mournful note upon the ears of
men.</p>
<p>At Bear Paw a long “trail of tears” began for Joseph and his
people. There was the solemn trek to Fort Keogh, thence to Bismarck,
on to Fort Leavenworth, and finally to a small Oklahoma
reserve. This was virtually a sentence of death for these mountain-bred
people.<a class="fn" id="fr_217" href="#fn_217">[217]</a> Miles could not make his promise good. Joseph was
depressed by the increasing time and distance. Said he, “The
Great Spirit Chief who rules above seemed to be looking some
other way and did not see what was happening to my people.”</p>
<p>Many government officials called upon Joseph (“White men
<span class="pb" id="Page_191">191</span>
have too many chiefs”). Promises were lightly made (“Look twice
at a two-faced man”). Resolutions were circulated (“Big name
often on small legs”). The wise chief was learning the ways of his
masters.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig29">
<img src="images/pic32.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="238" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Indian war club and peace pipe.</p>
</div>
<p>Joseph’s conqueror became his truest friend. Miles, a general
now, kept working to fulfill his vow. Said he:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I frequently and persistently, for seven long years, urged that
they be sent home to their own country but not until 1884, when I
was in command of the Department of the Columbia, did I succeed
in having them returned west of the mountains near their own
country.<a class="fn" id="fr_218" href="#fn_218">[218]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In 1885, after they had been ravaged by sickness and death,
the remnant of the Nez Percé tribe was established on the Colville
Reservation in Washington state. Here Joseph’s declining years
were spent in the companionship of his wives and children, until
his death on September 21, 1904. There, among a vast concourse
of white and Indian people, Thunder-Traveling-to-Loftier-Heights
was gathered to his fathers.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_192">192</div>
<h2 id="c16"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter XII</span></span>
<br />TRAVEL AND ACCOMMODATIONS—NEW BUSINESSES</h2>
<p>The narration of trapper and miner visits and the account of
final discovery have already described the difficulties of early
travel in Yellowstone. Little segments of animal and Indian trails
were all that broke the untraveled wilderness. Since no funds
were available for any purpose before 1877, the trail building
progress made before that date was negligible.<a class="fn" id="fr_219" href="#fn_219">[219]</a> Until that time
all visitors came on horseback, but while they generally went to
the same places their approaches were different. Each outfit carried
axes, and at least a modicum of effort had to be expended
along the way. Such had been the way of mountain men. They did
not expect someone else to build their roads; neither did they expect
anyone to tell them where to go or camp. Therefore, it was
every outfit to itself; still, companionship claimed its due, and
groups sometimes fell into line and traveled together.</p>
<p>A perusal of old journals shows that packsaddle trips were always
thrilling. It was by pack horse that the presidential party
of August, 1883 visited the Park. It traveled three hundred and
fifty miles, making nineteen camps during its sojourn. The personnel
included the following: President Chester A. Arthur, Secretary
of War Robert T. Lincoln, Senator George Graham Vest,
<span class="pb" id="Page_193">193</span>
General Phil H. Sheridan, General Anson Stager, Colonel Michael
V. Sheridan, Colonel J. F. Gregory, Captain Philo Clark,
Governor Schuyler Crosby (Montana), Judge Rawlins, and Official
Photographer Frank Jay Haynes.<a class="fn" id="fr_220" href="#fn_220">[220]</a> They had a grand time,
and thereafter Yellowstone never lacked friends in high places.</p>
<p>One account tells of traveling three hundred and fifty miles in
twenty-four days. Fish were caught in handfuls, horses caved in
geyser formations, and Indians were seen. All of these activities
were duly reported to a keenly interested American public. Indeed,
a general concern for the President’s security was aroused.
This natural anxiety gave occasion for a rumor that the President’s
safety was in jeopardy, not from accident, wild animals, or
Indians, but rather from a gang of desperadoes. A dispatch bearing
the postmark of Hailey, Idaho, stated that a large band of
Texas criminals had been observed in a mysterious ceremonial
at Willow Park in Yellowstone. According to the report, each man
swore by his dagger to do his duty, which was no less than the
capture of the President of the United States and his entire party.
The captives would then be held in a wilderness cavern until a
ransom of one million dollars had been paid!</p>
<div class="img" id="fig30">
<img src="images/pic33.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="136" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Stagecoach.</p>
</div>
<p>The alarming report that “They are after Arthur!” was followed
by the reassuring word that Sheriff Farcy and a company
<span class="pb" id="Page_194">194</span>
of United States troops were investigating the reported conspiracy.
Certainly the presidential expedition was enveloped in an atmosphere
of high romance!<a class="fn" id="fr_221" href="#fn_221">[221]</a></p>
<p>It is said that camping trips have always been ideal testers of
friendship. Camp life is an excellent form of association because it
is bound to disclose every character trait. Each virtue is surely
tried, and every vice is certain to show itself. Wit, cheerfulness,
patience, and industry were in demand, and their opposites greatly
discounted. Some knowledge of cooking, washing, caring for animals,
and tying the diamond hitch was essential. Good hunters
and fishermen were popular in these camps. Skill in constructing
fir-bough lean-tos against storms and couches for sleeping came
in handy. Last of all, the gift of storytelling and song made its
possessor the head of the nightly campfire circle. Were these the
people the poet envisioned?</p>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">Keep not standing fix’t and rooted,</p>
<p class="t">Briskly venture, briskly roam;</p>
<p class="t0">Head and hand, where’er thou foot it,</p>
<p class="t">And stout heart are still at home.</p>
<p class="t0">In each land the sun does visit</p>
<p class="t">We are gay, whate’er betide:</p>
<p class="t0">To give room for wandering is it</p>
<p class="t">That the world was made so wide.<a class="fn" id="fr_222" href="#fn_222">[222]</a></p>
</div>
<p>Pack outfit owners were a lusty sort. Some of them divided
their time between acting as guides and slaughtering game for
both meat and hides. A few were wholly unscrupulous, both in
their exploitation of the tourists and the Park.<a class="fn" id="fr_223" href="#fn_223">[223]</a> Still others were
<span class="pb" id="Page_195">195</span>
high-type frontiersmen. A description has been left of one Texas
Jack, named John Omohondro, originally from Virginia:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>He is tall, powerfully built, and as he rode carelessly along, with
his long rifle crossed in front of him, he was a picture. He was
dressed in a complete suit of buckskin, and wore a flaming red
neckerchief, a broad sombrero fastened up on one side with a large
eagle feather, and a pair of beautifully beaded moccasins. The
costume of the man, his self-confident pose, and the quick, penetrating
glance of his keen black eye, would give the impression that he
was no ordinary mountaineer.<a class="fn" id="fr_224" href="#fn_224">[224]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Still, Texas Jack was quite typical of most mountain scouts, being
a man of life and blood and fire, blazing with suppressed excitement
in a land of high adventure.</p>
<p>Although the stagecoach took over most of the tourist business
after 1880 a few reliable pack masters remained in business.
Among these was the firm of Grant, Brogan and Lycan of Bozeman,
which conducted a seven-day tour for thirty dollars per
person. Jordan and Howell of Cody had a fourteen-day schedule,
while Howard Eaton, in his day, personally guided more than a
hundred parties around the Park on a twenty-day tour.<a class="fn" id="fr_225" href="#fn_225">[225]</a> In 1923
the trail he used was improved, named, and dedicated to his
memory. The Howard Eaton Trail parallels the Grand Loop
highway. It is maintained by the government and is one of the
most scenic bridle paths in America. It was hoped that many
people would take advantage of this facility, but its public use is
meager.</p>
<p>Travel by stage in Yellowstone was started in 1878 and concluded
in 1917. Since a generation of Americans saw the Park
in that manner, a description of the procedure would be appropriate.
The stagecoach itself was a remarkable vehicle. It was
<span class="pb" id="Page_196">196</span>
substantially built, quite commodious, and reasonably comfortable.
Concord coaches were used; they varied in capacity from
seven to as many as thirty-three seats and were drawn by four
or six horses, according to size. Great leather springs, called thorough
braces, produced a swaying motion which absorbed all but
the most violent shocks. The driver’s seat was perched above the
body of the coach and underneath was a compartment for mail
sacks and express packages. There was a strong platform in the
rear of the coach upon which trunks and suitcases were loaded.
Harness and other gear were always of the best grade and condition.</p>
<p>Several hundred thousand passengers were taken through Yellowstone
by stagecoaches during the thirty-eight years of their
operation. The drivers, therefore, were necessarily men of experience
and resourcefulness. Indeed, they were a sovereign group
and the cynosure of eyes as they cracked their whips and moved
three span of horses away at a half-gallop, half-trot, trained,
showy style. They were held in high esteem, as well they might
be, for each held a position requiring judgment and skill. Several
expert drivers who “tooled” Yellowstone coaches were William
Woolsey, Hub Counter, and Oscar Scoda. They were firm in
resolution, yet polite in manner, and obliging toward passengers.
Generally:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>... they were good entertainers, capable of making what would
otherwise be a long, tedious night ride seem entirely too short to
the passenger, who was fortunate enough to have a seat on the box
beside him, and hear him relate his experiences with Indian and
stage robber.<a class="fn" id="fr_226" href="#fn_226">[226]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The driver’s sole duty consisted of handling the stage while on
the line; others attended to the feeding and harnessing of the
horses, but the teams knew their drivers and responded amazingly
to their wills. A driver could flick a fly off the back of his team
<span class="pb" id="Page_197">197</span>
leaders and bring back his lash without tangling it in the harness
or wagon wheels. Day and night these “kings of the whip” flung
and pulled the “silk” to those fleet creatures of nature, and over
their strength and fears they were ever masters. “Clear the road!
Get out of the way thar with your draft teams!” was their good-natured
salutation as they swung into view, only to disappear at
high speed around a curve or through the lodgepole-lined road.
Unrelaxed, they were ever watchful for gullies, boulders, and road
agents. As they approached a station they forced their horses into
full gallop and brought their coaches up with a grand flourish
before the ever-expectant crowd on hand, waiting for friends
or the mail. One driver boasted that he could drive his outfit down
Beehive Geyser and come out of Old Faithful without losing a
hair!</p>
<p>The advantages of travel by stage included interesting acquaintances
and fresh views into human nature. Close quarters in the
wilderness have always been a touchstone, even thus lightly approached.
The regular trip lasted five days and always seemed
too short. One tourist regretfully observed, “Nothing can be done
well at a speed of forty miles a day.”<a class="fn" id="fr_227" href="#fn_227">[227]</a> As the stage prepared to pull
out some would climb up the sides of the coaches and squeeze
into the open seats on the roof. There, each obtained an unobstructed
view of the landscape and a good sunburn. Others, less
agile or venturesome, would remain in the interior, satisfied with
less elevation, wind, and sun, and nearly as much advantage in
sight-seeing.</p>
<p>There they sat, side by side, hour after hour, old and young,
full of hope and fun and care. Some watched the scenery; others,
the horses. All asked questions—some of them intelligent and
well-conceived, some naïve, and still others ludicrous. They were
usually addressed to the driver, as though skill in handling horses
and familiarity with the area gave authority. Unfortunately, few
drivers understood what they daily saw; still, as a defense against
<span class="pb" id="Page_198">198</span>
frustration, many acquired a knowing air. Great guesses were
made, and occasionally the tourists were deliberately misled. Generally
the driver’s observations were offered in a spirit of fun to
keep the folks from drooping. A few examples have been recorded.
Driving among the Hot Springs on the Mammoth Terraces,
one guide shouted, “Them as likes their bath hot goes in on
the left, and them as likes it cold goes in on the right, and them as
likes it middlin’ goes in the middle.”<a class="fn" id="fr_228" href="#fn_228">[228]</a></p>
<p>At Norris Geyser Basin the following conversation was heard:
One tourist speaking to another, “If we’re too late to see the Monarch
Geyser erupt tonight, we’ll go over and see him before breakfast.”
To which the driver replied, “No you can’t, the Monarch
Geyser is a monarch up here in the Park. You can’t go see him
when you get ready; you’ve got to go when he’s ready.”<a class="fn" id="fr_229" href="#fn_229">[229]</a></p>
<p>One Münchausen-minded guide informed his passengers that
any geyser water, when bottled, retained a strange sympathy with
its water nymph, so that when the geyser erupted the water became
violently agitated; in one instance a bottle was shattered
incident to a particularly powerful eruption! Many such stories
were told by “Buckskin Charley,” “Yankee Jim,” “Billy” Hofer,
and their compatriots. Rudyard Kipling left this description of
Yankee Jim:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Yankee Jim was a picturesque old man with a talent for yarns that
Ananias might have envied.... Yankee Jim saw every one of my
tales and went fifty better on the spot. He dealt in bears and Indians—never
less than twenty each.<a class="fn" id="fr_230" href="#fn_230">[230]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<div class="img" id="fig31">
<img src="images/pic34.jpg" alt="" width="542" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">Courtesy Northern Pacific Ry.</span><br /><i>“Yankee Jim”—James George</i></p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_199">199</div>
<p>James George, better known as “Yankee Jim,” was a pioneer
hunter and trapper who staked his claim in Yankee Jim Canyon
of Yellowstone River, north of Cinnabar and Gardiner. He
shrewdly built twenty-seven miles of toll road through the only
available pass. Yankee Jim delighted in joshing the lady members
of early parties concerning the prospects of bestowing a bit of
affection upon him in lieu of the tolls. Little is known concerning
his success in that direction, but he dealt effectively with the
Northern Pacific Railroad in the matter of a right of way through
his canyon.</p>
<p>As time passed, many people who were beyond the “gape-and-run”
variety complained about the lack of a dependable source
of information. The quips of guides who did not know a marmot
from a cony actually displeased them. However, there were occasions
when even these talkative fellows had the good taste to be
silent.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>They will talk of the Canyon at the hotel and on the drive, but once
there they simply lead you to the points of lookout and leave you
with your own thoughts, or answer your questions in monosyllables.<a class="fn" id="fr_231" href="#fn_231">[231]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>After a long trip on a warm day, through clouds of Yellowstone
dust, the passengers presented an amusing spectacle. Men in
yellow dusters, women in gray ones, topped off by Shaker bonnets.
Hungry, weary, and dejected, they would alight on limbs half-paralyzed
from inactivity. It was then that a person needed a
friend, and that detail was not overlooked by the hotel management.</p>
<p>Perhaps Larry Matthews was more unique than typical, but a
description of him will convey the idea of nineteenth-century
Park hospitality. For several seasons Larry was chargé d’affaires
at the Norris lunch station. Later he was advanced to the management
of an inn at Old Faithful. When coaches pulled up to
Larry’s he would address each passenger in his genial Irish brogue.
Every man received a title of dignity, while he referred to himself
<span class="pb" id="Page_200">200</span>
as the “Mad Irishman” or “Larry Geeser.” Here is a picture of
Larry in action:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Step right up, Judge, eat all you can, break the company, it’s all right
with me. Fine spring lamb (spring of ’72). Eggs, fresh eggs! Just
laid this morning (on the table).</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Thus he kept up a constant rattle that was very funny. As the
coaches rolled away one could hear the tourists remark, “The jolliest
man I ever saw ... such hypnotic ways, such spontaneous
wit; surely no such mortal ever lived before.”<a class="fn" id="fr_232" href="#fn_232">[232]</a></p>
<p>This growing business of transportation and accommodations
was characterized by vigorous competition. Probably the first
conveyance to enter the Park was a stagecoach owned by J. W.
Marshall and his partner, named Goff. It left Virginia City,
Montana, on October 1, 1880. Sixteen hours were required in
traversing the ninety-five miles to Marshall’s National Park
House, a two-story, log-hewed structure located in the Lower
Geyser Basin, near the junction of Firehole and Nez Percé Creek.
These men also built mail stations at Riverside, four miles east
of the West Entrance, and at Norris Geyser Basin.</p>
<p>Frank Jay Haynes, a youthful photographer from St. Paul,
started a stage and photo business in 1881. His efforts have produced
eminent success, and the end is not yet. The photography
side of the business descended from father, Frank Jay, to son,
Jack Ellis. The Haynes Studio still enjoys a flourishing trade, and
its beautiful products are known all over the world.</p>
<p>The Northern Pacific Railroad extended its terminal to Cinnabar
in 1883, where it remained until 1902, when Gardiner was
reached. The next year an impressive ceremony was held at the
North Gate when the Triumphal Arch was dedicated by President
Theodore Roosevelt.</p>
<p>In 1883 the Yellowstone Park Improvement Company organized
<span class="pb" id="Page_201">201</span>
regular tourist travel. The usual routine consisted of alternating
sojourns, whether in Concord stagecoaches, surreys, formation
or spring wagons, and canvas “hotels.” A trip around the
Park cost twenty-five dollars, or a saddle horse could be secured
for two-fifty per day. The following year (1884) George W.
Wakefield put a line of coaches into operation from Cinnabar
through the Park. W. Hoffman was also engaged in the stage
business. These firms were rivals among themselves, and with other
less formidable competitors, for the Northern Pacific’s business.
However, in 1886, the railroad effected a gentlemen’s agreement
with the new and energetic Yellowstone Park Association. Unless
the purchaser of a railroad ticket objected he found a coupon
attached to his ticket that delivered him into the care of the
Yellowstone Park Stage Line and its associated hotels. Coupon
holders paid nine dollars a day while in the Park. Five dollars
were assigned to staging and four dollars to hotel and meals.
Upon alighting from the train, each person was accosted from
several quarters, much as by hackmen in cities, “Are you a coupon,
sir?” “No.” “Would you like my team then?”<a class="fn" id="fr_233" href="#fn_233">[233]</a> Thus, each
would press the bewildered tourist for his business. In 1892 the
Huntley, Child, and Bach interests organized the Yellowstone
Park Transportation Company. They soon dominated the North
Entrance business, and other operators were bought out in 1903.
Four years later this firm was prepared to receive one hundred
and fifty passengers daily at the North Gate. An inventory of its
rolling stock included four six-horse Concord coaches, of thirty-three
seats capacity; ninety four-horse Concords, of eleven and
seven seats; and one hundred two Glens Falls two-horse surreys,
of five and three seat models. It was undoubtedly one of the best-equipped
organizations of the kind in history.<a class="fn" id="fr_234" href="#fn_234">[234]</a></p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_202">202</div>
<p>Passengers entering the Park by way of the West Entrance
came north from Ogden, Utah, on the Utah Northern (later the
Union Pacific) to Spencer, Idaho, or Monida on the Montana-Idaho
border. There they were met by F. J. Haynes’ Monida and
Yellowstone Stage Line or the Bassett Brothers Company. During
the season of 1915 the Haynes firm transported 20,151 tourists
through the Park.</p>
<p>In 1903, when the East Gate road was opened, the Holm
Transportation Company secured a permit to operate a stage line.
The arrival of the Burlington Route to Cody, Wyoming, in 1912,
gave great impetus to that business. The West Entrance had benefited
by a railroad to its gate since 1907, when the Union Pacific
extended the line to West Yellowstone. A branch line was also
built to Victor, Idaho, which made Jackson Hole and the South
Entrance much more accessible. A table of operators and charges,
as of 1914, would represent the stage business in the heyday of
its power.<a class="fn" id="fr_235" href="#fn_235">[235]</a></p>
<p>The evolution of permanent camps and hotels was complementary
to the development of travel. The first permanent house
built was in Clematis Gulch, on the north side of Mammoth Terraces.
It was erected in 1871 by James C. McCartney. This
“hotel” and C. J. Baronett’s bridge and cabin at the forks of the
Yellowstone River were the only improvements made before the
Dedicatory Act was passed. These gentlemen managed to collect
the sum of $9000 for their foresight and property, although
they had to wait until March 1, 1899 to get it.</p>
<p>P. W. Norris’ <i>Annual Report</i> of 1880 lists the following facilities
<span class="pb" id="Page_203">203</span>
then in operation: Mammoth, McCartney’s house and
Matthew McGuirck’s baths; Norris, a rude cabin and barn;
Riverside, a cabin and barn; Firehole River, near the forks, “a
fine shingle roofed mail station and hotel.” The latter three stations
were built by Marshall and Goff. In the Upper Geyser Basin
a small cabin was built by Superintendent Norris in 1879; at the
Lake a cabin and boat were operated by Captain E. S. Topping.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig32">
<img src="images/pic35.jpg" alt="" width="409" height="601" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">Ernest Thompson Seton</span><br />“Uncle” John F. Yancey.</p>
</div>
<p>Two years later John Yancey secured a mail contract and established
a station in Pleasant Valley at the base of Crescent Hill.
Here he was familiarly known as “Uncle John.” He was an old
Kentucky frontiersman stranded in the Park by the flood tide of
<span class="pb" id="Page_204">204</span>
civilization. He chafed constantly at the uneventful days of the
eighties and told his guests thrilling tales of the forties. A pen
portrait has been preserved of him:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Yancey is an odd character, whose looks encourage a belief in reincarnation,
so forcibly does he remind us of the prehistoric. His
hotel, too, belongs to the primeval; its walls are of logs; its partitions
and ceilings of cheese cloth.... Uncle John’s housekeeper, who
performs the duties of cook and chambermaid, confidentially informed
one of our party that it was hard to find time to wash so
many bedclothes every day.<a class="fn" id="fr_236" href="#fn_236">[236]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The meals were most generous, which was a custom closely observed
in those days. This type of accommodation was very repulsive
to some people. Judge Lambert Tree, an ex-United States
Minister to Belgium, characterized the management in general
as outrageous. A report was current that three married couples
and two young women were thrust into a small room to pass the
night. The next camp was twenty miles away, and the only transportation
belonged to the company. In addition, this same party
was advised to walk up Mary Mountain because it was such a
hard pull for the horses. Someone was evidently justified in making
the statement, “As it is today [1884.], I do not think it too
strong to say that at certain points on the route travellers are
treated more like cattle than civilized people.”<a class="fn" id="fr_237" href="#fn_237">[237]</a></p>
<p>These reports reached the Secretary of the Interior, and a number
of new leases were promptly granted for the erection of hotels
and the necessary outbuildings.<a class="fn" id="fr_238" href="#fn_238">[238]</a> About this time Superintendent
Wear was accused of persuading Graham and Klamer, owners of
the Firehole Hotel, to sell out. In any case, a new hotel was built
in the Lower Geyser Basin in 1884 by C. T. Hobart. He and
<span class="pb" id="Page_205">205</span>
Robert E. Carpenter also erected a frame building the next year
on the present site of Old Faithful Inn. At the same time the Cottage
Hotel was erected in Mammoth by Walter L. Henderson.<a class="fn" id="fr_239" href="#fn_239">[239]</a>
The Yellowstone Park Association also built hotels in Mammoth
and Norris in 1885, Lake in 1887, Canyon in 1890, and the following
year they completed the peerless Fountain Hotel. It was
located on a hill in a strategic position in the Lower Geyser Basin.
From its lofty veranda the Fountain Geyser could be observed
playing. The Fountain House was an imposing structure. It was
modern in every way, having electricity and steam heat. Two hundred
guests could be entertained, and when they went to dinner
a head waiter in evening dress greeted them. In 1887 the Norris
Hotel burned down, and in 1894 the one at Old Faithful did
likewise.<a class="fn" id="fr_240" href="#fn_240">[240]</a></p>
<p>During the season of 1894 the pressure of criticism was brought
to bear upon the entire Yellowstone transportation and accommodation
setup. The country was in the throes of a depression,
and the rates seemed exorbitant. It appears that the Yellowstone
Park Transportation Company had been very reluctant in allowing
stopover privileges. It collected just as much by holding
strictly to schedule; whereas, the hotels made more on holdovers.
This diversity of interest suggested the idea that it might be
expedient to have the management of both industries in the same
hands.</p>
<p>It was William W. Wylie, of Bozeman, who conceived a plan
which met the demand. Since 1883 he had operated a ten-day
tour, using portable tents. He would organize a stage line and
<span class="pb" id="Page_206">206</span>
cater to the masses by establishing a string of permanent camps,
with eating halls and sleeping quarters. By using canvas, his investment
would be small, and he could cut the cost of a trip
through the Park in half. Therefore, in 1896, he secured a franchise,
and the “Wylie Way” went into operation.</p>
<p>Of course, the more conservative competitors resented this invasion
from “the other side of the tracks.” Captain George S.
Anderson was also opposed to a string of “shanty towns.” The
matter was given a public hearing by <i>Forest and Stream</i> in its
issue of February 5, 1898, entitled “Nuisances in Yellowstone
Park.” Mr. Wylie, known in Yellowstone as “the Professor,”
wrote a vigorous rebuttal for the following issue. Other publications
entered into the controversy, as did many of Wylie’s most
satisfied customers. The question involved was whether the
American people, in the enjoyment of their own pleasure ground,
should be limited to one set of accommodations, which only the
wealthy could afford.<a class="fn" id="fr_241" href="#fn_241">[241]</a> The verdict of the public, from which
there is no appeal, was definitely with “the Professor.” The business
flourished and won an acceptable position in the more complete
system that evolved.</p>
<p>In the meantime an actual nuisance was committed by several
hotel operators. They attempted to assemble and maintain wild
life menageries. The government necessarily allowed stables and
pastures for horses and cows, but that was all. Nevertheless,
several managers also tried to raise pigs, although extreme precautions
were essential to save them from bears. Colonel E. C.
Waters had a “veritable stockade-pen of heavy logs bolted all
around.”<a class="fn" id="fr_242" href="#fn_242">[242]</a> Perhaps the most flagrant offender in this respect
was the Yellowstone Boat Company. As an inducement to take
a boat ride, this firm confined buffalo, elk, and bighorn in corrals
<span class="pb" id="Page_207">207</span>
on Dot Island. This untoward act, together with the prices
charged for boat rides, brought many complaints, and upon
official request the animals were promptly released.<a class="fn" id="fr_243" href="#fn_243">[243]</a></p>
<p>Mosquitoes were an ever-present nuisance, sometimes assuming
the proportion of a plague. Accustomed to the pursuit of
fleet four-footed prey, they assailed slow-moving <i>Homo sapiens</i>
with particular gusto. Gleeful appreciation seemed discernible
in their song. By day and night, unless the wind was blowing, the
tourists were kept busy swatting those vexatious, glory-minded,
musical-winged, bold denizens of the forest.</p>
<p>Perhaps the most persistent annoyance, next to mosquitoes, was
the prevalence of dust. One traveler laconically observed that
he rode “from geyser to canyon, to waterfall, in a chaos of dust,
until he returned on the fifth day a wiser and dustier man.”<a class="fn" id="fr_244" href="#fn_244">[244]</a>
But an elderly man, probably afflicted with asthma, entered the
Fountain Hotel, singled out the manager, and shaking his finger
in his face, dramatically shouted, “A man who would permit
women and children to enter the Park, with the roads in their
present condition, is an old scoundrel!”<a class="fn" id="fr_245" href="#fn_245">[245]</a> How did cyclists ever
manage to get around? Incredible though it appears they went
through right along after 1882. To be sure, their voices were
added to the chorus calling for better roads. These protests resulted
in the adoption of a sprinkling system that will be described
subsequently.</p>
<p>The most revolutionary proposal for a change in travel facilities,
coming in 1894, was a demand for railroads. There were
propositions wholly independent of the Montana segregation
case. Many people sincerely favored the entrance of trains on
their own merits. The issue was discussed in the House of Representatives
<span class="pb" id="Page_208">208</span>
on December 17, by the Hon. Henry H. Coffeen of
Wyoming. Speaking of the operators, he said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>... they are holding on to a theory of sacred maintenance of the
stage coach and broncho riding method of reaching this great Wonderland
at a time when the superior advantages of railroad travel
ought to be granted to the people.... These journeys going round
the Park, so to say, and coming in at the back door by tedious night
and day stage rides are so expensive, the time and inconveniences
so great and the season so short (three months) that the great bulk
of our population must forever stay out and remain in ignorance
of the scenes of the Park. Not one hundredth part of one per cent
of our people per year could possibly visit the Park by these methods.<a class="fn" id="fr_246" href="#fn_246">[246]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>While this argument did not produce a change of policy it did
give an impetus to road building. A brief review of that important
development would be appropriate.</p>
<p>Reference has already been made to the rude trails hacked out
by government expeditions and early tourists and also to the
trace improvised by C. J. Baronett and his associates, which led
from Mammoth to his bridge at the forks of the Yellowstone and
along the east branch to the mines at Cooke, Montana. In 1877
General Howard’s captain, W. F. Spurgin, made a faint apology
for a road in bringing his wagons from Mary Mountain to Tower
Falls. It was the next year when the first wagons managed a round
trip from Mammoth, and also the West Entrance, to the Upper
Geyser Basin. In building a road across the base of Obsidian Cliff,
Colonel Norris employed a unique tactic in road making. Great
bonfires were burned over the black glass, which made it expand;
then cold water was dashed upon it, shattering the material so
that it could be chopped out.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_209">209</div>
<div class="img" id="fig33">
<img src="images/pic36.jpg" alt="" width="538" height="800" />
<p class="pcap">Golden Gate drive</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_210">210</div>
<p>In the early eighties the matter of road making was taken over
by the army engineers. Until 1895 actual control was in the hands
of non-resident officers, which proved unsatisfactory. After that
the Acting Superintendent exercised supervision. Captain Anderson
had a soldier’s and a surveyor’s eye for feasible routes. He
favored the construction of twenty miles of good dirt road with
fair grades to one mile of macadam and the resulting delay in
opening the Park to the public.<a class="fn" id="fr_247" href="#fn_247">[247]</a> The principal supervisors were
Captain D. C. Kingman and Major Hiram M. Chittenden.
Through their combined efforts the Grand Loop was planned
and patiently constructed. In 1892 the road from Old Faithful
to West Thumb was started. It took five years to get through to
Jackson Lake. At the same time work progressed on the long section
from Thumb to Fishing Bridge and thence to the East Entrance.
That project was finished and accessible from Cody in
1903. Two years later the difficult Dunraven Pass and the scenic
Chittenden Road to the summit of Mt. Washburn were ready.
These were the last links in the Grand Loop. Of course, there
have been continuous changes and refinements. In general the
trend has been away from the plateaus to the more scenic river
routes. Stretches through the Golden Gate, under Overhanging
Cliff, and through the Gibbon and Firehole canyons are both interesting
and costly.</p>
<p>In 1902 an experiment was made with the view of solving the
dusty road problem. Several wide-tired sprinklers were tried out.
The following year the number was increased, and more than
thirty filling tanks were installed along the way. Most of them
were filled by gravity and rams. In this way over a hundred miles
of highway was moistened daily. Still, there were times when the
dust was too thick for any effective treatment that man could
devise.<a class="fn" id="fr_248" href="#fn_248">[248]</a> Of course, nature had an adequate remedy, which it
<span class="pb" id="Page_211">211</span>
occasionally employed. Superintendent Albright related an instance:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Once I had a large congressional party in Yellowstone. It was in
charge of the late James W. Good. Yellowstone’s roads were terribly
dusty and the water sprinkling was of little value. We wanted
Congress to adopt an oiling program but every night while the Committee
was in the Park it rained and the roads were perfect. Nevertheless
every day I told of the dust menace and urged the improvement,
but the congressmen only laughed and some member would
say “Albright’s going to tell his old dusty road story again.”<a class="fn" id="fr_249" href="#fn_249">[249]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Continuing the narrative, Superintendent Albright told this
story:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Another year, I met a sub-committee of the House Appropriations
Committee at the Grand Canyon National Park. Congressman,
now United States Senator, Carl Hayden, was with the party when
they reached the park. Here again we had a problem of terrible
roads. The committee had not had much sleep the night before
arrival due to changing trains, and when I took them over the
worst road in the park they went to sleep on me. I bounced them
into every rut and hole I could find, but even then I had to shake
them to wake them up. For a long time they contended that the road
was a boulevard, but finally authorized the improvement desired. On
the same trip, Congressman Cramton of Michigan, for years the stalwart
champion of national parks, saw a camper stop his car near the
Grand Canyon Park office. He went over to him seeking information
about the conduct of the park. The tourist gave him a vigorous
denunciation of the roads in the park, and Mr. Cramton always
claimed that I planted the camper there to trap him.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The suggestion frequently came to the Superintendent that he
should sprinkle the roads with water from Alum Creek. That
would shorten the distance and simplify the task!</p>
<p>In 1917 the National Park Service assumed control over all
road construction and maintenance. Since then a comprehensive
policy of scientific road making has been followed; grades have
<span class="pb" id="Page_212">212</span>
been modified, while at the same time great cuts and fills have
been avoided so far as possible; turns have been eased and widened;
and in recent years all the roads have been paved with oil
mix. An appropriation of $3,369,450 in 1933, under the National
Recovery Act, became the basis of the marvelous improvements
made in recent years. In 1937 a remarkably scenic highway was
completed from Red Lodge, Montana, to the Northeast Gate.
After 1928, Cecil A. Lord directed the engineering activities of
the Park until his death in 1943, whereupon Park Engineer
Philip H. Wohlbrandt assumed that important responsibility.</p>
<p>The year 1915 was indeed a banner one in Yellowstone transportation
history. It was the first year automobiles were admitted,
and consequently heralded the end of the stagecoach. Actually,
staging lingered through another season, but the race was over
as the poet said:</p>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">Here’s to you, old stage driver,</p>
<p class="t0">We’ll hear your shout no more,</p>
<p class="t0">Your stage with rust is eaten,</p>
<p class="t0">Beside the old Inn’s door;</p>
<p class="t0">The auto-bus and steam car</p>
<p class="t0">Have cut your time in two;</p>
<p class="t0">Throw up your hands, old “stage hoss,”</p>
<p class="t0">They’ve got the drop on you!<a class="fn" id="fr_250" href="#fn_250">[250]</a></p>
</div>
<p>Few people expressed any regret, because of the hardships incident
to travel by stagecoach. Still, it is the opinion of many that
advantages exceeded inconvenience. The West, as now seen from
the window of a train or motor car, is not the country introduced
by stagecoach. With all the additional comfort, there is a loss
of an indefinable something, subtle, yet well understood by those
who have driven at a six-mile-an-hour pace through the almost
unbroken solitude of another era. In contrast, regularly scheduled
airplane flights over the Park have been available from time to
<span class="pb" id="Page_213">213</span>
time since 1937. There are no airports in the Park, but they are
to be found nearby at West Yellowstone and Gardiner, Montana.</p>
<p>It should also be remembered that during the previous forty
years innumerable private parties made leisurely visits and
camped where they pleased. The Park must have been an idyllic
place in those “horse and buggy” days, a hunting and fishing
Elysium, especially until 1894. Since then fishermen may take
a generous catch of trout without any license except a bona fide
presence in the Park.</p>
<p>Although admitted under the most onerous terms the automobile
revolutionized the travel there as elsewhere. Always well-filled
with regulations, official bulletins now fairly bristled with
instructions to motorists. Fees were $7.50 for a single trip or
$10.00 for the season; all cars were required to enter the gates
between 6:45 and 7:15 <span class="sc">A.M.</span> A printed schedule specified the
time of arrival at, and departure from, the control stations.<a class="fn" id="fr_251" href="#fn_251">[251]</a>
Fines were imposed for arrival at any point before the approved lapse of
time at the rate of $0.50 per minute for each of the first five
minutes, $1.00 per minute for each of the next twenty minutes,
$25.00 fine or ejection from the Park, or both, at the discretion
of the Acting Superintendent, for being more than twenty-five
minutes early. The following regulations and restrictions were
strictly enforced: Speed, twelve miles per hour ascending steep
<span class="pb" id="Page_214">214</span>
grades; ten miles per hour descending steep grades; eight miles
per hour approaching sharp curves and passing other vehicles.
The maximum speed limit in 1922 was twenty-five miles per hour.
Teams had the right of way and also the inside of the roadway
in passing. Motorists were required to sound horns at all curves
where the road was not in view at least two hundred yards ahead.
Surely the motorists were in a defensive position, but they came
anyway. A total of 3,513 auto passengers toured the Park in the
abbreviated season after August 1, 1915. The grand total for the
year was 51,895 in all conveyances.</p>
<p>The advent of motor vehicles speeded up every phase of Park
administration. However, World War I provided a respite for
making adjustments. In fact, a thorough reorganization of the
entire concession system was effected in 1917. The main feature
involved was the consolidation of transportation under the management
of the Yellowstone Park Transportation Company. The
purpose of this franchise was to eliminate the pressure of rivals
upon the passengers, facilitate supervision, and promote economy.<a class="fn" id="fr_252" href="#fn_252">[252]</a>
The Yellowstone Park Company proceeded to make a
large capital investment by motorizing all transportation. Thereupon,
the familiar yellow bus superseded the ancient stagecoach.
