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+++ b/59448-0.txt
@@ -1,31 +1,7 @@
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mary Wollstonecraft and the beginnings of
-female emancipation in France and   England, by Jacob Bouten
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59448 ***
 
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
 
 
-Title: Mary Wollstonecraft and the beginnings of female emancipation in France and   England
-
-Author: Jacob Bouten
-
-Release Date: May 6, 2019 [EBook #59448]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Turgut Dincer, Martin Pettit and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
 
 
 
@@ -318,7 +294,7 @@ home, to Man the more comprehensive one of managing society. That in
 reality the former is quite as important as the latter, which must
 always largely depend on it, since Woman is the mother of Man, and
 the guide of his first steps, did not find full recognition until the
-17th century, when Fénelon and some of his contemporaries made this
+17th century, when Fénelon and some of his contemporaries made this
 consideration a basis on which to build their demands for a female
 education.
 
@@ -362,7 +338,7 @@ partial female emancipation. To be a good educator of the young it is
 indispensable that the mother herself should be liberally instructed,
 for what is to become of her influence, should her male offspring
 come to regard her as intellectually inferior? In this argument the
-feminist and the moralist join hands. Fénelon and his contemporaries
+feminist and the moralist join hands. Fénelon and his contemporaries
 were philosophers and for the rigid, inflexible interpretation of
 Scripture by the early churchmen they substituted the structure of
 moral philosophy, which thus indirectly promoted the growth of feminist
@@ -383,7 +359,7 @@ thereby laying themselves open to the criticism that what may apply
 to certain individuals, need not hold good for the entire sex, which
 argument they try to refute by insisting on the experiment being made.
 This ultra-feminist way of thinking equally originated in France,
-where Mlle de Gournay and François Poullain de la Barre built up their
+where Mlle de Gournay and François Poullain de la Barre built up their
 theories more than a century before Mary Wollstonecraft voiced their
 claims in the English language.
 
@@ -409,10 +385,10 @@ The extreme adherents of equality among the philosophers of the
 French Revolution founded their claims upon an absolute denial of all
 innate character, holding the character of every individual to be the
 resultant of different influences to which it has been exposed. Among
-French philosophers Helvétius had been the first to profess this theory
-in his "_Traité de l'Homme_." Diderot had written an energetic reply,
+French philosophers Helvétius had been the first to profess this theory
+in his "_Traité de l'Homme_." Diderot had written an energetic reply,
 vindicating the theory of innateness and heredity, and the topic had
-remained a theme of frequent dispute. The partisans of Helvétius, among
+remained a theme of frequent dispute. The partisans of Helvétius, among
 whom were both Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft, continuing his line
 of argument, were naturally led to the most optimistic forecasts for
 a happy future. It only remained to find a way to perfect education
@@ -457,7 +433,7 @@ painful inch to gain", and yet the amount of progress, when measured
 after the lapse of ages may be found to be considerable. But the
 fatal tendencies to generalise and to exaggerate are everywhere, and
 invariably spoil the best arguments. To the advocates of equality
-_à outrance_ might be held up the warning example of the "masculine
+_à outrance_ might be held up the warning example of the "masculine
 woman", who has succeeded in getting herself abominated both by man
 and by the wise members of her own sex; who has voluntarily, for the
 prospect of mostly imaginary gains, unsexed herself, forgetful alike
@@ -689,7 +665,7 @@ The first, of the late eighth and early ninth century, centres round
 the names of Charlemagne, Emperor of the Franks, and Alcuin. They
 saw, indeed, the necessity for better instruction and founded a great
 many schools, but in their scheme women as a class were unfortunately
-overlooked. The second revival, that of Abélard, which took place in
+overlooked. The second revival, that of Abélard, which took place in
 the twelfth century, marks the beginning of a more rational education,
 subjecting various theological problems to the test of reason and
 logic. Unfortunately, this second revival soon degenerated, and gave
@@ -772,11 +748,11 @@ have the worst of it. In the fifteenth century one or two forerunners
 of the renaissance-women swelled the ranks of the advocates of the
 cause.
 
-There was in France Christine de Pisan, who in her "_Cité des Dames_"
+There was in France Christine de Pisan, who in her "_Cité des Dames_"
 protested against the conventional statement, that the spreading of
 learning among women had had a disastrous influence upon their morals.
 In illustration of her plea she quoted the example of Jehan Andry,
-"solennel canoniste à Boulogne", who, when prevented by circumstances
+"solennel canoniste à Boulogne", who, when prevented by circumstances
 from giving his lessons of divine wisdom, sent his daughter Novelle
 in his place. In order that the beauty of her appearance might not
 awaken illicit thoughts among her male scholars "elle avait une petite
@@ -912,9 +888,9 @@ increased to immense proportions, without, however, leading to any
 pronounced tangible results. The progress of learning caused the
 argument to become intensified into a more serious, philosophical cast.
 One of the champions of the female sex, at the time when the "quarrel"
-had reached its acute stage, François du Billon, who also made use
+had reached its acute stage, François du Billon, who also made use
 of the allegorical device to level his threats at the heads of the
-revilers of women in his "_Fort inexpugnable de l'honneur fëminin_",
+revilers of women in his "_Fort inexpugnable de l'honneur fëminin_",
 narrates how three of the worst sinners are taken prisoner by the
 gallant defenders of the fortress. They are Boccaccio, Gratien Dupont,
 seigneur de Drusac, whose "_Controverses_", written in 1534, are full
@@ -929,7 +905,7 @@ In the years that followed the champions of feminism became identified
 with the Platonic idealists who were bent upon spiritualising love[4],
 whilst its adversaries tried to uphold the ancient "gaulois" traditions
 with their lower estimate of womanhood. The publication (in 1542)
-of Antoine Héroët's "_Parfaicte Amye_", with its Platonic notions,
+of Antoine Héroët's "_Parfaicte Amye_", with its Platonic notions,
 heralded a new phase in the history of the "Querelle des Femmes". In
 its metaphysical tendencies this brief treatise contains a delicate
 analysis of the emotions attendant upon the pure passion, the chief
@@ -938,7 +914,7 @@ acute stage, during which not one of the great authors remained silent
 on a question which occupied so many minds. The different contributions
 to the problem under discussion were soon combined in one volume under
 the name of "_Opuscules d'Amour_". The poets and poetesses of the
-"école lyonnaise", Maurice Scève, Pernette du Guillet, Louise Labé,
+"école lyonnaise", Maurice Scève, Pernette du Guillet, Louise Labé,
 and others, ranged themselves among those who tried to introduce a
 purified love-ideal and also Marguerite, Queen of Navarre[5] joined
 the controversialists in her poetry. So general did the interest taken
@@ -948,11 +924,11 @@ Book (about 1546). He took his cue from Nevizan's "_Sylva nuptialis_"
 in introducing the problem as a consequence of speculations regarding
 the marriage of Panurge. Rabelais proved himself on the whole an
 anti-feminist, and we have du Billon's authority for the fact that the
-name "Pantagruéliste" was considered equivalent to that of enemy to the
+name "Pantagruéliste" was considered equivalent to that of enemy to the
 cause of woman.[6]
 
 If we except Christine de Pisan, Marie de Jars de Gournay, and "la
-Belle Cordière," the Lyons poetess Louise Labé, the number of French
+Belle Cordière," the Lyons poetess Louise Labé, the number of French
 female authors was not greatly increased by the Renaissance movement.
 But the number of women of the higher classes who took part in the
 great intellectual movement grew all over Europe, particularly in
@@ -1000,7 +976,7 @@ were lacking among the opposite sex, for the benefit of French society.
 We have seen that in the late sixteenth century the problem came to
 be a much-discussed one in French literature, which it remained all
 through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. M. Ascoli, in the
-"_Revue de synthèse historique_" (Tome XIII) has published an extensive
+"_Revue de synthèse historique_" (Tome XIII) has published an extensive
 bibliography of no fewer than ninety-seven works of a feminist or
 anti-feminist tendency written between 1564 and 1773, which proves
 conclusively that the intellectual condition of women remained a
@@ -1049,8 +1025,8 @@ all inequality. "La pluspart de ceux qui prennent la cause des femmes
 contre cette orgueilleuse preferance que les hommes s'attribuent, leur
 rendent le change entier: r'envoyans la preferance vers elles. Moy
 qui fuys toutes extremitez, je me contente de les esgaler aux hommes:
-la nature s'opposant pour ce regard autant à la supériorité qu'à
-l'infériorité." She thus sets about vindicating the equality of her sex
+la nature s'opposant pour ce regard autant à la supériorité qu'à
+l'infériorité." She thus sets about vindicating the equality of her sex
 in everything except physical strength, going beyond the most daring
 speculation of any previous author, with the exception of those who,
 blinded by hate, had put forth theories of female pre-eminence in which
@@ -1061,7 +1037,7 @@ that woman is purposely denied an education by man, who owes his
 usurped authority to abuse of physical force, which she holds in utter
 contempt. "Les forces corporelles sont vertus si basses, que la beste
 en tient plus pardessus l'homme, que l'homme pardessus la femme." Woman
-is man's inferior in bodily strength only "par la nécessité de port et
+is man's inferior in bodily strength only "par la nécessité de port et
 la nourriture des enfants", compensating her lack of brute force by
 her delicate mission of propagation. But Mlle de Gournay emphatically
 asserts the perfectibility of the female mind.
@@ -1105,20 +1081,20 @@ of her opinions, regardless of the prejudices of her contemporaries,
 and for standing her ground firmly, often turning ridicule into esteem.
 
 Such was the pioneer whose ideas regarding the position of women are
-embodied chiefly in a treatise entitled: "_De L'Egalité des Hommes et
+embodied chiefly in a treatise entitled: "_De L'Egalité des Hommes et
 des Femmes_" and in the "_Grief des Dames_", and further alluded to in
 her preface to the 1595 edition of Montaigne's _Essays_ and in a prose
 "_Apology_", intended to disarm her ridiculers, in which she protests
 against being disregarded merely on account of her womanhood. Here,
 indeed, we are confronted by a sense of personal injury. Concerning
-"_De L'Egalité_" she says in one of her later writings: "Il faut le
-soubmettre à la touche par ce que peuvent valoir ses raisons et ses
-pensées, fortes ou feibles qu'elles soient, et puis apres, par la
-consideration de son dessein. Sçavoir si ce nouveau biais qu'elle
+"_De L'Egalité_" she says in one of her later writings: "Il faut le
+soubmettre à la touche par ce que peuvent valoir ses raisons et ses
+pensées, fortes ou feibles qu'elles soient, et puis apres, par la
+consideration de son dessein. Sçavoir si ce nouveau biais qu'elle
 prend, et qui la rend originale, est bon pour relever le lustre et pour
 verifier les privileges des Dames, opprimez par la tyrannie des hommes."
 
-The treatise "_De L'Egalité_" consists of two parts. In the first,
+The treatise "_De L'Egalité_" consists of two parts. In the first,
 the right of women to equal consideration with men is vindicated by
 means of evidence derived from the writings of men; in the second the
 authority of God himself as contained in the Bible is referred to and
@@ -1127,9 +1103,9 @@ expounded in a manner wholly favourable to the doctrine of equality.
 Regarding the first point, the author derives comfort from the
 reflexion that the chief revilers of women are to be found among the
 worst specimens of the male sex, who merely repeat the opinions of
-others, "n'ayans pas appris que la première qualité d'un mal habill'
+others, "n'ayans pas appris que la première qualité d'un mal habill'
 homme, c'est de cautionner les choses soubs la foy populaire et par
-ouyr dire," in doing which, "d'une seule parolle ils desfont la moitié
+ouyr dire," in doing which, "d'une seule parolle ils desfont la moitié
 du Monde." Their sole aim is to rise at the expense of the female sex.
 But fortunately there is the testimony of truly great men to prove
 the mental and moral capacity of women. Here follows a list of the
@@ -1171,11 +1147,11 @@ of Joan of Arc. The mention of the former brings us to direct
 Scriptural evidence, which the author finds an even harder subject to
 tackle. Here, indeed she is sometimes led by her zeal into the most
 palpable absurdities: "Et si les hommes se vantent, que Jesus-Christ
-soit nay de leur sexe, on respond qu'il le falloit par nécessaire
-biensceance, ne se pouvant pas sans scandale, mesler jeune et à toutes
+soit nay de leur sexe, on respond qu'il le falloit par nécessaire
+biensceance, ne se pouvant pas sans scandale, mesler jeune et à toutes
 les heures du jour et de la nuict parmy les presses, aux fins de
-convertir, secourir et sauver le genre humain, s'il eust esté du sexe
-des femmes: notamment en face de la malignité des Juifs."
+convertir, secourir et sauver le genre humain, s'il eust esté du sexe
+des femmes: notamment en face de la malignité des Juifs."
 
 The entire treatise is mere theorising, and being produced at a
 time when the public mind on the subject was one mass of inveterate
@@ -1198,8 +1174,8 @@ social reformer, there certainly is nothing sensational about her
 personality and way of expressing her views, and she must be described
 as revolutionary in a limited sense. Apart from her extreme feminism,
 her social and political views were quite conventional, and in her
-preface to "_De l'Egalité_" she even seeks the patronage of Queen Anne,
-as the most prominent and influential member of her sex. François
+preface to "_De l'Egalité_" she even seeks the patronage of Queen Anne,
+as the most prominent and influential member of her sex. François
 Poullain de la Barre, however, who half a century later became heir to
 her spiritual legacy, was an out-and-out revolutionist, whose theories
 of female equality proceeded from generally revolutionary tendencies.
@@ -1211,15 +1187,15 @@ of the cause of woman, in which capacity his efforts met with no
 success whatever, but as the forerunner of J. J. Rousseau in his theory
 of human rights, which in its turn became the basis of the feminist
 movement in England in the last years of the next century, inaugurated
-by Mary Wollstonecraft. As M. Piéron puts it, "le chemin réel ira de
-Descartes au féminisme par la Révolution, et non de Descartes à la
-révolution par le féminisme."
+by Mary Wollstonecraft. As M. Piéron puts it, "le chemin réel ira de
+Descartes au féminisme par la Révolution, et non de Descartes à la
+révolution par le féminisme."
 
 M. Rousselot, in drawing attention to Poullain de la Barre, refers to
 his works as "now almost forgotten."[8] The utter obscurity in which
 this author remained buried for two centuries is probably due to his
 life of retirement,--as M. Henri Grappin has pointed out in opposition
-to M. Piéron's opinion, who, basing himself upon evidence of style
+to M. Piéron's opinion, who, basing himself upon evidence of style
 and language, adjudged him to be a frequent visitor to salons--to
 his complete indifference to worldly fame, and to this freedom from
 worldly ambitions. His work, like that of Mlle de Gournay, was received
@@ -1231,7 +1207,7 @@ authorities, who could not, however, prevent the new ideas from
 taking root and bearing fruit. In striking contrast, Poullain, whose
 revolutionism found few sympathisers and was consequently adjudged
 harmless, was left at peace, and brought out his revolutionary
-treatises "avec privilege du Roy", and "avec permission signée de la
+treatises "avec privilege du Roy", and "avec permission signée de la
 Reynie", for which he paid with disregard and oblivion. Both Mary
 Wollstonecraft and Poullain should have been born in the nineteenth
 century, but whereas the former was the embodiment of that indomitable
@@ -1269,15 +1245,15 @@ philosophy and their radicalism.
 
