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diff --git a/59630-0.txt b/59630-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c86cd2 --- /dev/null +++ b/59630-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2030 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59630 *** + + + + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber Note + +Text emphasis denoted as _Italics_ and =Bold=. + + + + + Issued August 23, 1912. + + + U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. + + FARMERS' BULLETIN 503. + + + + COMB HONEY. + + + + BY + + GEO. S. DEMUTH. + + _Apicultural Assistant, Bureau of Entomology._ + + + [Illustration] + + + WASHINGTON: + + GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE + + 1912. + + +LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL + + + U.S. Department of Agriculture, + Bureau of Entomology, + _Washington, D. C., April 16, 1912_. + +Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript +entitled "Comb Honey," by Geo. S. Demuth, apicultural assistant in this +bureau. + +In view of the increasing demand for the finest grade of comb honey +and a decrease in the amount of comb honey produced, it seems timely +to present to professional beekeepers an analysis of the best practice +as well as to point out some essentials to the production of maximum +crops of the best grade. I recommend the publication of this paper as a +Farmers' Bulletin. + + Respectfully, + L. O. Howard, + _Entomologist and Chief of Bureau_. + + Hon. James Wilson, + _Secretary of Agriculture_. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page + + Introduction 5 + + Apparatus for comb-honey production 6 + Shop and honey house 6 + Hives 7 + Sectional hives 10 + Sections and supers 10 + Bee way v. plain sections 10 + Dimensions of sections 11 + Supers 12 + The method of support 12 + Protection 13 + Free communication within the super 14 + The use of separators 15 + Shallow extracting supers 16 + Combination supers 16 + Other apparatus 16 + Preparing supers 17 + Folding sections 17 + Fastening foundation in sections 17 + Manipulation of the bees 18 + Securing workers for the honey flow 20 + Building up the colony in the early spring 21 + The production of gathering bees 22 + Providing sufficient stores 23 + Providing available brood-rearing space 23 + Summary 24 + Using available workers to best advantage during the honey flow 25 + Swarming 26 + Preventive measures 26 + Control measures 27 + Control of natural swarms 28 + Using the removed brood to best advantage 29 + What to use in the brood chamber when hiving swarms 32 + Extreme contraction of the brood chamber when hiving swarms 33 + Swarm control by manipulation 34 + Taking the queen from the hive 35 + Removing the brood from the hive 37 + Separating the queen and brood within the hive 40 + Manipulation of the supers 41 + Caring for the crop 44 + Removing the honey from the hives 44 + Care of comb honey 45 + Scraping propolis from sections 45 + Grading comb honey 46 + Packages for comb honey 46 + Marketing 47 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + Page + + Fig. 1. A 10-frame hive with comb-honey super and perforated + zinc queen excluder 8 + 2. Perforated zinc queen excluder 9 + 3. Beeway and plain sections, unfolded 10 + 4. Plain section in super, showing method of spacing 11 + 5. Beeway section in super, showing method of spacing 11 + 6. Square and oblong sections 12 + 7. The T super 13 + 8. Super with section holder for beeway sections 13 + 9. Super with section holder for square plain section 14 + 10. Super with section holder for oblong plain sections 14 + 11. Combination super with wide frames for oblong plain + sections 15 + 12. Bee-escape board for removing bees from supers 17 + 13. Drone and queen trap on hive entrance 28 + 14. Colony before swarming; supers in place 29 + 15. Brood placed in hive turned 00 degrees from old entrance 29 + 16. Hive with brood turned back to 45 degrees from old + entrance 30 + 17. Hive with brood turned parallel to old entrance 30 + 18. Hive with brood placed on other side of old entrance 31 + 19. Arrangement of supers 42 + 20. Shipping cases for comb honey 47 + + + + +COMB HONEY. + + + + +=INTRODUCTION.= + + +The present tendency in beekeeping is decidedly toward the production +of extracted honey rather than of comb honey. The recent activity among +beekeepers toward specialization, which necessitates the establishing +of out-apiaries, and the rapidly increasing demand for extracted +honey are among the factors bringing about this condition. Enormous +quantities of honey are now used for manufacturing purposes, and this +demand is, of course, solely for extracted honey. + +If the general public finally becomes convinced of the purity and +wholesomeness of extracted honey, this will become a staple article +of food. Comb honey to command the higher price--proportionate to +the greater cost of production--must justify the extra cost to the +consumer by its finer appearance. The consumer of extracted honey +is not concerned as to the straightness or finish of the combs in +which it was originally stored, but by virtue of its appearance there +will probably always be a good demand for the finest grade of comb +honey where appearance is the chief consideration. Present tendencies +therefore emphasize the desirability of producing comb honey of the +most attractive appearance possible. + +Well-filled sections of comb honey with delicate white comb and perfect +cappings are obtainable only during a rapid honey flow of sufficient +duration to insure their completion. The production of comb honey, the +appearance of which is sufficient to justify its extra cost, requires +a combination of conditions that are peculiar to rather limited areas, +outside of which the beekeeper will find it decidedly advantageous to +produce extracted honey. + +Comb-honey production should not be attempted in localities where the +honey flow is very slow or intermittent, where the character of the +honey is such that it granulates quickly in the comb while it is on the +market, where the honey is dark or "off color," or where honeys from +various sources are mixed if these different sources produce honey of +different colors and flavors. Local market conditions may of course in +some instances be such as to make it seem advisable to produce comb +honey in limited quantities in a locality that is not well suited to +comb-honey production, but the beekeeper who produces comb honey for +the general market should first be sure that his is a comb-honey +locality. Even in the best localities during an occasional season +conditions are such that it is not possible to produce comb-honey of +fine appearance. Some comb-honey specialists find it profitable to +provide an equipment for extracted honey for such an emergency. In some +cases comb honey is produced only during the height of the season, when +conditions are most favorable, extracting supers being used both at the +beginning and close of the honey flow. + +While the professional beekeeper is thus curtailing the production of +indifferent grades of comb honey, bee diseases are rapidly eliminating +the careless producers. From the present indications, therefore, it +would seem certain that there must be a gradual elimination from the +markets of all inferior and indifferent comb honey--grades that must +compete directly with extracted honey. This should mark a new era in +the production of the beat grades of comb honey in the localities that +are peculiarly adapted to comb-honey production. The beekeeper who is +thus favorably located will do well to consider the possibilities of +future market conditions for a fancy grade of comb honey. + +Tho following discussion is necessarily but a brief outline of modern +apparatus and methods and of course can not in any sense take the +place of the broad experience necessary in profitable comb-honey +production. It is assumed that the reader is more or less familiar with +the more general phases of beekeeping. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 447. +This bulletin also contains a complete list of publications of the +Department of Agriculture on beekeeping.) + + + + +=APPARATUS FOR COMB-HONEY PRODUCTION.= + + +=Shop and Honey House.= + +A building containing storage space for apparatus, a well-lighted +and ventilated workshop as well as a honey room, is a necessity in +comb-honey production. The arrangement and location of the shop and +honey house will depend upon local conditions and circumstances. Tho +usual mistake is in constructing those too small. In the North the +shop and honey house is usually built over the wintering repository or +collar. Since rats or mice would do great damage to the contents of +such a storehouse, the construction should be such as to exclude them. +If a concrete foundation is used and the sills are embedded in a layer +of "green" mortar, no trouble of this kind should be experienced. If a +series of out-apiaries are operated for comb honey, the supers, extra +hives, etc, are usually kept in one building located near the home of +the beekeeper. This serves as a central station and storehouse, the +supplies being hauled to and from the apiaries as needed. This building +may be supplemented by a very small building at each apiary, though in +comb-honey production this is not really necessary. + +The honey room should be so located that it will receive the heat from +the sun, preferably an upstairs room immediately under the roof. When +so located a small hand elevator should be installed for taking the +honey up and down. The room should be papered or ceiled inside to keep +out insects and to permit fumigation if necessary and should contain +facilities for artificially heating in case continued damp or freezing +weather should occur before the honey is marketed. The honey room +should be provided with ample floor support for the great weight that +may be placed upon it. + + +=Hives.= + +A beehive must serve the dual purpose of being a home for a colony +of bees and at the same time a tool for the beekeeper. Its main +requirements are along the line of its adaptation to the various +manipulations of the apiary in so far as these do not materially +interfere with the protection and comfort it affords the colony of +bees. Since rapid manipulation is greatly facilitated by simple and +uniform apparatus, one of the fundamental requirements of the equipment +in hives is that they be of the same style and size, with all parts +exactly alike and interchangeable throughout the apiary. While the +hives and equipment should be as simple and inexpensive as possible, +consistent with their various functions, a cheap and poorly constructed +beehive is, all things considered, an expensive piece of apparatus. + +In this country the Langstroth (or L) frame (9-1/8 by 17-5/8 inches) +(fig. 1) is the standard frame and throughout this paper frames of +brood will be discussed in terms of this size of frame. The advantages +of standard frames and hives are so great that the beekeeper can not +afford to ignore them for the sake of some slight advantage of another +size. + +There is, however, a wide difference of opinion as to the number of +frames that should be used in a single hive body. The wide variation +in the building up of colonies previous to the honey flow in different +localities and seasons, the race of bees, and the skill of the +beekeeper are all factors entering into this problem, which make it +improbable that beekeepers will ever fully agree on this point. The +races that build up more rapidly in the spring are, of course, other +things being equal, able to use to advantage a larger brood chamber +than the races that are more conservative in brood rearing. It is also +noticeable that within certain limits as the beekeeper's skill in +building up his colonies for the flow increases, so the size of the +brood chamber best adapted to his purpose increases. In other words, +while the careful and skillful beekeeper may succeed in having large +brood chambers well filled with brood at the beginning of the honey +flow, the less skillful beekeeper under similar conditions may be doing +well to approximate this condition with a much smaller brood chamber. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.--A 10-frame hive with comb-honey super +and perforated zinc queen excluder. (From Phillips.)] + +For comb-honey production the brood chamber should be of such a size +that by proper management it may be well filled with brood at the +beginning of the honey flow, so that the brood and surplus apartments +maybe definitely separated. A brood chamber may be considered too large +if by proper management it is not on an average fairly well filled with +brood at the beginning of the honey flow, and too small if it provides +an average of less room than the colony is able to occupy with brood +previous to the honey flow. Unless the beekeeper practices feeding, a +brood chamber that does not contain sufficient room for both winter +stores and brood rearing during late summer and autumn may also be +considered too small. It may be well to note that by this standard +if the brood chamber seems to be too large the fault may lie in the +management during the previous autumn, winter, or spring. Of course the +brood chamber that is barely large enough for one colony will be too +large for another in the same apiary or the character of the season may +be such that all brood chambers may be too large for best results one +season and too small the next, so an average must be sought. While by +manipulation good results may be secured by the use of any of the sizes +in common use, any great departure in either direction from the size +best suited to conditions of a given locality necessitates an excessive +increase in labor to give best results. There is at the present +time a strong tendency toward the use of the 10-frame hive body as +a medium-sized brood chamber which may be used as a unit of a larger +elastic brood chamber when necessary. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Perforated zinc queen excluder. (From +Phillips.)] + +The comb-honey producer is more exacting as to certain details of +construction of hives than is the producer of extracted honey since +it is more necessary for him to handle individual brood frames during +the honey flow. The spaces[1] above and between the top bars of the +brood frames must be accurate or they will be bridged with burr and +brace combs and these filled with honey. Burr and brace combs make the +removal and readjustment of the super and the manipulation of frames a +slow and disagreeable task, to say nothing of the waste of material, +which should have been placed in the sections in the beginning. The +use of the slatted honey board (fig. 2), while preventing brace combs +between itself and the super, does not prevent the building of burr and +brace combs between and above the top bars of the frames. This trouble +is largely eliminated by proper spacing. Most hive manufacturers are at +present making the top bars of the brood frames of such a width that +the spaces between them is from one-fourth to five-sixteenths inch with +the same spacing above them. The difficulty, however, is in maintaining +this spacing with any great degree of accuracy. Self-spacing frames[2] +are a partial solution of this difficulty. In some localities, however, +the ordinary self-spacing frames are so badly propolized as to render +their removal from the brood chamber difficult as well as materially +to interfere with the proper spacing. The advantages of such frames +are then nullified, while their disadvantages are retained or even +intensified. In such localities metal spacers having but small surfaces +of contact are sometimes used. Some beekeepers prefer omitting the +spacers entirely. However, some of the difficulties arising from the +use of self-spacing frames are the result of carelessness on the part +of the operator in not crowding the frames together properly when +closing the hive after having handled the frames. + +[1] A bee space, or that space to which bees are least inclined to +put comb or propolis, is perhaps a scant one-fourth inch. In hive +construction one-fourth or five-sixteenths inch is usually used. + +[2] These are so constructed that the end bars are one-fourth or +five-sixteenths inch wider than the top bars throughout a portion of +their length or furnished with projections of metal fitted to the edges +of the frame. In either case the adjustment is such that when the +frames are crowded together in the hive the spaces between the top bars +will be correct. + +=SECTIONAL HIVES.= + +The sectional hive in which the brood chamber is composed of two or +more shallow hive bodies, making it horizontally divisible, offers +some advantages, especially to the comb-honey specialist. Most of the +ordinary manipulations can be performed readily with such hives without +removing the frames. One of their greatest advantages in comb-honey +production is the rapidity with which the apiarist can examine the +colonies for queen cells if natural swarming is to be controlled by +manipulation. They are also very elastic, the units or sections usually +being of 5-L frame capacity, permitting a brood chamber capacity of 5 +or any multiple of 5-L frames. Among the disadvantages of these hives +are the extra cost owing to the greater number of parts necessary in +their construction and the difficulty in maintaining proper spacing +without the use of top bars on the frames heavier than would seem +advisable in the middle of the brood nest. + + +=Sections and Supers.= + +There is a wide variation in the style of sections and the supers +designed to contain them. This, whole to some extent brought about +by different local conditions, is largely due merely to the notions +of individual beekeepers. Comb-honey apparatus could probably be +standardized without sacrificing any really vital features. + +=BEEWAY _v._ PLAIN SECTIONS.= + +There are two general styles of sections in common use differing in the +method of spacing--the beeway section in which the spacer is a part +of the section itself (fig. 5), and the plain in which the spacer is a +permanent part of the separator (fig. 4). Each style has its advocates +and each offers some advantages. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Beeway and plain sections, unfolded. +(Original.) ] + +Some of the advantages of the plain (fig. 3) over the beeway sections +are: (1) They are simpler in construction, therefore costing less. +(2) The edges being plain with no insets, the plain sections are more +easily cleaned of propolis when being prepared for market and are +especially adapted to cleaning by machinery. (3) By leaving the spacers +in the super, sections of the same honey content occupy less space in +the shipping case, thus reducing the cost of packages. (4) The plain +section is adapted to an arrangement permitting freer communication +lengthwise of the row of sections, especially at the corners (p. 15). + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Plain section In super, showing method +of spacing. (Original.)] + +Some of the advantages of the beeway sections (fig. 3) are: (1) The +honey is somewhat less liable to injury by handling. (2) Being wider at +the corners where folded, they are stronger. (3) Some markets, being +accustomed to the larger cases necessary to contain a given number of +beeway sections, object to the smaller package containing the same +number of plain sections, simply because it is smaller. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Beeway section In super, showing +method of spacing. (Original.)] + +=DIMENSIONS OF SECTIONS.= + +Sections of various dimensions are in use by beekeepers, but the sizes +in general use are the 4-1/4 inches square and the 4 by 5 inches. Some +producers prefer the 4 by 5 sections because of the more pleasing +appearance of the oblong package (fig. 6). The standard widths of the +4-1/4 by 4-1/4 inches section are 1-7/8 inches in the beeway style +and 1-1/2 inches in the plain section. The extra width in the beeway +style is for the purpose of spacing and does not add to the thickness +of the comb. The 4 by 5 is 1-3/8 or 1-1/2 inches wide in the plain +style and not much used in the beeway style. The 1-3/8 width of the 4 +by 5 section contains practically the same amount of honey when filled +as the 4-1/4 by 4-1/4 by 1-1/2 plain or the 4-1/4 by 4-1/4 by 1-7/8 +beeway, assuming of course that all are used with separators and filled +under like conditions. Since there are well-defined limits as to the +thickness of the combs most profitable to produce, the area of one comb +surface in a section weighing about a pound is usually from 16 to 20 +square inches, the exact size and shape being an adaptation to given +space in the super. The thinner combs, showing more comb surface, have +the appearance of being larger and a greater number can be accommodated +on a given hive. Honey in such combs may also be ripened sooner and +possibly better than in thicker combs. They, however, require more +foundation for each pound of honey produced and a slightly greater +amount of wax, in proportion to the honey, to complete them. Also +the thinner the comb, the greater the difficulty with the sheets of +foundation swinging to one side on account of uneven work on the two +sides or because the hives do not stand level. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Square and oblong sections. +(Original.)] + +=SUPERS.= + +The main points of difference between the various types of comb-honey +supers are in (1) the method of supporting the sections, (2) the amount +of protection afforded to the outside of the section and (3) the degree +of free communication from section to section within the super. + +=The Method of Support.= + +Sections are supported either by means of cross supports under the +ends of the sections or by a slat of proper width supporting each +row of sections. The T super (fig. 7), so called from the shape of +a cross section of the strip of tin used to support the sections is +illustrative of the first, while the supporting slats, section holders +(figs. 8, 9 and 10), and wide frames (fig. 11) are illustrative of the +second type of support. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7.--The T super. (Original.)] + +=Protection.= + +The T super and others of this type offer no protection against +propolizing to either the top or bottom of the sections, the section +holder or slat (figs. 8, 9, and 10) protects the bottom, while in +the wide frame (fig. 11) the entire outer surface of the sections is +protected except at the edges. The greater the protection afforded +the section, the more complicated and expensive the super, and the +more complicated supers require more labor in cleaning of propolis and +filling with sections. On the other hand, sections of honey produced in +properly constructed wide-frame supers are much more easily cleaned of +propolis, and ordinarily present a neater appearance when packed for +market. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Super with section holder for beeway +sections. (Original.)] + +=Free Communication Within the Super.= + +The use of closed-top sections (1-beeway) and solid separators, making +each section a separate compartment with openings for the bees at the +bottom only, illustrates one extreme; while the sections with openings +on all four sides (4-beeway) used without separators illustrate the +other extreme as to free communication; and between these extremes are +various intermediate types. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Super with section holder for square +plain sections. (Original.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Super with section holder for oblong +plain sections. (Original.)] + +It would be desirable so to adjust the sections that when filled +with honey a row of them would, so far as the bees are concerned, +be equivalent to a single comb, that the bees might have the same +free access to the outside row of cells from all sides as they do +the other cells and might pass up or down from any section and the +full length of the row, as well as around the ends. While, under the +same conditions, such free access to the outside row of cells from +all sides would result in the sections being slightly better filled +than with the ordinary adjustments, such an arrangement presents some +mechanical difficulties and would add considerable to the first cost +of the supers. If separators were not necessary, such an adjustment of +sections could be readily accomplished. In Europe a type of separator +having transverse openings corresponding to the upright edges of the +sections is used to give free communication lengthwise of the row of +sections. In this country some such separators are used as well as a +separator made of wire cloth so spaced between the rows of sections as +to give free communication along the rows, as well as from one row to +another. These, however, are not widely used in the United States. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Combination super with wide frames +for oblong plain sections. (Original.)] + +The plain section, when used in connection with the "fence" separator +(fig. 4), having the upright posts considerably shorter than the height +of the section, offers a fair compromise as to free communication +within the super. Most of the comb honey produced in this country, +however, is produced in sections which offer no communication from +section to section lengthwise of the super, being produced in the +regular 2-beeway section, having openings at the top and bottom only +(figs. 7 and 8). + +=THE USE OF SEPARATORS.= + +Separators are made of strips of tin or wood and are used between the +rows of sections to compel the tees to build the combs straight and +all within the section. The thicker the combs the greater becomes the +necessity for separators. While an expert can produce very uniform +comb honey without separators during a heavy honey flow by using very +narrow sections, it is usually not advisable to do so on account of +the resulting large percentage of imperfect combs, especially during +poor and indifferent seasons and at the close of any season. The use of +separators results in a much more uniform product. + +=SHALLOW EXTRACTING SUPERS.= + +Some comb-honey producers add to their equipment one shallow extracting +super for each colony. These are a great convenience in a comb-honey +apiary and may be used for the following purposes: (1) To keep the +brood chamber free of honey before the beginning of the main honey +flow; (2) to use at the beginning of the honey flow to induce the bees +to begin work promptly in the supers; (3) to use at the close of the +honey flow instead of the last comb-honey super; (4) to use during any +flow of inferior honey or honeydew; (5) to use during very poor seasons +when first-class comb honey can not be produced. + +=COMBINATION SUPERS.= + +Other comb-honey producers provide each comb-honey super with two +shallow extracting combs. These are placed one on each side of the +super with the sections between them (fig. 11). The purpose of this +arrangement is to induce the bees to begin work in the super promptly +without the use of "bait sections" (sections containing comb previously +drawn) or an extracting super and also to do away with the usual poorly +finished sections in the corners and outside rows. One great advantage +of this system over the use of an extracting super to start early super +work is that the combs are not removed. When shallow extracting supers +are used for this purpose, they are removed as soon as the bees have +started well in them and a comb-honey super substituted. This brings +back much the same conditions existing before giving the extracting +super, and while some colonies will begin work in the sections promptly +when the change is made, many colonies hesitate about beginning the +new work almost as though the extracting super had not been used. Such +colonies are thus thrown out of "condition", (p. 19) and may begin +preparations to swarm. The use of these combs in supers that are added +subsequently allows the apiarist to place the empty super over the one +already on the hive until the bees begin work therein without seriously +crowding the super room, because each super thus added contains room in +the form of empty comb into which the new nectar may be stored at once +(see p. 42). + + +=Other Apparatus.