It is an interesting thing to observe a caravan of twenty buses
winding its way along a river drive or parked before a museum
while a ranger-naturalist gives the passengers a quick orientation
in the area.</p>
<p>It would be fair to inquire if the bus driver (gear jammer)
showed any improvement over the stagecoach driver in the matter
of instructing the public. Not if the 1921 edition of <i>Truthful Lies</i>
correctly represents the situation, because that little booklet was
a congeries of unadulterated nonsense reduced to a system.<a class="fn" id="fr_253" href="#fn_253">[253]</a> However,
a gradual improvement has been made, and in recent years
all of the new drivers have gone around the “Loop” with a
<span class="pb" id="Page_215">215</span>
naturalist. From him they received helpful suggestions relative
to natural interpretation. A few days after one of these induction
tours the following conversation was reported to have taken
place when passing a beaver dam: “Now, there is a beaver dam,
but where are the dam beavers?” The driver straightened up and
replied, “I’ll be damned if I know.”</p>
<p>At this point it should be remembered that, although the great
concourse visit Yellowstone in cars, many tourists come in buses,
motorcycles, and bicycles. It should also be noted that travel by
horseback has always persisted. Until the advent of the automobile
this method was in general use. Indeed, firms were organized
to provide grand tours of several weeks’ duration. The Howard
Eaton Trail and various adjuncts are still used by horseback
parties each summer. In fact, several trail-riding associations
sponsor these trips under competent leadership. In this manner
an excellent Park tradition is being sustained for the benefit and
enjoyment of a chosen few possessed of the necessary time and
hardihood.</p>
<p>In 1936 the long-expected union of transportation and accommodations
took place. The Yellowstone Park Transportation Company
acquired all of the housing facilities and deleted the word
Transportation from its title.<a class="fn" id="fr_254" href="#fn_254">[254]</a> In analyzing the business of previous
years, President William M. Nichols and his associates noticed
a definite trend away from commercial transportation and first
class American plan hotel accommodations. Therefore, they rapidly
expanded the lower-priced cabins, together with cafeterias
and coffee shops. They are now pursuing a carefully worked out
program of improvement. Practical pre-fabricated cabins are to
be established in well-arranged units in every station.<a class="fn" id="fr_255" href="#fn_255">[255]</a> In 1956
the company had available some 3,150 rooms or units of lodging,
<span class="pb" id="Page_216">216</span>
with an aggregate capacity for housing 8,500 people. These accommodations
consist of hotels, lodges, and housekeeping cabins.
The services of twenty-seven hundred employees were required
to operate these facilities. The annual Park population census
taken on August 9, 12, and 14, 1955, disclosed an average population
of 14,912 for the three days. Of this number 11,183 were
visitors while 3,729 were employees. The grand total for the
1955 season was 1,368,515 visitors.</p>
<p>Tourists require many things besides food and shelter. Yellowstone’s
policy has favored making these wants attainable. In this
field regulations have also modified certain practices common
to general business conditions. Franchises have been kept at a
minimum, and competition does not exist within a particular
camp. However, Park merchants are required to keep their prices
in line with the index of the market area.</p>
<p>Motion pictures and other forms of indoor recreation are
conspicuously absent, although the lodges sponsor two hours of
entertainment and dancing for their guests and the public at
large. These also function to keep the employees contented.</p>
<p>A general statement having been made, a brief sketch of Yellowstone’s
business enterprises would be in order. Frank Jay
Haynes, the pioneer photographer, built his first picture shop at
Mammoth in 1884. Since that time a Haynes Studio has been
a familiar institution in Yellowstone camps. Another Mammoth
Hot Springs store was opened in 1889 by Ole Anderson. For a
time he was allowed to sell bottles of highly colored Park sand
and also specimens coated with calcium carbonate. This store
was purchased by Anna K. Pryor and Elizabeth Trischman in
1908. They soon reorganized it into the Park Curio and Coffee
Shop. Later they acquired the Mammoth general store and a grocery
store near Canyon Junction. The latter had been established
by a released Park soldier, George Whittaker.</p>
<p>The first store in the Upper Geyser Basin was built by Henry
E. Klamer in 1897. A ten-year franchise for a geyser water swimming
<span class="pb" id="Page_217">217</span>
pool was granted Henry J. Brothers in 1914. The following
year Charles A. Hamilton acquired control of these interests
and laid the foundation for a thriving business there. Hamilton
also has general stores at Thumb, Lake, and Fishing Bridge,
and in 1953 acquired the Pryor interests in the Park.</p>
<p>The Yellowstone Park Service Stations are owned jointly by
Hamilton Stores, Inc. and the Yellowstone Park Company. Gasoline,
oil, and supplies are available at the lone multi-pump
service station assigned to each camp.<a class="fn" id="fr_256" href="#fn_256">[256]</a> The public garage business
is in the hands of the Yellowstone Park Company. Thus, it
is obvious that all of the Park’s mercantile business is the concern
of three operators, Haynes, Hamilton, and the Yellowstone
Park Company. Each operates under the terms of a government
franchise and is subject to National Park Service regulation and
supervision at all times.</p>
<p>The essential public utilities are provided by the National Park
Service. They consist of public camp grounds with cement cooking
units, toilet facilities, telephones, water, lights, and sewage disposal.
These substantial projects have been developed through the
years with a capital expenditure that runs in excess of a million
dollars.<a class="fn" id="fr_257" href="#fn_257">[257]</a></p>
<p>In 1912 a general hospital was built in Mammoth. It is closely
affiliated with a similar institution in Livingston, Montana. Medical
doctors and trained nurses are on duty at the principal stations
throughout the Park. This arrangement assures the public
of medical attention in case of accidents or illness.</p>
<p>In 1913 the government built a Community Chapel at Mammoth.
During the summer months services are usually conducted
there and at the lodges or amphitheaters by the Catholic, Protestant,
and Latter-day Saint (Mormon) faiths.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_218">218</div>
<p>The postal service in Yellowstone has had a colorful evolution.
The mail has always come through, either by scout, stage
driver, bus, or “star route” mail car. In 1937 a fine post office
was erected in Mammoth. It does business there the year around;
while postal stations at Old Faithful, West Thumb, Lake, Fishing
Bridge, Canyon, and Tower Falls are open only during the
summer season.</p>
<p>Thus does a cross-section of America meet by canyon, geyser,
lake, and waterfall. They also foregather around counters, tables,
lobbies, and evening camp fires. It would be difficult to find a
more representative assembly of American society. Many people
consider this interesting human equation one of the most enjoyable
experiences in the Park.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_219">219</div>
<h2 id="c17"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter XIII</span></span>
<br />“THE YELLOWSTONE IDEA”</h2>
<p>It has already been disclosed that Yellowstone Park has served
the nation as an experimental unit in certain fields of conservation.
While this is true, it would not be correct to regard the Park
as the single place of origin for such a complex and salutary movement.
Today the conservation of natural resources is one of
America’s most popular and cherished causes, but it was not
always so. A brief review of the conservation issue will provide a
background for a correct appraisal of the position of the National
Park System in relation to the nation’s over-all conservation
program.</p>
<p>When the first colonies were established along the Atlantic seaboard
America was a land of trees. This profusion of flora constituted
an obstacle counted more serious than hostile Indians.<a class="fn" id="fr_258" href="#fn_258">[258]</a>
The natives had already fully cleared limited areas from the ravages
of ancient fires, but the great forest stood almost limitless, and
it was dense. Ambitious farmers yearned for the sight of bare
ground; all trees irritated their eyes and caused them to reach
for their axes. They wanted soil as rich as a barnyard, level as a
floor, stone free, cleared clean of trees, without cost.<a class="fn" id="fr_259" href="#fn_259">[259]</a> Except for
the absence of trees, these amazing requirements were largely
<span class="pb" id="Page_220">220</span>
possible of fulfillment because never before had “heaven and earth
agreed better to frame a place for man’s habitation.”<a class="fn" id="fr_260" href="#fn_260">[260]</a> Here, indeed,
was another Eden once it was redeemed from the leafy
wilderness.</p>
<p>Colonials rallied to the challenge of a conquest over nature.
They “drove” whole groves by partially felling each in a series
and then touching off a chain reaction with the downfall of a
ponderous giant. Thus did settlers cleave their way into the
forests, rejecting in nature all that was not of immediate practical
value. A little poem published in 1692 depicts their philosophy:</p>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">In such a wilderness ...</p>
<p class="t0">When we began to clear the land ...</p>
<p class="t0">Then with ax, with Might and Strength,</p>
<p class="t0">The trees so thick and strong ...</p>
<p class="t0">[These] we with Fire, most furiously</p>
<p class="t0">To ashes did confound.<a class="fn" id="fr_261" href="#fn_261">[261]</a></p>
</div>
<p>Next to the destruction of trees in clearing operations came the
use of wood for fuel. A river steamboat or railroad locomotive
required from twenty to thirty cords per day. “Woodhawks”
literally denuded whole forests to supply these needs. Houses were
largely built of wood, and it was liberally used in all domestic
operations. In winter the family kept warm, not by securing “sich
uppish notions” as blankets, but by throwing more wood on the
fire, “nobody needn’t suffer with a great fire to sleep by.”<a class="fn" id="fr_262" href="#fn_262">[262]</a> Rails
were used in building fences at the rate of twenty-six thousand per
section. The increase of population and acceleration of industrial
activity in the early nineteenth century took a heavy toll from
the forests. Fires were started by sparks from steam engines and
by careless hunters, with the result that the precious blotter of
<span class="pb" id="Page_221">221</span>
humus, millenniums in building, was often destroyed in a flash.
For two centuries America had advanced westward in a wood
age, and trees were always in the way.</p>
<p>However, there were wise men who had always deplored tree
waste. William Penn insisted that one acre of forest remain for
each five cleared. Benjamin Franklin invented a stove to save
fuel. George Washington and Peter Kalm warned of dangers
ahead from floods and erosion through wanton clearing of land.<a class="fn" id="fr_263" href="#fn_263">[263]</a>
In 1813, Thomas Jefferson sagely wrote:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The spontaneous energies of the earth are a gift of nature, but they
require the labor of man to direct their operation. And the question
is so to husband this labor as to turn the greatest quantity of this
useful action of the earth to his benefit.<a class="fn" id="fr_264" href="#fn_264">[264]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>It will be noted that the foregoing suggestions were made by
practical men upon sound considerations. However, there came
an occasional complaint upon the philosophic and aesthetic level.
Jonathan Edwards, André Michaux, George Catlin, and William
Cullen Bryant were among those who visualized nature as a dynamic
organization of living creatures worthy of existence in
their own right and for the joy they gave. Their appreciation is
illustrated by this verse:</p>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">To see a World in a Grain of Sand</p>
<p class="t0">And Heaven in a Wild Flower,</p>
<p class="t0">Hold Infinity in the palm of his hand,</p>
<p class="t0">And Eternity in an hour.</p>
</div>
<p>To be sure, little resulted from this approach; the time was
not ripe. But these slender stirrings of thought and twitchings of
conscience in high places were bound to be fruitful in results
later on.</p>
<p>By the middle of the nineteenth century the springs and streams
<span class="pb" id="Page_222">222</span>
which had previously provided a murmuring labyrinth of dependable
forest hospitality and protection had become irregular,
undependable, and sometimes downright vicious. The lifeblood
of the land, which, under nature’s balance, had throbbed daily
and monthly almost as evenly as the sea, was now given to torrential
rages in early June which were reduced to feeble trickles
in July. Restless farmers found their plantings delayed until after
the spring floods abated, and although the willing seed germinated
quickly the tender plants were desiccated by midsummer
heat. These conditions made it increasingly apparent that Americans
would soon be compelled to approach nature as a friend
rather than as an adversary. Any other course was suicidal.</p>
<p>By 1850 a new and more persuasive corps of conservationists
was emerging. They affirmed that a nation desiring nature’s rewards
must first learn her laws and then obey them implicitly.<a class="fn" id="fr_265" href="#fn_265">[265]</a>
They defined conservation as the protection and development of
the full usefulness of natural resources, including forests, waters,
minerals, scenery, and the land itself. Among these far-seeing men
were Henry Thoreau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and John Muir.
Through a persuasive campaign of lecturing and writing they
established the plain fact that Americans, as a people, had never
learned to love the land and regard it as an enduring resource.
Rather had they viewed it as a field for exploitation and a source
of immediate financial return.</p>
<p>Although the effect of these declarations was quite negligible,
still Congress did appoint several timber agents in 1850. This
was the first glimmering of a systematic approach to the inspection
and policing of federal timber resources. But what have
these humble beginnings in conservation to do with the Yellowstone
National Park idea? Only this, a child cannot take a second
step until it takes the first. Americans have never been particularly
inclined toward sentimentality. A national pleasuring ground,
<span class="pb" id="Page_223">223</span>
such as Yellowstone Park, designed to serve “as a great breathing
place for the national lung, as a place to which every American
citizen can resort,” could not have come into being without considerable
intellectual preparation.<a class="fn" id="fr_266" href="#fn_266">[266]</a></p>
<p>Congress could hardly be expected to enact protective legislation
to stem this traditional exploitation until the idea of conservation
became reasonably articulate and popular. Remember,
that even at mid-century the thinkers were still groping for a
program. Perhaps the first American possessed of both the appreciation
and imagination to forecast what later evolved into the
National Park program was George Catlin. When traveling up
the Missouri River in 1832 he was so impressed as to write, “The
realms might in future be seen preserved in their pristine beauty
and wildness, in a magnificent park ... containing man and
beast, in all the wild and freshness of their nature’s beauty.”<a class="fn" id="fr_267" href="#fn_267">[267]</a></p>
<p>In 1844 Ralph Waldo Emerson generalized upon the public
need for recreational areas. “The interminable forests,” said he,
“should become graceful parks for use and delight.” Henry
Thoreau was even more penetrating when he wrote:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Why should not we ... have our national preserves ... in which
the bear and panther, and some even of the hunter race, may still
exist, and not be “civilized” off the face of the earth ... for inspiration
and our true re-creation? Or should we, like villains, grub them
all up for poaching on our own national domains?<a class="fn" id="fr_268" href="#fn_268">[268]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Perhaps these men reached these conclusions more by inspiration
than logic, but in George P. Marsh, conservation had a
sound advocate. He spoke and wrote with authority upon the
principle of “conserving unique areas for their greatest values,”
whether utility or scenery. In his book, <i>Man and Nature</i>, published
in 1864, he argued persuasively for balanced economy and
<span class="pb" id="Page_224">224</span>
pointed to the fact of man’s ultimate dependence upon elemental
things. These wise views concerning forest influences upon precipitation,
springs, sand storms, floods, and man’s own property
made a deep impression upon many people.<a class="fn" id="fr_269" href="#fn_269">[269]</a> Since then the good
work has been continued by other scientists. In 1948, <i>Our Plundered
Planet</i>, written by Fairfield Osborn, reviewed the nation’s
unpalatable record of negligence and waste. He characterized
the Americans as energetic, destructive, violent, and unthinking.
Considering the element of time, the United States has received
more reckless treatment than any other segment of the world. As
a result, vast resources are gone beyond hope of redemption, but
others are renewable through the application of scientific principles.</p>
<p>The tide of the world’s population is rising; the reservoir of
the earth’s resources is falling. Since World War II, America
seems to be in the middle position of strain. In these circumstances,
will it be possible to maintain and enlarge the standard
of living as in the past eras? Fairfield Osborn insists that our attitude
toward conservation holds the key to the problem. Success
in this endeavor will require supreme cooperation among government,
industry, labor, scientific research, and the public at large.
Should this grand partnership eventuate, Mr. Osborn has promised
that “no end is visible or even conceivable to this kingdom of
adventure.”</p>
<p>Interest in these great truths is well established now and will
not be permitted to decline, because America has many scientists
at work in the field of soil conservation. This work is furthered
by the specialists of the U. S. Soil Conservation Service. The soil
experts constantly remind the farmers, and others, that America
possessed an average top “black” soil depth of nine inches when
settlement was first started. They now estimate the average to be
between six and seven inches. Soil conservationists hasten to
<span class="pb" id="Page_225">225</span>
point out that rocks disintegrate slowly, and that ages, not centuries,
are required for the growth and decay of plants needed in
the production of rich humus soil. Soil scientists do not simply call
attention to dangers. They have developed dependable and salutary
cultivating practices such as contour plowing of tillable soil
and terracing of range land. They advise plowing stubble and
cover crops under to add fertility and cohesion to the soil.</p>
<p>Experimentation has been fruitful from the standpoint of discovering
grass and legume adaptability to the different soil conditions.
One phase of national security is contingent upon the
effectiveness with which these practices are applied by all who
work with farm, range, and forest resources. The record will
prove that nearly 300,000,000 acres of land have been practically
destroyed by erosion in the United States. Twice that acreage is
rapidly deteriorating under the same forces.</p>
<p>Remember, that it was only a century ago when Americans
received their first rudimentary lessons in exercising a little common
sense in the exploitation of resources, whether for crops,
lumber, mineral, livestock, or recreational opportunities.</p>
<p>Referring again to the status of conservation and natural philosophy
in the middle nineteenth century, it should be noted that
several California citizens first beheld the beauty of Yosemite in
1851. Inspired and overwhelmed by the sheer grandeur of these
high Sierra marvels, they returned to commune again and again.
Artists, photographers, and authors joined the growing procession,
and most of them concurred in the opinion that it was “the
greatest marvel on the continent.” Increasing appreciation and
popularity developed into a movement for segregation under
state ownership and operation. In 1864 an application was made
for a federal land grant with that end in view. A strong committee,
headed by Israel Ward Raymond, drafted the resolution and
passed it along to U.S. Senator John Conness. He presented a bill
which was passed and signed by President Lincoln on June 29,
1864. The grant was given “upon the express conditions that the
<span class="pb" id="Page_226">226</span>
premises shall be held for public use, resort and recreation shall
be held inalienable for all time.”<a class="fn" id="fr_270" href="#fn_270">[270]</a></p>
<p>The federal government was gradually warming toward the
reservation idea in areas of little economic resistance from private
interests. Even so, there was no thought of a national park program,
but a tract of federal land had actually been made available
to the general public for a strictly non-utilitarian purpose.
The general direction was visible, but the course was not clearly
charted.</p>
<p>Reflective visitors to Yosemite, such as Samuel Bowles, pondered
a wider application of the land grant and reservation principle.
It was in 1865, after Bowles viewed the glories of Yosemite,
that he made this statement:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The wise cession and dedication [of Yosemite] by Congress and proposed
improvement by California ... furnishes an admirable example
for other objects of natural curiosity and popular interest
all over the Union. New York should preserve for popular use both
Niagara Falls and its neighborhood, and a generous section of the
famous Adirondacks, and Maine, one of her lakes and its surrounding
woods.<a class="fn" id="fr_271" href="#fn_271">[271]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Surely Bowles’ statement disclosed a profound appreciation of
a growing need. He had found, as Dr. Hans Huth aptly says, “a
formula not just for the protection of this or that area of interest
to some group or other, but for a systematic approach to an overall
system of protection of specific features of nature throughout
the nation.”<a class="fn" id="fr_272" href="#fn_272">[272]</a> However, one tremendously important element
was still missing from the formula. It was simply a repetition of
George Catlin’s proposal of 1832, in clearer terms to be sure, but
still the all-important factor of bringing the program under the
aegis of the federal government was lacking. This element was
supplied by the Washburn-Langford-Doane party in their memorable
<span class="pb" id="Page_227">227</span>
campfire discussion at the junction of the Firehole and
Gibbon rivers on September 19, 1870, when it was specifically
proposed that the federal government should be induced to establish
a National Park. Within less than two years the native
virtue of the idea, backed by the rugged energy of its originators
and others, resulted in the passage of the Yellowstone Park Act.
Yellowstone, therefore, was the first federal venture in the field of
protection. Hence, technically speaking, it may stand as the birthplace
of the National Park Idea.<a class="fn" id="fr_273" href="#fn_273">[273]</a> True, the issue of protection
and conservation had a long history, but one doesn’t actually
name a baby until it is born. In this light, the Yellowstone experience
is the matrix in which the National Park Idea achieved existence
as a new American institution.</p>
<p>Such is the partial record of many influences that culminated
in the “Dedicatory Act” of March 1, 1872. In this chain of progress
people associated with Yellowstone played a small but significant
role. They helped translate a growing conservation movement
into a fruitful channel. A fortuitous combination of time
and place reduced opposition to a minimum. The next question
would logically be: what contribution, if any, has Yellowstone
National Park made toward the development of the present conservation
program?</p>
<p>The creation of Yosemite and Yellowstone parks set a precedent
for democratic control of natural curiosities, including scenic
forests, but that was all. No action was then contemplated by
Congress in respect to conserving commercial timber stands.
However, Congress was plagued by petitions, and a few forward-looking
legislators were endeavoring to formulate a basis for a
forest policy. The American Association for the Advancement of
Science advocated a program of tree planting, taxes to discourage
hasty timber cutting, a forestry course for farmers, and the establishment
<span class="pb" id="Page_228">228</span>
of forest reserves. In 1873, under the guiding hand of
Franklin B. Hough, the association memorialized Congress and
the state legislatures regarding the cultivation of timber and the
preservation of forests.<a class="fn" id="fr_274" href="#fn_274">[274]</a></p>
<p>That same year Congress appropriated two thousand dollars
for a study of American forest and timber production. Mr. Hough
directed the work and issued a series of reports. Secretary of the
Interior Carl Schurz was sufficiently impressed by this survey to
create the Department of Forestry within his department.<a class="fn" id="fr_275" href="#fn_275">[275]</a> In
addition, he appointed a forestry agent and sent him to Europe to
study forest methods.</p>
<p>Such Fabian tactics suggest that the conservationists were not
strong enough to really come to grips with the problem. But the
leaders were alert, and in 1891 they made a notable gain by a
devious maneuver. A conference committee of the two houses
was adjusting differences in a bill that revised the general land
laws. Advocates of conservation through their leader, John W.
Noble, Secretary of the Interior, dominated the committee. It
was he who suggested the inclusion of a new section, although
that was a violation of procedure, which provided that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The president of the U. S. may, from time to time, set apart and
reserve, in any state or territory having public land bearing forests,
any part ... whether of commercial value or not, as public reservations,
and the president shall, by public proclamation, declare the
establishment of such reservations.<a class="fn" id="fr_276" href="#fn_276">[276]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In that way Congress stumbled onto a plan which worked because,
by granting reserve creating power to the president, the
timber lobby was circumvented. This measure provided a definite
wedge against the compact, aggressive forces of exploitation.
President Benjamin Harrison acted promptly by creating, in
1891, the Yellowstone Timber Reserve in Wyoming. He, thereby,
<span class="pb" id="Page_229">229</span>
created the first National Forest, and before his term expired he
set aside a total of thirteen million acres, all in the Far West.</p>
<p>Another side of conservation was inaugurated in 1872 when
J. Sterling Morton of Lincoln, Nebraska, introduced a resolution
for a state-wide Arbor Day. By 1885 the idea had gained enough
popular support to warrant the establishment of Arbor Day as a
legal holiday, and since then more than half of the states have followed
Nebraska’s example.</p>
<p>However, it was a Pennsylvanian who became the most effective
conservationist of all; Gifford Pinchot was well educated,
energetic, and interested in the cause. As manager of the Vanderbilt
forest interests in North Carolina he evolved a policy of
perpetual timber yield. The indefatigable Mr. Pinchot was prepared
to make a contribution to the conservation movement on
a national level, and Theodore Roosevelt’s accession to the presidency
in 1901 gave him that opportunity. President Roosevelt,
also, brought much field experience to the conservation problem.
His interest was one of conviction as well as good sense, sentiment,
and politics. He viewed the presidency as a stewardship for
the nation’s resources. More than anyone before or since he dramatized
this issue. As head of the forest bureau, Mr. Pinchot
became the President’s strong right arm, and together they made
America acquainted with her conservation needs. A survey of
national resources disclosed the fact that of the original 800,000,000
acres of virgin forest, less than 200,000,000 remained.
Furthermore, four-fifths of this acreage was in private hands.
Mineral resources, also, had been exploited as if inexhaustible.
By propaganda, lobbies, public meetings, and conferences, Roosevelt
and Pinchot focused attention upon abuses and neglect.
Their watchword was that America’s natural resources must be
administered in the interest of “the greatest good to the greatest
number—and that for the longest time.”<a class="fn" id="fr_277" href="#fn_277">[277]</a></p>
<p>The general response to the President’s Governors’ Conference
<span class="pb" id="Page_230">230</span>
at the White House in 1907, and to other conferences, was most
gratifying. Conservation agencies sprang into action on all sides.
Even the National Lumber Manufacturers’ Association established
new standards and specifications for the wood-using industries.
The dynamic leadership of Theodore Roosevelt and his
associates enabled the people to comprehend the basic relationship
of conservation and national welfare. Almost everyone united in
the view that a new frontier had been formed and its conquest
was to be made upon the principles and forces of conservation.</p>
<p>Congress had led the way toward legislative regulation, beginning
with the Yosemite Act in 1864, followed by the Yellowstone
“Dedicatory Act” of 1872. Since then one legislative pearl after
another has been collected and strung upon the fabric of the
National Forest and Park systems.</p>
<p>Today there are thirteen federal agencies charged with the
administration of the federal conservation laws. Consolidation
of these bureaus would undoubtedly enhance the effectiveness of
the over-all service. Besides that, there are forty-eight state agencies
and, in addition, one hundred and twenty-four organizations
of either national, state, or local character specifically dedicated
to conservation.<a class="fn" id="fr_278" href="#fn_278">[278]</a>
From the origin herein described, the National
Forest Service has developed until there are now 180,000,000
acres within the confines of one hundred and fifty National Forests.
The administration of these far-flung areas is co-ordinated
by twelve regional offices and other adjunctive agencies, such as
experiment stations and laboratories.</p>
<p>The guiding philosophy of National Forest management is
known as “multiple use.” This term describes a broad program
involving the inter-relationship of wild life protection, livestock
<span class="pb" id="Page_231">231</span>
grazing, logging, mining, irrigation watersheds, wood chopping,
recreation, summer home areas, and hunting and fishing activities.
Railroads and other roads are built in National Forests according
to plan and under supervision. How much of this
esteemable policy and program has been derived from the National
Park experience? The two services have developed simultaneously;
as the boundaries of parks and forests often impinge,
so have their policies. Both services have many ends in common;
each learns from the other.<a class="fn" id="fr_279" href="#fn_279">[279]</a> The essential differentiation of
service lies in the difference between “conserving an area for its
greatest value” and “utilization of resources in multiple purpose.”
It is a matter of degrees of conservation according to circumstances.
For example, public hunting is prohibited in all 23,899,030
acres of the 181 areas under the supervision of the
National Park Service. However, the service itself may adopt a
policy of fauna diminution.</p>
<p>Having sketched the history of forest and land conservation, it
would be appropriate to similarly narrate the movement to conserve
wild life. Until a half century ago the American attitude
<span class="pb" id="Page_232">232</span>
toward wild life was almost wholly one of indifference. The
frontiersman killed a deer per meal and gave little thought for
the morrow. Only the Indians were preservers of game, as the
saying, “No Indians not much game; heap Sioux, plenty of
buffalo, elk and deer,” so aptly attests.<a class="fn" id="fr_280" href="#fn_280">[280]</a> It has already been
explained how this difference in racial behavior eventuated in
almost perpetual strife between white and red men. There were
occasional exceptions, as in the case of Daniel Boone. In 1775
he proposed a measure for the protection of game in Kentucky
because it was already necessary for him to travel a score of miles
from home to find buffalo.</p>
<p>The pristine American wild life heritage was on a par with the
endowment of forest and land. The toothsome white-tailed deer
was omnipresent in the East and much of the Middle West. Other
species of deer, elk, moose, bison, and antelope were in great
abundance. Reports from Lewis and Clark, Zebulon Pike, J. J.
Audubon, B. L. Bonneville and others prove that no pioneer ever
pushed so far, or entered regions so difficult or remote, that he did
not find a host of birds and beasts awaiting his pleasure and
profit.<a class="fn" id="fr_281" href="#fn_281">[281]</a> Man has always had a predatory disposition toward wild
life, but this was not so serious in the ages of club, stone ax, and
bow and arrow. American animal abundance was contemporaneous
with these times.</p>
<p>Wild life conservation became an imperative issue only after
the invention of flintlock, breechloaders, repeaters, automatics,
and fixed ammunition. These weapons in the hands of commercial
hunters, unscrupulous sportsmen, and “game hogs” threatened
extinction of many species of life. Most devastating of all threats
was the impact of the market hunter; no bird, mammal, or reptile
species can long withstand such exploitation. Professional
gunners who pursue creatures for money are invariably skillful,
<span class="pb" id="Page_233">233</span>
diligent, and persistent.<a class="fn" id="fr_282" href="#fn_282">[282]</a> Often the sportsman is equally skillful
and efficient in slaughter. The Earl of Dunraven left this description
of a chase in the vicinity of Fort Laramie:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We killed elk, white-tail and black-tail deer, antelope, swans, immense
geese, ducks and small game without count. This elk running
is perfectly magnificent. We ride among the wild sand hills till we
find a herd, and then gallop after them like maniacs, cutting them
off, till we get in the midst of them, when we shoot all that we can.
Our chief hunter is a very famous man out West, one Buffalo Bill.
To see his face flush, and his eyes shoot out courage is a sight to see,
and he cheers us on till he makes us as mad as himself.<a class="fn" id="fr_283" href="#fn_283">[283]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Concerning the high sport of the Earl’s party, Mary Kingsley
made the witty observation that “In the course of these wanderings
they shot ... every kind of living thing ... on the
Western Continent ... with the solitary exception of their fellowmen.”<a class="fn" id="fr_284" href="#fn_284">[284]</a>
America has handled its wild life in such a careless,
greedy fashion that several species of animal and fowl became
extinct, and many others were brought within the range of annihilation.
The danger point varies with each species, but there is
an area for each wherein the survivors are too few to cope with
circumstances, and recovery is impossible. This fact became quite
clear to certain conservationists around 1900.</p>
<p>Outstanding leadership was provided by Madison Grant, John
F. Lacey, Henry Fairfield Osborn and Willard Dutcher.<a class="fn" id="fr_285" href="#fn_285">[285]</a> These
men so wrote and spoke as to arouse the public and sting the true
sportsmen into action. People who did not shoot were impelled
to call a halt on those who did, particularly upon the lawless
element. The public was assured that much could be done to save
<span class="pb" id="Page_234">234</span>
a wonderful inheritance. In order to finance the conservation
campaign aggregate bequests in excess of one-half million dollars
were made by Albert Wilcox, Mrs. Russell Sage, Charles W.
Ward, and Mary Dutcher. President Theodore Roosevelt nourished
the movement in every way within his power. He gave the
vanishing species the benefit of every doubt. Under his direction
five national parks, three bison herds, fifty-three bird refuges, and
four game preserves were established.</p>
<p>Warnings and appeals directed toward conservation went
through all channels, legislative, educational, practical, and sentimental.
The farmers were assured that the rejuvenated bison,
deer, and elk herds would not be allowed to roam at will over
their valuable land. Rather there were millions of acres of brushy,
rocky, and semi-forest lands, wholly unsuited for agriculture, in
which the conservation work could be done. Sportsmen were
promised opportunities for shooting plentiful game in open seasons
as soon as the proper balance of wild life had been restored.
Their response to this program has become increasingly impressive.
They have effected almost innumerable associations designed
to achieve these ends. Much thought and effort have been given
to the cause, and they have contributed liberally, besides paying
license fees. Revenue from all sportsmen sources must approximate
a billion dollars a year. Hence, it is correct to say that combined
sportsmen organizations represent one of the most effective
agencies of conservation.</p>
<p>By 1912 the movement had achieved general acceptance. The
Department of Agriculture issued annual “progress reports.”
Every state had either a State Game Commission or a State Game
Warden. Montana had established two state preserves. Several
states were successfully experimenting with the introduction of
new species of game birds, such as Chinese ring-necked, golden,
and silver pheasants. The federal government had created fifty-eight
bird refuges and five great game preserves. It had taken
steps to protect bison herds in four national ranges, besides protecting
<span class="pb" id="Page_235">235</span>
the fur seal and providing hay for starving Yellowstone
Park elk and others in the Jackson Hole area.</p>
<p>The efforts of government agencies were effectively buttressed
by a number of private organizations such as the New York
Zoological Society, National Association of Audubon Societies,
Campfire Club of America, Boone and Crockett Club, and the
American Game Protective and Propagation Association. Since
1912 gratifying progress has been made, although there are still
many problems remaining. Yellowstone’s Park Biologist, Walter
H. Kittams, and many other specialists are applying the best
modern techniques of range management and wildlife management
to effect a solution to these problems consistent with National
Park Service ideals.</p>
<p>It has already been noted that Yellowstone National Park has
served as an area of experimentation in the field of wild life
management. When the reservation was established in 1872 a
proposal was made to outlaw hunting. The suggestion was not
heeded by Congress, and as a result trappers and hunters plied
their trades early and late, seven days a week, month after month.</p>
<p>A representative description of wild life exploitation in the
Yellowstone Wonderland may be found in the Earl of Dunraven’s
book, <i>Hunting in the Yellowstone</i>. This is an account of his trip
through the Park in 1874. While camped at Mammoth Hot
Springs he wrote: “Some of us went out hunting and brought in
a good store of fat antelope ...”<a class="fn" id="fr_286" href="#fn_286">[286]</a> If that entry strikes a note of
discord because of present practice, observe the significance of the
Earl’s record in describing the following Yellowstone camp:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>In the afternoon we passed quite a patriarchal camp [near Sheepeater’s
Cliff], composed of two men, with their Indian wives and
several children; half a dozen powerful savage looking dogs and
about fifty horses completed the party. They had been grazing their
stock, hunting and trapping, leading a nomad, vagabond, and delicious
life—a sort of mixed existence, half hunter, half herdsman,
<span class="pb" id="Page_236">236</span>
and had collected a great pile of deer hides and beaver skins. They
were then on their way to settlements to dispose of their peltries,
and to get stores and provisions; for they, too, were proceeding down
the river or up the canon.<a class="fn" id="fr_287" href="#fn_287">[287]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Within the decade it became obvious to Park officials that the
fauna would not long survive this savage onslaught from squaw
men, professional gunners, fierce dogs, and expert scouts and
guides vying for tourist patronage. Along with this realization
came another discovery; soldiers in remote stations had formed
enjoyable companionships with wilderness creatures. These lonely
men were delighted by the universally charming wild life trait of
responding with confidence and alacrity to friendly human advances.
It became increasingly apparent to the officials that Yellowstone
birds and mammals would quickly recognize overtures of
friendship and protection. The idea was advanced that nearly
every species in the Park might become as tame as range cattle if
given an opportunity to move safely within rifle-shot for several
years. Recommendations to that effect forwarded to the Secretary
of the Interior by Superintendent Norris in 1879 were passed on
to Congress, and they played an important part in the passage of
legislation on March 3, 1883, under which the killing of game
was first suppressed. In subsequent years the laws were strengthened
and administration improved. This was the beginning of
wild life conservation practice by the federal government. Since
then the various species of native fauna have achieved a generally
satisfactory balance. The Park’s policy of protection can definitely
be credited with saving the grizzly bear from extinction, and the
trumpeter swan is receiving his chance to survive. It may be too
late in this case.</p>
<p>Today the alert tourist may reap the reward of that wise and
fruitful policy in observing mountain sheep, antelope, mule deer,
elk, moose, coyotes, marmot, and squirrels as they roam around
in the Park. Indeed, the quiet but energetic visitor who ventures
<span class="pb" id="Page_237">237</span>
upon the forest trails may even see the rare sand-hill crane and
trumpeter swan. Besides, he will frequently hear the passing whisper
of the honker’s wing. Actually, he may “shoot” both birds
and mammals with the camera and take home trophies of everlasting
enjoyment.</p>
<p>The wildlife policy of the National Park Service has evolved
gradually, and is based upon long experience in preserving areas
of outstanding significance. It has been determined that animals
shall not be encouraged to become dependent upon man,
and their presentation to the public shall be wholly natural.
Every species shall be left to carry on its struggle for existence
unaided, unless it becomes endangered, and no management
measure or interference with biotic relationships shall be undertaken
prior to a properly conducted investigation. Numbers of
animals must not be permitted to exceed the carrying capacity
of the range available to them. Predator species will be given
the same protection as all other animals, except in special instances
where a prey species is in danger of extermination.
These principles, and others, control the actions taken with respect
to wildlife, and assure the continued existence of native
wildlife in our National Parks.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_238">238</div>
<h2 id="c18"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter XIV</span></span>
<br />GENERAL ADMINISTRATION</h2>
<p>Nathaniel P. Langford was appointed Superintendent of
Yellowstone National Park on May 10, 1872. No salary was allowed,
but nothing daunted, on July 4 he arranged to join the
Snake River detachment of Dr. F. V. Hayden’s second expedition.
This party employed as guide one Richard Leigh, better
known as “Beaver Dick.” This picturesque squaw man and his
wife, Jenny, with her brood, not only acted as scout but also as
friend and entertainer. “Beaver Dick” knew the Tetons and south
Yellowstone country like a book, and he regaled the company
with many tales of hair-raising experiences in the wilds. They were
respectful in the presence of one of the last genuine frontiersmen
of the West.</p>
<p>The new superintendent was characteristically indefatigable in
his reconnaissance during this journey. Making personal side
trips, he climbed the Grand Teton, called on Gilman Sawtelle at
Henrys Lake, and joined Hayden in the Upper Geyser Basin by
mid-August.<a class="fn" id="fr_288" href="#fn_288">[288]</a> On this expedition the reports of much petrifaction
along the East Fork of Yellowstone River (now called Lamar)
were confirmed. Many trees were found that were filled with
beautiful crystals of amethyst. Several species of trees that do not
now grow in the Park were also found in a petrified state. Among
these were magnolias, sycamores, aralias, oaks, and ferns in abundance.
This, and subsequent investigations, disclosed an interesting
story of climatic change. Obviously Tertiary flora was of a
Southern type, and Yellowstone’s climate in that time was comparable
to southern California’s today.<a class="fn" id="fr_289" href="#fn_289">[289]</a></p>
<div class="img" id="fig34">
<img src="images/pic37.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="486" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">Photo by IV H. Jackson</span><br /><i>“Beaver Dick” (Richard Leigh) and family, 1871</i></p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_239">239</div>
<p>Members of this same expedition also visited the Heart Lake
and Norris Geyser-basins.<a class="fn" id="fr_290" href="#fn_290">[290]</a> Hayden and Langford were more than
pleased with the results. Wonderland’s charms were still a potent
draught to the thirst of these great nature lovers. Their enthusiasm
never flagged, although there were many discouragements.