 The three feminist treatises, in the order of their publication, were:
 
-1. "_De L'Egalité des deux sexes, discours physique et moral ou l'on
-voit l'importance de se défaire des préjugés._" (1673);
+1. "_De L'Egalité des deux sexes, discours physique et moral ou l'on
+voit l'importance de se défaire des préjugés._" (1673);
 
 2. "_De L'Education des Dames, pour la conduite de l'esprit dans les
 sciences et dans les moeurs._" (1674);
 
-3. "_De l'Excellence des Hommes, contre l'Egalité des sexes, avec une
-dissertation qui sert de réponse aux objections tirées de l'Ecriture
-Sainte contre le sentiment de l'Egalité._" (1675).
+3. "_De l'Excellence des Hommes, contre l'Egalité des sexes, avec une
+dissertation qui sert de réponse aux objections tirées de l'Ecriture
+Sainte contre le sentiment de l'Egalité._" (1675).
 
 Of these, the second may be dismissed in a few words, as containing
 nothing very striking beyond the author's dissatisfaction with the
@@ -1300,7 +1276,7 @@ purposely kept women from being instructed. In many respects the
 capabilities of women are superior to those of men: it is their special
 province to study medecine and by its aid to restore health to the sick
 and ailing. There is, in fact, nothing for which he pronounces women to
-be unfit: "il faut reconnaître que les femmes sont propres à tout." He
+be unfit: "il faut reconnaître que les femmes sont propres à tout." He
 would make them judges, preachers and even generals.
 
 The faults of women, which even this fanaticist of Reason cannot
@@ -1312,7 +1288,7 @@ characteristic. So far we might be listening to some English moralist
 of the eighteenth century. Their only literature is of a devotional
 kind, "avec ce qui est dans la cassette," Poullain meaningly adds. For
 a girl to display any knowledge she may have acquired is thought a
-shame, and makes her a "précieuse" in the eyes of everybody.
+shame, and makes her a "précieuse" in the eyes of everybody.
 
 The only state of dependence which finds favour in Poullain's eyes
 is that of children on their parents. Here again, we have the purely
@@ -1329,7 +1305,7 @@ of his arguments, he himself anticipated his opponents by writing the
 third treatise. Its title is rather misleading. As a matter of fact,
 the pamphlet itself presents the usual arguments in favour of the
 theory of male excellence with which the arsenal of anti-feminists was
-stocked, whilst the "remarques nécessaires" by which it is followed,
+stocked, whilst the "remarques nécessaires" by which it is followed,
 demonstrating the author's opinions, contain the entire feminist
 theory. The spirit that was to conduct straight to the Revolution
 breaks out when the author confidently states that as yet feminism is
@@ -1386,7 +1362,7 @@ Twelfth and his retinue to Genoa. One of the highly-cultured ladies of
 that city, Tommassina Spinola, made a deep impression upon the king.
 She was married and virtuous, and so the royal lover had to control his
 passion and to be content with that platonic friendship which made of
-the lady "la dame de ses pensées", and entitled him to nothing beyond
+the lady "la dame de ses pensées", and entitled him to nothing beyond
 the purest and most disinterested friendship. A great many parallel
 cases occurred among the king's followers, and the women found their
 influence upon their platonic lovers far greater and more lasting
@@ -1430,7 +1406,7 @@ which is rather a concession to the general taste of the times, but
 the prologues and epilogues are of a far more refined character,
 and breathe a spirit of platonic idealism. In their celebration of
 virtue and the pure, idealistic passion it inspires, the _Contes_
-are a precursor of Mlle de Scudéry's later romances. Instead of the
+are a precursor of Mlle de Scudéry's later romances. Instead of the
 deceitful, hypocritical homage of feudal times, the demand was for
 women to be respected and to be recognised as the social equals of men.
 
@@ -1448,8 +1424,8 @@ morals, the refinement of contemporary taste, and the purification of
 the French language and literature.
 
 "Depuis le salon de Madame de Rambouillet jusqu'au salon de Madame
-Récamier", says M. Ferdinand Brunetière, "l'histoire de la littérature
-française pourrait se faire par l'histoire des salons." This statement
+Récamier", says M. Ferdinand Brunetière, "l'histoire de la littérature
+française pourrait se faire par l'histoire des salons." This statement
 by an eminent critic implies a magnificent eulogy of women and
 testifies to the magnitude of their literary influence during the whole
 of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, for the history of the
@@ -1469,12 +1445,12 @@ of "preciosity" did to make women realise their independence, and
 assert their individuality, its original tendencies were not towards
 any appreciable increase of female instruction. The leaders of the
 movement: Mme de Rambouillet and her daughters, and afterwards Mme
-de Sévigné and Mme de la Fayette, detested the "femme savante" quite
+de Sévigné and Mme de la Fayette, detested the "femme savante" quite
 as much as they hated ignorance. The only aim of the education they
 recommended was to make women fit for the society in which they were
 expected to move; manners, taste and wit were cultivated at the expense
 of those qualities which are indispensable to rouse a spirit of pure
-feminism. The "précieuses" were bent upon cultivating sentiment rather
+feminism. The "précieuses" were bent upon cultivating sentiment rather
 than intellect, and--apart from the fact that sentiment is rather apt
 to run riot and that many women have a natural surplus which does not
 require cultivation--it is by a well-regulated intellect that the cause
@@ -1482,7 +1458,7 @@ of feminism will be best served. As it was, the essentially feminine
 qualities were cultivated by the _salons_, and the sexual difference
 emphasized. It must therefore be admitted that the _salons_ only very
 indirectly furthered the feminist movement and that the interest
-evinced by the "précieuses" in the equality problem and its levelling
+evinced by the "précieuses" in the equality problem and its levelling
 tendencies was naturally slight. But it stands to their credit that
 they compelled men to recognise the importance of sex in other matters
 than those which are purely sexual. If the cause of feminism in the
@@ -1491,13 +1467,13 @@ frequented them might have turned anti-feminist in their horror of
 social changes which threatened to rob them of the empire which their
 essentially feminine qualities had so easily secured over men.
 
-The better "précieuse" was not an intellectual; she was expected
+The better "précieuse" was not an intellectual; she was expected
 to conceal such knowledge as she might possess and to cherish that
 "pudeur sur la science" which makes Mme de Lambert refer to her secret
-"débauches d'esprit", and which became the prevailing sentiment also
+"débauches d'esprit", and which became the prevailing sentiment also
 among her Bluestocking sisters of the eighteenth century.
 
-The history of the French _salons_ and of the "précieuses" who peopled
+The history of the French _salons_ and of the "précieuses" who peopled
 them begins in the year 1613, when Catherine, marquise de Rambouillet
 invited to her town residence all those who, like herself, felt
 disgusted at the camp-manners prevailing at the court and at the
@@ -1510,7 +1486,7 @@ which became the glory of the century and which, whatever excesses may
 have followed in its train, did away for good and all with coarseness
 and brutality. Of the very questionable society at court it might
 be said that "force prevailed, while grace was wanting"; the latter
-essentially feminine quality was abundantly supplied at the Hôtel de
+essentially feminine quality was abundantly supplied at the Hôtel de
 Rambouillet, where the feminine element found its way into literature;
 and conversation, which hitherto had been masculine, became the means
 of introducing a new language for new manners.
@@ -1526,12 +1502,12 @@ the representative poetry of the period, some of which was the work
 of women, exalted the platonic passion which was to revolutionize the
 relations of the sexes. The warrior-lover of the feudal past, who was
 only a tyrant under the mask of chivalrous adulation, gave way to the
-"honnête homme", or knight without an armour, of whom it could be said
-that he possessed "la justesse de l'esprit et l'équité du coeur",
+"honnête homme", or knight without an armour, of whom it could be said
+that he possessed "la justesse de l'esprit et l'équité du coeur",
 safe-guarding him against error of judgment and excess of passion,
 and making him the devoted and constant lover of his mistress. The
 following enumeration is given of his duties: "aimer le monde, aimer
-les lettres sans affectations; mais surtout être amoureux et rechercher
+les lettres sans affectations; mais surtout être amoureux et rechercher
 la conversation des femmes". Anybody wishing to be admitted to polite
 society had to conform to these rules. The tone of conversation was
 characterised by a spirit of "galanterie", a kind of chivalry of
@@ -1543,41 +1519,41 @@ of the aristocracy, but also a great many men-of-letters, who were
 valued according to their literary merit, regardless of fortune and
 importance. This close alliance between the female sex and the men
 of culture was in some respects the best education the former could
-have chosen. They were bent on proving once for all, as Fléchier puts
+have chosen. They were bent on proving once for all, as Fléchier puts
 it, that "l'esprit est de tout sexe" and that nothing was wanting to
 make women the intellectual equals of men, but the habit of being
 instructed and the liberty of acquiring useful knowledge. Women became
 the unchallenged arbitresses of morals, taste, language, literature and
 wit, in all of which they themselves set the example. In a contemporary
-work we find the earliest salon described as "l'école de Madame de
-Rambouillet, qui a renouvelé en partie les moeurs, où l'on mettait sa
-gloire dans une conduite irréprochable." Not only was the language
+work we find the earliest salon described as "l'école de Madame de
+Rambouillet, qui a renouvelé en partie les moeurs, où l'on mettait sa
+gloire dans une conduite irréprochable." Not only was the language
 purified by removing its overgrowth of obscenity and indelicacy, but
 it was divested of a number of superfluous and affected foreign words.
 The female influence upon the literary taste was equally all-embracing.
 A number of new words owed their existence to feminine initiative,
 and although the writers of the very first class were on the whole
-unfavourably disposed towards what came to be called "préciosité", and
+unfavourably disposed towards what came to be called "préciosité", and
 were consequently inclined to satirise its excesses, a great deal of
 respectable second class talent was lavished upon the frequenters of
 the salons.
 
-The literature produced by the "habitués" of Mme de Rambouillet's
+The literature produced by the "habitués" of Mme de Rambouillet's
 salon was mostly of an occasional nature, and composed in homage to
 the female sex, comprising sonnets, madrigals, epistolary prose, and
-plays. The literature of the Scudéry circle, besides the products of
+plays. The literature of the Scudéry circle, besides the products of
 a growing pedantry, also included many occasional pieces of a lighter
-kind, among which were so-called sonnets-énigmes, vers-échos and the
+kind, among which were so-called sonnets-énigmes, vers-échos and the
 like, which, if contributing to the enjoyment of an idle moment, had no
 permanence whatever as literature. To this kind of poetry the ladies
 themselves were important contributors. In M. Victor du Bled's "_La
-société française_" we read about a "Journée des Madrigaux" at Mlle
-de Scudéry's, occasioned by a present of a "cachet de cristal" made
+société française_" we read about a "Journée des Madrigaux" at Mlle
+de Scudéry's, occasioned by a present of a "cachet de cristal" made
 to the hostess on one of her famous Saturdays, calling forth poetical
 ebullitions from the most widely different authors. There were the
 famous "Portrait" series, composed by the ladies of the Duchess of
 Montpensier's circle; the written "Conversations",--those by Mlle de
-Scudéry herself were judged by Mme de Maintenon to contain "useful
+Scudéry herself were judged by Mme de Maintenon to contain "useful
 hints to young females" and therefore introduced at St. Cyr--and a very
 extensive literature in the epistolary style, which was to become the
 current form of the Richardsonian novel.
@@ -1586,8 +1562,8 @@ The topics of the day also formed a subject of animated discussion
 at the assemblies. Among them the social position of women and their
 treatment by the male sex occasionally found a place. Dissertations on
 literary subjects alternated with discussions of intellectual problems,
-one of the themes at Mlle de Scudéry's being: "De quelle liberté les
-femmes doivent-elles jouir dans la société?" Although the salons of
+one of the themes at Mlle de Scudéry's being: "De quelle liberté les
+femmes doivent-elles jouir dans la société?" Although the salons of
 the seventeenth century were not so revolutionary in their tendencies
 as some of the next, inasmuch as they were strictly private and did
 not either directly or indirectly aim at subverting the existing
@@ -1596,8 +1572,8 @@ were not shunned, and even philosophy and science--the craze of the
 salons of the early eighteenth century--found a number of devotees and
 sympathisers. About the middle of the seventeenth century, Cartesianism
 became the fashionable philosophy in spite of the opposition of the
-universities. Mme de Sévigné's letters prove that many women were
-interested in its propagation. The "précieuses" felt attracted by the
+universities. Mme de Sévigné's letters prove that many women were
+interested in its propagation. The "précieuses" felt attracted by the
 speculations of Descartes, to follow which the cultivation of a sound
 sense of logic is more indispensable than any great erudition. The
 consequence of the philosophical movement was a widening interest in
@@ -1606,7 +1582,7 @@ contempt of tradition, resulting from that self-reliance which is the
 natural outcome of the theory of human perfectibility.
 
 The two principal salons, those of the marquise de Rambouillet and of
-Mlle de Scudéry, although of the same general tendencies, differed
+Mlle de Scudéry, although of the same general tendencies, differed
 somewhat in their particulars. The glory of the former and earlier was
 never equalled by any subsequent one. The marquise herself was in every
 respect an ornament of her sex. Born and bred in Italy, she married
@@ -1638,13 +1614,13 @@ which different poets made contributions, the principal being the young
 marquis de Montausier, who afterwards became her husband. Among her
 closest intimates were two men of a very much inferior social station:
 Voiture, the chief poet and chronicler, and Chapelain, the chief oracle
-and critic of the Hôtel de Rambouillet. She had made these two her own;
+and critic of the Hôtel de Rambouillet. She had made these two her own;
 they basked in the serenity of her smile, shared in her joys as in her
 troubles, and were the most perfect male satellites to female beauty
 and brilliance.
 
 The years between 1630 and 1645 were the crowning years of glory in the
-history of the Hôtel de Rambouillet. After Julie's marriage, however,
+history of the Hôtel de Rambouillet. After Julie's marriage, however,
 there came a decline. There were some sudden deaths, including that of
 the marquise's only son, and the Fronde began, in which some of the
 marquise's intimates followed the fortunes of the rebels, entailing
@@ -1652,8 +1628,8 @@ fresh partings. In 1652 she sustained a further loss through the death
 of her husband. Bowed down with sorrow, she retired to Rambouillet to
 seek comfort in the intimacy of Julie's family.
 