= + +Among the other apparatus needed in commercial comb-honey production +are a honey extractor, wax press, bee-escapes, and escape boards (fig. +12), queen-excluding honey boards (fig. 2), feeders, tools, etc. It is +not necessary to provide queen-excluding honey boards for each colony +unless some special system is followed, yet a few excluders are very +desirable for various special manipulations. Good feeders may be had by +using tin pans in connection with an empty super. A handful of grass +should be placed on the sirup to prevent the bees from drowning. In +addition to these appliances in the northern States, if the hives are +single walled, some means of protection is necessary if the colonies +are wintered out of doors. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Bee-escape board for removing bees +from supers. (From Phillips.)] + + +=Preparing Supers.= + +=FOLDING SECTIONS.= + +Section presses and foundation fasteners are sometimes combined in +one machine by which the section is pressed together square and the +foundation is fastened by a single operation. Usually, however, +they are separate machines requiring that each section be handled +twice before it is ready to be placed into the super. Ordinarily the +one-piece sections must be dampened before folding, as otherwise +the breakage is considerable and the sections are greatly weakened +by folding. A crate of sections as it comes from the factory may be +dampened by removing one side so as to expose the V-shaped grooves, +then directing a small stream of hot water into these grooves. Care +should be taken that only the thin portion where the section is folded +be dampened. Another very satisfactory method of dampening sections is +to wrap the crates containing them in a wet blanket the day before they +are to be folded. + +=FASTENING FOUNDATION IN SECTIONS.= + +The use of comb foundation in full sheets filling each section as +nearly as possible is considered a necessity in the production of fancy +comb honey. This foundation should be as thin as can be used without +being gnawed or torn down by the bees. The sheet of foundation is +usually fastened centrally at the top of the section, leaving only +enough space at the sides to allow it to swing freely without binding +and about three-sixteenths to one-fourth inch at the bottom to allow +for stretching while being drawn out. To secure better attachment +of the comb to the bottom of the section, a bottom starter about +five-eighths inch wide may be used. In this case the top starter should +reach to within three-sixteenths to one-fourth inch of the bottom +starter. In some localities the character of the flow is such that +but little is gained by the use of the bottom starter, while in other +localities it is difficult to produce honey that will stand shipment +well without it. + +The various types of apparatus usually used for fastening foundation +in the sections make use of a heated metal plate which, after melting +the edge of the sheet of foundation, is withdrawn, allowing the melted +edge to be brought quickly in contact with the section. This fastens +one edge of the sheet of foundation firmly to the wood. Foundation +fasteners employing this principle may be simply a hand apparatus +consisting of a metal plate of proper size provided with a handle, the +operator transferring the tool from the source of heat to the edge +of the foundation. Or the principle may be incorporated in a more or +less complex machine which provides for the maintenance of the proper +temperature of the heated plate, its movement to melt the edge of the +foundation and a proper support for the section and foundation during +the process. For the purpose of securing better filled sections of +honey various methods of attaching the sheet of foundation to the +sides as well as the top of the section have been devised, but are not +extensively used by producers. Among these methods are fitting the +sheet of foundation in place, then directing a fine stream of melted +wax along its edges, or the use of split sections in which a sheet of +foundation is continuous through a row of sections, extending through +their sides and top. + +Some super construction is such that the sections may be placed +directly into the super by the operator who puts in the foundation. +This work is usually done during the winter months when the bees +require no special attention. Enough supers should be provided to take +care of the largest possible crop, even though it is not often that +all are used the same season. The beekeeper who is operating several +apiaries can not afford to take time to prepare supers for the bees +during a good honey flow. Supers of sections thus prepared in advance +should be kept clean by storing them in piles and keeping the piles +covered from dust. + + + + +=MANIPULATION OF THE BEES.= + + +It is important to note that there are four essential factors entering +into the securing of a crop of honey: (1) A sufficient amount of bloom +of healthy and well-nourished nectar-secreting plants growing in sou +to which they are adapted and within range of the apiary. (2) Weather +conditions favorable to nectar secretion and bee flight. (3) A large +number of workers in excess of those needed for the routine work of +the colony. (4) Conditions of the colony making the storing instinct +dominant. If any one of these factors is absent, the effect of the +other three is immediately nullified, and the amount of honey secured +will vary as these factors are present at the same time in greater or +less degree or as the time during which they are all present is longer +or shorter. It is therefore possible to have each of these factors +present at some time during the season without securing a crop of honey +and the period of time during which they are all present at the same +time is usually quite short. + +Grouping the first and second factors we have a combination usually +spoken of as the locality and season. These factors are largely beyond +the control of the beekeeper except as he may choose a location in +which both are usually present at some time or times during the season, +may take advantage of the plants of several locations by practising +migratory beekeeping, or may improve a given locality by directly or +indirectly increasing the amount of nectar-secreting plants, such as +buckwheat, alsike clover, sweet clover, or alfalfa. + +Grouping the third and fourth factors we have conditions capable of +being brought about by manipulation and for which the beekeeper is +more directly responsible. The beekeeper's skill therefore lies in +supplying and maintaining these factors throughout the short period +during which the bees may store more than they consume. He should know +which plants may be expected to furnish the nectar for his crop of +honey, that his various manipulations may be properly timed. It should +be noted that the shorter the duration of the honey flow, the greater +becomes the necessity of having the colonies in proper condition at its +beginning and keeping them so until its close. However lavish nature +may be with the secretion of nectar and fine weather, it is of little +avail if the beekeeper fails to secure a large force of workers to +gather and store his crop or, even having provided workers, if he fails +to keep his forces together and contented, bending all their energy +in the one direction of gathering and storing honey. It is a common +occurrence among inexperienced beekeepers to have the colonies become +strong enough to work in the supers only after the flowers have ceased +blooming or to see strong colonies during a good honey flow doing +nothing in the supers simply because conditions are not such as to make +the storing instinct dominant. + +So far as the skill of the beekeeper is concerned in the production of +the crop of honey in a given location, every manipulation of the season +should be directed (1) toward securing the greatest possible number of +vigorous workers at the proper time, and (2) keeping the entire working +force of each colony together and contentedly at work throughout the +given honey flow. + + +=Securing Workers for the Honey Flow.= + +Of course, the shorter the period for brood rearing previous to the +honey flow, the more serious the problem of getting the colonies strong +enough. Adverse weather conditions greatly retard brood rearing and +thus have the effect of shortening this period. On the other hand, in +some localities the main honey flow comes so late in the season that +the colonies may even be divided and both divisions built up. + +In most comb-honey localities the season is short and there is usually +during the season only one honey flow that furnishes any considerable +surplus suitable for comb honey, with perhaps other honey flows either +very meager or furnishing honey unsuitable in color. The early minor +flows are in such localities utilized in brood rearing in preparation +for the main flow, and those occurring after the main flow may be +utilized for winter stores, or if sufficient in quantity some surplus +may be secured. In localities where the season is made up of a series +of honey flows of almost equal importance and with sometimes a long +interval between, the problem of securing workers for the harvest is +rendered more complex, since the process must be repeated for each crop +or the colonies kept very strong throughout the season. As a rule such +localities are not the best for comb-honey production. + +The workers that gather and store the crop of honey are those that +emerge during the few weeks preceding and during the first part of the +honey flow. Unless it is of unusual duration, the eggs that produce +these workers are all laid before the honey flow begins, since those +which develop from eggs laid later are not ready for work until after +the close of the flow. On the other hand, the workers that emerge six +weeks or more before the honey flow will have died of old age or be too +old to be of much value during the flow. Their services, however, are +of great value provided they expend their energy to the best possible +advantage in rearing brood. If brood rearing ceases or is greatly +restricted during this period, a colony that has been strong earlier in +the season is rendered almost worthless as gatherers, since it begins +the harvest with old and worn-out workers. This is exactly what often +happens unless the beekeeper is alert and provides conditions such +that brood rearing is not restricted during this period. In the clover +belt, for example, it frequently happens that there is a scarcity of +nectar during the period when the workers for the harvest should be +reared and, unless the colonies are abundantly supplied with stores, +brood rearing is greatly restricted. This may to some extent justify +the saying among beekeepers that if the early flowers yield well the +season will be good. The progressive beekeeper, however, provides +conditions favorable to brood rearing even though the early flowers +fail to yield nectar. It is therefore highly important (1) that each +colony be in a normal condition at a period six or eight weeks previous +to the honey flow, and (2) that brood rearing be at its maximum for the +entire period of six or eight weeks during which the brood is reared to +produce workers available for the honey flow. + +=BUILDING UP THE COLONY IN THE EARLY SPRING.