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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-27 12:11:59 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-27 12:11:59 -0800 |
| commit | 5fa4efee2a542ab400749dbf1e8644b758e9891a (patch) | |
| tree | 6917482100e368d4fa07cf434ef7dea96cd91157 /old/60441-h | |
| parent | 908b40fd6102d1e1e0a7ae2c6b730e7a670a54a7 (diff) | |
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margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -1em;} - .w200 - {width: 200px;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Class Book for The School of Musketry Hythe, by -E. C. Wilford - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Class Book for The School of Musketry Hythe - Prepared for the Use of Officers - -Author: E. C. Wilford - -Release Date: October 6, 2019 [EBook #60441] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CLASS BOOK *** - - - - -Produced by Brian Coe, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive). The book cover image was created by the -transcriber and is placed in the public domain. - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="bodycenter"> - -<div class="tnbox"> - -<p class="noindent">Please see the <a href="#TN">Transcriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p> - -<p class="noindent blankbefore1">The cover image has been created for this text, and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div><!--tnbox--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="scr"> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover_sm.jpg" alt="Cover image" width="478" height="600" /> -</div> - -</div><!--scr--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="page"> - -<h1><span class="fsize200"><b>CLASS BOOK</b></span><br /> -<span class="fsize60">FOR</span><br /> -<span class="fsize110">THE SCHOOL OF MUSKETRY</span><br /> -<span class="fsize90">HYTHE.</span></h1> - -<p class="center blankbefore4 fsize110 gesp2">PREPARED FOR THE USE OF OFFICERS.</p> - -<p class="center blankbefore4 highline2"><span class="fsize60">BY</span><br /> -<span class="fsize150"><b><span class="gesp1">COLONEL E. C. WILFORD</span>,</b></span><br /> -<i>Assistant-Commandant and Chief Instructor</i>.</p> - -<hr class="cover top" /> -<hr class="cover bot" /> - -<p class="center highline2"><span class="gesp2">HYTHE</span>:<br /> -W. S. PAINE, STATIONER, POST OFFICE, HIGH STREET.<br /> -1861.</p> - -</div><!--page--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagei">[i]</span></p> - -<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/line1.png" alt="Ornamental line" width="250" height="15" /> -</div> - -<div class="introduction"> - -<p class="noindent">The School of Musketry was founded in 1853, by the then Commander-in-Chief, the -late Viscount Hardinge, as a normal school of instruction in Musketry.</p> - -<p>It has for its especial object the formation of officers and non-commissioned officers -to act as instructors in the several battalions throughout the Army.</p> - -<p>In the book of “Regulations for conducting the Musketry Instruction of the Army,” -promulgated by order of His Royal Highness the Commander-in-Chief, it is ordered at -page 33, and paragraph 35, that, “The Commanding Officer is to assemble the officers -of the battalion at least once in each half-year, and to cause the non-commissioned -officers and men to be assembled occasionally by squads or companies, at other times -than when the annual course is proceeding, when the officer-instructor, having previously -explained the theoretical principles detailed in the foregoing lessons, will be at liberty -to advance deeper into the subject, developing to a degree proportionate to the rank -and intelligence of his auditors, the whole history of small arms, from the first invention -of gunpowder, and the successive steps by which the rifle-musket has attained its present -efficiency; in order that the officers and soldiers, by acquiring a thorough knowledge -of the subject theoretically, may take a greater interest in the practical part of this -most important branch of their duty.”</p> - -<p>The following Lectures have been prepared for the use of officers qualifying at the -School of Musketry for the positions of Instructors in their respective Regiments. They -are not to be considered as complete treatises or histories, but merely as “aids” to instruction, -which can be expanded by the Instructor in viva voce Lectures, and if bound -with an alternate ruled blank leaf, they may be corrected and enlarged when desirable, -to suit the various improvements in arms, &c., introduced from time to time.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageii">[ii]</span></p> - -<p>These Lectures are a mere compilation, extracted from a vast amount of interesting -and valuable matter, systematically arranged. The names of the various authors upon -whom wholesale plunder has been committed are mentioned in the course of the work, -and the compiler hopes this general confession may secure their pardon.</p> - -<p>The Theory of Gunnery has been very slightly touched upon: it cannot be pursued -by any persons unless well grounded in Mathematics, and the short time passed by officers -at Hythe wholly precludes so abstruse a study. Our School is decidedly a practical institution; -to acquire an art or skill is our object, and we only broach the subject of -Theory to soldiers, so far as to enable them to understand the reasons for all those rules -which have to be attended to in practice.</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="padr10">E. C. WILFORD,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap padr4">Colonel</span>.</p> - -<p class="fsize80"><span class="smcap">Hythe</span>, <i>January, 1861</i>.</p> - -</div><!--introduction--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageiii">[iii]</span></p> - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/line2.png" alt="Ornamental line" width="169" height="15" /> -</div> - -<table class="toc" summary="ToC"> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="pageno">PAGE.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">History of Gunpowder</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page1">1</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Manufacture of Gunpowder</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page7">7</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Foreign Gunpowder</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page20">20</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Explosive force of Gunpowder</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page29">29</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Experiments with Gunpowder</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page36">36</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Magazines</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page23">23</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Lightning Conductors</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page24">24</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Greek Fire</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page4">4</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Ancient Engines of War</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page39">39</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">On Artillery</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page62">62</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Portable Fire Arms</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page73">73</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">The Rifle</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page86">86</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">The Bayonet</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page83">83</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Accoutrements</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page84">84</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Breech-loaders</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page92">92</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">On Rifling</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page95">95</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">On Rifle Projectiles</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page101">101</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Theoretical Principles</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page110">110</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Gravity</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page113">113</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Atmosphere</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page115">115</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Form of Bodies</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page119">119</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Causes of Deviation</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page121">121</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Windage</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page121">121</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Rotation</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page122">122</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">On Eccentric Projectiles</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page124">124</a></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="right fsize80"><a href="#BetterToC">Extended Table of Contents</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageiv">[iv]</span></p> - -<h2>ERRATA.</h2> - -<p class="noindent">Page 6, para. 5, line 6, for “<i>have before stated</i>” read “<i>shall state</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 20, last line but one, for “<i>altogether</i>” read “<i>all together</i>”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 25, para. 3, line 5, for “<i>descriptive</i>” read “<i>disruptive</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 30, para. 3, line 9, for “<i>expansive</i>” read “<i>expansion</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 31, para. 3, line 1, for “<i>art</i>” read “<i>act</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 32, para. 7, line 9, for “<i>considerable</i>” read “<i>considerably</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 32, para. 7, line 10, for “<i>Robert</i>” read “<i>Piobert</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 35, para. 3, line 1, for “<i>sulphurate of Potassia</i>” read “<i>sulphide of -Potassa</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 36, para. 4, lines 1 and 2, for “<i>which is a mortar</i>” read “<i>the chamber -being</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 40, last line but 3, for “<i>Polyreetes</i>” read “<i>Polyorcetes</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 41, para. 4, line 10, for “ix” read “xii.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 53, para. 2, line 9, for “<i>incredible</i>” read “<i>incredibly</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 66, para. 6, line 2, after “<i>has</i>” insert “<i>a</i>”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 78, para. 5, line 3, for “753in.,” read “·753in.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 78, para. 5, line 3, for “16” read “14<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 79, line 4, for “600” read “6,000.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 84, para. 2, line 1, for “<i>Latinat</i>” read “<i>Catinat</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 84, para. 3, line 1, for “<i>masquitairy</i>” read “<i>mousquetaires</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 86, para. 10, line 2, for “<i>Carabins ragees</i>,” read “<i>Carabines -rayées</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 86, para. 12, line 1, for “<i>subaltern officers</i>” read “<i>Non-Commissioned -Officers</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 89, line 3, for “<i>range</i>” read “<i>rayé</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 89, line 3, for “<i>ball culot</i>” read “<i>balle à culot</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 91, para. 4, last line, for “<sup>7</sup>⁄<sub>100</sub>” read -“<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>100</sub>”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 93, para. 8, line 1, for “<i>wounds</i>” read “<i>rounds</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 98, para. 1, lines 6 and 7, for “<i>possible. For</i>,” read “<i>possible; for</i>”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 103, para. 3, line 7, for “<i>proportionary</i>” read “<i>proportionate</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 103, para. 5, line 4, for “<i>reserved</i>” read “<i>reversed</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 105, para. 6, line 3, for “<i>horn-wood</i>” read “<i>hora, wood</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 112, para. 1, line 8, after “<i>direction</i>,” insert “<i>b</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 114, para. 2, line 7, for “16-48-80” read “16+48+80.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 115, para. 2, line 2, for “<i>sine</i>” read “<i>tangent</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 115, para. 2, for “<i>plate</i> 21, <i>fig.</i> 3,” read “<i>plate</i> 22, <i>fig.</i> -3.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 119, para. 3, line 1, after “<i>moving</i>,” insert “<i>in</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Plate 21, fig. 5, should be lettered as fig. 4. plate 22.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page1">[1]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenotetext"> - -<h2>HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p>The History of Gunpowder may well form a prelude to that of Fire Arms, as -the existence of the latter is wholly dependent on the discovery of the former. Of -all the discoveries which have been made, there is, perhaps, none which has produced -more important consequences to mankind than the discovery of Gunpowder, as by -introducing fire-arms, and a new method of fortifying, attacking, and defending -Towns, it wrought a complete change in the whole art of war.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Knock’s -opinion.</p> - -<p>The invention of Gunpowder is completely involved in obscurity, and this very -fact is one great proof of its antiquity. Knock observes that the invention of Gunpowder -comprises several discoveries, which it is necessary to distinguish from each -other.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Order of -discovery.</p> - -<p>1st.—The discovery of Nitre, the principal ingredient, and the cause of its -detonation.</p> - -<p>2nd.—The mixture of nitre with sulphur and charcoal, which, properly speaking, -form gunpowder.</p> - -<p>3rd.—The application of powder to fire-works.</p> - -<p>4th.—Its employment as a propelling agent for throwing stones, bullets, &c.</p> - -<p>5th.—Its employment in springing mines and destroying fortifications.</p> - -<p>All these discoveries belong to different periods.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr. Duten’s -account.</p> - -<p>Mr. Dutens carried the antiquity of gunpowder very high; and refers to the -accounts given by Virgil, and others, of Salmonens’ attempt to imitate thunder, -presuming from hence that he used a composition of the nature of Gunpowder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Known in -China, A. D. -85.</p> - -<p>It has been said that it was used in China as early as the year -<span class="smcapall">A. D.</span> 85, and that -the knowledge of it was conveyed to us from the Arabs, on the return of the -Crusaders to Europe.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Known in -India, A. D. -250.</p> - -<p>The Brahmas and Indians, whose practice is recorded by Philostratus, in his -life of Appolonius Tyanœus, written about 1600 years ago. “These truly wise men,” -says he, “dwell between the rivers Hyphasis and Ganges; their country Alexander -never entered, their cities he never could have taken, for they come not out to the -field to fight those who attack them, but they overthrow their enemies with tempests -and thunderbolts, shot from their walls.”</p> - -<p>This is a most striking illustration of the antiquity of Gunpowder, for if some -such composition be not implied in the foregoing quotation, it must remain for ever -perfectly unintelligible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page2">[2]</span></p> - -<p>Saltpetre, which is the principal ingredient of Gunpowder, is found in its natural -state in the East, and from this it seems highly probable they were acquainted with -the composition of Gunpowder before the Europeans.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Powder at -siege of Mecca, -A. D. 690.</p> - -<p>The Arabs are said to have employed Gunpowder at the siege of Mecca, <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span> -690.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Oldest book -on gunpowder -A. D. 900.</p> - -<p>There is a manuscript book still extant, entitled Liber Ignium, written by -Marcus Græcus, who lived about the end of the eighth century, and the composition -there prescribed is 6lbs. saltpetre, 2lbs. charcoal, 1lb. sulphur, to be well powdered -and mixed in a stone mortar.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Work on gunpowder -in Escurial -Collection -A. D. 1249.</p> - -<p>There is in the Escurial Collection a treatise on Gunpowder, written in 1249.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Roger Bacon -on powder, -A. D. 1267.</p> - -<p>Our countryman, Roger Bacon, who was born 1214, and published works at -Oxford 1267, expressly mentions the ingredients of Gunpowder, not as any new -discovery, but as a well known composition, used for recreation. He describes it as -producing a noise like thunder, and flashes like lightning, but more terrible than -those produced by nature; and adds that it might be applied to the destruction of an -army or a city. Bacon, in his treatise “De Secretis Operibus,” says that from saltpetre, -sulphur, and wood coals, we are able to make a fire that shall burn at any -distance we please.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tradition of -Schwartz, -A. D. 1320.</p> - -<p>The common tradition of Bartholdus Schwartz having invented Gunpowder and -Artillery, about 1320, is without the slightest foundation, but he might possibly have -suggested the simplest application of it to warlike purposes, in consequence of some -accidental explosion while mixing the ingredients in a <span class="sidenote">Mortar.</span> -mortar. Indeed, the name, as -well as the form of the old species of artillery, which was employed to throw large -bullets at an elevation, strongly corroborate this conjecture; but Schwartz cannot lay -any claim to originality of invention.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Powder made -in the reign -of Richard II. -1378.</p> - -<p>Gunpowder was made in England in the fourteenth century, as Richard II. commissioned -Sir Thomas Norwich to buy, in London, or in any other place, certain -quantities of “sulphur, saltpetre, and charcoal,” for making Gunpowder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tartaglia on -Powder, -A. D. 1500.</p> - -<p>Tartaglia, at the commencement of the sixteenth century, sets down twenty-three -different compositions, made use of at different times, the first of which, being the -most ancient, consists of equal parts of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Ancient gunpowder -weak.</p> - -<p>Gunpowder, for some time after the invention of artillery, was of a composition -much weaker than what we now use, or than that ancient one mentioned by Marcus -Græcus; but this, it is presumed, was owing to the weakness of their first pieces, -rather than to the ignorance of a better mixture.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Graining.</p> - -<p>The change of the proportion of the materials composing it was not the only -improvement it received. The invention of graining it is doubtless a considerable -advantage to it; for powder, at first, was always in the form of fine meal, such as it -was reduced to by grinding the materials together. It is doubtful whether the first -graining of powder was intended to increase its strength, or only to render it more -convenient for the filling into small charges, and the charging of small arms, to which -alone it was applied for many years, whilst meal-powder was still made use of in -cannon. But at last the additional strength which the grained powder was found to<span class="pagenum" id="Page3">[3]</span> -acquire from the free passage of the fire between the grains, occasioned the meal-powder -to be entirely laid aside.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tartaglia -wrote, 1537.</p> - -<p>That powder was first used in meal, and continued in its old form for cannon -long after the invention of graining it for small arms, are facts not to be contested. -Tartaglia expressly asserts that in his time cannon-powder was in meal, and the -musket-powder grained. <span class="sidenote">William -Bourne, 1577.</span>And our countryman, William Bourne, in his “Art of -Shooting in great Ordnaunce,” published forty years after Tartaglia, tells us, in chap. -I, that serpentine powder, (which he opposes to corn, or grained-powder) should be -as fine as sand, and as soft as flour: and in his third chapter he says that two pounds -of corn-powder will go as far as three pounds of serpentine-powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tartaglia on -the proportions.</p> - -<p>We learn from Tartaglia, that the cannon-powder was made of four parts saltpetre, -one part sulphur, and one part charcoal; and the musket-powder of forty-eight -parts saltpetre, seven parts sulphur, and eight parts charcoal; or of eighteen parts -saltpetre, two parts sulphur, and three parts charcoal. These compositions for musket -powder are very near the present standard; the first having, in one hundred pounds -of powder, about one pound of saltpetre more than is at present allowed, and the -second three pounds more.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Nye’s treatise -on the proportions.</p> - -<p>Nye, in his treatise on fireworks, gives the proportions of the ingredients, and the -dates when they are used, thus in 1380 equal parts of each were employed. This -would be about as efficient as a common squib of the present time. In 1410, three -parts saltpetre, two sulphur, and two charcoal. In 1520, for the best powder, four -parts saltpetre, one sulphur, and one charcoal, and afterwards, five saltpetre, one -sulphur, and one charcoal.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Early gunpowder -mere -mixture.</p> - -<p>In fact, Gunpowder was merely those substances, combined, with little or no -purification. It was not at first corned or grained, as at present, but remained in its -mealed state, and was called “serpentine powder,” in several accounts of stores in -the time of Edward VI., and Elizabeth.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Two kinds.</p> - -<p>Soon after this two kinds of powder were used for the same gun, one in its -mealed state (for priming only) as being more readily ignited by the match, the -other, corned or grained, for the charge in the gun barrel.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Powder first -used to explode -mines in -15th century.</p> - -<p>The application of powder to mines, and to the destruction of fortifications, does -not appear to have been in practice before the end of the fifteenth century.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elizabeth had -powder made, -1558 to 1603.</p> - -<p>Camden, in his life of Queen Elizabeth, says that she was the first who procured -Gunpowder to be made in England, that she might not pray and pay for it also to -her neighbours; but it has been stated that it was previously made in the reign of -Richard II.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Charles I. from -A. D. 1625 to -1649.</p> - -<p>Sir Henry Manwayring, in his Seaman’s Dictionary, presented to the Duke of -Buckingham, in the time of Charles 1st, under the word powder, tells us, “There -are two kinds of powder, the one serpentine-powder, which powder is dust (as it -were) without corning. The other is “corn-powder;” though he informs us the -serpentine-powder was not used at sea. Indeed, when that book was written, it is -believed powder was usually corned, for the foreign writers on artillery had long -before recommended its general use.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Causes which -checked the -progress of -Fire-Arms.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page4">[4]</span></p> - -<p>Various circumstances tended to check the progress of fire-arms, and the improvement -of artillery, for a long period after the invention of gunpowder. Custom -made most people prefer the ancient engines of war. The construction of artillery -was very awkward and imperfect; and the bad quality and manufacture of gunpowder, -so that it could produce but little effect; <span class="sidenote">Fire-Arms -supposed to -extinguish -bravery, and -to be contrary -to humanity.</span>and there was a general aversion -to the newly invented arms, as calculated to extinguish military bravery, and as being -contrary to humanity; but above all, the knights (whose science was rendered -completely useless by the introduction of fire-arms) opposed, with all their might, -this invention, <span class="sidenote">Fire-Arms -expensive and -powder difficult -to procure.</span>to which may be added the great cost and difficulty of procuring -gunpowder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rockets in -India.</p> - -<p>It is known that iron rockets have been used in India as military weapons, time -out of mind. (See <a href="#Plate4">plate 4</a>, fig. 3.)</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>GREEK FIRE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Discovered -by Callinicus. -A. D., 617.</p> - -<p>The Greek Fire has been highly extolled for its wonderful effects, but it owed -much of its effect to the terrors and imagination of the beholders. It is said by the -Oriental Greeks, to have been discovered by Callinicus, an architect of Heliopolis or -Balbeck, in the reign of the Emperor Constantine Pogonatus, who, it is said, forbad -the art of making it to be communicated to foreigners, but it was at length known, -and in common use, among the nations confederated with the Byzantines.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Known in -China, 917.</p> - -<p>It is also said to have been known in China in 917, being 300 years after -Constantine Pogonatus, under the name of “The oil of the cruelfire,” and was -carried thither by the Kitan Tartars, who had it from the King of Ou.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Wild fire -from the -Saracens.</p> - -<p>It was thrown by machines, by the hand, and by cross bows, fastened to the -heads of arrows. The Crusaders obtained a knowledge of a sort of wild fire from the -Saracens, which could only be extinguished by dust or vinegar. It was composed of -the gum of resinous trees, reduced to powder with sulphur, to which was added -naptha, and other bitumens, and probably nitre.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Wild fire in -the Holy -Wars.</p> - - - -<p>It is much spoken of in all the Holy Wars, as being frequently employed by -the Saracens against the Christians. Procopius, in his history of the Goths, calls -it Media’s oil, considering it an infernal composition prepared by that sorceress. -<span class="sidenote">Geoffrey de -Vinesauf’s -account.</span>Geoffrey de Vinesauf, who accompanied Richard I. to the Crusades, says that it -could not be extinguished by water, but that sand thrown upon it abated its virulence, -and vinegar poured upon it put it out. <span class="sidenote">Father -Daniel’s -account.</span>Father Daniel says this wild fire was -not only used in sieges, but even in battles, and that Philip Augustus, King of -France, having found a quantity of it ready prepared at Acre, brought it with him to -France, <span class="sidenote">Used at the -siege of -Dieppe.</span>and used it at the siege of Dieppe, for burning the English vessels in that -harbour.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Greek fire and -gunpowder, -both used at -the siege of -Ypres, 1383.</p> - -<p>The Greek fire was used long after the invention of firearms; when the Bishop -of Norwich besieged Ypres, 1383, the garrison is said by Walsingham to have -defended itself so well, with stones, arrows, lances, and certain engines called guns,<span class="pagenum" id="Page5">[5]</span> -that they obliged the English to raise the siege with such precipitation, that they left -behind them their great guns, which were of inestimable value.</p> - -<p>Greek fire was probably a more recent invention than Gunpowder.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Powder used -by Arabs, -14th century.</p> - -<p>It is ascertained that Gunpowder was employed by the Arabs as an agent -for throwing bolts and stones, about the commencement of the fourteenth century, -and that the Moors first availed themselves of its advantages in their wars with the -Spaniards. From Spain, the use of Gunpowder and Artillery gradually extended -itself to France, and thence over the other States of Europe.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Some idea of the importance of Gunpowder may be formed by the estimate of -the enormous quantity employed in sieges, and warfare generally.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Quantity used -in sieges.</p> - -<p>At the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, January, 1812, 74,978lbs. were consumed in -30<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> hours; at Badajos, March, 1812, 228,830lbs. in 104 hours, and this from the -great guns only.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">San Sebastian -and Zaragoza.</p> - -<p>At the two sieges of San Sebastian, 502,110lbs. At Zaragoza, the French -exploded 45,000lbs. in the mines, and threw 16,000 shells.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Sebastopol.</p> - -<p>During the siege of Sebastopol, extending over a period of eleven months, the -enormous quantity of 2,775,360lbs., or 1,239 tons of gunpowder, were expended by -ourselves alone; 9,076 tons of shot and shell having been launched by us on that -memorable occasion, from 476 pieces of heavy ordnance; of which only 11 actually -burst, though 269 were rendered unserviceable.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Quantity -made.</p> - -<p>Some of our private manufactories make from 8 to 10,000 barrels of powder -a year in time of peace, and from 10 to 14,000 during war.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Quantity -proved by -Government.</p> - -<p>The quantity of powder received and proved from Faversham, at the Royal -Magazines, and from the several powder makers contracting with Government, -amounted, during the several years from 1776 to 1782 inclusive, to 244,349 barrels -of 100 lbs. each, being equal, on an average, to 3,490,700lbs. annually. <span class="sidenote">Quantity in -store in 1783.</span>The quantity -of powder in store in Great Britain, Guernsey, Jersey, and the Isle of Man, in 1783, -was about 80,000 barrels.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Gunpowder -used for works -of peace.</p> - -<p>Sir George Staunton observes, that gunpowder in India and China seems coeval -with the most distant historic events, and that the Chinese have at all times applied -it to useful purposes, as the blasting of rocks, and also in the preparation of fireworks, -in which they greatly excel other nations.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Powder used -at Woodhead -tunnel.</p> - -<p>In blasting the Woodhead tunnel, in the county of Chester, not less than three -thousand five hundred barrels of gunpowder, weighing about one hundred and sixty -tons, were used in its formation. The average number of men employed was about -a thousand; and during the six years the works were in progress, twenty-six men -were killed. There were about 400 minor accidents, many of them attended with -loss of limb, and the sum total of the casualties, in proportion to the men employed, -was greater, according to Mr. Edwin Chadwick, than was suffered by the British -army in the battles of Talavera, Salamanca, Vittoria, and Waterloo.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Powder used -on S. Eastern -Railway.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page6">[6]</span></p> - -<p>In the formation of the South-Eastern Railway, the blasts of the cliffs between -Dover and Folkestone have astonished even scientific men. On one occasion 18,500 -pounds of gunpowder were ignited by galvanic action at the same instant, which -severed from the Round-down cliff, the height of which is 375 feet above the level of -the sea, more than 1,000,000 tons of chalk. The fallen mass extended 1200 feet -into the ocean, and covered a space of 18 acres. By another statement, the quantity -of earth moved by the explosion was 400,000 cubic yards, and was a saving to the -Company of £7,000.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">No. of men -employed at -Waltham -Abbey.</p> - -<p>There are 134 men employed in the Government works at Waltham Abbey -in the manufacture of gunpowder, <span class="sidenote">Quantity -made.</span>who make about 9,000 barrels a year. The premises -are near two miles long, consisting of detached mills, &c., on a small stream, -which runs through the whole length of the premises and communicates with the -Thames, whereby there is water-carriage to the Government Powder Magazines at -Purfleet. The barges conveying powder are not allowed to anchor in the river off -London during the night. Where two buildings are adjacent, there are frequently -heavy buttresses of masonry between them, and lightning conductors are placed in -great numbers.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Saving to -Government.</p> - -<p>There is a great saving, amounting to upwards of £300,000, in the cost of powder, -when compared to the price paid to the merchants in seven years of the war -from 1809 to 1815, from the Government having Waltham Abbey, Faversham, and -Ballincollig.