Several accidents must have induced considerable reflection, if
not doubt, about the realization of their hopes. One horse went to
its doom in quagmire; another broke its neck in a somersault.
Horses sensed the inexperience and uncertainty of their riders in
this environment, and there were several stampedes.<a class="fn" id="fr_291" href="#fn_291">[291]</a> This time
Langford viewed Yellowstone in the light of what the public
would require, and the task ahead must have appeared insurmountable.
Still, his good judgment told him that the Park would
surely become a favorite resort for future tourists. Plans were conceived
for trails, roads, and accommodations, and in the spring of
<span class="pb" id="Page_240">240</span>
1873 he appointed David E. Folsom as assistant superintendent,
also without pay.</p>
<p>Langford’s annual report of 1873 showed that five hundred
people visited the Park that season. A request was made for an
appropriation of $10,000 for improvements, but no funds were
provided for any purpose. As time passed, the general situation
became increasingly untenable. The frontiersman’s indifference
to schedules and comforts caused much inconvenience and dissatisfaction
to the travelers. A program of development and a
system of concessions was imperative. Of course, these things
would require time, planning, and money, but this fact was little
recognized by newcomers. Langford was roundly criticized in the
press for conditions over which he had no authority or means to
control. However, during the winter he faithfully devoted his
spare time to making plans, and his full time in summer was given
to their execution. For five long years he gave the best that was in
him, without funds or support, never losing his faith in the future
of Yellowstone, and because of his enthusiasm his friends called
him “National Park” Langford.<a class="fn" id="fr_292" href="#fn_292">[292]</a></p>
<p>In 1877 a new superintendent succeeded Langford. Philetus
W. Norris, of Michigan, received the appointment, with pay, and
the following year a $10,000 appropriation was made available
“to protect, preserve, and improve Yellowstone Park.” Norris, although
a rather quaint man, proved to be extremely zealous and
energetic. On foot and horseback he eventually toured all of the
Park and its immediate environs, considering a thorough personal
exploration of Wonderland essential to a wise administration of
his office. In 1878 he discovered Monument Geyser Basin, and
later in the season an attempt was made to explore the Hoodoo
area on the upper Lamar River drainage, but the Crow Indians
challenged his right, and “Miller, Rowland, and myself, narrowly
escaped.”<a class="fn" id="fr_293" href="#fn_293">[293]</a>
However, he persisted, and in due time the world learned about</p>
<div class="img" id="fig35">
<img src="images/pic38.jpg" alt="" width="557" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><i>Superintendent Philetus W. Norris</i></p>
</div>
<blockquote>
<div class="pb" id="Page_241">241</div>
<p>... that mysterious Hoodoo region, where all the devils now employed
in the geysers, live and kill the wandering bear and elk, so
that the sacred hunter finds in Death Gulch piled high carcasses of
the dead whom no man has smitten.<a class="fn" id="fr_294" href="#fn_294">[294]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>There is obvious exaggeration in Kipling’s description of wild
life destruction by natural gases. However, evidence confirming
the lethal power of Yellowstone’s natural carbon dioxide gas may
be secured without going into the remote Hoodoo region. Birds
die almost daily from inhaling the fumes that arise from springs
on Orange Mound in the Mammoth Hot Springs. Park naturalists
are in a quandary as to the procedure of warning birds concerning
the danger.</p>
<p>Norris wrote voluminously and accomplished much, leaving his
mark and name upon various sections of the Park. He caused
trails, roads, bridges, and crude campgrounds to be made, in so
far as the limited funds would allow. A policy of wild life protection
was also adopted. In 1880 Harry Yount was given the
assignment as gamekeeper. Yount was a typical leatherstocking
frontiersman. He was rough, tough, and intelligent. In the role
of game protector he spent the winter of 1880 in the Park. He
thereby became one of the first white men of record to spend the
entire year in Yellowstone.<a class="fn" id="fr_295" href="#fn_295">[295]</a> Harry initiated many of the practices
of resourcefulness and traditions of good will that characterize the
ranger service, and he may be considered as its father.</p>
<p>The need of a game protection program was apparent from the
outset. Indian, trapper, and miner visitations had taken a heavy
toll of elk, deer, antelope, and buffalo. After 1872 tourist parties
<span class="pb" id="Page_242">242</span>
were largely made up of, or guided by, mountain men who undertook
to provide game for the campers. Thus, a trip through Yellowstone
was, in effect, a hunting and fishing expedition, actuated
by the slogan “slay and eat.”</p>
<p>In 1876 William Ludlow, a government surveyor, was moved
to write an effective appeal for game protection to George Bird
Grinnell, editor of <i>Forest and Stream</i>. His argument was buttressed
by many observations of the slaughter “of the largest and
finest game animals in the country.”<a class="fn" id="fr_296" href="#fn_296">[296]</a> In 1879 Superintendent
Norris made a similar observation in his annual report. He stated
that, with the rapid influx of tourists and the demand for such
food, the policy could not long continue without serious results.
He, thereupon, issued an order for the protection of the bison as
the herd was not in excess of six hundred. However, this commendable
move proved ineffective, and the hunters went merrily
about their avocation.</p>
<p>About this time Norris left the Park service, but before doing so
he had completed and occupied a unique structure on Capitol
Hill, called Fort Yellowstone. It was a blockhouse of hewn timber
with a balcony and three wings, surmounted by a gun turret. He
wanted to be prepared for the next Indian attack, while the
problems actually confronting the Park officials were of quite a
different character. Yellowstone was still a wilderness, and many
visitors would not endure restraints. In 1883 Secretary of the Interior
Hoke Smith caught two hundred trout in one day, and the
next year Secretary of War Dan Lamont only caught fifty-three!<a class="fn" id="fr_297" href="#fn_297">[297]</a></p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_243">243</div>
<div class="img" id="fig36">
<img src="images/pic39.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="603" />
<p class="pcap">Old Fort Yellowstone.</p>
</div>
<p>In 1882 Patrick A. Conger, of Iowa, succeeded Norris as superintendent.
His administration was weak and vacillating in
practically every respect. Scarcely anything was improved, but
all difficulties were aggravated. Vandalism, forest fires, and general
mismanagement were added to the problem of vanishing wild
life. John S. Crosby, Governor of Montana, wrote a scathing
denunciation of the Park officials to the Secretary of the Interior,
Henry M. Teller.<a class="fn" id="fr_298" href="#fn_298">[298]</a> This official contemplated the leasing of considerable
portions of the Park to responsible persons in the hope
that they would, through self-interest, give the protection which
the government had failed to provide.<a class="fn" id="fr_299" href="#fn_299">[299]</a> While Montana’s governor
complained and the Secretary hesitated Wyoming territorial
officials took action. The Wyoming legislature intervened
by providing stringent measures for the protection of timber,
game, fish, and natural curiosities of the Park. A jail was erected,
<span class="pb" id="Page_244">244</span>
and the territorial officials got ready for business. Cowboy type-cast
officers had a lively time enforcing regulations and levying
fines for personal emolument upon strangers toward whom they
felt a natural suspicion.<a class="fn" id="fr_300" href="#fn_300">[300]</a> Vexatious arrests, made under the
sweeping provisions of the act, defeated the purpose of the Park
“as a pleasuring ground for the people.” Citizens questioned the
right of a territory to exercise criminal jurisdiction and judicial
powers in a federal reservation. The act was repealed in 1886,
but the effect was to leave the Park in a worse plight than ever
before. As it became generally known that the superintendent had
no support beyond the rules of the department and their own
personal force,</p>
<blockquote>
<p>the rules and regulations were ignored, while outlaws and vagabonds
from the surrounding region made the nation’s pleasure ground a
place of refuge. The hotels were frequented by gamblers and adventurers,
who preyed upon the unwary tourist, while forest fires,
originating mysteriously in remote and inaccessible places, raged
unchecked.<a class="fn" id="fr_301" href="#fn_301">[301]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Robert E. Carpenter took office as Park Superintendent in
August, 1884. In his view the Park presented an opportunity for
personal and corporate exploitation. He was in full accord with
a conspiracy to obtain private ownership of strategic locations.
This scheme was advanced by an organization known as The Improvement
Company which went directly before Congress with
its proposition. In this effort, the nadir of private greed and administrative
indifference was reached. However, the bad cause
was lost, the superintendent removed, and a new and better administration
came into being.<a class="fn" id="fr_302" href="#fn_302">[302]</a> The influence of General Phil
<span class="pb" id="Page_245">245</span>
Sheridan was a constant factor in promoting the welfare of the
Park. Beginning in 1881, he made a series of annual tours of the
region. After each inspection he earnestly appealed to public
sentiment, in behalf of proper government, for the area. Whereupon,
Congress passed the Sundry Civil Bill of March, 1883
which forbade the granting of leases in excess of ten acres to a
single party and provided for the employment of ten assistant
superintendents. This measure also authorized the Secretary of
the Interior to call upon the Secretary of War for troops to patrol
the Park.</p>
<p>In May, 1885 David W. Wear of Missouri brought intelligent
and vigorous effort to the problem. At the close of the season he
wrote a comprehensive report that carried a tone of real interest
and purpose: “The discipline of the force was bad; no head to
anything.... The game had been shot with impunity and marketed
at the hotels.”<a class="fn" id="fr_303" href="#fn_303">[303]</a> He secured the services of a trusty mountaineer,
and together they rounded up the worst of the “skin
hunters” and punished them to the full extent of the law. Of
course, that was simply arrest and expulsion from the Park, together
with the forfeiture of equipment used in the violation.</p>
<p>During the season of 1885 a committee of congressmen visited
the Park for the purpose of ascertaining how wisely the recent
appropriation of $40,000 was being used and inquiring into the
administration of laws.<a class="fn" id="fr_304" href="#fn_304">[304]</a> The report of this and other investigating
groups seemed to be that, although Superintendent Wear
was performing his duty efficiently and fearlessly, the whole situation
was honeycombed with error, corruption, confusion, and
suspicion. The Park was in need of redemption; something had to
be done. The high purposes of the Dedicatory Act were being
frustrated. An avalanche of petitions, representing opinion from
thirty-one states, reached the Department of the Interior and
could not be ignored.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_246">246</div>
<p>Therefore, the Department of the Interior called upon the
United States Army to effect a new birth. This action was taken
under the authority of the act of March 3, 1883, wherein the
Secretary of War, upon the request of the Secretary of the Interior,
was directed to provide:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Details of troops to prevent trespassers or intruders from entering
the Park for the purpose of destroying the game or objects of curiosity
therein, or for any other purpose prohibited by law, and to
remove such persons from the Park if found therein.<a class="fn" id="fr_305" href="#fn_305">[305]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Accordingly, on August 20, 1886, Captain Moses Harris with
a troop of the first cavalry took charge. Detachments of soldiers
were soon stationed at Norris, Lower and Upper Geyser basins,
Canyon, Riverside, and Soda Butte. Old frontiersmen were notified
to desist from their poaching activities; prowling Indians
were ordered to stay away; forest fires were checked; and the
tone of all departments of service and accommodation improved.
The Hayes and Lacey acts granted the necessary authority in respect
to leases, protection, and punishment. Captain Harris
proved to be a forthright administrator. He established a system
of patrols stemming out from the permanent stations. The patrolmen
were instructed to not only follow the regular roads and
trails but to occasionally visit unfrequented places.<a class="fn" id="fr_306" href="#fn_306">[306]</a> The patrolmen
were ordered to keep a sharp lookout for bear trappers,
poachers, and forest fires. Persons traveling in the Park between
October 1 and June 1 were to be viewed with suspicion: in fact,
they were to be questioned closely and watched as they journeyed
from station to station.</p>
<p>There were many frontiersmen who continued to ignore the
Captain’s warnings about poaching. This challenge was accepted,
and on August 19, 1888 a scouting party apprehended a trapper
<span class="pb" id="Page_247">247</span>
near the southern border. He gave his name as Andrew S. Page
but later admitted he had been arrested the previous year as John
Andrews. His horse and outfit were confiscated, and he was expelled
from the Park.<a class="fn" id="fr_307" href="#fn_307">[307]</a> In September of the same year Thomas
Garfield was caught in the act of trapping beaver in Willow
Creek. He was given the same treatment. Garfield made ominous
threats to get even, and a few days later a forest fire was started
by someone near Norris. In spite of occasional arrests the practice
of poaching persisted. Trapping habits were deep-seated and
penalties, too mild.</p>
<p>In the years that followed the cases of Tom Newcomb, June
Buzzel, Jay Whitman, James Courtney, A. G. Vance, E. Sheffeld,
Pendleton, and Van Dych were tried with various degrees of
success.<a class="fn" id="fr_308" href="#fn_308">[308]</a></p>
<p>The most notorious case was that of Ed Howell of Cooke,
Montana. Early in March, 1894, a party was organized to visit
the winter range of the buffalo. Members were Captain George
L. Scott, Lieutenant William W. Forsyth, Scout Felix Burgess,
A. E. Burns, Frank Jay Haynes, Sergeant Troike, and two other
noncommissioned officers. They traveled on skis, and when they
reached the Canyon, Emerson Hough and Billy Hofer joined
them. About twelve miles up Pelican Creek they discovered the
cache of a poacher. Six bison heads were suspended in a tree.
Several shots were heard, but as it was snowing the direction was
difficult to determine. However, Scout Burgess was able to approach
the poacher without being seen or heard, even by the dog.
He got the drop on Howell, which was a good thing in view of
the character of the man.<a class="fn" id="fr_309" href="#fn_309">[309]</a> He had driven a half-dozen other
bison in the deep snow and killed them.</p>
<p>The culprit was taken to Mammoth where the presence of the
writer Emerson Hough and a representative of <i>Forest and Stream</i>
<span class="pb" id="Page_248">248</span>
gave national publicity to the case. Howell was quite a robust
personality, and he responded to the limelight. “How does a
poacher operate to avoid two troops of soldiers?” “It is the
simplest thing in the world,” said Howell, “just wait for a snowstorm,
enter the desired area, make a wide detour to check tracks
of pursuers, if any, and go to work.” “Why did you do it?” “Well,
bison heads are worth from $100 to $400 apiece.”<a class="fn" id="fr_310" href="#fn_310">[310]</a></p>
<p>The articles in <i>Forest and Stream</i> apprised the nation of the
fact that there were less than one hundred head of bison left in
the Park and that the government’s failure to provide real protection
was threatening the extinction of all the larger animals.
One side of the reaction was critical of the army administration.
Said one observer, “I would rather have three good, intelligent,
honorable men, inured to the life of prospector and hunter,
in these mountains to watch the Park, than all the soldiers now
there....”<a class="fn" id="fr_311" href="#fn_311">[311]</a></p>
<p>However, a constructive remedy was provided by legislation in
the passage of the act of May 7, 1894. This measure positively
prohibited hunting and trapping in every form, under heavy
penalties. A clear-cut basis of jurisdiction was provided by the
Vest Bill. A United States Commissioner was appointed, “who
shall reside in the Park,” to issue processes and hear cases. An
appeal from his decisions might be made before the Federal District
Court for the District of Wyoming. Hon. John W. Meldrum
was the first man to receive this assignment. He held the position
until 1935 when he was succeeded by T. Paul Wilcox.</p>
<p>Within a year after the passage of the Protective Act, Captain
George S. Anderson was able to report that a healthy effect was
evident. That was not the end of poaching because it has existed
in a slight and subtle manner to this very day. However, around
the turn of the century, the poacher gave way to the road agent
as the Park’s most exciting criminal.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_249">249</div>
<div class="img" id="fig37">
<img src="images/pic40.jpg" alt="" width="559" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Poacher caught in the act.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_250">250</div>
<p>In Captain Harris’ report of 1888 there is reference to a stage
robbery of July 4, 1887. Subsequently, William James and a man
named Higgenbottom were convicted and fined $1000 each and
given a year’s sentence in the Montana State Penitentiary. Again,
on August 14, 1897, two masked men held up and robbed six
Yellowstone Park Transportation coaches and one spring wagon.
The place of the robbery was between Canyon and Norris, the
amount of the “haul” being over $500. These offenders were
apprehended and identified as Charles Reebe, alias “Morphine
Charley,” and Charles Switzer. They were also convicted, fined,
and imprisoned.<a class="fn" id="fr_312" href="#fn_312">[312]</a></p>
<p>On August 24, 1908, on Spring Creek, one masked man successfully
held up nine coaches carrying a total of one hundred
and fifteen people. The booty collected totaled $1,363.95 in cash
and $730.25 in watches and jewelry. The entire cavalcade consisted
of thirty-two coaches, escorted by one trooper. The road
agent did not show himself until the soldier and eight of the
coaches had passed. Thereafter, each one was held up and ordered
on its way before the next one arrived. The victims of this outrage
held a meeting in the Lake Hotel and drafted a set of resolutions
reviewing all of the facts. They complained because they were
deprived of personal firearms and denied sufficient protection to
life and property. They also petitioned for redress. These resolutions,
together with the names of the victims, were printed in a
souvenir edition and widely distributed.<a class="fn" id="fr_313" href="#fn_313">[313]</a></p>
<p>Perhaps the most daring robbery in Yellowstone history was
executed near Shoshone Point, on July 29, 1915. It was there
<span class="pb" id="Page_251">251</span>
that Edward B. Trafton, alias Ed Harrington, an outlaw from
Teton Basin, duplicated the feat of the 1908 season; the amount
taken was about $2200. However, Trafton was apprehended and
convicted of the latter crime on December 15, 1915. His sentence
was a five-year term in Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.</p>
<p>Robberies of a less dramatic character still occur. In 1941 two
rangers fished several purses out of Cauliflower Geyser. They had
been snatched from parked cars, rifled, and cast away, but the
geyser threw them up, and they were used as evidence in effecting
a conviction. Times and methods change, but crime goes on
forever.</p>
<p>Another problem that has constantly confronted every administration
is vandalism. A vandal is any person who takes flowers or
specimens and writes on or defaces natural objects, and his name
is legion. The more cunningly contrived a work of nature becomes,
the greater the temptation to remove it to one’s own premises.
This urge reduces even dignified people to the most amazing behavior.
They will pry and chop in such a way as to destroy an
ornament for all time. Again, there is the untoward desire to
throw tokens, small coins, bottles, poles, and detritus into pools
and geysers “just to see what will happen.”</p>
<p>Not even Old Faithful is exempt from this wantonness. It is
a matter of record that one party, wishing to experiment, filled its
orifice “with at least a thousand pounds of stones, trees, and
stumps” and then sat down to await further developments. Another
group wrote this shameless account: “We abused that
spring [geyser] with everything in our power. We threw sticks
into it and stones, but it was no use; nothing would rile it.”<a class="fn" id="fr_314" href="#fn_314">[314]</a>
Name writing in pools and geysers is particularly alluring to a
certain class as nature fixes the insult indelibly so that in after
years all men may read, in letters as large as a neon sign, that
<span class="pb" id="Page_252">252</span>
“Sadie, Mamie, and Jack” visited the Park. Many a ranger,
attempting to eradicate such legends with his wire brush, has
heartily agreed with the following statement “... and when
the man from Oshkosh writes his name with a blue pencil on her
sacred face, let him spend six months where the scenery is circumscribed
and entirely artificial.”<a class="fn" id="fr_315" href="#fn_315">[315]</a> Will the public never learn that,
although it owns the Park, ownership may be expressed in much
more appropriate ways?</p>
<p>The offense of “soaping” geysers is said to have originated in
1885 when a Chinaman encompassed a small spring with his
tent and started a laundry. When the spring became impregnated
with soap there was an eruption, and up went tent, washing,
and Chinaman! It is a fact that soap produces viscosity which
retains heat, and as steam rises it may aid explosive action. Hence,
if some visitors could have their way, the beautiful sapphire
springs and geysers would be “in the suds” constantly throughout
the season.<a class="fn" id="fr_316" href="#fn_316">[316]</a> Such activity is strictly prohibited by the government.</p>
<p>In recent years Park officials have been greatly distressed by
another type of violation. Large numbers of people are disposed
to cast tax tokens and pennies into the otherwise beautiful hot
springs and geysers. Familiar with wishing wells in commercial
resorts, they fall short in adjusting to national park standards of
conduct. As one ranger said, “They forget what kind of animal
throws a (s)cent!”</p>
<p>Many lovers of Yellowstone would like to see the rangers crack
down upon rule violators with a vengeance. They argue that a
full 10 per cent of the human race will lie, steal, and destroy
flora, fauna, and features whenever and wherever they find a
chance to do so. Of course, the rangers are quick in recognizing
varying degrees of moral and social responsibility. Their policy to
<span class="pb" id="Page_253">253</span>
date is one of energetic education and moderate restraint by
authority.</p>
<p>The problem of forest fires causes much concern during July
and August. Fires may start from natural causes, as from lightning,
and friction caused by trees rubbing together during violent
windstorms, but about 50 per cent of them are caused by the
carelessness of man. Of course, nature manages to extinguish forest
fires eventually, but man has learned to cooperate.</p>
<p>The officials have developed efficiency in organization and
methods of fighting fires. Major lookouts are established upon Mt.
Washburn, Mt. Holmes, Mt. Sheridan, Purple Mountain, and
Pelican Cone. Lookouts also stand guard in other strategic positions.
Fireguards are employed to clear trails and be available on
a moment’s notice. District rangers train and direct employees
within their jurisdictions and take daily “fire weather” readings.
Tools, equipment, and provisions are always packed and ready for
action. When a fire breaks out a base camp is set up at a road
terminal; from there the flow of men and supplies is governed
through radio communication. Fire camps are established in safe
places, by the water supply nearest the burning area. Tools, sleeping
bags, and food reach the fire camp on the backs of mules, by
reason of the skill of expert packers. However, airplanes are sometimes
used in parachuting fighters and supplies to the spot in a
hurry.</p>
<p>Accepted principles of procedure consist of: speed in the first
instance before the fire “blows up”; striking hard at daybreak
after it has calmed down and before the wind fans it; cutting a
line with saw and ax; trenching it in with shovel and Pulaski;
using pumps where possible; and always praying for rain. Fighting
fire is an arduous, dirty business.</p>
<p>Yellowstone forests are predominantly of lodgepole pine. This
species is thin-skinned and non-resistant to fire, but it takes pains
to store its seeds up in tightly closed cones. These hold the seed
fertile for several years. Thus, although raging fire may devour
<span class="pb" id="Page_254">254</span>
the forest, the scorched cones open, and the hoarded seed shoots
new growth triumphantly out of the ashes.<a class="fn" id="fr_317" href="#fn_317">[317]</a></p>
<p>It has been observed that lodgepole forests are not very valuable
for lumber; neither do they present the most attractive appearance.
Still, the trees grow profusely, and in so doing they
provide an excellent agency for water conservation. Let fire destroy
the forests upon the sources of the Snake and Yellowstone
rivers, and many of the present garden spots of the West would
be added to her barren wastes. Therefore, in the mature opinion
of many experts, the forests of this area are more valuable in the
conservation of soil and water than they would be for grazing
and lumbering. The present policy will keep the mountains at
home, prevent floods, and assure a more constant water supply.<a class="fn" id="fr_318" href="#fn_318">[318]</a></p>
<p>Perhaps the most tantalizing problem has arisen from the half-century
application of the Protective Act of 1894, wherein:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The killing, wounding, or capturing, at any time, of any bird or wild
animal, except dangerous animals, when it is necessary to prevent
them from destroying life or inflicting an injury, is prohibited within
the limits of the Park.<a class="fn" id="fr_319" href="#fn_319">[319]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<div class="pb" id="Page_255">255</div>
<div class="img" id="fig38">
<img src="images/pic41.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="489" />
<p class="pcap">Wild and dangerous despite appearances.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_256">256</div>
<p>People possessing firearms must have them sealed upon entering
the Park. Thus, the animal inhabitants virtually enjoy a
natural life expectancy so far as man is concerned.<a class="fn" id="fr_320" href="#fn_320">[320]</a> It is an
anomalous situation, without a parallel since the Garden of Eden.
On the whole, the animals have lost their fear of man, and still
very few of them show any disposition to injure him except in self-defense.
Deer, black bear, marmot, squirrels, and many species
of birds are very responsive to opportunities of human association.
Several other types exhibit good-natured indulgence toward human
curiosity, but a few species are so elusive as to be almost
inaccessible. In fact, there are some creatures that possess such a
decided allergy to the presence of man that their survival is jeopardized
by human proximity. Moose, grizzlies, bighorn, antelope,
beaver, and swan conform to this type. They require an environment
of varying specifications from swamp to rocky crag, but possessing
the element of seclusion as a common denominator. Park
officials recognize these factors and endeavor to meet the requirements
for the health of their denizens. Furthermore, they are willing
to allow the so-called predators the use of the Park as a sanctuary,
or refuge, even though their instincts seem to be of a wholly
destructive character. The latch key is out for wolverine, coyote,
and cougar.</p>
<p>It should be emphasized that in the case of black bear human
contacts are fraught with dire consequences for all concerned.
Approximately a hundred tourists sustain bear bites or scratches
each season, and many bears are killed for these offenses. Park
officials frequently doubt the possibility of reconciling the presence
of black bear and people. If the latter were governed by the principle
of intelligence, it would be an easy matter. But they simply
refuse to believe that the bears are wild. As a result, they take
privileges with a mother and cubs which no one would ever think
of trying with a neighbor’s hound.</p>
<p>It is admitted by all that black bear cubs are among nature’s
most interesting creatures. They are the “Happy Hooligans” and
“Katzenjammer Kids” of the Park. What a spectacle they provide,
standing Jesse James-like along the highway, tumbling over
each other in fun, or scampering up a tree in fright! “Do you
mean to tell me those cute creatures will harm anyone?” says a
lady, “Why they smile and wiggle their tails in the most cunning
manner!” “Yes, lady,” replies the ranger, “but you must not believe
either end of a bear.”</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_257">257</div>
<p>When a serious injury or a death occurs strong resentment is
expressed against the administration. It is advised to decide either
to turn the Park over to the bears or to the people. Then a party
of tourists expresses great disappointment over not having been
“held up” by a bear. What will be the outcome of this tug-of-war?
It is to be hoped that the public will eventually learn to obey the
regulation, “Do Not Feed or Molest the Bears.”<a class="fn" id="fr_321" href="#fn_321">[321]</a></p>
<div class="img" id="fig39">
<img src="images/pic42.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="642" />
<p class="pcap">Grizzly, king of the Rockies.</p>
</div>
<p>The American bison was probably saved from extinction in
Yellowstone. Although native to the region, the joint ravages of
poachers and septicemia finally reduced the herd to a mere remnant.
<span class="pb" id="Page_258">258</span>
In 1895 a hay harvesting project was started in Hayden
Valley. This enterprise was subsequently moved to the Lamar
Valley where a buffalo ranch, now called the Lamar Unit, was
established. Feeding these animals in the coldest months during
winters of exceptional severity has proved salutary. Another precaution
was taken in 1902 when twenty-one head were purchased
from the Goodnight and Allard herds in Texas and Montana,
respectively. Since then the herd has flourished and is now stabilized
at eight hundred head. The increase is reduced periodically
and distributed among near-by Indian agencies.</p>
<p>A reduction policy has also been adopted to control the northern
elk herd. Summer is lavish in its gifts to Park elk. Lush grasses,
shady dells, and cool weather make an ideal condition for them.
Fall finds them fat and sleek, with bulls bugling in every glen.
Perhaps the summer range is adequate for thousands of them,
but then winter comes, with its weakening cold and deepening
snows, and they are forced by storms into restricted areas where
hunger stalks them on every side. It is evident, therefore, that
the maximum must be limited by the winter range capacity. In
view of these conditions the officials of the Park and the state of
Montana have worked out a satisfactory policy of diminution. A
number of elk-hunting permits are issued to citizens who foregather
along the northern boundary to participate in a bombardment
that is swift and effective. In this manner the Park herd is
kept in balance, and surplus elk do not migrate to the valleys to
bother the ranchers. Of course an advantage accrues to these
hunters because each one is very sure of getting his elk. This program
should preclude a repetition of the agitation aroused during
World War I when proposals were pressed upon the Food Administrator
to allow hunting parties a free reign in securing Park elk
and buffalo.<a class="fn" id="fr_322" href="#fn_322">[322]</a></p>
<p>More serious attempts to invade the Park’s wilderness area came
<span class="pb" id="Page_259">259</span>
in the form of several irrigation projects, a railroad, and the
northern boundary segregation issue. Each of these propositions,
which threatened to modify the natural character and unity of
the reservation, was strenuously resisted by Park administrations
and the public generally.</p>
<p>In 1919 an irrigation project was sponsored by Idaho interests.
It was a comprehensive plan that contemplated a dam on Yellowstone
River, thereby raising the level of Yellowstone Lake. The
water from this mighty reservoir would then be tapped by a tunnel
through the Continental Divide, which would deliver the
water into the Snake River. Other dams were designed to impound
water along Fall and Bechler rivers. When bills S3925
and H.R.10469 reached their respective floors they were subjected
to strong denunciation and defeated.<a class="fn" id="fr_323" href="#fn_323">[323]</a> The next year,
1920, Senator Walsh, of Montana, also introduced a bill for the
purpose of building a dam across the Yellowstone River at the
lake outlet. This project also contemplated the generation of electricity.
Extensive hearings before the Senate Committee on Irrigation
resulted in the bill’s death at that stage.</p>
<p>The movement for the extension of the Northern Pacific Railroad
from Cinnabar to Cooke City, Montana, was not so easily
arrested. From the first discovery of gold on Clarks Fork, in 1870,
there had been a campaign for a railroad, as the early prospects
were promising. However, little progress was made, and when the
railroad bill of 1894 was defeated certain mining interests in Montana
became alarmingly hostile. Frustrated in the extension of a
line through the only accessible route, because of National Park
sentiment, these interests came out for segregation. On March 1,
1894, the <i>Helena Independent</i> declared:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Congress should make the Yellowstone River [Lamar] and Soda
Butte Creek the northern boundary of the Park and charter a railroad
to Cooke City on the north of these Streams....<a class="fn" id="fr_324" href="#fn_324">[324]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<div class="pb" id="Page_260">260</div>
<p>The <i>Livingston Post</i> struck a more ominous note in its issue of
November 30 of the same year:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Everybody concedes that the destruction of the Park by fire would
be a public, a national calamity, and about the only way to avert
such an impending danger is for Congress to grant the reasonable
request of the people of the West by passing the segregation bill.<a class="fn" id="fr_325" href="#fn_325">[325]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In his report of 1895 Captain George S. Anderson, Acting Superintendent,
quietly exulted, “It is a pleasure to note that the
various bills for the segregation of the Park were killed in the last
Congress.”<a class="fn" id="fr_326" href="#fn_326">[326]</a> This official was anything but popular in Montana
at that time. Thus, it would appear that Yellowstone, like nearly
every national institution, has been at the crossroads of conflicting
interests, and its present status has not been achieved without
vigilance.</p>
<p>Throughout the years the reports of the army superintendents
conformed to a regular pattern about travel, roads, concessions,
wild animals, fish, protection of natural phenomena, accommodations,
fires, sanitation, violations, and recommendations.
Whether captains, majors, colonels, or generals, these army men
performed commendable service. Still, it was an army regime
dealing with a civilian situation. Hence, there were some incongruities
and many deficiencies.</p>
<p>What were the facts relative to the army administration in Yellowstone?
Did conditions warrant a change? The circumstances
responsible for the assignment in 1884 have been given. Two
troops of cavalry comprised the normal complement. A main base,
called Camp Sheridan, was established in Mammoth, and a series
of stations were located at the principal points of interest. At these
posts detachments of soldiers acted as guardians of their respective
domains. From each station daily mounted patrols started toward
<span class="pb" id="Page_261">261</span>
other posts on either flank until they met.<a class="fn" id="fr_327" href="#fn_327">[327]</a> In that manner,
two hundred miles of forest road were observed between each
dawn and dusk as the soldiers made their tours from “Slough
Creek to Bison Peak, Grizzly Lake to Hellroaring Creek, and
Canyon to Wedded Trees” ... almost ad infinitum.</p>
<p>Each soldier carried a bucket and shovel as defense against fire
and a little book of <i>Rules, Regulations and Instructions</i>, called
the “bible,” to prepare him for any contingency. Among his routine
instructions these orders appear: “... kill mountain lions,
coyotes and timber wolves ... permit no cats and dogs ...
keep pack trains off the road when vehicles are passing ... allow
no one to approach within one hundred yards of bears....”</p>
<p>Each patrolman was required to record his daily activities in a
journal and turn it over to his commanding officer. A perusal of
these journal records is, on the whole, rather dull. The reading
is not equal to the performance because spelling and diction were
not among the soldiers’ qualifications for duty. Still, there are
occasions when, although “the letter killeth, the spirit giveth life.”
Incidents dealing with clues leading to the arrest of poachers and
road agents, seizure of vandals, searches for lost persons, rescues
of people treed by grizzlies and moose, or breakdowns, tip-overs,
and runaways fairly shine with the excitement of the time.<a class="fn" id="fr_328" href="#fn_328">[328]</a></p>
<p>The soldiers had the finest western horses:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Our horses are good all-around animals, good jumpers, runners and
drillers. Each horse understands the trumpet calls.... If the army
mules are with the herd, the horses feel safe, for as soon as a bear
or deer appears, they make a dash for them, and when the game
sees those mules, with ears laid back, coming on a dead run, it
always makes tracks for the woods.<a class="fn" id="fr_329" href="#fn_329">[329]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<div class="pb" id="Page_262">262</div>
<p>The soldier’s uniform consisted of a dark blue blouse and light
blue trousers, unstrapped and cut spoonshape over the boot,
cartridge belt, revolver, peaked cap, and worsted gloves with
black buttons. These boys, like soldiers generally, were partial to
their uniforms and dress parade assignments. Fire fighting and
trail clearing were onerous indeed, and while “a little road
making on service is not a bad thing, continuous navying is
enough to knock the heart out of any army.”<a class="fn" id="fr_330" href="#fn_330">[330]</a></p>
<p>The army’s public relations seemed to have been very satisfactory.
The soldiers were uniformly friendly and helpful toward
the tourists. John Muir considered it a “pleasing contrast to the
ever changing management of blundering, plundering politicians....
The soldiers do their duty so quietly that the traveler is
scarce aware of their presence.”<a class="fn" id="fr_331" href="#fn_331">[331]</a> Tourists called the soldiers
“Swatties”; an English term in popular use at that time.</p>
<p>One Charles D. Warner, of New York City, was also led to rejoice
that there was at least one spot in the United States where
law was promptly enforced. He considered the military administration
an object lesson for the whole nation in point of efficiency
and impartiality.<a class="fn" id="fr_332" href="#fn_332">[332]</a> Opposite reactions came from nearly all who
ran afoul the law.</p>
<p>Perhaps the greatest weakness in the army regime was in the
educational inadequacy of its personnel. About 1910 a difference
in tourist interests was obvious. People, generally, began to inquire
into the causes and effects of the natural phenomena. It became
increasingly apparent that an effective public stewardship
required knowledge of chemistry, botany, geology, zoology, and
history. The reign of the “cock and bull” type of story was drawing
to an end. The era of greater natural history interpretation
and appreciation was dawning. Unless something could be done
to educate the Park’s guardians a considerable educational opportunity
would be lost, not to mention the loss of scientific solution
of forest problems in general.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_263">263</div>
<div class="img" id="fig40">
<img src="images/pic43.jpg" alt="" width="542" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Cavalry Troops in Park Patrol.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_264">264</div>
<p>This need is clearly reflected in Captain Anderson’s report concerning
geysers:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I find there is a general belief in the minds of the tourists that there
is some measure of regularity in the period of eruptions of most if
not all of the geysers. At various times during the last three years I
have had records made by the guards of the observed eruptions. Of
course, these do not include all of the geysers, nor have all of the
eruptions of any one of them been noted. I enclose for publication as
an appendix to this report, a table made of observation upon them
during the past three years. A casual inspection of it reveals the fact
that none but Old Faithful has the slightest pretense to regularity.<a class="fn" id="fr_333" href="#fn_333">[333]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>A rhythmic regularity was there all right, but, strangely enough,
it required the careful observation of the casual scientist to discover
a fact which entirely escaped the more permanent, but less
observant, soldiers. In 1926 the Geophysical Laboratory of the
Carnegie Institution directed Dr. Eugene T. Allen and Dr. Arthur
L. Day to make an exhaustive study of Yellowstone’s thermal features.
After seven seasons of research, in cooperation with the
National Park Service, they were able to publish a monumental
treatise on this subject.<a class="fn" id="fr_334" href="#fn_334">[334]</a> Later observations by such naturalists
as George Marler, W. Verde Watson, and Herbert Lystrup not
only confirmed the principle of rhythmic recurrence in many cases
but discovered behavior patterns that enabled rangers to forecast
a given eruption with uncanny accuracy.</p>
<p>Factors of this character were in the mind of Secretary of the
Interior Franklin K. Lane in 1915 when he appointed Stephen
T. Mather as his assistant. Mr. Mather’s portfolio particularly
related to the formulation of an integrated National Park policy.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_265">265</div>
<h2 id="c19"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Chapter XV</span></span>
<br />THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE</h2>
<p>Although there were thirteen national parks in 1912, each received
a separate appropriation and had separate management.