-The influence of the Hôtel de Rambouillet passed on to the circle
-presided over by Madeleine de Scudéry, whose "Saturdays" were much
+The influence of the Hôtel de Rambouillet passed on to the circle
+presided over by Madeleine de Scudéry, whose "Saturdays" were much
 sought after. Her visitors were rather more given to affectations of
 manners and speech than those of her aristocratic predecessor and the
 transfer therefore marks the first step in the decadence which set in.
@@ -1661,43 +1637,43 @@ In her "ruelle" the Third Estate was largely represented; in fact, as
 the "bourgeois" element gained in strength, the decadence became more
 marked, for its representatives were more easily led into excesses
 than the female members of the aristocracy. This explains how the name
-of Mlle de Scudéry--rather unjustly--came to be identified with that
+of Mlle de Scudéry--rather unjustly--came to be identified with that
 false preciosity which did the female cause such harm. And yet she
 was herself an ardent feminist, not only in the qualified sense of
 her predecessor, but in the full sense of the word. Her two principal
-romances: "_Artamène, ou le grand Cyrus_" and "_Clélie_", derive an
+romances: "_Artamène, ou le grand Cyrus_" and "_Clélie_", derive an
 interest--which their longwindedness greatly endangers--from their
-marked feminist tendencies. In the former, Mlle de Scudéry, whose
+marked feminist tendencies. In the former, Mlle de Scudéry, whose
 views are expressed by Sapho, pleads for mental occupation as the only
 means of promoting female virtue. She rebukes the vanity of ignorance
 so common among those of her sex who imagine that "elles ne doivent
 jamais rien savoir, si ce n'est qu'elles sont belles, et ne doivent
-jamais rien apprendre qu'à se bien coiffer". She is also one of the
+jamais rien apprendre qu'à se bien coiffer". She is also one of the
 first to accuse the male sex of inconsistency, refusing their womenfolk
 an education, yet finding fault with them for lacking those qualities
-which are the fruit of education only. "Sérieusement, y a-t-il rien
+which are the fruit of education only. "Sérieusement, y a-t-il rien
 de plus bizarre que de voir comment on agit pour l'ordinaire en
-l'éducation des femmes? On ne veut pas qu'elles soient coquettes ni
+l'éducation des femmes? On ne veut pas qu'elles soient coquettes ni
 galantes, et on leur permet pourtant d'apprendre soigneusement tout ce
-qui est propre à la galanterie, sans leur permettre de savoir rien qui
+qui est propre à la galanterie, sans leur permettre de savoir rien qui
 puisse fortifier leur vertu, ni occuper leur esprit". But the "femme
 savante" equally inspires her with profound disgust, and this some
 of her critics have failed to recognize. The Damophile of the _Grand
-Cyrus_ is an exact reproduction of the Philaminte of Molière's "_Femmes
+Cyrus_ is an exact reproduction of the Philaminte of Molière's "_Femmes
 Savantes_", pretending to an erudition which is only imaginary and
 prevents her from attending to her household duties. There is nothing
-more objectionable in Mlle de Scudéry's opinion than for a woman to
+more objectionable in Mlle de Scudéry's opinion than for a woman to
 make parade of her knowledge, which may be useful chiefly in enabling
 her to listen with appreciation when men were talking. The theory of
 perfect equality, proposed about the same time by Poullain de la Barre,
-did not find an adherent in Mlle de Scudéry. The "honnête homme" of her
+did not find an adherent in Mlle de Scudéry. The "honnête homme" of her
 dreams has more power of diverting and amusing than the most erudite
 of her own sex. Of all the leading ladies of seventeenth century
 French society there were none whose qualifications would have fitted
 them so perfectly to be the rivals of Mrs. Montagu in presiding over
-Bluestocking assemblies as Mlle de Scudéry!
+Bluestocking assemblies as Mlle de Scudéry!
 
-Her second great romance, "_Clélie_", marks the culminating point
+Her second great romance, "_Clélie_", marks the culminating point
 of the usual seventeenth century feminism in expressing the rather
 one-sided ideal to which the ladies of the salons aspired, that of
 commanding the love of gallantry and of ruling the world through it.
@@ -1705,7 +1681,7 @@ The entire romance is nothing but an elaborate code of gallantry by
 which all love is to be regulated. In some passages, however, the
 social position of women becomes the theme, regardless of the rather
 too obtrusive love-theories. After protesting indignantly against
-female bondage, Mlle de Scudéry proves that the doctrine of gallantry
+female bondage, Mlle de Scudéry proves that the doctrine of gallantry
 has not impaired her judgment. She demands that man shall be "neither
 the tyrant nor the slave of woman", and that the rights and duties of
 matrimony shall be equally shared between the two partners. Nor has the
@@ -1720,25 +1696,25 @@ embodied in the person of Plotine.
 
 The attempt at "regulating the passions", i. e. keeping the affections
 under perfect control, no doubt led to a great deal of absurdity which
-supplied the many antagonists with weapons against "la préciosité."
-Some of the worst sinners in this respect were ladies of the Scudéry
-circle. There was a certain Mlle Dupré, given to philosophy, and
-surnamed "la Cartésienne" whose glory was to consider herself incapable
+supplied the many antagonists with weapons against "la préciosité."
+Some of the worst sinners in this respect were ladies of the Scudéry
+circle. There was a certain Mlle Dupré, given to philosophy, and
+surnamed "la Cartésienne" whose glory was to consider herself incapable
 of tenderness; and, worse still, there was the example of her friend
 Mlle de la Vigne, whose infatuation went so far as to make her reject
 even the comforts of platonic worship.
 
-Mlle de Scudéry herself was more moderate in her ideas, and proved
+Mlle de Scudéry herself was more moderate in her ideas, and proved
 capable of cherishing some "tendresse" for the poet Pellisson whom
 she rescued from the Bastille. Her verdict that "la vraie mesure du
-mérite doit se prendre sur la capacité qu'on a d'aimer" even suggests
+mérite doit se prendre sur la capacité qu'on a d'aimer" even suggests
 that she was capable of undergoing the real passion. Gradually,
-however, the excesses in false "préciosité" began to multiply. The
+however, the excesses in false "préciosité" began to multiply. The
 original signification of the term had been a taste for whatever is
 refined and delicate; noble, grand and sublime. The affectation and
 pedantry which came to be substituted for this, gave rise to the
 worst excesses of language. In their admiration of the fine phrasing
-of the literary masterpieces the "précieuses" took to substituting
+of the literary masterpieces the "précieuses" took to substituting
 their periphrases and metaphors for the simple mode of expression
 which daily conversation requires[9], making themselves ridiculous and
 objectionable in the eyes of soberminded people and calling forth some
@@ -1749,15 +1725,15 @@ Paris and in the provinces, where prudery was substituted for purity,
 affectation for elegance and pedantry for charm and taste. The moral
 tone prevailing at these meetings also compared very unfavourably
 with the atmosphere of culture and good breeding which had reigned
-at the Hôtel de Rambouillet. Scandal became a favourite topic of
+at the Hôtel de Rambouillet. Scandal became a favourite topic of
 conversation, and literary men of a usurped reputation, to whom the
 better circles remained closed, laid down the law and constituted
 themselves the arbiters of literary taste. The decline, which had been
-slow and partial in the salons of Mlle de Scudéry and afterwards of
-Mme Deshoulières, became rapid and complete in those of the so-called
-"bourgeoisie de qualité".
+slow and partial in the salons of Mlle de Scudéry and afterwards of
+Mme Deshoulières, became rapid and complete in those of the so-called
+"bourgeoisie de qualité".
 
-M. Brunetière has pointed out that the "esprit précieux" of the salons,
+M. Brunetière has pointed out that the "esprit précieux" of the salons,
 aiming at polish and refinement--for which in later years it came to
 substitute narrowness and affectation--was directly opposed to the
 "esprit gaulois" which had the upper hand in court circles and whose
@@ -1766,7 +1742,7 @@ The great authors found themselves occupying an intermediate position,
 trying to reconcile what was recommendable in either and ridiculing
 what was objectionable. The fact that they drew their inspiration
 from Nature and from the lessons taught by antiquity brought them
-into conflict with the précieuses who lived in an artificial present,
+into conflict with the précieuses who lived in an artificial present,
 and eagerly welcomed whatever was new. In the Ancient and Modern
 Controversy, which was started in the seventeenth century and
 revived in the early eighteenth, the female element, with a very few
@@ -1775,10 +1751,10 @@ a factor they had become in determining what was to be the public
 opinion appears from the share they had in the ultimate victory of the
 Moderns, and more still from the utter futility of the repeated efforts
 made by men of the first genius to crush their power by means of
-ridicule. Molière opened the campaign in his "_Précieuses Ridicules_"
+ridicule. Molière opened the campaign in his "_Précieuses Ridicules_"
 (1659). Although very successful as a play, and warmly applauded by
 the Rambouillet-circle, it missed its aim in utterly failing to crush
-false "préciosité". When after Molière's death Boileau continued the
+false "préciosité". When after Molière's death Boileau continued the
 campaign, he met with no better success. No sooner had he retired from
 the field than the monster he had set out to kill reared its head
 again, enjoying undisputed possession until Mme de Lambert and her
@@ -1787,12 +1763,12 @@ however, they did not forget to march with the times and to observe the
 signs of impending change which were beginning to manifest themselves.
 
 
-While the "précieuse" society of the salons in its anxiety to
+While the "précieuse" society of the salons in its anxiety to
 strengthen the female element was occupying itself with the cultivation
 of polished manners, taste and wit in the members of the sex, and
 came to neglect female morals and instruction, the problem of a
 moral education was introduced and discussed by a philosopher among
-churchmen, the great Fénelon. The civil wars in France were followed
+churchmen, the great Fénelon. The civil wars in France were followed
 by a religious renaissance, representing a supreme effort made by
 catholicism to recover the ground which had been lost to the combined
 classical renaissance and reformation. The religious order of the
@@ -1838,14 +1814,14 @@ is only natural. On the other hand, it strengthened the affections.
 The Jansenist "religieuses" were filled with a most laudable sense
 of responsibility and loved their charges with the most unselfish
 tenderness and devotion. Their individual kindness tempered the
-severity of the rules laid down in Jacqueline Pascal's "_Règlement pour
+severity of the rules laid down in Jacqueline Pascal's "_Règlement pour
 les enfants_". (1657).
 
 The discipline was of the strictest, and the entire system directed
 towards forming pious Christian women and docile wives, rich in virtue
 rather than in knowledge. The final decision was left to the girls
 themselves; they either became nuns or re-entered the world after
-some years of close sequestration, "selon qu'il plaisait à Dieu d'en
+some years of close sequestration, "selon qu'il plaisait à Dieu d'en
 disposer", but it is to be feared that some moral pressure was often
 brought to bear upon them. The rules for daily observance implied
 early rising, strict silence, very limited ablutions and the greatest
@@ -1904,7 +1880,7 @@ showing an utter disregard of the demands of life. Thus began the
 gradual emancipation of education from the shackles of monasticism, the
 urgent necessity of which was recognised even by some of the leading
 churchmen, whose works breathe the more liberal spirit of the new
-philosophy. The theorisings of Fénelon mark a new departure in moral
+philosophy. The theorisings of Fénelon mark a new departure in moral
 education, and his ideas became the prevailing ones of the eighteenth
 century which he heralded. He did not fall into the error made by his
 predecessors of overlooking the female half of society, but placed
@@ -1920,11 +1896,11 @@ subject into the sphere of moral philosophy. Unmoved by the passion
 which swayed some of the later feminists--there is a wide gulf between
 his ideal of morality and theirs of equality--the moderation of his
 views and the soundness of his logic gained him a hearing and procured
-him some staunch supporters among the better Précieuses, who justly
+him some staunch supporters among the better Précieuses, who justly
 admired his insight into the female character. Madame de Maintenon was
 very much taken with his ideas and even procured him an appointment
 to the archbishopric of Cambrai. While insisting on the fundamental
-difference between the male and the female character, Fénelon never
+difference between the male and the female character, Fénelon never
 hesitates to put woman on the same level as man, without troubling
 to decide the theoretical question of superiority. The all-important
 promise of eternity he believed to apply with perfect equality to both
@@ -1937,11 +1913,11 @@ happiness of every individual and the prosperity of the state; thus
 granting to woman a sphere of interest and activity in no wise inferior
 to, though different from, that of man, and exhorting her to fulfil
 those sacred duties to the very best of her ability. The domestic
-duties of womanhood are first regarded by Fénelon as an important
+duties of womanhood are first regarded by Fénelon as an important
 social function, for which the monastic education was the worst
 preparation that could be imagined. There are not only children to be
 educated, but servants to be managed. The more deeply we enter into the
-spirit and full purport of Fénelon's contentions, the more it strikes
+spirit and full purport of Fénelon's contentions, the more it strikes
 us how he anticipates all the points of discussion which were to keep
 the philosophical moralists of the next century busy. A woman may
 excel in the art of being served; she may show in her treatment of her
@@ -1949,12 +1925,12 @@ inferiors that she realises the great truth that all human beings in
 their widely different social stations are equal before God, and that
 any amount of authority involves an equal amount of responsibility.
 Ideas like the above seem to belong to the eighteenth century rather
-than to the seventeenth. Fénelon was in the full sense of the word: a
+than to the seventeenth. Fénelon was in the full sense of the word: a
 pioneer.
 
 We have said that the Jansenist educators held that "la composition
-du coeur de l'homme est mauvaise dès son enfance", directing their
-efforts towards reclamation from innate evil. Fénelon's views are more
+du coeur de l'homme est mauvaise dès son enfance", directing their
+efforts towards reclamation from innate evil. Fénelon's views are more
 optimistic.
 
 To him, there is no original tendency towards either good or evil.
@@ -1962,7 +1938,7 @@ Everything depends upon guidance; give a child a good education and all
 its possibilities for good will be developed and bear fruit. The sole
 aim of education is not social influence or intellectual culture, but
 merely what he calls "l'amour de la vertu". And who can be fitter for
-such a task than the girl's own mother? "A good mother", says Fénelon,
+such a task than the girl's own mother? "A good mother", says Fénelon,
 "is infinitely preferable to the best convent". Only she can prepare
 her daughter for the domestic circle over which it will one day be her
 task to preside, and only she has enough natural affection for her to
@@ -1981,13 +1957,13 @@ appeal should be made to the child's budding reason. The religious
 principles should be instilled in a subtle, slightly philosophical
 manner, and cleverly arranged questions--often in the form of metaphors
 or similes--should suggest to the pupil the expected replies. Here we
-have an anticipation of that "mise en scène" which becomes a striking
+have an anticipation of that "mise en scène" which becomes a striking
 feature in Rousseau.
 
 A close study of the characters of women implies an insight into the
 essentially feminine failings, which may render them unfit for their
 task, and therefore ought to be first exposed and then carefully
-eradicated. Fénelon's list of female shortcomings and their remedies
+eradicated. Fénelon's list of female shortcomings and their remedies
 proves that there was no great difference in the matter of inclinations
 between the female youth of France and that of England.
 
@@ -1999,7 +1975,7 @@ put into the hands of young females, for of the amorous romances then
 in vogue which were so eagerly devoured by the sex, the majority were
 far too stimulating to an imagination which in the close seclusion
 of home- or convent-life was but too apt to run riot. By living in
-an imaginary society of "précieux et précieuses" the girls became
+an imaginary society of "précieux et précieuses" the girls became
 dissatisfied with everyday life and were made unfit for it.
 