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Improved -Quality.</p> - -<p>At Waltham Abbey, in a very few years after it was constructed, the powder -was so improved, that the charge of powder to the weight of shot was reduced from -one-half to one-third; therefore two barrels were used instead of three—an advantage -in stowing on board ship as well as in the field.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Made by -Contract.</p> - -<p>A great part of the powder for H. M. Government has at present to be supplied -by merchants. The contracts are made out sometimes for them to supply their own -saltpetre, and at others for the Government to furnish it pure, at the rate of 77·5 lbs. -per barrel of 100 lbs., they finding the other materials and manufacture, a corresponding -reduction in price being made: as, however, it has to come up in nearly all -respects to the sample, the requirements of which we shall state, certain -proofs have to be undergone before being received for the different services.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The foregoing is mainly compiled from Robins’s -<i>New Principles of Gunnery</i>, by Hutton; <i>Engines of -War</i>, by Wilkinson; and <i>Projectile Weapons of War</i>, by J. Scoffern, M.B.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page7">[7]</span></p> - -<h2>ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Composition -of powder.</p> - -<p>Gunpowder is an explosive propellant agent; a mechanical combination and intimate -mixture of saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur, in certain fixed proportions, the -result of successive experiments.</p> - -<p>To be effective, Gunpowder should,</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Ought to keep -without -deterioration.</p> - -<p>1st.—Preserve itself in a good state, whether in magazine or in carriage.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Leave no -residue.</p> - -<p>2nd.—Leave as little residue as possible after ignition.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Combine -quickness and -power.</p> - -<p>3rd.—Should combine a certain quickness of combustion with great explosive -force.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>SALTPETRE, OR NITRE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Nitre.</p> - -<p>The principal ingredient in Gunpowder is an abundant production of Nature, -and is a combination of nitric acid with the vegetable alkali. It is never found pure, -being always contaminated with other salts and earthy matter. <span class="sidenote">Where found.</span>It is principally found -in the East Indies, Ceylon, and South America, and is sometimes produced from -decayed animal and vegetable matter. <span class="sidenote">Unfit in natural -state.</span>It is totally unfit for Gunpowder until it has -been refined; for, being combined with muriates of soda, lime, magnesia, and other -salts, which absorb moisture, the close contact of the ingredients would be deranged -by their presence, the strength of the powder weakened, and the power of resisting -the action of the atmosphere greatly lessened. As for the efflorescent salts it may -contain, they are noxious only inasmuch as, possessing no particular useful property, -they interpose their atoms between the more combustible ingredients, and impede the -rapidity of deflagration.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Two methods -of refining.</p> - -<p>There are two methods of refining saltpetre at Waltham Abbey:—1st, the Old -Method, of re-crystallizing three times; and 2nd, the New Method, which has only -just been adopted, both of which we shall here briefly describe.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>OLD METHOD.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Old method.</p> - -<p>About 35 cwt. of the grough saltpetre, as it is termed, viz., as it is imported in -its impure state, is put into a copper capable of holding 500 gallons, with 270 gallons -of water, in the proportion of about 1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>lbs. of nitre to 1lb. of water, (which proportion -varies with the quality of the saltpetre). This is allowed to boil, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page8">[8]</span> -impurities are skimmed off as they appear on the surface. Cold water is occasionally -thrown in to precipitate portions of the chloride, which otherwise would remain on the -top by the action of boiling. After being allowed to boil from three and a half to -four hours, the furnace doors are thrown open, when the chlorides and salts fall to -the bottom. In about two hours, a copper pump is lowered into the liquor, which is -pumped out into a wooden trough, having four or five brass cocks, under which are -suspended canvas filtering bags in the shape of a V. The solution is then filtered, -and run off into pans, containing about 36 gallons, and allowed to remain for twenty-four -hours, to crystallize, when they are set up on edge, to drain off the liquor which -remains uncrystallized, and which is called mother liquor. The saltpetre thus -obtained is called once-refined, and undergoes the same process twice again, the only -difference being that there is a greater proportion to the water each time, viz. 1<sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>lb. -to 1lb. of water the second time, and 2lb. to 1lb. of water the third time: moreover, -the third time, a small quantity of ground charcoal is put into the solution, and it -passes through double filters, which brings it to a very fine pure white colour when -melted. The mother water which remains in the pans after each crystallization is -conveyed away by gutters to cisterns under the building; it is then evaporated in -iron pots to one quarter of its original bulk, filtered, and allowed to crystallize. The -saltpetre obtained from the first mother water is considered one stage inferior to -grough; that from the second, equal to grough; that from the treble-refined, equal -to once-refined saltpetre. The water left from every stage is treated in the same -way, so that actually nothing is lost of the pure material. Saltpetre treble-refined by -this process is perfectly pure, and fit for the manufacture of Gunpowder; and in -order to free it from moisture, as well as for the convenience of storage and transport, -it is melted in iron pots holding about 4 cwt., <span class="sidenote">Saltpetre -fuzes at 600°.</span>by raising it to a temperature of 600° -Fahrenheit, and cast into gun-metal circular moulds holding about 38lbs. each. It -must be observed that it requires about two hours to bring the saltpetre into a liquid -state, and that, after this, the furnace doors are thrown open, to lower the heat to the -proper temperature for casting into the moulds. When the cakes are cold, they are -packed away in barrels containing 1 cwt., 1 qr. each, and put into store. Care must -be taken, in melting the saltpetre, not to raise it to too high a temperature, as this -would reduce the quantity of oxygen, and form nitrite of potash, which would render -it unfit as an ingredient in the composition of Gunpowder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">A neutral -salt.</p> - -<p>Saltpetre is a neutral salt, the constituents of which are 46.55 potash, and 53.45 -nitric acid; the latter consisting of two volumes nitrogen and five of oxygen. It is -white, and of a fresh, sharp, and slightly bitter taste. It crystallizes in six-sided -prisms. Exposed to the air, it remains permanent unless impure, or that the atmosphere -is very moist.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>NEW METHOD.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">New method.</p> - -<p>Forty cwt. of the grough saltpetre is put into a copper with 270 gallons of water, -and treated in precisely the same way as we have before described for the first<span class="pagenum" id="Page9">[9]</span> -refining; it is then filtered and run off into large troughs, about 10 feet long by 6 feet -wide, and 9 inches deep, lined with sheet copper; this liquor is then kept in a state -of agitation by a wooden rake, until nearly cold. By this process a large quantity -of very minute crystals are formed, which are collected as they form by a wooden -hoe, and shovelled with a spade on to a framework covered with copper sieving -resting on the opposite sides of the trough, and allowed to drain. These fine white -crystals, which have exactly the appearance of snow, when they have drained -sufficiently, are raked over in a washing cistern adjoining, which is about 6 feet long, -4 feet wide, and 3ft. 6in. deep, and fitted with a false wooden bottom that can be -removed at pleasure. Cold water is allowed to run on to the saltpetre in this cistern -till it is nearly level with the top. After remaining for an hour it is drained off, and -filled again with fresh water, which is drained off after about another hour. The -saltpetre thus obtained is perfectly pure, and equal in every respect to the treble-refined -by the old method. The water remaining in the cisterns after agitation, is -left till the next morning, when a quantity of larger crystals are formed on the -bottom and sides; these are equal to once-refined by the old method, and are used -with grough; the mother-liquor is then drained off, and evaporated in the usual way. -The water from each washing is conveyed into cisterns, and used with grough saltpetre -instead of water; but, as it contains a small portion of saltpetre in solution, a -lesser quantity of grough is used to make the proportions correct.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Drying.</p> - -<p>The saltpetre flour, however, contains a certain degree of moisture, which has to -be dried off in the following way: two large copper trays, about 10 feet by 6 feet, -with a 3-inch rim, are fixed over flues heated by a furnace, 4 inches of sand being -between the flues and the bottom of the trays; the saltpetre is spread about 2 inches -deep all over, and raked about till dry; it is then barrelled up for use. It takes -about two hours to dry 5 cwt.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Comparison -of the two -methods.</p> - -<p>On comparing the two systems, there cannot for one moment be a doubt as to -the immense advantages of the latter over the former. As an example, in the refinery -where this new process is carried on, the result (that is to say, pure saltpetre) -is obtained in one day instead of six, with less than one half the amount of labour -and coals.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Why new -method best.</p> - -<p>On reflection, the reason of the great gain of time by this process will suggest -itself. In the former method, when allowed to remain quiet, the crystals formed are -very large, and the spaces left in them always contain a certain amount of mother-water, -which necessitates its being crystallized three times to perfectly free it from -the liquor. In the latter, the crystals are so minute that there is practically no space -for the mother-water to collect; consequently, by careful washing, the saltpetre is obtained -perfectly pure.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>CHARCOAL.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Charcoal.</p> - -<p>Wood charcoal is the woody fibre that remains after the liquid and more volatile -parts have been driven off by the fire in the process of charring. The temperature<span class="pagenum" id="Page10">[10]</span> -resulting from the combustion of charcoal is much higher than that from burning -wood, in consequence of the absence of the large quantity of water which wood -contains, amounting to between 50 and 60 per cent.; <span class="sidenote">Object of -charring.</span>the object, therefore, of charring -wood is the removal of moisture, and also, what is of great importance, the expulsion -of those matters contained in it which become volatile before they are burned, thus -rendering a large amount of heat latent. <span class="sidenote">Best wood for -charcoal.</span>The woods generally used in this country -in making charcoal for gunpowder are the alder, willow, and dogwood. There are -about 60 acres of wood grown for charcoal at Waltham Abbey. The alder is cut -every eight years, and the willow in six years. It is used after one year. Other -woods are sometimes used by English and foreign manufacturers, but none produce a -powder of such quality as obtained from the above. It is usually considered that -better charcoal is distilled when the wood is allowed to season for a time; but -recent experience has shown that wood only lately cut and peeled, after being desiccated -in a hot chamber, will make equally good charcoal with that which has been -seasoning for three or four years.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">First process.</p> - -<p>All the wood which is cut in the Government grounds or purchased from merchants, -is stripped of the bark, on account of its being impregnated with salts and -gummy substances, cut into lengths of 3 feet for the convenience of loading the iron -slips, which are a little above this length, and stacked in the wood-yard.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cylinder -charcoal.</p> - -<p>Cylindrical cases of the required size, fitted with lids, are filled with wood. -These cases are made to fit easily, and slide horizontally into iron retorts built in the -wall, which admit of the accurate regulation of heat (communicated to them by furnaces -underneath) throughout the operation of charring. A great saving of time and -heat is effected by their use, as when the wood has been properly charred the case -or slip containing it may be easily withdrawn, and another containing a fresh charge -at once introduced into the retort, without allowing the latter to cool down, as -would otherwise be necessary. When it has been sufficiently charred (which is -known by experience, in watching the burning of the gas that is produced and is -conducted into the fire), the slip is withdrawn by tackling, and at once lowered down -into iron coolers or cases, which are immediately covered up with close-fitting lids, -and then allowed to remain until all fire is extinguished. The goodness of charcoal -is an essential point in the manufacture of gunpowder. <span class="sidenote">Quantity -produced.</span>About twenty-five to thirty -per cent. is obtained; and one cord will produce about four cwt. of charcoal. <span class="sidenote">Qualities.</span>If -properly charred, it should have a jet black appearance, and when powdered a lustre -resembling velvet; it should be light and sonorous when gently dropped, and its -fracture should exhibit the same appearance throughout; it should be so soft as not -to scratch polished copper, and ought not to exhibit any alkali when treated with -pure distilled water. Charcoal is very porous, and absorbs very greedily gases and -moisture from the atmosphere; no large store therefore is ever kept, and particular -care is taken to prepare it only in proportion as it is required for use. <span class="sidenote">Kept dry.</span>At all times -it must be kept exceedingly dry; <span class="sidenote">Absorbs.</span>when whole it will absorb about eight per cent. its -weight of moisture, and when in powder 15 per cent., so that the fresher the -charcoal is the better for the powder.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page11">[11]</span></p> - -<h3>SULPHUR.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Sulphur.</p> - -<p>Sulphur is a simple, combustible, solid, non-metallic, elementary body. It is -found generally in great quantities in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. It is also -obtainable from metallic ores, and readily fuzes. At 170° Fahrenheit it begins to -evaporate; at 185° to 190° it melts; at 220° it is perfectly fluid; and at 600° it -sublimes. <span class="sidenote">How purified.</span>Sulphur is purified simply by melting: that which is supplied to Waltham -Abbey has been once refined, and the following is a description of the apparatus and -method for purifying and rendering it fit as an ingredient in Gunpowder. A large -iron pot is set about three feet off the ground, or about the height that an ordinary -boiling copper is placed, having a furnace underneath. This pot has a movable lid, -which is fixed into the top of the pot with clay, and in which lid is an iron conical -plug that can be removed at pleasure. From the pot lead two pipes, one to a large -circular dome, and another to an iron retort, rather below its level. The last-mentioned -pipe has a casing, or jacket, round it, which can be filled with cold water. -The communication of these pipes with the melting pot can be shut off or opened, as -occasion requires, by a mechanical arrangement. About 5<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> to 6 cwt. of the once-refined -sulphur is broken up into small pieces, placed in the iron melting pot, and -subjected to the action of the furnace. The plug in the lid, and the pipe leading to -the dome are now left open, but the pipe to the retort closed. After from two to -three hours a pale yellow vapour rises, when the plug is put in, and the vapour conducted -into the dome, where it condenses in the form of an impalpable powder, -commonly called flowers of sulphur. A small pipe leads from the bottom of the -dome, on the opposite side, into water, to allow the escape of the air, and sulphuric -acid is taken up by this water. In about one and a half to two hours after, the -vapour becomes of a deep iodine colour, when the communication with the dome is -shut, and the one to the retort opened; at the same time, cold water from a tank -above is allowed to pass into the jacket we have before mentioned, surrounding this -pipe. The vapour then which distils over is condensed in the pipe, and runs into the -retort below in the form of a thick yellow fluid. When nearly all has distilled, which -can be known by the jacket getting cold, the communication is again closed with the -retort, and the fluid sulphur left an hour, to get sufficiently cool to ladle out into -moulds, the furnace door and the communication with the dome at the same time are -again thrown open, that the rest of the vapour may pass into the latter. <span class="sidenote">Flowers of -sulphur -unsuitable.</span>The flowers -of sulphur thus obtained are used for laboratory purposes, being unfit for the manufacture -of Gunpowder, from the acid they contain, and the crystalline sulphur, after -being allowed to cool in the moulds, is barrelled up and used as the third ingredient -in Gunpowder.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>PULVERIZING THE INGREDIENTS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Grinding.</p> - -<p>The three ingredients are now ground separately to a very fine powder. The -mills (vide <a href="#Plate1">plate 1</a>) which effect this, and incorporate, are so similar, that a description -will be given under the head of “Incorporation.” -<span class="sidenote">Screening.</span>After being ground in this<span class="pagenum" id="Page12">[12]</span> -way, the saltpetre is passed through a slope cylindrical reel, covered with copper -sieving wire of 60 meshes to the inch, which, as it revolves, sifts it to the required -fineness, being then received in a box or bin underneath. The charcoal and sulphur -are likewise passed through similar reels of 32 and 60-mesh wire respectively, and -that which remains without passing through, is ground again under the runners. A -very excellent machine has been invented by Mr. Hall, the engineer, of Dartford, for -grinding charcoal, which makes a most useful addition to the Gunpowder factory. It -consists of a conical drum, working in a conical box, on the same principle as a -coffee-grinding machine, the axis being vertical. The mill is fed with charcoal by a -hopper, and, as it passes through in fine powder, falls into a revolving reel, which -sifts it in the same manner as before described, the whole being covered in, to prevent -the great annoyance of dust, which was felt until lately, from the old charcoal mill. -The three ingredients having been pulverized, are now fit for the mixing process.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>MIXING THE INGREDIENTS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Mixing and -proportions.</p> - -<p>The ingredients are now weighed out very accurately, in the proportion of 75 -nitre, 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur, in 42lb. charges, viz., nitre, 31lbs. 8oz., charcoal, -6lbs. 4oz. 13drs., sulphur, 4lbs. 3oz. 3drs., and thoroughly mixed in a machine, which -consists of a cylindrical gun-metal or copper drum, about two feet in diameter, with -an axle passing through its centre, on which there are metal flyers, like forks. The -machinery is so arranged that the flyers and drum revolve in opposite directions when -in motion, at a rate of about one hundred revolutions per minute. Five minutes is -sufficient for a thorough mixture. The composition is then drawn off by a slip into -canvas bags the proper size to hold the 42lb. charges, which are tightly tied, and -taken to small magazines. <span class="sidenote">Green -charges.</span>These are called green charges, and are now ready for the -next process, incorporation.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>THE INCORPORATING MILL.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Incorporation.</p> - -<p>The Incorporating Mill consists of an iron or stone circular flat bed, about seven -feet in diameter, fixed very firmly in the floor of the building which covers it, whereon -two iron or stone cylindrical runners, from five to seven feet in diameter, fourteen to -eighteen inches wide, and each weighing from 3 to 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> tons, revolve. They have a -common axle, and a vertical shaft passing through the centre of the bed is connected -with this axle, and to machinery above or below, which communicates the motion. -These runners are not equidistant from the centre, by which arrangement in their -revolution every part of the composition on the bed is subjected to their action, which -is threefold, viz., crushing, grinding, and mixing; crushing, from the weight of the -cylinders; grinding, from the twisting motion which they are forced into from so -large a diameter revolving in so small a circle; and mixing, from a combination of -the two former motions. To prevent the powder from falling over the side of the -bed, a wooden rim, about two feet in height, is placed at an angle of forty-five -degrees with it, like the side of a funnel, and fitted closely all round its circumference.<span class="pagenum" id="Page13">[13]</span> -This is called the “curb;” and in the centre of the bed a gun-metal ring, or -“cheese,” as it is termed, about two feet in diameter, and five inches high, concentric -with the bed, prevents the powder working beyond in that direction. Moreover, -two scrapers, or “ploughs,” connected by stays with the horizontal axle, revolve with -the runners, one rubbing against the inner, and the other the outer circle. These -ploughs are made of hard wood, shod with leather and felt, and their use is continually -to disturb and rout about the composition, and keep it under the path of the -runners, so that every part should get its share of incorporation. The houses or sheds -which cover these buildings have hitherto been constructed of wood, with either -corrugated iron or wooden roofing. The new incorporating mills in this factory, -which are just completed, are built with three sides of strong three-foot brickwork, -and the fourth side and roof of corrugated iron and glass. They are also placed in a -line contiguous to each other, the alternate ones only facing the same way, so that an -explosion from one would probably communicate no further, and the lighter parts of -the building would blow away, leaving the rest entire. Most of the machinery in the -factory is driven by water-wheels; the motive power of these mills is steam. A -horizontal shaft, worked by the engine, passes underneath the entire length of the -building in a cast-iron tank, and a bevel wheel on this shaft is geared into another one -on the vertical shaft under the centre of each bed, which, communicating with the -runners, gives the necessary motion.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Water-tanks -to prevent -explosions.</p> - -<p>In order, as much as possible, to guard against any explosion spreading, above -each bed, placed so as just to clear the runners, is suspended or balanced a copper -tank, holding about forty gallons of water. On one side of the tank is fixed a small -shaft, which communicates with similar cisterns over the beds of the mills on either -side. The other end of the tank rests on a flat board, which is subjected to a great -part of the force of an explosion. This consequently lifts, disengaging the support of -the tank, the contents of which drench the bed which has just exploded, thereby -putting out all fire, and cooling the machinery, besides having a similar effect on the -mills right and left, preventing, by this means, any extension of fire.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>INCORPORATING THE INGREDIENTS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Incorporation.</p> - -<p>The charge is spread pretty evenly over the surface of the bed, and moistened -with from four to six pints of distilled water; the quantity varying according to the -state of the atmosphere; the runners are then set in motion, and run from seven to -eight revolutions per minute for three and a half hours, during which time the powder -is often routed up by a copper-shod spud, and watered slightly with a fine rose -watering pot, according to the experience of the millman; at the end of this time the -mixture is thoroughly incorporated, possesses all the chemical properties of Gunpowder, -and is taken off the bed in the form of a cake, varying from a quarter to -half an inch in thickness, and of a blackish-grey colour. <span class="sidenote">Mill cake.</span>This is called “Mill Cake,” -and when broken, the fracture should exhibit the same uniform appearance, without -presenting any sparkling or yellow specks; should this, however, be the case, it is a<span class="pagenum" id="Page14">[14]</span> -sign of the ingredients not being sufficiently incorporated. <span class="sidenote">Proof of mill -cake.</span>In this stage it undergoes -certain proofs; samples of the cake are taken from every charge that is worked, dried -in an oven, and granulated; half a drachm of this is fired in a vertical eprouvette, -which it ought to raise 3.5 inches; and half an ounce is flashed on a glass plate. If -very little residue or ash is left, it is an additional proof of its being well incorporated, -and that the millman has done his work properly.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Importance of -incorporation.</p> - -<p>Incorporation is by far the most important process in the manufacture of Gunpowder; -for, however carefully the other part of the fabrication is carried on, should -there be a failing in this, the powder will be worth nothing.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Object of -manufacture.</p> - -<p>The great and ultimate object to be attained in the manufacture of Gunpowder -is, to produce that which shall give equal results with equal charges; the greatest -regularity should therefore be observed in this stage. The millman should have great -experience; the runners and beds should be, as nearly as possible, the same size and -weight, and driven at the same speed throughout the factory; at any rate, each charge -should be worked to the same number of revolutions; the motion of the runners -should also be as uniform as possible, which is very satisfactorily accomplished by -each water-wheel being regulated by a governor.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>BREAKING DOWN THE MILL CAKE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Breaking -down the mill -cake.</p> - -<p>The mill cake, after it comes off the bed of the incorporating mill, is placed in -wooden tubs, and taken to small-expense magazines, and from there, in about twelve -hours, to the breaking-down house; <span class="sidenote">Object of -mealing.</span>the object of the machine from which this takes -its name, is to reduce the cake to a convenient size for the hydraulic-press box, and -also that, by being crushed again to meal, it may get a more even pressure. It consists -of a strong gun-metal framework, in which are fixed two pairs of fine-toothed -or plain rollers, which revolve towards each other, working in spring collars, so that -on any hard substance getting in by mistake, they would open, and allow it to pass -through, thereby preventing the dangerous friction which would otherwise result. A -hopper, or upright wooden funnel, capable of holding about 500 lbs. is fixed at one -end of the machine, and an endless canvass band 2ft. 6in. wide, having strips of -leather sewn across at intervals of four inches, passes over one roller at the bottom of -the hopper, and one at the top of the machine. When set in motion, this conveys the -cake from the hopper to the highest point of the band; it then falls through the first -pair of rollers, and from thence through the second, passing in the form of meal into -small wooden carriages underneath, which, as they are filled, move forward by a self-acting -motion, making room for others. The mill cake thus broken down, is fit for -the press.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>PRESSING THE MEAL BY THE HYDRAULIC PRESS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Hydraulic -Pressure.</p> - -<p>The meal is now subjected to very powerful pressure; and, in order to explain -the way in which this is effected, a short description of the apparatus must be given.<span class="pagenum" id="Page15">[15]</span> -The principle of the hydraulic press is so familiar to most, that it will be unnecessary -to do more than show how the power is applied (vide <a href="#Plate2">plate 2</a>).</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Description of -box.</p> - -<p>A very strong oak box, 2 feet 6 inches square, and 2 feet 9 inches deep, is constructed -so that two of the sides of the lid will fall back on hinges, or form a compact -solid box when screwed firmly together. Forty-six copper plates, 2 feet 5<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> inches -square, slide vertically into this box, and are kept five-eighths of an inch apart by -two metal slips with corresponding grooves, which can be removed when necessary.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Quantity -pressed.</p> - -<p>About 800 lbs. of the meal is put into this box while the plates are in the position -we have described. When full, the slips are withdrawn, the plates being then -only separated by the powder between them: the lid is now firmly screwed down, -and the box turned over by an arrangement of pulleys, so that the plates which were -vertical will now be horizontal. The present upper side is then unscrewed, and a -travelling crane, moving on a rail overhead, is lowered till the claws attached -to it hook on to two trunnions fixed on the sides of the box; it is now hoisted by -means of a handwheel windlass, and the box being suspended, is pushed easily by -means of the rail, and deposited in this position on to the table of the ram under the -press block. <span class="sidenote">Amount of -pressure.</span>The pumps are now set in motion by a water-wheel, and are allowed -to work up to the required pressure, which is about seventy tons to the square foot; -it is then conveyed from under the block in the same manner, and very easily unloaded. -The press cake is then taken out in layers between each plate, resembling -dark pieces of slate, about half an inch in thickness. After a day or so, this hardens -so much as to be difficult to break, and the appearance of the fracture resembles that -of the finest earthenware. Many important advantages are gained by this pressure, -of which the following are the <span class="nowrap">principal:—</span></p> - -<p class="sidenote">Reasons for -pressure.</p> - -<p>First, the density of the powder is increased, which prevents it falling to dust in -transport, or by rough usage. Secondly, its keeping qualities are improved, for it -withstands the action of the atmosphere, and absorbs less moisture than a porous -light powder. Thirdly, it produces more grain in the manufacture than mill cake; -and a less proportion, consequently, is lost in dust. Fourthly, a closer connection of -the ingredients is obtained. Fifthly, a greater volume of inflammable gas is produced -from a certain bulk, than from a corresponding bulk of lighter powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of pressure.</p> - -<p>The range, however, is lessened, from a greater quantity being blown out of a gun -unignited; but this small loss is more than counterbalanced by the former advantages, -and actually it is only perceptible in newly-made powder; for a light, porous powder -soon loses its superior range from its absorption of moisture, while that of the dense -powder remains unaltered.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>GRANULATING THE PRESS CAKE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Mode of -granulation.</p> - -<p>The next process is granulation, or reducing this press cake into the proper sized -grain for cannon, musket, or rifle powder. The machine which effects this is very -beautifully contrived, and is entirely self-acting, obviating the necessity of any one -being in the building while it is in motion. It resembles, in appearance and action,<span class="pagenum" id="Page16">[16]</span> -the breaking-down machine, except that it is larger, and is fitted with three pairs of -toothed rollers, of different degrees of fineness, working in the same kind of collars -already mentioned, so that, on any hard substance passing through, they would open -accordingly, and thus prevent friction. At one end of the machine is a wooden -hopper, or funnel, which is filled with the press cake. This is contrived so as to rise -gradually by the motion of the machine, and constantly to supply an endless band, -similar to the one described in the breaking-down house. When the cake arrives at -the highest point of this band, it falls over, and is granulated between the first pair -of gun-metal rollers. <span class="sidenote">Screening.