The business of these playgrounds was scattered among three departments,
and nowhere in Washington was there a single official
or desk wholly devoted to their interest.<a class="fn" id="fr_335" href="#fn_335">[335]</a> To this problem Stephen
Tyng Mather brought high intelligence, sound philosophy, and
supreme endeavor. By 1915 he had achieved administrative experience
that ripened into wisdom equal to undertake the preservation
of America’s scenic and recreational heritage.</p>
<p>With this general proposition in mind, Mr. Mather made two
visits to Yellowstone during the season of 1915. There he carefully
analyzed the administrative policies and personnel. While
it is only fair to state that other federal officials were also planning
a new national park organization and procedure it was largely
Mr. Mather’s Yellowstone report that provided the needed
impetus. From then on he supplied the energy, foresight, and
devotion to effect a transition.</p>
<p>On August 25, 1916 the National Park Service Bill received
President Wilson’s signature. This measure placed the control and
general supervision of the entire national park activity squarely
into the hands of a Director of National Parks. The bill was sponsored
<span class="pb" id="Page_266">266</span>
by Senator Reed Smoot of Utah and Representative William
Kent of California.</p>
<p>Thereafter, on October 1, 1916, the troops of U.S. Cavalry left
Fort Yellowstone for duty along the Mexican border. With C. A.
Lindsley as Acting Superintendent a fine ranger corps was organized
of mountain scouts and released soldiers. Shortly afterwards
Congress reversed its action and voted to deny the use of
Department of the Interior funds for protective purposes. This
forced the return of the soldiers, and the army resumed control on
June 30, 1917.</p>
<p>During the next six months National Park Service officials,
aided by the army officers, gathered data which proved the inadvisability
of continuing the use of troops. It should be noted
that the attitude of the officers throughout was cogently expressed
by Captain Harris:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>And it is believed that to the extent in which the present method of
government and protection is an improvement upon former methods
it is due to the visible power and force of the National Government
as represented by the military garrison in the Park.</p>
<p>It is not to be inferred that the claim is made that a military
government is the only one practicable for the Park, or even that it
is the best adapted or most suitable. It is believed, however, that no
efficient protection can be given to the Park without the support of
a well-organized and disciplined police force of some description.<a class="fn" id="fr_336" href="#fn_336">[336]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In this spirit, the cost of a military garrison and its lack of
opportunities to drill were reviewed. It was clearly demonstrated
that a ranger force of a chief ranger, four assistants, twenty-five
permanent Park rangers of the first class, and twenty-five seasonal
rangers would constitute a “well-organized and disciplined police
force” and something else besides. It was also pointed out that the
cost would be considerably less. This effort resulted in a second
withdrawal of the troops in 1918. At the same time another
ranger force was effected with substantially the same personnel
<span class="pb" id="Page_267">267</span>
as developed in 1916.<a class="fn" id="fr_337" href="#fn_337">[337]</a> In due time the members of this new corps
acquired a modest attitude of confidence in their own capacity
which still abides.</p>
<p>Mr. Mather assumed office as the first National Park Director
on May 16, 1917. In a short time the fruits of his vision were disclosed.
Under his inspiring leadership the National Park program
was steadily expanded. Peace was made with, and a degree of cooperation
obtained from, the natural antagonists of the National
Park Service. Several wealthy citizens who had acquired vast
private estates were induced to donate portions thereof for the
general public. Sportsmen who had observed the diminution in
numbers of wild creatures were converted to the idea of refuges
through self-interest. The positions of the lumber, grazing, irrigation,
and water-power interests were less yielding on this all-out
conservation issue. They would evidently favor a compromise.
The general public gradually responded to the suggestion that the
country beautiful was even more alluring than beautiful cities.<a class="fn" id="fr_338" href="#fn_338">[338]</a></p>
<p>In Secretary Lane’s third annual report in 1919 the National
Park Service policy was announced under three broad principles:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>First, that the National Parks must be maintained in absolutely unimpaired
form for the use of future generations as well as those of
our own time; Second, that they are set apart for the use, observation,
health, and pleasure of the people; and Third, that the national
interest must dictate all decisions affecting public or private enterprise
in the Parks.<a class="fn" id="fr_339" href="#fn_339">[339]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Since then the program has made steady progress. Its purposes
and policies have been enlarged and clarified. The acceptable
qualities of parkhood were defined. Such an area must be supremely
significant, having a national appeal whether scenic,
<span class="pb" id="Page_268">268</span>
archaeological, scientific, or historical. Only such features of
natural architecture were to be included as would represent the
highest accomplishment within its class. For example, Grand
Canyon of the Colorado exemplifies the most extraordinary
achievement of stream erosion, whereas Yellowstone is most
unique in the realm of thermal activity.<a class="fn" id="fr_340" href="#fn_340">[340]</a></p>
<p>The National Park represents the apex of the conservation program,
wherein the principle of optimum use is the dominating
force. The twin purposes of enjoyment plus conservation always
remain uppermost. Commercialization beyond actual requirements
is not to be tolerated, and to this end close supervision is
maintained.</p>
<p>Natural species of animals and plants were to abide in normal
relationships, free from man’s interference, except under urgent
circumstances such as were described in the discussion of wild
life control. The primitive appearance of Yellowstone forests is
distasteful to some people. It was a carping German traveler who
said, “Look at your dead trees and burned stumps in the woods
... and your streams are full of driftwood. It is not cared for.”<a class="fn" id="fr_341" href="#fn_341">[341]</a>
In that sense Yellowstone is not a park but a wilderness full of the
beauty of natural disorder. All things remain as nature leaves
them. No man disturbs landslide, log jam, or wind-swept lodgepole
avalanche.</p>
<p>The appearance of the trails, roads, bridges, buildings, and
facilities of all kinds is gradually being brought into harmony with
the natural environment. Under the guidance of landscape artists,
structural design and location are made conformable to maximum
scenic advantages while at the same time, being inconspicuous
themselves. A few examples will illustrate this trend toward artificial
recession. In 1889 Captain Boutelle complained against the
statute which prescribed that no hotel shall be erected within
<span class="pb" id="Page_269">269</span>
four hundred and forty yards of any object of interest. He urged
a reduction of one-half the distance.<a class="fn" id="fr_342" href="#fn_342">[342]</a> Now, all the accommodations
in the immediate Grand Canyon area are being moved a
modest distance away, where they will still provide the services
which visitors need, but not intrude upon the natural scene.
Another case is afforded by the bear shows. Formerly they
were provided in several places; then modified to a less artificial
presentation on Otter Creek. In 1942 they were discontinued.
It is truly exciting for thousands of people to observe
thirty or forty grizzlies jostle and cuff each other around a “combination
salad” platform. Still, the circumstance is highly artificial,
a sort of Roman holiday affair, and therefore inappropriate.
It is hoped that the Lord of all American wild life may be
allowed to go his way undisturbed, otherwise grizzlies may become
“holdup bears and bums.” Such an eventuality, on a nocturnal
basis of operation, is by no means improbable. That development
would consign this magnificent animal to a precipitous disappearance
from the earth.</p>
<p>Yellowstone’s educational opportunities were early recognized
and utilized by the scientists. The passing of time has widened
this field-study interest. Supervised groups now come from all
parts of America, with individual scientists hailing from both
home and abroad. In fact, more than a hundred specialists have
spent from a few weeks to several years in the Park. The results of
these efforts have run up the volume of scientific titles to approximately
five hundred.</p>
<p>By 1920 naturalist activity was in the course of development,
the outcome of an avowed purpose to facilitate the real enjoyment
of the people. To this work Director Mather brought especial
perception, skill, and even personal funds. In fact, he may be considered
as the father of the movement. It was in 1918, when visiting
Lake Tahoe, that Mather observed the activities of a young
<span class="pb" id="Page_270">270</span>
man named Harold Bryant, whom the management had employed
to interpret nature to their guests. Dr. Bryant’s work so
impressed the Director that he took him to Yosemite where his
success with the public was immediate. Ranger-naturalists were
appointed in other parks, and later Dr. H. C. Bryant was placed
in charge of the educational branch of the service. Two notable
institutions quickly caught the vision and cooperated. In 1925
the Yosemite School of Natural History was founded as a non-profit
scientific organization. Courses in botany, zoology, and
geology were given. Emphasis was placed on field work, and the
final trip lasted two weeks. The instructional staff was composed
largely of University of California professors, while the twenty
trainees were chosen from a hundred candidates.<a class="fn" id="fr_343" href="#fn_343">[343]</a> In 1935 Yale
University furthered the naturalist incentive by providing a fellowship.
Since 1937 two have been granted. Yellowstone Park
has taken advantage of these services.</p>
<p>After a decade of experimentation in field trips, fireside lectures,
and exhibits a Research and Education branch was created within
the National Park Service. This bureau outlined a policy of portraying
certain phases of the American scene in a correlated story.
Laboratories were developed in Berkeley, California; Fort Hunt,
Virginia; and Washington, D. C. The leading men in this program
were H. C. Bryant, F. W. Miller, W. W. Atwood, F. R.
Oastler, A. F. Hall, H. C. Bumpus, and C. P. Russell.</p>
<p>In 1920, Superintendent Horace M. Albright, assisted by J. E.
Haynes, organized the naturalist program in Yellowstone. M. P.
Skinner was the first Park Naturalist. He was succeeded by Edmund
J. Sawyer in 1924. Four years later Dorr G. Yeager assumed
the office; in 1932 Dr. C. Max Bauer became Park Naturalist
and served until 1946, when David de L. Condon was advanced
to the position.<a class="fn" id="fr_344" href="#fn_344">[344]</a> All of these men have been nature-wise
and public-minded. As time passed two assistants to the Chief
Naturalist and thirty-five seasonal Park ranger-naturalists completed
this organization. Robert N. McIntyre became Chief Park
Naturalist in 1959.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_271">271</div>
<div class="img" id="fig41">
<img src="images/pic44.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="574" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Park Ranger-Naturalist and tourist group.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_272">272</div>
<p>Today Yellowstone’s Naturalist Division stands as the symbol
of America’s love for the great out-of-doors. Its philosophy is wise
and comprehensive. Its scientists have delved deeply for the facts.
Still, there is a spirit of self-abnegation among the personnel.
They serve all and sundry in every possible way, and yet they are
pledged to the preservation of the natural treasures. Their contribution
to protection of park values is shared with that of the
ranger staff. The number of public contacts runs into the hundreds
of thousands annually. Wise, indeed, is the tourist who
avails himself of this free guide service.</p>
<p>The principal points of interest are visited over footpath or by
auto caravan. Daily schedules of these activities are posted, and
an illustrated lecture is held in an amphitheater each night. Many
citizens have expressed their satisfaction with this naturalist
service:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>He unravelled before our city-wearied eyes the skein of beauty
nature has hidden in this great preserve. With skillful phrase he
repictured for us the aeons during which the mountains were wrinkling
and the cobalt lakes were born. His keen eyes found us mountain
sheep ... his wide knowledge compassed the flowers and
birds along the way. He knew when and where to take us to see the
beaver at work, and where the water ouzel bubbled forth its cascade
of song. He answered all our questions with calm courtesy.
Around the nightly campfire he brought to us in song and story the
romance and exuberance of the west....</p>
<p>The fire of his enthusiasm welded us to the National Park idea
and out-of-doors as nothing had ever done. We returned to the east
inspired by a new understanding of the greatness of America and
the magnificence of its beauty.<a class="fn" id="fr_345" href="#fn_345">[345]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In 1928 the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Foundation made a
donation to be used by the American Association of Museums in
<span class="pb" id="Page_273">273</span>
the Park. Under the direction of Dr. Hermon C. Bumpus museums
were erected at Old Faithful, Madison, Norris and Fishing
Bridge. The main museum at Mammoth was improved and a
number of roadside exhibits were established.<a class="fn" id="fr_346" href="#fn_346">[346]</a></p>
<p>Mission 66 was begun by the National Park Service in 1956.
It is a conservation program to assure full protection of irreplaceable
scenic, scientific and historic treasures and to develop and
staff the Parks to permit their wisest possible use for your enjoyment.
Completion is scheduled for 1966, the 50th anniversary of
the establishment of the National Park Service, hence Mission 66.</p>
<p>Under this program, new roads, bridges, campgrounds and
other facilities are being built. A fine new visitor center was
opened in 1958 at Canyon Village and a large number of attractive
new roadside exhibits and signs interpret the human and
natural history of the great natural museum that is Yellowstone.</p>
<p>During the score of years required to develop the naturalist
branch, the protective division was not marking time. In 1920
James McBride became the first Chief Ranger. Since then Samuel
Tilden Woodring, George F. Baggley, Francis D. LaNoue, Maynard
Barrows, Curtis K. Skinner and Otto M. Brown have served.
Nelson Murdock became Chief Ranger in 1960. Under their
supervision the character of the personnel has been gradually
changed. Originally a mountain scout and ex-soldier organization,
it is now composed of college graduates. These men divide their
time and effort between applying the principles of forest and
wild life management with those of public relations. Physically
robust, mentally alert, sociable and understanding, they properly
exemplify the traditional informality and hospitality of the West.</p>
<p>Of course there have always been a few political appointees
present among the seasonal Park rangers. This makes the
group quite varied, somewhat in keeping with the universality of
the tourists themselves. Many a city lad has had the time of his
<span class="pb" id="Page_274">274</span>
life in his fleeting role as a “ninety-day wonder.” Still there has
always been a restraining influence reaching out from the chief
ranger’s office. A young man is not allowed to become too self-conscious
over his uniform or badge of authority.</p>
<p>The Superintendent presides over the protective and naturalist
divisions and all other units of the National Park Service in Yellowstone.
Only four men have held this position since the army
withdrew in 1918. C. A. Lindsley was succeeded by Horace M.
Albright in 1919. Mr. Albright served for ten years, after which
Roger W. Toll took office. Edmund B. Rogers was appointed
May 25, 1936, and served until November 1, 1956, when Superintendent
Lemuel A. Garrison succeeded him. The superintendent’s
office is the nerve center of the Park. From there all activities are
co-ordinated. This official is also the liaison man with the National
Park Service; he makes all estimates and recommendations; he
contends for assistance from cooperating agencies, such as the
Civilian Conservation Corps, Emergency Relief Administration,
and Public Works Administration.<a class="fn" id="fr_347" href="#fn_347">[347]</a> The Public Health Service,
the Geological Survey, and the Fish and Wildlife Service each
lend cooperation in their special fields. It is also his function to
consider many letters of introduction and requests for special
favors. He is expected, personally, to welcome numerous delegations
and important national and foreign personages. Information
and courtesies flow from his presence continuously. He must
determine the bounds of concessionaires, hear major complaints,
oppose all invasions by mercenary interests, and, if necessary, labor
to expand the Park’s boundaries.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_275">275</div>
<div class="img" id="fig42">
<img src="images/pic45.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="460" />
<p class="pcap">Madison Junction Historical Museum.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_276">276</div>
<p>Beginning early in the twentieth century there were advocates
of an extension southward. Many people wanted to have the
cathedral-like Tetons incorporated in the Park. A campaign for
a Greater Yellowstone was launched, and in 1918 Representative
Mondell introduced a measure (H.R. 11661) providing for their
incorporation.<a class="fn" id="fr_348" href="#fn_348">[348]</a>
However, the matter was delayed, and the passing
of time resulted in the establishment of the Grand Teton
National Park. A national park may only be created by an act of
Congress; whereas an executive order is sufficient for the creation
of a national monument or a moderate extension of a park boundary.
Through a proclamation issued by President Hoover on
October 20, 1932, Yellowstone National Park acquired a triangular
strip of 7,600 acres of land, now called the Stevens Creek
area. It is located northwest of Gardiner townsite, and it was enlarged
to the extent of nearly a thousand acres the next year. In
affairs of this character the National Park Service and the Superintendent
work in close cooperation with the Secretary of the
Interior. Indeed, the superintendency of Yellowstone is one of
the ranking positions of its kind in the National Park Service.
His final obligation is to be sure that the original objective “for
the benefit and enjoyment of the people” is still the chief and
ever-constant purpose.</p>
<p>It has been pointed out that the fulfillment of this objective is
rather difficult, because various interests and groups have their
own ideas concerning the purposes and methods of administering
national parks. For example, in Idaho, there are some organizations
that seek an Idaho entrance to the Park on Fall River. They
point to the fact that distance and time would be appreciably
reduced in reaching Old Faithful via this route. Besides, they aver,
such an entrance would traverse a beautiful scenic area. These
contentions are both valid and understandable. So is the demand
for landing strips and airport facilities within the reservation
boundaries.</p>
<p>The latter project, it is held, is identical to the position raised
by motorists in 1915. National Park officials have met these issues
squarely. Director Conrad L. Wirth and his Yellowstone representatives
have vetoed both proposals. “Surely,” they reason, “the
Park is for the people, but if it is multisected by highways and
<span class="pb" id="Page_277">277</span>
airways, what will become of the primitive areas?” Sizeable regions
are essential for the propagation and preservation of wild
life. In addition, they point to the fact that as of this date most
people conceive of the parks as havens of relative quiet and rest.</p>
<p>During the travel season of 1959, Yellowstone was host to
1,489,112 visitors. This multitude exceeded the total of all persons
entering the Park in the first half century of its existence.
Facilitating their enjoyment and at the same time preserving the
domain as a pleasuring ground for their descendants requires a
good measure of understanding on the part of the public, together
with a high degree of understanding and training upon
the part of the officials.</p>
<p>Earth tremors are common in the Yellowstone region. The
Hayden Survey reported feeling severe shocks near Steamboat
Point on Yellowstone Lake in 1871. They named the site “Earthquake
Camp.” Other quakes have been reported, mostly of a
minor nature. At 11:38 p.m. on August 17, 1959, an earthquake
of magnitude 7.1 on the Richter Scale struck the Yellowstone
area. The epicenter of the quake was along the western boundary
of the Park in the vicinity of Grayling Creek.</p>
<p>The greatest earthquake damage took place in the Madison
Canyon about 7 miles below Hebgen Dam and outside Yellowstone.
A massive slide of about 80 million tons of earth and rock
blocked the canyon and entombed a number of campers along a
half-mile stretch of the Madison River. This natural dam has
created Earthquake Lake, a feature that will attract attention
for years to come.</p>
<p>In Yellowstone National Park dangerous rock slides covered
Park roads at several points along the Madison, Firehole, and
Gibbon rivers, and at Golden Gate. Tall chimneys toppled from
Old Faithful Inn and other Park buildings, and there was structural
damage to many roads and buildings.</p>
<p>The hot springs showed a greater change in this one night
than had been observed in the entire history of the Park. Close
<span class="pb" id="Page_278">278</span>
study of the thermal features revealed that most springs had
discharged water copiously during the quake and aftershocks,
and then ebbed below normal levels. Investigation revealed that
at least 298 springs and geysers had erupted the night of the
quake, and 160 of these were springs with no previous record of
eruption. Other changes occurred slowly. The Fountain Paint
Pot did not manifest unusual activity until several days after the
quake, but then encroached upon walks and parking areas. Most
of the hot springs became turbid, and even cold springs that fed
the mountain streams on the west side of the Park discharged an
opaque mud which discolored the creeks and rivers.</p>
<p>Equilibrium was gradually restored in the geyser basins. Some
of the earthquake changes were permanent, others transitory. All
of them make this chapter in the living geology of Yellowstone
an intensely interesting one for Park visitors to learn about.</p>
<p>Upon receiving reports about earthquake effects throughout
the Park, Superintendent Lon Garrison exclaimed, “The Lord
had his arms around us. We had 18,000 people inside Yellowstone
that night, and not one person was killed or badly hurt.
Think what would have happened if the quake had come during
daylight—at Old Faithful Inn, for example, where the chimney
fell into the dining room.”</p>
<p>Thus, out of Yellowstone’s development under scouts, soldiers,
and rangers, has come invaluable experience for the good of the
whole nation. From its humble origin a service has evolved that
now administers more than one hundred and seventy-five national
park service areas. Perhaps the value of this program toward the
enrichment of American life cannot be assessed. However, something
of its breadth has been caught and cast in the bronze plaque
at the Madison Junction Museum:</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="center">Stephen Tyng Mather
<br />July 4, 1867 <span class="hst">Jan. 22, 1930</span></p>
<p>He laid the foundation of the National Park Service. Defining and
establishing the policy under which its areas shall be developed and
<span class="pb" id="Page_279">279</span>
conserved unimpaired for future generations. There will never come
an end to the good that he has done.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Yellowstone is one of these irreducible frontiers which should
never vanish, but to find a frontier one must first have the spirit
of a frontiersman. Therefore within its confines are vast wilderness
zones into which people may still go who cherish the elemental
conditions of earth and its denizens. Here there may always be a
pristine land, reminiscent of the primitive environment of mankind.
Here is a temporary refuge for people distraught by the
strain and turmoil of modern life. It is becoming increasingly clear
that the nation which leads the world in feverish business activity
requires playgrounds as well as workshops. If America would
maintain its industrial supremacy let her plan not only the conservation
of materials but of men.<a class="fn" id="fr_349" href="#fn_349">[349]</a> Therefore, let them come to
Yellowstone and other national parks and achieve physical, mental,
and especially spiritual regeneration for all time to come. In
Yellowstone, the National Park Service will be on hand to so
direct the experience of the visitors to the end that even from afar
and after many years their memories will return again. And, as the
deepening twilight seems to bring the earth and the sky together,
they may reflect upon a land where white-robed columns of steam
ascend from the fissures of geysers long dead, like ghosts revisiting
the scenes of their activity.<a class="fn" id="fr_350" href="#fn_350">[350]</a></p>
<p>Such is the desire of all large and generous minds. They are in
full agreement with the glowing tribute of the Earl of Dunraven:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>All honor then to the United States for having bequeathed as a free
gift to man the beauties and curiosities of Wonderland. It is an act
worthy of a great nation, and she will have her reward in the praise
of the present army of tourists no less than in the thanks of the
<span class="pb" id="Page_280">280</span>
generations to come.<a class="fn" id="fr_351" href="#fn_351">[351]</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>And so, here is Yellowstone—The Gem of the Mountains. Is
she not worthy of the fullest measure of preservation, appreciation,
and defense? Surely, the Park is an incomparable heritage
in the divine legacy that is America. May her fountains never
fail but go dancing eternally along, shedding joy and inspiration
upon the hearts of all who seek a certain treasure.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig43">
<img src="images/pic46.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="320" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">W. S. Chapman</span><br />Park Ranger.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_281">281</div>
<h2 id="c20"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Appendix I</span></span>
<br />YOUNG MEN CAMPING IN YELLOWSTONE WILDERNESS</h2>
<p class="center">An adaptation of Rudyard Kipling’s
<br />“The Feet of the Young Men”
<br />By Merrill D. Beal</p>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">When Yellowstone Park is opened then the smokes of council rise,</p>
<p class="t0">Pleasant smokes ’ere yet twixt trail and trail they choose.</p>
<p class="t0">Then the ropes and girths are tested while they pack their last supplies,</p>
<p class="t0">Now the young men head for camps beyond the Tetons!</p>
<p class="t0">Faith will lead them to those altars, hope will light them to that shrine,</p>
<p class="t0">Pilot knobs will safely guide them to their goal.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">They must go, go, go, away from home!</p>
<p class="t0">On the summit of the world they’re overdue.</p>
<p class="t0">Away! The trail is clear before you,</p>
<p class="t0">When the old spring fret comes o’er you</p>
<p class="t0">And the Red Gods call for you!</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">They will see the beaver falling and hear the white swan calling,</p>
<p class="t0">They’ll behold the fishhawk fumble as bald eagle takes a tumble to rob him of his haul.</p>
<p class="t0">They will lie alone to hear the wild geese cry.</p>
<p class="t0">They may watch the blacktail mating as they work the chosen waters where the mackinaw are waiting</p>
<p class="t0">And the cutthroats jumping crazy for the fly!</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_282">282</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">They must go, go, go, away from here!</p>
<p class="t0">On the summit of the world they’re overdue.</p>
<p class="t0">Begone! The way is clear before you</p>
<p class="t0">When the old spring fret comes o’er you,</p>
<p class="t0">And the Red Gods call for you!</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">They will see the lakeside lilies where the bull moose meets the cow,</p>
<p class="t0">Or maybe silver grizzlies nurse the sow.</p>
<p class="t0">They must climb the blue-roofed Rockies and observe that windy rift</p>
<p class="t0">Where the baffling mountain eddies chop and change.</p>
<p class="t0">They will learn the long day’s patience, belly down on talus drift,</p>
<p class="t0">And hear the thud of bison on the range.</p>
<p class="t0">It is there that they are going where the bighorn and the ewes lie,</p>
<p class="t0">To a trusty, nimble ranger that they know;</p>
<p class="t0">They have sworn an oath to keep it on the brink of Mitsiadazi</p>
<p class="t0">For the Red Gods call them out and they must go.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">Let them go, go, go, away from home!</p>
<p class="t0">On the summit of the world they’re overdue.</p>
<p class="t0">Be off! The trail is clear before you</p>
<p class="t0">When the old spring fret comes o’er you,</p>
<p class="t0">And the Red Gods make their medicine again.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">“So it’s onward ponies, sally, this is not the place to dally!”</p>
<p class="t0">For the young men’s thoughts are turning to a camp of special yearning,</p>
<p class="t0">Hidden in a hanging valley.</p>
<p class="t0">They must find that blackened timber, they must head that racing stream,</p>
<p class="t0">With its raw, right-angled log jam at the end,</p>
<p class="t0">And a bar of sun-warmed gravel where a lad can bask and dream</p>
<p class="t0">To the click of shod canoe poles ’round the bend.</p>
<p class="t0">It is there that they are going with their rods and reels and traces,</p>
<p class="t0">With a silent, smoky packer that they know;</p>
<p class="t0">To their beds of fleecy fir-mat with the star light on their faces,</p>
<p class="t0">All are ready now to hold the evening show.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">So they go, go, go, away from here!</p>
<p class="t0">On the summit of the world they’re overdue.</p>
<p class="t0">So long! The trail is clear before you,</p>
<p class="t0">When the old spring fret comes o’er you,</p>
<p class="t0">And the Red Gods call you forth and you must go!</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">In the afterglow of twilight, tales of wonder find their voice,</p>
<p class="t0">Trapping, fighting, robbing, poaching yield a choice:</p>
<p class="t0">There’s John Colter’s mighty run and Jim Bridger’s towering fun,</p>
<p class="t0">There’s Everts’ five-week fast and Ed Trafton’s crimson past.</p>
<p class="t0">There’s George Cowan’s rugged vim; there’s Buckskin Charley,</p>
<p class="t0">Beaver Dick and Yankee Jim!</p>
<p class="t0">Nez Percé Joseph’s flight and capture will fill each soul with rapture</p>
<p class="t0">In this camp of keen desire and pure delight.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">Let them go, go, go, away from home!</p>
<p class="t0">On the summit of the world they’re overdue.</p>
<p class="t0">Away! The trail is clear before you</p>
<p class="t0">When the old spring fret comes o’er you,</p>
<p class="t0">And the Red Gods mix their medicine again.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig44">
<img src="images/pic47.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="467" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">Photo by Jack Young</span><br /><i>Young men camping in Yellowstone</i></p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_283">283</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">When the mountain yarns cease flowing and the night is in the glowing, conversation wanes.</p>
<p class="t0">Then a sudden clap of thunder makes them huddle up the number to fend against the rains.</p>
<p class="t0">When the fleeting squalls are over and the clouds ride high and fair,</p>
<p class="t0">They will hear the lodgepole crackle and inhale the pine-sap air.</p>
<p class="t0">Then bacon scent and wood smoke will attract an eager bear,</p>
<p class="t0">He will grunt and sniff and gurgle as he wends nocturnal rounds.</p>
<p class="t0">As darkness dims youth’s vision, so sleep crowds out all sounds,</p>
<p class="t0">But the eerie detonation of the bull elk’s morning call</p>
<p class="t0">Will waken them from slumber by a singing water fall.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">Hence, they go, go, go, away from here!</p>
<p class="t0">On the summit of the world they’re overdue.</p>
<p class="t0">Carry on! The trail is clear before you</p>
<p class="t0">When the old spring fret comes o’er you,</p>
<p class="t0">And the Red Gods call for you!</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">Unto each the voice and vision, unto each his hunch and sign,</p>
<p class="t0">Lonely geyser in a basin, misty sweat bath ’neath a pine.</p>
<p class="t0">Unto each a lad who knows his naked soul!</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_284">284</div>
<p class="t0">Unto each a rainbow arching through a window in the sky,</p>
<p class="t0">While the blazoned, bird-winged butterflies flap by.</p>
<p class="t0">It is there that they are going to a region that they know,</p>
<p class="t0">Where the sign betrays the badger and the shaggy buffalo.</p>
<p class="t0">Where the trail runs out in breccia midst rock forests row on row.</p>
<p class="t0">It is there life glides serenely without conduct that’s unseemly,</p>
<p class="t0">In a land where thoughts and feelings overflow.</p>
<p class="t0">Quick! Ah, heave the camp kit over!</p>
<p class="t0">For the Red Gods call them forth and they must go.</p>
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">Let them go, go, go, away from home!</p>
<p class="t0">On the summit of the world they’re overdue.</p>
<p class="t0">Farewell! The trail is clear before you</p>
<p class="t0">When the old spring fret comes o’er you,</p>
<p class="t0">And the Red Gods mix their medicine once more.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_285">285</div>
<h2 id="c21"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Appendix II</span></span>
<br />THE PROBLEM OF “COLTER’S ROUTE IN 1807”</h2>
<p>It may seem unfruitful at this time to attempt a solution of the
problem of John Colter’s 1807 route of discovery in Yellowstone.
Many people require no proof of anything cited in the records of
such great scouts as Jedediah S. Smith, Kit Carson, and John
Colter. Their integrity need not be questioned. Still, it is within
the province of the historian to sift and test all of the evidence until
the truth falls into place as elements in a jigsaw puzzle. Even myths
and legends should be examined for any implications and bearing
they might have upon a fact. It is in this light that the following
discussion of the Colter discovery problem is presented. This case
is entirely hypothetical, since no specific reference to his route has
been found anywhere among source material, except as it is approximated
upon the Map of 1814.</p>
<p>Beyond the known facts of Colter’s journey in 1807, the Map of
1814, and the “Colter’s Hell” legend, there is a complete hiatus, or
vacuum. However, the Map of 1814 is certainly a tangible thing; let
it tell its own story: It is known that William Clark had a friend in
Philadelphia named Nicholas Biddle who arranged for the publication
of <i>The Lewis and Clark Journals</i>. In order to properly depict
the journey, Mr. Biddle secured the services of a prominent Philadelphia
cartographer named Samuel Lewis. Twice in 1810 Clark
sent sheets of map material to Mr. Biddle.<a class="fn" id="fr_352" href="#fn_352">[352]</a> John Colter reached
St. Louis in May, 1810. It is certain that he called upon Clark and
gave him information, if not sheets, depicting his famous journey of
1807. This data was undoubtedly sent on to Mr. Biddle, either as
Colter drew it or as it was accurately redrawn by Clark. At least one
<span class="pb" id="Page_286">286</span>
of Colter’s sheets was incorporated in the final Map of 1814.<a class="fn" id="fr_353" href="#fn_353">[353]</a> The
first, or eastern prairie, side of the Colter plat traced his journey up
Pryors Fork, about fifty miles west of Fort Manuel, through Pryors
Gap. Then he crossed over to Clarks Fork, which he ascended,
probably to Dead Indian Creek. From this creek Colter crossed over
a divide to the North Fork Shoshone River where he first smelled
sulphur. This he called Stinking Water River, most probably referring
to the present De Maris Mineral Springs near Cody, Wyoming.</p>
<p>On Stinking Water River he encountered the “Yep-pe Band of
Snake Indians 1000 souls.” This was evidently a clan of the Crow
tribe. From these Yep-pe Indians, denizens of both prairie and mountain,
he undoubtedly learned of the Yellowstone geysers and other
marvels. This accounts for his side trip which brought him back to
the Yep-pe camp. It is likely that some of these Indians directed
Colter along another route in returning to Manuel’s Fort. Obviously
they went down the North Fork Shoshone, or Colter’s Stinking
Water River, to its junction with Shoshone River. This, he followed
to Gap Creek (now Sage Creek) which he ascended to Pryors
Gap.<a class="fn" id="fr_354" href="#fn_354">[354]</a> By this alternate route Colter again reached Pryors Fork
where he crossed over to return to Fort Manuel.</p>
<p>From this examination it is obvious that the western boundary of
Colter’s first map lies east of 110° longitude, and up to that point no
difficulty whatever is encountered with either the route or the map.
This line undoubtedly defines the west border of Colter’s first sheet.
It became a part of the Map of 1814 without change. Hence, it is a
correct representation of the “Buffalo Bill country” around Cody,
Wyoming. Published in 1814, it could only have been the work of
John Colter, because no other white man had visited that area. Because
of the accuracy of Colter’s first plat, or east portion of the
map, his course to the Yep-pe Indian camp can be followed like
tracks in the snow. Just so, the return route east of 110° can be
identified as coming down Sunlight Creek and back up Dead Indian
Creek to the Yep-pe Indian camp. From there he followed a
shorter route, in returning to the eastern edge of the map sheet, that
is to say, the head of Pryors Fork.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_287">287</div>
<div class="img" id="fig45">
<img src="images/pic48.jpg" alt="" width="698" height="627" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">M. D. Beal</span><br />Yellowstone section of Colter’s route.</p>
</div>
<div class="img">
<img src="images/pic48a.jpg" alt="" width="698" height="600" />
<p class="pcap">Logic and a reasonable sense of procedure would support this route as the
trail of Colter’s Yellowstone Discovery. Conclusive proof is lacking.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_288">288</div>
<p>Thus, it is evident that the eastern courses of Colter’s journey,
both going and coming, are accurately depicted on the Map of 1814.
East of 110° it is an accurate and authentic mapping of the area,
just such a one as an intelligent trapper would make. Whatever is
depicted corresponds to actual geography. It is factual, tangible,
verifiable, and indisputable.</p>
<p>This part of the map proves that Colter did take an extended
journey in a southwesterly direction, but it does not prove that he
discovered Yellowstone Park. The dependable part of the map
simply accounts for the eastern part of the figure eight which is essential
to describe the complete journey.<a class="fn" id="fr_355" href="#fn_355">[355]</a> The reliable part leads
him only to the southeastern border of Yellowstone Park and brings
him back from farther north along its eastern boundary.</p>
<p>The western portion of the dotted line on the Map of 1814 is
purely fictitious and encompasses an area far beyond that occupied
by Yellowstone Park. Indeed, this part of Colter’s route winds
among a labyrinth of geographical unreality.<a class="fn" id="fr_356" href="#fn_356">[356]</a> Therefore, Colter’s
route, as represented by the western loop of the dotted line, is likewise
invalid. Here, then, is the problem of Colter’s discovery: How
could the map of his exploration, which necessarily described a
figure eight, be at once so authentic in the east and so fictitious in
the west? The Yellowstone area of the Map of 1814 is certainly one
of organized confusion, but it does not follow that Colter drew that
portion of the map as it appears.</p>
<p>Actual geography and common sense prove that a trapper on foot
could not possibly have seen both the Arkansas and Platte rivers.