= + +The condition of the colonies in the early spring depends upon many +factors not all of which are under the control of the beekeeper. In +the white-clover belt for instance, where the honey flow comes early, +a large percentage of strong colonies in early spring means of course +that they have wintered well, which in turn is largely dependent +upon proper conditions the previous late summer and autumn. The +manipulations having for their purpose the rapid upbuilding of the +colony may therefore have their beginning at or even before the close +of the honey flow of the previous year, including late summer and fall +management and wintering. Good queens, preferably young, with enough +room for breeding purposes and a supply of stores during the previous +late summer and autumn are among the factors favoring good wintering. +During the winter the central idea is the conservation of the energy +of the bees, the complex details of which can not be presented in this +paper. + +The rapidity with which the colonies build up in early spring depends +upon a number of conditions, some of which are: (1) The number and +vitality of the workers; (2) the age and fecundity of the queen; +(3) the supply and location of stores within the hive; (4) weather +conditions; (5) the supply of new pollen, nectar, and water; (6) the +conservation of heat within the brood nest; (7) the race of bees; (8) +the character of the brood combs, etc. Most of these conditions are to +a great extent within the control of the beekeeper. By supplying each +colony with a young queen the previous autumn, or at least supplanting +all undesirable ones, a greater number of young and vigorous workers +are reared late in the season, which usually means greater vitality +and numbers the next spring. Young queens reared the previous summer +or autumn should be in prime condition the next spring. If to this +combination is added an abundance of stores within the hives, brood +rearing should progress rapidly, even in spite of adverse weather +conditions. It is now the general practice among beekeepers to supply +enough stores the previous autumn not only for winter stores but for +brood-rearing purposes the next spring. Since the amount consumed +during the winter varies considerably with different colonies, an +early examination to determine the amount of stores may be necessary. +Under some conditions it may be found profitable to stimulate brood +rearing early in the spring by slowly feeding diluted sugar sirup to +each colony, by spreading brood, or by doing both, but any very early +stimulation of this kind should be used with caution. Among extensive +beekeepers the tendency is decidedly toward letting the bees alone +until the weather is more settled, simply making sure that they have +sufficient stores. The apiary should, if possible, be so located that +the bees may have access to water without the necessity of exposure of +a long flight during bad weather. In localities that do not furnish +natural pollen, it may be necessary to feed an artificial substitute, +such as rye meal. A good hive that will conserve the heat of the +cluster is also a great help in early brood rearing. Some beekeepers +who winter their colonies in the cellar in single-walled hives find +it profitable to give them some additional protection after they have +been removed from the cellar. In the northern States double-walled +hives are especially advantageous during the spring. A protected +location for the apiary in some instances makes a great difference in +early brood rearing. Some races breed up more rapidly in the spring +than others. The Italians are somewhat conservative in this respect, +but have so many excellent traits that they are generally used in this +country. In localities having intermittent honey flows Italian bees may +not give the best results because of their tendency to restrict brood +rearing during the honey flow by crowding the queen and to curtail the +production of brood during a scarcity of nectar. Drone comb within the +brood nest in early spring is a decided barrier to rapid brood rearing. +Many brood combs considered by the average beekeeper to be perfect +contain, especially in the upper portion, a large percentage of cells +which can not be used for rearing worker brood because of imperfections +in shape and size due to the stretching of this portion of the combs +during hot weather. This suggests the advisability of the use of a +heavier grade of foundation or some method of using vertical wires or +wooden splints in the upper half of the sheet of foundation. + +=THE PRODUCTION OF GATHERING BEES.= + +During the six or eight weeks just preceding the honey flow every +colony should be encouraged to rear the greatest possible amount +of brood. Brood rearing during this period is often restricted by +insufficient stores or by insufficient room. It is therefore of great +importance that both stores and available brood-rearing space be +supplied in abundance. If stimulative feeding or spreading the brood is +practiced, this is the time it should be done. + +=Providing Sufficient Stores.= + +If feeding is not practiced during this critical period, the beekeeper +should see that each colony is at all times supplied with a reserve +of stores, for surprisingly large quantities are consumed when brood +rearing is going on rapidly. If any colonies should run short, brood +rearing will be carried on sparingly and the colony so severely +crippled that it may not recover its strength until after the honey +flow is over. + +Whether stimulative feeding or supplying each colony with an abundance +of reserve stores is the more profitable depends upon circumstances and +must be decided by each beekeeper for his own conditions. Stimulative +feeding, if properly done, will undoubtedly result in the rearing of +more bees for the harvest. When the beekeeper is operating several +apiaries and must travel some distance to reach them the labor involved +is considerable, and the question to be decided is whether this labor +would yield greater returns if expended in stimulative feeding or in +operating a larger number of colonies. If the brood chamber is large +and well provisioned or if the flowers furnish some nectar in early +spring the colonies may have sufficient stores for this period of heavy +brood rearing. Some beekeepers save combs of honey of the previous year +to supply food for this period. This is one of the most convenient and +satisfactory methods of feeding. + +=Providing Available Brood-Rearing Space.= + +There should be no restriction whatever in the room for brood rearing +up to the time of putting on the supers, just previous to the honey +flow, for a crowded brood nest at this time tends to diminish the +number of workers available for the honey flow as well as to encourage +swarming. + +If the space for brood rearing should be restricted by too much early +honey in the brood chamber some of the heaviest combs should be removed +and empty ones given instead, or an extra brood chamber containing +empty combs may be given. In localities where considerable early honey +is gathered the brood chamber may be kept almost free of honey by +placing an extracting super over each colony at the beginning of such a +flow. This super should not be removed until the comb-honey supers are +given, for the honey may be needed later in brood rearing. + +Should the brood nest be restricted by a small brood chamber the +colonies may be equalized by removing some frames of brood from the +stronger colonies, exchanging them for empty combs taken from weaker +colonies, or another brood chamber filled with empty combs may be +given, thus building the colonies up individually. The former method +has the following advantages: (1) After being built up to approximately +the same strength, most of the colonies will be ready for a given +manipulation at the same time, thus facilitating the work. (2) It +requires a smaller stock of extra brood chambers and combs, at least +previous to the honey flow. (3) The brood is in a more compact form, +which is a very desirable condition in comb-honey production. (4) When +properly done, the total number of young bees reared in a given time +is probably considerably greater, owing to the fact that none of the +colonies is strong beyond the capacity of the queen, the workers of the +entire apiary being so distributed that all the queens are utilized +to the best possible advantage. (5) When the honey flow begins the +colonies are ready for the supers without additional manipulation, +such as removing extra brood chambers, sorting combs of brood, etc. +In equalizing colonies combs of hatching brood with the adhering +workers, _without the queen_, are usually drawn from the strongest +colonies and given to colonies less strong, but _never to very weak +colonies_. The weakest colonies are left until the last, then built +up quickly, provided there is time enough to have all the hives well +filled with brood. If this is not possible the very weak colonies can +more profitably be used for purposes other than comb-honey production. +Another plan of equalizing is that of shaking bees from combs taken +from strong colonies at the entrance of colonies less strong. The older +bees at once take wing and return to their hives, while the younger +bees enter the weaker colony. The operator must, of course, be sure +that the queen is not on the comb thus shaken. + +Some of the advantages of building up the colonies as individuals +are: (1) The labor required is considerably less, fewer visits being +required, so that this method is particularly adapted to out-apiary +conditions. (2) It is possible to determine with much greater accuracy +which colonies show the most desirable traits for breeding purposes. +(3) It can be more safely practiced if brood diseases are imminent. + +=SUMMARY.= + +(1) The workers that take part in storing a crop of honey from any +given honey flow are usually those reared within the period of six or +eight weeks just preceding the honey flow. The workers reared previous +to this period are too old to be of much value as gatherers while those +reared after this period mature after the flow has ceased. + +(2) It is necessary that the beekeeper know what plants are likely to +furnish the surplus honey and their approximate period of bloom so that +he can determine the limits of the heavy brood-rearing period in order +to secure the largest possible working force for the honey flow. + +(3) Colonies should be in a normal condition at the beginning of +this period. (_a_) If the surplus is from an early flow, this normal +condition can be obtained only by proper management the previous +late summer and autumn, together with good wintering. Good queens, +preferably young, together with sufficient room for brood rearing and +winter stores, are important conditions during late summer and autumn. +(_b_) Stores and protection are important factors in early brood +rearing. (_c_) The character of the brood combs and the race of bees +each have some influence upon brood rearing. + +(4) During the time that workers for the harvest should be reared brood +rearing should be constantly accelerated. + +(5) Brood rearing is often restricted during this period (_a_) because +of limited stores and (_b_) because of limited room in the brood +chamber. + + +=Using Available Workers to Best Advantage During the Honey Flow.= + +Brood rearing, which is of primary importance during the preceding +period, becomes of secondary consideration at about the beginning of +the honey flow, because this is nearing the limit beyond which time the +resulting bees develop too late to take part in gathering and storing +the crop of honey. At this time, therefore, there is a radical change +in purpose of the manipulations. Instead of continuing the expansion of +the brood chamber, the policy of the beekeeper should now be rather a +concentration of the workers and brood. There is perhaps a limit to the +number of workers that can be profitably kept in a single hive and set +of supers, but this limit is seldom reached, the usual mistake being in +having too few. Each colony should have its brood chamber well filled +with brood in a compact form and be so crowded with young and vigorous +workers that they will immediately occupy the supers when the honey +flow actually begins. The brood chamber of colonies occupying more +than one hive body should at this time be reduced to one, any extra +brood being used in colonies having less than one brood chamber full of +brood. After this operation, should there still be some colonies left +with the brood chamber but partly filled with brood, they should be +filled with combs of brood and adhering bees (without the queen) drawn +from some colony or colonies too weak to work well in comb-honey supers. + +It may be advisable to unite the weaker colonies in order to secure +the proper strength for the best work. This massing of the workers +in strong colonies, so essential to the production of a fancy grade +of comb honey, renders necessary extremely careful and skillful +management, since the efforts of the beekeeper may still be nullified +in either of two ways: (1) The bees may divide their forces by swarming +into two or more parts, neither of which would be ready to work in the +supers until the season is much advanced or perhaps closed entirely, +or (2) being balked in their desire to swarm or from lack of convenient +storage space, etc., they may do very poor work even during a good +honey flow simply because the conditions of the colony are such that +the storing instinct is not dominant. _To bring about the best results +in comb honey, the entire working force of each colony must be kept +undivided and the means employed in doing so must be such that the +storing instinct remains dominant throughout any given honey flow._ +Any increase made before or during the flow[3] is made at the expense +of the surplus honey unless it be made with brood that would emerge +too late for the young bees to be of use during the honey flow (p. +31). In general, however, increase may be made at much less expense by +setting aside some of the colonies for that purpose. To keep the forces +together and satisfied, with the storing instinct dominant during a +good flow, is the most difficult problem with which the producer of +comb honey must deal. + +[3] In localities where the main honey flow is so late that colonies +may be divided long enough before the flow so that both colonies may be +built up to proper strength in time to take advantage of it, of course +increase previous to the flow would be advisable. This condition is +rare in comb-honey localities. + + +=Swarming.= + +All colonies do not behave alike as to swarming. (1) There are certain +colonies that go through the season with apparently no thought of +swarming. Such colonies do the very best work in the supers, and their +number can be increased by skillful management. (2) Other colonies +start queen cells preparatory to swarming, but can be persuaded to give +it up by such mild measures as destroying the queen cells and perhaps +removing a few frames of brood. (3) Certain colonies are determined to +swarm and, unless the flow ceases, nothing short of swarming or some +radical manipulation will satisfy them. (4) A certain percentage of +queens fail during the honey flow and swarming may occur in connection +with the supersedure. Such colonies usually do very poor work in +comb-honey supers. + +The beekeeper can do much (1) toward increasing the percentage in +the first group and discouraging those of the second--_preventive +measures_, and (2) toward making the most of the colonies under the +third and fourth groups--_control measures_. + +=PREVENTIVE MEASURES.