</span>Under each pair is a screen, covered with 8-mesh wire. All -that is not sufficiently small to pass through, is carried on to the next pair of rollers; -and, in like manner, that which does not pass through the second screen is carried to -the third pair. In addition to these screens, there are three oblong sieves covered -with 8- and 16-mesh wire, and 56 cloth respectively, fixed under, and parallel to, -each other, each being separated by about four inches of space, running at an incline -just below the three pairs of rollers; these all lead to little wooden carriages placed -on the opposite side of the machine, which are divided so as to collect the different -sized grain as it passes down. To facilitate the separation and sifting of the powder, -and to prevent masses of it forming and clogging up the wire, a shaking motion is -imparted by a circular wheel attached to the framework of these sieves revolving -against an octagonal one fixed to the machine. The grains which pass through each -screen below the rollers fall on the upper one of these three last-mentioned sieves. -That portion which passes through this, and is retained on the 16-mesh wire, is -cannon powder; that passing through the 16-mesh sieve, and retained on the -56-cloth, is fine grain; and a board, running also parallel underneath, retains the dust -that passes through the cloth.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Chucks -regranulated.</p> - -<p>The “chucks,” as they are called, or those grains that are too large to pass -through these different sieves, are collected in the same way as the grain, and -undergo the process of granulation again.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>DUSTING LARGE-GRAIN POWDER.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Object of -dusting.</p> - -<p>The keeping qualities of powder are very much improved by removing the dust, -which quickly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. <span class="sidenote">How performed -for -large-grain.</span>This operation, for large-grain, -is performed by cylindrical reels, about 8ft. 6in. long, and 3ft. 8in. in diameter, -clothed with 28-mesh canvas, which revolve at the rate of thirty-eight times per -minute. Those for large-grain are called horizontal reels, in contradistinction to those -for fine-grain, that are called slope reels. Each is enclosed by a wooden case, to -prevent the dust flying about the house. When the powder has run its time, one -end of the reel is lowered. It then runs out into barrels placed to receive it. <span class="sidenote">Glazed at -same time.</span>This -entirely separates the dust, and imparts a fine black gloss, which is sufficient glazing -for the large-grained powder.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page17">[17]</span></p> - -<h3>DUSTING FINE-GRAIN POWDER.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Dusting fine-grain.</p> - -<p>The fine-grain powder has a much greater proportion of dust when it leaves the -granulating house than the large-grain, and it is found necessary, on this account, to -use a different kind of reel. They resemble those for the former powder, except that -they are covered with 44-mesh canvas instead of 28, and are placed at an incline -which prevents their being choked up with the quantity of dust; each end is also -open, and a continuous stream of powder, fed by a hopper, passes through while they -revolve, and pours out at the lower end into barrels. This process is repeated a second -time, which sufficiently frees it from dust.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>GLAZING FINE-GRAIN POWDER.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Glazing fine-grain.</p> - -<p>The fine-grain powder thus dusted, is then glazed for three hours in barrels -capable of holding 300lbs. which are 3ft. 6-in. in length, and 2ft. 8-in. in diameter, -revolving at the rate of thirty two times in a minute. By the mere friction of the -grains against each other and the inside of the barrel, a glaze is imparted, presenting -a fine polished surface to the grain.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Object of -glazing.</p> - -<p>Powder glazed in this way withstands the action of moisture to a far greater -extent than unglazed powder, and in transport very little dust is formed.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>STOVING OR DRYING POWDER.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Drying.</p> - -<p>A drying-room, heated by steam pipes, is fitted with open framework shelves, on -which rests small wooden trays about 3ft. long, 1ft. 6-in. in breadth, and 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>in. deep, -having canvas bottoms; on each is spread 8lbs. of powder. This room holds about -40 barrels, or 4,000lbs., which remains in it for twenty four hours, and is subjected to -a heat of 130° Fahrenheit for sixteen hours, communicated by steam passing through -pipes arranged horizontally on the floor of the room. The temperature is raised and -lowered gradually, otherwise the too sudden change would be likely to destroy the -texture of the grain. The ceiling and roof are fitted with ventilators, through which -all the moisture escapes, so that there is a constant current of hot air circulating -through the room. It is of the greatest importance that the vapour should be carried -off; for, if this is not effectually done, on the decrease of temperature, it would return -to its liquid state, and form again on the powder.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>FINISHING DUSTING.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Final dusting.</p> - -<p>The action of heat however produces a small portion of dust; both these powders, -therefore, when they leave the stove, are reeled in horizontal reels, clothed with 28 -and 44-mesh canvas respectively, for one hour and a half. This perfectly separates -any remaining dust, and gives the finishing glaze to the large-grain powder. <span class="sidenote">Barrelling.</span>This is -the final process, and the powder thus finished is taken to the barrelling-up house; -weighed out into barrels holding 100lbs. each; marked L. G. (large-grain), and F. G. -(fine-grain), as the case may be; and stored in magazines.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page18">[18]</span></p> - -<h3>EXAMINATION AND PROOF OF GUNPOWDER.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Desired -properties of -gunpowder.</p> - -<p>The great and ultimate object to be attained in the manufacture of Gunpowder -is, not so much to produce that which ranges the highest, as one that shall be durable -in its texture, not easily deteriorated by atmospheric influence or transport, and one -with which equal charges shall produce equal effects. It should present uniformity -in the appearance of its grains, which should be angular, crisp and sharp to the touch, -not easily reduced to dust by pressure between the fingers, or dusty in handling; <span class="sidenote">Specific -gravity.</span>its -specific gravity should not be under 55lbs. to the cubic foot, (that of Waltham Abbey -is generally 58lbs.) taking water at 1000ozs.; <span class="sidenote">Strength.</span>its strength is tested by firing three -rounds from an 8 inch mortar, throwing a 68-pounder solid shot with a charge of 2oz. -this should give a range of from 270 to 300 feet. The distance however, varies -considerably, according to the state of the atmosphere, and the density of the powder: -for, the greater the density, the less the range in small charges. <span class="sidenote">Purity.</span>Half an ounce -flashed on a glass plate should leave little or no residuum; should white beads or -globules appear, it is a sign of imperfect incorporation.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>PROOF OF MERCHANT’S POWDER.</h3> - -<p>The following are the different proofs merchant’s powder is subjected <span class="nowrap">to:—</span></p> - -<p>Lots of 100 barrels are sent in, marked with the number of the lot and the -maker’s name on the head of each barrel. 25 per cent. of these are unheaded in the -examining house; the Proof Officer <span class="nowrap">then—</span></p> - -<p class="sidenote">If dusty.</p> - -<p>First, takes a bowl out of each barrel, and holding it about three feet above, -pours it out quickly; should there be a good deal of dust, it is satisfactorily shown by -this means.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Firmness.</p> - -<p>Secondly, it is handled and pressed between the fingers, to test the firmness of -its grain; <span class="sidenote">Size of grain.</span>and should there appear to be any great difference in the proportions of -different sizes to that laid down as a standard, it is sifted and compared accordingly, -being rejected should the quantities fall short or exceed the sample in any great -degree.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Density.</p> - -<p>Thirdly, a barrel or two are selected, and the powder poured into a hopper, -under which is placed a box very carefully constructed, so as to hold exactly a cubic -foot. A slide is now withdrawn at the bottom of the hopper, and the powder allowed -to run into the box in a continuous even stream until it is piled up; the hopper is -then removed, and the powder struck off with a straight edge, level with the top of -the box. The weight is now carefully taken, that of the latter being subtracted; -should this not amount to 55lbs. it is rejected, as not being of sufficient density.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Strength by -range.</p> - -<p>Fourthly, samples are taken from every barrel, and lot for the firing proof.</p> - -<p>Firing Proof.—An average of nine rounds of sample Waltham Abbey powder is -taken, three rounds being respectively fired at the beginning, middle, and end of the -proof, from the same kind of mortar before mentioned, with a charge of 2oz. An -average of three rounds of each lot of the merchant’s powder is also taken; should it -fall short by more than 1 in 20, it is rejected.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Purity by -flashing.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page19">[19]</span></p> - -<p>Fifthly, to ascertain if any residuum or ash is left after ignition, about half an -ounce is burned on a clean glass plate, and fired with a hot iron. The explosion -should be sharp, and produce a sudden concussion in the air; and the force and -power of this concussion should be judged by that of known good quality. Few -sparks should fly off, nor should white beads or globules appear, as it would be a sure -indication, as we have before explained, of insufficient incorporation. It is also subjected -to a second proof.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Purity by -weight after -exposure to -damp.</p> - -<p>Second proof.—A sample of 1lb. from each lot, carefully weighed up, and a -similar sample of the comparison powder, is exposed for three weeks in a box perforated -with holes (called a damp chest), to the action of the atmosphere. This box -is placed under cover, so that it is sheltered from the wet, but that the moisture can -get to it. If, at the end of this time, there is a greater proportion of difference in -range between them than one-twentieth, it is rejected. The pounds are also very -carefully weighed up again, to ascertain the comparative absorption of moisture. This -is called the hygrometric test.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>REMARKS ON THE PROOF OF POWDER BY THE EPROUVETTES.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">By eprouvettes -or -pendulum.</p> - -<p>By comparing the results of the proofs by the eprouvettes with those furnished -by the cannon pendulum (vide <a href="#Plate1">plate 1</a>, fig. 2 and 3), it will appear that the eprouvettes -are entirely useless as instruments for testing the relative projectile force of -different kinds of powder, when employed in large charges in a cannon. Powders of -little density, or of fine grain, which burn most rapidly, give the highest proof with -the eprouvettes, whilst the reverse is nearly true with the cannon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Real use of -eprouvettes.</p> - -<p>The only real use of these eprouvettes is to check and verify the uniformity of a -current manufacture of powder, where a certain course of operations is intended to be -regularly pursued, and where the strength, tested by means of any instrument, should -therefore be uniform.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Best proof, by -service -charges.</p> - -<p>The only reliable mode of proving the strength of Gunpowder is, to test it with -service charges in the arms for which it is designed; for which purpose the balistic -pendulums (vide <a href="#Plate3">plate 3</a>), are perfectly adapted.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Best proof for -small arms.</p> - -<p>For the proof of powder for small arms, the small balistic pendulum is a simple, -convenient, and accurate instrument.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Common -eprouvette.</p> - -<p>The common eprouvettes are of no value as instruments for determining the -relative force of different kinds of Gunpowder.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>OF THE SIZE OF GRAIN FOR GUNPOWDER.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">On size of -grain.</p> - -<p>With regard to the particular size of grain for Gunpowder, I am confident great -improvements might be made, both in obtaining greater regularity of effect and propelling -force, by the adoption of a more uniform even grain. There are at present -half-a-dozen different sizes in our cannon and musket powder; and I think it stands<span class="pagenum" id="Page20">[20]</span> -to reason, that the more equal the size, the more uniform will be the ignition of all -the grains, and consequently the effect of the same charges will be much more regular.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER -ON THE CONTINENT AND AMERICA.</h3> - -<p>It may not be uninteresting to have a slight knowledge of the method employed -on the Continent, &c., for the production of Gunpowder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Proportion of -the ingredients.</p> - -<p>The proportions of the three ingredients vary slightly all over the Continent -and America, being as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="ingredients" summary="Ingredients"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3"> </th> -<th><span class="smcapall">SALTPETRE.</span></th> -<th><span class="smcapall">CHARCOAL.</span></th> -<th><span class="smcapall">SULPHUR.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="country">France</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace padl0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="proportion">75   </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="proportion">12.5 </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="proportion">12.5 </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="country">Belgium</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="country">Russia</td> -<td class="proportion">73.78</td> -<td class="proportion">13.59</td> -<td class="proportion">12.63</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="country">Prussia</td> -<td class="proportion">75   </td> -<td class="proportion">13.5 </td> -<td class="proportion">11.5 </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="country">Austria</td> -<td class="proportion">75.5 </td> -<td class="proportion">13.2 </td> -<td class="proportion">11.3 </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="country">Spain</td> -<td class="proportion">76.47</td> -<td class="proportion">10.78</td> -<td class="proportion">12.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="country">United States</td> -<td class="proportion">76   </td> -<td class="proportion">14   </td> -<td class="proportion">10   </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OF THE INGREDIENTS.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Production -and purification -of the -ingredients.</p> - -<p>The nitre is purified in a similar way to the new method employed at Waltham -Abbey, though it is seldom obtained with so faint a trace of chlorides, owing probably -to its being of an inferior quality, and of higher refraction when it is imported.</p> - -<p>The sulphur is supplied to the manufactories in France in the form of roll -sulphur, from Marseilles and Bordeaux, where there are very large refineries.</p> - -<p>The charcoal is prepared from dogwood, alder, willow, hazel, and poplar, sometimes -in pits, and occasionally in cylinders, as at Waltham Abbey. At Wetteren, -and in some parts of France, it is distilled by the action of steam. The “charbon -roux” taking its name from its brownish-red tinge, from being only partially burned, -was used formerly more than now, as the powder made from it was found to injure -and exert very pernicious effects upon fire-arms.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>PULVERIZING AND MIXING THE INGREDIENTS.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Pulverizing -and mixing -the ingredients.</p> - -<p>The ingredients are generally pulverized in copper drums, capable of holding -224 kilogrammes. Part of the charcoal is mixed with the sulphur, and part of the -sulphur with the saltpetre. They are then put into separate drums, which revolve -about twenty-five times per minute for three hours, and in which are about 500 gun-metal -or bronze balls, the size of good large marbles. The ingredients are brought -to the most minute state of division by these means, and are then mixed all together, -for one hour, in similar drums covered with leather, containing wooden balls.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page21">[21]</span></p> - -<h4>INCORPORATING PROCESS.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Incorporation.</p> - -<p>The fine powder thus obtained is sometimes merely moistened, so as to form a stiff -paste, and passed through rollers, the cake formed, being dried and granulated. -The incorporating cylinders are used occasionally, but the more usual plan adopted on -the Continent to effect this operation is the stamping-mill, which requires a short description. -It is nothing more nor less than the pestle-and-mortar principle, each mill -consisting of from six to twelve bronze or wooden mortars bedded in the floor of the -building; they are the shape of the frustum of a cone, the mouth being much -narrower than the base; the pestles, or stampers as they are called, are made of wood, -shod with either very hard wood or bronze, on which project wooden teeth about -twelve inches long; a vertical movement is imparted to them by a shaft worked by -the water-wheel having similar teeth attached; in its revolution it raises the stamper -about eighteen inches, which falls again as the projection is disengaged, twenty five -times in a minute. This operation is carried on for twelve hours, during which period -the charge (about 15lbs.) is moistened at intervals, and routed up with a copper-shod -spud; at the end of this time the cake is taken out, and left to dry and harden; it -seldom receives any pressure—although, in some manufactories, presses are being -erected.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>GRANULATING.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Granulation.</p> - -<p>The cake is then granulated in sets of sieves fitting one into the other, having -perforated zinc bottoms of different degrees of fineness, which are suspended from the -ceiling of the room by ropes, an ash spring being attached to each box holding the -sieves, the cake is put into the uppermost one with some gun-metal balls, and shaken -backwards and forwards, which motion the spring facilitates; it is thus broken up into -different sized grains, which are separated by passing through the several meshes.</p> - -<p>The grain formed is then dusted in bags or shaking-frames covered with canvas, -and then glazed in barrels.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>STOVING OR DRYING.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Drying.</p> - -<p>In summer the process of drying is often performed in the sun, and in winter by -the steam stove, in the following way. The powder is spread about three or four -inches thick on a large canvas tray, under which is an arrangement of pipes, which -convey the hot air forced by a fan through a cylinder heated by steam: it is considered -to be sufficiently dried in from three to four hours, during which time it is -occasionally raked about. In some manufactories it undergoes a further operation of -being dusted, and is then barrelled up for use. Generally the great failure in the -foreign manufacture is the neglect of the principal stage of the fabrication, viz. incorporation; -with the old stamping-mill, it is quite impossible that the process can be -carried out to the necessary extent. <span class="sidenote">Comparative -merits of -foreign and -English gunpowder.</span>The Continental powder is usually very soft in<span class="pagenum" id="Page22">[22]</span> -its grain, dusty, and quickly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere; its density is -below the English powder, on account of its never being subjected to pressure; consequently -it is not so durable, and forms a good deal of dust in transport; a great -amount of residue is generally left in the gun, and its strength, as a propelling agent, -is far inferior to our powders. On being flashed on a glass plate, instead of producing -a sudden concussion, like the sharp rap of a hammer, it burns more like composition, -throwing off a quantity of sparks.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>NEW RIFLE POWDER.</h3> - -<p>The following mode of manufacturing rifle powder, appeared in Garrison Orders -at Woolwich, 31st December, 1859:</p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1">Composition in 100 <span class="nowrap">parts:—</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap" summary="Composition"> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">Saltpetre</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">Charcoal</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">15</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">Sulphur</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1"><span class="bt">100</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The charcoal to be prepared from dogwood, burned slowly in cylinders three -hours. The composition to be worked under the runners for five and a half hours, -and submitted to a pressure of about 50 tons to the square foot. The size of the -grain to be that collected between sieves of 16 and 24 meshes. The grain to be -glazed for five hours.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The foregoing, on the manufacture of -gunpowder, is principally taken from an article in the Aide -Memoire (1860), by Major Baddeley, Royal Artillery; Captain Instructor, Waltham Abbey.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div><!--sidenotetext--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page23">[23]</span></p> - -<h2>ON MAGAZINES.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p>It is impossible to make powder magazines too dry, and every care should be -taken to ventilate them as much as possible during dry weather, by opening all doors, -windows, loopholes, &c. Magazines are generally made bomb-proof, and are -furnished with lightning conductors. They are divided into chambers, and these -again divided by uprights into bays. At Purfleet, which is the grand depôt for gunpowder -in England, there are five magazines capable of containing 9,600 whole barrels -each. Each magazine is divided into two chambers, and each chamber into 24 bays, -and in each bay is placed 200 whole, 400 half, or 800 quarter barrels of powder. -Total in the five Magazines, 48,000 barrels, equal to 4,800,000 pounds.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page24">[24]</span></p> - -<h2>LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="note center"><i>Principles and Instructions relative to their application to Powder Magazines, by</i> <span class="smcap">Sir -W. Snow Harris</span>, F.R.S. <i>Extracted from Army List for July, 1859.</i></p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">1.—Thunder and lightning result from the operation of a peculiar natural agency -through an interval of the atmosphere contained between the surface of a certain area -of clouds, and a corresponding area of the earth’s surface directly opposed to the -clouds. It is always to be remembered that the earth’s surface and the clouds are the -terminating planes of the action, and that buildings are only assailed by Lightning -because they are points, as it were, in, or form part of, the earth’s surface, in which -the whole action below finally vanishes. Hence buildings, under any circumstances, -will be always open to strokes of Lightning, and no human power can prevent it, -whether having Conductors or not, or whether having metals about them or not, as -experience shows.</p> - -<p>2.—Whenever the peculiar agency, (whatever it may be), active in this operation -of nature, and characterized by the general term Electricity, or Electric Fluid, is -confined to substances which are found to resist its progress, such, for example, as -air, glass, resinous bodies, dry wood, stones, &c., then an explosive form of action -is the result, attended by such an evolution of light and heat, and by such an enormous -expansive force, that the most compact and massive bodies are rent in pieces, -and inflammable matter ignited. Nothing appears to stand against it. Granite rocks -are split open, oak and other trees, of enormous size, rent in shivers, and masonry -of every kind frequently laid in ruins. The lower masts of ships of the line, 3 feet in -diameter, and 110 feet long, bound with hoops of iron half an inch thick and 5 inches -wide, the whole weighing about 18 tons, have been, in many instances, torn asunder, -and the hoops of iron burst open and scattered on the decks. It is, in fact, this -terrible expansive power which we have to dread in cases of buildings struck by -Lightning, rather than the actual heat attendant on the discharge itself.</p> - -<p>3.—When, however, the electrical agency is confined to bodies, such as the -metals, which are found to oppose but small resistance to its progress, then this violent -expansive or disruptive action is either greatly reduced, or avoided altogether. The -explosive form of action we term Lightning, vanishes, and becomes, as it were, transformed -into a sort of continuous current action, of a comparatively quiescent kind,<span class="pagenum" id="Page25">[25]</span> -which, if the metallic substance it traverses be of certain known dimensions, will not -be productive of any damage to the metal. If, however, it be of small capacity, as -in the case of a small wire, it may become heated and fused. In this case, the electrical -agency, as before, is so resisted in its course as to admit of its taking on a -greater or less degree of explosive and heating effect, as in the former case. It is to -be here observed, that all kinds of matter oppose some resistance to the progress of -what is termed the Electrical Discharge, but the resistance through capacious metallic -bodies is comparatively so small, as to admit of being neglected under ordinary circumstances; -hence it is that such bodies have been termed Conductors of Electricity, -whilst bodies such as air, glass, &c., which are found to oppose very considerable -resistance to electrical action, are placed at the opposite extremity of the scale, and -termed Non-conductors or Insulators.</p> - -<p>The resistance of a metallic copper wire to an ordinary electrical discharge from -a battery, was found so small, that the shock traversed the wire at the rate of 576,000 -miles in a second. The resistance however, through a metallic line of Conduction, small -as it be, increases with the length, and diminishes with the area of the section of the -Conductor, or as the quantity of metal increases.</p> - -<p>4.—It follows from these established facts, that if a building were metallic in all -its parts, an iron magazine for example, then no damage could possibly arise to it -from any stroke of Lightning which has come within the experience of mankind; e.g., -a man in armour is safe from damage by Lightning; in fact, from the instant the -electrical discharge in breaking with disruptive and explosive violence through the -resisting air, seizes upon the mass in any point of it, from that instant the explosive -action vanishes, and the forces in operation are neutralized upon the terminating planes -of action, viz., the surface of the earth, and opposed clouds.</p> - -<p>5.—All this plainly teaches us, that in order to guard a building effectually -against damage by Lightning, we must endeavour to bring the general structure as -nearly as may be, into that passive or non-resisting state it would assume, supposing -the whole were a mass of metal.</p> - -<p>6.—To this end, one or more conducting channels of copper depending upon -the magnitude and extent of the building should be systematically applied to the walls; -these conducting channels should consist either of double copper plates united in series -one over the other, as in the method of fixing such Conductors to the masts of Her -Majesty’s Ships, the plates being not less than 3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> -inches wide, and of <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub>th and <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub>th of -an inch in thickness, or the Conductors may with advantage be constructed of stout -copper pipe not less than <sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub>ths of an inch thick, and -1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> to 2 inches in diameter: in -either case the Conductors should be securely fixed to the walls of the building, either -by braces, or copper nails, or clamps; they should terminate in solid metal rods above, -projecting freely into the air, at a moderate and convenient height above the point to -which they are fixed, and below they should terminate in one or two branches leading -outward about a foot under the surface of the earth; if possible, they should be connected -with a spring of water or other moist ground.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page26">[26]</span></p> - -<p>It would be proper in certain dry situations, to lead out in several directions -under the ground, old iron or other metallic chains, so as to expose a large extent of -metallic contact in the surface of the earth.</p> - -<p>7.—All the metals in the roof and other parts of the building of whatever kind, -should so far as possible have metallic communication with these Alarm Conductors, -and in case of any prominent elevated chimney, it would be desirable to lead a pointed -conducting tube along it to the metals of the roof; all of which satisfies the conditions -above specified.</p> - -<p>8.—Remark 1.—It is now proved beyond all questions, that the electrical -discharge never leaves perfect conducting lines of small resistance, in order to pass out -upon bad conducting circuits, in which the resistance is very great, that is an established -law of nature; hence a stroke of Lightning upon such conducting lines will be -confined to the Conductors as constituting a line of discharge of less resistance than -any other line of discharge through the building, which can be assigned. The -apprehension of “Lateral Discharge” therefore, from the Conductor, is quite absurd; -and is not countenanced by any fact whatever; if any doubt could possibly exist, it would -be now most completely set at rest by the experience of the permanent Conductors, -applied to the masts of Her Majesty’s ships. In very many instances furious discharges -of Lightning have fallen on the masts with a crash as if the ship’s broadside -had been fired, and the solid point aloft has been found melted; in all these cases -electrical discharge robbed by the Conductor of its explosive violence, has traversed -the line of action to the sea, through the ship, and through the copper bolts, driven -through the ship’s solid timbers, without the least damage to the surrounding masses, -whether metallic, as in the case of the massive iron hoops on the lower masts, or not. -Persons have either been close by or actually leaning against the Conductors at the -time, without experiencing any ill consequence.</p> - -<p>9.—Remark 2.—It has also been incontestably shown, that metallic bodies have -not any specific attractive force or affinity for the matter of Lightning; metals are as -little attractive of lightning as wood or stone. All matter is equally indifferent to -Electricity so far as regards a specific attraction, hence the idea that metals attract or -invite Lightning is a popular but very unlearned error contradicted by the most satisfactory -evidence, and the whole course of experience; in short, we find that Lightning -falls indiscriminately upon trees, rocks, and buildings, whether the buildings have -metals about them or not.</p> - -<p>10.—Remark 3.—A building that is hence clear, may be struck and damaged by -Lightning without having a particle of metal in its construction; if there be metals in -it, however, and they happen to be in such situations as will enable them to facilitate -the progress of the electrical discharge, so far as they go, then the discharge will fall -on them in preference to other bodies offering more resistance, but not otherwise; if -metallic substances be not present, or if present, they happen to occupy places in which -they cannot be of any use in helping on the discharge in the course it wants to go, then -the electricity seizes upon other bodies, which lie in that course, or which can help it, -however small their power of doing so, and in this attempt such bodies are commonly,<span class="pagenum" id="Page27">[27]</span> -but not always, shattered in pieces. The great law of the discharge is,—progress -between the terminating planes of action, viz:—the clouds and earth, and in such line -or lines as upon the whole, offer the least mechanical impediment or resistance to this -operation, just as water falling over the side of a hill in a rain storm, picks out or -selects as it were by the force of gravity, all the little furrows or channels which lie -convenient to its course, and avoids those which do not. If in the case of Lightning -you provide through the instrumentality of efficient Conductors, a free and uninterrupted -course for the electrical discharge, then it will follow that course without -damage to the general structure; if you do not, then this irresistible agency will find -a course for itself through the edifice in some line or lines of least resistance to it, and -will shake all imperfect conducting matter in pieces in doing so; moreover it is to be -specially remarked in this case, that the damage ensues, not where the metals are, but -where they cease to be continued, the more metal in a building therefore the better, -more especially when connected by an uninterrupted circuit with any medium of communication -with the earth.