Just as surely, geography and common sense attest that in traveling
a normal western loop of the figure eight he would have seen precisely
what the map does not depict, namely: Upper Yellowstone
River, Snake River, Yellowstone Lake, and the thermal areas at
Thumb of Lake and near Hayden Valley.</p>
<p>Thus, by elimination, an obvious conclusion evolves, namely that
the western loop is not as Colter drew it. Instead of actuality, there
is fiction; nothing in this part of the map conforms to reality. That
geography only exists upon the Map of 1814. John Colter died in
1813 so he never even saw the route as depicted, to say nothing of
traveling along it.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_289">289</div>
<div class="img" id="fig46">
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">J. N. Barry</span><br />Western section of Colter’s route.</p>
</div>
<div class="img">
<img src="images/pic49.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="616" />
<p class="pcap">A true sketch of the Yellowstone Park area.</p>
</div>
<div class="img">
<img src="images/pic49a.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="557" />
<p class="pcap">Fictitious geography depicted on the map of 1814. Note the complete incongruity
between the real map and the guess map.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_290">290</div>
<p>The failure of writers to recognize the fictitious character of this
portion of the Map of 1814 has led to a comical performance. They
have assigned to Colter the role of a human helicopter who hopped
over mountains and valleys visiting the drainage basins of all the
river systems within a radius of five hundred miles of the Yep-pe
Indian village. First they trail him on Teton River, Big Sandy, Gros
Ventre, and Greybull. Then they track him over South Pass, Teton
Pass, and Union and Twogwotee passes. These authors have never
trudged the wilds of which they write nor even measured them on a
real map. Where, then, did Colter travel? The answer to that
problem largely depends upon a rational interpretation of that fantastic
map sheet. Perhaps an investigation of the process by which
the map was produced will offer a clue.</p>
<p>As stated before, Clark sent map materials to Biddle, who in turn
passed them on to Samuel Lewis, a professional cartographer, to be
worked into a map of the Trans-Mississippi West. This was a very
difficult assignment because the sheets were of various scales, which
necessitated overlapping, crowding, and uncertainty as to latitudes
and longitudes.<a class="fn" id="fr_357" href="#fn_357">[357]</a> The manner in which Lewis fitted them into a
mosaic represents a remarkable work of art. Deficiencies are largely
attributable to the inadequate data received, but in the case of
Colter’s journey another element is involved.</p>
<p>In the course of compilation, between 1810 and 1814, Clark
must have sent a redrawing of the route of Colter’s journey.<a class="fn" id="fr_358" href="#fn_358">[358]</a> By way
of review, let it be remembered that Colter reached St. Louis in
May of 1810. He called on Clark and evidently presented several
sheets of trapper map to him. This was the material which depicted
his journey of 1807, and it seemed to be highly appreciated by
Clark. That it was given preference by Clark over the contemporary
exploration of Zebulon M. Pike simply substantiates the belief that
Colter’s journey made a profound impression upon Clark at that
time.<a class="fn" id="fr_359" href="#fn_359">[359]</a> On December 20, 1810, Clark apparently sent the original
Colter sheets, or properly redrawn copies of them, to Nicholas
Biddle. Clark also inserted, or superimposed, two rivers upon the
Colter drawing. They were Clarks Fork and Bighorn rivers.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_291">291</div>
<p>It is important to remember that Clark had full confidence in
Colter’s representation of his journey at this time, that is, December,
1810. The following year Andrew Henry returned from his exploration
of the Madison and Snake river regions. He had seen only
ordinary country. This report seems to have destroyed Clark’s belief
in Colter’s story of marvels. Not wishing to deceive anyone by the
delusions of a deranged trapper’s mind, Clark apparently directed
Samuel Lewis to retain Colter’s east plat, that is, the Buffalo Bill
country, but suppress the western section, the Yellowstone Lake
region. In lieu of Colter’s depiction of the western loop of his figure
eight Clark evidently sent the draft that now appears on the Map of
1814.</p>
<p>What possible reason can be assigned for this action? It is anybody’s
guess; no one can now determine what Clark thought, but
following is a rational hypothesis: In the close of the year 1811,
Andrew Henry and his men returned from their trapping venture in
the Upper Snake River basin. They had skirted the western border
of Wonderland along the line of the Madison and Gallatin rivers
and explored the sources of Henrys Fork of the Snake River. Yet,
Henry had not seen any hot springs, geysers, or great lakes. No
doubt Henry had heard trappers joke about “Colter’s Hell.” Personally,
he showed no confidence in it. Evidently both he and Clark
considered that Henry’s and Colter’s journeys overlapped. Actually,
the Gallatin Range intervened between them. It is reasonable, therefore,
that Henry’s report and attitude affected Clark’s original
belief in Colter’s story. Where he first believed he now doubted.
Perhaps Clark concluded that Colter’s terrible experiences had
deranged his mind. It is certain that Clark sent his new knowledge
of the Henrys Fork country to Biddle in 1812 because it appears on
the Map of 1814.<a class="fn" id="fr_360" href="#fn_360">[360]</a> It was undoubtedly at this time that Clark sent
in his redrawn, guesswork version of the western portion of Colter’s
map. No one knows exactly what changes Clark made, but the
Map of 1814 proves conclusively that Clark did not depict the
“Colter’s Hell” country which contains the wonders of Yellowstone
Park as it was originally presented to him.</p>
<p>It was a valid reaction for Clark to have become suspicious of
Colter’s reliability, and the substitution of his own geographical
<span class="pb" id="Page_292">292</span>
speculation for Colter’s Yellowstone sketch was probably sincere.
Clark was too honest to depict the delusions of an “insane” man.
Also he was very anxious to have a reasonably complete and integrated
map. The only alternatives were to allow the Colter marvel
sheet to appear or else to mark a considerable area “unexplored.”
He was caught in the bonds of uncertainty and made a compromise.
The result was a sheet of bogus geography which is entirely incongruous,
not only with the facts, but with Clark’s uniformly excellent
map work.<a class="fn" id="fr_361" href="#fn_361">[361]</a></p>
<p>Clark’s choice of alternatives only complicated the problem of his
cartographer. Lewis no doubt recognized the vast discrepancies
between Colter’s genuine depiction and Clark’s counterfeit so he
evidently decided upon a compromise of his own. How this expert
reconciled the conflicting data of the two map sheets into one pattern
is at once a masterpiece in cartography and psychology. The
technique he adopted might be called “double entry map making.”
He used the Yellowstone Lake part of Colter’s sketch as an element
for a concealed map; it appears as a mountain range. Such a grotesque
range cannot be found in any of the surrounding territory,
but when visualized as a lake it is amazing how it conforms to what
a trapper traveling a logical route would have seen of Yellowstone
Lake, namely, the South Arm and Thumb. Lewis shied away from
any clear-cut representation of the geyser region. However, besides
including the disguised lake portion of Colter’s map, he did other
things to “poke fun” at Clark’s speculations. He drew Lake Eustis
in the manner of a gargoyle. It must have been deliberately “satanized.”
Nothing with such a preposterous shape was ever known
among men. Why didn’t Clark revolt at this representation? Surely
he never drew anything like that himself. That is not all of Lewis’
“fun making.” He drew still another lake and gave it the shape of a
deformed piece of liver. Its appearance is ridiculous in the other
extreme,<a class="fn" id="fr_362" href="#fn_362">[362]</a> but, as if to add insult to injury, Mr. Lewis raised a question
as to this lake’s legitimacy. Clark named it Biddle in honor of
his patron, Nicholas Biddle, whereas, upon the English version, the
name appearing is Riddle! Lewis was able to “get away” with this
performance because Clark did not see any proofs, only the published
work.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_293">293</div>
<div class="img" id="fig47">
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">J. N. Barry</span><br />“Double-entry” map of Yellowstone.</p>
</div>
<div class="img">
<img src="images/pic50.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="710" />
<p class="pcap">Samuel Lewis’ “Double-entry” map. An attempt to reconcile Colter’s draft
of the Yellowstone country with Clark’s obvious assumptions.</p>
</div>
<div class="img">
<img src="images/pic50a.jpg" alt="" width="686" height="702" />
<p class="pcap">When segregated these “concealed” elements give a logical representation of
what Colter undoubtedly saw, namely the southwest arm and thumb of Yellowstone
Lake.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_294">294</div>
<p>Remembering that Samuel Lewis was employed to reproduce a
map conforming to data and specifications furnished by Clark, what
more could he do to manifest his skepticism, if not displeasure, over
the incorporation of fictitious geography upon this super-important
map of the West? Remember, Lewis was a professional cartographer;
he had seen, and had already drawn, Colter’s sheet of real
country. On the original draft the southwest Arm and Thumb of
Lake Yellowstone undoubtedly appeared. Now he was asked to redraw
it into counterfeit geography. Disturbed by the substitution of
Clark’s sheet of “Gulliver’s geography” for Colter’s journey, he disguised
a lake in a mountain range, drew a gargoylian lake (Eustis),
and raised the enigma of Biddle-Riddle.<a class="fn" id="fr_363" href="#fn_363">[363]</a> After all, cartography is
simply a scientific refinement of pictography, or storytelling. The
message of Samuel Lewis, as revealed in the Yellowstone segment
of the Map of 1814, might reasonably be: “This portion of the map
is bogus. I do not know what the true conditions are. Colter’s data
appears all right; Clark’s later information says it isn’t. It’s all a
Riddle; I leave a clue.” Against this background, with the fiction
cut away, it may now be possible to explore the problem of Colter’s
route through the Yellowstone country.</p>
<p>Did Colter make a western loop trip beyond the Yep-pe Indian
camp? Of that there can be no doubt. Clark’s representation does
not impugn Colter’s word in respect to the reality of the journey
itself but only as to where he went and what he saw. If an approximation
of his route can be reproduced, the question of what he saw
will automatically fall into place like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.
The problem, then, is to correctly reconstruct the west loop of the
figure eight. This procedure has become possible by reason of the
proposition that has been established in this discussion, particularly
when it is remembered that Colter knew his way around and could
be relied upon to make a proper orientation to the total environment.
Now his course can be followed by segregating another feature
from what has been referred to as “Lewis’ Concealed Colter Map.”</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_295">295</div>
<div class="img" id="fig48">
<img src="images/pic51.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="700" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="au">J. N. Barry</span><br />A section of fictitious geography.</p>
<p class="pcapc">A larger section of the Map of 1814 showing Samuel Lewis’ ingenious combination
of Colter’s data, Clark’s guesses and the Cartographer’s own obvious
design to pose a gumption test for students of Western geographic exploration.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_296">296</div>
<p>West of longitude 110° it will be noted that two features stand
out in bold relief, namely, a mitten-shaped mountain labeled FOSSIL
(probably the Trident) and the crude outline of South Arm
and Thumb of Yellowstone Lake. These two landmarks may be used
as guide posts in following Colter’s reconstructed loop through
Yellowstone. Colter’s authentic east loop journey, already described,
brought him approximately to the 110° meridian. Colter’s mitten-shaped
landmark lies about seventy-five miles due west of the border
on his second map sheet, but Clark’s dotted line depicts Colter’s
route fifty miles south of the mountain shaped like a mitten and
marked FOSSIL. It is valid to inquire how Colter could discern its
shape or know of its fossils from that distance. His Indian friends
knew nothing about fossils. The dotted line does not cross or even
skirt this mountain. To reach the “Fossil Mountain” from Salt
Fork, Colter could ascend by Elk-Wapiti or Fishhawk creeks. Each
meets the requirements of direction and distance, and there is a
good chance that somewhere along one of these routes a large
petrified fish, or something like a fish, was seen then and may be
eventually found. Such a discovery would remove all doubt about
the direction in which he traveled.<a class="fn" id="fr_364" href="#fn_364">[364]</a></p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_297">297</div>
<div class="img" id="fig49">
<img src="images/pic52.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="637" />
<p class="pcap">Western section of Coulter’s route.</p>
<p class="pcapc">Logic and a reasonable sense of procedure would support this route as the
trail of Coulter’s Yellowstone discovery. Conclusive proof is lacking.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_298">298</div>
<p>From the “Fossil Mountain” Colter probably descended Pass
Creek to Thorofare Creek, which he followed to the Upper Yellowstone
River. Then he might have ascended either Falcon, Lynx, or
Atlantic creeks, preferably the latter, to Two Ocean Pass. Crossing
the Continental Divide, he would then descend Pacific Creek, skirting
Big Game Ridge, and cross the South Fork of Snake River,
within the present confines of the Park. Thence he could go along
Chicken Ridge, from where he would frequently view South Arm,
headed toward Flat Mountain Arm. After crossing Solution Creek
he would strike West Thumb.<a class="fn" id="fr_365" href="#fn_365">[365]</a> The validity of this itinerary is
wholly sustained by the genuine features of this area as they appear
upon the Map of 1814. Indeed, the route seems obvious and indisputable
in view of the actual conditions existing. On a crude map,
where there are numerous, similar streams, various combinations
are, of course, possible.</p>
<p>Leaving West Thumb, Colter would have circled the lake to its
outlet and followed it to the Hayden Valley thermal area. Dragons
Mouth and Mud Volcano were undoubtedly features that contributed
to the vivid impression he carried away and transmitted
to others. Even the “Hot Spring Brimstone” characterization on the
Map of 1814 mildly suggests explosive thermal activity. The phrase
also suggests that Colter mapped a geyser basin.<a class="fn" id="fr_366" href="#fn_366">[366]</a></p>
<p>Colter’s return route from the area near the outlet of Yellowstone
River supplies the final link in the figure eight. To reach the
Yep-pe Indian camp he might have veered to the northeast, crossed
Yellowstone River at the ford below Mud Volcano, and ascended
Pelican Creek or one of the tributaries of the Lamar River. After
crossing the Absarokas he evidently descended one of the creeks that
empty into Clarks Fork. No one on earth can be certain about this
part of his journey. There is no reference anywhere, and the Map
of 1814 gives no clue. Still he did reach a tributary of Clarks Fork
which he followed to its junction with Dead Indian Creek, thence
to the Yep-pe band.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_299">299</div>
<h2 id="c22"><span class="small">BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE</span></h2>
<p>In the preparation of the first four chapters the use of explorer and
trapper journals was imperative. The <i>Journals of Lewis and Clark</i>,
Patrick Gass’s <i>Journal</i>, and Robert Stuart’s <i>Discovery of the Oregon
Trail</i> are basic.</p>
<p>Trapper activities and Indian life are effectively treated by Stallo
Vinton in <i>John Colter</i>; Alexander Ross, <i>The Fur Hunters of the Far
West</i>; Hiram Chittenden, <i>The American Fur Trade</i>; John Neihardt,
<i>The Splendid Wayfaring</i>; J. Cecil Alter, <i>Jim Bridger, Trapper,
Frontiersman, Scout and Guide</i>; Bernard De Voto, <i>Across the Wide
Missouri</i>; and Robert Vaughn, <i>Then and Now</i>. A correct conception
of original Indian life and character will reward the student of
Rudolph Kurz’s <i>Journal</i> and Washington Irving’s two volumes:
<i>The Adventures of Captain Bonneville</i> and <i>Astoria</i>. George Catlin’s
monumental treatise on <i>North American Indians</i> is also a classic on
that subject.</p>
<p>Important in the field of writings dealing with the partial and
final discovery of Yellowstone are Nathaniel P. Langford, <i>Discovery
of Yellowstone Park 1870</i>, together with the shorter accounts of his
companions as recorded in Louis C. Crampton’s <i>Early History of
Yellowstone National Park and Its Relations to National Park Policies</i>.
The Yellowstone explorations of James Stuart and Walter W.
DeLacy and others are found in <i>Contributions to the Historical
Society of Montana</i>, volumes one to five inclusive.</p>
<p>John G. White’s scholarly manuscript entitled “A Souvenir of
Wyoming” contains much material of a provocative character. Nice
points of detail are raised concerning John Colter’s route and other
trapper visitations.</p>
<p>The chapter on “Travel and Accommodations—New Businesses”
<span class="pb" id="Page_300">300</span>
was the result of a search through the standard magazines covering
the half century from 1870 to 1920. The State College of Washington
collection was found adequate for this survey.</p>
<p>It would be impossible to write the story of the Park’s administration
without a review of all the <i>Annual Reports of the Acting
Superintendents, and Superintendents of Yellowstone National
Park</i>. The Park Library has a complete file from 1872 to the present
time. In addition, the <i>Reports of the Secretary of the Interior</i> and
the <i>Reports of the Director of National Parks</i>, covering the same
period, were essential cross references in this effort. A complete
set of these reports is available at the State College of Washington.
A perusal of the soldier (scout) diaries in the Park Library gave the
substance for the discussion of that interesting phase.</p>
<p>Among guide books <i>The Haynes Guide</i> is in a class by itself. It is
not only an invaluable hand book to the casual tourist, but it is an
excellent encyclopedia for research.</p>
<p>The Earl of Dunraven’s <i>Hunting in the Yellowstone</i> affords an
excellent narrative from the standpoint of measuring the progress
of all phases of Park activity.</p>
<p><i>Yellowstone Nature Notes</i> is the best source for those sprightly
experiences that make life so interesting and pleasant in the Park.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_301">301</div>
<h2 id="c23"><span class="small">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span></h2>
<h3>MANUSCRIPT MATERIAL</h3>
<p class="book">Anderson, E. C. Diary 1909. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.</p>
<p class="book">Anderson, Henry. Diary 1910, 1911. Park Library.</p>
<p class="book">Brown, Jesse R. Diary 1909, 1910. Park Library.</p>
<p class="book">Burgess, Felix. Diary 1898, 1899. Park Library.</p>
<p class="book">Cook, C. W. “Remarks of C. W. Cook, Last Survivor of the Original
Explorers of the Yellowstone Park Region.” Park Library.</p>
<p class="book">Dorrity, Mrs. James. “Story of the Battle of Bear’s Paw.” M. D. Beal
Collection, Idaho State College, Pocatello, Idaho.</p>
<p class="book">Fitzgerald, S. M. Diary 1907. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.</p>
<p class="book">Graham, S. D. Diary 1906, 1907, 1908. Park Library.</p>
<p class="book">Harlan, W. B. “The Fiasco at Fort Fizzle—1936.” M. D. Beal Collection.</p>
<p class="book">Holmes, W. H. Extracts from the Diary 1872, 1878. Park Library,
Mammoth, Wyoming.</p>
<p class="book">Langford, Nathaniel P. Diary, Second Trip to Yellowstone 1872.
Park Library.</p>
<p class="book">Little, Raymond G. Diary 1911, 1912. Park Library.</p>
<p class="book">Louck, D. J. Journal in Manuscript. State Historian’s Office, Laramie,
Wyoming.</p>
<p class="book">Martin, Louis. Diary 1900, 1901. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.</p>
<p class="book">Mason, John E. Diary 1909. Park Library.</p>
<p class="book">Matlock, Jesse M. “Dictation.” M. D. Beal Collection.</p>
<p class="book">Morrison, James. Diary 1897, 1898, 1899. Park Library, Mammoth,
Wyoming.</p>
<p class="book">McBride, James. Diary 1908, 1909, 1910, 1911, 1912. Park Library.</p>
<p class="book">Peale, A. C. Diary of Field Operations, U. S. Geological Survey
1872. (Three volumes.) Park Library.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_302">302</div>
<p class="book">Phillips, Ulrich B. “Lectures on Early America.” (Notes taken by the
author at the University of California in 1933.)</p>
<p class="book">Rubin, Walter. Diary 1911. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.</p>
<p class="book">Shambow, Louie. “Story of the Battle of Bear’s Paw.” M. D. Beal
Collection.</p>
<p class="book">Titus, N. C. “Story of Colonel Miles’ Attack on the Nez Percé
Camp.” M. D. Beal Collection.</p>
<p class="book">Thompson, Captain. U. S. A. “Memorandum of a Trip from Fort
Ellis, Montana Territory to Yellowstone Park.” (Sept. 1882.)
Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.</p>
<p class="book">Trischman, Harry. Diary 1909, 1910, 1912. Park Library, Mammoth,
Wyoming.</p>
<p class="book">Wall, M. J. Diary. Park Library.</p>
<p class="book">White, John G. “A Souvenir of Wyoming.” (One of eight typed
copies of a trip made in 1916.) Park Library.</p>
<p class="book">White, Mable McClain. “Dictation.” M. D. Beal Collection.</p>
<p class="book">Wilson, Charley. Diary 1910. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.</p>
<p class="book">Wilson, James. Diary 1907, 1908. Park Library.</p>
<p class="book">Whittaker, George. Diary 1897, 1898, 1899, 1900. Park Library.</p>
<h3>PRINTED JOURNALS, DIARIES AND AUTOBIOGRAPHIES</h3>
<p class="book">Bradbury, John. <i>Travels in the Interior Of America, 1809, 1810, and
1811.</i> London: Sherwood Neeley, and Jones, 1819.</p>
<p class="book">Carson, Kit. <i>Autobiography.</i> Chicago: Lakeside Press, 1935.</p>
<p class="book"><i>Contributions</i>, Historical Society of Montana, I, II, III, IV, V.
Helena, Montana: Rocky Mountain Publishing Co., 1876.</p>
<p class="book">Dunraven, The Earl of. <i>Hunting in the Yellowstone.</i> New York:
The Macmillan Co., 1925.</p>
<p class="book">Egan, Howard. <i>Pioneering the West.</i> Egan Estate. Richmond, Utah.</p>
<p class="book">Ferris, Warren A. <i>Life in the Rocky Mountains, 1830-35.</i> Salt Lake
City: Rocky Mountain Book Shop, 1940.</p>
<p class="book">Folsom, David E. <i>The Folsom-Cook Exploration of the Upper Yellowstone.</i>
St. Paul: H. L. Collins Co., 1894.</p>
<p class="book">Gass, Patrick. <i>Journal.</i> Edited by James K. Hosmer, Chicago: A. C.
McClurg and Co., 1904.</p>
<p class="book">Guie, Heister D. and McWhorter, L. V., editors. <i>Adventures in Geyser
Land</i> by Frank D. Carpenter. Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton
Printers, 1935.</p>
<p class="book">Howard, General O. O. <i>Chief Joseph, His Pursuit and Capture.</i> Boston:
Lee and Shephard, 1881.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_303">303</div>
<p class="book">Jackson, William H. <i>Time Exposure.</i> New York: G. P. Putnam’s
Sons, 1940.</p>
<p class="book">Kurz, Rudolph. <i>Journal.</i> Washington, D. C.: United States Government
Printing Office, 1937.</p>
<p class="book">Langford, Nathaniel P. <i>The Discovery of Yellowstone Park 1870.</i>
St. Paul: J. E. Haynes Publisher, 1923.</p>
<p class="book">Larocque, Francis Antoine. <i>Journal.</i> Sources of Northwest History,
No. 20, University of Montana, Missoula.</p>
<p class="book">McWhorter, Lucullus V. <i>Yellow Wolf: His Own Story.</i> Caldwell,
Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1940.</p>
<p class="book">Norton, Harry J. <i>Wonderland Illustrated, or Horse Back Rides.</i> Virginia
City, Montana: Harry J. Norton, 1873.</p>
<p class="book">Osmond, Mabel C. <i>Memories of a Trip Through Yellowstone National
Park.</i> St. Louis, 1874.</p>
<p class="book">Raftery, John H. <i>The Story of the Yellowstone.</i> Butte, Montana:
McKee Printing Co., 1912.</p>
<p class="book">Ross, Alexander. <i>The Fur Hunters of the Far West.</i> London: Smith,
Elder & Co., 1855.</p>
<p class="book">Russell, Osborne. <i>Journal of a Trapper, 1834-1843.</i> Boise, Idaho:
Syms-York Co., 1921.</p>
<p class="book">Smith, Willard E. “An Excerpt from the Journal of Willard E.
Smith, 1839-1840.” Edited by J. Neilson Barry. <i>Annals of
Wyoming</i>, Vol. XV, No. 3, July, 1943.</p>
<p class="book">Spalding, Elizabeth. <i>Memories of the West.</i> Portland, Oregon:
March Printing Co.</p>
<p class="book">Stanley, Edwin J. <i>Rambles in Wonderland.</i> New York: D. Appleton
& Co., 1878.</p>
<p class="book">Stuart, Granville. <i>Forty Years on the Frontier.</i> Cleveland, Ohio:
A. H. Clark, 1925.</p>
<p class="book">Stuart, Robert. <i>The Discovery of the Oregon Trail.</i> New York:
Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1935.</p>
<p class="book">Synge, Georgina. <i>A Ride Through Wonderland.</i> London: Sampson
Low, Marston & Co., 1892.</p>
<p class="book">Turrill, Gardner S. <i>A Tale of the Yellowstone.</i> Jefferson, Iowa: G. S.
Turrill Publishing Co., 1901.</p>
<p class="book">Vaughn, Robert. <i>Then and Now.</i> Minneapolis: Tribune Printing
Co., 1900.</p>
<p class="book">Wingate, George W. <i>Through Yellowstone Park on Horseback.</i> New
York: O. Judd Co., 1886.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_304">304</div>
<p class="book">Wislizenus, F. A. <i>A Journey to the Rocky Mountains in 1839</i>. St.
Louis, Mo.: Missouri Historical Society, 1912.</p>
<h3>ARTICLES IN MAGAZINES AND PERIODICALS</h3>
<p class="book">Baker, Ray S. “A Place of Marvels,” <i>The Century Magazine</i>, LXVI
(August, 1903).</p>
<p class="book">Bauer, C. Max. “Notes on Indian Occupancy,” <i>Yellowstone Nature
Notes</i>, Vol. XII, No. 6 (June, 1935).</p>
<p class="book">Bryce, James. “National Parks the Need for the Future,” <i>The Outlook</i>,
CII (Dec. 14, 1912).</p>
<p class="book">Cook, C. W. “Valley of the Upper Yellowstone,” <i>Western Monthly</i>,
IV (July, 1870).</p>
<p class="book">Cook, C. W. and Folsom, D. E. “Cook-Folsom Expedition to the
Yellowstone Region 1869,” <i>Haynes Bulletin</i>, Jan., 1923.</p>
<p class="book">Elmendorf, Dwight L. <i>The Mentor</i>, II (May 15, 1915).</p>
<p class="book">Everts, Truman C. “Thirty Seven Days of Peril,” <i>Scribner’s Monthly</i>,
III (Nov., 1871).</p>
<p class="book">Freeman, L. R. “Protect the Game in Yellowstone Park,” <i>Recreation</i>,
XV (Dec. 1901).</p>
<p class="book">Ghent, W. J. “A Sketch of John Colter,” <i>Wyoming Annals</i>, Vol. X,
No. 3 (July, 1938).</p>
<p class="book">Gibbon, Colonel John. “The Battle of the Big Hole,” <i>Harper’s
Weekly</i> (Dec. 21, 1895).</p>
<p class="book">Hague, Arnold. “Soaping Geysers,” <i>Science</i>, XIII (May 17, 1889).</p>
<p class="book">Hague, Arnold. “The Yellowstone National Park,” <i>Scribner’s</i>,
XXXV (May, 1904).</p>
<p class="book">Hayden, F. V. “More About the Yellowstone,” <i>Scribner’s Monthly</i>,
III (February, 1872).</p>
<p class="book">Hayden, F. V. “The Yellowstone National Park,” <i>American Journal
of Science</i>, III (March, 1872; April, 1872).</p>
<p class="book">Haynes, Jack Ellis. “The Expedition of President Chester A. Arthur
to Yellowstone National Park in 1882,” <i>Annals of Wyoming</i>
(January 1942.).</p>
<p class="book">Heffelfinger, C. H. “The Man Who Turned Back,” <i>The Washington
Historical Quarterly</i>, Vol. XXVI, No. 3 (July, 1935).</p>
<p class="book">Hough, Emerson. “Forest and Stream’s Yellowstone Park Game
Exploration,” <i>Forest and Stream</i>, XLIII (A series of thirteen
articles in the issues during the spring and summer of 1894).</p>
<p class="book">Jackson, W. Turrentine. “The Creation of Yellowstone National
<span class="pb" id="Page_305">305</span>
Park,” <i>The Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i>, Vol. XXIX,
No. 2 (September, 1942).</p>
<p class="book">Jackson, W. Turrentine. “The Cook-Folsom Exploration of the Upper
Yellowstone 1869,” <i>The Pacific Northwest Quarterly</i>,
XXXII, 1941.</p>
<p class="book">Jagger, T. A. “Death Gulch, A Natural Bear Trap,” <i>Popular Science</i>,
LIV (February, 1899).</p>
<p class="book">Joseph, Chief. “Own Story,” <i>North American Review</i> (April, 1879).</p>
<p class="book">Kearns, William E. “A Nez Percé Chief Revisits Yellowstone,” <i>Yellowstone
Nature Notes</i>, XII (July-August, 1935).</p>
<p class="book">Knowlton, F. H. “The Tertiary Flowers of the Yellowstone National
Park,” <i>American Journal of Science</i>, No. 7 (July, 1896).</p>
<p class="book">Knowlton, F. H. “The Standing Fossil Forests of the Yellowstone
National Park,” <i>Plant World</i>, I (January, 1898).</p>
<p class="book">Koch, P. “Discovery of the Yellowstone National Park,” <i>Magazine
of American History</i>, II (June, 1884).</p>
<p class="book">Langford, Nathaniel P. “The Ascent of Mount Hayden,” <i>Scribner’s
Monthly</i>, III (June, 1873).</p>
<p class="book">Lewis, Henry H. “Managing a National Park,” <i>The Outlook</i>,
LXXIV (August, 1903).</p>
<p class="book">Lewis, Lucien M. “To the Old Stage Driver,” <i>Overland Monthly</i>,
LXIX (July, 1917).</p>
<p class="book">Linton, Edwin. “Overland Sounds in the Vicinity of Yellowstone
Lake,” <i>Science</i>, No. 561 (Nov. 3, 1893).</p>
<p class="book">Muir, John. “The Yellowstone National Park,” <i>The Atlantic
Monthly</i>, LXXXI (January, 1898; April, 1898).</p>
<p class="book">Phillips, Paul C., editor. “The Battle of the Big Hole,” <i>Sources of
Northwest History</i>, No. 8, University of Montana, Missoula.</p>
<p class="book">Rollins, Alice W. “The Three Tetons,” <i>Harper’s</i>, LXXIV (May,
1887).</p>
<p class="book">Russell, Carl P. “Rendezvous Period of American Fur Trade,”
<i>Oregon Historical Quarterly</i>, XLII (March, 1941).</p>
<p class="book">Russell, Carl P. “Scientists and Scientific Investigations in Yellowstone
National Park,” Department of the Interior, 1933.</p>
<p class="book">Sedgwick, Henry D. “On Horse Back Through Yellowstone,”
<i>World’s Work</i>, VI (June, 1903).</p>
<p class="book">Smith, George O. “The Nation’s Playgrounds,” <i>Review of Reviews</i>,
XL (July, 1909).</p>
<p class="book">Staffer, Alvin P. and Porter, Charles W. “The National Park Service
Program of Conservation for Areas and Structures of National
<span class="pb" id="Page_306">306</span>
Historical Significance,” <i>The Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i>,
XXX, 1 (June, 1943).</p>
<p class="book">Warner, Charles D. “The Yellowstone National Park,” <i>Harper’s</i>,
XCIV (January, 1897).</p>
<h3>GOVERNMENT REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS</h3>
<p class="book">Barlow, J. W. and Heap, D. P. <i>Report of Barlow and Heap 1871</i>.
Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1872.</p>
<p class="book"><i>Congressional Globe.</i> 42 Congress, 2nd Session, 1871-72. Part I,
Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1872.</p>
<p class="book"><i>Congressional Record.</i> 43 Congress, Session I, Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Office, 1874.</p>
<p class="book"><i>Laws and Regulations</i> relating to the Yellowstone National Park,
Wyoming, by the Secretary of the Interior. Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Office, 1908.</p>
<p class="book">Ludlow, William. <i>Report to the War Department 1875.</i> Washington,
D.C., 1876.</p>
<p class="book">Mather, Stephen T. “Report of the Director of the National Park
Service,” <i>Report of the Department of Interior 1918</i>. Washington,
D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1918.</p>
<p class="book">Norris, P. W. <i>Annual Report of the Superintendent of Yellowstone
National Park.</i> Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,
1878, 1879, 1880, 1881.</p>
<p class="book"><i>Reports of the Acting Superintendent of the Yellowstone National
Park.</i> Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1885
to 1915.</p>
<p class="book"><i>Reports of the Secretary of the Interior.</i> Washington, D.C.: Government
Printing Office, 1872 to 1941.</p>
<p class="book"><i>Reports of the Superintendents of Yellowstone National Park.</i> Washington,
D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1917 to 1943.</p>
<p class="book"><i>Rules, Regulations and Instructions</i> for the officers and enlisted
men of the United States Army, and of the scouts doing duty
in the Yellowstone National Park. Department of Interior,
Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1907.</p>
<p class="book">Sherman, W. T. and Sheridan, P. H. <i>Reports of Inspection Made in
the Summer of 1877.</i> Washington, D.C.: Government Printing
Office, 1878.</p>
<p class="book"><i>Yellowstone National Park Bulletins.</i> Department of the Interior,
Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1914, 1915,
1916, 1918, 1923, 1939, 1940, 1941.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_307">307</div>
<h3>SPECIAL BOOKS AND BULLETINS</h3>
<p class="book">Allen, Eugene T. and Day, Arthur L. <i>Hot Springs of the Yellowstone
National Park.</i> Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution, 1935.</p>
<p class="book">Alter, J. Cecil. <i>James Bridger, Trapper, Frontiersman, Scout and
Guide.</i> Salt Lake City: Shepard Book Co., 1925.</p>
<p class="book">Arnold, Ross R. <i>Indian Wars in Idaho.</i> Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton
Printers, 1929.</p>
<p class="book">Bennett, Hugh H. “Thomas Jefferson Soil Conservationist.” <i>U.S.
Department of Agriculture</i>, No. 548. Washington, D.C.: Government
Printing Office, 1944.</p>
<p class="book">Catlin, George. <i>North American Indians</i>, I, II. Philadelphia: Leary
Stuart and Co., 1913.</p>
<p class="book">Crampton, Louis C. <i>Early History of Yellowstone National Park
and Its Relations to National Park Policies.</i> Washington, D.C.:
United States Printing Office, 1923.</p>
<p class="book">DeSmet, P. J. <i>Oregon Missions and Travels Over the Rocky Mountains.</i>
New York: Edward Dreneger, 1847.</p>
<p class="book">De Voto, Bernard. <i>Across the Wide Missouri.</i> Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1947.</p>
<p class="book">Drew, Benjamin. <i>Souvenir List of Yellowstone Park Holdup Victims.</i>
Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.</p>
<p class="book">Fee, Chester Anders. <i>Chief Joseph, the Biography of a Great Indian.</i>
New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1936.</p>
<p class="book">Freeman, Lewis R. <i>Down the Yellowstone.</i> New York: Dodd, Mead
and Co., 1922.</p>
<p class="book">Goad, Edgar F. “Bandelier, Scholar of the Mesas.” Washington,
D.C.: <i>Department of Interior Information Service</i>, 1940.</p>
<p class="book">Haines, Francis. <i>Red Eagles of the Northwest.</i> Portland, Oregon:
The Scholastic Press, 1939.</p>
<p class="book">Harris, Burton. <i>John Colter, His Years in the Rockies.</i> New York:
Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1952.</p>
<p class="book">Hebard, Grace R. and Brininstool, E. A. <i>The Bozeman Trail.</i> Cleveland,
Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1922.</p>
<p class="book">Hemishunmeres, Mourning Dove. <i>Coyote Stories.</i> Caldwell, Idaho:
Caxton Printers, 1933.</p>
<p class="book">Hornaday, William T. <i>Our Vanishing Wild Life.</i> New York: New
York Zoological Society, 1913.</p>
<p class="book">Huth, Hans. Yosemite, <i>The Story of an Idea.</i> Reprint from the <i>Sierra
Club Bulletin</i>, March, 1948.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_308">308</div>
<p class="book">Kieley, James F. <i>A Brief History of the National Park Service.</i> Washington,
D.C.: United States Department of Interior, 1940.</p>
<p class="book">Lillard, Richard G. <i>The Great Forest.</i> New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
1948.</p>
<p class="book">Linderman, Frank B. <i>Blackfeet Indians.</i> St. Paul: Brown, Bigelow,
1935.</p>
<p class="book">Lowie, Robert H. <i>The Crow Indians.</i> New York: Farrar and Rinehart,
1935.</p>
<p class="book">Mickey, Karl B. <i>Man and Soil.</i> Chicago: International Harvester
Co., 1945.</p>
<p class="book">Mulford, Walter. <i>Forest Influences.</i> New York: McGraw Hill Book
Co., 1948.</p>
<p class="book">Neihardt, John G. <i>The Splendid Wayfaring.</i> New York: Macmillan
Co., 1920.</p>
<p class="book">Norton, Harry J. <i>Wonderland, or Horseback Rides Through Yellowstone
National Park.</i> Virginia City, Montana, 1873.</p>
<p class="book">Rees, John E. <i>Idaho, Its Meaning, Origin and Application.</i> Portland,
Oregon: Ivey Press, 1917.</p>
<p class="book">Remington, Fredrick. <i>Pony Tracks.</i> New York: Harper and Bros.,
1895.</p>
<p class="book">Shields, G. O. <i>Battle of the Big Hole.</i> New York: Rand, McNally
Co., 1889.</p>
<p class="book">Story, Isabelle F. <i>Glimpses of Our National Parks.</i> Washington,
D.C.: United States Printing Office, 1941.</p>
<p class="book">Topping, E. S. <i>Chronicles of the Yellowstone.</i> St. Paul: Pioneer Press
Co., 1888.</p>
<p class="book">Van Tassell, Chas. <i>Truthful Lies.</i> Bozeman, Montana, 1921.</p>
<p class="book">Victor, Frances Fuller. <i>The River of the West.</i> Hartford, Conn.:
Columbian Book Co., 1871.</p>
<p class="book">Vinton, Stallo. <i>John Colter, Discoverer of Yellowstone Park.</i> New
York: Edward Eberstadt, 1926.</p>
<p class="book">Wagner, Glendolin and Allen, William. <i>Blankets and Moccasins.</i>
Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1933.</p>
<p class="book">Wellman, Paul I. <i>The Trampling Herd.</i> New York: Carrick and
Evans, Inc., 1939.</p>
<h3>GENERAL SECONDARY REFERENCES</h3>
<p class="book">Adams, James Truslow. <i>The Epic of America.</i> Boston: Little Brown
and Co., 1933.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_309">309</div>
<p class="book">Bancroft, H. H. <i>History of Washington, Montana and Idaho.</i> San
Francisco: The History Company, 1896.</p>
<p class="book">Beal, M. D. <i>History of Southeastern Idaho.</i> Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton
Printers, 1942.</p>
<p class="book">Brockett, L. P. <i>Our Western Empire.</i> San Francisco: William Garretson
and Co., 1881.</p>
<p class="book">Chittenden, Hiram M. <i>The American Fur Trade.</i> New York: Press
of the Pioneers, 1935.</p>
<p class="book">Chittenden, Hiram M. <i>Yellowstone National Park.</i> Palo Alto, California:
Stanford University Press, 1933.</p>
<p class="book">Clark, Dan Elbert. <i>The West in American History.</i> New York:
Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1937.</p>
<p class="book">Driggs, Howard R. <i>Westward America.</i> New York: G. P. Putnam’s
Sons, 1942.</p>
<p class="book">Gardiner, Dorothy. <i>West of the River.</i> New York: Thomas Y.
Crowell Co., 1941.</p>
<p class="book">Guptill, A. B. <i>Practical Guide to Yellowstone National Park.</i> St.