 Another dangerous consequence of inoccupation is that thirst for
@@ -2014,39 +1990,39 @@ responsible for that inordinate desire to please which in leading to
 an all-absorbing passion for clothes and fashion threatens to ruin
 domestic life and to deprave the female morals.
 
-Fénelon had no patience with the "précieuses" of the decline, who
+Fénelon had no patience with the "précieuses" of the decline, who
 tried to appear "savantes" without being even "instruites". To him,
 the value of knowledge depends entirely on its practical use as a
 means of edifying the mind and soul. Woman was not meant for science,
-and what Fénelon has seen of the "femme savante" is not calculated to
+and what Fénelon has seen of the "femme savante" is not calculated to
 make him enthusiastic. Girls should feel "une pudeur sur la science
-presque aussi délicate que celle qu'inspire l'horreur du vice." His
+presque aussi délicate que celle qu'inspire l'horreur du vice." His
 programme of subjects of female study is correspondingly small. Reading
 and writing, spelling, arithmetic and grammar are the principal.
 In addition, music, painting, history, Latin and literature are
 conditionally recommended, for the individual talents have to be taken
 into consideration.
 
-Fénelon's picture of contemporary womanhood is far from alluring. Its
+Fénelon's picture of contemporary womanhood is far from alluring. Its
 chief interest lies in the circumstance that it is the first instance
 in French literature of a systematic estimate of female manners based
 upon the feminine psychology, anticipating the current opinion among
 the writers of the next century regarding the foibles of the sex.
-Fénelon was among the first to realise--what Mary Wollstonecraft a
+Fénelon was among the first to realise--what Mary Wollstonecraft a
 century later stated with that characteristic frankness which almost
 entirely robbed her of female sympathy--that the worst enemy of female
 emancipation is, and always has been, woman herself. As long as the
 majority of women make considerations of sex the foundation of all
 their actions, it will prove impossible for the champions of equality
 to accomplish their full aims. Although a churchman and a moralist,
-Fénelon was in open revolt against the spirit of monasticism which
+Fénelon was in open revolt against the spirit of monasticism which
 regarded only eternity and failed to see its relation to everyday
 life, with its many exigencies. The best preparation for eternity,
 according to him, is a daily attention to the nearest duties of
 life. Not science, but the domestic circle was the proper domain of
 woman. More necessary than theoretical knowledge was that practical
 instruction in the little household ways which turn a young woman into
-a good housekeeper. What Fénelon did not sufficiently realise, was the
+a good housekeeper. What Fénelon did not sufficiently realise, was the
 indispensable connection between a moral and an intellectual education.
 The theory that perfect virtue arises out of the intellect and derives
 its chief value from a rational source, was a further step in the same
@@ -2058,15 +2034,15 @@ and soul.
 His precepts were almost immediately put in practice. Making some
 allowance for personal inclinations and circumstances which forbade
 their full application, we may call Madame de Maintenon the foremost
-pupil of Fénelon's school. This remarkable woman's educational views
+pupil of Fénelon's school. This remarkable woman's educational views
 present two entirely different aspects. She was a pietist of the Roman
 Catholic faith, but with certain leanings towards liberalism which
 smacked of heresy, the origin of which may be found in the influence
-of the philosophical creeds with which her early career as a précieuse
+of the philosophical creeds with which her early career as a précieuse
 had brought her into contact. On the other hand, her experience of
 society--after her marriage to the poet Scarron she had for some years
 kept a salon in Paris--had given her a taste for literature and made
-her a believer in "l'art de dire et d'écrire" as one of the necessary
+her a believer in "l'art de dire et d'écrire" as one of the necessary
 elements of female education. She thus combined in her person two of
 the principal tendencies of the century: a strong religious spirit
 and an intense interest in literature, and both became important
@@ -2077,12 +2053,12 @@ common sense, actuated by the most unselfish motives, and devoted to
 the exercise of that Reason which she held ought to be the constant
 regulator of Piety and the governing motive of all human actions.
 Nothing could be more directly opposed to the monastic spirit. Her
-principles therefore stamped her as a reactionary of Fénelon's school,
+principles therefore stamped her as a reactionary of Fénelon's school,
 save for the fact that "the world was too much with her", which made
 her always keep in view that polite society whose morals she had set
 out to improve, and the allurements of which constantly clashed with
 the rigidity of her religious devotion. At the same time the charms
-of domesticity appealed to her as strongly as to Fénelon. Reason, she
+of domesticity appealed to her as strongly as to Fénelon. Reason, she
 argued, forbids the education of women to any station except that for
 which Providence originally intended them, and Providence never meant
 them to pass their lives in a convent, but rather in the domestic
@@ -2093,35 +2069,35 @@ of conventional religiosity with its disregard of practical life.
 
 The equality-claim has no place in her programme. The very spirit of
 Christianity condemns it. "Dieu a soumis notre sexe au moment qu'il l'a
-créé, la faiblesse de notre esprit et de notre corps a besoin d'être
-conduite, soutenue et protégée; notre ignorance nous rend incapable
-de décision, et nous ne pouvons dans l'ordre de Dieu, gouverner que
-dépendamment des hommes." No further steps towards intellectual,
+créé, la faiblesse de notre esprit et de notre corps a besoin d'être
+conduite, soutenue et protégée; notre ignorance nous rend incapable
+de décision, et nous ne pouvons dans l'ordre de Dieu, gouverner que
+dépendamment des hommes." No further steps towards intellectual,
 social or political enfranchisement are to be expected from Madame de
 Maintenon.
 
 Although woman can only "govern dependently", yet her rule of the
-home--and here again she fully agrees with Fénelon--is of the utmost
+home--and here again she fully agrees with Fénelon--is of the utmost
 importance, not only to her own small circle, but to society, or rather
 to that portion of it which alone had her full regard and affection:
 the kingdom of France. Woman was meant for marriage and her education
 should be relative to her position in society. Plutarch's line of
 thought, which we had almost lost sight of, re-enters the stage with
-the appearance of Fénelon and Madame de Maintenon. No motives of false
+the appearance of Fénelon and Madame de Maintenon. No motives of false
 delicacy should withhold from young women such information as may
 be useful to them in their struggle against the temptations of the
 outside world. The right place to prepare them for their natural place
 in society is not the convent, but the college, where the educational
 taste is entrusted to capable teachers, of whom it may be said that
-"le monde n'est étranger qu'à leur coeur". The optimistic faith in the
-capability of her sex of being perfected, which links her to Helvétius
+"le monde n'est étranger qu'à leur coeur". The optimistic faith in the
+capability of her sex of being perfected, which links her to Helvétius
 and the other Encyclopedians gave her the necessary courage to attempt
 an experiment which she confidently trusted might lead to a general
 reform in female morals. The words of Racine's _Esther_:
 
 
      Ici, loin du tumulte, aux devoirs les plus saints
-     Tout un peuple naissant est formé par mes mains,
+     Tout un peuple naissant est formé par mes mains,
 
 
 are a faithful reflection of her hope for the future. And so Madame
@@ -2136,7 +2112,7 @@ staff, under Madame de Maintenon's personal superintendance. It was her
 wish that they should constitute a large family and that the relation
 between teacher and pupil should be as nearly as possible that of
 mother to child, so as to make the reality differ as little as possible
-from what Fénelon's theory had considered the ideal form. The secular
+from what Fénelon's theory had considered the ideal form. The secular
 character of the establishment--on which the king had also insisted,
 holding that there were already more nuns than was strictly compatible
 with the interests of his kingdom--appeared from the fact that the
@@ -2171,7 +2147,7 @@ wished the emotions to be kept under strict control. On the other
 hand, punishments were few, the teacher took a liberal share in all
 recreations and amusements, and the necessary instruction was made as
 attractive and imparted in as unobtrusive a manner as possible, in
-accordance with Fénelon's precepts.
+accordance with Fénelon's precepts.
 
 The sudden change in Mme de Maintenon's system of discipline which
 took place in the third year of St. Cyr and which narrowed down the
@@ -2209,7 +2185,7 @@ the girls received, and which had never been abundant, was reduced to
 almost a minimum. "Il n'est point question de leur orner l'esprit",
 said Mme de Maintenon. The horrors of exaggerated preciosity were ever
 since before her eyes. Too much learning, she feared, might turn the
-girls into précieuses, and manual labour was introduced as an effective
+girls into précieuses, and manual labour was introduced as an effective
 antidote. Fortunately the years tended to soften the severity which
 had prevailed immediately after the catastrophe, and upon the whole
 the institution, which enjoyed special protection and undiminished
@@ -2219,19 +2195,19 @@ excellent results, and turned out some real "ornaments of their sex".
 It seems a pity that in Mme de Maintenon's schemes so secondary a
 place should have been given to that education of the mind which is so
 essential to lasting improvement. She inevitably suffers by comparison
-with her contemporary Mme de Sévigné, whose correspondence with her
+with her contemporary Mme de Sévigné, whose correspondence with her
 daughter Mme de Grignan contains a most enlightened scheme for the
 education of her granddaughter Pauline de Simiane. She recognises
 that it is by literature that the mind is fed, and since to the
 pure everything is pure, there is little to be feared even of the
 otherwise pernicious reading of novels, for a sound mind will not
 easily go astray. An optimistic view of education, taking its root in
-considerations of philosophy, for Mme de Sévigné, like her daughter,
+considerations of philosophy, for Mme de Sévigné, like her daughter,
 was a Cartesian. In comparing her contribution to the educational
 problem with that of Mme de Maintenon, it should be remembered,
 however, that an individual education within the family circle offers
 better opportunities for freedom and less danger of contamination than
-the collective system of St. Cyr. Mme de Sévigné's ideas, contained
+the collective system of St. Cyr. Mme de Sévigné's ideas, contained
 in private correspondence, intended only for her daughter's use and
 entirely without the militant spirit, exercised little influence and
 were of little direct value to the cause of feminism.
@@ -2252,27 +2228,27 @@ of contributions to the feminist and the anti-feminist literature of
 the time, may be found in the "Revue des Etudes Rabelaisiennes", (Tome
 II, 1904).
 
-[7] Heinrich Morf, in his "_Geschichte der französischen Literatur im
+[7] Heinrich Morf, in his "_Geschichte der französischen Literatur im
 Zeitalter der Renaissance_" relates that a number of ladies took to
-frequenting the _Académie de poésie et de musique_ founded by Baïf
+frequenting the _Académie de poésie et de musique_ founded by Baïf
 under the auspices of Charles IX; especially after his successor Henry
 III had transferred its seat to an apartment in the Louvre, whence it
-came to be called "_Académie du Palais_".
+came to be called "_Académie du Palais_".
 
 [8] P. Rousselot. _Histoire de l'Education des Femmes en France._
 
 Poullain de la Barre owes his revival to an article by M. Henri
-Piéron in the "_Revue de Synthèse historique_" of 1902. The latter's
-judgment is based upon two works: "_De l'Egalité des Sexes_" and "_De
-l'Education des Dames_", which he found in the Bibliothèque Nationale.
-In 1913 the "_Revue d'Histoire Littéraire de la France_" contained an
+Piéron in the "_Revue de Synthèse historique_" of 1902. The latter's
+judgment is based upon two works: "_De l'Egalité des Sexes_" and "_De
+l'Education des Dames_", which he found in the Bibliothèque Nationale.
+In 1913 the "_Revue d'Histoire Littéraire de la France_" contained an
 article by M. Henri Grappin, pointing out that some of Poullain's works
 had been overlooked, supplying a full list of his literary productions
 and fully discussing one, entitled: "_De l'Excellence des Hommes,
-contre l'Egalité des Sexes_." The above-named three are the only
+contre l'Egalité des Sexes_." The above-named three are the only
 treatises by Poullain which bear upon the position of women.
 
-[9] Cf. Livet, _Précieux et Précieuses_, p. XXV.
+[9] Cf. Livet, _Précieux et Précieuses_, p. XXV.
 
 
 
@@ -2298,15 +2274,15 @@ controversy, but came to command a number of able pens in periodical
 literature and in the drama. In the latter branch of literature a
 number of pieces were written on the subject, some of which were
 hostile and sought the aid of ridicule, but of which the majority were
-of a more sympathetic tendency, showing that Molière's attack had
+of a more sympathetic tendency, showing that Molière's attack had
 failed. All the important theatres paid their tribute of attention to
 the cause of feminism. One of the earliest was Montchenay's "_Cause
-des Femmes_", a comedy performed at the Théâtre italien as early as
+des Femmes_", a comedy performed at the Théâtre italien as early as
 1687, while a more elaborate dramatic statement of the cause, entitled
 "_l'Ile des Amazones_" was composed in 1718 by Lesage and d'Orneval,
 and suggested the machinery of the "_Amazones Modernes_" of Legrand
-(1727), performed at the Théâtre français. This brings us to the field
-of Utopian literature _à la_ Mrs. Manley, whose "_New Atlantis_" had
+(1727), performed at the Théâtre français. This brings us to the field
+of Utopian literature _à la_ Mrs. Manley, whose "_New Atlantis_" had
 appeared a few years previously. The Amazons, who had founded their own
 community in a remote island, having forsworn the society of men, made
 their return conditional on the acceptance of the following terms:
@@ -2358,10 +2334,10 @@ restored.
 