</p> - -<p>Such is, in fact, the great condition to be satisfied in the application of Lightning -Conductors, which is virtually nothing more than the perfecting a line or lines of small -resistance in given directions, less than the resistance in any other lines in the building, -which can be assigned in any other direction, and in which by a law of nature the -electrical agency will move in preference to any others.</p> - -<p>11.—It follows from the foregoing principles, that a magazine constructed entirely -of iron or other metal, would be infinitely more safe in Lightning storms than if built -with masonry in the usual way; metallic roofs for magazines, with capacious metallic -Conductors to the earth, would be unobjectionable, and a source of security.</p> - -<p>Metallic gutters and ridges having continuous metallic connection with the earth -are also unobjectionable.</p> - -<p>A good method of Conductors for magazines built of masonry, would be such as -already described, regard being had to the position of the building, its extent, and -most prominent points, also to the nature, state, and condition of the soil, whether it -be moist or dry, alluvial calcareous, or of hard rock; we must also consider the extent, -disposition, and peculiar position of the metallic bodies entering into the general -structure of the building, whether the roof be flat, pointed, or angular in various parts.</p> - -<p>The pointed projecting extremities of the two Conductors, one or more as the -case may be, will be commonly sufficient; but, in buildings having tall chimneys or -other elevated prominent points, at a distance from the Main Conductor, it will be -requisite to guard such chimneys or other parts, by a pointed rod, led along them to -the metals of the roof, or directly connected with the Main Conductors, by metallic -connections.</p> - -<p>12.—Pointed terminations of the Conductors in the air, are so far important that -they tend to break the force of a discharge of Lightning when it falls on them. In -fact, before the great shock actually takes place, under the form of a dense explosion, -a very large amount of the discharge, which otherwise would be concentrated, runs off, -as it were, through the pointed Conductor; but they have no other influence.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page28">[28]</span></p> - -<p>With respect to these pointed terminations, no great care need be taken about -them, except that they should consist of solid copper rod, of about three-quarters of an -inch in diameter, and about a foot in length, and be united by brazing to the conducting -tube, elevated at such convenient height above the walls of the building as the -case may suggest.</p> - -<p>As a support to the Conductor, when raised above the wall, we may employ a -small staff or spar of wood fixed to the masonry.</p> - -<p>13.—Copper linings to the doors and window shutters of magazines are not -objectionable, if requisite, as a precaution against fire; but they are useless as a means -of keeping out Lightning; on the other hand, it is not easy to conceive a case in which -the explosion of the gunpowder is to be apprehended from the action of Lightning on -the doors or windows. Supposing, however, such metallic linings desirable as a precaution -against common cases of fire, then the masses of metal should, according to the -principles already laid down, have metallic communication with the general system of -conduction in the building and the Main Conductor.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page29">[29]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenotetext"> - -<h2>ON THE EXPLOSIVE FORCE OF -GUNPOWDER.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages -of Gunpowder</p> - -<p>The advantages of Gunpowder, as a propelling agent, over any other explosive -material are, the comparative safety attending its manufacture and transport, and the -gradual nature of its decomposition when compared with those materials, such as fulminating -gold, silver, mercury, &c. &c. In gunpowder, the force resulting from the -rapid evolution of gas in a confined space has sufficient time to overcome the inertia of -the projectile, which is not the case with other explosive materials, the conversion of -which gaseous products is so instantaneous that nothing can resist the intensity of their -explosive action. Other advantages suggest themselves in the use of Gunpowder, such -as the comparative cheapness of the ingredients composing it, and the ease with which -they may be obtained; for the sulphur and saltpetre are very abundant productions of -nature, and the charcoal can be manufactured cheaply and with great facility, and if -care is taken in the process of the fabrication of powder, little deterioration will take -place on its exposure to heat or moisture.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Air & Steam -as propellants</p> - -<p>Condensed air and steam have been used as propelling agents; but the great -inconvenience attending their use quite preclude the possibility of adapting them to -war purposes.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Force of Gunpowder.</p> - -<p>As the force and effect obtained from Gunpowder is the foundation of all other -particulars relating to Gunnery, we will briefly consider these points.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Upon what -the action of -powder depends.</p> - -<p>The action of Gunpowder is dependent upon a purely chemical process. Mr. -Robins proved that the force generated by the combustion of gunpowder, was owing -to an elastic gas which was suddenly disengaged from the powder, when it was brought -to a certain temperature, and further that this disengaged gas had its elastic force -greatly augmented by the heat evolved by the chemical action.</p> - - -<p class="sidenote">Ingredients -are charged -with a large -volume of -heated gas.</p> - -<p>The propelling power of Gunpowder is dependent on the rapid decomposition of -the nitre into its component parts; the oxygen forms carbonic acid with the carbon in -the charcoal, and the heat thus generated by ignition changes both this and the nitrogen -into a large volume of heated gas. In a mixture of nitre and charcoal alone, the -oxidation proceeds with comparative slowness; by the addition of sulphur, an augmentation -of combustibility is gained, in consequence of its igniting at a very low -temperature; the sulphur, also, by its presence, renders available for the oxidation of -the carbon an additional amount of oxygen, viz: that which is united with the potassium, -the latter being at once converted into sulphite upon ignition of the powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Weight of gas -evolved.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page30">[30]</span></p> - -<p>It appears that the weight of gas generated is equal to three tenths of the weight -of the powder which yielded it, <span class="sidenote">Volume of gas -evolved.</span>and that its bulk when cold, and expanded to the -rarity of Common air was 240 times that of the powder; the barometer standing at -about 30 inches. From this Robins concluded that if the fluid occupied a space equal -to the volume of the gunpowder, its elastic force, when cold, would be 240 times the -pressure of the atmosphere, when the barometer stands as above. <span class="sidenote">Heat of gas -evolved.</span>Mr. Robins also -considered that the heat evolved was at least equal to that of red hot iron, and he -found by experiments that air heated to this temperature had its elasticity quadrupled, -and therefore, that the force of gas from powder is at least four times 240 = 960, or in -round numbers 1,000 times as great as the elasticity of the air measured by its pressure -on an equal extent of surface. <span class="sidenote">Pressure of -gas generated.</span>From the height of the barometer it is known that the -pressure of the atmosphere is about 14<sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>lbs. upon the square inch, so that the pressure -of the elastic gas generated by the combustion of the gunpowder upon the same area -would be 14.75 by 1,000 or 14,750lbs. at the moment of explosion. <span class="sidenote">Strength of -powder not -affected by -density of air, -but by damp.</span>He found that -the strength of Gunpowder was the same whatever might be the density of the atmosphere, -but that the moisture of the air effected it considerably, in fact that the same -quantity of powder which would give a bullet an initial velocity of 1,700 feet per -second on a day when the atmosphere was comparatively dry, would upon a damp -day give no more than 1,200 or 1,300 feet.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Velocity of gas</p> - -<p>The velocity of the expansion of the gas is a most important point, upon which -depends, chiefly, the peculiar value of the substance as a propelling agent. Many of -the warlike machines of the Ancients produced a momentum far surpassing that of -our heaviest cannon, but the great celerity given to the bodies projected from guns by -gunpowder cannot be in the least approached by any other means than by the sudden -production of an elastic gas. Mr. Robins found that the flame of gunpowder expanded -itself when at the muzzle of the gun with a velocity of 7,000 feet per second.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Dr. Hutton’s -calculation as -to:—<i>Volume, -Temperature, -Pressure</i>.</p> - -<p>It has been calculated that one cubic inch of powder is converted into 250 cubic -inches of gas at the temperature of the atmosphere, and Dr. Hutton states that the -increase of volume at the moment of ignition cannot be less than eight times; therefore -one inch of gunpowder, if confined, at the time of explosion exerts a pressure of about -30,000lbs. being 250 by 8 by 15 = 30,000lbs. on the cubic inch, or 5,000lbs. on the -square inch; and which at once accounts for its extraordinary power. <span class="sidenote">Temperature</span>The value of -the temperature to which the gases are raised, on the explosion of the powder, has been -variously estimated and it may be concluded to rise as high as will melt copper, or -4,000° Fahrenheit. <span class="sidenote">Expansion.</span>All gases expand uniformly by heat, the expansion having been -calculated with great precision, to be <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>480</sub>th for each degree of Fahrenheit. If therefore -we take Dr. Hutton’s calculations of one volume of powder expanding into 250 -volumes of gas at the temperature of the atmosphere, and if we suppose 4,000° Fahrenheit -to be the heat to which they are raised on ignition, the expansion of -gunpowder would be calculated. <span class="sidenote">How to calculate -expansion</span>Thus, suppose the gas to be at 60°, the temperature -of the atmosphere, we must deduct 60° from 4,000°, which will give -3,940, being the number of degrees remaining to which it is raised, hence -<span class="horsplit"><span class="top fsize80">temp.</span><span class="bot">1°</span></span> : -<span class="horsplit"><span class="top fsize80">vol.</span><span class="bot fsize80"><span -class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot bt">480</span></span></span></span> -<span class="horsplit"><span class="top fsize80">temp.</span><span class="bot">3,940°</span></span> : -<span class="horsplit"><span class="top fsize80">vol.</span><span class="bot fsize80"><span -class="horsplit"><span class="top bb">3940</span><span class="bot">480</span></span></span></span> -= -<span class="horsplit"><span class="top fsize80">vol.</span><span class="bot">8·2</span></span> -that is, each volume of gas would at a temperature of 4000° be<span class="pagenum" id="Page31">[31]</span> -increased 8·2 in volume. Gunpowder when at the temperature of the air being expanded -250 times in volume; therefore 250 by 8·2 = 2,050 as the increased -expansion for each volume of gas generated by the explosion of gunpowder at the -temperature of 4,000° Fahrenheit. Lieut-Colonel Boxer calculates that the heat -generated by good dry powder is not under 3,000° Fahrenheit. <span class="sidenote">Absolute -force of gunpowder -cannot -be determined.</span>It appears with our -present knowledge, the absolute value of the force of gunpowder cannot be determined. -Still by careful and extensive experiments no doubt a near approximation to the truth -may ultimately be arrived at, so that although much has already been done by various -eminent philosophers, there is still more to be accomplished; and the importance of -the subject ought to act as a stimulus to the exertions of those belonging to a profession -the most interested in the question.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Loss of velocity -by windage.</p> - -<p>It has been found by experiments that in calculating the initial velocity of a projectile, -one third of the whole force was lost with a windage of <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>10</sub>th inch with a shot -of 1·96-in. and 1·86-in. in diameter. The bore of the gun being 2·02-in.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Definition of -ignition and -combustion.</p> - -<p>By ignition we understand the act of setting fire to a single grain, or to a charge of -gunpowder, and by combustion we mean the entire consumption of a grain or of a charge.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Quickness of -combustion.</p> - -<p>Upon the quickness of combustion mainly depends the applicability of gunpowder -for Military purposes.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Ignition by -heat.</p> - -<p>Gunpowder may be inflamed in a variety of ways, but whatever be the method, -one portion of the substance must in the first instance be raised to a temperature a -little above that necessary to sublime the sulphur, which can be removed from the -other ingredients, by gradually raising the compound to a heat sufficient to drive it off -in a state of vapour. The heat required for this purpose is between 600° and 680° -Fahrenheit.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Progressive -combustion.</p> - -<p>When a charge of powder is exploded in the bore of a gun, to all appearance -there would seem to be an instantaneous generation of the whole force. But in fact -it is not so, a certain time being necessary to the complete combustion of the substance. -This gradual firing is of the utmost importance, for were it otherwise, the gun, unless -of enormous strength, must be shattered in pieces, as well as the projectile; for in such -a case, this great force being suddenly exerted upon one part only of the material, -there would not be time for the action to be distributed over the particles, at any great -distance, before those in the immediate vicinity of the explosion, were forced out of -the sphere of action of the cohesive force, and consequently rupture must take place.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Substances -which have -a more violent -action than -powder.</p> - -<p>The effect of such an action may be observed by exploding detonating powders, -in which are contained chlorate of potash or fulminating mercury. The action of that -peculiar substance the chlorite of nitrogen is still more remarkable. There is also -another compound, containing three parts of saltpetre, one part of carbonate of potash -and one part of sulphur, which when brought to a certain heat will explode with great -violence, its destructive force being very considerable; and this is principally due to -the rapidity of the evolution of the gas, for its amount is less than that produced from -gunpowder, but the complete decomposition occurs in a much shorter time.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">In a damp -state less -quickly fired, -and why.</p> - -<p>If gunpowder be in a damp state, the velocity of combustion will be less than -when dry, and also a longer time will be necessary to ignite it, since the moisture<span class="pagenum" id="Page32">[32]</span> -upon its conversion into vapour, absorbs a certain amount of heat which remains latent, -and of which the useful effects so far as igniting the powder is concerned, is entirely -lost.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Ignition by -percussion.</p> - -<p>Gunpowder may be ignited by the percussion of copper against copper, copper -against iron, lead against lead, and even with lead against wood, when the shock is -very great. It is more difficult to ignite gunpowder between copper and -bronze,<a id="FNanchor1"></a><a href="#Footnote1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> -or bronze and wood than between the other substances. Again, out of ten -samples which were wrapt in paper and struck upon an anvil with a heavy hammer, -seven of grained powder exploded and nine of mealed.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote1"></a><a href="#FNanchor1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> -Bronze consists of 78 parts copper to 20 of tin. Bell metal—78 copper and 22 tin. Gun metal—100 copper -to 8 to 10 tin. Brass—2 copper, 1 zinc and calamine stone, to harden and colour.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p class="sidenote">Influence of -shape of grain -on ignition.</p> - -<p>If the part to which the heat is applied be of an angular shape, the inflammation -will take place quicker than if it be of a round or flat form, on account of the greater -surface that is exposed to the increased temperature.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The form of -the grain influences -the -velocity of the -transmission -of flame.</p> - -<p>If the grains are of a rounded form, there would be larger interstices, and a -greater facility will be afforded to the passage of the heated gas, and therefore this -shape is most favourable to the rapid and complete inflammation of each grain in the -whole charge. On the other hand, particles of an angular or flat form, fitting into -each other as it were, offer greater obstruction to this motion, and the velocity of the -transmission of inflammation is thereby diminished.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Effect of size -on the velocity -of transmission -of inflammation.</p> - -<p>If the grains be small, the interstices will be small also, and the facility to the -expansion of the gas thereby diminished. In the experiments with trains of powder, -the increased surface exposed to the heated gas was found to more than compensate for -the diminished facility to its expansion, and generally a train of small-grained powder -laid upon a surface without being enclosed, will be consumed more quickly than a train -of large-grained powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Large grain -best suited for -heavy ordnance.</p> - -<p>But this is not the case in a piece of ordnance, a circumstance which amongst -others will account for the diminished initial velocity given to the shot by a charge of -small-grained musket powder, below that produced by the large-grained usually -adopted for this service.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Velocity of the -transmission -of inflammation -of the -charge.</p> - -<p>When a number of grains of powder are placed together as in the charge of a -gun, and a few of them are ignited at one end of the cartridge, a certain quantity of gas -is developed of a temperature sufficiently high to ignite those in their immediate -vicinity. This has also such elasticity as to enable it to expand itself with considerable -velocity. Again, the grains which are so ignited continue the inflammation to others in -the same manner. The absolute velocity of expansion of this gas is very considerable; -but the grains of gunpowder in the charge offer an obstruction to this motion, the gas -having to wind its way through the interstices, and consequently the velocity is considerably -diminished, but it is quite clear that it must be very much greater than the -velocity of combustion. <span class="sidenote">Estimate of -Mr. Piobert.</span>Mr. Piobert estimates the velocity of transmission of inflammation -of a charge in a gun at about 38 feet per second, and in all probability even this -is much under the mark.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Experiments -made on this -subject.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page33">[33]</span></p> - -<p>Many experiments have been made by observing the velocity of transmission of -inflammation of trains of powder under various circumstances, but they do not show us -what would be the velocity in a confined charge. The velocity increased with the -section of the train, and further when at the end first lighted, there was an obstruction -to the escape of gas, as in the case of a gun, a much shorter time was required for complete -inflammation.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Time of decomposition -depends upon -form of grain.</p> - -<p>When the charge of powder in a gun is ignited the grains being enveloped by the -heated gas, we may consider that each grain is ignited over its whole surface at once. -If the grains of powder were of equal or regular form, the time each would be consuming, -might be easily calculated, but since in ordinary cases they are irregular in -form, although the grains may be of the same weight, the time necessary for their -complete decomposition will be very different.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Circumstances -affecting -combustion.</p> - -<p>The quickness of combustion will depend upon the dryness of the powder, the -density of the composition, the proportion of the ingredients, the mode of manufacture, -and the quality of the ingredients.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Combustion -of cubical -grains considered.</p> - -<p>Were a cubical grain to be ignited upon its whole surface, the decomposition may -be supposed to take place gradually from the surface to the centre, and the original -cubical form to remain until the whole is consumed, the cube becoming smaller and -smaller. If, then, the rate of burning be the same throughout, the quantity of gas -generated in the first half portion of the time will evidently be considerably more than -in the latter half, as in the latter case there will be a much lesser surface under the -influence of flame.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elongated -and cylindrical -grains.</p> - -<p>If the form of the grain be elongated, then will the quantity of gas generated in -a given time from a grain of similar weight to that of the cube or sphere, be increased, -on account of the greater ignited surface, and consequently the time necessary for its -combustion will be diminished. If it be of a cylindrical form for example, this time -must be reckoned from the diameter of the cylinder, its length not influencing it in the -least, although as we have seen, it enters into the consideration of the quantity of the -gas generated in a given time.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Large grain.</p> - -<p>In the ordinary large-grain powder, the majority of the grains are of the elongated -or flat form, from whence considerable advantage is derived, particularly in short guns, -since it causes the greatest portion of the charge to be decomposed before the projectile -is moved sensibly from its original position.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mealed powder.</p> - -<p>If the charge be composed of mealed powder a longer time is found to be -necessary for the complete combustion of the whole than in the case where the substance -is granulated, and the initial velocity of a shot is reduced about one third by -employing the substance in that state.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The effect of -granulating -gunpowder.</p> - -<p>A piece of pressed cake weighing 1·06oz., was put into a mortar, and a globe of -some light substance, placed upon it, and the powder being consumed after ignition -without ejecting the ball from the bore of the piece. When an equal quantity was -divided into seven or eight pieces, the globe was thrown out of the mortar; breaking -the cake into twelve pieces; the ball ranged 3·3 yards; being further increased to fifty -grains, it ranged 10·77 yards; and when the ordinary powder was used, the ball was -projected 56·86 yards.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Action depends -upon -size and form -of grain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page34">[34]</span></p> - -<p>It will appear from the above remarks, that the force generated from the charge -of powder in a gun, will be greatly influenced by the size and form of the grains -composing it.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Density of -gunpowder.</p> - -<p>In order to obtain a gunpowder which shall possess a proper amount of force, it -is necessary that the ingredients should be thoroughly incorporated, and the process -of incorporation will in great measure affect the density of the grains. After going -through the process, it is subjected to a certain pressure, in order that the substance -in travelling may not be reduced to a fine powder, which would cause the velocity of -transmission of inflammation to be diminished. But there is a certain point beyond -which it would not be advantageous to increase the density, and this seems to vary -with the size of the grain. With large-grain powder the action in a musket, or in -guns with small charges, is greatest with a low density; while with very small grain, -the highest velocities are obtained generally with the gunpowder of great density; but -in heavy guns with ordinary charges, the large-grained powder should be of considerable -density in order to obtain the greatest effect, though still it must not be too -great.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages -of glazing.</p> - -<p>The principal advantages of glazing are; first, that the powder so prepared, will in -travelling, owing to the smaller amount of destructive force consequent on friction, -produce less mealed powder; and secondly, that in a damp country like England, -the glazing imparts a preserving power to the powder, as the polished surface is less -likely to imbibe moisture than the rough.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of glazing.</p> - -<p>The disadvantages of glazing consists in its polishing the surface, and thus depriving -it of those angular projections which cause the ignition and combustion to be -carried on with greater rapidity, by rendering the interstices smaller, the consequence -of which is, that there is not so much gas produced previously to the projectile leaving -the gun, and in large charges a portion will be blown out unfired. There must be a -limit then to glazing, which it would not be proper to exceed. <span class="sidenote">Experiments -as to glazing.</span>At an experiment -with glazed and unglazed powder, the ranges on the eprouvette were 75 for glazed, -and 98 for unglazed. This loss of power, consequent on glazing, has caused it to be -done away with in France and Russia. <span class="sidenote">Glazing less -hurtful to fine -grains.</span>With fine grain powder it is not of so much -consequence, as it is, to a certain degree, corrected by the size of the grain.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Size of grain -determined -by size of -charge.</p> - -<p>The rapidity with which a charge of gunpowder is consumed will depend not -only in a certain degree upon the size of the grain, but on the manner in which the -charge is put together, for if a charge is closely pressed, the gases meeting resistance -in their endeavours to escape between the interstices, will not propagate the ignition -so rapidly. With large charges, there exists a positive advantage for the grains to be -rather large, so that the most distant parts of the charge should be reached by the -gases as quickly as possible; whilst with that of a rifle, the charge being small, the -fineness of the grain does not interfere with the quantity of the gas developed. -Whence it may rationally be concluded that the dimensions of the grains should -increase in proportion to the quantity of the charges into which they are to enter, that -is to say, in proportion to the interstices. <span class="sidenote">Tight ramming -bad.</span>Ramming down a charge tightly must -therefore interfere with the velocity of combustion.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note noindent"><span class="smcap">Note</span>—The foregoing on the explosive force of -gunpowder was taken from Lieut-Colonel E. M. Boxer’s Treatise on Artillery.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page35">[35]</span></p> - -<h3>FOULING.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Produce of -decomposed -gunpowder.</p> - -<p>The produce obtained by the decomposition of gunpowder are the gaseous and -the solid. The gaseous is chiefly nitrogen and carbonic acid. The solid is sulphur -and potassium, mixed with a little charcoal, but the solid produce is nearly entirely -volatilized at the moment of explosion through the high temperature.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Fouling.</p> - -<p>Fouling is occasioned by the deposition inside the barrel of the solid residue -proceeding from the combustion of the powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Conditions of -fouling depend -on state -of atmosphere</p> - -<p>One of the principal of these, namely, the sulphide of Potassa, is deliquescent, -or attracts water from the atmosphere. Hence, on a clear day, when the air holds -little moisture, the fouling does not attain that semi-fluid state it so speedily attains in -a damp day, and it is not so easily removed, and tends to accumulate inside the -barrel. Fouling may also be increased or diminished, according to the quality of the -powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Effects of -Fouling.</p> - -<p>Fouling occasions loss of power from the increased friction, and causes inaccuracy -in direction and elevation, by filling the grooves, and thus preventing the proper spiral -motion being imparted to the projectile.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>EFFECTS OF GUNPOWDER ON METALS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Difference of -effect on brass -and iron guns.</p> - -<p>The effect produced by Gunpowder on metals, in long continued and rapid -firing, is very extraordinary. Several of the guns employed at the siege of San -Sebastian were cut open, and the interior of some of the vent holes, which were originally -cylindrical, and only two-tenths of an inch in diameter, were enlarged in a -curious and irregular manner, from three to five inches in one direction, and from two -to three inches in another, but the brass guns were much more affected than the iron. -In December, 1855, there were lying in the arsenal at Woolwich several of the -heaviest sea mortars, which had recently been used at the bombardment of Sweaborg, -and the continuous firing on that occasion had split them into two nearly equal portions -from muzzle to breech, a trunnion being with each half.</p> - -<p>Heavy guns for garrisons, sieges, &c., are made of cast iron; guns for field -purposes, where lightness is required, are made of gun metal.</p> - - -<p class="sidenote">Difference of -effect of brass -and iron guns</p> - -<p>These guns are generally denominated brass guns. They can be loaded, properly -pointed at an object, and fired about four times in three minutes, but they will not -stand long continued rapid firing, or more than 120 rounds a day, as the metal, when -heated, softens, and the shot then injures the bore. Heavy iron guns may be loaded, -fired, &c., once in two minutes. They suffer more from the total number of rounds -that have been fired from them, without reference to the intervals between each -round, than from the rapidity of the firing. Four hundred and five hundred rounds -per day have not rendered an iron gun unserviceable.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -</div><!--sidenotetext--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page36">[36]</span></p> - -<h3>MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS.</h3> - -<p>The following experiments, extracted from Mr. Wilkinson’s “Engines of War,” -serve to illustrate the capability of metals to resist the force of gunpowder, and may -be of some practical utility, as well as prove interesting merely as matter of curiosity.</p> - -<p>Experiment 1.—A piece about 5 inches long was cut off the breech-end of a -common musket barrel. It was screwed at the part cut, and another plug fitted, so -as to have two plugs, one at each end, leaving an internal space of about 3 inches. A -percussion nipple was screwed into the end of one of these plugs. This being arranged, -one of the plugs was turned out, and one drachm of gunpowder introduced. The -plug was replaced, and the powder fired by putting a copper cap on the nipple, and -striking it with a hammer. The whole force of the powder escaped at the hole in the -nipple. Two, three, four, five, and six drachms were successively introduced, and -fired in the same manner, without bursting or injuring the piece of barrel. At last, -seven drachms forced out one end, in consequence of the screw having been carelessly -fitted. This defect being repaired, Mr. Marsh, of Woolwich, repeatedly fired it with -five drachms, merely holding it with a towel in his left hand, and firing it with a blow -of a hammer. Six drachms of powder is the full service charge for a flint musket, -and four drachms of a percussion musket; yet this immense pressure can be resisted -by a cylinder of iron not more than one quarter of an inch thick, and not iron of the -best quality.