Paul: F. Jay Haynes and Bro., 1890.</p>
<p class="book">Hafen, LeRoy, and Rister, Carl C. <i>Western America.</i> New York:
Prentice-Hall, 1941.</p>
<p class="book">Haupt, Herman. <i>The Yellowstone National Park.</i> St. Paul: J. M.
Stoddart, 1883.</p>
<p class="book">Haynes, Jack Ellis. <i>Haynes Guide.</i> St. Paul: Haynes, Inc., 1943.</p>
<p class="book">Hockett, Homer Co. <i>Political and Social Growth of the United
States 1492-1852.</i> New York: The Macmillan Co., 1933.</p>
<p class="book">Irving, Washington. <i>Astoria.</i> New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons.</p>
<p class="book">Kipling, Rudyard. <i>American Notes.</i> Issued in several editions. One
chapter contains an account of a trip through Yellowstone in
1889.</p>
<p class="book">Nevins, Allen. <i>Frémont: Pathmaker of the West.</i> New York: D. Appleton
Century Co., 1939.</p>
<p class="book">Paxson, Frederick L. <i>The Last American Frontier.</i> New York: Macmillan
Co., 1922.</p>
<p class="book">Sanders, Helen F. <i>History of Montana.</i> Chicago: The Lewis Publishing
Co., 1913.</p>
<p class="book">Walgamott, C. S. <i>Six Decades Back.</i> Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton
Printers, 1936.</p>
<p class="book">Yellowstone Park Scrap Books I, II, III. Park Library, Mammoth,
Wyoming.</p>
<h2><span class="small">FOOTNOTES</span></h2>
<div class="fnblock"><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_1" href="#fr_1">[1]</a>The forests are composed principally of conifers. Of these the lodgepole
pine predominates. It has a shallow root system, and as a result the area is
conspicuous by the amount of fallen timber.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_2" href="#fr_2">[2]</a>A frontiersman’s characterization of the climate in the Park. The statement
is usually attributed to James Stuart.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_3" href="#fr_3">[3]</a>John E. Rees, <i>Idaho Chronology, Nomenclature, Bibliography</i> (Portland,
Oregon: Ivey Press, 1917), p. 61.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_4" href="#fr_4">[4]</a>Teton and Snowy ranges, although partly integrated with Yellowstone,
actually lie beyond the south and north borders respectively.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_5" href="#fr_5">[5]</a>The plateaus are Buffalo, Mirror, Two Ocean, Pitchstone, Madison, and
Central. The ranges are Gallatin, Washburn, and Absaroka. The ridges include
the Big Game, Chicken, Speciman, and Crowfoot. The Red Mountains
form a unit by themselves in the south-central area.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_6" href="#fr_6">[6]</a>These are Electric, Pollux, Atkins, and Eagle peaks, and Schurz and
Humphreys mountains.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_7" href="#fr_7">[7]</a>Warm River originates west of the Park, but Firehole is the best example
of a really warm river. It does not freeze over in temperatures 50° below zero.
There are literally thousands of hot springs in Yellowstone. Dr. A. C. Peale
estimated three thousand, while Dr. Arnold Hague said the number probably
exceeded twenty-five hundred.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_8" href="#fr_8">[8]</a>Reference to this stream is made again in relation to the “Overland Astorians”
in <a href="#c6">Chapter II</a>. See also, Dee Linford’s “Wyoming Stream Names,”
<i>Annals of Wyoming</i>, XV, 2 (April, 1943), 165-70.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_9" href="#fr_9">[9]</a>These sources are the Firehole and Gibbon, respectively.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_10" href="#fr_10">[10]</a>This is the lowest temperature ever recorded on an official United States
Weather Bureau thermometer in Continental United States.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_11" href="#fr_11">[11]</a>John E. Rees, <i>op. cit.</i>, <a href="#Page_61">p. 61</a>.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_12" href="#fr_12">[12]</a>Homer C. Hockett, <i>Political and Social Growth of the United States
1492-1852</i> (New York: Macmillan Co., 1933), p. 368.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_13" href="#fr_13">[13]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 369.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_14" href="#fr_14">[14]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 371.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_15" href="#fr_15">[15]</a>Fridtjof Nansen, “The Norsemen in America,” <i>The Geographical Journal</i>,
XXXVIII, 6 (Dec. 1911), 558.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_16" href="#fr_16">[16]</a>Reuben G. Thwaites, <i>Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition
1804-1806</i> (New York: Dodd Mead and Co., 1905), p. 262. Clark reached
Yellowstone River on July 15, 1806.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_17" href="#fr_17">[17]</a>Francis Antoine Larocque, <i>Journal</i> (Sources of Northwest History No. 20,
University of Montana), p. 20. Dee Linford says the name Yellowstone was
used by David Thompson in 1798, but that Americans did not learn about
the river until about 1805. See “Wyoming Stream Names,” <i>Annals of Wyoming</i>,
XV, 3 (July, 1943), 269.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_18" href="#fr_18">[18]</a>Patrick Gass, <i>Journal</i> (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1904), p. 253. In 1832
a steamboat named the “Yellowstone” arrived at Fort Union.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_19" href="#fr_19">[19]</a>P. Koch, “Discovery of Yellowstone National Park,” <i>Magazine of American
History</i>, II (June, 1884), 498.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_20" href="#fr_20">[20]</a>Just how far Coronado penetrated the Rockies is a disputed point. It is
certain that Verendrye reached Pierre, South Dakota. Some contend that he
came as far as the Little Bighorn River. It is probable that some of Henry’s
men were free trappers, which accounts for the fact that they split in groups
when the fort was abandoned.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_21" href="#fr_21">[21]</a>Others to participate in this discovery were Milton Mangum, Clifford
Mangum, John T. Elliott, Budge Elliott, William Thornock, and David Beal.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_22" href="#fr_22">[22]</a>Robert Stuart, <i>The Discovery of the Oregon Trail</i> (New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons, 1935), p. CXXXVI. Etienne Provot and Thomas Fitzpatrick
have both been credited with the discovery of South Pass. Certainly the
latter’s visit in 1824 marks the date of effective discovery.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_23" href="#fr_23">[23]</a>W. J. Ghent, “A Sketch of John Colter,” <i>Wyoming Annals</i>, X, 3 (July,
1938).
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_24" href="#fr_24">[24]</a>Stallo Vinton, <i>John Colter, Discoverer of Yellowstone Park</i> (New York:
Edward Eberstadt, 1926), p. 27.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_25" href="#fr_25">[25]</a>W. J. Ghent, <i>op. cit.</i> The copious journals of Lewis, Clark and Sergeant
Ordway make repeated mention of Colter, and Whitehouse names him six
times. Floyd does not mention him by name nor does Gass, although the latter
refers to him specifically.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_26" href="#fr_26">[26]</a>Reuben G. Thwaites, <i>op. cit.</i>, V, 314.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_27" href="#fr_27">[27]</a>Stallo Vinton, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 24.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_28" href="#fr_28">[28]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 43. Colter’s strange behavior in turning back to the wilderness
after three successive starts toward home, is analyzed by C. H. Heffelfinger
in his article, “The Man Who Turned Back,” <i>The Washington Historical
Quarterly</i>, XXVI, 3 (July, 1935).
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_29" href="#fr_29">[29]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 45. Lisa had a son named “Remon” for whom the fort was
named, but different documents bear the name Raymond, Manuel, and Lisa.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_30" href="#fr_30">[30]</a>Judge Henry M. Brackenridge (1786-1871) was educated in Missouri
and Maryland. As a lawyer, he specialized in international affairs and served
as a federal judge in New Orleans. In 1810 he made a trip up the Missouri
in the company of Manuel Lisa. Six years later (1814) Brackenridge’s account
of this journey was published. On page 91, of <i>Views of Louisiana</i>, we
find the first reference to Colter’s wilderness journey. Obviously the source
of this information was Manuel Lisa since he asked Colter to make the trip.
That Colter started on such a journey is indisputable. Where he went, what
he saw, and how he returned are matters of opinion. Brackenridge confuses
Colter’s return from this trip with that of another one.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_31" href="#fr_31">[31]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 91.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_32" href="#fr_32">[32]</a>John Colter’s discovery of Yellowstone has caught the imagination of
many people. Probably a hundred authors have written about it. Each one
disagrees with the other, until poor Colter has been turned into a human
grasshopper, hopping around from place to place without either rhyme or
reason.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_33" href="#fr_33">[33]</a>Stallo Vinton, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 195.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_34" href="#fr_34">[34]</a>Some writers tell that an early winter overtook him, and he was obliged
to make snowshoes. This is probably an error. He undoubtedly secured a
horse from the Yep-pe Indians.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_35" href="#fr_35">[35]</a>This particular story is verified by the fact that members of the Wilson
Price Hunt Expedition called on Colter at his farm near St. Louis to get
information upon this specific point. See Reuben G. Thwaites, “Bradbury’s
Travels in the Interior of America in the years 1809-1811,” <i>Early Western
Travels</i>, 1748-1840, V, xliv.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_36" href="#fr_36">[36]</a>The Map of 1814 does not disclose anything unusual. It merely designates
“Boiling Spring” and “Hot Springs Brimstone,” which were widespread and
general.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_37" href="#fr_37">[37]</a>Washington Irving, <i>The Adventures of Captain Bonneville</i> (New York:
G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1843), p. 252. The first edition was entitled, <i>Rocky
Mountain Scenes and Adventures</i>.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_38" href="#fr_38">[38]</a>It is a remarkable thing that historical research has not more satisfactorily
probed the Colter problem. Obviously his journey is so obscure as to
warrant scientific investigation.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_39" href="#fr_39">[39]</a>Its legend reads: “A Map of Lewis and Clark’s Track, Across the Western
Portion of North America, From the Mississippi to the Pacific Ocean; By
Order of the Executive of the United States in 1804, 5, 6. Copied by Samuel
Lewis from the Original Drawing of Wm. Clark.”
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_40" href="#fr_40">[40]</a>There are two fictitious lakes on the Map of 1814 of such grotesque
shape as to arouse one’s skepticism. One of them has a shape that resembles
a gargoyle.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_41" href="#fr_41">[41]</a>The date of this communication was December 20, 1810.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_42" href="#fr_42">[42]</a>Colter’s first sheet is readily identifiable, and part of another sheet may
be segregated with the use of imagination and understanding.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_43" href="#fr_43">[43]</a>Many writers have failed to identify Gap and Sage as the same creek.
They also befuddle Wind and Shoshone rivers. There is no evidence that
Colter ever heard the name Bighorn River.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_44" href="#fr_44">[44]</a>The figure eight results from the fact that he went to the Yep-pe camp,
left it, came back, and left it again at the appropriate angles.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_45" href="#fr_45">[45]</a>In 1941, Paul J. Shamp, a U.S. forester, reported the discovery of numerous
petrifications in the vicinity of Pass and Scatter creeks in the Thorofare
country. This is the line of Colter’s route.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_46" href="#fr_46">[46]</a>Colter did not see Southeast Arm of Yellowstone Lake. He probably
supposed the Upper Yellowstone flowed into South Arm. Hence, his conception
of Yellowstone River would have been ten miles farther west than it is.
Neither could he have visualized the serpentine character of Snake River,
since he knew it at only one place.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_47" href="#fr_47">[47]</a>Colter may have reached Chicken Ridge by Fishhawk, Mountain, or Lynx
creeks or via Falcon, Mink, or Crooked streams. It must be remembered that
this map sheet has been much messed up. It is impossible to know what has
been erased; yet, enough of Colter’s map remains to provide a logical basis
for the above itinerary. It is relatively unimportant which creeks he negotiated
to reach Chicken Ridge. The vitally important fact is that he drew
a sketch of South Arm from that angle which added to the Thumb makes
an accurate map of what a trapper would have seen of Yellowstone Lake.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_48" href="#fr_48">[48]</a>J. Neilson Barry has made the most intensive study of the Map of 1814.
It is his opinion that Colter drew other map sheets besides the one of the
Buffalo Bill country. He also has hope that these sheets may be discovered
among the Lewis-Clark-Biddle papers.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_49" href="#fr_49">[49]</a>In E. Willard Smith’s journal entry for December 20, 1839, there is an
item that suggests a possible clue to mystery of Colter’s petrified fish story:
“There is a story told by an Arapahoe Chief of a petrified buffalo standing
in the lake ... in a perfect state of preservation, and they worship it as a
great medicine charm.... Nothing would induce this Indian to tell where
this sacred buffalo is to be found. Great presents were offered him in vain.”
It is possible that Colter saw something he was not free to divulge. See “An
Excerpt From the Journal of Willard E. Smith,” <i>Annals of Wyoming</i>, XV, 3
(July, 1943), 287-97.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_50" href="#fr_50">[50]</a>John G. White, “A Souvenir of Wyoming,” Vol. I, p. 56. This is a fine
work of research in manuscript. It was written in 1916. There are five
volumes in the Yellowstone Park library. The time of this Indian episode was
in the autumn of 1808.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_51" href="#fr_51">[51]</a><i>Ibid.</i>
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_52" href="#fr_52">[52]</a>Upon the details of this episode, the three basic authorities on this period
of Western adventure, are in agreement. They are Henry M. Brackenridge,
<i>Views of Louisiana</i>; Thomas James, <i>Three Years Among the Indians and
Mexicans</i>; and John Bradbury, <i>Travels In the Interior of America</i>.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_53" href="#fr_53">[53]</a>Concerning Colter’s part in this battle, Henry M. Brackenridge wrote, “On
his return a party of Indians in whose company he happened to be was
attacked and he was lamed by a severe wound in his leg; Notwithstanding
which he returned to the establishment entirely alone and without assistance.”
This incident is almost invariably associated with Colter’s return from the
discovery of Yellowstone Park. The error logically arises from the compressed
character of the Brackenridge narrative. Perhaps the facts were not clear in
his own mind. Actually he has confused two different experiences.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_54" href="#fr_54">[54]</a>P. Koch, “The Discovery of Yellowstone National Park,” <i>Magazine of
American History</i>, II (June, 1884), 499.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_55" href="#fr_55">[55]</a>Hiram M. Chittenden, <i>Yellowstone National Park</i> (Palo Alto: Stanford
University Press, 1933), pp. 22-31.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_56" href="#fr_56">[56]</a>Frank Triplett, “Colter’s Race for Life,” <i>Conquering the Wilderness</i>, No.
16, Chapter 10, Washington State College Library; Pullman, Washington.
This plant is also called “ground-apple.” It is an edible root found in that
region.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_57" href="#fr_57">[57]</a>W. J. Ghent, <i>op. cit.</i>, <a href="#Page_113">p. 113</a>.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_58" href="#fr_58">[58]</a>John G. White, “A Souvenir of Wyoming,” I, 28. This fact is affirmed
by James in his <i>Three Years Among the Indians and Mexicans</i>.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_59" href="#fr_59">[59]</a>W. J. Ghent, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 115.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_60" href="#fr_60">[60]</a>Stallo Vinton, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 110.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_61" href="#fr_61">[61]</a>W. J. Ghent, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 115. The evidence is not conclusive as to whether
or not Colter gave his account to Bradbury and Brackenridge in person. It is
certain that he had personal dealings with Thomas James, and it is certain
that he spent a half day in conversation with members of Hunt’s party on
May 18, 1811. See “Robert Stuart’s Narratives” in Philip Ashton Rollin’s
<i>The Discovery of the Oregon Trail</i> (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons,
1935), p. CV.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_62" href="#fr_62">[62]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 66. It should be pointed out that Colter did not say “everywhere.”
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_63" href="#fr_63">[63]</a>Rudolph Kurz, <i>Journal</i> (Washington, D. C.: United States Government
Printing Office, 1937), p. 37.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_64" href="#fr_64">[64]</a>Frank B. Linderman, <i>Blackfeet Indians</i> (St. Paul: Brown, Bigelow, 1935),
p. 9.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_65" href="#fr_65">[65]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 12.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_66" href="#fr_66">[66]</a>Elizabeth Spalding, <i>Memories of The West</i> (Portland, Oregon: March
Printing Company), p. 78.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_67" href="#fr_67">[67]</a>Robert Vaughn, <i>Then and Now</i> (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Tribune Printing
Co., 1900), p. 197.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_68" href="#fr_68">[68]</a>Mourning Dove, <i>Coyote Stories</i> (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers,
1933). p. 46.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_69" href="#fr_69">[69]</a>Rudolph Kurz, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 154.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_70" href="#fr_70">[70]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 34.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_71" href="#fr_71">[71]</a>Alexander Ross, <i>The Fur Hunters of The Far West</i> (London: Smith,
Elder & Co., 1855), p. 249.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_72" href="#fr_72">[72]</a>H. M. Chittenden, <i>The American Fur Trade</i> (New York: Press of the
Pioneers, 1935), II, 877.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_73" href="#fr_73">[73]</a>P. Koch, “The Discovery of Yellowstone National Park,” <i>Magazine of
American History, II</i> (June, 1884), 497.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_74" href="#fr_74">[74]</a>Helen F. Sanders, <i>History of Montana</i> (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Co.,
1913), I, 681.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_75" href="#fr_75">[75]</a><i>Contributions</i>, Historical Society of Montana (Helena, Montana:
Rocky Mountain Publishing Co., 1876), I, 168.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_76" href="#fr_76">[76]</a>Indian reservations nearest the Park are the Crow at Hardin, Montana;
Shoshone, Fort Washakie, Wyoming; and Bannock, Fort Hall, Idaho. Other
agencies are located at Fort Peck, Poplar, Tongue River, and Lame Deer,
all in Montana. The Blackfeet and Flathead reservations are near Glacier
Park.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_77" href="#fr_77">[77]</a>Alexander Ross, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 48.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_78" href="#fr_78">[78]</a>John G. Neihardt, <i>The Splendid Wayfaring</i> (New York: Macmillan Company,
1920), pp. 265-6.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_79" href="#fr_79">[79]</a>Alexander Ross, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 228-9.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_80" href="#fr_80">[80]</a>Francis Fuller Victor, <i>The River of the West</i> (Hartford: Columbian
Book Co., 1871), pp. 64-5.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_81" href="#fr_81">[81]</a>Cecil Alter, <i>James Bridger, Trapper, Frontiersman, Scout and Guide</i> (Salt
Lake City: Shepard Book Co., 1925), p. 355.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_82" href="#fr_82">[82]</a>Helen F. Sanders, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 141.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_83" href="#fr_83">[83]</a>Earl of Dunraven, <i>Hunting in the Yellowstone</i> (New York: Macmillan
Co., 1925), pp. 184-5.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_84" href="#fr_84">[84]</a>Frances Fuller Victor, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 238.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_85" href="#fr_85">[85]</a>F. A. Wislizenus, <i>A Journey To The Rocky Mountains In 1839</i>, (St.
Louis: Missouri Historical Society, 1912), pp. 87-8.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_86" href="#fr_86">[86]</a>Alexander Ross, <i>op. cit.</i>, II, 236.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_87" href="#fr_87">[87]</a>C. Max Bauer, “Notes on Indian Occupancy,” <i>Yellowstone Nature Notes</i>.
XII, 6 (June, 1935), 1.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_88" href="#fr_88">[88]</a>P. W. Norris, <i>Annual Report 1879</i> (Washington D. C.: Government
Printing Office, 1880), p. 10.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_89" href="#fr_89">[89]</a>P. W. Norris, <i>Annual Report 1880</i>, p. 605.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_90" href="#fr_90">[90]</a>Some of these places were specifically listed: Bunsen Peak, Willow Creek,
Stinking Water Pass east of Yellowstone Lake, Barlow Fork of Snake River,
Bridgers Lake, and, the best one of all, three miles below Mary Lake. See
<i>Fifth Annual Report 1881</i>, p. 36.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_91" href="#fr_91">[91]</a>P. W. Norris, <i>Fifth Annual Report 1881</i>, pp. 32-8.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_92" href="#fr_92">[92]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 38.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_93" href="#fr_93">[93]</a>P. W. Norris, <i>Annual Report 1878</i>, p. 982.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_94" href="#fr_94">[94]</a>Experienced rangers who have reported these finds to the author include
David deL. Condon, Lee L. Coleman, John W. Jay, John Bauman, Rudolf
L. Grimm, Wayne Replogle, Lowell G. Biddulph, George Marler, and William
Sanborn.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_95" href="#fr_95">[95]</a>William E. Kearns, “A Nez Percé Chief Revisits Yellowstone,” <i>Yellowstone
Nature Notes</i>, XII (June-July, 1935), 41.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_96" href="#fr_96">[96]</a>Edwin Linton,
<i>Science</i>, No. 561 (Nov. 3, 1893), pp. 244-5.</div>
<div class="fncont">Mr. Linton and Prof. S. A. Forbes heard the sounds upon two occasions.
Each gave a scientific presentation. Elwood Hofer, Dave Rhodes, and F. H.
Bradley have written accounts of similar experiences.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_97" href="#fr_97">[97]</a><i>Report of the Secretary of the Interior</i> (Washington: Government Printing
Office, Nov. 30, 1880), p. 573.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_98" href="#fr_98">[98]</a>Frederick Bottler discovered a trapper’s cabin at the head of Antelope
Creek in 1878. The advanced decay of its timbers indicated that it was forty
or fifty years old. See P. W. Norris, <i>Annual Report 1880</i>, p. 606.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_99" href="#fr_99">[99]</a><i>Niles Weekly Register</i>, Third Series, IX, 6 (Oct. 6, 1827), p. 90. Also,
<i>Yellowstone Nature Notes</i>, XXI, 5 (Sept.-Oct., 1947), p. 52. Sweet Lake is
now known as Bear Lake, Idaho.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_100" href="#fr_100">[100]</a>P. W. Norris, <i>Annual Report 1878</i>, p. 987. Smith was killed by a band of
Comanches in 1831, when leading a caravan across the Cimarron Desert
toward Santa Fe.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_101" href="#fr_101">[101]</a>Meek’s experience was published by Mrs. Frances Fuller Victor in <i>The
River of the West</i> (Hartford, Conn.: Columbian Book Co., 1871), pp. 75-7.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_102" href="#fr_102">[102]</a>Warren A. Ferris, <i>Life in the Rocky Mountains 1830-35</i> (Salt Lake City:
Rocky Mountain Book Shop, 1940), pp. 204-6.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_103" href="#fr_103">[103]</a>Osborne Russell, <i>Journal of a Trapper, 1834-1843</i> (Boise, Idaho: Syms-York
Co., 1921), p. 32.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_104" href="#fr_104">[104]</a>Helen F. Sanders,
<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 657.</div>
<div class="fncont">Mr. Ducharme, Joe Power, L’Humphrie, Louis Anderson, and Jim and
John Baker were members of this group. Remains of horses have been found
on this battleground.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_105" href="#fr_105">[105]</a>J. Cecil Alter, <i>James Bridger</i>, p. 107.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_106" href="#fr_106">[106]</a>Walter W. DeLacy, “A Trip Up the South Fork of Snake River,”
<i>Contributions</i>, Historical Society of Montana, I, 132.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_107" href="#fr_107">[107]</a>James Stuart, “The Yellowstone Expedition of 1863,” <i>Ibid.</i>, I, 191.</div>
<div class="fncont">Montana mineral production vaulted to $18,000,000 by 1865. Thereafter a
gradual decline began, but a strong revival came in the eighties when deep
mining of silver and copper ore bodies proved profitable. The combined
mineral output in 1889 was $41,000,000.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_108" href="#fr_108">[108]</a>P. Koch, “The Discovery of Yellowstone National Park,” <i>Magazine of
American History</i>, II, 511.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_109" href="#fr_109">[109]</a>E. S. Topping, <i>Chronicles of the Yellowstone</i> (St. Paul: Pioneer Press
Co., 1888), p. 44.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_110" href="#fr_110">[110]</a>P. W. Norris, <i>Annual Report 1880</i>, p. 7. Miller Creek was named for
Adam Miller’s retreat in this instance.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_111" href="#fr_111">[111]</a>Grace R. Hebard and E. A. Brininstool, <i>The Bozeman Trail</i> (Cleveland:
Arthur H. Clark Co., 1922), II, 229.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_112" href="#fr_112">[112]</a>Robert Vaughn, <i>Then and Now</i>, p. 165.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_113" href="#fr_113">[113]</a>Hebard and Brininstool, <i>op. cit.</i>, II, 229.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_114" href="#fr_114">[114]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 230.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_115" href="#fr_115">[115]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 244.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_116" href="#fr_116">[116]</a>Anonymous. The quotations used in the Bridger stories represent the
author’s organization of existing folk lore. Some of these stories and others
are given in H. M. Chittenden’s <i>Yellowstone National Park</i>.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_117" href="#fr_117">[117]</a>John G. White, “Souvenir,” I, 134.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_118" href="#fr_118">[118]</a>Hiram M. Chittenden, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 39-40.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_119" href="#fr_119">[119]</a>Hebard and Brininstool, <i>op. cit.</i>, II, p. 243.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_120" href="#fr_120">[120]</a>This information was obtained by the author from Jesse M. Matlock,
formerly Mrs. William Peterson and Mabel M. White, an adopted daughter,
in an interview at Salmon City, June 7, 1943. The latter remembers hearing
Mr. Peterson express regret that the Folsom-Cook-Peterson Expedition
was not given more recognition for its discovery. Mr. Peterson died in 1918.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_121" href="#fr_121">[121]</a>C. W. Cook and D. E. Folsom, “Cook-Folsom Expedition to the Yellowstone
Region 1869,” <i>Haynes Bulletin</i> (Jan. 1923).
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_122" href="#fr_122">[122]</a>C. W. Cook, “Remarks of C. W. Cook, Last Survivor of the Original Explorers
of the Yellowstone Park Region,” Yellowstone Park Library, Mammoth,
Wyoming. Two sons of Cornelius Hedges were present at the celebration
which was sponsored by The National Editorial Association.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_123" href="#fr_123">[123]</a>W. T. Jackson, “The Cook-Folsom Exploration of the Upper Yellowstone
1869,” <i>The Pacific Northwest Quarterly</i>, XXXII (1941), 320-21.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_124" href="#fr_124">[124]</a>Hiram M. Chittenden, <i>Yellowstone National Park</i>, p. 60.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_125" href="#fr_125">[125]</a>Nathaniel P. Langford, <i>The Discovery of Yellowstone Park 1870</i> (St.
Paul, Minn.: J. E. Haynes, 1923), p. 80.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_126" href="#fr_126">[126]</a>Louis C. Crampton, <i>Early History of Yellowstone National Park and Its
Relations to National Park Policies</i> (Washington, D. C.: United States
Government Printing Office, 1923), p. 14.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_127" href="#fr_127">[127]</a>Yellowstone Park Scrap Book, I, 33. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_128" href="#fr_128">[128]</a>L. P. Brockett, <i>Our Western Empire</i> (San Francisco: William Garretson
and Co., 1881), p. 1247.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_129" href="#fr_129">[129]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 1243.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_130" href="#fr_130">[130]</a>Cornelius Hedges, “Yellowstone Lake,” Crampton’s <i>Early History</i>, p. 110.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_131" href="#fr_131">[131]</a>Truman C. Everts, “Thirty Seven Days of Peril,” <i>Scribner’s Monthly</i>, III
(Nov. 1871), 1-17.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_132" href="#fr_132">[132]</a>Cornelius Hedges, “Journal,” <i>Contributions</i>, Montana Historical Society,
V, 387.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_133" href="#fr_133">[133]</a>Nathaniel P. Langford, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 158.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_134" href="#fr_134">[134]</a>Gustavus C. Doane, “Report Upon the Yellowstone Expedition,” Crampton’s
<i>Early History</i>, p. 138.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_135" href="#fr_135">[135]</a>Henry D. Washburn, “The Yellowstone Expedition,” <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 96.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_136" href="#fr_136">[136]</a>Rudyard Kipling, <i>American Notes</i>, p. 159.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_137" href="#fr_137">[137]</a>L. P. Brockett, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 1254.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_138" href="#fr_138">[138]</a>F. V. Hayden, <i>American Journal of Science</i>, III (March, 1872), 174.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_139" href="#fr_139">[139]</a>Arnold Hague, “The Yellowstone National Park,” <i>Scribner’s Magazine</i>,
XXXV (May, 1904), 519.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_140" href="#fr_140">[140]</a>W. Turrentine Jackson, “The Creation of Yellowstone Park,” <i>The Mississippi
Valley Historical Review</i> XXIX, 2 (September, 1942), 189-90.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_141" href="#fr_141">[141]</a>N. P. Langford, Preface to “The Folsom-Cook Exploration of the Upper
Yellowstone in the Year 1869,” <i>Contributions</i>, Historical Society of Montana,
V (1904), 312.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_142" href="#fr_142">[142]</a>Truman C. Everts, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 16.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_143" href="#fr_143">[143]</a>H. M. Chittenden, <i>Yellowstone National Park</i>, p. 69.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_144" href="#fr_144">[144]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 70.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_145" href="#fr_145">[145]</a>Louis C. Crampton, <i>Early History of Yellowstone</i>, p. 25.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_146" href="#fr_146">[146]</a>F. V. Hayden, “More About the Yellowstone,” <i>Scribner’s Monthly</i>, III, 4
(February, 1872), 389. This article contains a summary of the Hayden Expedition.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_147" href="#fr_147">[147]</a>H. M. Chittenden, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 71.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_148" href="#fr_148">[148]</a>In Dr. Hayden’s “Brief Statement of the History of the National Park,”
which he forwarded to the Secretary of the Interior, Carl Schurz, on February
21, 1878, the following appeared: “I beg permission to state here, that
so far as I know, I originated the idea of the park, prepared the maps,
designating the boundaries, and in connection with the Hon. W. H. Claggett
[sic], then Delegate from Montana Territory, wrote the law as it now stands....
It is now acknowledged all over the civilized world that the existence
of the National Park, by law, is due solely to my exertions during the sessions
of 1871 and 1872.” <i>House Executive Documents</i>, Forty-fifth Congress, Second
Session, 1877-78, XVII, No. 75, 3. For this item credit is given by the author
to W. Turrentine Jackson; see “The Creation of Yellowstone National Park,”
<i>The Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i>, University of Iowa, XXIX, 2
(Sept. 1942), 199.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_149" href="#fr_149">[149]</a><i>Congressional Globe</i>, Forty-second Congress, Second Session, 1871-72,
Part I, p. 520.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_150" href="#fr_150">[150]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 697.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_151" href="#fr_151">[151]</a>W. T. Jackson, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 203.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_152" href="#fr_152">[152]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 204-5.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_153" href="#fr_153">[153]</a>Louis C. Crampton, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 31.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_154" href="#fr_154">[154]</a>Senator George G. Vest, a strong friend of Yellowstone, once referred
to Mr. Dawes as the father of the Park, “for he drew the law of designation.”
If not the actual scribe, he was certainly the advocate of the principles involved.
See L. C. Crampton, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 32.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_155" href="#fr_155">[155]</a>John Muir, <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>, LXXXI (April, 1898), 509.</div>
<div class="fncont">Dr. F. V. Hayden’s tribute to Congress is equal to John Muir’s. Hayden
said, “That our legislators, at a time when public opinion is so strong against
appropriating the public domain for any purpose, however laudable, should
reserve for the benefit and instruction of the people a tract of 3,575 square
miles, is an act that should cause universal satisfaction through the land. This
noble deed may be regarded as a tribute from our legislators to science, and
the gratitude of the nation, and of men of science in all parts of the world,
is due them for this munificent donation.” See “The Yellowstone National
Park,” <i>American Journal</i>, III (April, 1872), 295-96.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_156" href="#fr_156">[156]</a><i>Congressional Globe</i>, p. 697.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_157" href="#fr_157">[157]</a>George Catlin, <i>North American Indians</i> (Philadelphia: 1913), II, 290.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_158" href="#fr_158">[158]</a>This refers to Chief Joseph’s retreat
which is described in <a href="#c15">Chapter XI</a>.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_159" href="#fr_159">[159]</a>Alexander Ross, <i>The Fur Hunters of the Far West</i>, p. 257.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_160" href="#fr_160">[160]</a>Ulrich B. Phillips, “Lectures On Early America,” a series of lectures given
in Berkeley, Calif., 1932.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_161" href="#fr_161">[161]</a>Robert Vaughn, <i>Then and Now</i>, p. 156.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_162" href="#fr_162">[162]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 295.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_163" href="#fr_163">[163]</a>James Stuart, <i>Contributions</i>, Montana Historical Society, I, 154.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_164" href="#fr_164">[164]</a>Edgar F. Goad, “Bandelier, Scholar of the Mesas” (Washington, D. C.:
Department of Interior Information Service, 1940), p. 13.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_165" href="#fr_165">[165]</a>Alexander Ross, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 183.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_166" href="#fr_166">[166]</a>LeRoy R. Hafen and Carl C. Rister, <i>Western America</i> (New York: Prentice-Hall,
1941), p. 6.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_167" href="#fr_167">[167]</a>The most notorious foreigners to regale themselves among western American
adventure scenes were Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied, Sir George
Gore of Ireland, and the Earl of Dunraven.</div>
<div class="fncont">Maximilian spent the summer of 1833 on the upper Missouri. He was a
shabby, toothless man, but of first-rate scientific ability. It is said that his
accounts, together with Bodmer’s paintings, constitute an important record
of the period.</div>
<div class="fncont">Sir George Gore was a millionaire who spent two years in the West. He left
a saga of ruthless slaughter and camp-life prodigality in his wake. His parting
gesture was the destruction, by fire, of all the wagons, harness, saddles, and
similar equipment. This was done to spite the Missouri Fur Company because
of their exorbitant river transportation charges.</div>
<div class="fncont">In 1871 the Grand Duke Alexis of Russia hunted bison on the Nebraska
plains.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_168" href="#fr_168">[168]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 572.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_169" href="#fr_169">[169]</a>Granville Stuart, <i>Forty Years on the Frontier</i>, edited by Paul C. Phillips
(Cleveland: 1925), II, 104. This view was expressed by Representative
James A. Garfield. See <i>Congressional Record</i>, Forty-third Congress, First
Session, 1874, pp. 2107-9.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_170" href="#fr_170">[170]</a>Warren A. Ferris, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 244.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_171" href="#fr_171">[171]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 204-6.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_172" href="#fr_172">[172]</a>Dan E. Clark, <i>The West in American History</i> (New York: Thomas Y.
Crowell Co., 1937), p. 573.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_173" href="#fr_173">[173]</a>Fredrick L. Paxson, <i>Recent American History of the United States</i> (Boston:
Prentice-Hall Co., 1937), p. 28.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_174" href="#fr_174">[174]</a>LeRoy R. Hafen and Carl G. Rister, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 528.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_175" href="#fr_175">[175]</a>D. J. Louck, “Journal,” State Historian’s file, Laramie, Wyoming.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_176" href="#fr_176">[176]</a>Helen F. Sanders, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 313.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_177" href="#fr_177">[177]</a>Howard R. Briggs, <i>Westward America</i> (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons,
1942), p. 276.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_178" href="#fr_178">[178]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 279-80. In 1862, Granville Stuart collected a herd and drove
them to Bannock. Conrad Kohrs had a butcher shop there at that time.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_179" href="#fr_179">[179]</a>Dorothy Gardiner, <i>West of the River</i> (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell
Co., 1941), p. 319.</div>
<div class="fncont">Forts were located chiefly with an eye to the protection of travel. Some of
the principal ones—Cook, on Judith River, Montana; Reno; Phil Kearney;
C. F. Smith; and Casper in Wyoming—were built in 1866. D. A. Russell near
Cheyenne, Fort Shaw on Sun River, and Fort Buford were established in
1867. Fort Laramie was built in 1849; Fort Bridger, in 1858; Fort Stambaugh
at South Pass, 1869; Fort Steele on North Platte Crossing, 1868; and
Fort Assiniboine near Havre, 1879.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_180" href="#fr_180">[180]</a>Granville Stuart, <i>op. cit.</i> Other prominent stockmen were C. D. Duncan,
Robert Coburn, N. J. Dovenspeck, Amos Snyder, Adolf Baro, W. C. and G. P.
Burnett, Pat Dunlevy, James Dempsey, Chas. Ranges, Edward Regan, N. W.
McCaulley, and F. E. Lawrence.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_181" href="#fr_181">[181]</a>Dan E. Clark, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 596.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_182" href="#fr_182">[182]</a>Helen F. Sanders, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 316.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_183" href="#fr_183">[183]</a>Nathaniel P. Langford, <i>The Discovery of Yellowstone Park</i>, p. 181.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_184" href="#fr_184">[184]</a>Cornelius Hedges, <i>Contributions</i>, Montana Historical Society, V, 391.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_185" href="#fr_185">[185]</a>Dan E. Clark, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 625.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_186" href="#fr_186">[186]</a>Chief Joseph, “Chief Joseph’s Own Story,” as told by him on his trip to
Washington, D. C., p. 3.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_187" href="#fr_187">[187]</a>Francis Haines, <i>Red Eagles of the Northwest</i> (Portland, Ore.: The Scholastic
Press, 1939), p. 234.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_188" href="#fr_188">[188]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 238.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_189" href="#fr_189">[189]</a>Chief Joseph, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 9.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_190" href="#fr_190">[190]</a>Helen A. Howard and Dan L. McGrath, <i>War Chief Joseph</i> (Caldwell,
Idaho: The Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1941), p. 145.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_191" href="#fr_191">[191]</a>Chester Anders Fee, <i>Chief Joseph, the Biography of a Great Indian</i> (New
York: Wilson-Erickson, 1936), p. 168.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_192" href="#fr_192">[192]</a>Francis Haines, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 262.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_193" href="#fr_193">[193]</a>Helen F. Sanders, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 268.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_194" href="#fr_194">[194]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 282.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_195" href="#fr_195">[195]</a>W. T. Sherman, <i>Reports of Inspection Made in the Summer of 1877</i>
(Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1878), p. 34.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_196" href="#fr_196">[196]</a>Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, editors, <i>Adventures in Geyser
Land</i>, by Frank D. Carpenter (Caldwell, Idaho: The Caxton Printers, Ltd.,
1935), p. 279.</div>
<div class="fncont">George F. Cowan was born in Ohio in 1842. He was with the first volunteers
during the Civil War. He attained the rank of Sergeant. At this time
he was one of Montana’s leading attorneys.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_197" href="#fr_197">[197]</a>Chester A. Fee, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 218.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_198" href="#fr_198">[198]</a>Francis Haines, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 287.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_199" href="#fr_199">[199]</a>Heister Guie and L. V. McWhorter, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 223.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_200" href="#fr_200">[200]</a>Edwin J. Stanley, <i>Rambles in Wonderland</i> (New York: D. Appleton and
Co., 1878), p. 166.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_201" href="#fr_201">[201]</a>Chester A. Fee, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 223.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_202" href="#fr_202">[202]</a>Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 225.</div>
<div class="fncont">George F. Cowan’s experiences were so peculiar that one is puzzled to
know whether he was the most lucky or unlucky of men. A train of incidents
followed his suffering in the Park. Near Fort Ellis the neck yoke broke, and
the Cowan party was thrown out of the carriage. At Bozeman, when Mr.