 The periodical essay was also made subservient to the propagation of
 feminist ideas when in 1750, while in London, Mme Leprince de Beaumont
-started the "_Nouveau Magasin français_", in which the rights of women
+started the "_Nouveau Magasin français_", in which the rights of women
 were vindicated with great fervour. Nine years later, a second, even
 more pronounced attempt to adapt the periodical to the female interests
-was made in the "_Bibliothèque des Femmes_", which after a short run,
+was made in the "_Bibliothèque des Femmes_", which after a short run,
 was continued in the "_Journal des Dames_". This paper, which enjoyed
 great success, was continued for twenty years, during which it served
 the female interests and contained a number of articles written by
@@ -2375,25 +2351,25 @@ But the greatest friends of woman and her cause, who fought and won
 her battles for her, and were willing to recognise her empire, were
 the philosophers of the Encyclopedia, with the emphatic exception
 of that most inconsistent of all geniuses: J. J. Rousseau. The
-Encyclopedian spirit is best reflected by d'Alembert's "_Lettre à J.
+Encyclopedian spirit is best reflected by d'Alembert's "_Lettre à J.
 J. Rousseau_", written in reply to the "_Lettre sur les Spectacles_"
 in the famous controversy on the drama. He protests against the
 latter's cynical views of womanhood. The human race would be indeed
 in a pitiable condition, he says, if the worthiest object of the
 male homage were indeed so rare an occurrence as Rousseau chooses to
 intimate. But supposing he should be right, to what cause would such a
-deplorable state of things be attributable? "L'esclavage et l'espèce
-d'avilissement où nous avons mis les femmes; les entraves que nous
-donnons à leur esprit et à leur âme, le jargon futile et humiliant pour
-elles et nous; auquel nous avons réduit notre commerce avec elles,
-comme si elles n'avaient pas une raison à cultiver, ou n'en étaient
-pas dignes; enfin, l'éducation funeste, je dirai presque meurtrière,
+deplorable state of things be attributable? "L'esclavage et l'espèce
+d'avilissement où nous avons mis les femmes; les entraves que nous
+donnons à leur esprit et à leur âme, le jargon futile et humiliant pour
+elles et nous; auquel nous avons réduit notre commerce avec elles,
+comme si elles n'avaient pas une raison à cultiver, ou n'en étaient
+pas dignes; enfin, l'éducation funeste, je dirai presque meurtrière,
 que nous leur prescrivons, sans leur permettre d'en avoir d'autre;
-éducation ou elles apprennent presque uniquement à se contrefaire sans
-cesse, à n'avoir pas un sentiment qu'elles n'étouffent, une opinion
-qu'elles ne cachent, une pensée qu'elles ne déguisent. Nous traitons
-la nature en elles comme dans nos jardins, nous cherchons à l'orner en
-l'étouffant." And d'Alembert makes an appeal to the philosophers of the
+éducation ou elles apprennent presque uniquement à se contrefaire sans
+cesse, à n'avoir pas un sentiment qu'elles n'étouffent, une opinion
+qu'elles ne cachent, une pensée qu'elles ne déguisent. Nous traitons
+la nature en elles comme dans nos jardins, nous cherchons à l'orner en
+l'étouffant." And d'Alembert makes an appeal to the philosophers of the
 age to destroy so pernicious a prejudice, to shake off the barbarous
 yoke of custom and to set the example by giving their daughters the
 same education as their sons, that they may be saved from idleness and
@@ -2418,22 +2394,22 @@ literature, was the more modest compass of the eighteenth century salon.
 Madame de Lambert herself draws a parallel somewhere between the salons
 of the seventeenth and those of the eighteenth century, more especially
 with regard to the prevailing codes of morality. Her conclusions, like
-those of M. Brunetière nearly two centuries later, are overwhelmingly
+those of M. Brunetière nearly two centuries later, are overwhelmingly
 in favour of Mme de Rambouillet and her contemporaries. She complains
 that the delicate intellectual amusements of the seventeenth century
 assemblies have been largely superseded by the grosser delights of the
 card-table and of a declining stage. The merest semblance of knowledge
-is regarded with disapproval,--this in consequence of Molière's furious
+is regarded with disapproval,--this in consequence of Molière's furious
 onslaught in his _Femmes Savantes_--and as a natural consequence of
 ignorance, the female morals have sadly decayed. Being thus deprived
 of the means of improving the mind, women are naturally driven to a
 life of pleasure-seeking. And she doubts whether society has derived
-any benefit from the change. "Les femmes ont mis la débauche à la
-place du savoir, le précieux qu'on leur a tant reproché, elles l'ont
-changé en indécence." In other words, Mme de Lambert wanted to return
+any benefit from the change. "Les femmes ont mis la débauche à la
+place du savoir, le précieux qu'on leur a tant reproché, elles l'ont
+changé en indécence." In other words, Mme de Lambert wanted to return
 to the earlier preciosity, granting women the right to be instructed,
 and trying to steer clear of those excesses which had called forth the
-attacks of Molière and Boileau. She emphatically protests against the
+attacks of Molière and Boileau. She emphatically protests against the
 pernicious habit of making a pleasing appearance the sole aim of female
 education, and claims for her sex the blessings of an education which
 in cultivating the mind will improve the female morals.
@@ -2462,24 +2438,24 @@ upon which he had no influence whatever. Rationalism began to gain
 ground rapidly and became a basis for speculations which soon came to
 include politics and economics.
 
-M. Brunetière, whose judgment on the salons of the eighteenth century
+M. Brunetière, whose judgment on the salons of the eighteenth century
 is very severe, complains that the lofty artistic and moral ideals of
 the preceding generation had given way to scepticism and to cynicism of
-a kind which made Madame de Tencin refer to her guests as "ses bêtes".
+a kind which made Madame de Tencin refer to her guests as "ses bêtes".
 This statement, which no doubt is mainly correct, seems strange in
 consideration of the fact that it was by the new philosophy which the
 same salons helped in spreading, that the great problems of the future
 of the human race were put forward, which in broader minds gave rise
 to much idealism in what M. du Bled so finely calls: "le souci de la
-modernité." But eighteenth century society regarded philosophy as an
+modernité." But eighteenth century society regarded philosophy as an
 intellectual pastime rather than as bringing the hope of relief to the
 oppressed millions, and if it occasionally dabbled in social problems,
 the misery of the multitude did not touch the majority of those who
 lived lives of comfort and luxury, and were utterly unacquainted with
 suffering, very deeply. No direct attempt at improvement, therefore,
 was to be expected from them, they were talking in theory about things
-of the practice of which they knew nothing. Brunetière calls the
-eighteenth century salon "le triomphe de l'universelle incompétence",
+of the practice of which they knew nothing. Brunetière calls the
+eighteenth century salon "le triomphe de l'universelle incompétence",
 with which its seventeenth century predecessor, with its more limited
 programme, compares favourably. It became habitual "to talk wittily
 of serious problems, while seriously discussing trifling subjects".
@@ -2499,7 +2475,7 @@ century "ruelles" became of an even lighter and more insipid kind. On
 the other hand, the latter half of the previous century had witnessed a
 growing interest in anatomy and surgery, and after the introduction (by
 Fontenelle) of astronomy as a fashionable science, Newton became the
-rage, and ladies of quality like the marquise du Châtelet were among
+rage, and ladies of quality like the marquise du Châtelet were among
 his worshippers. The domination of the salons thus became extended
 to philosophy, science, economics and politics. When the Ancient and
 Modern controversy was re-introduced in the opening years of the
@@ -2517,13 +2493,13 @@ the servility of antiquity which was in flagrant contradiction with
 the dictates of Reason. Hence the close connection between feminist
 literature in the eighteenth century and life in the salons, of which
 the authors were mostly among the regular frequenters. The marquise de
-Lambert laid down her ideas of feminism in her "_Réflexions sur les
+Lambert laid down her ideas of feminism in her "_Réflexions sur les
 Femmes_", and we have seen that both D'Alembert and Marivaux were among
 the staunch defenders of the right of the sex to equal consideration.
 
-Boileau's death had left the "précieuses" in the undisputed possession
+Boileau's death had left the "précieuses" in the undisputed possession
 of the field of light literature, to which now became added that of
-science. This new form of preciosity, "la préciosité scientifique",
+science. This new form of preciosity, "la préciosité scientifique",
 which made its appearance in the salon of Mme de Lambert, where it
 found an ardent worshipper in Fontenelle, grew so powerful that even
 Voltaire's efforts to crush it with ridicule were unavailing. So strong
@@ -2540,13 +2516,13 @@ protest loudly, but in vain.
 
 Mme de Lambert merely wanted to restore the right sort of preciosity
 to its throne as an antidote to the evils of ignorance, in which she
-set herself the ideals of the Hôtel de Rambouillet, and advocated
+set herself the ideals of the Hôtel de Rambouillet, and advocated
 moderation in everything. Her salon thus became as much a protest
 against exaggeration and affectation as against the prevailing opinion
 that the education of women should only aim at teaching them how to
-please the opposite sex. An occasional frequenter calls it "l'hôtel de
-Rambouillet présidé par Fontenelle, et où les précieuses corrigées se
-souvenaient de Molière."
+please the opposite sex. An occasional frequenter calls it "l'hôtel de
+Rambouillet présidé par Fontenelle, et où les précieuses corrigées se
+souvenaient de Molière."
 
 Being left a widow at a comparatively early age, Mme de Lambert opened
 her salon in the Palais Mazarin in the rue Colbert about 1700. She
@@ -2559,7 +2535,7 @@ the aristocracy and the literati. Among her regular visitors were
 Fontenelle, Marivaux, Mlle de Launay (Mme de Staal) and de la Motte,
 champion of the moderns, whilst Mme Dacier undertook the defence of the
 opposite cause. Mme de Lambert herself was the ruling spirit of the
-Académie, of which the way towards membership lay through her favour,
+Académie, of which the way towards membership lay through her favour,
 and the chief literary productions previous to being published--if
 published they were--were read and criticised in her circle.
 
@@ -2568,14 +2544,14 @@ formed a link between the seventeenth and the eighteenth century, and
 exercised a beneficial influence on the tone of conversation, she
 is even more entitled to attention on account of the part played by
 her in the development of feminism. She was a moralist rather than
-educator, and followed in the steps of Fénelon. She had the Cartesian
+educator, and followed in the steps of Fénelon. She had the Cartesian
 belief in the infallibility of Reason, with two exceptions, which do
 honour to the qualities of her heart, and saved her from the inevitable
-conclusions of logic _à outrance_: religion and honour. "Il y a deux
-préjugés auxquels il faut obéir: la religion et l'honneur", and a
-little further: "En fait de religion, il faut céder aux autorités.
+conclusions of logic _à outrance_: religion and honour. "Il y a deux
+préjugés auxquels il faut obéir: la religion et l'honneur", and a
+little further: "En fait de religion, il faut céder aux autorités.
 Sur tout autre sujet, il ne faut recevoir que celle de la raison et
-de l'évidence", excluding even honour. But her actions show that she
+de l'évidence", excluding even honour. But her actions show that she
 realised the danger which lies in obeying the duties of reason while
 totally excluding the admonitions of the heart. Stronger than her love
 of logic was that exquisite form of sensibility which made her at least
@@ -2587,7 +2563,7 @@ Fortune has introduced among men". Words which come from the heart and
 entitle her to sympathy and admiration.
 
 Her ideas concerning female education are contained in the "_Avis d'une
-mère à sa fille_". She insists on the importance of cultivating the
+mère à sa fille_". She insists on the importance of cultivating the
 female mind to render woman an agreeable companion to her husband, who
 will then honour her and give her her due. And she places herself on
 the standpoint which Mary Wollstonecraft took after her, in basing upon
@@ -2597,7 +2573,7 @@ the partners of their wedded lives, disregarding the pernicious
 consequences entailed thereby. For ignorance leads to vice, and the
 mind should be kept employed, were it only as a means of avoiding
 mischief. To Mme de Lambert the Muses were "l'asyle des moeurs". Her
-educational scheme contains more instruction than Fénelon's, as it
+educational scheme contains more instruction than Fénelon's, as it
 includes philosophy, which is to reclaim women to virtue through the
 medium of Reason.
 
@@ -2615,8 +2591,8 @@ her "metaphysics" of love--if less fantastic than the ideals of her
 the regulars of her own circle in de la Motte and the Duchesse du
 Maine--were certainly more conducive to real happiness in the high
 moral principles out of which they arose. It was the marquis d'Argenson
-who said of her writings that they were "un résumé complet de la morale
-du monde et du temps présent la plus parfaite", and there seems no
+who said of her writings that they were "un résumé complet de la morale
+du monde et du temps présent la plus parfaite", and there seems no
 reason to doubt the truth of his judgment.
 
 Unfortunately the good example set by the marquise de Lambert was
@@ -2628,7 +2604,7 @@ century was hastened by the vicious excesses of many females.
 Goncourt says that the eighteenth century lady of quality represented
 the principle that governed society, the reason which directed it and
 the voice which commanded it; she was, in fact, "la cause universelle
-et fatale, l'origine des événements, la source des choses," and
+et fatale, l'origine des événements, la source des choses," and
 nothing could be achieved without her concurrence. Rousseau, when
 first arriving in Paris, was advised by a Jesuit to cultivate the
 acquaintance of women, "for nothing ever happened in Paris except
@@ -2636,7 +2612,7 @@ through them".
 
 The bulk of female influence upon the morals of the century was
 disastrous. The gross materialism amongst society-women found
-expression in a well-known utterance of the marquise du Châtelet:
+expression in a well-known utterance of the marquise du Châtelet:
 "We are here merely to procure ourselves the greatest possible
 variety of agreeable sensations." The most perverse code of morality
 came to reign in some of the most-frequented salons. One of the
@@ -2656,7 +2632,7 @@ up the appearance of quasi-platonic courtship and lived in open and
 shameless debauch. Her entire life was made up of political intrigues
 and adventures of gallantry, in which she turned the latter to account
 to promote the former. She possessed plenty of literary talent, and her
-two novels "_Le Comte de Comminges_" and "_Le siège_ _de Calais_" rank
+two novels "_Le Comte de Comminges_" and "_Le siège_ _de Calais_" rank
 among the best female productions of the century--but even Fontenelle
 thought her heartless. After a childhood spent in the very imperfect
 seclusion of a convent which was notorious for its nocturnal orgies,
@@ -2670,13 +2646,13 @@ famous d'Alembert.
 
 In order to be able to pursue her political schemes she filled her
 salon on different days of the week with people of various occupations
-and interests; keeping philosophers and académiciens, politicians and
+and interests; keeping philosophers and académiciens, politicians and
 ecclesiastics carefully separated, making herself their confidante, and
 possessing herself of their secrets, managing them all so cleverly that
 they became her tools without being aware of it, secretly despising her
-"bêtes" while openly flattering them. The visitors to her two weekly
+"bêtes" while openly flattering them. The visitors to her two weekly
 dinners were nearly all men, Bolingbroke and Matthew Prior being among
-her "habitués". Apart from Mme Geoffrin, who became her successor, and
+her "habitués". Apart from Mme Geoffrin, who became her successor, and
 of whom she said that "she only came to see if there was anything among
 her inventory that she might have a use for", there were hardly any
 women, for Mme de Tencin would brook no possible rivals. Such was her
@@ -2690,7 +2666,7 @@ A totally different salon was that kept by Mme Geoffrin. Mme de
 Tencin--whose own birth was not above suspicion--had all the pride
 of class, and looked down upon the Third Estate; Mme Geoffrin on the
 contrary was the daughter of a court-valet and consequently remained
-all her life a "bourgeoise", without any pretence to "préciosité" or
+all her life a "bourgeoise", without any pretence to "préciosité" or
 anything but a kind and warm heart, a most remarkable wit, sound common
 sense and a natural delicacy which made her an ideal hostess. For Mme
 de Tencin's lofty disdain she substituted an almost maternal solicitude
@@ -2701,7 +2677,7 @@ philosopher and Wraxall; the first-named of whom in his correspondence
 declared her to be "a most extraordinary woman with more common sense
 than he had ever encountered in one of her sex."
 
-The principles of the salon in the Rue St. Honoré were much the same
+The principles of the salon in the Rue St. Honoré were much the same
 as at Mme de Tencin's, but a milder spirit prevailed, and the demon
 of intrigue was absent. Mme Geoffrin kept fixed reception-days, her
 Mondays being devoted to artists, and her Wednesdays to men-of-letters
@@ -2751,7 +2727,7 @@ robbed her of the friendship of d'Alembert.
 