</p> - -<p>Experiment 2.—A good musket barrel had a cylinder of brass, three inches long, -turned to fit the muzzle, and soldered in, so as to close it air-tight. The plug, or -breech-screw, was removed, and a felt wad was pushed in with a short piece of wood, -marked to the exact depth the charge would occupy, to prevent the ball rolling forward. -A musket ball was then dropped in, and a cartridge, containing three drachms -of powder, was introduced. The breech being screwed in, left the barrel loaded. It -was fired by a percussion tube, but there was no report. On removing the breech-screw, -the ball was found to be flattened. A repetition of this experiment, with four -drachms, produced a similar result, but the ball was rather more flattened. With five -drachms, the ball was perfectly round and uninjured. Six drachms burst the barrel -close under the bayonet stud; the ball escaped through the opening, disfigured, but -fell close to the barrel. In these experiments the barrel always advanced, instead of -recoiling, as usual.</p> - -<p>Experiment 3.—Made at Woolwich Arsenal, with a Gomer mortar, the chamber being -bored conically, so that the shell, when dropped in, fits closely all round, -instead of being bored cylindrically, with a chamber in the centre. The mortar being -laid at an angle of 45°, one drachm of powder was put into the bottom, and a -68-pounder iron shot over it. When fired, the ball was projected two feet clear of -the mortar. A wooden ball, precisely the same diameter, but weighing only 5lbs., -was scarcely moved by the same charge, and with two drachms of powder it was just<span class="pagenum" id="Page37">[37]</span> -lifted in the mortar, and fell into its place again. Here we find a weight of 68lbs. -thrown to the distance of two feet by the same power which would not lift 5lbs., and -the wooden ball scarcely moved by double the powder.</p> - -<p>This proves that the firing of gunpowder under such circumstances is not instantaneous. -In the first instance, the small quantity of powder had a large space to -fill below the ball, and a heavy weight to move; therefore, could not stir it at all until -the whole was ignited, when the force was sufficient to throw it forward two feet. -In the second case, the first portion of gas that was generated by ignition of the -powder, was sufficient to lift the lighter weight, just enough to allow all the force to -escape round it before it had time to accumulate.</p> - -<p>Experiment 4.—A cannon ball, weighing 24lbs., was placed exactly over the -vent-hole of a loaded 32-pounder cannon, which was fired by a train of gunpowder, -when the rush from the vent projected the 24-pounder ball to a very considerable -height in the air, although the diameter of the hole was only two-tenths of an inch.</p> - -<p>Experiment 5.—A most ingenious method of ascertaining the relative quickness -of ignition of different qualities of gunpowder.</p> - -<p>A gun-barrel mounted on a carriage with wheels, and moving on a perfectly -horizontal railway, is placed at right angles to another short railway, at any convenient -distance (suppose fifty feet, or yards); on the second railway a light carriage moves -freely with any desired velocity, being drawn forward by means of a weight and -pulleys: a cord is attached to the front of this carriage, which passes over a pulley at -the end of the railroad, and is continued up a high pole or staff over another pulley -at the top, at which end the weight is attached. A long rectangular frame covered -with paper is fixed perpendicularly on the carriage, so that when it moves forward it -passes across the direct line of the barrel, and forms a long target. A percussion lock -is attached to the barrel, which is fired by a detent, or hair-trigger, and the wire which -pulls it is disengaged at the same instant to admit of recoil. This wire is carried -straight on to the target railroad, and fixed to a small lever, against which the front -part of the target-carriage strikes as it is carried onwards by the weight. This constitutes -the whole apparatus. When required to be used, the barrel is loaded with -gunpowder accurately weighed, and a brass ball that fits the bore correctly: the -weight is then disengaged, and the target moves quickly along, discharging the barrel -as it passes, and the ball goes through it. With the same powder tried at the same -time, the ball constantly goes through the same hole, or breaks into it. If the next -powder tried be slower of ignition than the preceding, the ball will pass through -another part of the target more in the rear; if quicker, more in advance; thus affording -a means of ascertaining this important quality of gunpowder with considerable accuracy: -the velocity of the target-carriage can be easily regulated by increasing or -diminishing the weight which draws it forward. The differences in the distances -between which the balls strike the target with different kinds of powder was -frequently as much as ten or twelve inches; but it is not an apparatus commonly -used, having been merely constructed for experimental purposes.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page38">[38]</span></p> - -<h3>ON THE TIME REQUIRED FOR IGNITION OF GUNPOWDER.</h3> - -<p>Gunpowder like all other inflammable substances requires to be raised to a -certain temperature, before it will ignite, viz., to a dull red heat, or about 600° -Fahrenheit. If the heat passes with such rapidity through the powder, so as not to -raise the temperature to the necessary degree, then the powder will not ignite, from -the velocity of transit, so that it might be possible to calculate theoretically, the -velocity that must be given to a red hot ball to enable it to pass through a barrel of -gunpowder without causing explosion. The passage of electric fluid through -gunpowder may be adduced in evidence of the ignition being dependent on the -degree of velocity. The flame of all fulminating powders will pass through the centre -of a box filled with gunpowder without igniting one grain of it. If a train of gunpowder -be crossed at right angles by a train of fulminating mercury, laid on a sheet -of paper or a table, and the powder be lighted with a red hot iron wire, the flame -will run on until it meets the cross train of fulminating mercury, when the inflammation -of the latter will be so instantaneous as to cut off all connection with the -continuous train of powder, leaving the remaining portion of the gunpowder unignited. -If on the contrary the fulminating powder be lighted first, it will go straight on and -pass through the train of gunpowder so rapidly, as not to inflame it at all. Were a -gun to be charged with gun-cotton and gunpowder, the latter would be fired out -unignited.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTAL EXPLOSIONS OF GUNPOWDER.</h3> - -<p>Considering the combustible nature of the materials, accidents very seldom -occur; when they do, it is more frequently in the process at the Mill while under the -runners.</p> - -<p>On one occasion at Waltham Abbey Mills, when the powder exploded, after -having been two hours under the runners, the doors and windows of the Mills on the -opposite side of the stream, were forced open outwards, and the nails drawn. A -similar effect took place when the Dartford Mills blew up, January 1833, in consequence -of an accident in the packing house. A window which had been recently -fitted up in Dartford Town, about a mile and a half distant from the works, was -blown outwards into the street, and a considerable quantity of paper was carried as -far as Eltham and Lewisham, distances of eight and ten miles. The sudden -rarification of the air may account for this circumstance, the atmospheric pressure -being removed in the vicinity of the doors and windows, they were forced open outwards -by the expansive force of the air contained within the buildings.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page39">[39]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenotetext"> - -<h2>ON ANCIENT ENGINES OF WAR.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">War a painful -topic.</p> - -<p>The Utopian may shrink from the contemplation of so painful a subject as War, -the Moralist may raise his voice against the justice of it, but the practical philosopher -can see very little chance of its cessation, and actuated with the very best intentions, -<span class="sidenote">Advantages -of war being -destructive.</span>will endeavour to render War as terrible as possible, well knowing, that as soon as -certain death awaits two rival armies, princes must fight their own battles, or war -must cease.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">First missile -weapons, -sticks and -stones.</p> - -<p>Man’s first rude attempts at missile weapons were doubtless limited to throwing -sticks and stones by the mere aid of his hands; acts in which the monkey, the bear, -and even the seal are very successful emulators. A desire of more successful -aggression, together with increased facilities for the destruction of game and wild -animals, doubtless soon suggested to man the use of projectiles more efficient than -these. <span class="sidenote">Javelin.</span>By a very slight change of form, the simple stick would become a javelin, -capable of being hurled with great force and precision. <span class="sidenote">Sling.</span>An aid would suggest -itself for casting a stone, by means of a fillet or band, subsequently called a sling, <span class="sidenote">Bow.</span>and -next would be invented the bow, which, in process of time by subsequent additions -<span class="sidenote">Arbalest.</span>would become the arbalest or cross-bow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Axes used as -projectiles.</p> - -<p>It appears that axes have been used as <i>projectiles</i>: for Procopius, describing the -expedition of the Franks into Italy, in the sixth century, tells us:—Among the -hundred thousand men that King Theodobert I. led into Italy, there were but few -horsemen. The cavalry carried spears. The infantry had neither bow nor spear, all -their arms being a sword, an axe, and a shield. The blade of the axe was large, its -handle of wood, and very short. They <i>hurl</i> their axes against the shields of the -enemy, which by this means are broken; and then, springing on the foe, they complete -his destruction with the sword.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tomahawk -used as a projectile.</p> - -<p>A hatchet or tomahawk is used as a projectile weapon by the North American -Indians. The difficulty of throwing such a weapon with effect, would of course consist -in causing the edge to strike the object aimed at. Now, such a hatchet as they -usually make use of, if thrown by its handle, will revolve in a perpendicular plane -about once in every three yards, irrespective of the force with which it moves. An -Indian judges his enemy to be distant from him any multiple of 3 yards as 15, 18, 21, -and strikes him full with the edge of his weapon accordingly.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">“Chuckur” or -disk used as a -projectile.</p> - -<p>A circular disk or quoit is in use in India amongst the Sikhs, particularly that -sect of them called Akali, as a weapon, and in their warlike exercises; the species<span class="pagenum" id="Page40">[40]</span> -used in war have a triangular section, those thrown for amusement are flat with a sharp -edge. A skilful man will throw one of these chuckers or quoits to a distance of a -hundred and thirty yards, or more, with very considerable accuracy, the quoit being -at no period of its flight above six feet from the ground. The sharpness of edge, -combined with the rotatory motion of these quoits, and the difficulty of avoiding them, -renders them formidable weapons in skilled hands. The Akali wear them on their -turbans, of several different sizes and weights; a small one is often worn as a bracelet -on the arm. Many of these fanatics took part in the last Sikh war, and severe wounds -made with these weapons were by no means uncommon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Armour and -fortifications.</p> - -<p>By the time portable weapons would have been brought to some degree of perfection, -man’s increasing sciences and civilization would have led him to make armour, -to build cities, and enclose them with walls. Now would arise the necessity for other -projectiles of greater force, inasmuch as in the event of war, the armour should be -penetrated, and walls, &c., would have to be demolished.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Improved -projectiles.</p> - -<p>The transition from portable projectiles to those of a heavier class was obvious -enough. <span class="sidenote">Change to -heavy projectiles.</span>Enormous javelins and darts were hurled by cross-bows of corresponding -size, termed <span class="sidenote">Catapulta.</span>Catapultæ, (<a href="#Plate10">plate x.</a>), and stones, -&c., were thrown by <span class="sidenote">Balistæ.</span>Balistæ (<a href="#Plate9">plate -ix.</a> and <a href="#Plate12">xii</a>); and secondly, <span class="sidenote">Sling -principles.</span>instruments formed on the principle of the sling.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Projectiles -used with -Catapulta.</p> - -<p>These machines threw not only large darts and stones, but also the bodies of men -and horses. Athenæus speaks of a Catapulta which was only one foot long, and threw -an arrow to the distance of half a mile. Other engines, it is said, could throw javelins -from one side of the Danube to the other. Balistæ threw great beams of wood, lances -twelve cubits long, and stones that weighed three hundred pounds.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Millstones, -&c., used in -England.</p> - -<p>Our forefathers used to cast forth mill-stones. Holinshead relates that when -Edward I. besieged Stively Castle, he caused certain engines to be made, which shot -off stones of two or three hundred weight.</p> - -<p>The first intimation of trees being cut down “to build bulwarks against the city -till it be subdued,” occurs in <span class="sidenote">B. C. 1451.</span>Deut. xx., 19, 20, but the earliest precise mention of -Artillery is in <span class="sidenote">B. C. 809.</span>2nd Chron., xxvi, 15, where we are told that Uzziah “made in Jerusalem -engines invented by cunning men, to be upon the towers and upon the bulwarks, -to shoot arrows and great stones withal;” and Josephus relates that Uzziah <span class="sidenote">First mention -of Artillery.</span>“made -many engines of war for besieging cities, such as hurl stones and darts with grapplers, -and other instruments of that sort.” He must therefore be considered the inventor of -them, and from that time they began to be employed in attacking and defending -towns.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Balistæ at Regium, -B. C. 388.</p> - -<p>The earliest instances of projectile machines in profane history appear to be at -the siege of Regium and <span class="sidenote">At Motya -B. C. 370.</span>Motya by Dionysius, where, having battered the walls with -his rams, he advanced towards them towers rolled on wheels, from whence he galled -the besieged with continual volleys of stones and arrows, thrown from his Balistæ and -Catapultæ.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">At Rhodes -B. C. 303.</p> - -<p>The next memorable instance is the siege of Rhodes by Demetrius Polyorcetes, -who brought forward a newly invented machine, called Helepolis, (taker of Cities), -with a variety of other engines, and employed 30,000 men in the management of them.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Balistæ at -Cremona.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page41">[41]</span></p> - -<p>Tacitus mentions an extraordinary engine, used by the 15th Legion at the battle -of Cremona, against the troops of Vespasian. It was a Balista of enormous size, -which discharged stones of weight sufficient to crush whole ranks at once. Inevitable -ruin would have been the consequence, had not two soldiers, undiscovered, cut the -ropes and springs. At length, after a vigorous assault from Antonius, the Vittelians, -unable to resist the shock, rolled down the engine, and crushed numbers of their -assailants, but the machine, in falling, drew after it a neighbouring tower, the parapet, -and part of the wall, which afforded the besiegers easier access to the city.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Balistæ at -siege of Jotapata.</p> - -<p>Josephus relates that at the siege of Jotapata, “a stone from one of the Roman -engines carried the head of a soldier, who was standing by him, three furlongs off;” -that “lances were thrown with great noise, and stones, weighing 114lbs. troy, -“together with fire and a multitude of arrows.” <span class="sidenote">Dead men and -horses projected.</span>The dead bodies of men and horses -were also thrown at this siege, and at that of Jerusalem, <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span> 70, to inspire terror.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of Balistæ.</p> - -<p>The earliest form of Balistæ appears to have been a very long beam, suspended -in a frame on a centre of motion, one end being considerably longer than the other. -To the short end was attached a great weight, such as a chest filled with earth or -stones. To the longer end a sling was affixed, in which, after being drawn down, a -stone was placed, and on being suddenly let go, the long end flew up, and discharged -the stone with great violence.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of Catapultæ.</p> - -<p>Catapultæ were sometimes constructed to discharge a flight of arrows at once, by -placing them on a rack, and causing a strong plank, previously drawn back, to strike -against their ends. The more perfect engines of the Romans were all dependent on -the elasticity of twisted cords made of flax, hemp, the sinews or tendons of animals, -from the neck of the bull, or legs of the deer species, and ropes formed of human -hair were preferred to all others, as possessing greater strength and elasticity. Catapultæ -were immensely powerful bows, drawn back by capstans, levers, or pulleys, -having only a single cord for the arrow, (<a href="#Plate10">plate x.</a>), but the Balistæ had a broad band, -formed of several ropes to project the stone, which was placed in a kind of cradle, -like a cross-bow. (<a href="#Plate12">plate xii.</a>)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Balistæ at -battle of -Hastings 1066</p> - -<p>The Normans appear to have introduced a kind of Field-Artillery, consisting of -instruments or machines, from which darts and stones were thrown to a considerable -distance, as they occur at the battle of Hastings. They also employed arrows, headed -with combustible matter, for firing towns and shipping.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Fiery darts, -A. D. 64.</p> - -<p>We read in the Scriptures of “Fiery Darts.” Ephns. vi., 16.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Fire from Balistæ.</p> - -<p>Our ancestors derived the knowledge of some composition from the Saracens, -which resembled Greek-fire, and was often thrown in pots from the Balistæ.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Fire by Arabs -commencement -of 13th -century.</p> - -<p>From a treatise on the “Art of Fighting,” by Hassan Abrammah, we learn that -the Arabs of the 13th century employed their incendiary compositions in four different -ways. They cast them by hand; they fixed them to staves, with which they -attacked their enemies; they poured forth fire through tubes; and they projected -burning mixtures of various kinds by means of arrows, javelins, and the missiles of -great engines.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bombs of -glass, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page42">[42]</span></p> - -<p>Vessels of glass or pottery, discharged by hand or by machines, were so contrived, -that on striking the object at which they were aimed, their contents spread -around, and the fire, already communicated by a fusee, enveloped everything within -its reach. <span class="sidenote">Fire-mace.</span>A soldier, on whose head was broken a fire-mace, became suddenly soaked -with a diabolic fluid, which covered him from head to foot with flame.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bombs from -Balistæ.</p> - -<p>Bombs were also thrown from Balistæ. An engine was constructed at Gibraltar, -under the direction of General Melville, at the desire of Lord Heathfield, for the -purpose of throwing stones just over the edge of the rock, in a place where the -Spaniards used to resort, and where shells thrown from mortars could not injure or -annoy them.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Onager.</p> - -<p>Of machines formed on the sling principle, that called Onager (<a href="#Plate7">plates vii.</a> and -<a href="#Plate8">viii.</a>) may be regarded as typical of all the rest. Its force entirely depended upon the -torsion of a short thick rope, acting upon a lever which described an arc of a vertical -circle. The lever had attached to its free extremity a sling, or sometimes it merely -terminated in a spoon-shaped cavity. When bent back, it was secured by a catch or -trigger, and charged with a stone. On starting the catch by a blow with a mallet, -the lever described its arc of a circle with great velocity, and projected the stone to a -considerable distance.</p> - -<p>I shall now briefly describe some of the portable missive weapons which have -been used by different nations.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Javelin.</p> - -<p>The Javelin, or dart, variously modified, is known under several names. The -ancients were well acquainted with it. In the Scriptures, we have frequent notice of -it; and the ancients instituted javelin matches. It would appear that the javelin used -on horseback was about five feet and a half long, and headed with steel, usually three-sided, -but sometimes round. <span class="sidenote">Arms of the -early Romans.</span>The Roman Cavalry, after the conquest of Greece, -were armed much like the Infantry, carrying swords, shields, and javelins with points -at both ends. <span class="sidenote">Aid to projection.</span>Sometimes, in order to launch it with greater force, it was not propelled -by the unaided arm, but by the assistance of a thong fastened to its butt end; -and we are informed that the Greeks and Romans projected darts and javelins by the -assistance of a sling or strap, girt round their middle.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Djereed.</p> - -<p>At the present time, a javelin, termed Djereed, is used with considerable effect -by certain oriental nations, who invariably employ it on horseback. <span class="sidenote">Pilum.</span>The Roman -infantry possessed a weapon of the javelin kind, termed Pilum, every man of the -legionary soldiers carrying two. The point of this weapon being very long and small, -was usually so bent at the first discharge as to be rendered useless afterwards. With -every improvement that the javelin was susceptible of, it never could acquire a long -range; hence we find, that as Archery became developed, the use of the weapon -declined. Amongst savage nations, the use of the javelin is very common, <span class="sidenote">Australian -mode.</span>but the -inhabitants of Australia have a manner of throwing it altogether peculiar to themselves, -not throwing it while poised at the balance, but projecting it by means of a -stick applied at the butt end. This contrivance accomplishes a great increase of -range, but does not contribute to accuracy of direction. At short distances, the -penetrating force of the javelin is considerable, as is learned from the act of harpooning -a whale, <span class="sidenote">Harpoon.</span>a harpoon being merely a javelin.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page43">[43]</span></p> - -<h3>THE SLING.</h3> - -<p>Means by which stones would be thrown by greater force than the hand, would -naturally be resorted to; accordingly we find the sling ranks amongst the first of -ancient offensive weapons. <span class="sidenote">Slings mentioned -in -Judges. B. C. -1406.</span>Numerous examples are mentioned in Scripture, as in -Judges xx., 16, <span class="sidenote">Slings used -B. C. 1406.</span>“Among all this people, there were seven hundred chosen men left-handed; -every one could sling stones at a hair breadth and not miss;” and also that -of David and Goliath, &c.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Siege of Troy -between 800 -and 900 B. C.</p> - -<p>At the siege of Troy, the masses were organized into two kinds of infantry: one -light and irregular, carrying horn bows, short darts, and slings; the other regular and -heavy, armed with spears. <span class="sidenote">Battle of the -Granicus B. C. -334.</span>At the battle of the Granicus, <span class="smcapall">B. C.</span> 334, Alexander the -Great had in his army light infantry, consisting of slingers, bow-men, and javelin-men. -<span class="sidenote">First Punic -war 241 to -263 B. C.</span>The Carthagenians had slingers in their pay before the first Punic War.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Slings common -in Greece.</p> - -<p>The Sling was very common in Greece, and used by the light armed soldiers. -Arrows, stones, and leaden plummets, were thrown from them, some of which weighed -no less than an Attic pound. Seneca reports that its motion was so vehement that the -leaden plummets were frequently melted!!! <span class="sidenote">Slingers in -Roman armies.</span>The Romans had slingers in their armies, -for the most part inhabitants of the Islands of Majorca, Minorca and Ivica.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Invention ascribed -to -Phœnicians -and also to -inhabitants of -Balearic -islands.</p> - -<p>Pliny ascribes the invention of slings to the Phœnicians, but Vegetius to the -inhabitants of the Balearic Islands, who were famous in antiquity for using them. It -is said, those people bore three kinds of slings, some longer and others shorter, to be -used as their enemies were nearer or more remote; the first served them for a head -band, the second for a girdle, and the third they always carried in their hands. In -fight they threw large stones with such violence, that they seemed to be projected from -some machine, and with such exactness, as rarely to miss their aim; being constantly -exercised from their infancy, their mothers not allowing them to have any food, until -they struck it down from the top of a pole with stones thrown from their slings.</p> - -<p>The Latin for our English word farm is <i>fundus</i>, which originally signifies a -“stone’s-throw of land,” or as much land as could be included within the range of a -stone thrown from a sling. <span class="sidenote">Materials of -slings.</span>The materials of which slings were composed, were either -flax, hair or leather, woven into bands or cut into thongs, broad in the centre to -receive the load, and tapering off to the extremities. <span class="sidenote">Slings with -cup.</span>Slings have been made with -three strings, with a cup let into the leather to hold the bullet or stone, and were called -“Fronde à culôt.” In <a href="#Plate13">plate xiii</a>, fig. 3, there is a representation of a slinger of the -early part of the thirteenth century, whose weapon differs from that of the Anglo-Saxon -or common sling, in having a cup for the reception of the projectile. Slings -were sometimes attached to sticks to increase their power, as, besides the ancient cord -sling, there appears in the manuscripts of the thirteenth century a variety of this arm; -the <span class="sidenote">Staff-sling.</span>“Staff Sling.” -(<a href="#Plate13">plate xiii</a>, fig. 2.) It seems to have been in vogue for naval warfare, -or in the conflicts of siege operations.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Force of slings.</p> - -<p>The slings projected their missiles with such force that no armour could resist -their stroke. Slings never appear to have been much used by the English, -<span class="sidenote">Used for the -English, A. D. -1342.</span>although<span class="pagenum" id="Page44">[44]</span> -Froissart mentions an instance of their having been used for them by the people of -Brittany, in a battle fought in that province during the reign of Philip de Valois, -between the troops of Walter de Manin, an English knight, and Louis d’Espagne, -who commanded six thousand men on behalf of Charles de Blois, then competitor -with the Earl of Montford for the Duchy of Brittany. Froissart says, that what -made Louis lose the battle was, <span class="sidenote">Bullets out of -slings.</span>that during the engagement the country people came -unexpectedly and assaulted his army with <i>bullets</i> and slings.</p> - -<p>According to the same author, slings were used in naval combats, when stones -were also sometimes thrown by hand.<a id="FNanchor2"></a><a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> -<span class="sidenote">Slings at the -siege of Sancere, -1572.</span>Slings were used in 1572, at the siege of -Sancere by the Huguenots, in order to save their powder. They were also used by -the people of Brittany to such an extent against the Roman Catholic party, that the -war was called “Guerre de Fronde.” <span class="sidenote">Range.</span>With respect to the range of this projectile, -it is said, that a good slinger could project a stone 600 yards. This seems doubtful. -<span class="sidenote">Slings last -used, 1814.</span>The most recent instance of slings being used in war, occurs in “Straith on Fortification,” -page 121, and which contains an extract from the siege journal of Serjeant -St. Jacques of the French Corps de Genie, who was most successfully employed with a -small French garrison in the defence of the Castles of Monzowin, Arragon, against the -Spaniards, 1814.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote2"></a><a href="#FNanchor2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> -It is stated by Sir Robert Wilson that at the battle of Alexandria the French and English threw -stones at each other, during a temporary want of ammunition, with such effect that a Serjeant of the 28th Regiment -was killed, and several of the men were wounded. Stones were thrown by the English Guards at the battle of -Inkerman.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>THE BOW.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">The bow -almost -universal.</p> - -<p>This weapon under some shape or other was employed by most nations of -antiquity, but not always as a warlike instrument. Scarcely any two nations made -their bows exactly alike. The Scythian bow we are told, was very much curved, -as are the Turkish, Persian, and Chinese bows (<a href="#Plate4">plate iv.</a> figs. 1 & 2) at the present -day, whilst the celebrated weapon of our ancestors when unstrung was nearly straight.</p> - -<p>It is now used among those savage tribes of Africa and America, to which fire-arms -have not yet reached.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bows in -Scripture.</p> - -<p>We frequently read of the bow in Scripture, and the first passage in which the -use of the bow is inferred, is in Gen. xxi. 20, where it is said of Ishmael, “And -God was with the lad, and he grew, and dwelt in the wilderness and became an -archer.” <span class="sidenote">Bows B. C. -1892.</span>But in the 16th verse it is said that Hagar his mother, “sat her down over -against him, a good way off, as it were a <i>bow shot</i>; for she said let me not see the -death of the child”:—this verse implies an earlier practice with the bow than can -be adduced by any profane historian. <span class="sidenote">B. C. 1760.</span>In Gen. xxvii. 3, Isaac directs his son Esau: -“Now therefore take I pray thee thy weapons, thy quiver and thy bow, and go out to -the field, and take me some venison; and make me savory meat, such as I love, and -bring it to me that I may eat, and that my soul may bless thee before I die.” The -overthrow of Saul was particularly owing to the Philistine archers; and “David<span class="pagenum" id="Page45">[45]</span> -bade them teach the children of Judah the use of the bow.” The companies that -came to David at Ziklag were armed with bows, and “could use the right hand and -the left in hurling stones and shooting arrows.” (I. Chron. xii. 2.) <span class="sidenote">B. C. 1058.</span>The bow is of -very high antiquity among the Greeks, whose bows were usually made of wood, but -sometimes of horn, and frequently in either case beautifully ornamented with gold and -silver; the string generally made of twisted hair, but sometimes of hide. <span class="sidenote">Manner of -drawing the -bow.</span>The ancient -Persians drew the strings towards their ears, as is the practice still with the English. -The ancient Greeks, however, drew the bowstring towards their breast, and represented -the fabled Amazons as doing the same, and hence the tradition of these -people cutting off their right breasts, in order to give facility for drawing the bow. -<span class="sidenote">First used by -Romans.</span>Until the second Punic war, the Romans had no archers in their armies, except those -who came with their auxiliary forces. Subsequently they became more employed, -although as far as we can learn, not by native troops, but by Orientals in their pay.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bows of -Britons.</p> - -<p>The early Britons had merely bows and arrows of reed, with flint or bone heads. -<span class="sidenote">Bows of -Welsh.</span>Arrows were used by the Welch in Norman reigns, who were famous archers; their -bows were made of wild elm, but stout, and not calculated to shoot a great distance, -but their arrows would inflict very severe wounds in close fight. Their arrows would -pierce oaken boards four inches thick. <span class="sidenote">Bows of -Anglo-Saxons.</span>The bow was also a weapon of war among -the Anglo-Saxons. The Salic law shows that both the sling and the bow were used -by the contemporary Franks; and they even used poisoned arrows. The Anglo-Saxon -bow was of the form of the Grecian, but it was only under the Normans that the bow -became a master weapon; the Saxons principally using it, like the people of Tahiti of -the present day, for killing birds.