= + +Some effort has been made toward the final elimination of swarming by +breeding from colonies showing the least disposition to swarm. Although +after years of selection bees continue to swarm when conditions are +favorable, many practical beekeepers testify to having greatly reduced +the percentage of swarming colonies by years of careful selection and +breeding. It would certainly seem advisable to replace the queens of +all colonies which persist in swarming with young queens reared from +colonies less inclined to swarm. The swarming problem has also been +attacked from the standpoint of the hive and mechanical attachments, +finally resulting in the invention of a "nonswarming" hive. More +attention has, however, been paid to the prevention and control +of swarming by manipulation than along either of the other fines, +probably because proper manipulation gives immediate results and is +now available as a means of preventing the losses due to swarming. The +success in swarm control attained by the best beekeepers is a result of +some effort along all three of the above fines at the same time. + +Among the manipulations that tend to discourage swarming are (1) the +introduction of young queens (preferably reared from selected stock); +(2) an abundance of empty comb in the brood chamber at all times +previous to the honey flow; (3) prompt work in the supers at the +beginning of the flow induced by using "bait sections" or extracting +combs in the first super given, thus tiding the colony over one of the +critical periods; (4) a judicious manipulation of the supers during the +honey flow (p. 41); (5) the use of more nearly perfect worker combs +in the brood chamber, since drone comb and imperfect cells (p. 22) +have the effect of contracting the brood chamber, thus bringing about +a crowded condition; (6) an abundance of ventilation during the honey +flow, obtained by means of a large entrance or by raising the hive +above the bottom board by means of small blocks; (7) protection of the +hive from direct rays of the sun during the hottest portion of the day +by some such means as a double cover or shade board; (8) the removal +of one or two frames of brood and the substitution therefor of empty +combs or sheets of foundation; (9) the destruction of all queen cells +provided they contain only eggs or very small larvæ. + +If queen cells are well advanced, their destruction usually has little +or no effect as a swarm preventive measure. While destroying queen +cells in their early stages can not be relied upon as a preventive of +swarming, beekeepers who practice examining the brood chambers once a +week for queen cells during the swarming season are usually surprised +at the number of colonies that can be induced to give up swarming and +turn their attention to storing in this way. Such a result at least +partly compensates for the large amount of labor required for these +weekly examinations. + +=CONTROL MEASURES.= + +After having taken all precautions as to preventive measures there +win still be some colonies that will attempt to swarm when producing +comb honey. During poor seasons of course the percentage may be +quite low, but during good seasons the conditions are sometimes such +that a majority of the colonies may make an effort to swarm. Swarming +colonies, however, may be controlled in such a manner that practically +as much surplus honey is secured as if the colony made no attempt to +swarm. If but a single apiary is being operated and the beekeeper is +present during the swarming season, the bees may be permitted to swarm +naturally without loss to the beekeeper; but if several apiaries are +being operated, it is more economical to employ some method by which +swarming may be controlled by visiting each apiary at given intervals +during the swarming season, rather than to have an attendant at each. + +=Control of Natural Swarms.= + +Natural swarms may be managed (1) by allowing them to cluster +naturally, then hiving them in the ordinary manner; (2) by the clipped +queen method; (3) by the use of queen traps (fig. 13; see Farmers' +Bulletin No. 447, pp. 29-30); or (4) by use of the swarm catcher.[4] + +[4] This is simply a wire-cloth cage large enough to be set over the +hive or be fitted over the entrance. If the attendant is provided with +a number of these catchers he can avoid the usual confusion ordinarily +occurring when several swarms issue at about the same time. After being +caught in this manner the swarms may be hived at the convenience of the +beekeeper. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Drone and queen trap on hive +entrance. (From Phillips.)] + +To keep the forces together (1) the swarm without the queen may be +returned to its hive, the queen cells destroyed a week later, and the +colony afterwards requeened (p. 36); or (2) the brood may be removed +from the hive while the swarm is out, after which the swarm with the +queen is returned. The former method is useful under some conditions +(p. 37), but the latter is the one usually preferred. + +When the swarm is hived back without the brood on its old location in +this manner, the colony does not lose any of its flying bees and is +back at work with renewed energy in the same set of supers it was but a +few minutes before so eagerly deserting. Instead of removing the combs +from the brood chamber the usual practice is the removal of the entire +brood chamber and the substitution of another whose external appearance +is the same. This method of swarm management keeps the bees, queen, +and supers together and is one of the most satisfactory known. It is +not, however, adapted to out-apiaries or any apiaries not having an +attendant, and requires considerable time in watching for and hiving +swarms. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Colony before swarming; supers in +place. (Original.)] + +=USING THE REMOVED BROOD TO BEST ADVANTAGE.= + +The disposition of the brood that is left when a swarm issues should be +such that (1) no "after-swarms" (swarms resulting from the emergence of +a plurality of virgin queens) are permitted to issue and (2) that the +emerging workers may be used to the best advantage. + +"After-swarming" may be prevented by (1) breaking up the parent colony +before any of the young queens emerge, using the unhatched brood +elsewhere, (2) by destroying all queen cells but one before any young +queens emerge, or (3) by greatly reducing the population of the parent +colony[5] just before the young queens emerge. + +[5] The term "parent colony" applies to the one in the hive from which +the swarm issues and is in common use, though the correctness of the +term is questionable. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Brood placed in hive turned 90 +degrees from old entrance. (Original.)] + +If swarming occurs at a time when the resulting young bees can take +part in gathering and storing the crop of honey, the usual practice +is to allow the brood to emerge in a separate hive and later to add +these young bees to the colony from which it was taken. Under such +circumstances this reenforcement of the swarm is especially desirable, +since otherwise its forces are constantly diminishing during the 21 +days (the time required for worker brood to develop) immediately +following the removal of all its brood. The brood, however, may be used +anywhere in the apiary and should be placed where the resulting bees +will be most needed. The plans given below make use of at least a part +of the emerging bees in reenforcing the swarm from which the brood was +taken. + +When hiving natural swarms on the old location as suggested above, +the old brood chamber is provided with a bottom and cover and set +aside, usually with its entrance turned away about 90° from its former +position (figs. 14, 15). This is to prevent any field bees returning +to the parent colony. A day or so later it is turned about 45° toward +its former position (fig. 16) and as soon as the bees have this +location of the entrance well marked the hive is placed parallel to the +hive on the old stand (fig. 17). So far as the bees returning from the +field are concerned, these two colonies are now on the same stand. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Hive with brood turned back to 45 +degrees from old entrance. (Original.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Hive with brood turned parallel to +old entrance. (Original.)] + +The further disposition of the remnant of the brood and young bees +may be by any one of the following methods: (1) One week after the +swarm issues, or just before the parent colony would cast a second or +"after-swarm," it may, when the bees are well at work in the fields, be +removed and given a new location. This throws the entire flying force +into the colony having the supers, where they are of greatest service, +and so depletes the other colony of its flying bees just when the +young queens are emerging that "after-swarming" is usually prevented. +(2) Before moving it, away the parent colony may be more thoroughly +depleted of its young bees by shaking most of them from their combs, +adding them of course to the colony with the supers. The comb +containing the finest queen cells should not be shaken, since to do so +will probably injure the immature queens. Two or three frames should +be left with their adhering bees in order that the parent colony will +still contain enough workers to care for the remaining unemerged brood. +(3) Instead of moving the parent colony away as in (1) above, the bees +may all be added to the swarm by shaking them from their combs, and the +combs then distributed among nuclei previously prepared. By successive +additions of frames of brood these nuclei are finally built up into +full colonies and "after-swarming" is prevented. (4) Instead of giving +the parent colony a new location, as in (1) above, it may be shifted +to the opposite side of the swarm on the old stand (fig. 18) and by +thus shifting it from one side to the other at intervals of several +days the young bees as they hatch and learn to fly will finally all be +added to the colony with the supers. Few beekeepers, however, go to +this extreme, as the season usually closes before the latest emerging +young bees are thus transferred to the colony with the supers and these +later-emerging bees may be used for increase at little if any expense +in surplus honey. (5) If increase is not desired, the bees may be added +to the swarm on the old stand as before, and after 10 or 15 days the +combs of the parent colony still containing some unhatched brood may be +used on which to hive another swarm. Before being used for this purpose +the bees are of course shaken from these combs and added as before to +the swarm on the old stand. (6) If the honey flow is of long duration +or conditions otherwise such that the storing colony may prepare to +swarm again, the brood chamber of the parent colony may be left by +the side of the swarm (fig. 18) until the young queen begins to lay, +then restored to its original position on the old stand and the supers +transferred to it. The brood chamber containing the old queen is moved +to one side, its flying bees thus induced to enter the hive containing +the young queen. The two colonies may afterwards be united or the one +containing the old queen may finally be moved to a new location for +increase. If, when using this plan, a virgin queen or a ripe queen cell +is given the parent colony just after the swarm issues, this colony is +ready to be restored to its original position on the old stand about a +week earlier than if left to requeen itself. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Hive with brood placed on other side +of old entrance. (Original.)] + +In case the emerging bees are not to be added to the storing colony the +brood and young bees may be used in one of the following ways: + +(1) They may be used immediately after the swarm issues to build up +such colonies as are not strong enough to work in the supers or to +build up previously prepared nuclei, as in (3) above. Before being used +in these ways the adhering bees are usually added to the swarm. + +(2) The parent colony may be placed at once on a new stand and given +a laying or virgin queen. To allow such a colony to requeen itself +usually results in its casting an "after-swarm," since it becomes +quite populous again before the young queens emerge. This plan does +not make immediate use of the emerging bees but may be useful under +some conditions. (3) If the honey flow is of long duration or is +followed closely by a second, two parent colonies, as in (2) above, may +be placed upon the same stand, one of which is given a queen but with +the queen cells destroyed in the other. After two or three weeks the +bees may be shaken from the queenless colony in with the queen-right +one. Such colonies are in excellent condition for rapid work in the +supers. + +=WHAT TO USE IN THE BROOD CHAMBER WHEN HIVING SWARMS.= + +(1) The use of narrow strips of foundation 1 inch or less in width in +the brood chamber offers some advantages. (_a_) When the brood chamber +contains only these narrow "starters" and supers of partly filled +sections are transferred from the parent colony to the new swarm at +the time of hiving, there being no cells below in which to store the +honey, it is taken to the supers. Under these conditions work in the +brood chamber goes on slowly, the work of the colony being largely in +the supers. (_b_) Colonies that are thus required to construct a set of +new combs in the brood chamber and that are supplied with sufficient +storage room seldom attempt to swarm again during the same season, +even though the flow be of long duration. (_c_) The treatment of brood +diseases may be combined with swarm control. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. +442, p. 14.) The greatest objection to their use is in the excessive +amount of drone comb usually built when anything less than full sheets +of foundation are used, especially if the queen is old or the brood +chamber large in proportion to the size of the swarm. + +(2) The use of full sheets of foundation in the brood frames has the +decided advantage of resulting in straight combs having the maximum +number of cells of the worker size, but is more expensive than the +narrow strips and allows a more rapid building of comb in the brood +chamber, which under some conditions is considered a disadvantage. + +(3) The exclusive use of either narrow strips or full sheets of +foundation in the brood chamber when hiving swarms necessitates the +use for a short time of a queen excluder (fig. 2) if the supers are +transferred from the parent colony to the swarm at the time of hiving, +since otherwise the queen would probably enter the sections and a brood +nest be established there. To avoid the use of queen excluders for this +purpose, one or more empty combs maybe used in each brood chamber, +the remaining frames containing full sheets of foundation. This empty +comb also serves as a storage place for pollen that may be gathered +before the other combs of the brood chamber are constructed. Otherwise +this pollen may be stored in the sections (p. 46). It is also +probable that fewer colonies will "swarm out" or desert their hives +if hived in a brood chamber containing one or more empty combs than +if foundation only is used. A disadvantage of this plan is that the +cells near the top bar of the comb may be so elongated as to interfere +with the complete drawing out of the foundation in the adjacent frame. +Empty combs can not well be used in connection with narrow strips of +foundation, since their use favors the construction of drone comb. + +(4) Empty combs are sometimes used with the idea of saving the bees the +work of constructing a new set of combs. Under same conditions this is +false economy and gives poorer results than starters or foundation. +With very strong colonies, or with the brood chamber contracted to five +or six frames, empty combs in the brood chamber may give good results. +Medium colonies on a full set of empty combs are included to store the +honey in the brood chamber and neglect the supers. + +(5) Combs of honey are sometimes used on which to hive swarms. In some +instances the beekeeper uses frames of foundation or empty combs above +the brood chamber previous to and during the first few days of the +honey, flow for the purpose of discouraging swarming and afterwards +uses these partly filled combs on which to hive swarms. In order to +make room for the queen, this honey is rapidly carried above, and +stored in the sections. + +(6) Combs of sealed brood in which no eggs have been laid during +the previous 10 days or 2 weeks may be used. Such combs are usually +available toward the close of the swarming season from colonies that +have swarmed 10 days or 2 weeks before. This plan is especially +desirable when the beekeeper runs short of hives during the swarming +season. In some localities, however, the character of the flow is such +that the colonies may later again prepare to swarm when hived on either +empty combs or combs of sealed brood. + +=EXTREME CONTRACTION OF THE BROOD CHAMBER WHEN HIVING SWARMS.= + +Some beekeepers contract the brood chamber, when hiving swarms, to five +or six frames, the remaining space being filled by means of division +boards or "dummies." This reduction in the capacity of the brood +chamber results in practically all the honey being stored in the supers +and also restricts brood rearing at a time when the resulting bees +develop too late to become gatherers. This is especially adaptable to +locations furnishing an early flow of white honey followed by a later +flow of darker honey. The white or more marketable honey is stored in +the supers and later the brood chamber is expanded and provisioned for +winter with the less desirable honey. Some beekeepers accomplish a +somewhat similar result by hiving two swarms together in a single hive +body. + +When practicing contraction it is best to give the full amount of +room at the time of hiving the swarm and to reduce the space three or +four days later, as otherwise the bees are apt to "swarm out" because +of their cramped quarters. Since contraction of the brood chamber is +but a temporary expedient, it should not be continued beyond the time +that its use is of advantage. If there should be a later honey flow, +the brood chamber should be expanded in time to rear the bees for it. +In any event, contraction should not continue so long as to interfere +with securing the proper conditions of the colonies for winter (p. 21). +Frames of foundation, empty combs, frames of brood or honey may be used +to complete the set of combs when expanding the brood chamber, and +these are usually given just before or at the close of the honey flow. +Contraction of the brood chamber to less than one hive body, except in +hiving swarms, is not usually advisable. + +=Swarm Control by Manipulation.= + +Swarm control by manipulation enables the beekeeper to operate a series +of apiaries by visiting each at certain intervals, thus eliminating +the necessity of an attendant in each apiary during the swarming +season. The fact that bees usually, by the construction of queen cells, +indicate about a week in advance their intention to swarm, enables the +beekeeper to control swarming by examining each colony once a week +during the swarming period and forestalling the colonies that are +making preparations to swarm. It is also possible to manipulate all the +colonies before any swarming occurs so that most of them go through the +honey flow without swarming, thus eliminating the weekly examinations. + +Any manipulation for swarm control, whether applied after the colony +has acquired the "swarming fever" or applied to all colonies alike +previous to the swarming season, is based upon the single principle--_a +temporary disturbance in the continuity of the daily emergence of +brood_. This disturbance should occur just previous to or during the +swarming season. In natural swarming the brood and the swarm are +separated, the swarm being without hatching brood during a period of +three weeks. The brood from which the swarm came may be allowed to +emerge in a separate hive and the resulting bees may then be returned +to the swarm (p. 29). In this way the swarming instinct is satisfied, +at least temporarily, without materially decreasing the population of +the colony. The beekeeper may anticipate swarming by removing the brood +from the hive, allowing it to emerge in a separate hive and finally +returning these young bees to the colony in the same manner as is +done with the natural swarm. Under the same conditions the subsequent +behavior of a colony treated in this way is similar to that of a +natural swarm. In either case there has been a break in the continuity +of the emergence of young bees in the hive during a period of three +weeks. + +Instead of hiving a natural swarm upon empty combs or frames of +foundation, combs of emerging brood (without queen cells) taken from +a colony that has been queenless during a period of 10 to 15 days may +be used (p. 33) and a similar condition may be had without swarming +by removing all of the brood and substituting such combs of emerging +brood, thus at least temporarily avoiding swarming. In these cases +there is a break of 10 to 15 days in the continuity of the daily +emergence of bees. + +A similar interruption of brood rearing may be accomplished by removing +the queen from the hive or caging her within the hive during a period +of 10 days or 2 weeks, then returning her to the combs. In this case no +queen cells must of course be allowed to mature. A condition similar to +this may be obtained without removing the queen by dividing the brood +chamber into two parts with queen-excluding metal, for a period of 10 +to 15 days. The brood from the division containing the queen is then +removed and the bees, together with the queen, shaken into the other +(queenless) division, the queen cells if any being first destroyed. +The brood thus removed may later be returned to the colony in the form +of young bees in the usual manner (p. 29). Even the destruction of +the sealed brood by uncapping it has been advised as a means of swarm +control. This gives a period of about 12 days during which few or no +young bees emerge. + +These methods are illustrative of the principle employed in the various +methods of control by manipulation, which may be classified under three +general headings: (1) Taking the queen from the hive. (2) Taking the +brood from the hive. (3) Separating the queen and brood within the hive. + +The following methods of swarm control are given for the purpose of +illustrating the various types of control by manipulation. It is not +to be understood that all the methods given are equally adaptable to +any locality or season, but it is hoped that, presented in this way, +the beekeeper may more readily see the principle underlying each plan +as well as the basic principle underlying all the plans and thereby be +better enabled to elaborate a system of control to meet his particular +requirements. + +=TAKING THE QUEEN FROM THE HIVE.= + +The temporary removal of the queen from the colony for the required +time (p. 36) and the return of the same queen is a method which has +been used in swarm control. Of course, no queen cells should be +permitted to develop in the meantime. Such colonies may prepare to +swarm again, especially if the period of queenlessness is not more than +10 days. The method is a valuable one, however, and may be used at any +time during the season on colonies making preparations to swarm. + +=Dequeening in connection with requeening.=--Requeening each +colony with a young queen early in the season may greatly reduce the +percentage of colonies that attempt to swarm but can not be relied upon +as a method of complete control since during a good and prolonged honey +flow quite a number of such colonies prepare to swarm. If each colony +is requeened with a young queen at the beginning of the honey flow, +_after having been queenless for 10 or 15 days_, there will probably be +very little if any swarming during an ordinary season. This method is +not in general use among beekeepers, largely because of the difficulty +in so timing the operation that there will be no loss. The following +are illustrative of the various adaptations of requeening in connection +with a period of no brood rearing. + +(1) Just previous to the honey flow and at about the time that heavy +brood rearing is no longer desirable, remove the queen from each +colony, (_a_) Eight or ten days later destroy all queen cells but one +and allow the colony to requeen itself, or (_b_) destroy _all_ queen +cells 8 or 10 days after removing the queen, then after 3 to 6 days +supply each colony with a "ripe" queen cell (one in which the queen +is ready to emerge), a virgin queen, or a young laying queen. It is +usually desirable that the interval of queenlessness be as short as +possible without defeating its purpose. Some beekeepers give a young +laying queen 10 days after removing the old one, or a virgin or ripe +cell considerably earlier, sometimes even at the time the old queen is +removed, while others prefer a period of at least 14 days before giving +either a laying or a virgin queen. However, colonies with virgin queens +sometimes swarm even though no other queen cells or larvæ from which to +rear a queen are present. Another objection to the use of queen cells +or virgin queens for this purpose is that some of the queens fail to +emerge and some virgin queens fail to mate, thus leaving the colony +hopelessly queenless. For these reasons, some prefer to have the young +queens mate and begin to lay in "nuclei" (very small colonies) before +introducing[6] them in the strong colonies. This method may be used +for the entire apiary at the beginning of the honey flow or it may be +applied only to those colonies making preparations to swarm. + +[6] The young laying queens may be introduced Into the colony by the +ordinary indirect or caging method (Farmers' Bulletin No. 447, p. 44) +or together with a comb of brood and adhering from the nucleus from +which she was mated. + +(2) Use two hive bodies as a brood chamber before the honey flow, +uniting if necessary to secure strong colonies. At the beginning of +the honey flow divide each colony, leaving the field bees and most +of the brood on the old stand in one hive body, placing the queen, +remaining brood, and enough bees to care for it in the other hive body +which is set beside the first. The supers are of course given to the +queenless colony on the old stand, which after the proper interval +of queenlessness is allowed to requeen itself or is requeened by the +beekeeper as in (1) above. The colony containing the old queen may be +used to strengthen the storing colony by shifting its position from one +side of it to the other (p. 31), or used for increase. + +(3) Ten days before the honey flow is expected to begin, put most of +the brood into a single hive body, on this a queen excluder, and over +this a second hive body with a frame of brood and the queen, the other +combs of this set being empty except perhaps a little brood and honey. +Nine or ten days later remove the upper story, supply it with a bottom +board, and place it close beside the original hive. Destroy queen cells +if any are present in the queenless portion which remains on the old +stand, give a ripe queen cell, virgin queen, or a young laying queen, +and put on the supers. The brood chamber containing the old queen may +be used to make increase or its flying bees may be united with the +storing colony (p. 31). + +By any of these methods there is a break of 10 to 15 days in the +continuity of brood emergence in the brood chamber left on the old +stand and the colonies are requeened with young queens--each a strong +factor in swarm control and when combined should with rare exceptions +result in no swarming. + +=REMOVING THE BROOD FROM THE HIVE.