 While the women of society were celebrating their triumphs in the
 salons, philosophy was trying to do something for the female multitude.
-We have seen that it was Fénelon who caused education to be included
+We have seen that it was Fénelon who caused education to be included
 among the subjects of moral philosophy, but it was the diffusive
 power of Rousseau's writings that made it one of the most frequently
 discussed themes of the century. His "_Emile, ou de l'Education_",
@@ -2759,7 +2735,7 @@ which appeared in 1762--curiously enough, the year of the suppression
 of Jesuitism in France--marked a new era in the history of education,
 if not in that of feminism. Of Rousseau it might have been reasonably
 expected as the champion of liberty and equality to carry to their full
-extent the philosophical venturings of Fénelon and thus to usher in a
+extent the philosophical venturings of Fénelon and thus to usher in a
 new era of female emancipation. However, with an inconsistency which
 is one of his chief characteristics, Rousseau not only deliberately
 left the female half of mankind out of his scheme for political
@@ -2774,7 +2750,7 @@ In the first place, his social theories were adopted without reserve
 and without restrictions by some of his followers, who thus repaired
 the omission which had left Woman out of the scheme; and secondly it
 was Rousseau who once for all broke the back of the monastic system of
-education by continuing the campaign which Fénelon in theory, and Mme
+education by continuing the campaign which Fénelon in theory, and Mme
 de Maintenon in practice, had entered upon before him, and bringing
 it to a happy conclusion. The reduction and ultimate abolition of
 the education of religion, which was one of the great victories of
@@ -2823,10 +2799,10 @@ to account for the benefit of their French sisters, whose position
 in the lower walks of life was not very much better than theirs. His
 French disciples, carrying the theory of utility to its fullest extent,
 included the female sex in their reflections. The first in point of
-time was the Abbé de St. Pierre, of whom Rousseau contemptuously said
+time was the Abbé de St. Pierre, of whom Rousseau contemptuously said
 that he was "a man of great schemes and narrow views". Seen from
 a feminist standpoint this judgment is cruelly unjust. For, even
-granting that the Abbé's schemes were too Utopian to be capable of
+granting that the Abbé's schemes were too Utopian to be capable of
 full realisation--a circumstance he himself sadly recognised--the
 fact remains that he was responsible for the first project of female
 education _on a national basis_, making wholesale education a
@@ -2835,7 +2811,7 @@ many who would otherwise be deprived of it. He stands at the beginning
 of the lane that leads via Bernardin de St. Pierre and Talleyrand to
 the great Condorcet.
 
-The Abbé de St. Pierre was willing to grant women _as a class_ that
+The Abbé de St. Pierre was willing to grant women _as a class_ that
 equality which the better-class women had actually attained, and he
 believed in their instruction, holding that on the instruction given
 to the young, whether male or female, depended the happiness of
@@ -2851,7 +2827,7 @@ good opinion of others, _whether deserved or not_! The final clause
 sums up what moralists found most objectionable in the inclinations of
 a depraved age.
 
-The real aim of women, according to the Abbé, should be to please God,
+The real aim of women, according to the Abbé, should be to please God,
 and not men, so as to gain eternal life. He has no ambition for women
 beyond that of making them devout Christians and good housekeepers,
 and his educational efforts are accordingly directed towards these two
@@ -2878,7 +2854,7 @@ of the stronger sex", for the former have too low a notion of the
 duties of womanhood, whilst the latter overlook the considerations
 of a sexual character by which, according to Rousseau, the relations
 between the sexes are exclusively determined. Rousseau's opinion of the
-depth to which women had sunk appears from his "_Lettre à d'Alembert
+depth to which women had sunk appears from his "_Lettre à d'Alembert
 sur les Spectacles_," which contains a fierce onslaught upon their
 moral perversity, which has caused the drama, too feeble to rise
 to worthier themes, to fall back upon erotics of a most despicable
@@ -2886,14 +2862,14 @@ kind. Rousseau judged women capable of becoming something better than
 what eighteenth century society had made of them, but in his demands
 for them and in his schemes for perfecting their moral education he
 was extremely modest. Next to the salons he held the education of
-the convents, "ces véritables écoles de coquetterie", to be chiefly
+the convents, "ces véritables écoles de coquetterie", to be chiefly
 responsible for the degradation of the female character. The young
 women who, on leaving them, enter society, carry into instant practice
 the lessons of vanity and coquetry which the convents have supplied.
 For convent and salon Rousseau wanted to substitute the blessings
 of true domesticity--painted in glowing colours in the pages of the
-"_Nouvelle Héloise_." His sympathies went out, not to that college-life
-of which the Abbé de St. Pierre had such sanguine expectations, but to
+"_Nouvelle Héloise_." His sympathies went out, not to that college-life
+of which the Abbé de St. Pierre had such sanguine expectations, but to
 the intimacies of the family-circle, presided over by loving parents,
 an ideal which he reintroduced in the fifth book of his treatise on
 education, where, circumstances rendering it advisable to provide the
@@ -2903,12 +2879,12 @@ of Sophie's education are elaborately described[14].
 Where he recommends making the duties of life as pleasant as possible
 to the young pupil, protesting against that austere conception which
 allowed her no other diversion than studies and prayers, Rousseau sides
-with Fénelon. In his opinion girls enjoy too little freedom, whilst
+with Fénelon. In his opinion girls enjoy too little freedom, whilst
 grown-up women are left too much liberty. Let the young girls have an
 opportunity to enjoy life, he says, or they will take it when they are
 older. Nor does the notion of making them at an early age acquainted
 with the world inspire him with terror, for he trusts with Mme de
-Sévigné that the sight of noisy gatherings will only fill them with
+Sévigné that the sight of noisy gatherings will only fill them with
 disgust instead of tempting them to imitation.
 
 So far there is nothing anti-feminist in Rousseau's ideas. But
@@ -2956,7 +2932,7 @@ a compliment. But what called down a storm of feminist indignation upon
 his head was the sweeping conclusion he drew from the natural law that
 man, having physical strength on his side, must always play the active
 part in the intercourse between people of different sexes, while woman
-has to be always content with the passive rôle. "The sole object of
+has to be always content with the passive rôle. "The sole object of
 women," says Rousseau, "ought consequently to be _to please_ men, on
 whom their relative weakness has made them dependent", and goes on to
 assert that all female education should as a natural consequence be
@@ -2995,7 +2971,7 @@ realised better than he that in the absence of a spiritual element no
 love based upon the grosser passions can possibly endure.
 
 Where the female weaknesses and vanities are concerned Rousseau's
-discernment even surpasses that of Fénelon. The task of woman being to
+discernment even surpasses that of Fénelon. The task of woman being to
 please, Nature has made her regard above all things the opinion of the
 opposite sex. And the moralist who teaches men to ignore the opinion of
 others as destructive of individuality, goes so far as to prescribe for
@@ -3034,7 +3010,7 @@ women we must strip the story of its lyrical element and glance at
 the purely philosophical portion of the treatise. It is there that we
 must look for an answer to the question: "Did Rousseau look upon women
 as partakers of the faculty of Reason?" And he gives his reply in the
-following words: "L'art de penser n'est pas étranger aux femmes, mais
+following words: "L'art de penser n'est pas étranger aux femmes, mais
 elles ne doivent faire qu'effleurer les sciences de raisonnement." He
 would not even object to a system by which the functions of women were
 strictly limited to the performance of sexual duties, if it were not
@@ -3094,7 +3070,7 @@ behind one who, with considerably less genius, had a great deal more
 moral courage and a far wider conception of the ideals of woman.
 
 Of the disciples and opponents of Rousseau, some of whom, like Mme de
-Staël, Mme de Genlis, and Mme de Necker de Saussure were of the female
+Staël, Mme de Genlis, and Mme de Necker de Saussure were of the female
 sex, little need be said here, as their writings either did not throw
 any new light on the problem under consideration, or belong to a period
 following that of Mary Wollstonecraft. When the Revolution came,
@@ -3104,9 +3080,9 @@ part of the problem, will call for mention.
 
 FOOTNOTES:
 
-[10] The "_Revue d'Histoire Littéraire de la France_" (Tome XXIII,
+[10] The "_Revue d'Histoire Littéraire de la France_" (Tome XXIII,
 XXIV and XXV) contains a contribution by M. Raymond Toinet entitled:
-"Les Ecrivains moralistes au 17ième siècle"; being an alphabetical
+"Les Ecrivains moralistes au 17ième siècle"; being an alphabetical
 nomenclature of moral writings published during the age of Louis
 the Fourteenth (1638-1715). In this list works of a feminist or an
 anti-feminist nature figure so largely that little doubt can be
@@ -3122,7 +3098,7 @@ half of humanity, as in the case of Regnard's "_Satire contre les
 Maris_".
 
 _2._ _Apologies for the female sex_, including Perrault's "_Apologie
-des Femmes_", Poullain de la Barre's "_Egalité des deux Sexes_", and
+des Femmes_", Poullain de la Barre's "_Egalité des deux Sexes_", and
 a Latin translation of Anna Maria Schuurman. Some were meant as a
 refutation of some male attack. To this class belong Ninon de l'Enclos'
 "_Coquette Vengee_" and a number of replies to Boileau's satire.
@@ -3132,13 +3108,13 @@ number, or rather changing from the direct invective to the moral essay
 with a didactic purpose, busying itself with the female morals and the
 female character. A collection of pieces dealing with the problem of
 sexual preference was published in 1698 by de Vertron under the name of
-"_La nouvelle Pandore, ou les femmes illustres du siècle de Louis le
+"_La nouvelle Pandore, ou les femmes illustres du siècle de Louis le
 Grand_".
 
 _4._ _Rules of female conduct_, for the use of young ladies "about to
 enter the world", insisting chiefly on the feminine duty of preserving
 the reputation. A translation of Lord Halifax's "_Advice_" (see page
-83), "_Etrennes ou conseils d'un homme de qualité à sa fille_" seems to
+83), "_Etrennes ou conseils d'un homme de qualité à sa fille_" seems to
 have attracted some notice.
 
 _5._ _Pieces dealing with the relations between the sexes in daily
@@ -3153,38 +3129,38 @@ To the period under discussion belongs a translation of Erasmus'
 
 _6._ _Treatises of female education_, containing a plea for the
 development of the female intellect. They are, as yet, remarkably few.
-Beyond the contributions by Poullain de la Barre and Fénelon there
+Beyond the contributions by Poullain de la Barre and Fénelon there
 are some half-dozen pieces dealing with the education of girls on a
 religious basis, and a few in which the question of the pursuit of
 science and philosophy by women is stated and answered favourably.
-There was an "_Apologie de la science des Dames, par Cléante_", (1662);
+There was an "_Apologie de la science des Dames, par Cléante_", (1662);
 a treatise entitled: "_Avantages que les femmes peuvent recevoir de la
-philosophie et principalement de la morale_", (1667); another by René
+philosophie et principalement de la morale_", (1667); another by René
 Bary bearing the somewhat questionable title of "_La fine philosophie
-accommodée à l'intelligence des dames_", and, in conclusion, one by
-Guillaume Colletet, headed: "_Question célèbre, s'il est nécessaire ou
-non que les filles soient savantes, agitée de part et d'autre par Mlle
-Anne Marie de Schurmann, hollandoise, et André Rivet, poictevin, le
-tout mis en françois par le sieur Colletet_" (1646)
+accommodée à l'intelligence des dames_", and, in conclusion, one by
+Guillaume Colletet, headed: "_Question célèbre, s'il est nécessaire ou
+non que les filles soient savantes, agitée de part et d'autre par Mlle
+Anne Marie de Schurmann, hollandoise, et André Rivet, poictevin, le
+tout mis en françois par le sieur Colletet_" (1646)
 
 [11] "_La Nouvelle Colonie, ou la Ligue des Femmes_", first presented
-in the Théâtre italien on the 18th of April 1729, a three-act comedy,
-afterwards reduced to one single act to be performed in the "théâtres
-de société", and published in this form in the _Mercure_. (Cf.
+in the Théâtre italien on the 18th of April 1729, a three-act comedy,
+afterwards reduced to one single act to be performed in the "théâtres
+de société", and published in this form in the _Mercure_. (Cf.
 Larroumet; _Marivaux, sa Vie et ses Oeuvres_, Paris 1882).
 
 [12] Such, at least, is the description of Mme Geoffrin's character in
-M. E. Pilon's "_Portraits français_". M. G. Lanson, in his "_Lettres du
-dix-huitième siècle_", accuses her of vanity and consequent despotic
-leanings. "Elle aimait à conseiller ses amis, et les régentait en
-mère un peu despotique; elle n'aimait pas les indépendants, les âmes
-indociles et fières qui ne se laissent pas protéger, et veulent être
-consultés dans le bien qu'on leur fait".
+M. E. Pilon's "_Portraits français_". M. G. Lanson, in his "_Lettres du
+dix-huitième siècle_", accuses her of vanity and consequent despotic
+leanings. "Elle aimait à conseiller ses amis, et les régentait en
+mère un peu despotique; elle n'aimait pas les indépendants, les âmes
+indociles et fières qui ne se laissent pas protéger, et veulent être
+consultés dans le bien qu'on leur fait".
 
 [13] That a great many of the Utilitarian ideas of John Locke may be
 traced to their origin in the works of Montaigne has been demonstrated
-by M. Pierre Villey in his "_L'influence de Montaigne sur les Idées
-pédagogiques de Locke et de Rousseau_", who thus claims for the
+by M. Pierre Villey in his "_L'influence de Montaigne sur les Idées
+pédagogiques de Locke et de Rousseau_", who thus claims for the
 literature of his own country an honour which was commonly granted to
 that of England.
 
@@ -3431,7 +3407,7 @@ the character. Mrs. Chapone complained that he substituted appearances
 for the real excellences which she considered more important, and Mrs.
 Delany wrote that his letters were generally considered ingenious and
 useful as to polish of manners, but very hurtful in a moral sense. "Les
-grâces", she added, "are the sum total of his religion." This, and the
+grâces", she added, "are the sum total of his religion." This, and the
 fact that he made a point of discussing moral questions of the greatest
 importance with a child not yet ten years old and incapable of grasping
 their full purport, afterwards made Mary Wollstonecraft turn upon
@@ -3529,12 +3505,12 @@ intermediacy of a lady of unsullied reputation, who was to be courted
 and inveigled into granting her concurrence in a manner so beyond words
 that we must let the letter speak for itself. "A propos, on m'assure
 que Mme de Blot, sans avoir des traits, est joli comme un coeur, et
-que nonobstant cela, elle s'en est tenu jusqu'ici scrupuleusement à
-son mari, quoiqu'il ait déja plus qu'un an qu'elle est mariée. Elle
-n'y pense pas; il faut décrotter cette femme-là. Décrottez vous done
-tous les deux réciproquement. Force, assiduités, attentions, regards
-tendres, et déclarations passionnées de votre côté produiront au moins
-quelque velléité du sien. Et quand une fois la velléité y est, les
+que nonobstant cela, elle s'en est tenu jusqu'ici scrupuleusement à
+son mari, quoiqu'il ait déja plus qu'un an qu'elle est mariée. Elle
+n'y pense pas; il faut décrotter cette femme-là. Décrottez vous done
+tous les deux réciproquement. Force, assiduités, attentions, regards
+tendres, et déclarations passionnées de votre côté produiront au moins
+quelque velléité du sien. Et quand une fois la velléité y est, les
 oeuvres ne sont pas loin."
 