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">No bows in -France A. D. -514.</p> - -<p>During the reign of Clovis, the French made no use of the bow in their armies, -but it was employed during the reign of Charlemagne, who flourished in the end of -the eighth century; as a Count is mentioned, who was directed on conducting -soldiers to the army, to see they had their proper arms; that is a lance, a buckler, a -bow, two strings, and twelve arrows.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">A. D. 1066. -Harold shot -with an arrow</p> - -<p>William the Conqueror was a skilful archer, and the battle of Hastings was -decided by the bow, and we hear that Harold was shot with an arrow. <span class="sidenote">Known by -Danes and -Saxons.</span>Although -the Anglo-Saxons and Danes were well acquainted with the bow from the earliest -period, it appears to have been only employed for obtaining food, or for pastime, and -we are perhaps indebted to the Norman Conquest for its introduction as a military -weapon. <span class="sidenote">As a military -weapon at the -battle of -Hastings.</span>The Normans at the battle of Hastings are said to have used the -arbalest or cross-bow as well as the long bow. Ever after this, the bow became -a favourite weapon. During the reign of Henry II., archery was much -cultivated, and great numbers of bowmen were constantly brought into the field; <span class="sidenote">Archery -encouraged -by statute.</span>and -to encourage its practice, a law was passed, which freed from the charge of murder -any one who in practising with arrows or darts, should kill a person standing near. -This appears to be the first regulation to be found in our annals, and was probably -founded on the old law of Rome. <span class="sidenote">Long bow in -conquest of -Ireland 1172.</span>The English conquests in Ireland during the reign -of Henry II. were principally owing to the use of the long bow in battle, which the -Irish wanted. The Invasion of Ireland was headed by Richard de Clare, Earl of Pembroke,<span class="pagenum" id="Page46">[46]</span> -surnamed “Strong-bow.” His force was numerically very small, consisting -chiefly of archers, and it is stated that such was the advantage their superior arms -and military skill gave the invaders, that 10 knights and 70 archers defeated a body -of 3000 Irish opposed to them, on their landing near Waterford.</p> - -<p>The exact time when shooting with the long-bow began in England is unsettled, -<span class="sidenote">A. D. 1199.</span>our chroniclers do not mention archery till the death of Richard I.</p> - -<p>During the reign of Henry III. there were among the English infantry, slingers, -archers, and cross-bow men.</p> - -<p>It seems that the long-bow was at its zenith in the reign of Edward III., who -appears to have taken great pains to increase its efficacy, and to extend its use. <span class="sidenote">Cressy 1346.</span>The -terrible execution effected by the English archers at Cressy, <span class="sidenote">Poictiers 1356.</span>and at Poictiers ten years -after, was occasioned by British archers.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Homelden -1403.</p> - -<p>The decisive victory over the Scots at Homelden was entirely achieved by them, -and the Earl of Douglas found the English arrows were so swift and strong, that no -armour could repel them; though his own was of the most perfect temper, he was -wounded in five places. The English men-at-arms, knights and squires, never drew -sword or couched lance, the whole affair being decided by the archers.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Shrewsbury -1403.</p> - -<p>They again did terrible execution at the battle of Shrewsbury, in 1403, where -Hotspur was slain, <span class="sidenote">Agincourt -1415.</span>and the battle of Agincourt was their undivided conquest.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">20,000 bow-men -1455.</p> - -<p>During the reign of Henry VI., the Parliament voted an army of 20,000 bow-men -for service in France. The battle of St. Albans, 1455, seems to have been -entirely won by the archers. <span class="sidenote">Bow preferred -to fire-arms.</span>Although fire-arms had attained no inconsiderable -degree of perfection in the reign of Henry VIII., yet the long-bow was still the -favourite weapon. Indeed, in the reign of Elizabeth, the musket was so unwieldy, -and slow to charge and discharge, that the bow was considered superior by many. -We find that Queen Elizabeth, 1572, engaged to furnish Charles IX. of France with -6,000 men, part to be armed with long, and part with cross-bows; <span class="sidenote">Bows at Isle -of Ré, 1627.</span>and in the attack -made by the English on the Isle of Ré, 1627, it is said some cross-bow-men were in -the army. In 1643 a company of archers was raised for the service of Charles -I.; <span class="sidenote">Bows against -Scots, 1644 -to 1647.</span>and in a pamphlet printed in 1664, there is an account of the successes of the -Marquis of Montrose against the Scots; and bow-men are repeatedly mentioned as in -the battle. <span class="sidenote">Bows in -William 3rd’s -time.</span>The Grenadiers of the Highland Regiments, in the time of William III., -when recruiting, wore the old red bonnet, and carried bows and arrows with them.</p> - -<p>The Highland bow was very short, and by no means powerful.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>MERITS OF THE LONG BOW.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Range of -long-bow.</p> - -<p>The English could not accomplish more than 600 yards, except on a few extraordinary -occasions; our modern archers not more than from 300 to 500 yards. The -Turkish ambassador when in England in 1795, sent an arrow upwards of 480 yards; -and there are two or three instances on record since archery has been merely a -pastime, which have exceeded it by twenty or thirty yards. <span class="sidenote">Accuracy of -long-bow.</span>It is said of Domitian, -that he would cause one of his slaves to stand at a great distance with his hands<span class="pagenum" id="Page47">[47]</span> -spread as a mark, and would shoot his arrows so correctly as to drive them between -his fingers. Commodus, with an arrow headed with a semi-circular cutting edge, -could cut or sever the neck of a bird. The story of William Tell, who struck an -apple placed upon his child’s head, is well known, and generally regarded in the -light of an historical fact. It is stated that Robin Hood could split a hazel wand.</p> - -<p>In a journal of Edward VI., His Majesty relates that 100 archers of his guard -shot before him two arrows each, and afterwards altogether. The object aimed at -was a well-seasoned deal board, one inch thick. <span class="sidenote">Penetration -of long-bow.</span>Many pierced it quite through, and -some struck in a board on the other side. The distance is not mentioned, but we -know that Henry VIII. prohibited any one above the age of 25 to shoot at a mark -at a less distance than 200 yards.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages -of the long-bow.</p> - -<p>The long-bow was light, inexpensive, and unaffected by weather, as the strings -could be removed. Moreover, 12 arrows could be fired with accuracy in one minute. -Two feathers in an arrow were to be white, and one brown or grey, and this difference -in colour informed the archer in an instant how to place the arrow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of the -long-bow.</p> - -<p>Although arrows could be shot from a bow with far greater rapidity and precision -than balls from a musket, yet in damp weather the bow and string might -become so much relaxed that the efficacy of the instrument became much impaired. -A side wind deflected the arrow exceedingly in its flight, and even against a moderate -wind, it was difficult to shoot at all.</p> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<h3 class="forefathers"><i>Our Forefathers encouraged to acquire skill in archery by legal enactments, and by the -founders of our public schools.</i></h3> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>1<span class="fsize70">ST.</span> BY LEGAL ENACTMENTS.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Henry 2nd -from 1154 to -1189.</p> - -<p>We have previously stated that the first law encouraging the practice of archery -was passed in the reign of Henry II.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Richard 2nd -from 1377 to -1399.</p> - -<p>An Act of Parliament was passed in the reign of Richard II., to compel all -servants to shoot on Sundays and holidays.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Edward 4th -from 1461 to -1483.</p> - -<p>In the reign of Edward IV., an act was passed, <span class="sidenote">Every man to -have a bow.</span>ordaining every Englishman to -have a bow of his own height, and during the same reign butts were ordered to be -put up in every township for the inhabitants to shoot at on feast days, and if any -neglected, the penalty of one halfpenny was incurred. The same monarch also passed -an act, that bows were to be sold for 5s. 4d.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bows -prohibited by -Henry 7th & -Henry 8th.</p> - -<p>Henry VII. prohibited the use of the cross-bow, and Henry VIII., less than -twenty years after, renewed the prohibition. He forbad the use of cross-bows and -hand guns, and passed a statute which inflicted a fine of £10 for keeping a cross-bow -in the house. Every man, being the King’s subject, was obliged to exercise himself -in shooting with the long bow, and also to keep a bow with arrows continually in his -house. Fathers and guardians were also commanded to teach their male children the -use of the long bow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Encouraged -by Philip and -Mary.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page48">[48]</span></p> - -<p>A statute of Philip and Mary mentions the quantity and kind of armour and -weapons, to be kept by persons of different estates, viz:—“Temporal persons having -£5 and under £10 per annum, one coat of plate furnished, one black bill or halbert, -one long bow, one sheaf of arrows, and one steel cap or skull.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Prices fixed -by Elizabeth.</p> - -<p>An act of Elizabeth, fixed the prices for long bows, at 6s. 8d., 3s. 4d., and a -third sort at 2s. each bow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Encouraged -by monarchs -from Henry -8th to Charles -1st.</p> - -<p>Numerous statutes were passed to encourage archery in the reigns of Henry VIII., -Elizabeth, James I. and Charles I. in whose reign the legislature interfered for the -last time in 1633, when Charles I. issued a commission for preventing the fields near -London being so enclosed, “as to interrupt the necessary and profitable exercise of -“shooting,” and also a proclamation for the use of the bow and pike together:—<span class="sidenote">Proclamation -by Charles -1st.</span>“A. -D. 1633.—Whereas in former tyme bowes and arrowes have been found serviceable -weapons for wars, whereby great victories and conquests have been gotten, and -by sundry statutes the use thereof hath been enjoined, &c. &c.—and we expect that -our loving subjects should conform themselves thereunto, knowing the exercise of -shooting to be a means to preserve health, strength and agility of body, and to avoid -idleness, unlawfull disports, drunkenness, and such like enormities and disorders, -which are too frequent among our people.”</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>2<span class="fsize70">ND.</span>—BY THE FOUNDERS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Estimation of -archery by -founders of -schools.</p> - -<p>The founders of our Grammar Schools appear to have considered that the -acquirement of skill in archery by their scholars was no less worthy of attention than -their moral and intellectual improvement. They provided by their statutes sound -learning and a religious education for all, but secured the removal of such as shewed -no aptitude or disposition to learn. They also prescribed the amusements and -exercises of the scholars, and prohibited such as were calculated to lead to idle and -vicious habits. In fact, as true patriots, they understood how the sons of free men -ought to be educated in youth, and that “a complete and generous education is that -which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously, all the offices, -both private and public, of peace and war.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Harrow -School, -founded 1571.</p> - -<p>The founder of Harrow School, Mr. John Lyon, prepared a body of statutes to -be observed in the management of the School. By one of these he limited the amusements -of the Scholars “to driving a top, tossing a hand-ball, running, shooting, and -no other.” By another he ordered:—“You shall allow your child at all times, -bow-shafts, bow-strings, and a bracer, to exercise shooting.” On the entrance-porch -to the Master’s house are two shields, the one bearing the Lion rampant, -the other, two arrows crossed, an ancient device which had its origin in the design of -the founder. This device is also impressed on the exterior of all books which are -presented by the Head-Master as prizes to those scholars, whose improvement entitled -them to such rewards. The practice of archery was coeval with the foundation of the -School, and was continued for nearly two centuries. Every year there was a public -exhibition of archery, when the scholars shot for a silver arrow. The last silver arrow -was contended for in 1771.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">St. Albans -School.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page49">[49]</span></p> - -<p>At St. Alban’s Grammar School, one of the articles to be recited to such as offered -their children to be taught in the School was,—“Ye shall allow your child at all -times, a bow, three arrows, bow-strings, a shooting glove, and a bracer, to exercise -shooting.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Wilton -School.</p> - -<p>Sir John Dean, who founded, in 1558, the Grammar School of Wilton, in -Cheshire, framed a body of statutes for the School. One of them provides:—“That -upon Thursdays and Saturdays, in the afternoons, and upon holidays, the scholars -refresh themselves, and that as well in the vacations as in the days aforesaid, they -use their bows and arrows only, and eschew all bowling, carding, dicing, cocking, -and all other unlawful games, upon pain of extreme punishment to be done by the -Schoolmaster.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Dedham -School in -Essex.</p> - -<p>The Free Grammar School of Dedham, in Essex, was endowed in 1571, and confirmed -by a Charter of Queen Elizabeth in 1574. Her Majesty’s injunctions to the -parents of the boys who should attend the school at Dedham were:—“That they -should furnish their sons with bows, shafts, bracers and gloves, in order to train -them to arms.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">St. Saviour’s -School in -Southwark.</p> - -<p>One of the statutes at the Grammar School of St. Saviour, in Southwark, decrees -that “the plays of the scholars shall be shooting in long-bows, chess, running, wrestling, -and leaping:—players for money, or betters, shall be severely punished and -expulsed.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Camberwell -School.</p> - -<p>A statute in the same words is found in the rules and orders framed for the -government of Camberwell Grammar School, which was founded in 1615, by letters -patent.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>MEANS BY WHICH SKILL IN ARCHERY WAS ACQUIRED.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">An archer -made by long -training, &c.</p> - -<p>A successful archer could only be constituted by long training, strength, and -address, we need not therefore wonder that the practice of the long-bow was not more -copied by our neighbours, as the French pertinaciously adhered to the use of the -cross-bow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Every man -had arms.</p> - -<p>Etienne di Perlin, a Frenchman who wrote an account of a tour in England in -1558, says:—“The husbandmen leave their bucklers and swords, or sometimes their -bow, in the corner of the field, so that every one in this land bears arms;” and it is -also stated that all the youth and manhood of the yeomanry of England were engaged -in the practice of the long-bow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Public -matches.</p> - -<p>Public exhibitions of shooting with the bow continued during the reigns of -Charles II. and James II., and an archer’s division, at least till within these few years, -formed a branch of the Artillery Company. The most important society of this kind -now existing is “The Royal Company of Archers, the King’s body-guard of Scotland.” -The exact time of its institution is unknown, but it is referred by the Scottish antiquarians -to the reign of their James I.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Causes of bad -shooting.</p> - -<p>Roger Ascham, in “Toxophilos,” states that the main difficulty in learning to -shoot, arises from having acquired and become confirmed in previous bad habits; so<span class="pagenum" id="Page50">[50]</span> -that, “use is the onlye cause of all faultes in it, and therefore children more easelye -and soner may be taught to shoote excellently then men, because children may be -taught to shoote well at the first, menne have more paine to unlearne their ill uses -than they have labour afterwarde to come to good shootinge;” and after having -enumerated a long list of faults ordinarily committed, he thus proceeds to describe the -secret of shooting straight with the long-bow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Shooting depends -on the -eye.</p> - -<p>“For having a man’s eye alwaye on his marke, is the onlye waye to shoote -straighte, yea, and I suppose so redye and easye a waye, if it be learned in youth -and confirmed with use, that a man shall never misse therein. Men doubt yet in -loking at the marke what way is best, whether betwixt the bow and the stringe, -above or beneath his hande, and manye wayes moo. Yet it maketh no greate -matter which waye a man loke at his marke, if it be joined with comlye shooting. -The diversitye of mens standing and drawing causeth divers men loke at their marke -divers wayes; yet they all had a mans hand to shoote straighte if nothinge els -stoppe. So that cumlynesse is the onlye judge of best lokinge at the marke. Some -men wonder whye in castinge a man’s eye at the mark, the hande should go streight. -Surely if he considered the nature of a man’s eye, hee woulde not wonder at it. <span class="sidenote">The hand -obeys the eye.</span>For -this I am certaine of, that no servaunt to his maister, no child to his father, is so -obedient as everye joynte and peece of the bodye is to do whatsoever the eye -biddes. The eye is the guide, the ruler, and the succourer of all the other parts. -The hande, the foote, and other members dare do nothinge withoute the eye, as -doth appear on the night and darcke corners. The eye is the very tongue wherewith -witte and reason doth speake to everye parte of the bodye, and the witte doth -not so soone signifye a thinge by the eye, as every part is redye to followe, or rather -prevent the bidding of the eye. This is plaine in manye thinges, but most evident -in fence and feighting, as I have heard men saye. There every parte standing in feare -to have a blowe, runnes to the eye for help, as younge children do to the mother; -the foote, the hande, and all wayteth upon the eye. If the eye bid the hand eyther -beare of or smite, or the foote eyther go forward or backeward, it doth so. And -that which is most wonder of al, the one man lokinge stedfastlye at the other mans -eye and not at his hand, wil, even as it were, rede in his eye wher he purposeth to -smyte next, for the eye is nothing els but a certain windowe for wit to shoote out -her heade at. This wonderfull worke of God in making all the members so obedient -to the eye, is a pleasant thing to remember and loke upon: therefore an archer may -be sure in learninge to loke at his marke when hee is younge alwayes to shoote -streight.”</p> - -<p>The following description of the English archer is from an ancient treatise on -Martial <span class="nowrap">Discipline:—</span></p> - -<p class="sidenote">Archer to -wear easy -dress.</p> - -<p>“The yeoman hadde, at those dayes, their lymmes at libertye, for their hoseyn -were then fastened with one point, and their jackes were long, and easy to shote in, -so that they mighte draw bowes of great strength, and shote arrowes of a yarde long. -Captens and officers should be skilful of that most noble weapon, <span class="sidenote">Captains to -see that bows -&c., were in -good order.</span>and to see that -their soldiers according to their draught and strength have good bows, well nocked,<span class="pagenum" id="Page51">[51]</span> -well strynged, everie stringe whippe in their nocke, and in the myddes rubbed with -wax, braser and shuting glove, some spare strings trymed as aforesaid, everie man -one shefe of arrows, with a case of leather defensible against the rayne, <span class="sidenote">Twenty-four -arrows to each -man.</span>and in the -same shefe fower and twentie arrows, whereof eight of them should be lighter than -the residue, to gall and astoyne the enemy with the hailshot of light arrows, before -they shall come within range of their harquebuss shot.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Encouraged -from the -pulpit.</p> - -<p>The subject of archery was not deemed, in those days, an unsuitable theme for -the pulpit, as may be seen by the following extract from one of the seven sermons (the -sixth) preached before Edward VI., within the preaching place in the palace of Westminster, -on the 12th of April, 1549, by that patriotic reformer, Bishop Latimer. -With honest, plain spoken words, in the midst of his discourse he breaks <span class="nowrap">off—</span></p> - -<p>“Men of England, in times past, when they would exercise themselves, (for we -must needs have some recreation, our bodies can not endure without some exercise), -they were wont to goe abroad in the fieldes a shooting; but now it is turned into -glossing, gulling, and whooring within the house. The arte of shooting hath bene -in times past much esteemed in this realme, it is a gift of God that He hath geven -us to excell all other nations withall, it hath been God’s instrument whereby He -hath geven us many victories against our enemies. But now we have taken up -whooring in townes, instead of shooting in the fieldes. A wonderous thing that so -excellent a gift of God should be so little esteemed. I desire you, my Lordes, even -as ye love the honour and glory of God, and entend to remove his indignation, let -there be sent forth some proclamation, some sharpe proclamation to the justices of -peace, for they doe not thier dutie, justices now be no justices, there be many good -actes made for this matter already. Charge them upon their allegiance that this -singular benefite of God may be practised, and that it be not turned into bolling, -glossing, and whooring within the townes: for they be negligent in executing these -laws of shooting. <span class="sidenote">Training of -Bishop Latimer.</span>In my time my poore father was as diligent to teach me to shoote -as to learne me any other thing, and so I think other men did their children. He -taught me how to draw, how to lay my body in my bow, and not to draw with -strength of armes as other nations doe, but with strength of the body. I had my -bowes bought me according to my age and strength, as I encreased in them, so my -bowes were made bigger and bigger: for men shall never shoot well except they be -brought up in it. It is a goodly arte, a wholesome kinde of exercise, and much -commended in phisicke.”</p> - -<p>The following is another extract from the same <span class="nowrap">sermon:—</span></p> - -<p class="sidenote">How estimated -by the -people.</p> - -<p>“I came once myself to a place, riding on a journey homeward from London, -and I sent word over night into the towne that I would preach there in the morning, -because it was a holiday, and methought it was an holidayes work. The -church stood in my way, and I took my horse and my company, and went thither, -(I thought I should have found a great company in the church,) and when I came -there, the church door was fast locked. I tarryed there halfe an houre and more, -at last the key was found, and one of the parish comes to me and said: ‘Sir, this -is a busie day with us, we cannot heare you, it is Robin Hood’s day. The parish<span class="pagenum" id="Page52">[52]</span> -are gone abroad to gather for Robin Hood. I pray you let them not.’ I thought -my rochet should have been regarded, though I were not: but it would not serve, -it was faine to give place to Robin Hood’s men.”</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>PROOFS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF ARCHERY.</h3> - -<p>There is little at the present day in England to afford any adequate idea of the -high importance, the great skill, and the distinguished renown of the English archers. -<span class="sidenote">By names of -places.</span>Some few places still retain names which tell where the bowmen used to assemble for -practice, as “Shooter’s Hill,” in Kent; “Newington Butts,” near London; and “St. -Augustine’s Butts,” near Bristol. The Butts will be found applied to spots of land in -the vicinity of schools, as for instance, the College School of Warwick.</p> - -<p>The fields situated to the east of the playing-fields at Eton, and known by the -name of “The Upper and Lower Shooting-fields,” were probably so named from the -ancient exercise of archery on these grounds.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Armorial -Bearings.</p> - -<p>Many of the noble and county families of Great Britain and Ireland have the -symbols of archery charged on their escutcheons; as, for instance, the Duke of Norfolk, -the Marquis of Salisbury, Lord Grey de Wilton, the Earl of Aberdeen, the Earl of -Besborough, the Earl of Portarlington, the Baronetal family of Hales, Sir Martin -Bowes, and also on the arms of Sydney Sussex College, in Cambridge, and the seal of -the Sheffield Grammar School.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Government -brand.</p> - -<p>The mark or brand used by the Government of the present day, to identify -public property, is an arrow-head, commonly called “The King’s broad arrow.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Surnames of -families.</p> - -<p>There are also existing families which have derived their surnames from the -names of the different crafts formerly engaged in the manufacture of the bow and its -accompaniments; as, for instance, the names of Bowyer, Fletcher, Stringer, Arrowsmith, -Arrow, Bowman, Bowwater, &c.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">National -proverbs.</p> - -<p>If reference be made to our language, there will be found many phrases and -proverbial expressions drawn from or connected with archery; some suggesting forethought -and caution, as “Always have two strings to your bow;” “Get the shaft-hand -of your adversaries;” “Draw not thy bow before thy arrow be fixed;” “Kill two -birds with one shaft.” To make an enemy’s machination recoil upon himself, they -expressed by saying, “To outshoot a man in his own bow.” In reference to a vague -foolish guess, they used to say, “He shoots wide of the mark;” and of unprofitable -silly conversation, “A fool’s bolt is soon shot;” and as a proof of exaggeration, -“He draws a long bow.” The unready and unskilful archer did not escape the -censure and warning of his fellows, although he might be a great man and boast that -he had “A famous bow, but it was up at the castle.” Of such they satirically used -to remark, that “Many talked of Robin Hood, who never shot in his bow.” Our -ancestors also expressed liberality of sentiment, and their opinion that merit belonged -exclusively to no particular class or locality, by the following pithy expressions, -“Many a good bow besides one in Chester,” and “An archer is known by his aim, -and not by his arrows.” To these may be added, “Testimony is like the shot of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page53">[53]</span> -long-bow, which owes its efficacy to the force of the shooter; argument is like the shot -of a cross-bow, equally forcible, whether discharged by a dwarf or a giant.”</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>MILITARY AND POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SKILL IN THE -USE OF THE BOW.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Commenced -at the battle -of Hastings.</p> - -<p>From the time of the battle of Hastings the English archers began to rise in -repute, and in course of time proved themselves, by their achievements in war, both -the admiration and terror of their foes, and excelled the exploits of other nations. -<span class="sidenote">Achievement -lasted -through a -period of 500 -years.</span>The great achievements of the English bowmen which shed lustre upon the annals of -the nation, extended over a period of more than five centuries, many years after -the invention and use of fire-arms. <span class="sidenote">England had -a voluntary -army.</span>England, therefore, in those times, possessed a -national voluntary militia, of no charge to the Government, ready for the field on a -short notice, and well skilled in the use of weapons. Hence sprung the large -bodies of efficient troops which at different periods of English history, in an incredibly -short time, were found ready for the service of their country. These men were not a -rude, undisciplined rabble, but were trained, disciplined men, every one sufficiently -master of his weapon to riddle a steel corslet at five or six score paces, or in a body, -to act with terrible effect against masses of cavalry; while most of them could bring -down a falcon on the wing by a bird-bolt, or with a broad arrow transfix the wild -deer in the chase.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Archers -defeated men-at-arms.</p> - -<p>Before the simple weapon of the British archer, itself but a larger form of the -simplest plaything of a child, all the gorgeous display of knighthood, the elaborated -panoply of steel, the magnificent war-horse, the serried ranks, the ingenious devices of -tacticians and strategists, at once gave way; nothing can withstand the biting storm of -the “cloth-yard shaft.” <span class="sidenote">Value in -sieges.</span>It was equally efficacious in the field and in the siege. The -defender of town or castle could not peep beyond his bretèche or parapet, but an -English arrow nailed his cap to his head. In a field, provided the archers were, by -marsh, wood or mountain, secured from a flank attack, they would bid defiance to any -number of mounted men-at-arms. Their shafts, falling thick as hail among the -horses, soon brought them to the ground, or threw them into utter disorder; then the -armed footmen advanced and commenced a slaughter which was scarcely stayed but -by weariness of slaying; the archers meantime continuing their ravages on the rear of -the enemy’s cavalry by a vertical attack, prolonged, when the ordinary supply of their -quivers had been exhausted, by withdrawing them arrows from their slain enemies, to -be sent forth on new missions of death:—here is encouragement for our modern -marksmen who are armed with a far more deadly weapon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Opinion on -English -archers by -Napoleon III.</p> - -<p>The most complete and philosophic digest, which relates to the system of -British archery, considered from a military point of view, is that given by the present -Emperor of the French in his treatise “<i>Sur le Passé et l’Avenir de l’Artillerie</i>.” That -the British victory at Cressy was wholly attributable to the prowess of British archers, -is well known; not so well, a circumstance pointed out by the Emperor of the French, -that thenceforward, and in consequence of that victory, <span class="sidenote">Destroyed the -prestige of -cavalry.</span>the prestige of cavalry<span class="pagenum" id="Page54">[54]</span> -declined. Now, there is a political, no less than military significance in this lowering -of the esteem in which cavalry had previously been held. Horsemen were gentlemen, -and infantry men of inferior degree. Whenever and wherever British archery were -<i>not</i> brought to bear, horsemen were omnipotent, and infantry of little avail. <span class="sidenote">Estimation of -infantry by -continental -nations.</span>During -the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries—the golden age of archery in this land, when -yeomen or archers were in such high repute,—France and continental nations generally, -treated foot soldiers with disdain. The Emperor of the French, in his -systematic book just adverted to, mentions several examples where foot soldiers were -ruthlessly cut down and ridden over by their own cavalry—the men-at-arms; not -that the infantry fought ill, but that they fought too well. They were slaughtered -lest the men-at-arms should have no scope for the exercise of their skill.</p> - -<p>English men-at-arms never sullied their fame by cruel acts like these; not that -they were better at heart: seeing that human nature is everywhere, and under all circumstances, -pretty much alike. English infantry, mainly composed of archers, were -far too valuable to be thus used. They bore the first brunt of battle, and not unfrequently -decided it. At the time when every other foot soldier in Europe was the -merest serf, <span class="sidenote">Archer a -yeoman.</span>the British archer was a yeoman. He had a fixed heraldic rank; the first -of low degree. He was above the handicraftsman, however skilful,—above the -merchant—taking his rank immediately after the gentry. <span class="sidenote">Political -results.</span>The excellence of British -archery, then tended to bring about a political result; helping to establish that middle-class -which, ever since its consolidation, has been one of the sheet-anchors of our -glorious constitution.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>THE ARBALEST, OR CROSS-BOW.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bow, -modification -of long.