= + +Since removing the brood brings about conditions quite similar to that +of natural swarming (p. 28), such a management of the colonies is +practically identical with that of natural swarming. The use of the +brood that is removed (p. 29), the question of what should be used in +the brood chamber instead of the removed brood (p. 32), the contraction +of the brood chamber (p. 33), etc., have been discussed under natural +swarming and need not be repeated here. While some of the plans using +this principle may be applied to all the colonies in the apiary before +swarming actually begins, the usual practice is to apply them only to +such colonies as are making preparations to swarm. It should not be +used on weak colonies, on colonies having a small percentage of sealed +and emerging brood and few young bees, on colonies in which the queen +is failing, or on any colonies during a very poor season. Under any +of these conditions it is usually better to discourage swarming by +destroying queen cells (p. 27), by removing one or two frames of brood, +or, if some control measure is finally necessary, by requeening such +colonies after an interval of queenlessness. On the other hand, for +strong colonies having a high percentage of sealed and emerging brood +and a good queen the method usually gives excellent results, since +by its use the workers, queen, and supers are kept together during +the flow. The following are some of the various plans employing this +principle of swarm control: + +(1) Find the queen and put the comb on which she is found to one side, +then shake the bees from most of the other combs into or in front of +their hive. As the combs of brood are removed put frames containing +either narrow strips or full sheets of foundation or combs into the +hive and replace the supers. When most of the shaken bees are in the +hive, place the queen among them. Put all the brood and the few bees +remaining thereon into another hive close beside the shaken colony +(fig. 17). Enough bees should be left on the combs of brood to care for +it; usually two combs are not shaken at all, but placed in the other +hive with all the adhering bees. For further disposition of the brood +see page 29. + +(2) In order to avoid the trouble of finding the queen, the above plan +may be varied by shaking and brushing _all_ the bees from the combs so +as to be sure that the queen is among them. In this case the brood may +be utilized by one of the following plans: (_a_) Use it to build up +weaker colonies (p. 31) or (_b_) place it in a hive body over a queen +excluder on top of the forced swarm or some colony not being used for +comb-honey production that can spare enough bees to care for it. In a +short time bees will pass through the excluder and cover the brood, +after which the hive body containing it is removed, supplied with a +cover and bottom board, and placed at one side of the forced swarm so +that the emerging bees may later be added to the swarm. Or (_c_) after +the shaking is complete, remove the forced swarm and put the hive body +containing the brood temporarily back on the original stand to induce +field bees to enter it. Then in the evening set it aside and restore +the swarm to its position on the old stand. These field bees will +be able to prevent the brood being chilled during the night but in +returning from the fields the next day will enter the hive on the old +stand. In the meantime enough young bees will have emerged to care for +the brood. + +(3) Removing all the brood and substituting frames containing narrow +strips or full sheets of foundation sometimes results in the colony +swarming out the next day. This may be avoided by removing the brood +in two installments with an interval of a few days between the +two operations. When the brood is not all removed, full sheets of +foundation or empty combs should be used or an excessive amount of +drone comb will be built. + +With sectional hives, stand the brood chamber on end, smoke the bees +out of the lower section, and remove it. Destroy queen cells in the +upper hive section. These will almost universally be found projecting +into the space between the two sections of the brood chamber. +Substitute a new hive section containing empty combs or foundation for +the removed section. After, a few days remove the supers, smoke the +bees out of the upper section, remove it, and add it to the section +that was removed before, which at the time of its removal was given the +usual position beside the colony (fig. 17). + +(4) Use two hive bodies as a brood chamber throughout the year except +during the honey flow. Have both as well filled with brood as possible +previous to the flow. About 10 days before the honey flow is expected +to begin, insert a queen-excluding honey board (fig. 2) between the +two hive bodies. The queen is now confined to a single one of the hive +bodies. After 10 days transfer the queen[7] to the other hive body +placed on the old stand and put on the supers. Remove the hive body +in which the queen has been confined to one side of the colony on the +old stand and supply it with a ripe queen cell (in a protector) or a +virgin queen. When the young queen begins to lay, exchange places with +the two hive bodies so that the one containing the young queen now +becomes the storing colony, giving it the supers and field bees. Shift +the hive containing the old queen from one side to the other of the +colony on the old stand about once a week, so that the entire flying +force of both are at work in the hive with the supers (p. 31). At the +close of the honey flow the old queen may be killed unless she is +especially valuable and the two divisions may be reunited. The period +of 10 days during which no eggs are laid in the hive body used by the +storing colony at the beginning of the honey flow should delay swarming +at least until the young queen begins to lay. When the other hive body +with the young queen is substituted, it has had a similar period of +no egg laying in addition to having a young laying queen, making a +desirable combination. + +[7] It is not necessary to find the queen, since the presence of +unsealed brood indicates In which hive body she is confined. She may +be transferred to the other hive body by shaking all the bees from the +combs she is known to occupy in with the bees of the other hive body. +In this case some bees are returned to the shaken combs (p. 38) before +this brood is set aside, to prevent its being chilled. + +=Mechanical devices.=--A number of mechanical devices have been +described for shifting bees from one brood chamber to another. These +permit the bees to leave the hive when going to the fields and are +so arranged that the returning bees are led to enter the new brood +chamber. This is accomplished by means of switches in the bottom board +or by a chute or tube so attached that the entrance to the old brood +chamber is closed, allowing exit only through the tube which opens near +the entrance of the new brood chamber. In either case the hives are so +arranged that the bees returning from the field readily enter the new +brood chamber. The queen is found and together with a comb of brood and +adhering bees is put into the new brood chamber, and the supers are +transferred from the old to the new brood chamber. The young bees as +they learn to fly are added to the swarm by the same device. Otherwise +the manipulation is the same as the other methods described. + +=SEPARATING THE QUEEN AND BROOD WITHIN THE HIVE.= + +In some swarm-control methods neither the queen nor the brood is +removed from the hive, but these are temporarily separated within +the hive. These methods are ordinarily used only on colonies making +preparations to swarm and are practically equivalent to the dequeening +plan. The following methods make use of this principle of swarm control: + +(1) The queen may be placed in a wire-cloth cage within the hive or may +be confined to a small comb surface within the brood chamber by means +of queen-excluding zinc. No queen cells are permitted to mature, and +the queen is liberated after 10 to 15 days. + +(2) The queen together with a comb containing a small amount of brood +is placed in a lower hive body containing no other frames or combs. +After destroying all queen cells the brood is placed in a second hive +body, the two hive bodies being separated by a queen-excluding honey +board and the supers adjusted above the brood as before. The queen, +being separated from the brood by means of the excluder, lays few eggs +in the comb on which she is confined during this period of separation. +After a week or 10 days the queen cells are again destroyed, and the +brood and queen are put back into a single hive body as before. This +method gives results quite similar to the dequeening method (p. 35). + +If every season were alike in a given locality the beekeeper could +work out a manipulation to be applied to each colony just before or at +the beginning of the honey flow, which would result in practically no +swarming. The wide variation in the seasons, however, renders it next +to impossible to adopt a swarm-control measure that will prove most +profitable every year. The means of control adopted must be such as +to favor the domination of the storing instinct. Probably the plan of +making weekly visits is the most widely used system of swarm control +by manipulation. When a colony is found preparing to swarm, the brood +is removed if conditions are such as to justify doing so (p. 37). +Otherwise the removal of the queen is resorted to. + +With any of these methods of control the colony may rapidly restore +former conditions, and even though it has been diverted from swarming +may later again prepare to swarm and require a second manipulation. +Generally speaking, when the honey flow is short, less radical measures +are required. Colonies that have been supplied with young queens after +a period of queenlessness have one factor (the queen) changed with at +least some degree of permanency. Colonies that have been compelled to +construct a new set of brood combs from narrow strips of foundation +have the most radical change of conditions as to brood rearing. Either +of these changes alone is usually sufficient to insure no further +preparations to swarm. + + +=Manipulation of the Supers.= + +Proper manipulation of the comb-honey supers is not only a strong +factor in the prevention of swarming but is also a stimulus to +storing. The amount of room the colonies should have in the surplus +apartment varies so much that the ordinary standard super is simply +a unit in a large and flexible surplus apartment. If enough surplus +room is given at the beginning of the season for the storage of the +entire crop of honey, the space so given is too great for best results +at the beginning of the honey flow, and little of it is needed at +all if the season is poor. If, on the other hand, a single super is +given and no other added until the first is completed, the room in +the surplus apartment decreases from the time the super is given +until the combs are completely drawn out, when there is little space +left between the combs, the bees being practically crowded out. Thus +while the population of the colony is increasing their room is being +diminished--a condition highly conducive to swarming and less energetic +work. After the super is filled, it is some time before the honey is +ripened and sealed, ready to be removed. During this interval, if no +other supers are given, there is no place for storage of the incoming +nectar, and the comb builders must remain idle or waste their wax in +building burr and brace combs. To avoid loss in this way, empty supers +are added as they are needed, and the comb builders move from one super +to another as their work in each is completed. The surplus apartment, +whether consisting of a single super or several supers, should at all +times contain some space for the comb builders. + +If the honey flow is heavy and promises to continue, it is desirable +to furnish not only sufficient room but to induce the bees to begin +work in as many sections as possible, giving large comb surface for +the storage and evaporation of the thin nectar, thus in a measure +approximating extracted honey conditions. + +There is a danger, however, that if the bees are induced to extend +their work through too many supers, the sections when completed will be +less well filled and therefore lighter in weight. Also, if the honey +flow should not continue as expected a rapid expansion of the surplus +apartment results in a large number of unfinished sections. + +The rapidity of the expansion of work in the supers may to some extent +be regulated by the position of each newly added super. If a rapid +expansion is desirable, the empty super is placed below the supers +already on the hive, while if it seems best to crowd the bees somewhat +the empty super is placed above those already on the hive. When the +empty super is placed above the partly finished ones, the bees do not +begin work therein unless they need the room. This practice is always +desirable during a slow honey flow or toward the close of any honey +flow, but when nectar is coming in rapidly does not result in a rapid +expansion of comb building sufficient to avoid a more or less crowded +condition, which in turn causes a loss of honey and increases the +probability of swarming. If each super is supplied with one or two +extracting combs (p. 16), this disadvantage of the practice of placing +the empty super on top largely