 Social life in the eighteenth century had indeed sunk to the appalling
@@ -3677,7 +3653,7 @@ and masters. Swift satirises the worthlessness of the females who
 spend their afternoon visiting their neighbours to indulge in talking
 scandal, and whose evenings are devoted to the gambling-table. His
 opinion of the sex in general is such as to make him emphatically warn
-his young _protégée_ against the dangers of female conversation. "Your
+his young _protégée_ against the dangers of female conversation. "Your
 only safe way of conversing with them is, by a firm resolution to
 proceed in your practice and behaviour directly contrary to whatever
 they say or do." The fondness of the sex for finery disgusts him to
@@ -3897,7 +3873,7 @@ of happiness in the later years of matrimony; whilst Addison with his
 habitual irony weakens the impression produced by his assertion of the
 perfectibility of the female mind, by ridiculing the much-discussed
 "femmes savantes" in his picture of Lady Lizard and her daughters
-reading Fontenelle's "_Pluralité des mondes_" while "busy preserving
+reading Fontenelle's "_Pluralité des mondes_" while "busy preserving
 several fruits of the season, dividing their speculation between
 jellies and stars, and making a sudden transition from the sun to an
 apricot, or from the Copernican system to the figure of a cheese-cake."
@@ -4064,8 +4040,8 @@ hate."[24] She did not, like Swift, believe in the moral superiority
 of man, and called marriage "a lottery, where there is (at the lowest
 computation) ten thousand blanks to a prize." Being all her life a
 furious reader, she had in her earliest years imbibed the romantic
-notions of d'Urfé's _Astrée_ and of de Scudéry's long-winded romances
-of _Cyrus_ and _Clélie_, causing her to deeply regret the utter loss
+notions of d'Urfé's _Astrée_ and of de Scudéry's long-winded romances
+of _Cyrus_ and _Clélie_, causing her to deeply regret the utter loss
 of that platonic ideal of gallantry with its tendency to elevate the
 mind and to instil honourable sentiments which had so charmed her hours
 of meditation. In spite of the fact that her passion for literature
@@ -4138,7 +4114,7 @@ to the Woman Question, contained in her correspondence with her
 daughter the Countess of Bute, and giving her views of the position
 of women, elicited by certain remarks on the education of her little
 granddaughter. The circumstances under which this correspondence was
-carried on bear a close resemblance to Mme de Sévigné's when writing
+carried on bear a close resemblance to Mme de Sévigné's when writing
 to her daughter Mme de Grignan her excellent advice regarding the
 education of little Pauline de Simiane. From what has already been
 said it may be readily concluded that the principal of Lady Mary's
@@ -4170,7 +4146,7 @@ people, and have a train of ill consequences."
 
 The moral education which she recommends for her granddaughter is
 rather slight, and based chiefly on the negative principle--which we
-have also found in Fénelon and other French moralists--of keeping the
+have also found in Fénelon and other French moralists--of keeping the
 mind occupied as a means of preventing idleness, which is the mother of
 mischief. Learning,--which modesty would have them carefully conceal,
 for ignorance is bold, and true knowledge reserved--will tend to make
@@ -4277,7 +4253,7 @@ CHAPTER V.
 _Qualified Feminism: The Bluestockings._
 
 
-"Feminism", says M. Ascoli, in an article in the "_Revue de Synthèse
+"Feminism", says M. Ascoli, in an article in the "_Revue de Synthèse
 historique_", "is the mental attitude of those who refuse to admit a
 natural and necessary inequality between the faculties of the sexes,
 and, in consequence of this, between their respective rights; who
@@ -4298,7 +4274,7 @@ should not be understood as implying that they did nothing to promote
 the march of feminism, or rather to prepare the national mind for the
 first symptoms of a more directly feminine movement which were to
 manifest themselves before the more or less artificial conversations
-of the Bluestocking côteries had retired into insignificance before
+of the Bluestocking côteries had retired into insignificance before
 the looming spectre of Revolution, filling the mind with speculations
 of more direct importance, and arousing the hereditary conservatism
 which slumbers at the bottom of every true British heart in a common
@@ -4474,7 +4450,7 @@ Among the correspondence of Mrs. Montagu, the "Queen of the Blues",
 published "by her great-great niece" Miss E. J. Climenson, is a letter
 to her devoted friend and admirer the Earl of Bath on the subject of
 her archenemy Voltaire's tragedy of "_Tancred_", in which she finds
-fault with the character of Aménaide for not following virtue as by law
+fault with the character of Aménaide for not following virtue as by law
 established, but despising forms and following sentiment, "a dangerous
 guide". This is what we should expect from a Bluestocking leader. She
 continues: "_Designed by nature to act but a second part_, it is a
@@ -4536,7 +4512,7 @@ with some degree of circumspection. That the influence of the latter
 was considerable may be taken for granted, and the direct points of
 contact were numerous. Horace Walpole in particular was an intimate of
 both, David Hume frequented several Paris salons and Mme du Bocage,
-Mme de Genlis and Mme de Staël--the last two in the year of their
+Mme de Genlis and Mme de Staël--the last two in the year of their
 exile from France--were repeatedly seen in blue society. It is to
 the pen of the first that we owe one of the most vivid descriptions
 of Mrs. Montagu's convivial meetings. If we moreover consider that
@@ -4551,7 +4527,7 @@ natural circumstance in view of the fact that they considered them as
 a literary and conversational movement, in which the chief aim was
 literary taste and polished, witty conversation. Their estimate never
 went beyond these limits to consider the influence exercised by these
-côteries upon society in general. And it is when throwing into the
+côteries upon society in general. And it is when throwing into the
 scale the moral improvement, especially among women, which was the
 result of the efforts of the Bluestocking ladies, that we realise that
 although different, they were not necessarily inferior to their French
@@ -4581,16 +4557,16 @@ whole quicker to praise than to find fault. Hannah More realised this
 when singing the praises of the Blues in her "_Bas Bleu_" poem. She
 describes the members of the French assemblies as brilliant and witty,
 but lacking common sense and simplicity. Her verdict would have
-been more correct if for the Hôtel de Rambouillet, against which her
+been more correct if for the Hôtel de Rambouillet, against which her
 disapprobation is directed, she had substituted the later salons of
-the decline, where indeed a mistaken "préciosité" prevailed and "where
-point, and turn, and équivoque distorted every word they spoke". For
+the decline, where indeed a mistaken "préciosité" prevailed and "where
+point, and turn, and équivoque distorted every word they spoke". For
 indeed the parallelism with the salon of the 17th century is far more
 marked than with that of the 18th. The evolution of both French and
 English polite literary society furnishes a strong argument in favour
 of Rousseau's theory that "everything degenerates in the hands of
 man"--by which he meant "humanity"--for after a short spell of glory
-both degenerated sadly. In both pedantry supplanted wit, and Molière's
+both degenerated sadly. In both pedantry supplanted wit, and Molière's
 "_Femmes Savantes_" might have found its counterpart--though probably
 not its equivalent--in Fanny Burney's play of "_The Witlings_", which
 the unfavourable criticism of her friends induced her to destroy. The
@@ -4641,7 +4617,7 @@ moralists.
 
 The tone of their conversation and writings was a distinct improvement
 upon that of the ladies of the preceding generation, of whom it was
-said that those who--like Mrs. Aphra Behn and Mrs. de la Rivière
+said that those who--like Mrs. Aphra Behn and Mrs. de la Rivière
 Manley--excelled in wit, failed signally in chastity. The love of
 scandal which had been their chief characteristic, and which Sheridan
 justly satirised, was an object of scorn to the Bluestockings, who
@@ -4673,7 +4649,7 @@ certain amount of restriction.
 All the Bluestockings' actions arose from a strong sense of duty,
 which the majority of French hostesses--with the emphatic exception
 of Mme de Lambert--sadly lacked. One of their deliberate aims was the
-substitution of conversation "à la française" for cards. The first
+substitution of conversation "à la française" for cards. The first
 determined attack upon the greatest social curse of the age was made
 by Mrs. Chapone,--then Miss Mulso--in collaboration with Johnson in
 No. 10 of the _Rambler_ in the year 1750. She wrote to Johnson in his
@@ -4722,7 +4698,7 @@ correspondence in which every literary lady indulged, and upon which
 she lavished her talents as an author. Immeasurably the best is Fanny
 Burney's diary, with its clever and vivid sidelights upon gatherings
 in which she herself as the successful author of _Evelina_, and
-the protégée of Johnson, was lionised, although she never became a
+the protégée of Johnson, was lionised, although she never became a
 Bluestocking in the full sense of the word, her temperament being far
 too sprightly and volatile, and the language of her pen too gushing to
 suit the notions of propriety of some ladies, whom she further offended
@@ -4834,7 +4810,7 @@ did not shrink from appearing before the public as authors, and even
 pseudonyms were often thought unnecessary, the domain of literature
 ceased to be the exclusive property of men. Strangely enough, the
 notion that female knowledge should be carefully concealed, originating
-in Molière's _Femmes Savantes_ and prevailing all through the 17th and
+in Molière's _Femmes Savantes_ and prevailing all through the 17th and
 18th centuries in both literatures until Mary Wollstonecraft openly
 disregarded it, was implicitly obeyed by the Bluestockings.
 
@@ -4888,7 +4864,7 @@ satisfied with herself. Her speech is described as affected, although
 ready wit can scarcely be denied her. Her reply on being informed that
 Voltaire, Shakespeare's translator, had boasted of having been the
 first Frenchman to find "quelques perles dans son fumier": "c'est donc
-un fumier qui a fertilisé une terre bien ingrate" is a good specimen
+un fumier qui a fertilisé une terre bien ingrate" is a good specimen
 both of her proficiency in the French language and of her quickness of
 repartee. However, she often descended from the heights of rhetoric,
 and her affectation of speech seems to have been a weakness into
@@ -5026,7 +5002,7 @@ One of her most constant friends and Platonic admirers was Mr.
 Dr. Johnson in later years led to the most famous of Bluestocking
 quarrels. In 1760, Lyttleton published his "_Dialogues of the
 Dead_"--referred to rather unkindly by Walpole as the "Dead
-Dialogues". The preface says that after the dialogues of Lucan, Fénelon
+Dialogues". The preface says that after the dialogues of Lucan, Fénelon
 and Fontenelle, English literature can boast only the learned dialogues
 of one Mr. Hurde, who takes living persons for his characters. The
 author proposes to take his cue from the history of all times and
@@ -5198,7 +5174,7 @@ afterwards that it was conclusive against Voltaire. It procured Mrs.
 Montagu a great many friends in France, where such wit as hers was sure
 to find full appreciation. When, seven years later, she visited Paris,
 Voltaire wrote another furious article against Shakespeare, which was
-read at the Académie in her presence. "I think Madam," said one of the
+read at the Académie in her presence. "I think Madam," said one of the
 members when the reading was over, "you must be rather sorry at what
 you have just heard." Mrs. Montagu shrugged her shoulders. "I, Sir! Not
 at all! I am not one of M. Voltaire's friends!"
@@ -5211,7 +5187,7 @@ became too much like sermonizing to suit vivacious young ladies like
 Fanny Burney, who thought her assemblies "very dull". But whatever she
 wrote bears the stamp of sincerity. She was evidently deeply concerned
 about the moral welfare of the niece she addressed in her Letters--the
-example set by Mme de Sévigné and imitated by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu
+example set by Mme de Sévigné and imitated by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu
 had found followers--and she honestly tried to reconcile what was noble
 and proper in her eyes with the demands of convention. Above all she
 tried to inculcate that sense of responsibility for our actions which
@@ -5244,7 +5220,7 @@ Richardson's novels show how soon it began to degenerate into sickly
 sentimentality which, when indulging in the luxury of woe, forgot to
 relieve the suffering which called forth the tears of sentiment. One
 of the most serious charges brought against J. J. Rousseau was that
-in his "_Nouvelle Héloise_" and in his "_Confessions_" he makes his
+in his "_Nouvelle Héloise_" and in his "_Confessions_" he makes his
 lovers wallow to a sickening extent in the ecstasy of grief, inducing
 others by the magic of his personality to imitate him. This false
 sensibility was as much the abomination of the Bluestocking ladies
@@ -5338,7 +5314,7 @@ represent her contribution to romanticism, and gained the approval of
 no less a critic than Dr. Johnson himself.
 
 Hannah More thus became a universal favourite, and her "vers de
-société" became very popular. However, her career as a dramatist came
+société" became very popular. However, her career as a dramatist came
 to an end with Garrick's death, and after the success of "_Bas Bleu_"
 and "_Sensibility_" she more and more directed her energies towards
 social and moral reform. The Bluestocking assemblies, much as they
@@ -5503,7 +5479,7 @@ Hannah More_, p. 62.
 [31] There seems to have been a good deal of uncertainty as to the
 authorship of the works of the famous brother and sister. Contemporary
 opinion unanimously assigns that of "_Le Grand Cyrus_" to Madeleine de
-Scudéry, and not to her brother George.
+Scudéry, and not to her brother George.
 
 [32] Like Mary Wollstonecraft, Hannah More took brevet-rank as a matron
 by virtue of her literary publications.
@@ -5848,7 +5824,7 @@ appear to great advantage by the side of the gentleman's son, who has
 been utterly spoiled by an over-indulgent mother and has had the whole
 catalogue of prejudices of birth and station inculcated into him. The
 story consists of a string of incidents, partly arising from natural
-causes and partly due to Mr. Barlow's "coups de théâtre pédagogiques",
+causes and partly due to Mr. Barlow's "coups de théâtre pédagogiques",
 in which Rousseau also was fond of indulging. They all contribute
 towards the formation of Tommy's mind and heart, in conjunction
 with a number of stories, told at the psychological moment by their
@@ -6415,20 +6391,20 @@ opinion and constitute herself the champion of the Cause of Woman.
 We have seen that the Cause of Woman had met with very little regard in
 England in the course of the century, except where moral improvement
 was concerned. In France, however, the progress to be recorded was
-considerable. It will be remembered that Fénelon had been the first
+considerable. It will be remembered that Fénelon had been the first
 to insist on an education which might teach girls the pursuit of some
 useful ideal instead of leaving them to pass their time in a degrading
-search for pleasure. There is in Fénelon a distinct foreshadowing
+search for pleasure. There is in Fénelon a distinct foreshadowing
 of the tendencies of educational reform in later years. With Mary
 Wollstonecraft also, the chief aim of education is not to prepare the
 individual for social intercourse, but to accustom the mind to listen
-to the dictates of Reason. Fénelon has a more negative way of putting
+to the dictates of Reason. Fénelon has a more negative way of putting
 the question. He believes in filling the mind with useful ideas as a
 means of preventing moral degradation.
 