</p> - -<p>In process of time a modification of the bow was invented. In place of the -original instrument, a much shorter and stiffer bow, usually of steel, was placed -transversely in a stock, bent by a lever, and discharged by a trigger, after the manner -since used for a gun.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Invented in -Crete or -Sicily.</p> - -<p>The cross-bow, or arbalest, called in Latin, arcus balistarius, or balista manualis, -and in French arbalèt, is said by some to be of Sicilian origin; others ascribe its -invention to the Cretans. It is supposed to have been introduced into France by the -first crusaders, and is mentioned by the Abbé Suger in his life of Louis le Gros, as -being used by that Prince, in the beginning of his reign, which commenced in the -year 1108.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">To England -by Saxons.</p> - -<p>Verstigan seems to attribute the introduction of this weapon into England to the -Saxons, under Hengist and Horsa, but cites no authority in support of that supposition. -In a print representing the landing of those generals, the foremost of them is -delineated with a cross-bow on his shoulder, and others are seen in the hands of the -distant figures of their followers, landed and landing from their ships.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The Normans -got cross-bows -from -Italy.</p> - -<p>It would appear that the Normans derived the cross-bow, with its name, from -Italy. In Domesday Book mention is made of Odo, the arbalester, as a tenant in -capite of the king of lands in Yorkshire; and the manor of Worstead, Norfolk, was<span class="pagenum" id="Page55">[55]</span> -at the time of Domesday survey, held of the Abbot of St. Benet at Holme, by -Robert the cross-bow man. The names show them to have been Normans, and these -instances are sufficient to prove the introduction of the weapon, though the few that -may have been used at the battle of Hastings might occasion its not being represented -in the Bayeux tapestry.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">No cross-bow -among -Romans.</p> - -<p>The absence of the cross-bow in early Roman monuments leaves it a matter of -doubt, whether an arbalester would not simply mean the engineer of a catapult. -There is no mention made of the hand cross-bow in very ancient authorities.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">William II -surnamed -Rufus, from -1087 to 1100</p> - -<p>The cross-bow has been used in England (at least, on hunting excursions) in the -time of Rufus, for Wace tells us, that “Prince Henry, going the same day to New -Forest, found the string of his cross-bow broken, and taking it to a villain to be -mended, saw an old woman there, who told him he should be king.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Henry I, 1100 -to 1135.</p> - -<p>During the reign of Henry I. the cross-bow seems to have been principally used -in the chase. The projectile was in form of a short arrow, with a pyramidical head, -called a quarrel, (<a href="#Plate14">plate 14</a>, fig. 2 and 4). <span class="sidenote">Cross-bow in -war.</span>Simeon of Durham speaks of it in the -time of Henry I. thus:—“He raised a machine from whence the archers and cross-bowmen -might shoot.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Genoese -celebrated for -the use of.</p> - -<p>The Genoese were at all times most celebrated for the skilful management of the -cross-bow. The success which attended the Christians at the siege of Jerusalem, -1100, is attributed principally to the mechanical talents of this people.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Use of forbad.</p> - -<p>The use of the cross-bows was general in Italy in 1139, for at that time Pope -Innocent II. particularly forbad them. The German Emperor Conrad did the same, -as we learn from William de Dole, who lived in the latter part of the 12th century, -they not being looked upon as a fair weapon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Richard I -from 1189 to -1199.</p> - -<p>It is said of Richard I.:—“Truly he revived the use of this kind of shooting, -called cross-bow shooting, which had long since been laid aside, whence he became -so skilful in its management, that he killed many people with his own hand.” <span class="sidenote">Siege of Acre</span>It is -supposed that Richard I. first used the cross-bow as a weapon of war at the siege of -Acre. <span class="sidenote">Universal in -Crusades.</span>In every action, however, of which we read in the history of the second -crusade, as well as the third, in which Richard participated, cross-bows, as well as -other bows, are repeatedly noticed. <span class="sidenote">Richard -killed by.</span>It is stated that he was killed by an arrow, said -to have been shot from a cross-bow at the Castle of Chaluz.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Genoese -cross-bow -men.</p> - -<p>From the beginning of the 13th, and until the middle of the 15th century, cross-bow -men are uniformly mentioned as part of the Genoese troops. From Justinius we -learn, that in 1225 <span class="sidenote">Mounted -Arbalists -1225.</span>“Twenty Arbalestes mounted, and one hundred on foot, with -cross-bows of horn, were then employed in the army of the state.”</p> - -<p>The cross-bow man was an essential component of the host during all this period. -He was in the van of the battle.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Battle near -Damietta -1237.</p> - -<p>In the battle near Damietta, in 1237, “more than a hundred knights of the -Temple fell, and three hundred cross-bow men, &c., &c.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Campaign in -Italy 1239.</p> - -<p>The Emperor Frederic, in 1239, giving an account of his Italian campaign to the -king of England, writes: “After we had, by our knights and cross-bow men, reduced -all the province of Liguria,” &c.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Genoese 1245.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page56">[56]</span></p> - -<p>Five hundred Genoese cross-bow men were sent against the Milanese in 1245, -and these unfortunate men being placed in front of the line, were taken prisoners by -the enemy, who, to revenge themselves for the havoc done by their bows, <span class="sidenote">Treatment of.</span>cruelly -punished each with the loss of an eye, and amputation of an arm.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bows at -Cressy 1346.</p> - -<p>There were 15,000 Genoese cross-bow men in the front rank of the French army -at the battle of Cressy, 1346.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">At siege of -Le Roche de -Rién.</p> - -<p>The next year we find that Charles, Earl of Blois, had at the siege of Le Roche -de Rién no less than 2,000 in his army.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Corporation -of Arbalisters -1359.</p> - -<p>The “Corporation des Arbalestriers de Paris,” in 1359, consisted of two hundred -members. In 1373, their number, as fixed by a royal ordinance, was eight hundred. -They were not bound to serve beyond the limits of their district without the consent -of the Provost of Paris. There were both foot and mounted cross-bowmen in this -body.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bow -encouraged -by Edward -III.</p> - - - - - -<p>Edward III., though he wished principally to encourage the long-bow, could not -help seeing the advantages which might be derived from the cross-bow, from the -accuracy of its shot, and its convenience on horseback. <span class="sidenote">No English -in wars of -Edward III.</span>It does not appear that, in -the long wars of Edward with the French in this century, cross-bowmen were raised -in England, <span class="sidenote">Genoese -mercenaries.</span>though they were supplied by Genoese contractors on various occasions -for service at sea. In 1363 the king caused public proclamation to be made, in order -to encourage its use.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Matches.</p> - -<p>There were also matches made in different parts of Europe, at which prizes were -given to the most skilful cross-bowmen.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mounted -cross-bow -men in France -1373.</p> - -<p>In the list of the Grand Masters of the Arbalesters of France under Charles V., -in 1373, appears “Marc de Grimant, Baron d’Antibes, Captain-General of Arbalesters, -both foot and horse, in the service of the king.” And a similar notice occurs in the -reign of King John, Baudoin de Lence being Grand Master; but it would appear -that the mounted cross-bowmen were retained in much smaller numbers than the foot.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">“Pavisers.”</p> - -<p>During the reign of Edward III. cross-bowmen seem first to have been protected -by “Pavisers,” (<a href="#Plate15">plate 15</a>), or men who held before them a large shield called a -“Pavise.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Pavisers by -English 1404.</p> - -<p>On the attack by the French and Spaniards upon the Isle of Portland in 1404, -the English formed pavisers to protect themselves from the cross-bow bolts, by taking -the doors from their houses, and fixing them upright by props. Under this cover the -archers plied their arrows.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bow -not esteemed -by English.</p> - -<p>The English never had much esteem for the cross-bow in the field. Among the -10,500 men led out of England by Henry VI., in 1415, there were only ninety-eight -Arbalesters, of whom eighteen were horsemen; <span class="sidenote">Forbad by -Henry VII -1508 & 1515.</span>nevertheless, Henry VII. found it -necessary to prohibit the use of the cross-bow in 1508, and, seven years after, another -statute was passed, renewing the prohibition. This interference, however, of the -legislature does not seem to have produced the intended effect, for in less than twenty -years later the use of the cross-bow had become so prevalent, <span class="sidenote">Forbad by -Henry VIII -1535.</span>that a new statute was -judged requisite, which inflicted on every person that kept one in his house, the -penalty of twenty pounds. It is from this period, therefore, that we may date the<span class="pagenum" id="Page57">[57]</span> -decline of the arbalest in this country, as these statutes produced by degrees the -reformation sought for. <span class="sidenote">Decline of -cross-bow.</span>Not a single cross-bow man is to be seen in the paintings -belonging to the Society of Antiquaries, nor at Cowdray House, representing the -battles of Henry VIII., and painted at the period; and, to give a finishing blow, -another statute soon followed, still more decisive.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>DESCRIPTION OF CROSS-BOW.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Description.</p> - -<p>The ancient cross-bow, which differed in many particulars from those of late -times, is thus described by Father Daniel, who formed his description from one or -more then before him.</p> - -<p>The cross-bow was an offensive weapon, which consisted of a bow fixed to the -top of a sort of staff, or stock of wood, which the string of the bow, when unbent, -crossed at right angles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Stock.</p> - -<p>The handle or bed, which was called the stock of the cross-bow, had towards the -middle a small opening or slit, of the length of two fingers, in which was a little -moveable wheel of solid steel; through the centre of it passed a screw that served for -an axis; this wheel projected a little beyond the surface of the stock, and had a notch, -or catch, which stopped and held the string of the bow when bent. <span class="sidenote">Trigger.</span>In the opposite -side of the circumference was a much smaller notch, by the means of which the spring -of the trigger kept the wheel firmer, and in its place; this wheel is called the nut of -the cross-bow. Under the stock, near the handle, was the key of the trigger, like that -of the serpentine of a musket; by pressing this key with the hand, to the -handle of the cross-bow, the spring released the wheel that held the string, and the -string by its motion drove forward the dart.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Back-sight.</p> - -<p>Upon the stock below the little wheel was a small plate of copper, which lifted -up and shut down, and was fixed by its two legs, with two screws to the two sides of -the stock; this was a back-sight; it was pierced above by two little holes, one over -the other, and when the plate was raised, these two holes answered to a <span class="sidenote">Fore-sight.</span>globule, which -was a small bead, no bigger than that of a chaplet, that was suspended at the end of -the cross-bow by a fine wire, and fastened to two perpendicular columns of iron, one on -the right, the other on the left, and this little globule, answering to the holes in the -plate, served to direct the aim, whether for shooting horizontally, upwards, or -downwards.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cord.</p> - -<p>The cord or string of the bow was double, each string separated by two little -cylinders of iron, equi-distant from the extremities of the bow and the centre; to these -two strings in the middle was fixed a ring of cord, which served to confine it in the -notch previously mentioned when the bow was bent. Between the two cords in the centre -of the string, and immediately before the ring, was a little square of cord, against -which was placed the extremity of the arrow or dart, to be pushed forward by -the cord.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bent by hand.</p> - -<p>The smaller cross-bows were bent with the hand; <span class="sidenote">By foot</span>the larger ones were at first -bent by the soldier placing his foot in a stirrup, attached to the end of the bow; a cord<span class="pagenum" id="Page58">[58]</span> -was then fixed by one end to the butt of the stock, the other end being fastened to a -waistbelt. <span class="sidenote">By pulley.</span>A pulley, running upon the cord, was hooked to the bowstring, and the -bow was then bent by raising the body and keeping the leg firm.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">By moulinet.</p> - -<p>The cross-bow was afterwards furnished with the moulinet and pulleys, (<a href="#Plate13">plate 13</a>) -which after the bow had been bent, could be removed for the discharge; these consisted -of an iron cylinder in a frame of the same metal, made to turn by two moveable -handles in opposite directions, and having a cap likewise of iron to fit on the butt end -of the stock. On each side of this cap was a small pulley, the wheel of which was one -inch and a half in diameter, having attached to one of its arms a strong cord that -passed thence round an equal sized wheel, returned over the first, and then went round -one double in diameter, situated beyond the second, and so passed to the cylinder of -the moulinet, by winding which, the power required to bend the bow was lessened to -one fourth. Attached to the arms of the greater wheels was a double claw, made to -slide on the plane of the stock, which, catching hold of the bowstring, drew it up to -the nut. An improvement of the moulinet was, that the handles of the cylinder were -both made in the same line, instead of being one up and the other down.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">By windlass.</p> - -<p>At a later period the cross-bow was bent by a windlass, which consisted of a bar -of iron, shaped at its end into a claw, and having teeth the whole length of one edge. -This slipped through an iron box, containing a wheel, the cogs of which fitted the -teeth of the bar, and as a handle was fixed to the axle, on turning it the string was -wound up. This apparatus was attached by a loop, which slipped over the stock, -and was kept in its place by two iron pins, that projected from the side, and then, -when bent, it could be easily removed.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">By steel lever.</p> - -<p>Another mode of bending the cross-bow was by means of a steel lever, called -the goat’s-foot lever, which was moveable. This was formed of two legs, a catch -and a handle, all acting on one pivot. The legs were applied to the projecting pieces -of iron on each side the stock, and then the purchase was very great.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Latch.</p> - -<p>There were two principal varieties of cross-bows, viz., the “Latch,” with grooved -stock, for “quarrels,” <span class="sidenote">Prodd.</span>and the “Prodd,” for bullets. -(<a href="#Plate14">Plate 14</a>, fig. 1 and 2.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Dimensions -and form of -latch.</p> - -<p>In the reign of Henry VI. the stocks of cross-bows were made of hard wood, -ornamented with ivory. They were about three feet three inches long, the bow of -steel, about two feet eight inches from end to end, weighing in all about fifteen -pounds. The length of the groove for the quarrel about one foot four inches. <span class="sidenote">Quarrels viretons.</span>The -arrows discharged were called both quarrels and viretons, (<a href="#Plate14">plate 14</a>, fig. 2 and 4,) -some with feathers, others without. The vireton is a French name; the feathers -being set on a little curved, made it spin round as it passed through the air.</p> - -<p>It is stated by Captain Panôt, that the Arquebus was in use before the invention -of powder, and was but an improvement on the arbalest, or cross-bow. <span class="sidenote">Arquebus or -barrelled -cross-bow.</span>The -Arquebus, like the cross-bow, had a stock, upon which was fixed a tube, intended -to receive the projectile. <span class="sidenote">Slit in tube.</span>This tube was split, for the passage of a cord, which was -held back by a kind of sheave or pulley, which communicated motion to the projectile, -on the trigger being pulled. <span class="sidenote">Fired leaden -balls.</span>In general, leaden balls were fired from the -arquebus. The barrelled cross-bow was suggested by the “balista grossa de arganellis,” -which was furnished with tubes for ejecting Greek fire.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Repeating -cross-bow.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page59">[59]</span></p> - -<p>In the United Service Museum, Whitehall, there is a cross-bow of Cingalese -manufacture. It strings itself, and discharges two arrows each time in rapid succession, -until the magazine is exhausted, which contains twelve arrows, and may be -replenished in a moment.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Range in -Henry V.</p> - -<p>It is evident that the different sizes and various powers of cross-bows occasioned -a great diversity in the distance of their range. Thus, in Henry 5th’s time the range -of the cross-bow is stated to have been forty rods (220 yards), and it never appears -to have been more powerful than at that period.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Range in -Elizabeth’s.</p> - -<p>M. de Bellay says that the cross-bowman will kill at 100 or 200 paces, which -gives a great range to the arbalests of Elizabeth’s time.</p> - -<p>Sir John Smith, however, in his observations, not long after this, very much -contracts the distance of their shot, for he says that “a cross-bow will kill point-blank -between 40 and 60 yards, and, if elevated, 120, 140, or 160 yards, or further.”</p> - -<p>The former probably alluded to the prod, the latter to the latch.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>COMPARATIVE MERITS OF THE LONG AND CROSS BOW.</h3> - -<p>How inefficient the cross-bow was found, when opposed by English archery, -appears in every page of the histories of the fourteenth century.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Why long-bow -superior.</p> - -<p>The superiority of the long-bow mainly depended upon the strength and skill of -the archer, while a greater amount of accuracy at shorter ranges could be had out of -the cross-bow, with much less training; and the success of the English archers when -opposed to cross-bowmen may be mainly ascribed to the more “rapid” fire of the -former.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Celerity the -great advantage -of the -long-bow.</p> - -<p>It is generally conceded that the long-bow could deliver at least six shafts while -the cross-bow discharged one; and, “with such odds against them, it became impossible -for the bravest and most expert troops, whether at Cressy or elsewhere, to make -a stand against their opponents”.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bow -best on horseback.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the cross-bow was decidedly a more convenient weapon on -horseback than the long-bow.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>COMPARATIVE MERITS BETWEEN BOWS AND EARLY -FIRE-ARMS.</h3> - -<p>The invention of gunpowder, and its application to artillery and small arms, did -not produce that sudden change in the art of war, or in weapons, that might, on a -first consideration, have been expected. Many of the old soldiers were much divided -in their opinion of the superiority of fire-arms, nor does it appear that the government -of those days were decided upon it, as the strongest statutes for enforcing the practice -of archery were enacted after their introduction.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Long-bow -preferred in -Edward III.</p> - -<p>Joshua Barnes, in his life of Edward III., observes, that “without all question, -the guns which are used now-a-days, are neither so terrible in battle nor do such execution -nor work such confusion as arrows can do; for bullets, being not seen, only hurt<span class="pagenum" id="Page60">[60]</span> -where they hit, but arrows enrage the horse, and break the array, and terrify all that -behold them in the bodies of their neighbours. Not to say that every archer can shoot -thrice to a gunner’s once, and that whole squadrons of bows may let fly at one time, -when only one or two files of musqueteers can discharge at once. Also, that whereas -guns are useless when your pikes join, because they only do execution point-blank, the -arrows which will kill at random may do good service even behind your men of arms.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Long-bow the -favourite in -Henry VIII.</p> - -<p>Although fire-arms had attained no inconsiderable degree of perfection in the -reign of Henry VIII., yet the long-bow was still the favourite weapon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Merits balanced -in Queen -Mary’s reign.</p> - -<p>So indifferent were the ministers of Queen Mary respecting them, that in her -ordinance respecting armour and weapons, the alternative is left to the choice of the -people, whether they should find a long-bow and sheaf of arrows, or a haquebutt, in -every case where they were by law charged with the latter.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The lighter -ammunition -of the harquebus -an advantage.</p> - -<p>In the reign of Elizabeth, the musket was so slow to charge and discharge that -the bow was considered superior by many; and Mons. de Bellay states that if archers -and cross-bowmen could carry their arrows, &c., as easy as harquebusiers do their -ammunition, he would prefer the former weapon over the latter.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Arrows make -more severe -wounds than -bullets.</p> - -<p>The effects of arrows sticking in horses, are said to have been frightful. This -can be easily imagined. A fire-arm bullet can be shot quite through a horse without -causing the animal to show one sign of anguish. He goes steadily on his previous -course, and makes no sign. However fatal of necessity, a fire-arm bullet gives no -immediate pain. Not so the arrow. Planted never so lightly in a horse’s neck or flank, -the animal grew furious. Starting off into a wild gallop to escape the barbed sting, -the animal had no respite for his agony. The wilder the pace, the greater the pain. -Far from the serried squadrons where he fain would be, sore against his will, rushed -the mail-clad knight. Plunging and rearing, the steed would throw him at last, -amidst the dead and dying; himself to die.</p> - -<p>Though comparatively few men or horses were killed by arrow wounds at once, -few, nevertheless, recovered. The barbed arrow-head was immeasurably more dangerous, -imbedded in the flesh, than a mere lump of lead. Hundreds of men, hale and -well to-day, have had fire-arm bullets imbedded in their flesh for years. Not so in the -time of archery. The arrow-head must be extracted, or mortification came on, and -soon a cruel death. Neither was the surgical process of extraction often happy in the -results. It would not be easy to extract a barbed arrow-head even now, with all the -appliances of modern surgery at hand.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Arrow -wounds more -fatal.</p> - -<p>Another fatal consequence of arrow wounds on the field of battle was this: men -wounded thus were rarely taken prisoners. Arrows were expensive ammunition. -The battle over, detachments were sent out to collect them; and the collection was -not done too tenderly. To regain an arrow seemed a far more meritorious act than -to save the life of an enemy. The throat of many a wounded wretch was mercilessly -cut, that he might be quiet whilst the arrow was being extracted.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bows useless -in wind.</p> - -<p>The defects of archery were these:—the ammunition was expensive, and when -lost, not easily replaced. The flight of arrows is never correct on a windy day, from -whatever direction the wind may blow. <span class="sidenote">In rain.</span>Rain -relaxes the bow and bowstring, so that<span class="pagenum" id="Page61">[61]</span> -archery then is of little use. All these are serious defects; but there was another of -more importance still. When the archer’s ammunition was all expended, he was -nearly powerless. A sword, indeed, he carried, for close fighting; and each archer -stuck into the ground before him a sharp pointed stake as a protection against cavalry.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Hand-gun -most penetration.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Silent discharge -in -favor of bows.</p> - -<p>The great advantage of the hand-gun was from its penetration, as no armour could -keep out balls, but the <i>silent</i> discharge of the cross-bow rendered it superior in the -pursuit of timid animals, and the prodd has continued in use to the present day, for -the purpose of killing deer, rooks, and rabbits.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The articles on ancient -Engines of War, and upon the Bow, are principally taken from the following -works, viz:—“Military Antiquities,” by F. Grose, Esq.; -“A Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour,” by Sir S. R. -Meyrick; “Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe,” by John Hewitt; “Projectile Weapons of War,” and “Report -of the Rifle Match at Wimbledon Common,” by J. Scoffern, M. B.; “Engines of War,” by H. Wilkinson, and “The -Long-Bow of the Past and the Rifle for the Future,” by H. Britannicus.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page62">[62]</span></p> - -<h2>HISTORY OF ARTILLERY.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p>There is no subject more intimately connected with the history of the world, from -the remotest antiquity than the history of Arms, <span class="sidenote">Fate of nations -depends -on arms.</span>the fate of nations having always -depended either on the superiority of the Arms employed, or on the superior discipline -or dexterity of those who used them, wholly independent of the numbers by which -they were opposed.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Artillery includes -all war-engines.</p> - -<p>Before the introduction of gunpowder, all kinds of weapons, both offensive and -defensive, were included in the term “Artillery,” which has since become restricted -to the larger kinds of fire-arms, such as guns, mortars, howitzers, rockets, &c. Thus -we find in the I. Saml. xx., 40, “And Jonathan gave his artillery to his lad,” when -speaking of bows and arrows. Again, in the 20th, Henry VIII., a patent was granted -to Anthony Knevt and Peter Mentas, “to be overseers of the science of Artillery;” -and in an enumeration of the different species of Artillery, printed in 1594, are -reckoned “long-bows, cross-bows, slur-bows, stone-bows, scorpions, and catapultas.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Definition of -Artillery.</p> - -<p>The root of the word “artillery,” is the Latin word “<i>ars</i>,” an “art.” It has -been fantastically derived from the Italian <i>arte di tirare</i>, the art of firing. In the -fourteenth century the science of war-engines was called <i>artemonie</i>, and its productions -<i>artillerie</i>, from the old French word <i>artiller</i>, “to employ art.” Some writers state that -the word “artillery,” is derived from <i>arcus</i> “a bow,” the earlier species of artillery -being termed <i>arcualia</i>.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">First invention -unknown.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to determine with any degree of accuracy the epoch at which gunpowder -and its resultants, fire-arms, were first employed for the purposes of war in any -part of the world; and this difficulty is increased, at least, as far as regards Europe, -from the fact, <span class="sidenote">Names of gun—from -old machines.</span>that the first engines of war, depending on the use of gunpowder, were -named after the old machines for throwing darts, stones, &c.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">First mention -of guns.</p> - -<p>The earliest account which we have of gunpowder, where it is mentioned as -applied to fire-arms, exists in a code of Gentoo Laws, and is thought by many to be -coeval with the time of Moses. The notice occurs in the Sanscrit preface to the Code -of Gentoo Laws, translated by Halhed, at page 53, viz:—“The Magistrate shall not -make war with any deceitful machine, or with poisoned weapons, or with <i>cannon or -guns</i>, &c.” Halhed observes: “It will no doubt strike the reader with wonder to -find a prohibition of fire-arms in records of such unfathomable antiquity, and he will -probably hence renew the suspicion, which has long been deemed absurd, that -Alexander the Great did absolutely meet with some weapons of this kind in India, -as a passage in Quintus Curtius seems to ascertain.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Greek fire, -earliest European -combustible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page63">[63]</span></p> - -<p>The Greek fire seems to have been one of the earliest attempts in Europe at the -manufacture of a military combustible; <span class="sidenote">Gunpowder -known before -in China.</span>but there is some reason to believe that the -Chinese had become acquainted with the nature of gunpowder long before the introduction -or invention of the aforenamed substance; and they appear to have been the -first who took any steps in its manufacture, or in that of weapons of war resulting -from its use. Amongst the machines constructed by this extraordinary people, was -one called “the thunder of the earth,” which is thus described by M. Reinaud; and -M. Favé: <span class="sidenote">Chinese explosive -shell.</span>“A hollow globe of iron was filled with a bucket of gunpowder, mixed -with fragments of metal, and was so arranged, that it exploded on the approach of -an enemy, so as to cause great destruction in his ranks.” <span class="sidenote">Early Chinese -cannon.</span>The “impetuous” dart of the -Chinese, was a round bamboo, about two and a half feet in length, lashed with hempen -cords to prevent its splitting, and having a strong wooden handle fixed to one end, -thus making its entire length about five feet. This was then charged with powder -of different kinds, arranged in layers, over which were placed fire balls, which being -thrown to a distance of thirty or forty yards by the discharge, consumed any combustible -materials they might come in contact with.</p> - -<p>A late writer, M. Paravey, has in a great measure established the fact, that gunpowder -and fire-arms were known to the Chinese long before the Christian era; and -it is mentioned in Chinese writings, <span class="sidenote">Guns in China, -618 B. C.</span>that in the year 618 <span class="smcapall">B. C.</span>, a gun was in use, -bearing this inscription, “I hurl death to the traitor, and extermination to the rebel.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">A. D. 757.</p> - -<p>Guns are said to have been constructed in China, in 757 <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span>, for the purpose of -throwing stones of the weight of from ten to fourteen pounds to a distance of 300 -paces. Whatever doubts may exist as to the earlier history of artillery among the -Chinese, it is almost beyond question, that cannon were extensively used by them in -the beginning of the 13th century, as we have access to various reliable accounts, -establishing this fact.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Artillery at -Saragossa, -A. D., 1118.</p> - -<p>Condé, in his history of the Moors in Spain, states that artillery was used by -them against Saragossa in 1118 <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span>, <span class="sidenote">At Niebla, -A. D., 1157.</span>and that in 1157, <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span> they defended themselves -in Niebla, against the Spaniards, by means of machines, which threw darts and -stones, through the agency of fire.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Used against -the Moguls, -A. D. 1232.</p> - -<p>In 1232 <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span> cannon throwing stone shot were used against the Moguls, and -during this war, certain machines were also employed, which being filled with powder, -and ignited at the proper time, burst with a noise like thunder, and whose effect -extended for the space of half an acre round the spot where they exploded.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon bearing -date 1258 -found in -France.</p> - -<p>A small brass cannon is said to have been found at the bottom of a deep well of -the Castle de Clucy, in France, with the date 1258 upon it.