disappears, since the extracting combs +are immediately available for the storage of nectar. + +[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Arrangement of supers. (Original.)] + +When the empty supers are placed under the partly filled ones, work +in them is commenced promptly, but this may be at the expense of the +nearly completed sections, which by this plan are moved farther from +the brood chamber as each empty super is added. In the case of the +super in which the honey is being sealed this distance is an advantage +in so far as the whiteness of the cappings is concerned, but it may +retard the completion of the work. An arrangement of the supers that +to some extent avoids this difficulty is as follows: Except toward the +close of the season, place each newly added super next to the brood +chamber and keep the one nearest completion just above it with all +others arranged above these two, the one in which least progress has +been made being on top (fig. 19). Thus super No. 1 is raised up and +No. 2 placed beneath it. When No. 3 is given, it is placed next to the +brood chamber, while above it is No. 1 with No. 2 on top. If No. 4 is +given, it is placed next to the brood chamber with Nos. 1, 2, and 3 in +order above it. By this arrangement, if conditions justify doing so, +strong colonies may be induced to expand their surplus apartment with +great rapidity, since as soon as the foundation is well drawn in each +newly added super it may be transposed to the top and an empty one put +in its place. Such rapid expansion of work in the supers should not be +attempted, however, except during a heavy honey flow. + +If early in the honey flow the bees are storing rapidly, strong +colonies should be given a second super as soon as work has been fairly +begun in the first. Colonies of medium strength may of course be +allowed to do considerable work in the first super before the second is +given, while a weak colony may have sufficient room for comb building +until the first super is almost completed. The first super should +contain some empty comb when given to the colony, and each succeeding +super should be given in advance of the time when the bees would be +in any way crowded without it. At no time should all the sections be +removed and new supers containing only foundation be given, but the +surplus apartment should contain sections in all the various stages of +development. In this way there is no break in the work in the supers, +and the critical periods, so far as the super room bears upon the +problems of swarming and energetic work, are largely eliminated. + +During the latter part of the honey flow the reasons for further +expansion of the surplus apartment in excess of the immediate needs of +the colonies (p. 41) no longer exist. At the beginning of a good honey +flow the maximum of new work consistent with well-filled sections is +desirable, while toward the close of the flow the beekeeper desires +the minimum of new work consistent with sufficient room. The precise +period when further expansion of the surplus apartment is no longer +desirable and a concentration of the work already begun should take +place is sometimes difficult to determine, and to do so requires a +thorough knowledge of the locality and good judgment on the part of the +beekeeper. + +It is usually desirable to remove the honey as soon after it is +finished as can well be done. If it is left on the hives too long after +it is finished, it is likely to become discolored or "travel stained," +while if it is taken off too soon some of the sections are not +completed. It is desirable that the honey be removed by entire supers +instead of by individual sections, therefore conditions should be made +as favorable as possible for the completion of all the sections in a +super without the more advanced ones becoming "travel stained." The +bees are more inclined to stain the white surface of the combs toward +the close of the honey flow or during very slow flows. Trouble from +this source is at such time intensified because of the uneven progress +of work in the different sections, the more advanced sections therefore +being sealed some time before the super is sufficiently advanced to +justify its removal. Another form of discoloration is brought about by +the honey being sealed in close proximity to old and dark brood combs, +in which case some of the darker wax from the old combs is sometimes +apparently used for capping the honey. + +During a good honey flow all except the last supers may be left upon +the hives until all or nearly all of the sections of honey are sealed, +since (1) there is little trouble from "travel stain" when work is +progressing rapidly, (2) all the sections in the super are ready to be +sealed at about the same time, and (3) when there are several supers on +each hive the one in which the honey is being sealed is at least one +super removed from the brood combs. + +Toward the close of the honey flow all supers having most of their +sections finished should be removed and the sections sorted. The +unfinished sections should be graded according to the degree of +completion, the various grades placed in supers and given to such +colonies as are most likely to finish them. Every effort should be made +at this time to contract the surplus apartment, concentrating the work +upon the sections nearest completion. All supers in which work has not +yet been started should be removed and as soon as possible the surplus +apartment of each colony should be reduced to one super. Though little +room is necessary during the close of the honey flow, there should +always be some room for the storage of new nectar until it is ripened. +For such conditions extracting combs are valuable, since, instead of +giving the last comb-honey super in which little work would be done, a +set of extracting combs may be placed over the sections to afford room +for the incoming nectar and comb surface for its ripening. + + + + +=CARING FOR THE CROP.= + + +=Removing the Honey from the Hives.= + +If the honey flow is of considerable duration the major portion of the +crop is removed before the flow ceases. At this time the removal of the +finished supers is comparatively easy because the bees can readily be +driven from them and also because the operator is not hindered in his +work by robbing bees. At the close of the honey flow all the supers +remaining upon the hives should be removed promptly, since to leave +them on would result not only in some of the honey being carried down +into the brood chamber but also in badly propolized sections. After +the honey flow has ceased, great care should be exercised to keep bees +from robbing. The use of bee-escapes (fig. 12) greatly facilitates the +removal of the honey at any time, but their use is especially desirable +in removing the honey remaining on the hives at the close of the honey +flow. By their use the honey may be removed and stored in the honey +house with little disturbance or excitement among the bees. The supers +of honey should of course be taken directly to the honey house or kept +well covered[8] from robbers. + +[8] Honey from out-apiaries should be loaded for transportation in +such a manner that the bees can not get at it, then before the horse +is hitched to the wagon the load of honey should be drawn by hand some +distance from the apiary if the slope of the ground will permit doing +so. If this is not possible the horse may be attached by means of a +long rope and the load drawn to a safe distance before the horse is +hitched to the wagon. + +Before finally storing the supers of honey in the honey room those that +are but partly filled may have their sections removed and sorted. The +unfinished sections that can not be disposed of at a profit locally +are usually put back into supers and the honey they contain is fed to +the bees. This feeding is done by simply exposing the supers where the +flying bees can have access to them. If there are few supers compared +with the number of colonies they should be placed in piles and only +a small entrance allowed, since if free access were given to a large +number of bees they would tear the combs to pieces. When the bees have +finished removing the honey from these unfinished sections the latter +may be stored for future use as "bait" sections. + + +=Care of Comb Honey.= + +In the honey room the supers of honey should be placed in piles in such +a manner as to allow a free circulation of air between them. This may +be done by "sticking them up" as lumber is piled to dry or by placing +alternate supers crosswise. The air in the honey room should be kept +as dry as possible. This is usually accomplished by means of a high +temperature, the honey room being located on the sunny side of the +building or directly under the roof. The windows should be opened only +during dry weather. Ventilation of the honey room is of no value except +when the air that is admitted contains less moisture than that already +present. Otherwise ventilation may be a positive detriment. If a +protracted period of rainy or damp weather should occur while the honey +is in this storage it may be necessary to use artificial heat to dry +the air in the honey room. Any great variation in temperature should be +avoided, since it may cause a condensation of moisture on the surface +of the cappings which will be absorbed by the honey. + +Some beekeepers find it necessary to fumigate comb honey to prevent +damage by the larvæ of the wax moth. For this purpose sulphur fumes or +bisulphid of carbon may be used. If bisulphid of carbon is used, great +care should be taken not to bring it near a flame, as it is highly +inflammable. + + +=Scraping Propolis from Sections.= + +Before being packed for market the sections of honey should be removed +from the supers and the wood scraped free of propolis. A convenient +bench should be provided for this work, with a large shallow box or +tray to catch the propolis as it is scraped from the sections. This +work is usually done by hand, though a few producers have designed and +are using machines for this purpose. + + +=Grading Comb Honey.= + +The importance of properly grading and packing comb honey does not seem +to be well understood by the average beekeeper. Some extensive buyers +of comb honey find it profitable to regrade and repack practically all +the comb honey they receive before sending it out to their trade. The +producer of this honey of course bears this extra expense by receiving +a lower price for his honey. The lack of uniformity of grading is to +some extent a result of differences of opinion as to what should be the +standard for the various grades. Grading rules have been of material +aid toward greater uniformity, but various producers may use the same +set of grading rules with very different results. It would be well if +a single set of rules were in use, since honey from various localities +may be sent to the same market. The grading rules in most common use +are given in Farmers' Bulletin 447, page 39. + +After scraping the propolis from the wood, each section of honey may +be placed in a pile with others of its grade. Some put the sections +directly into the shipping cases as fast as they are scraped, but +better grading can be done if each grade is put in a separate pile +and the final grading all done by one person. By thus having a large +number of sections in each grade from which to select there is greater +opportunity for making the sections of honey in each case more nearly +uniform as to weight and the various shades of finish. Such uniformity +is especially desirable from the standpoint of the retailer. Sections +containing only a few cells of pollen should be placed in a lower grade +or sold as culls, while those containing a considerable amount of +pollen should not be marketed in the form of comb honey. An excessive +amount of pollen in the sections is usually caused by the use of very +shallow brood combs, extreme contraction of the brood chamber, or +hiving swarms on narrow strips of foundation in the brood frames with +partly drawn comb in the sections (p. 32). + + +=Packages for Comb Honey.= + +Comb honey is usually packed in cases holding 24 sections (fig. 20). +Other sizes are sometimes used to meet special market requirements. The +markets have become accustomed to cases with glass fronts, by means +of which the contents are displayed to advantage. However, in keeping +with present practice in other package goods, considerable comb honey +is now placed on the market having each section inclosed in a carton. +This practice, while losing the advantage of displaying the honey, has +a decided advantage in insuring security from dust and insects while +in the markets as well as greater safety to the fragile comb when the +package is finally delivered to the consumer. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Shipping cases for comb honey. (From +Phillips.)] + + +=Marketing.= + +Many beekeepers are able to dispose of their entire output of honey +in their local markets, sometimes, creating quite a demand for their +product by advertising and demonstrating. Comb honey that is to be +sent to a distant market should be shipped before cold weather, since +the combs become extremely fragile when cold. Small lots should be +crated in "carriers" holding several cases to prevent breakage by rough +handling of individual cases, while in larger shipments the cases are +simply packed in the car in such a manner that the individual cases can +not be thrown about by the movement of the car. + + + * * * * * + + +Transcriber Notes + + +All illustrations were moved so as to not split paragraphs. +Irregularity in hyphenation (for comb-honey vs. comb honey and some +others) has been retained. + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 503: Comb +Honey, by George Demuth + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59630 *** |