 In the course of the following century, the philosophers of the
-Encyclopédie introduced their theories of rationalism. Helvétius
-(in his _Traité de l'Homme_, 1774) insisted on the necessity of an
+Encyclopédie introduced their theories of rationalism. Helvétius
+(in his _Traité de l'Homme_, 1774) insisted on the necessity of an
 education in connection with his theory that the human mind, which is
 sovereign, is the exclusive product of education and experience. He
 may be called a link in the chain of advocates of the Cause of Woman,
@@ -6440,9 +6416,9 @@ the mind is in a perfectly neutral state at birth, capable of receiving
 and guarding any impressions which may be produced by accidental
 circumstances, which a well-regulated education may to a certain extent
 make or re-make; the obvious conclusion being that all men are of equal
-birth. To this scheme Diderot in his "_Réfutation_" opposed his theory
+birth. To this scheme Diderot in his "_Réfutation_" opposed his theory
 of heredity, or innate character. Both Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft
-were adherents of Helvétius. Viewed in the light of original equality,
+were adherents of Helvétius. Viewed in the light of original equality,
 which supposes equal possibilities in individuals who are only
 physically different, it will be readily seen what a long vista of
 improvements may be opened by perfecting the education.
@@ -6587,7 +6563,7 @@ essence is nothing but a denial of the possibility of a well-organised
 society. The optimism with which he regards the individual does not
 extend to society, in respect to which he is far too pessimistic to
 suit Mary's unshakable confidence in human perfectibility. Where
-Rousseau asserts that "l'homme est né bon", and holds the social state
+Rousseau asserts that "l'homme est né bon", and holds the social state
 responsible for the introduction of evil, Mary Wollstonecraft feels
 in the presence of evil the will of the Almighty that we should make
 use of the gift of Reason as a means of conquering evil and attaining
@@ -6595,7 +6571,7 @@ perfection. To return to Nature, therefore, would mean evading the
 chief task which God meant to impose upon his favourite creature, that
 of cultivating virtue in the social state which He ordained.
 
-Here again, as in Helvétius, d'Holbach and so many others, Reason is
+Here again, as in Helvétius, d'Holbach and so many others, Reason is
 to be the governing power. In Reason lies Man's pre-eminence over
 the brute creation, and out of the struggle between Reason and the
 passions arise virtue and knowledge, by which man is conducted towards
@@ -6702,7 +6678,7 @@ male. The theory that the education of women should be "relative to
 men", as Rousseau puts it, places him in direct opposition to Mary
 Wollstonecraft, as it implies a necessary inferiority on the part of
 women. His maxims supply her with a target against which to direct
-the shafts of her disapprobation and indignation. In his "_Lettre à
+the shafts of her disapprobation and indignation. In his "_Lettre à
 d'Alembert_" he had made a violent onslaught on women and the passion
 they inspire. It does not leave them a shred of reputation: modesty,
 purity and decency are said to have completely forsaken them. The
@@ -6719,17 +6695,17 @@ that many women had sunk to a state of deep degradation, but, she
 asked: "A qui la faute?" It was man who brought her there, and she
 expected man to lift her on to a more exalted plane.
 
-The Julie of Rousseau's "_Nouvelle Héloise_" impresses us as
+The Julie of Rousseau's "_Nouvelle Héloise_" impresses us as
 another inconsistency. She displays, it is true, the characteristic
 submissiveness to a characteristically masterful parent, and the usual
 notions of virtue consisting chiefly in the preservation of reputation
 which Mary attacks so vigorously in the _Rights of Women_, but Julie
 has far more individuality than the average young woman of the period.
-She rather leads her lover than he her. The _Nouvelle Héloise_,
+She rather leads her lover than he her. The _Nouvelle Héloise_,
 however, displays Rousseau's sentimental vein, and is therefore more
 directly irrational than anything else he wrote. The Sophie of _Emile_
 is partly the creation of his intellect, the Julie of the _Nouvelle
-Héloise_ almost exclusively that of his sentiment.
+Héloise_ almost exclusively that of his sentiment.
 
 In the fifth book of _Emile_, therefore, sentimentality only plays
 an occasional part. Rousseau's intellect assigns to woman the place
@@ -6793,7 +6769,7 @@ from which may be gathered the author's notions regarding the baleful
 influence of slavery upon the moral aspirations of her sex. Nearly all
 contemporary authors agreed that woman's chief aim ought to be "to
 please". Among their number were Mrs. Barbauld, Mrs. Piozzi, Mme de
-Genlis and Mme de Staël. From the first the notion was inculcated that
+Genlis and Mme de Staël. From the first the notion was inculcated that
 the chief object is to make an advantageous match, "it is acknowledged
 that they spend many of the first years of their lives in acquiring
 a smattering of accomplishments, meanwhile strength of mind and body
@@ -6855,7 +6831,7 @@ All Rousseau's errors in her opinion arose from its source. To indulge
 his feelings, and not to imbibe moral strength at the fountain of
 Nature, or to satisfy a thirst for scientific investigation, he sought
 for solitude when meditating the rapturous but dangerous love-scenes
-of the _Nouvelle Héloise_. No doubt these scenes were in her mind
+of the _Nouvelle Héloise_. No doubt these scenes were in her mind
 when she wrote: "Love such as the glowing pen of genius has traced,
 exists not, or only resides in those exalted, fervid imaginations that
 have sketched such dangerous pictures." She only sees in them "sheer
@@ -7315,7 +7291,7 @@ made him transfer his easy-going affections to those who were less
 exacting. He was far too matter-of-fact to sympathise with or even
 understand her moments of tenderness, and too much occupied with his
 business to be much of a companion to her. In the month of September,
-after a few months together, he went to Hâvre. Then it was that Mary's
+after a few months together, he went to Hâvre. Then it was that Mary's
 troubles began. In her letters she repeatedly protested against his
 prolonged absences. She grew to hate commerce, which kept him away from
 her. His promise "to make a power of money to indemnify her for his
@@ -7333,7 +7309,7 @@ themselves with a vengeance!
 
 The undefined dread of coming disaster makes her letters more and
 more insistent. Grief and indignation at Imlay's neglect struggle for
-the mastery. At last he wrote to ask her to join him at Hâvre. The
+the mastery. At last he wrote to ask her to join him at Hâvre. The
 irritation he had felt against her--which she humbly ascribed to the
 querulous tone of her correspondence--had worn away and there was a
 brief renewal of happiness when in the spring of 1794 a little girl
@@ -7453,7 +7429,7 @@ raptures in Goldsmith's breast, and Cowper's English landscape owed its
 attractiveness to its suggestion of peaceful harmony. Rousseau had been
 the first to love Nature also in her sterner moods and aspects; like
 Wordsworth, "the sounding cataract haunted him like a passion", and
-the _Nouvelle Héloise_ contains the faithful record of the impressions
+the _Nouvelle Héloise_ contains the faithful record of the impressions
 produced upon him by the grandeur of the Valais mountains. Some of
 Mary's nature-descriptions--notably those of the Trolhaettan Falls, and
 of the rocky Norwegian coast--afford a parallel to these passages. She
@@ -7757,7 +7733,7 @@ of her life is the best record of her virtues.
 
 It has been the aim of the present study to prove Mary Wollstonecraft
 the spiritual child and heir to the French philosophers of her own
-and of the preceding century--to a Poullain de la Barre, a Fénelon, a
+and of the preceding century--to a Poullain de la Barre, a Fénelon, a
 Mme de Lambert, a d'Holbach, who ventured to propose a scheme for the
 improvement of the deplorable conditions of an erring and suffering
 womanhood. More extreme in her views, and more determined in her claims
@@ -7831,7 +7807,7 @@ independence.
 [46] See Morley's _Rousseau_.
 
 [47] See Lilly Bascho, _Englische Schriftstellerinnen in ihre
-Beziehungen zur französischen Revolution_. (_Anglia 41)._
+Beziehungen zur französischen Revolution_. (_Anglia 41)._
 
 [48] Curiously enough, Hannah More,--who refers to the education of
 the children as "the great object to which those who are, or may be
@@ -7858,29 +7834,29 @@ BIBLIOGRAPHY
 
      ADDISON AND STEELE. The Tatler; The Spectator; The Guardian.
 
-     ASCOLI, G. Les idées féministes en France. (Revue de Synthèse
+     ASCOLI, G. Les idées féministes en France. (Revue de Synthèse
      historique, 1906.)
 
      ASTELL, MARY. A Serious Proposal to the Ladies. (London, 1696.)
 
      BASCHO, LILLY. Englische Schriftstellerinnen in ihre Beziehungen
-     zur französischen Revolution. (Anglia, 41.)
+     zur französischen Revolution. (Anglia, 41.)
 
      BLEASE, W. LYON. The Emancipation of English Women. (National
      Political Press, 1913.)
 
-     BLED, V. DU. La société française. (Libraire académique, Paris,
+     BLED, V. DU. La société française. (Libraire académique, Paris,
      1900.)
 
-     BOULAN, E. Figures du dix-huitième siècle. (Leiden, 1920.)
+     BOULAN, E. Figures du dix-huitième siècle. (Leiden, 1920.)
 
      BRAILSFORD, H. N. Shelley, Godwin and their Circle.
 
-     BRUNETIÈRE, F. Histoire de la littérature française classique.
+     BRUNETIÈRE, F. Histoire de la littérature française classique.
      (Vol. II and III.)
 
-     BRUNETIÈRE, F. Nouvelles Etudes classiques. (La société française
-     au 17ième siècle.)
+     BRUNETIÈRE, F. Nouvelles Etudes classiques. (La société française
+     au 17ième siècle.)
 
      BUCKLE, H. TH. History of Civilisation in England. (Longman, Green
      and Co., London, 1903.)
@@ -7892,7 +7868,7 @@ BIBLIOGRAPHY
 
      A Cambridge History of English Literature, Vol. XI.
 
-     CHABAUD, L. Les Précurseurs du féminisme.
+     CHABAUD, L. Les Précurseurs du féminisme.
 
      CHAPONE, HESTER. Letters on the Improvement of the Mind.
 
@@ -7900,7 +7876,7 @@ BIBLIOGRAPHY
 
      CLIMENSON, E. J. Mrs. Montagu.
 
-     COMPAYRÉ, G. Histoire critique des doctrines de l'éducation en
+     COMPAYRÉ, G. Histoire critique des doctrines de l'éducation en
      France.
 
      DAY, THOMAS. Sandford and Merton.
@@ -7927,28 +7903,28 @@ BIBLIOGRAPHY
      GODWIN, W. Memoirs of the Author of a Vindication of the Rights of
      Women.
 
-     GRAPPIN, H. Poullain de la Barre. (Revue d'histoire littéraire de
+     GRAPPIN, H. Poullain de la Barre. (Revue d'histoire littéraire de
      la France, Tome XX.)
 
-     GIRARDIN, ST. MARC. Cours de littérature dramatique. (Vol. III.)
+     GIRARDIN, ST. MARC. Cours de littérature dramatique. (Vol. III.)
 
      HALES, J. W. The Last Decade of the Last Century. (Contemp.
      Review, Vol. 62.)
 
-     D'HOLBACH. Le Système Social.
+     D'HOLBACH. Le Système Social.
 
      HUCHON, R. Mrs. Montagu and her Friends.
 
      KEGAN PAUL, C. William Godwin, his Friends and Contemporaries.
 
-     LANSON, G. Lettres du dix-huitième Siècle.
+     LANSON, G. Lettres du dix-huitième Siècle.
 
      LARROUMET, G. Marivaux, sa Vie et ses oeuvres.
 
      LEFRANC, ABEL. Le tiers Livre du Pantagruel et la querelle des
      femmes. (Etudes Rabelaisiennes, Tome II, 1904.)
 
-     LIVET, CH. L. Précieux et Précieuses. (Paris, 1895.)
+     LIVET, CH. L. Précieux et Précieuses. (Paris, 1895.)
 
      LYTTLETON, Lord. Dialogues of the Dead. (Containing three
      Dialogues by Mrs. Montagu.)
@@ -7961,7 +7937,7 @@ BIBLIOGRAPHY
 
      MORE, HANNAH. Poems.
 
-     MORF, H. Geschichte der französischen Literatur im Zeitalter der
+     MORF, H. Geschichte der französischen Literatur im Zeitalter der
      Renaissance.
 
      MORLEY, JOHN. Rousseau.
@@ -7970,12 +7946,12 @@ BIBLIOGRAPHY
 
      PENNELL, E. R. Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin. (Eminent Women Series.)
 
-     PIÉRON, H. Poulain de la Barre. (Revue de synthèse historique,
+     PIÉRON, H. Poulain de la Barre. (Revue de synthèse historique,
      1902.)
 
      PILON, EDM. Muses et Bourgeoises de jadis. (Paris, 1908.)
 
-     PILON, EDM. Portraits français.
+     PILON, EDM. Portraits français.
 
      POPE, ALEXANDER. Moral Essays. (Epistle II: On the Characters of
      Women.)
@@ -7986,7 +7962,7 @@ BIBLIOGRAPHY
 
      ROUSSEAU, J. J. Du Contrat Social.
 
-     ROUSSEAU, J. J. Julie, ou la Nouvelle Héloise.
+     ROUSSEAU, J. J. Julie, ou la Nouvelle Héloise.
 
      ROBERTS, W. Memoirs of the Life and Correspondence of Mrs. Hannah
      More.
@@ -8006,12 +7982,12 @@ BIBLIOGRAPHY
      TAYLOR, G. R. S. Mary Wollstonecraft.
 
      TEXTE, JOSEPH. J. J. Rousseau et les origines du cosmopolitisme
-     littéraire.
+     littéraire.
 
-     TOINET, R. Les Ecrivains Moralistes au 17ième siècle. (Revue
-     d'Histoire Littéraire de la France, T. 23, 24, 25).
+     TOINET, R. Les Ecrivains Moralistes au 17ième siècle. (Revue
+     d'Histoire Littéraire de la France, T. 23, 24, 25).
 
-     VILLEY, P. L'Influence de Montaigne sur les Idées pédagogiques de
+     VILLEY, P. L'Influence de Montaigne sur les Idées pédagogiques de
      Locke et de Rousseau.
 
      WHEELER, E. R. Famous Bluestockings. (Methuen and Co., London.)
@@ -8066,7 +8042,7 @@ STELLINGEN
      9. Behoudens het geven van eene beknopte historische inleiding is
      het niet wenschelijk het onderwijs in de Engelsche letterkunde
      aan onze middelbare scholen en gymnasia uit te strekken tot die
-     perioden welke vallen vóór Shakespeare.
+     perioden welke vallen vóór Shakespeare.
 
 
 
@@ -8075,366 +8051,4 @@ STELLINGEN
 End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mary Wollstonecraft and the beginnings
 of female emancipation in France and   England, by Jacob Bouten
 
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diff --git a/59448-h/59448-h.htm b/59448-h/59448-h.htm
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--- a/59448-h/59448-h.htm
+++ b/59448-h/59448-h.htm
@@ -69,43 +69,7 @@
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-Title: Mary Wollstonecraft and the beginnings of female emancipation in France and   England
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 <div class ="mynote"><p class="center">Transcriber's Note:<br /><br />
@@ -8285,381 +8249,7 @@ perioden welke vallen vóór Shakespeare.</p></blockquote>
 
 
 
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