Arnold was dressing Cowan’s wounds in the hotel room, the bedstead gave
way and down went the injured man.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_203" href="#fr_203">[203]</a>Andrew J. Weikert, “Journal of a Tour Through Yellowstone National
Park in August and September 1877,” <i>Contributions</i>, Historical Society of
Montana, IV (1900), 185-99.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_204" href="#fr_204">[204]</a>H. M. Chittenden, <i>Yellowstone National Park</i>, p. 142. Stewart was relieved
of $260.00 and a watch.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_205" href="#fr_205">[205]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 143.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_206" href="#fr_206">[206]</a>Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 194-5.</div>
<div class="fncont">Near the top of Mt. Everts, and toward its southern end, there is a cliff
formed by an ancient flow of lava. Upon a flat space, at the foot of the cliff,
one may find an inscription that reads, “Ben Stone 1877.”
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_207" href="#fr_207">[207]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 145.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_208" href="#fr_208">[208]</a>O. O. Howard, <i>Chief Joseph, His Pursuit and Capture</i> (Boston: Lee and
Shephard, 1881), p. 243.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_209" href="#fr_209">[209]</a>Helen A. Howard and Dan L. McGrath, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 258.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_210" href="#fr_210">[210]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 260-1.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_211" href="#fr_211">[211]</a>Chester A. Fee, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 248-9.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_212" href="#fr_212">[212]</a>Helen A. Howard and Dan L. McGrath, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 271-2.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_213" href="#fr_213">[213]</a>This was Joseph’s understanding, as revealed in all subsequent statements.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_214" href="#fr_214">[214]</a>Chester A. Fee, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 262-3.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_215" href="#fr_215">[215]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 270.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_216" href="#fr_216">[216]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 272.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_217" href="#fr_217">[217]</a>Helen A. Howard and Dan L. McGrath, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 183.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_218" href="#fr_218">[218]</a>Chester A. Fee, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 287.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_219" href="#fr_219">[219]</a>The Hayden and other government expeditions did quite a lot of trail
work in an informal manner. That is to say, they had large parties and considerable
baggage. In order to get through the forest quite a lot of trail building
became necessary.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_220" href="#fr_220">[220]</a>Jack E. Haynes, “The Expedition of President Chester A. Arthur to Yellowstone
National Park in 1883,” <i>Annals of Wyoming</i>, January, 1942, p. 2.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_221" href="#fr_221">[221]</a>J. J. Leclercq, <i>La Terre des Marveilles</i>. An excerpt containing this story is
in Mercer Cook’s <i>Portraits of Americans</i> (New York: D. C. Heath and Co.,
1939), pp. 47-8.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_222" href="#fr_222">[222]</a>John Muir, <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>, LXXXI (Jan. 1898), 15.</div><div class="fncont">Edwin J. Stanley’s <i>Rambles in Wonderland</i> describes conditions as of that time.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_223" href="#fr_223">[223]</a>P. W. Norris, <i>Annual Report 1880</i>, p. 584. See also Elno’s “The Lord of
Hard Luck,” <i>Dillon Examiner</i>, June 12, 1940.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_224" href="#fr_224">[224]</a>Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, <i>Adventures in Geyser Land</i>, p. 71.</div>
<div class="fncont">Texas Jack served as a guide for the Earl of Dunraven in 1874.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_225" href="#fr_225">[225]</a>Jones Bros. and McGill of Cody and Hougan and Phillips of Salt Lake
City, along with many others, conducted tours varying in duration and cost.
The fee varied from five to ten dollars a day per person.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_226" href="#fr_226">[226]</a>C. S. Walgamott, <i>Reminiscences</i> (Twin Falls, Idaho, 1926), II, 78.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_227" href="#fr_227">[227]</a>John Muir, <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>, LXXXI (April, 1898), 515.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_228" href="#fr_228">[228]</a>Alice W. Rollins, “The Three Tetons,” <i>Harper’s</i>, LXXIV (May, 1887),
876.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_229" href="#fr_229">[229]</a><i>Ibid.</i>
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_230" href="#fr_230">[230]</a>Rudyard Kipling, <i>American Notes</i>, p. 126. “Buckskin Charley” was
Charles Marble; Yankee Jim’s name was James George; Hofer’s name was
Thomas Elwood Hofer.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_231" href="#fr_231">[231]</a>Yellowstone Park Scrap Book, II, 52. There are three volumes of newspaper
and magazine clippings in the Park Library at Mammoth, Wyoming.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_232" href="#fr_232">[232]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 60, 123. See also I, 33, and III, 33.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_233" href="#fr_233">[233]</a>Alice W. Rollins, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 74.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_234" href="#fr_234">[234]</a>Silas S. Huntley was the guiding mind of the organization from 1892
to 1901, when H. W. Child succeeded to the management, which he held
until 1917. E. W. Bach was an active partner.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_235" href="#fr_235">[235]</a>The transportation setup as of 1914: Yellowstone Park Transportation
Company, Gardiner, Round Trip $25.00; Yellowstone Western Stage Company,
Yellowstone, Montana, $20.00; Holm Transportation Company, Cody,
Wyoming, five days $25.00; Wylie Permanent Camping Company maintains
permanent camps and operates a line from Gardiner, also West Yellowstone
and Camp Cody (East Gate). The camps: Swan Lake Basin, Riverside,
Upper Geyser Basin, Outlet of Lake, Grand Canyon, Camp Cody and Tower
Falls. Lunch stations at Gibbon Geyser Basin and Thumb. Six day tour
$40.00.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_236" href="#fr_236">[236]</a>Yellowstone Park Scrap Book, III, 20. Also Henry D. Sedgwick, Jr., “On
Horse Back Through Yellowstone,” <i>World’s Work</i>, VI (June, 1903). Two
of Yancey’s buildings are still standing.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_237" href="#fr_237">[237]</a>Scrap Book, II, 4.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_238" href="#fr_238">[238]</a><i>Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1884</i>, I, 73.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_239" href="#fr_239">[239]</a>A corrupt and incompetent concern called The Improvement Company
started a hotel in Mammoth. In 1884 this firm attempted to secure private
ownership of land in important localities through Congressional action. When
the move failed the firm went under. Its interests were bought by the Yellowstone
Park Association which was financed by the Northern Pacific Railway.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_240" href="#fr_240">[240]</a>The Norris Hotel was replaced by a camp hotel and eating house, which
served until 1900, when a new one was completed. The hotel at Old Faithful
had not been profitable and was not replaced until 1903, when Old Faithful
Inn was built.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_241" href="#fr_241">[241]</a>J. E. Rickards, ex-Governor of Montana, to the editor of <i>The Salt Lake
Tribune</i>, July 17, 1897.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_242" href="#fr_242">[242]</a>Scrap Book, II, 56.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_243" href="#fr_243">[243]</a><i>Report of the Department of the Interior 1907</i>, p. 533. The Boat Company
charged three dollars for a ride from Thumb to Lake Fishing Bridge.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_244" href="#fr_244">[244]</a>Henry D. Sedgwick, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 3572.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_245" href="#fr_245">[245]</a>Scrap Book, I, 61.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_246" href="#fr_246">[246]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, Captain George S. Anderson earnestly prophesied that there would
not be a square mile of forest left standing in six months if railroads were permitted
to enter.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_247" href="#fr_247">[247]</a>Charles D. Warner, “Yellowstone National Park,” <i>Harper’s</i>, XCIV (January,
1897), 323.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_248" href="#fr_248">[248]</a><i>Annual Report 1907.</i> Several wells had to be dug between Norris and
Canyon.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_249" href="#fr_249">[249]</a>Horace M. Albright, <i>Park Service Bulletin</i>, April 14, 1934, p. 46.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_250" href="#fr_250">[250]</a>Lucien M. Lewis, “To the Old Stage Driver,” <i>Overland Monthly</i>, LXIX (July, 1917), 52.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_251" href="#fr_251">[251]</a>Yellowstone Park Automobile Regulations for the Season of 1916. Department
of the Interior <i>Bulletin</i>. Here is an example of the procedure:</div>
<table class="center">
<tr><th colspan="4">SCHEDULE A</th></tr>
<tr><th>Gardiner to Norris</th><th>Miles</th><th>Not earlier than</th><th>Not later than</th></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Leave Gardiner Entrance</td><td class="r">0</td><td class="l">6:00 <span class="small">A.M.</span></td><td class="l">6:30 <span class="small">A.M.</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Arrive Mammoth Hot Springs</td><td class="r">5</td><td class="l">6:20</td><td class="l">7:00</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Leave Mammoth Hot Springs</td><td class="r">0</td><td class="l">6:45</td><td class="l">7:15</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Leave 8 Mile Post</td><td class="r">8</td><td class="l"></td><td class="l">8:00</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Arrive Norris</td><td class="r">20</td><td class="l">8:30</td><td class="l">9:00</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="fncont">Schedule B was for the <span class="small">P.M.</span></div>
<div class="fncont">Bicyclists were also closely regulated. Upon meeting a team the rider was
required to stop and stand between his cycle and the team. He could not pass
a team from the rear without a signal.</div>
<div class="fncont">People on horseback were expected to observe every precaution in passing
teams of all sorts.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_252" href="#fr_252">[252]</a><i>Reports of the Department of the Interior 1917</i>, p. 812.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_253" href="#fr_253">[253]</a>Chas. Van Tassell, <i>Truthful Lies</i> (Bozeman, Montana, 1921).
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_254" href="#fr_254">[254]</a><i>Reports of the Secretary of the Interior 1936</i>, p. 132. The firms combined
in this consolidation were The Yellowstone Park Hotel Co., The
Yellowstone Park Transportation Co., The Yellowstone Park Lodge and
Camps Co., and The Yellowstone Park Boat Company.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_255" href="#fr_255">[255]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, 1939, p. 300.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_256" href="#fr_256">[256]</a>There are two service stations in Old Faithful Camp. Some people complain
because they cannot get their favorite gasoline. However, it would be
both unsightly and impractical to allow each company a half-dozen representatives.
There are no pumps at all at Madison and Norris stations.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_257" href="#fr_257">[257]</a><i>Park Service Bulletin</i>, Nov., 1936, p. 12.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_258" href="#fr_258">[258]</a>Richard G. Lillard, <i>The Great Forest</i> (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
1948), p. 32.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_259" href="#fr_259">[259]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 68.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_260" href="#fr_260">[260]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 9.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_261" href="#fr_261">[261]</a>Hans Huth, <i>Yosemite, the Story of an Idea</i>. Reprint from the <i>Sierra Club Bulletin</i>, March 1948, p. 48.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_262" href="#fr_262">[262]</a>Richard G. Lillard, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 85.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_263" href="#fr_263">[263]</a>Richard G. Lillard, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 256.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_264" href="#fr_264">[264]</a>Hugh H. Bennett, “Thomas Jefferson Soil Conservationist,” U. S. Department
of Agriculture, No. 548 (1944).
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_265" href="#fr_265">[265]</a>Karl B. Mickey, <i>Man and Soil</i> (Chicago: International Harvester Co.,
1945), p. 17.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_266" href="#fr_266">[266]</a>Hans Huth, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 73.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_267" href="#fr_267">[267]</a>George Catlin, <i>The Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North
American Indians</i> (London, 1841), I, 262.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_268" href="#fr_268">[268]</a>Hans Huth, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 52.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_269" href="#fr_269">[269]</a>Walter Mulford, <i>Forest Influences</i> (New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.,
1948), p. 15.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_270" href="#fr_270">[270]</a>Hans Huth, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 68.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_271" href="#fr_271">[271]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 69.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_272" href="#fr_272">[272]</a><i>Ibid.</i>
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_273" href="#fr_273">[273]</a>Hans Huth said Frederick Law Olmstead admitted failure in his attempt
to discover the origin of public parks in this country. He attributed it to “a
spontaneous movement of that sort which we conveniently refer to as the
genius of our civilization.” <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 60.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_274" href="#fr_274">[274]</a>Richard G. Lillard, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 260.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_275" href="#fr_275">[275]</a>This agency was later transferred to the Department of Agriculture.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_276" href="#fr_276">[276]</a>Richard G. Lillard, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 264.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_277" href="#fr_277">[277]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 270.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_278" href="#fr_278">[278]</a><i>Ibid.</i> National Legislation Executive Almanac in Brief:</div>
<dl>
<dt>1876—$2,000.00, appropriated to employ a competent man to investigate timber conditions in the United States.</dt>
<dt>June 30, 1886—Act creating Division of Forestry in Department of Agriculture.</dt>
<dt>March 3, 1891—President authorized to establish Forest Reserves; Yellowstone Park Timberland Reserve proclaimed by President Harrison on March 30, 1891.</dt>
<dt>June 4, 1897—Present National Forest Act passed.</dt>
<dt>July 1, 1901—Division of Forestry becomes Bureau of Forestry.</dt>
<dt>February 1, 1905—Bureau of Forestry becomes Forest Service.</dt>
<dt>March 1, 1911—Weeks Law passed.</dt>
<dt>April 11, 1921—Snell Bill introduced in Congress.</dt>
<dt>May 2, 1921—Capper Bill introduced in Congress.</dt>
<dt>June 7, 1924—Clarke-McNary Bill signed by President.</dt>
<dt>April 30, 1928—McNary-Woodruff Act signed by President.</dt>
<dt>May 22, 1928—McSweeney-McNary Act signed by President.</dt>
<dt>Jan. 1, 1931—Creation of the Timber Conservation Board.</dt>
<dt>1937—The Norris-Doxey Act.</dt>
<dt>1944—The Cooperative Sustained Yield Act.</dt>
</dl>
<div class="fncont">Other Acts closely related to the Forestry program include, Civilian Conservation
Corps, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, Public Works
Administration, Taylor Grazing Control Act, Farm Security Act, and Tennessee
Valley Authority.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_279" href="#fr_279">[279]</a>“National Parks and National Forests,” a statement by the National Park
Service, Department of the Interior and the Forest Service, Department of
Agriculture.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_280" href="#fr_280">[280]</a>Earl of Dunraven, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 34.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_281" href="#fr_281">[281]</a>William T. Hornaday, <i>Our Vanishing Wild Life</i> (New York: New York
Zoological Society, 1913), p. 2.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_282" href="#fr_282">[282]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 63.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_283" href="#fr_283">[283]</a>Earl of Dunraven, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 6.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_284" href="#fr_284">[284]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 15.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_285" href="#fr_285">[285]</a>Extinct species include: great auk, Pallas’s cormorant, Labrador duck,
Eskimo curlew, passenger pigeon, Carolina parakeet, yellow-winged green
parrot, heath hen, whooping crane, upland plover. Other effective wild life
conservation advocates were Dr. Theodore S. Palmer, Edward H. Forbush,
T. Gilbert Pearson, John B. Burnham, and William T. Hornaday.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_286" href="#fr_286">[286]</a>Earl of Dunraven, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 181.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_287" href="#fr_287">[287]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 182-3.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_288" href="#fr_288">[288]</a>Nathaniel P. Langford, “The Ascent of Mount Hayden,” <i>Scribner’s
Monthly</i>, III (June, 1873), 133-40. The author does not necessarily imply
that Langford reached the summit.</div>
<div class="fncont">The author has possession of a part of Mr. Leigh’s diary, numerous dictations,
and items relative to “Beaver Dick.”
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_289" href="#fr_289">[289]</a>F. H. Knowlton, “The Tertiary Flowers of the Yellowstone National
Park,” <i>The American Journal of Science</i>, No. 7 (July, 1896).
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_290" href="#fr_290">[290]</a>Chittenden says that Norris Geyser Basin was discovered from the top
of Bunsen Peak in 1872. E. S. Topping and Dwight Woodruff saw a large
column of steam ascending far to the south. They made an investigation and
reported their find. The next day Mr. and Mrs. H. H. Stone, of Bozeman,
Montana, visited the basin. Mrs. Stone was one of the first white women to
enter the Park. Perhaps she was the first excepting certain members of earlier
missionary parties.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_291" href="#fr_291">[291]</a>N. P. Langford’s Diary, Second Trip To Yellowstone 1872. MS. in Yellowstone
Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. Dr. Hayden and his co-workers
returned in 1878. In this investigation they made detailed reports upon many
hot springs and geysers. The season’s study, richly embellished with engravings
and colored plates, was published in Hayden’s <i>Report</i> in 1883.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_292" href="#fr_292">[292]</a>Lewis R. Freeman, <i>Down the Yellowstone</i> (New York: Dodd, Mead and
Co., 1922), p. 57.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_293" href="#fr_293">[293]</a>P. W. Norris, <i>Annual Report 1880</i>, p. 7.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_294" href="#fr_294">[294]</a>R. Kipling, <i>American Notes</i>, p. 174. Also see T. A. Jagger’s article, “Death
Gulch, A Natural Bear Trap,” <i>Popular Science</i>, LIV (February, 1899),
5-6.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_295" href="#fr_295">[295]</a>Jack Ellis Haynes states that A. F. Norris, C. M. Stephens, and J. Davis
spent the winter of 1879-80 in the headquarters building at Mammoth.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_296" href="#fr_296">[296]</a>William Ludlow, <i>Report to the War Department 1875</i>, pp. 36-7. Mr.
Ludlow made a reconnaissance from Carrol, Montana to Yellowstone Park
and returned.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_297" href="#fr_297">[297]</a>Yellowstone Scrap Book, II, pp. 37, 56.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_298" href="#fr_298">[298]</a><i>Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1884</i>, II (Washington, D. C.:
Government Printing Office, 1885), p. 565.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_299" href="#fr_299">[299]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, 1889, III, p. 133.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_300" href="#fr_300">[300]</a>Some of these territorial officials, known in local parlance as “rabbit
catchers,” formed an alliance with the assistant superintendent. By this means
the latter shared, as informers, the fines levied by themselves. H. M. Chittenden,
<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 113.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_301" href="#fr_301">[301]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 134. See also <i>Report</i> for 1906,
p. 522 and <i>The Independent</i>, Butte, Montana, Nov., 1895.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_302" href="#fr_302">[302]</a>H. M. Chittenden, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 114.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_303" href="#fr_303">[303]</a><i>Report of the Secretary of the Interior</i>, II, 873.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_304" href="#fr_304">[304]</a><i>Report of the Secretary of the Interior</i>, III (1889), 134.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_305" href="#fr_305">[305]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 133.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_306" href="#fr_306">[306]</a>Henry H. Lewis, “Managing a National Park,” <i>The Outlook</i>, LXXIV
(August, 1903), 1037.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_307" href="#fr_307">[307]</a><i>Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1889</i>, III, 129.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_308" href="#fr_308">[308]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, p. 130.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_309" href="#fr_309">[309]</a>Jack Ellis Haynes, <i>Haynes Guide</i>, p. 160.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_310" href="#fr_310">[310]</a>Emerson Hough, “Yellowstone Park Game Exploration,” <i>Forest and
Stream</i>, XLIII, Nos. 8-12. A series of articles covering this exploration
appeared in each issue from March until August 25, 1894.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_311" href="#fr_311">[311]</a>T. J. Patterson, Yellowstone Park Scrap Book, I, 124.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_312" href="#fr_312">[312]</a>S. B. M. Young’s <i>Annual Report 1897</i>, p. 779.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_313" href="#fr_313">[313]</a>Benjamin Drew, <i>Souvenir List</i>, Mammoth, Wyoming. One of the victims
was struck over the head with the Winchester; whereas a Chicago lady was
able to get a snapshot of the desperado. Rewards offered aggregated
$1,100.00.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_314" href="#fr_314">[314]</a>Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, <i>Adventures in Geyser Land</i>, p.
64. Also Earl of Dunraven, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 206.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_315" href="#fr_315">[315]</a>Frederick Remington, <i>Pony Tracks</i> (New York: Harper and Bros., 1895),
p. 192.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_316" href="#fr_316">[316]</a>Arnold Hague, “Soaping Geysers,” <i>Science</i>, XIII (May 17, 1889), 384.
Dr. Arnold Hague and John H. Renshawe of the Geological Survey studied
the Park in 1883.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_317" href="#fr_317">[317]</a>John Muir, “The Yellowstone National Park,” <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>,
LXXXI (April, 1898), 520.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_318" href="#fr_318">[318]</a>Land in the reserves adjacent to the Park yield 30¢ per acre from lumbering
and 50¢ for grazing; whereas the water storage value alone is $12.50.
Then, too, there are extensive agricultural improvements contingent upon
the water supply. These would approximate $30.00 per forest acre. Statement
made to the author by range supervisor, Faber Eaton, on August 9, 1943.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_319" href="#fr_319">[319]</a><i>Annual Report of the Acting Superintendent 1894</i>, p. 661.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_320" href="#fr_320">[320]</a>There have been exceptions to the rule. Certain animals have been
classed as predators at given times and thinned out.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_321" href="#fr_321">[321]</a>The average sagebrusher (camper) considers bears as an unmitigated
nuisance. Because of them, he must exercise vigilance at all times or his food
will be carried away.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_322" href="#fr_322">[322]</a><i>Reports of the Department of the Interior 1918</i>, p. 827.</div>
<div class="fncont">Strong demands were also made to open the Park for sheep grazing.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_323" href="#fr_323">[323]</a><i>Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1938</i>, p. 6.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_324" href="#fr_324">[324]</a>Yellowstone Scrap Book, I, 57.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_325" href="#fr_325">[325]</a><i>Ibid.</i>
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_326" href="#fr_326">[326]</a><i>Report of the Acting Superintendent of Yellowstone National Park 1895</i>,
p. 824.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_327" href="#fr_327">[327]</a>These stations were located at Norris, Riverside, Fountain, Upper Geyser
Basin, Thumb, Snake River, Lake Sylvan Pass, Soda Butte, Tower Falls, Fort
Yellowstone, and Gardiner.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_328" href="#fr_328">[328]</a>There are more than thirty of these journals in the Park Library at Mammoth,
Wyoming.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_329" href="#fr_329">[329]</a>Yellowstone Scrap Book, II, 105.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_330" href="#fr_330">[330]</a>R. Kipling, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 153.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_331" href="#fr_331">[331]</a>John Muir, <i>op. cit.</i>, April, 1898, p. 510.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_332" href="#fr_332">[332]</a>Charles D. Warner, “Yellowstone National Park,” <i>Harper’s</i>, XCIV (January,
1897), 94.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_333" href="#fr_333">[333]</a><i>Annual Report 1894</i>, p. 133.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_334" href="#fr_334">[334]</a>Eugene T. Allen and Arthur L. Day, <i>Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National
Park</i> (Washington, D. C.: Carnegie Institution, 1935). Although Dr.
Day was the director, the work was regarded as the valedictory of Dr. Allen.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_335" href="#fr_335">[335]</a>Theodore Roosevelt, “A National Park Service,” <i>Outlook</i>, C (Feb. 3,
1912).
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_336" href="#fr_336">[336]</a>S. T. Mather’s “Report of The Director of The National Park Service,”
<i>Report of the Department of the Interior 1918</i>, pp. 842-3.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_337" href="#fr_337">[337]</a><i>Reports of the Secretary of the Interior 1918</i>, pp. 842-3.</div>
<div class="fncont">An interesting experiment, contrary to this principle, was an attempt in
1906 to raise twelve Sequoia <i>gigantea</i> trees near the arch at Gardiner entrance.
All of the trees died.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_338" href="#fr_338">[338]</a>James Bryce, “National Parks the Need of the Future,” <i>The Outlook</i>,
CII (December 14, 1912), 811.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_339" href="#fr_339">[339]</a><i>Reports of the Secretary of the Interior 1918</i>, pp. 813-4.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_340" href="#fr_340">[340]</a><i>Ibid.</i>
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_341" href="#fr_341">[341]</a>Ray S. Baker, “A Place of Marvels,” <i>The Century Magazine</i>, LXVI (August,
1903), 487.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_342" href="#fr_342">[342]</a>F. A. Boutelle, <i>Report of the Acting Superintendent 1889</i> (Washington,
D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1890), p. 148.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_343" href="#fr_343">[343]</a><i>Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1937</i>, p. 49.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_344" href="#fr_344">[344]</a>Short terms of service were also held by Dr. Frank E. Thone, 1923, and
Alfred H. Povah, 1931.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_345" href="#fr_345">[345]</a>Editorial, “The Ranger Naturalist,” <i>Nature Magazine</i>, XVII (April,
1931), 219.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_346" href="#fr_346">[346]</a>Exhibits were established at Rhyo-Travertine Gulch, Swan Lake Flat,
Beaver Dams, Nymph Lake, Tuff Cliff, and Firehole Canyon.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_347" href="#fr_347">[347]</a><i>Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1938</i>, p. 13.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_348" href="#fr_348">[348]</a><i>Ibid.</i>, 1918, pp. 844-5.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_349" href="#fr_349">[349]</a>George O. Smith, “The Nation’s Playgrounds,” <i>Review of Reviews</i>, XL
(July, 1909), 44.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_350" href="#fr_350">[350]</a>Dwight L. Elmendorf, <i>The Mentor</i>, II (May 15, 1915), 13.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_351" href="#fr_351">[351]</a>Earl of Dunraven, <i>The Great Divide</i> (London, 1876), p. XI.</div>
<div class="fncont">The Scottish Earl of Dunraven visited the Park in 1874. A peak and a pass
commemorate his interest and service in informing Europeans about Yellowstone.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_352" href="#fr_352">[352]</a>The date of this communication was December 20, 1810.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_353" href="#fr_353">[353]</a>Colter’s first sheet is readily identifiable, and part of another sheet may
be segregated with the use of imagination and understanding.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_354" href="#fr_354">[354]</a>Many writers have failed to identify Gap and Sage as the same creek. They
also befuddle Wind and Shoshone rivers. There is no evidence that Colter
ever heard the name of Bighorn River.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_355" href="#fr_355">[355]</a>The figure eight results from the fact that he went to the Yep-pe camp,
left it, came back, and left it again at the appropriate angles.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_356" href="#fr_356">[356]</a>The curious errors of the map are explained in <a href="#c6">Chapter II</a>.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_357" href="#fr_357">[357]</a>Lewis evidently complained to Biddle about the variations in sheets because
Clark stated in a letter to Biddle that these sheets were all of the same
scale. See Stallo Vinton, <i>John Colter</i>, p. 47.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_358" href="#fr_358">[358]</a>This claim will be developed subsequently.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_359" href="#fr_359">[359]</a>John D. Hicks, <i>The Federal Union</i> (New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.,
1937), p. 282.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_360" href="#fr_360">[360]</a>The position of Henrys River, with reference to the Snake River drainage,
is almost wholly erroneous as shown on the Map of 1814. Wisers River is fictitious.
The true and original Weiser River lies three hundred miles west.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_361" href="#fr_361">[361]</a>This hypothesis is based upon the findings of J. Neilson Barry of Portland,
Oregon. Mr. Barry is a profound student of Western history and cartography.
He has devoted years of intensive research in correlating journals and geography.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_362" href="#fr_362">[362]</a>There is a reasonable view that holds this lake to be the only real feature
upon this section of the map and identifies it as Brooks Lake, but Colter
never saw or knew of the main branch of the Bighorn River or its source in
Brooks Lake.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_363" href="#fr_363">[363]</a>Clark named this mythical lake for William Eustis, who had been representative
to Congress from Massachusetts. About this time he was Secretary
of War in President Madison’s cabinet.</div>
<div class="fncont">Whatever Colter drew was certainly lacking Lake Eustis, Lake Biddle, and
the Rio Grande, Arkansas, and Platte rivers. He was a simple frontiersman
who had probably never heard of Eustis or Biddle and was not interested in
mapping anything beyond his own route. Had Lewis linked Eustis and Biddle-Riddle
lakes together, a possible approximation to Colter’s draft might have
appeared.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_364" href="#fr_364">[364]</a>In 1941, Paul J. Shamp, a US. forester, reported the discovery of numerous
petrifications in the vicinity of Pass and Scatter creeks in the Thorofare
country. This is the line of Colter’s reconstructed route.</div>
<div class="fncont">It has been the author’s desire to make a search for this missing link of
evidence by actually going over the route. In 1947, he made a partial exploration
during a three day hike. It was enough to suggest the size of the problem.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_365" href="#fr_365">[365]</a>Colter may have reached Chicken Ridge by Fishhawk, Mountain, or Lynx
creeks or via Falcon, Mink, or Crooked streams. It must be remembered that
this map sheet has been much mussed up. It is impossible to know what has
been erased; yet, enough of Colter’s map remains to provide a logical basis for
the above itinerary. It is relatively unimportant which creeks he negotiated
to reach Chicken Ridge. The vitally important fact is that he drew a sketch
of South Arm from that angle which added to the Thumb makes an accurate
map of what a trapper would have seen of Yellowstone Lake.
</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_366" href="#fr_366">[366]</a>J. Neilson Barry has made the most intensive study of the Map of 1814. It
is his opinion that Colter drew other map sheets besides the one of the Buffalo
Bill country. He also has hope that these sheets may be discovered among
the Lewis-Clark-Biddle papers.
</div>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_310">310</div>
<h2 id="c24"><span class="small">INDEX</span></h2>
<p class="center"><a class="ab" href="#index_A">A</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_B">B</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_C">C</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_D">D</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_E">E</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_F">F</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_G">G</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_H">H</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_I">I</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_J">J</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_K">K</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_L">L</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_M">M</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_N">N</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_O">O</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_P">P</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_Q">Q</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_R">R</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_S">S</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_T">T</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_U">U</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_V">V</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_W">W</a> <span class="ab">X</span> <a class="ab" href="#index_Y">Y</a> <span class="ab">Z</span></p>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_A">A</dt>
<dt>Absaroka Indians, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dt>
<dt>Absaroka Pass, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></dt>
<dt>Absaroka Range, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> ff., <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt>
<dt>Adams, Robert, Jr., <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt>Albright, Supt. Horace M., <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Alder Gulch, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</dt>
<dd>gold found, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
<dt>Allard Bison Herd, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></dt>
<dt>Allen, Dr. Eugene T., <a href="#Page_264">264</a></dt>
<dt>Allen, G. N., <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt>Alter, J. Cecil, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></dt>
<dt>Alum Creek, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></dt>
<dt>American Association for the Advancement of Science, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></dt>
<dt>American Association of Museums, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></dt>
<dt>American Fur Company, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></dt>
<dt>American Game Protective and Propagation Association, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></dt>
<dt>American Journal of Science and Arts, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt>
<dt>Amethyst Mountain, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt>
<dt>Anderson, Capt. George S., <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></dt>
<dt>Anderson, Ole, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></dt>
<dt>Anthony, Sen. H. B., <a href="#Page_140">140</a></dt>
<dt>Arbor Day, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></dt>
<dt>Architectural Fountain Geyser, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt>
<dt>Arickara Indians, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></dt>
<dt>Arnold, A. J., <a href="#Page_172">172</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Arthur, Pres. Chester A., <a href="#Page_192">192</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Ashley, Gen. William H., <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dt>
<dt>Astorians, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></dt>
<dt>Atlantic Creek, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Atwood, W. W., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Austin, ——, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_B">B</dt>
<dt>Bach, E. W., <a href="#Page_201">201</a></dt>
<dt>Baggley, George F., <a href="#Page_273">273</a></dt>
<dt>Baker, Sergt. William, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></dt>
<dt>Bannock Indians, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</dt>
<dd>description, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>trail, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</dd>
<dd>defeat, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dd>
<dt>Barlow, Capt. J. W., survey, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Baronett, C. J., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</dt>
<dd>rescued Everts, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</dd>
<dd>bridge, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</dd>
<dd>road, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></dd>
<dt>Bauer, Dr. C. Max, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Beaman, J. W., <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt>Bear Paw Mountains, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></dt>
<dt>Bear River, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dt>
<dt>Beartooth Range, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
<dt>“Beaver Dick” (Richard Leigh), <a href="#Page_283">283</a></dt>
<dt>Bechler River, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></dt>
<dt>Beehive Geyser, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></dt>
<dt>Biddle, Lake, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></dt>
<dt>Biddle, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></dt>
<dt>Big Game Ridge, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Big Hole, battle of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> ff., <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></dt>
<dt>Bigfoot, Chief, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dt>
<dt>Bighorn Basin, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
<dt>Bighorn River, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> ff., <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></dt>
<dt>Bison Peak, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></dt>
<dt>Bitter Root Range, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></dt>
<dt>Blackfeet Indians, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</dt>
<dd>attack Colter, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>description, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dd>
<dt>Black Kettle’s village, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt>
<dt>Blacks Fork of Green River, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></dt>
<dt class="pb" id="Page_311">311</dt>
<dt>Blaine, Sen. James G., <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
<dt>Bonaparte, Napoleon, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
<dt>Bonneville, Capt. B. L. E., <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</dt>
<dd>describes bison, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>; 232</dd>
<dt>Boone and Crockett Club, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></dt>
<dt>Bottler, Frederick, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</dt>
<dd>stock range, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</dd>
<dd>ranch, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></dd>
<dt>Boutelle, Capt. F. A., <a href="#Page_268">268</a></dt>
<dt>Bowles, Samuel, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></dt>
<dt>Bozeman, John, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
<dt>Bozeman, Montana, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></dt>
<dt>Bozeman Pass, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt>
<dt>Bozeman Trail, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
<dt>Bradbury, John, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt>
<dt>Brackenridge, Henry M., <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Bridger, James (Jim), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</dt>
<dd>ancestors, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</dd>
<dd>description, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>nicknames for, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</dd>
<dd>Indian wives, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</dd>
<dd>tall tales, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>death of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></dd>
<dt>Brooks Lake, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt>
<dt>Brothers, Henry J., <a href="#Page_217">217</a></dt>
<dt>Bryant, Dr. Harold, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>“Buckskin Charley,” (Charles Marble), <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></dt>
<dt>Buffalo Ranch, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></dt>
<dt>Bumpus, Dr. Hermon C., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Burgess, Felix, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></dt>
<dt>Burlington Route, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></dt>
<dt>Burns, A. E., <a href="#Page_247">247</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_C">C</dt>
<dt>Cabeza de Vaca, description of bison, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></dt>
<dt>Cache Creek, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt>
<dt>California, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</dt>
<dd>climate of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</dd>
<dd>University of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dd>
<dt>Camas Creek, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></dt>
<dt>Campfire Club of America, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></dt>
<dt>Canyon Creek, Nez Percé fight Seventh Cavalry, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></dt>
<dt>Carnegie Geophysical Laboratory, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></dt>
<dt>Carpenter, Frank, <a href="#Page_172">172</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Carpenter, Ida, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></dt>
<dt>Carpenter, Robert E., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></dt>
<dt>Carrington, Campbell, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt>
<dt>Carrington, Henry B., <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dt>
<dt>Carson, Kit, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></dt>
<dt>Cassidy, “Butch,” <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
<dt>Castle Geyser, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>Catholic Church, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</dt>
<dd>services, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></dd>
<dt>Catlin, George, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Cauliflower Geyser, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></dt>
<dt>Cheyenne Indians, description, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></dt>
<dt><i>Chicago Journal</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt>
<dt>Chicken Ridge, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Child, H. W., <a href="#Page_201">201</a></dt>
<dt>Chittenden, Hiram M., <a href="#Page_210">210</a></dt>
<dt>Chittenden Road, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></dt>
<dt>Chivington, Col. J. M., <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt>
<dt>Cinnabar, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> ff., <a href="#Page_259">259</a></dt>
<dt>Civil War, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt>
<dt>Claggett, William H., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</dt>
<dd>sponsored Park Bill, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Clark, Dr. Dan E., <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Clark, Capt. Philo, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></dt>
<dt>Clark, William, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>Colter reports to, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Clarks Fork, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></dt>
<dt>Clearwater River, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</dt>
<dd>battle of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></dd>
<dt>Clematis Gulch, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></dt>
<dt>Cody, William F. “Buffalo Bill,” <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</dt>
<dd>nickname, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</dd>
<dd>description, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></dd>
<dt>Coffeen, Hon. Henry H., <a href="#Page_208">208</a></dt>
<dt>Cole, Sen. Cornelius, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></dt>
<dt>Colter, John, ancestors, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>joins Lisa, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</dd>
<dd>discovery of Park, <a href="#Page_38">38</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>attacked by Blackfeet, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</dd>
<dd>guide for Henry, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</dd>
<dd>reaches St. Louis, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</dd>
<dd>route, <a href="#Page_283">283</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Colter Creek, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
<dt>Colter’s Hell, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></dt>
<dt>Colter’s Peak, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt>
<dt>Colville Reservation, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></dt>
<dt>Community Chapel, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></dt>
<dt>Condon, David de L., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Conger, Patrick A., <a href="#Page_242">242</a></dt>
<dt>Conness, Sen. John, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></dt>
<dt class="pb" id="Page_312">312</dt>
<dt>Connor, Col. Patrick, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt>
<dt>Conservation, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> ff., <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</dt>
<dd>Pres. Roosevelt’s Governor’s Conference, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></dd>
<dt>Continental Divide, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</dt>
<dd>Colter crossed, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dd>
<dt>Cook, Charles W., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt>
<dt>Cooke, Montana, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></dt>
<dt>Coronado, Francisco, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></dt>
<dt>Cottage Hotel, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></dt>
<dt>Counter, Hub, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></dt>
<dt>Cowan, George F., <a href="#Page_172">172</a> ff., <a href="#Page_283">283</a></dt>
<dt>Cowan, Mrs. George F., describes Chief Joseph, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></dt>
<dt>Crampton, Louis C., <a href="#Page_211">211</a></dt>
<dt>Crazy Horse, Chief, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Creamer, Phil, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dt>
<dt>Crook, Gen. George, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
<dt>Crosby, Gov. John S., <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></dt>
<dt>Crow Indians, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> ff., <a href="#Page_240">240</a></dt>
<dt>Custer, Col. George A., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</dt>
<dd>defeated, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dd>
<dt>Cougar Creek, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_D">D</dt>
<dt>Davis, A. J., <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Dawes, Chester M., <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt>Dawes, Hon. Henry L., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</dt>
<dd>backed Park Bill, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Day, Dr. Arthur L., <a href="#Page_264">264</a></dt>
<dt>Dead Indian Creek, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></dt>
<dt>Dedicatory Act, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></dt>
<dt>DeLacy, Walter W., <a href="#Page_102">102</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>his map, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></dd>
<dt>Delano, Columbus, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></dt>
<dt>DeMaris Mineral Springs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></dt>
<dt>Devil’s Den, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
<dt>Devil’s Hoof, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
<dt>Devil’s Inkwell, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
<dt>Devil’s Kitchen, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
<dt>Devil’s Slide, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
<dt>Diamond City, Montana, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Dickson, John, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Dietrich, Richard, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Dingee, William, <a href="#Page_172">172</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Dixon, George B., <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt>Doane, Lieut. Gustavus C., <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</dt>
<dd>description of Old Faithful Geyser, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</dd>
<dd>with Hayden, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</dd>
<dd>in pursuit of Nez Percé, <a href="#Page_178">178</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Dot Island, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></dt>
<dt>Dragons Mouth, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></dt>
<dt>Driggs, Dr. Howard R., <a href="#Page_144">144</a></dt>
<dt>Duncan, J. W., <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt>Duncan, L., <a href="#Page_180">180</a></dt>
<dt>Dunnell, Hon. Mark H., <a href="#Page_141">141</a></dt>
<dt>Dunraven, Earl of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>describes horse thieves, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</dd>
<dd>hunting, <a href="#Page_233">233</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>praises Park, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></dd>
<dt>Dutcher, Mary, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></dt>
<dt>Dutcher, Willard, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_E">E</dt>
<dt>Eagle Blanket, Nez Percé, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></dt>
<dt>Eagle Peak, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></dt>
<dt>East Entrance, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></dt>
<dt>Eaton, Howard, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</dt>
<dd>trail, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></dd>
<dt>Ee-dah-how (Idaho), <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
<dt>Edmunds, Sen. George F., <a href="#Page_140">140</a></dt>
<dt>Elk Thistle, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</dt>
<dd><i>see</i> Everts Thistle, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></dd>
<dt>Elk-Wapiti Creek, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Elliott, Henry W., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt>
<dt>Emerald Pool, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>Emerson, Ralph Waldo, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></dt>
<dt>Emigrant Gulch, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt>
<dt>Ericson, Leif, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
<dt>Eustis Lake, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></dt>
<dt>Everts Thistle, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></dt>
<dt>Everts, Truman C., <a href="#Page_120">120</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>lost in Park, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>visit to Washington, D.C., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></dd>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_F">F</dt>
<dt>Fairweather, William, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt>
<dt>Falcon Creek, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Fall River, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></dt>
<dt>Fan Geyser, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>Farcy, Sheriff, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></dt>
<dt>Fee, Chester A., <a href="#Page_177">177</a></dt>
<dt>Fergus, James, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt class="pb" id="Page_313">313</dt>
<dt>Ferris, Warren A., <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</dt>
<dd>describes geysers, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dd>
<dt>Fetterman Massacre, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
<dt>Firehole Basin, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></dt>
<dt>Firehole Canyon, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></dt>
<dt>Firehole Hotel, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></dt>
<dt>Firehole River, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</dt>
<dd>Nez Percé camp, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a> ff., <a href="#Page_227">227</a></dd>
<dt>Fisher, Capt. S. G., <a href="#Page_177">177</a></dt>
<dt>Fishhawk Creek, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,</dt>
<dt>Fishing Bridge, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</dt>
<dd>museum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></dd>
<dt>Flat Mountain Arm, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Flathead Indians, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</dt>
<dd>description, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Foller, August, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Folsom, David E., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</dt>
<dd>proposed park idea, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</dd>
<dd>assistant superintendent, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></dd>
<dt>Folsom-Cook-Peterson party, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</dt>
<dd>exploration, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Ford, R. S., <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Forest fires, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> ff.</dt>
<dt><i>Forest and Stream</i>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Forsyth, Lieut. William W., <a href="#Page_247">247</a></dt>
<dt>Fort Bridger, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></dt>
<dt>Fort Ellis, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> ff., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></dt>
<dt>Fort Hall, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</dt>
<dd>Bannock Reservation, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dd>
<dt>Fort Henry, founded, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</dt>
<dd>visited by Astorians, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></dd>
<dt>Fort Laramie National Park, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></dt>
<dt>Fort Lisa (Manuel’s Fort, Fort Raymond), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> ff., <a href="#Page_54">54</a> ff., <a href="#Page_286">286</a></dt>
<dt>Fort Mandan, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
<dt>Fort Yellowstone, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></dt>
<dt>Fossil, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Fountain Geyser, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></dt>
<dt>Fountain House, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></dt>
<dt>Freeman, L. M., <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_G">G</dt>
<dt>Gallatin Range, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></dt>
<dt>Gallatin River, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></dt>
<dt>Gallatin Valley, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt>
<dt>Game Ranch, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></dt>
<dt>Gap Creek, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></dt>
<dt>Gardiner, Montana, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></dt>
<dt>Gardner, Johnson, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dt>
<dt>Gardner Hole, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dt>
<dt>Gardner River, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> ff., <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt>Garfield, Thomas, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></dt>
<dt>Garrison, L. A., <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></dt>
<dt>Gass, Patrick, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
<dt>Gentian Pool, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>George, James (“Yankee Jim”), <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></dt>
<dt>Giant Geyser, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></dt>
<dt>Giantess Geyser, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></dt>
<dt>Gibbon, Gen. John, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></dt>
<dt>Gibbon Canyon, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></dt>
<dt>Gibbon Falls, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></dt>
<dt>Gibbon River, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></dt>
<dt>Gilbert, Col. Charles C., <a href="#Page_178">178</a></dt>
<dt>Gillette, Warren C., <a href="#Page_120">120</a></dt>
<dt>Glass, Hugh, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dt>
<dt>Goff, ——, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></dt>
<dt>Golden Gate, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></dt>
<dt>Gold seekers, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt>
<dt>Good, James W., <a href="#Page_211">211</a></dt>
<dt>Goodnight Bison Herd, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></dt>
<dt>Gore, Sir George, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></dt>
<dt>Graham and Klamer, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></dt>
<dt>Grand Canyon National Park, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></dt>
<dt>Grand Geyser, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Grand Loop Highway, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></dt>
<dt>Grand Prismatic Spring, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>Grand Teton National Park, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></dt>
<dt>Grant, Brogan, and Lycan, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></dt>
<dt>Grant, John, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Grant, Madison, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></dt>
<dt>Grant, Pres. Ulysses S., <a href="#Page_142">142</a></dt>
<dt>Great Salt Lake, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dt>
<dt>Green River, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
<dt>Green River Valley, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dt>
<dt>Gregory, Col. J. F., <a href="#Page_193">193</a></dt>
<dt>Grinnell, George Bird, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></dt>
<dt>Grizzly Lake, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></dt>
<dt>Gros Ventre Indians, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></dt>
<dt>Grotto Geyser, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>Guernsey Lake National Park, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></dt>
<dt>Gunnison, Capt. J. W., <a href="#Page_114">114</a></dt>
</dl>
<div class="pb" id="Page_314">314</div>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_H">H</dt>
<dt>Hague, Dr. Arnold, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></dt>
<dt>Hall, A. F., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Hamilton, Charles A., stores, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></dt>
<dt>Hamilton, William, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt>
<dt>Hancock, Forest, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
<dt><i>Harper’s Magazine</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></dt>
<dt>Harrington, Ed., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</dt>
<dd><i>see</i> Trafton, Edward</dd>
<dt>Harris, Moses (“Black”), <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt>
<dt>Harris, Capt. Moses, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</dt>
<dd>report of robbery, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></dd>
<dt>Harrison, Pres. Benjamin, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></dt>
<dt>Hart Mountain, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></dt>
<dt>Hauser, Samuel T., <a href="#Page_120">120</a> ff., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
<dt>Hayden, Carl, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></dt>
<dt>Hayden, Dr. Ferdinand V., <a href="#Page_102">102</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>praise of Bridger, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</dd>
<dd>hears Langford, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>expedition, <a href="#Page_138">138</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Hayden Valley, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</dt>
<dd>rendezvous, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</dd>
<dd>bison ranch, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></dd>
<dt>Hayes Act, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></dt>
<dt>Haynes, Frank Jay, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</dt>
<dd>first studio, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</dd>
<dd>arrested poacher, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></dd>
<dt>Haynes, Jack Ellis, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Heart Lake, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></dt>
<dt>Hedges, Cornelius, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>quoted, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</dd>
<dd>proposed park idea, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> ff., <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></dd>
<dt>Hegley, C. DeV., <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt>Helena, Montana, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></dt>
<dt><i>Helena Daily Herald</i>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></dt>
<dt><i>Helena Independent</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></dt>
<dt>Helena tourists, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Hellbroth Springs, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
<dt>Hell Roaring Mountain, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
<dt>Hellroaring Creek, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></dt>
<dt>Hells Half Acre, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
<dt>Henderson, Bart, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt>
<dt>Henderson, Walter L., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></dt>
<dt>Henderson’s Ranch, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></dt>
<dt>Henry, Major Andrew, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> ff., <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></dt>
<dt>Henrys Fork of Snake River, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></dt>
<dt>Henrys Lake, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></dt>
<dt>Hobart, C. T., <a href="#Page_204">204</a></dt>
<dt>Hofer, Thomas Elwood, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></dt>
<dt>Hoffman, W., <a href="#Page_201">201</a></dt>
<dt>Holm Transportation Company, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></dt>
<dt>Hoodoo Creek region, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></dt>
<dt>Horseshow Cattle Company, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Hospital, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></dt>
<dt>Hotels, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Hough, Emerson, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></dt>
<dt>Hough, Franklin B., <a href="#Page_228">228</a></dt>
<dt>Howard Eaton Trail, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></dt>
<dt>Howard, Gen. Oliver O., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</dt>
<dd>pursues Nez Percé, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>at Big Hole, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</dd>
<dd>at Henrys Lake, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</dd>
<dd>in Lamar Valley, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Howell, Ed, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></dt>
<dt>Huntley, Child, and Bach, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></dt>
<dt>Huntley, Silas S., <a href="#Page_201">201</a></dt>
<dt>Huth, Dr. Hans, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_I">I</dt>
<dt>Idaho, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>irrigation interests, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</dd>
<dd>entrance desired, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></dd>
<dt>Improvement Company, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></dt>
<dt>Index Peak, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt>
<dt>Indian Creek, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt>
<dt>Innocents (Henry Plummer’s gang), <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
<dt>Irving, Washington, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
<dt>Isa Lake, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_J">J</dt>
<dt>Jackson, “Teton,” <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
<dt>Jackson, William H., photographs, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt>
<dt>Jackson Hole, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></dt>
<dt>Jackson Lake, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></dt>
<dt>Jacobs, John, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
<dt>James, Thomas, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>James, William, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></dt>
<dt>Jamestown, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></dt>
<dt>Jefferson, Pres. Thomas, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></dt>
<dt>Jefferson National Expansion Memorial, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></dt>
<dt>Jefferson River, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></dt>
<dt>Jenny, Indian wife of “Beaver Dick,” <a href="#Page_238">238</a></dt>
<dt class="pb" id="Page_315">315</dt>
<dt>Jones, W. A., <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dt>
<dt>Jordan and Howell, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></dt>
<dt>Joseph, Chief, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>promise to father, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</dd>
<dd>description, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</dd>
<dd>flight, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>surrender, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</dd>
<dd>death, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></dd>
<dt>Joseph, Old Chief, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> ff.</dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_K">K</dt>
<dt>Kenck, Charles, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</dt>
<dd>killed, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</dd>
<dd>buried, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></dd>
<dt>Kent, Hon. William, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></dt>
<dt>Kingman, Capt. D. C., <a href="#Page_210">210</a></dt>
<dt>Kingsley, Mary, quoted, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></dt>
<dt>Kipling, Rudyard, quoted, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</dt>
<dd>poem, <a href="#Page_281">281</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Kittams, Walter H., <a href="#Page_235">235</a></dt>
<dt>Klamer, Henry E., <a href="#Page_216">216</a></dt>
<dt>Kohrs, Conrad, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_L">L</dt>
<dt>Lacey, John F., <a href="#Page_233">233</a></dt>
<dt>Lacey Act, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></dt>
<dt>Lake Biddle, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt>
<dt>Lake Eustis, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
<dt>Lake Hotel, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></dt>
<dt>Lamar Creek, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt>
<dt>Lamar River, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</dt>
<dd>Nez Percé flight, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> ff., <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></dd>
<dt>Lamar Unit or Buffalo Ranch, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></dt>
<dt>Lamar Valley, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt>
<dt>Lane, Franklin K., Secretary of the Interior, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</dt>
<dd>report of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></dd>
<dt>Langford, Nathaniel P., <a href="#Page_118">118</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>quoted, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</dd>
<dd>comment on Hedges’ remarks, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</dd>
<dd>lectures, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</dd>
<dd>advocacy of Park idea, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> ff., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</dd>
<dd>made superintendent of Park, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></dd>
<dt>LaNoue, Francis D., <a href="#Page_273">273</a></dt>
<dt>Lapwai, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</dt>
<dd>Indian Reservation, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></dd>
<dt>Larocque, Antoine, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
<dt>Lava Creek, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Leigh, Richard (“Beaver Dick”), <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></dt>
<dt>Leitner, William B., <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt>Lewis and Clark, missed Yellowstone Park, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> ff.; <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</dt>
<dd>journals, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></dd>
<dt>Lewis Lake, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></dt>
<dt>Lewis, Meriwether, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt>
<dt>Lewis, Samuel, <a href="#Page_285">285</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>concealed map, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dd>
<dt>Libby, Rube, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt>
<dt>Lincoln, Pres. Abraham, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></dt>
<dt>Lincoln, Robert T., <a href="#Page_191">191</a></dt>
<dt>Lindsley, C. A., <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></dt>
<dt>Lion Geyser, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>Lisa, Manuel, meets Colter, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> ff., <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt>
<dt><i>Literary Messenger</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></dt>
<dt>Little Bighorn, battle of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Little Bighorn River, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
<dt>Little Plume, Chief, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></dt>
<dt>Little Rosebud River, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></dt>
<dt>Livingston, Montana, William Clark party, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></dt>
<dt><i>Livingston Post</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></dt>
<dt>Livingston, Robert, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
<dt>Logan, William B., <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt><i>London Times</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></dt>
<dt>Looking Class, Chief, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></dt>
<dt>Lord, Cecil A., <a href="#Page_212">212</a></dt>
<dt>Louisiana Purchase, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
<dt>L’Ouverture, Toussaint, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
<dt>Lower Falls of Yellowstone, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt>
<dt>Lower Geyser Basin, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> ff., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</dt>
<dd>Folsom party, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</dd>
<dd>Marshall House, <a href="#Page_200">200</a> ff., <a href="#Page_246">246</a></dd>
<dt>Lower Yellowstone River, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt>
<dt>Ludlow, William, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></dt>
<dt>Lynx Creek, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Lystrup, Herbert T., <a href="#Page_264">264</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_M">M</dt>
<dt>Madison Junction, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</dt>
<dd>Washburn camp, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</dd>
<dd>museum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></dd>
<dt>Madison River, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</dt>
<dd>Bannock route, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff., <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</dd>
<dd>Nez Percé flight, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></dd>
<dt>Madison River Valley, <a href="#Page_162">162</a> ff., <a href="#Page_291">291</a></dt>
<dt>Mann, Charles, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></dt>
<dt class="pb" id="Page_316">316</dt>
<dt>Many Wounds, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
<dt>Mammoth Hot Springs, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</dt>
<dd>Hayden’s visit, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> ff., <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</dd>
<dd>stores built, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</dd>
<dd>museum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></dd>
<dt>Map of 1814, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> ff., <a href="#Page_285">285</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Maple Creek, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt>
<dt>Marble, Charles, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></dt>
<dt>Marias River Valley, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dt>
<dt>Marler, George, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></dt>
<dt>Marsh, George P., <a href="#Page_223">223</a></dt>
<dt>Marshall, J. W., <a href="#Page_200">200</a></dt>
<dt>Marshall and Goff, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></dt>
<dt>Mary Mountain, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></dt>
<dt>Mather, Stephen Tyng, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>founded National Park Service, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</dd>
<dd>monument to, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></dd>
<dt>Matthews, Larry, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Maximilian, Prince of Wied, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></dt>
<dt>McBride, James, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></dt>
<dt>McCartney, James C., <a href="#Page_182">182</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>hotel, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></dd>
<dt>McConnell, Pvt. George W., <a href="#Page_121">121</a></dt>
<dt>McGuirck, Matthew, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></dt>
<dt>McIntyre, Robert N., <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></dt>
<dt>McKenzie, Kenneth, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></dt>
<dt>Meek, Joe, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
<dt>Meldrum, Hon. John W., <a href="#Page_248">248</a></dt>
<dt>Menard, Pierre, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt>
<dt>Midway Geyser Basin, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></dt>
<dt>Miles, Col. Nelson A., <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</dt>
<dd>pursuit of Nez Percé, <a href="#Page_186">186</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Miller, F. W., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Miller Creek, <a href="#Page_85">85</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Minaret Falls, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
<dt>Ming, John, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Minnetaree Indian Village, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt>
<dt>Missouri Fur Company, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</dt>
<dd>Bridger joins, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></dd>
<dt>Missouri River, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</dt>
<dd>Nez Percé cross, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></dd>
<dt>Mitsiadazi, Minnetaree for Yellowstone, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
<dt>Monarch Geyser, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></dt>
<dt>Monida and Yellowstone Stage Line, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></dt>
<dt>Monroe, James, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt>
<dt>Montana, meaning of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</dt>
<dd>gold miners, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</dd>
<dd>camps, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a> ff., <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</dd>
<dd>penitentiary, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></dd>
<dt>Montana Post, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></dt>
<dt>Monument Geyser Basin, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></dt>
<dt>Moran, Thomas, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt>
<dt>Morgan, George W., <a href="#Page_142">142</a></dt>
<dt>Mormons, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></dt>
<dt>Morning Glory Pool, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>Morton, J. Sterling, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></dt>
<dt>Mount Holmes, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</dt>
<dd>fire lookout, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></dd>
<dt>Mount Washburn, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</dt>
<dd>fire lookout, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></dd>
<dt>Mud Volcano, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</dt>
<dd>Washburn’s visit to, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></dd>
<dt>Muir, John, quoted, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</dt>
<dd>praises soldiers, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></dd>
<dt>Murdock, Nelson, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></dt>
<dt>Murphy, Con, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
<dt>Myers, Henry, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_N">N</dt>
<dt>National Association of Audubon Societies, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></dt>
<dt>National Lumber Manufacturers’ Association, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></dt>
<dt>National Forest Service, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></dt>
<dt>National Park Service, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</dt>
<dd>director of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>praised by visitors, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</dd>
<dd>research and education, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></dd>
<dt>Naturalist Division, <a href="#Page_270">270</a> ff.</dt>
<dt><i>New York Tribune</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></dt>
<dt>New York Zoological Society, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></dt>
<dt>Nez Percé Creek, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff., <a href="#Page_200">200</a></dt>
<dt>Nez Percé Indians, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</dt>
<dd>befriended Lewis and Clark, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>in flight, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>surrender, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></dd>
<dt>Nichols, William M., <a href="#Page_215">215</a></dt>
<dt>Noble, John W., <a href="#Page_228">228</a></dt>
<dt>Norris Geyser Basin, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>visited by Langford, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</dd>
<dd>trapping in, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></dd>
<dt>Norris Museum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></dt>
<dt>Norris, Philetus W., <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</dt>
<dd>found trapper initials, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</dd>
<dd>annual report, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</dd>
<dd>road building, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>North American Cattle Company, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>North Entrance Gate, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></dt>
<dt>Northeast Entrance, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></dt>
<dt class="pb" id="Page_317">317</dt>
<dt>Northern Pacific Railroad, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> ff., <a href="#Page_259">259</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_O">O</dt>
<dt>Oastler, Frank R., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Obsidian Cliff, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</dt>
<dd>Bridger story, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></dd>
<dt>Ogallala, Nebraska, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Ogdens Hole, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dt>
<dt>Old Faithful Geyser, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</dt>
<dd>named, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> ff., <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</dd>
<dd>abuse of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></dd>
<dt>Old Faithful Inn, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></dt>
<dt>Old Faithful Station, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></dt>
<dt>Oldham, Albert, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></dt>
<dt><i>Omaha Herald</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt>
<dt>Omohondro, John (“Texas Jack”), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></dt>
<dt>Orange Mound, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></dt>
<dt>Osborn, Henry Fairfield, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></dt>
<dt>Otter Creek, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> ff., <a href="#Page_269">269</a></dt>
<dt>Overhanging Cliff, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></dt>
<dt><i>Overland Monthly</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_P">P</dt>
<dt>Pacific Creek, Colter’s route on, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Page, Andrew S., alias John Andrews, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></dt>
<dt>Park Curio and Coffee Shop, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></dt>
<dt>Parnell, Lieut. William R., <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></dt>
<dt>Pass Creek, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Paxson, Dr. Frederic L., <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
<dt>Peale, Dr. A. C., <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt>Pelican Cone fire lookout, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></dt>
<dt>Pelican Creek, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</dt>
<dd>poaching on, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></dd>
<dt>Pemmican, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></dt>
<dt>Perry, Capt. David, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Peterson, William, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Pfister, Frederick, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></dt>
<dt>Piegan Indians, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></dt>
<dt>Pierre’s Hole, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dt>
<dt>Pike, Zebulon M., <a href="#Page_150">150</a></dt>
<dt>Pinchot, Gifford, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></dt>
<dt>Piper, Edward, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
<dt>Pleasant Valley, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></dt>
<dt>Plummer, Henry, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
<dt>Poker Joe, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Pomeroy, Sen. Samuel C., <a href="#Page_140">140</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Postal Service, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></dt>
<dt>Potts and Colter attacked, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></dt>
<dt>Potts, Daniel T., letter about geysers, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
<dt>Potts, Robert, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
<dt>Povah, Alfred H., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Powder River, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</dt>
<dd>cattle company, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
<dt>Prairie Cattle Company, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Pritchett, George A., rescued Everts, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dt>
<dt>Protective Act, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></dt>
<dt>Protestant church services, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></dt>
<dt>Pryor, Anna K., <a href="#Page_216">216</a></dt>
<dt>Pryors Fork, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></dt>
<dt>Pryors Gap, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></dt>
<dt>Purple Mountain fire lookout, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_Q">Q</dt>
<dt>Quadrant Mountain, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_R">R</dt>
<dt>Radersburg, Montana, tourists from, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></dt>
<dt>Railroads, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Rainbow Pool, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>Rain-in-the-Face, Chief, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
<dt>Rawn, Capt. Charles C., <a href="#Page_170">170</a></dt>
<dt>Raymond, Israel Ward, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></dt>
<dt>Raymond, R. W., <a href="#Page_126">126</a></dt>
<dt>Raynolds, Capt. W. F., <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt>
<dt>Red Cloud, Chief, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Redington, J. W., <a href="#Page_177">177</a></dt>
<dt>Reebe, Charles, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></dt>
<dt>Rendezvous, origin of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</dt>
<dd>description, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Riverside Station, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></dt>
<dt>Roberts, Joseph, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> ff.</dt>
<dt class="pb" id="Page_318">318</dt>
<dt>Roche Juane, French for Yellowstone, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
<dt>Rocket Geyser, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>Rocky Mountains, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</dt>
<dd>trappers of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</dd>
<dd>“college,” <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></dd>
<dt>Rocky Mountain Fur Company, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></dt>
<dt><i>Rocky Mountain Gazette</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></dt>
<dt>Rogers, Supt. Edmund B., <a href="#Page_274">274</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Roosevelt, Pres. Theodore, dedicates arch, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</dt>
<dt class="rj">conservation policies, <a href="#Page_229">229</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Ross, Alexander, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</dt>
<dd>describes trappers, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</dd>
<dd>quoted, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dd>
<dt>Russell, Dr. Carl P., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Russell, Osborne, journeys in the park, <a href="#Page_96">96</a> ff.</dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_S">S</dt>
<dt>Sage, Mrs. Russell, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></dt>
<dt>Sage Creek, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></dt>
<dt>St. Louis, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></dt>
<dt>Salmon River Mountains, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dt>
<dt>Salt Fork, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Sand Creek Massacre, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt>
<dt>San Ildefonso, treaty of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
<dt>Santa Fe Railroad, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></dt>
<dt>Sapphire Pool, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>Sapsucker, Chief, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></dt>
<dt>Sawtelle, Gilman, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></dt>
<dt>Sawyer, Edmund J., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Schonborn, Anton, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt>Schurz, Carl, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></dt>
<dt>Scoda, Oscar, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></dt>
<dt>Scott, Capt. George L., <a href="#Page_247">247</a></dt>
<dt>Scotts Bluff National Park, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></dt>
<dt><i>Scribner’s Magazine</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Searight, George, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Shamp, Paul J., <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Sharps rifle, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></dt>
<dt>Sheridan, Col. Michael V., <a href="#Page_193">193</a></dt>
<dt>Sheridan, Gen. Phil H., <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</dt>
<dd>with Pres. Arthur, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</dd>
<dd>friend of Park, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></dd>
<dt>Sherman, Gen. William T., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</dt>
<dd>tours Park, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</dd>
<dd>praised Chief Joseph, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></dd>
<dt>Shively, ——, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></dt>
<dt>Shoshone Indians, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</dt>
<dd>description, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dd>
<dt>Shoshone Lake, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</dt>
<dd>visited by Folsom party, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dd>
<dt>Shoshone Point, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></dt>
<dt>Shoshone River, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</dt>
<dd>called Stinking Water, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</dd>
<dd>called Mick-ka-appa, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</dd>
<dd>South Fork of, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dd>
<dt>Sitting Bull, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></dt>
<dt>Skinner, Curtis K., <a href="#Page_273">273</a></dt>
<dt>Skinner, M. P., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Slough Creek, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></dt>
<dt>Smith, Hoke, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></dt>
<dt>Smith, Jacob, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></dt>
<dt>Smith, Jedediah, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></dt>
<dt>Smith, Willard E., <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
<dt>Smoot, Sen. Reed, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></dt>
<dt>Snake Creek, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></dt>
<dt>Snake River, South Fork of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>Barlow visits, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dd>
<dt>Snake River Valley, North Fork explored by Henry, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> ff., <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></dt>
<dt>Snow Pass, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt>
<dt>Snowy Range, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
<dt>Soda Butte, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></dt>
<dt>Soda Butte Creek, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></dt>
<dt>Solution Creek, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>South Arm of Lake, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>South Entrance, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></dt>
<dt>South Pass, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></dt>
<dt>Splendid Geyser, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>Spurgin, Capt. W. F., <a href="#Page_208">208</a></dt>
<dt>Stagecoach, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</dt>
<dd>drivers, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Standing Rock Reservation, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
<dt>Stager, Gen. Anson, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></dt>
<dt>Stevens Creek Area, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></dt>
<dt>Stevenson, James, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></dt>
<dt>Stevenson Island, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></dt>
<dt>Stewart, Jack, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></dt>
<dt>Stickney, Benjamin, Jr., <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
<dt class="pb" id="Page_319">319</dt>
<dt>Stock Growers Association, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Stone, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Stone, H. H., <a href="#Page_239">239</a></dt>
<dt>Story, Nelson, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
<dt>Stuart, Granville, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Stuart, James, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt>
<dt>Stuart, Robert, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></dt>
<dt>Sturgis, Col. S. D., <a href="#Page_184">184</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Sulphur Mountain, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></dt>
<dt>Sundry Civil Bill, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></dt>
<dt>Sunlight Creek, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></dt>
<dt>Swan Land and Cattle Company, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Switzer, Charles, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_T">T</dt>
<dt>Targhee Forest, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></dt>
<dt>Tarter, Bob, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
<dt>Teller, Henry M., <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></dt>
<dt>Terry, Gen. Alfred H., <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
<dt>Teton Mountains, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></dt>
<dt>Texas long drive, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></dt>
<dt>“Texas Jack” (John Omohondro), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></dt>
<dt>Theller, Lieut. Edward R., <a href="#Page_168">168</a></dt>
<dt>Thomas, Cyrus, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt>Thone, Dr. Frank E., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Thoreau, Henry D., <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></dt>
<dt>Thorofare Creek, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Three Forks, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
<dt>Thumb of Lake, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</dt>
<dd>Washburn camp, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Toll, Supt. Roger W., <a href="#Page_274">274</a></dt>
<dt>Topaz Spring, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>Topping, Capt. E. S., <a href="#Page_203">203</a></dt>
<dt>Tower Creek, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</dt>
<dd>Folsom party on, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dd>
<dt>Tower Falls, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</dt>
<dd>named, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> ff., <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></dd>
<dt>Trafton, Edward B. (alias Ed Harrington), <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></dt>
<dt>Trappers, nicknames of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</dt>
<dd>“A. B. C.’s,” <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</dd>
<dd>prayer of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</dd>
<dd>routine, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</dd>
<dd>cache, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</dd>
<dd>clothes, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</dd>
<dd>rendezvous, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Tree, Judge Lambert, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></dt>
<dt>Trischman, Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></dt>
<dt>Trumbull, Sen. Lyman, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Trumbull, Walter, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> ff., <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></dt>
<dt>Trunbull, Dr. C. S., <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
<dt><i>Truthful Lies</i>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></dt>
<dt>Tu-hul-hul-sote, Chief, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</dt>
<dd>death of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></dd>
<dt>Tukuarika, Sheepeater Indians, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</dt>
<dd>description, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</dd>
<dd>disappearance, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dd>
<dt>Turban Geyser, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
<dt>Twain, Mark, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
<dt>Two Ocean Pass, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>TyGee, Chief, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_U">U</dt>
<dt>Um-till-lilp-cown, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></dt>
<dt>Union Cattle Company, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Union Pacific Railroad, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></dt>
<dt>Union Pass, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></dt>
<dt>Upper Geyser Basin, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</dt>
<dd>missed by Bridger, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</dd>
<dd>visited by Washburn, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>store built, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</dd>
<dd>Langford’s second visit, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></dd>
<dt>Upper Yellowstone Falls, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dt>
<dt>Upper Yellowstone River, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></dt>
<dt>Utah, meaning of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
<dt>Utah Northern Railroad, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_V">V</dt>
<dt>Vandalism, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Vaughn, Robert, describes Bridger, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></dt>
<dt>Verendrye, Sieur de, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></dt>
<dt>Vest, Sen. George G., <a href="#Page_192">192</a></dt>
<dt>Victor, Frances Fuller, quoted, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dt>
<dt>Vigilantes, of Montana, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
<dt>Virginia City, Montana, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_W">W</dt>
<dt>Wagon Box Massacre, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
<dt>Wakefield, George W., <a href="#Page_201">201</a></dt>
<dt>Wal-ait-its, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></dt>
<dt>Wallowa Valley, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,</dt>
<dt>Walsh, Sen. Thomas J., <a href="#Page_259">259</a></dt>
<dt>Ward, Charles W., <a href="#Page_234">234</a></dt>
<dt class="pb" id="Page_320">320</dt>
<dt>Warner, Charles D., <a href="#Page_262">262</a></dt>
<dt>Washakie, Chief, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></dt>
<dt>Washburn, Henry D., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</dt>
<dd>briefed by Folsom, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</dd>
<dd>in charge of expedition, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> ff.;</dd>
<dd>account of trip, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</dd>
<dd>death, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></dd>
<dt>Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> ff.;</dt>
<dd>encounters rustlers, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></dd>
<dt><i>Wasp, The</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></dt>
<dt>Waters, Col. E. C., <a href="#Page_206">206</a></dt>
<dt>Watson, W. Verde, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></dt>
<dt>Wayant, H. W., <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt>
<dt>Wear, David W., <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></dt>
<dt>Wedded Trees, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></dt>
<dt>Weikert, A. J., <a href="#Page_180">180</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>We-Saw, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dt>
<dt>West Entrance, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></dt>
<dt>West Thumb of Lake, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></dt>
<dt>West Yellowstone, Montana, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></dt>
<dt>Western Air Lines, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></dt>
<dt><i>Western Monthly</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></dt>
<dt>White Bird, Chief, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></dt>
<dt>White Bird Canyon, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></dt>
<dt>White Hawk, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
<dt>Whitman, Dr. Marcus, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></dt>
<dt>Whittaker, George, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></dt>
<dt>Wilcox, Albert, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></dt>
<dt>Wilcox, Hon. T. Paul, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></dt>
<dt>Wilkie, Leslie, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Williams, Pvt. John, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></dt>
<dt>Willow Park, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></dt>
<dt>Wilson, Pres. Woodrow, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></dt>
<dt>Winchester rifle, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></dt>
<dt>Wind River Indian Trail, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
<dt>Wind River Mountains, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></dt>
<dt>Wind River Valley, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Wohlbrandt, Philip H., <a href="#Page_212">212</a></dt>
<dt>Woodring, Samuel T., <a href="#Page_273">273</a></dt>
<dt>Woolsey, William, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></dt>
<dt>Wylie, William W., <a href="#Page_205">205</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>“Wylie Way,” <a href="#Page_206">206</a></dt>
<dt>Wyoming, meaning of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a> ff., <a href="#Page_243">243</a></dt>
<dt>Wyoming Stock Growers Association, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
</dl>
<dl class="index">
<dt class="center b" id="index_Y">Y</dt>
<dt>Yale University, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Yancey, “Uncle” John, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></dt>
<dt>“Yankee Jim” (James George), <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></dt>
<dt>Yeager, Dorr G., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Yellowstone Boat Company, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></dt>
<dt>Yellowstone Canyon, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</dt>
<dd>visited by Folsom party, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</dd>
<dd>described by Washburn, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> ff., <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></dd>
<dt>Yellowstone Canyon Hotel, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></dt>
<dt>Yellowstone Lake, visited by Colter, <a href="#Page_45">45</a> ff., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</dt>
<dd>strange sounds above, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</dd>
<dd>Washburn party exploration of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</dd>
<dd>Hayden party at, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Yellowstone Lake Hotel, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></dt>
<dt>Yellowstone National Park, act creating, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</dt>
<dd>bill, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> ff. (<i>see also</i> Dedicatory Act);</dd>
<dd>golden anniversary, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</dd>
<dd>first superintendent, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</dd>
<dd>Langford’s second visit, <a href="#Page_238">238</a> ff.</dd>
<dt>Yellowstone Park Association, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></dt>
<dt>Yellowstone Park Company, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></dt>
<dt>Yellowstone Park Improvement Company, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></dt>
<dt>Yellowstone Park Stage Line, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></dt>
<dt>Yellowstone Park Transportation Company, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Yellowstone Plateau, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
<dt>Yellowstone Timber Reserve, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></dt>
<dt>Yellowstone Valley, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></dt>
<dt>Yep-pe Indians, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> ff., <a href="#Page_286">286</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Yosemite National Park, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a> ff.</dt>
<dt>Yosemite School of Natural History, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt>
<dt>Young, Brigham, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></dt>
<dt>Yount, Harry, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></dt>
<dt>Yount’s Peak, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt>
</dl>
<div class="img">
<img src="images/pic60.jpg" alt="Indian and Explorer" width="500" height="340" />
</div>
<div class="img" id="map1">
<img src="images/map_lr.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="1091" />
<p class="pcap">YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK</p><p class="center"><a class="ab1" href="images/map_hr.jpg">High-resolution Map</a></p>
</div>
<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
<ul>
<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li>
<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li>
<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li>
</ul>
<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59092 ***</div>
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