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon used -against Cordova, -A. D. -1280.</p> - -<p>In 1280 <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span>, cannon were used against Cordova, after which period, they are -frequently mentioned in the records of Spain. <span class="sidenote">Iron shot, 14th -century.</span>Iron shot appear to have been first -used in that country in the beginning of the 14th century.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon used -by Arabians, -1312.</p> - -<p>Cannon are described by Arabian authors as early as 1312.</p> - -<p>The first mention we have of the use of fire arms, after this period, is in the life -of Robert Bruce, by John Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, in which certain engines -termed, “crakeys of war,” are spoken of, as having been used by Edward III., in his -campaign against the Scots, in 1327.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon in -France, 1338.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page64">[64]</span></p> - -<p>It is generally believed that cannon were commonly employed in Europe since -1338, as they were used by the French in that year to demolish some castles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Siege of -Algesiras, -1342 to 1344.</p> - -<p>Gunpowder is said to have been used at the siege of Algesiras by Alphonse of -Castile against the Moors, 1342 to 1344.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon at -Cressy, 1346.</p> - -<p>Edward III. had four guns at the battle of Cressy, 1346. Froissart mentions -these guns in one of his manuscripts, now preserved in the library of Amiens. A free -translation of the passage referred to would run as follows: “And the English caused -to fire suddenly certain guns which they had in the battle, to astonish (or confound) -the Genoese.” Vilani, a Florentine historian, also confirms this statement, as well -as a passage in the chronicles of St. Denis, which speaks of the use of cannon by the -English at Cressy. An ancient manuscript also mentions the existence of gunners and -artillerymen, whom Edward III. employed when he landed before Calais in 1346, -and the several stipends each soldier received. The sentence runs thus: “Masons, -carpenters, engineers, gunners, and artillerymen, the sum of 12, 10, 6, and 3 -pence per diem.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon of two -kinds.</p> - -<p>The first fire-arms appear to have consisted of two kinds; a larger one for discharging -stones, called a bombard, (<a href="#Plate18">plate 18</a>, fig. 3) and a smaller for propelling -darts and leaden balls, <span class="sidenote">Used by the -Black Prince, -1356.</span>both of which were used in 1356, by the Black Prince, to -reduce the castle of Romozantin; <span class="sidenote">At St. Valery, -1358.</span>and two years later, the artillery of St. Valery did -great execution among its besiegers.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon made -in England, -1377</p> - -<p>Cannon were made in England in the fourteenth century, and Richard II. commissioned -Sir Thomas Norwich to buy two great and two small cannon in London, or -in any other place; and also 600 balls of stone for cannon and for other engines, to -be sent to the Castle of Bristol.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon at St. -Malo.</p> - -<p>When the English unsuccessfully besieged St. Malo, 400 cannon are said to have -been used, but these are supposed to have been of the smaller kind, called hand -cannon, or culverins, which were carried by two men, and fired from a kind of -tripod or rest fixed in the ground.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon -general.</p> - -<p>From this period, cannon were used in all the offensive and defensive operations -of war; though a considerable time elapsed before it became a really serviceable arm -for field operations. The earlier kinds of cannon were called bombards or bombardæ. -Those first employed were clumsy, (<a href="#Plate16">plate 16</a>) and ill contrived, wider at the mouth -than at the chamber. <span class="sidenote">Bombards -made of iron.</span>They merely consisted of bars of iron, arranged in such a -manner that their internal aspects should form a tube. The bars were not welded -together, but merely confined by hoops. They were also made of iron bars over a -cylinder of copper, strengthened by iron hoops, driven on red hot, and others were -entirely composed of copper. <span class="sidenote">Bronze.</span>Bronze was also employed in the manufacture of -artillery, as well as thin sheets of iron rolled together; <span class="sidenote">Leather, rope, -&c.</span>and guns made of leather, and -coiled rope, over a cylinder of copper or gun metal, were also introduced, and continued -in use for a considerable time. <span class="sidenote">Wood.</span>Guns also appear to have been made of wood.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rope mortar -at Venice.</p> - -<p>In the arsenal at Venice there is an ancient mortar, constructed of leather and -rope, used in the siege of the island of Chioggia, near Venice, against the Genoese, -1380. The shot is of stone, 14in. in diameter.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon of -paper.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page65">[65]</span></p> - -<p>It has been heard recently, that the Chinese constructed their cannon of prepared -paper, lined with copper.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Field cannon -to keep up -with army, -1380.</p> - -<p>As early as 1380 it is said the French were able to procure for the invasion of -Italy, a great number of brass cannon, mounted on carriages, and drawn by horses, -instead of oxen; these pieces threw balls of from 40lbs. to 60lbs. in weight and could -always keep pace with the army. (<a href="#Plate18">Plate 18</a>, fig. 1, 3, and 4.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Large cannon -1400.</p> - -<p>A cannon taken at the siege of Dien in 1546, by John de Castro, and now in -Lisbon, is 20 feet 7in. in length, 6 feet 3in. in diameter in the middle, and threw a -ball of 100lbs. A Hindostani inscription on it states that it was cast in 1400.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bolts and -quarrels shot, -1413.</p> - -<p>Bolts and quarrels were shot from cannon in the reign of Henry V.; these were -succeeded by stones, as he ordered in 1418, “labourers to make 7,000 stones for the -guns of different sorts from the quarries of Maidstone.” <span class="sidenote">Red-hot iron -balls used at -Cherbourg, -1418.</span>We learn from Elam’s life of -Henry V., that when an English army, commanded by the Duke of Gloucester, -besieged Cherbourg in 1418, the besieged discharged <i>red-hot</i> balls of <i>iron</i> from their -cannon into the English camp, to burn the huts. <span class="sidenote">Slow to discharge.</span>So much time elapsed between the -loading and discharging the great guns, that the besieged had sufficient time to repair -at their leisure, the breaches made by the enormous stones, &c., thrown from them.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon at -Meaux, 1422.</p> - -<p>Five wrought-iron bombards are preserved in the “Musée de l’Artillerie,” at Paris; -which were, it is said, abandoned by the English, at the town of Meaux, in 1422.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon cast, -1450.</p> - -<p>About the middle of the fifteenth century, the ancient method of constructing -cannon was exchanged for that of casting. A hard or mixed metal was invented -called “font metal” or bronze, and cannon were then cast in one piece, and instead of -fanciful names, they began to be indicated by the weight of their ball, as at present.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Siege of Constantinople, -1453.</p> - - - - - -<p>At the siege of Constantinople, by Mahomet II., stones were thrown weighing -1,200lbs.! The cannon employed could not be discharged more than three or four -times a day. This siege was distinguished by the re-union of ancient and modern -artillery; <span class="sidenote">Small guns -with several -barrels.</span>the small arms of the Christians discharged five, or even ten balls at the -same time, as large as walnuts; and one piece made for the Turks, by Urban, a Dane, -cast a stone bullet weighing 600lbs., which could be discharged seven times a day, -but it ultimately burst. <span class="sidenote">Large brass -gun, cast at -Adrianople.</span>This gun was cast of brass at Adrianople, of stupendous and -almost incredible magnitude; twelve palms is assigned to the bore. A vacant space -before the palace was chosen for the first experiment, but to prevent the sudden and -mischievous effects of astonishment and fear, a proclamation was issued that the cannon -would be discharged on the following day. The explosion was felt or heard in a -circuit of 100 furlongs, the ball was driven above a mile and buried itself a fathom in -the ground. A carriage of thirty waggons was linked together to carry the gun along, and -drawn by a team of sixty oxen; 200 men on both sides were stationed to poise or -sustain the rolling weight, 250 workmen marched before it to smooth the way, and -repair the bridges, and near two months were employed in a laborious journey of 150 -miles. This enormous gun was flanked by two of almost equal magnitude, and fourteen -batteries, mounting 130 guns, were brought to bear upon the place. The cannon -were intermingled with machines for throwing stones and darts.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Artillery of -Scots 1496.</p> - -<p>The Scots had a kind of artillery peculiar to themselves, called -“Carts of War.<span class="pagenum" id="Page66">[66]</span>” -They are described in an Act of Parliament, thus “ilk Cart twa gunnis and ilk ane -to have twa Chalmers and an Cumrand man to shute theme.” <span class="sidenote">Breech-loaders.</span>These were breech-loaders, -and in 1471, the Barons were commanded to provide such “Carts of War” -against their old enemies the English. (<a href="#Plate18">Plate 18</a>, fig. 1.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon -named.</p> - -<p>It was not uncommon to give strange names to early cannon; thus Louis XII. -had twelve brass ones cast in 1503, of enormous size, which he named after the twelve -Peers of France; the Spaniards and Portugese christened theirs after their Saints, -and the Emperor Charles V. had twelve when he went against Tunis, which he named -after the Twelve Apostles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cause of improvements.</p> - -<p>As a knowledge of the art of gunnery increased, great improvements took place -with regard to projectiles; <span class="sidenote">Iron balls in -England, 15th -century.</span>and balls of iron were substituted in the place of those -formed of stone, being introduced into England in the sixteenth century.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Iron guns cast.</p> - -<p>Iron guns were not cast in this country until the year 1547, foreigners being -generally employed to manufacture them. Both Henry VII. and Henry VIII. took -great pains to introduce the art of gunnery into the kingdom; and to this end, had a -number of Flemish gunners in their daily pay; in fact, it is said, that the latter -monarch himself, invented small pieces of artillery to defend his waggons. <span class="sidenote">Hand-culverines.</span>The earlier -species of field artillery, embraced among others, a small kind of ordnance called, -“hand cannon,” or culverins, which were so light and portable, that they could be carried -and served by two men; they were fired from a rest, placed on the ground; <span class="sidenote">Organ-guns.</span>also -“ribandequins” or organ guns; these latter consisted of a number of tubes, placed in -a row, like those of an organ, and appear to have been of French origin, as were many -of the improvements which took place about that period, including the invention of -wall pieces, throwing leaden balls of ten to the pound.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mortars, -Henry VIII.</p> - -<p>For mortars we are indebted to workmen of Henry VIII. as “one Peter Bawd -and one Peter Vancollen, both the king’s feed men, devised and caused to be made -certain mortar pieces, being at the mouth from eleven to nineteen inches wide, <span class="sidenote">Shells.</span>and -also certain hollow shot of cast iron, to be stuffed with fire-work or wild-fire, for to -break in pieces the same hollow shot.” <span class="sidenote">Varieties of -cannon.</span>And in the first year of Edward VI. the said -Peter Bawd did make ordnance of iron of divers forms, as fawconet, fawkons, minions, -sakers, &c. His servant, J. Johnson, did like make and cast iron ordnance cleaner and -to better perfection, to the great use of this land. His son Thomas Johnson, in 1593, -made forty two cast pieces of great ordnance for the Earl of Cumberland, demi cannon, -weighing 5,000lbs. or three tons the piece. <span class="sidenote">Queen Elizabeth’s -Pocket-pistol.</span>At Dover there is a culverine, presented -to Queen Elizabeth, by the States General of Holland, and called Queen Elizabeth’s -Pocket-pistol. It is 24 feet long, diameter of bore 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> inches, weight of shot 12lbs.; -it was manufactured in 1544, and is mounted on an ornamented iron carriage made in -1827, at the Royal Carriage Department, Woolwich Arsenal. (<a href="#Plate17">Plate 17</a>, fig. 2.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mons Meg.</p> - -<p>There is a large gun at Edinburgh Castle, called Mons Meg; it measures about -13 feet 4 inches in length, the diameter of the bore is about 1 foot 6 inches; it has a -chamber about 4 feet long and 6 inches in diameter. (<a href="#Plate17">Plate 17</a>, fig. 3.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Field-guns, -1554.</p> - -<p>The battle of Remi, in 1554, was the first action in which light field guns, having -limbers, were used,—these guns accompanied the cavalry.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Red-hot shot, -1580.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page67">[67]</span></p> - -<p>Pere Daniel says that red-hot iron shot were used by Marshal Matignan, during -the siege of la Fère, in 1580.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Calibre, time -of Queen -Elizabeth.</p> - -<p>In a table of ordnance, given by Fosbrooke, as being a list of the guns used in -the time of Elizabeth, and immediately preceding her, we find how little the calibres -of iron guns have altered during the last two or three centuries, as these guns have all -their antitypes among those of the present day.</p> - -<p>The beginning of the seventeenth century was an important epoch in the history -of artillery; and much attention was given to this branch of the military profession, -by Henry IV., of France, Maurice, of Nassau, and Gustavus Adolphus of -Sweden. <span class="sidenote">Origin of -canister and -grape.</span>The former of these distinguished leaders, introduced new and improved -forms and kinds of missiles; such as tin cases, filled with steel bolts or darts; canvas -cartridges, containing small balls, and hollow shot or shells, filled with combustible -materials. <span class="sidenote">Improved -mode of loading, -by Gustavus -Adolphus.</span>Gustavus Adolphus, introduced really serviceable field guns, of a lighter -construction than had hitherto been made use of, and he also adopted the use of -cartridges, with shot attached, so that these pieces might be discharged eight times -before the musket could be fired six. It is said that he chiefly owed his victory at -Leipzig, in 1631, to guns made of leather and coiled rope, over a cylinder of copper -or gun metal. On the whole, the artillery of Gustavus was admirably organized; and -he was the first who appreciated the importance of causing artillery to act in concentrated -masses, a principle, now so fully recognized by all artillerists.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bombs at sea.</p> - -<p>Bombs were first used at sea, by the French, in the bombardment of Algiers, -Oct. 28th, 1681, in the reign of Louis XIV.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The largest -gun.</p> - -<p>One of the largest cannon now existing is a brass one at Bejapoor, called -“Moolik-i-Meidan,” or “The Lord of the Plain.” It was cast in commemoration of -the capture of that place by the Emperor Alum Geer, in 1685. Its length is 14ft. -1in., diameter about 5ft. 8in., diameter of bore, 2ft. 4in., interior length of bore, -10ft.; length of chamber unknown; shape of gun nearly “cylindrical;” description -of shot, <i>stone</i>. An iron shot for this gun, of proper size, would weigh 1600lbs. It -is now lying in a dilapidated circular bastion on the left of the principal gateway of -the city. The trunnions are broken off, and there is a ring on each side of it, as well -as two Persian inscriptions on the top. It is placed on three heavy beams of wood, -packed round with large stones. A number of <i>stone</i> shot, of 2ft. 2in. in diameter, are -scattered about. This gun is said to be the heaviest piece of ordnance in the world. -It weighs about forty-two tons. An Italian of Otranto, who served in the Mogul -armies under the title of Renni Khan, had it in his park of artillery, and used it at -several battles, occasionally firing sacks of copper coins out of it. (<a href="#Plate18">Plate 18</a>, fig. 2.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Gun at Moorshedabad.</p> - -<p>There is a remarkable gun near the palace of the Nawab of Moorshedabad, -which measures 17ft. 8in. in length, 5ft. in circumference at the smallest part near -the muzzle, while it is only 6in. in the diameter of the bore, and the foresight is at -least four or five inches above the muzzle. After the battle of Khallissie, which was -fought about 25 miles from here, it is supposed to have been buried under a tree. -The tree, having grown since then, has forced the gun above the ground about three -feet, where it now remains, partly encircled by the roots and trunk. It has no name;<span class="pagenum" id="Page68">[68]</span> -the natives call it “the gun in the tree.” It is made of cast iron, and is evidently of -Indian manufacture, having Hindostanee inscriptions engraved on it, but no date.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Size and expense -of cannon, -1688.</p> - -<p>Bishop Wilkins says, “These Gunpowder instruments are extremely expensive, -as a whole cannon commonly weighs 8000lbs., requiring 90 men, or 16 horses, with -a charge of 40lbs. of powder, and a ball weighing 64lbs”.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Length and -weight -gradually -reduced.</p> - -<p>The length and diameter of cannon became gradually much reduced, experience -having determined how much they might be diminished in weight without injury to -their safety, or to the effects they were intended to produce.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Horse -artillery by -Frederick the -Great.</p> - -<p>Frederick the Great of Prussia made some improvements with regard to the -calibre of field guns, and to him may be given the credit of the introduction of Horse -Artillery.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Guns bored.</p> - -<p>Guns, at this period, were cast hollow by means of a core, which was kept -suspended in the centre of the mould, while the metal was being run in. Owing, -however, to the great difficulty experienced in keeping this core in a perfectly true -position, several artillerists deliberated whether guns, cast hollow or solid, had the -preference, and investigations took place as to the possibility of boring the latter, the -result of which was, that Maritz, who had a foundry at Geneva, informed the Court -of France, in 1739, that he had discovered a method of boring guns and mortars -which had been cast solid. He was at once invited to France, where, first at Lyons, -and afterwards at Strasbourg, he secretly worked at boring pieces of ordnance, which, -on trial, proved perfectly satisfactory.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Guns of ice.</p> - -<p>In the year 1740, a curious experiment in artillery was made at St. Petersburgh, -where guns were cut out of solid ice, from which balls of the same substance were -fired repeatedly, without bursting.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Improvements.</p> - -<p>From this period, the science of artillery progressed rapidly, and various improvements -were made in this arm of the service, <span class="sidenote">Axle-trees.</span>such as the introduction of iron -axle-trees, <span class="sidenote">High limbers.</span>and high -limbers for the carriages of field guns. <span class="sidenote">Reduction of -windage.</span>The reduction of windage, -(mainly owing to the invention of carronades), and the use of cartridges and -elevating screws, which latter served to render the fire of artillery much more rapid -and regular.</p> - -<p>The invention of rifled ordnance is claimed by a Dr. Lind and a Capt. A. Blair, -late 69th regt. <span class="sidenote">Rifled ordnance -1774.</span>Experiments were made at Landguard Fort, 26th August, 1774, by -which it was intended to prove that shot weighing 42lbs., in the shape of a pear, -would do as much execution, fired out of an 18 pounder, with a third of the quantity -of powder, as could be effected by round balls of the same weight, fired from a 42 -pounder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Perforated -and fluted -shot.</p> - -<p>Sundry trials were also made with shot perforated through the centre, and -spirally fluted on the surface, suggested by Professor Anderson, of Glasgow, in order -to prevent the common aberration in the flight of shot.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Leaden projectiles.</p> - -<p>There were different modes of charging the rifled guns; one was, after the -powder was put in, to take a leaden bullet something larger than the bore of the gun, -and grease it well; in ramming it down with an iron rammer hollow at one end, the -spiral threads of the rifle entered and cut into the bullet, and caused it to turn round<span class="pagenum" id="Page69">[69]</span> -in going down, and on being shot out, it would rotate on an axis coincident with its -flight. <span class="sidenote">Breech-loading -Rifled -cannon.</span>Another mode was to charge them at the breech, where an opening for the -reception of the powder and ball was afterwards closed up by a screw; but some -barrels were screwed off at the breech-end to be charged, where they were made -stronger than common.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Congreve’s -rockets.</p> - -<p>The adaptation of the rocket to the purposes of war, by Sir William Congreve, -in 1806, introduced a new feature into the artillery of this and other countries.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr. Monk’s -improvements.</p> - -<p>Recently, at the suggestion of a Mr. Monk, of Woolwich Arsenal, a quantity of -useless metal has been removed from before the trunnions, and the thickness increased -considerably at the breech end, where alone it was wanted.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mallet’s -monster -mortar.</p> - -<p>The monster mortars recently constructed by Mr. Mallet, of separate compound -hoops, must be regarded as a triumph of constructive skill. The shell is 30 inches in -diameter, holding a bursting charge of 480 lbs., and weighing when charged 1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> tons -(3,360 lbs.). Value of shell charged, £25. Weight, without bed, 42 tons. Weight -of bed, 8 tons. Total, 50 tons.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cavalli’s and -Wahrendorff’s</p> - -<p>In 1846, two rifled cannon were invented, one by Major Cavalli, of the Sardinian -Artillery; and the other by Baron Wahrendorff, a Swedish nobleman. Both -of these were iron breech-loading guns, having two grooves in order to give the requisite -rifle motion to their projectiles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Experiments -to test.</p> - -<p>Experiments were carried on at Shoeburyness, in 1850, with these guns. The -deviations were always in the direction of the rotation of the projectiles; but they -were so variable in amount that no allowance could be made for them in laying the -gun with respect to the object. The Cavalli gun became unserviceable after having -fired four rounds, by the copper ring or bouche imbedded in the metal of the gun at -the bottom of the bore being damaged. The Wahrendorff gun stood well, the wedge -resisting more effectually the force of the discharge than that of the Cavalli gun.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Lancaster’s -rifle gun.</p> - -<p>Mr. Lancaster’s novel invention of applying the rifle principle to cannon, may be -described as “a two-grooved rifle in disguise,” having a “gaining twist,” the bore -being an ellipse.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Defects of.</p> - -<p>The chief defect in the Lancaster gun is the liability of the projectile to jam in -the bore, both in loading and firing, the former rendering the loading difficult, while -the latter endangers the safety of the gun. In consequence of several of these guns -bursting, and also from the anticipated large range with great precision not being -obtained from them, the Lancaster guns were removed from the service after the -Crimean war.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Sir W. Armstrong.</p> - -<p>Sir W. Armstrong submitted a proposal for his breech-loading gun to the Duke -of Newcastle, then Minister at War, towards the end of 1854; his proposal being -accepted, and a gun accordingly constructed, it was submitted to numerous trials, -both at Shoeburyness, and near Sir W. Armstrong’s private factory at Newcastle. -This gun is now made entirely of wrought iron, although the original one had a steel -bore. It is a built-up gun, that is to say, it is composed of separate pieces, each -piece being of such moderate size as to admit of being forged without risk of flaw or -failure. By this mode of construction, great strength, and consequently, great lightness,<span class="pagenum" id="Page70">[70]</span> -are secured. The shell used combines the principle of the shrapnel and percussion -shell, i.e., it may be made to explode either as it approaches the object, or as it -strikes it. Moreover, it may be made to explode at the instant of leaving the gun, -in which case, the pieces spread out like a fan, and produce the usual effect of grape -or canister. Armstrong’s guns are now (1860) being employed in China.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Whitworth.</p> - -<p>Mr. Whitworth’s rifled gun, with which experiments were lately made near -Liverpool, is also a breech-loading piece, and of the following construction. The -form of the bore is that of a hexagonal spiral, the corners of which are rounded off. -The inclination of the spiral varies with the diameter of the bore, but is in all these -guns very great, the projectiles being comparatively long.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">French rifled -ordnance.</p> - -<p>Rifled ordnance were introduced into the French service just previous to the -commencement of the late Italian war of 1859, and aiming at the greatest practical -simplicity, the French government adopted only one nature of gun for field service, -and one for siege purposes, both made of bronze. The French rifled cannon are -muzzle loading, and those first introduced had two or three grooves, but the field -pieces used in Italy had six grooves, their inclination being about one turn in 59 -inches. A number of heavy cast-iron guns are rifled with two grooves, and have -been placed on board French ships of war; and these, unless strengthened, could be -used but with very small charges.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages of -rifled guns.</p> - -<p>The advantages obtained by the successful employment of rifled <span class="nowrap">guns—</span></p> - -<ul class="advantages"> - -<li>Great accuracy of fire,</li> - -<li>Long range,</li> - -<li>Penetration,</li> - -<li>Small charge,</li> - -<li>Simplicity of equipment and ammunition,</li> - -<li>Lightness of gun.</li> - -</ul> - -<p class="sidenote">Classification -of artillery.</p> - -<p>Artillery may be classed under the several heads of field artillery (including -artillery of position), siege artillery and artillery for the armament of garrisons, -fortresses, and coast defences; its equipment is a combination of men, materiel, and -horses necessary for these services.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Three kinds -of guns.</p> - -<p>All ordnance employed in the service, may be divided into three classes, viz., -Guns, Mortars, and Howitzers.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Carronades -discontinued.</p> - -<p>Carronades may be considered obsolete, although a certain number are still -supplied to the navy, and a few will be found mounted in some garrisons and coast -batteries.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Classification -of guns and -their uses.</p> - -<p>Guns are used for projecting shot and shell, horizontally or at very low angles, -and as they are fired with large charges of powder, which are fixed for each nature of -gun, very great strength and considerable weight are required in their construction. -Guns are of two kinds, viz., (solid) shot guns, and shell guns. Some guns are also -classed as heavy, medium, and light. Those generally employed for field service, are -made of bronze or gun-metal; all guns of higher calibre, of cast-iron.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mortars.</p> - -<p>Mortars are short pieces of ordnance, used to throw shells at high angles (vertical -fire), generally 45°, the charge varying with the range required; they are distinguished<span class="pagenum" id="Page71">[71]</span> -by the diameters of their bores. Mortars are made of cast-iron or bronze; the former -being principally intended for garrisons, battering trains, the navy, &c., and the latter, -which are of small calibre, and very light, are chiefly employed in sieges.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Howitzers.</p> - -<p>Howitzers resemble guns in form, but are much shorter and lighter in proportion -to their calibre, and are, consequently, fired with less charges of powder; shells and -case are fired from them, but not solid shot.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Use of -Howitzers.</p> - -<p>These pieces were originally introduced for the purpose of firing shells at low -angles, and have constantly been found most useful both in the field and in siege -operations during the wars of the last and present centuries. <span class="sidenote">Superseded -by shell guns.</span>Since, however, the -introduction of shell guns their utility has greatly decreased, for the shell gun possesses -greater accuracy and range than the howitzer, those being in the present day of -greater importance than small weight.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Artillery from -the East.</p> - -<p>The Germans claim the invention of cannon for their countryman, Bartholdus -Schwartz, who is said to have discovered it in 1336, but seeing that fire-arms first -became prevalent in Europe in those countries which mixed with the Saracens, we -are constrained to lean to the opinion that fire-arms were not re-invented in Europe, -but introduced from the East.</p> - -<p>This part of our subject might be much enlarged, but we have merely attempted -to give heads of information, which can be pursued by those who desire to do so. -We must now leave it, in order to treat upon that more immediately interesting to -officers of infantry, viz., the history of portable fire-arms.</p> - -</div><!--sidenotetext--> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The following extract from an account of the furniture of the ship, called the -“Harry Grace de Dieu,” will give a good idea of the state of the ordnance at the -time of Henry <span class="nowrap">VIII.:—</span></p> - -<table class="inventory" summary="Inventory"> - -<tr> -<th><i>Gonnes of Brasse.</i></th> -<th><i>Gonnes of Yron.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Cannons,</td> -<td class="weapon">Port pecys,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Di. cannons,</td> -<td class="weapon">Slyngs,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Culveryns,</td> -<td class="weapon">Di. slyngs,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">D. culveryns,</td> -<td class="weapon">Fowlers,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Sakers,</td> -<td class="weapon">Baessys,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Cannon perers,</td> -<td class="weapon">Toppe peces,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Fawcons,</td> -<td class="weapon">Hayle shotte pecys,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">Hand gonnes complete.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Another account of ancient English ordnance in Queen Elizabeth’s time, mentions -the <span class="nowrap">following:—</span></p> - -<table class="inventory" summary="Inventory"> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Bombards,</td> -<td class="weapon">Demi cannon,</td> -<td class="weapon">Sacar,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Bombardilles,</td> -<td class="weapon">Cannon petre,</td> -<td class="weapon">Minion,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Cannon royal,</td> -<td class="weapon">Culverin,</td> -<td class="weapon">Faulcon,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Cannon,</td> -<td class="weapon">Basilisk,</td> -<td class="weapon">Falconet,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Cannon serpentine,</td> -<td class="weapon">Demi culverin,</td> -<td class="weapon">Serpentine,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Bastard cannon,</td> -<td class="weapon">Bastard culverin,</td> -<td class="weapon">Rabinet.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page72">[72]</span></p> - -<h3>ETYMOLOGIES.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cannon.</span>—From the Latin word <i>canna</i>, signifying a tube or cane.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Howitzer.</span>—From the German word <i>haubitz</i>, (derived from <i>haube</i>, top of a -furnace), in French, <i>obus</i>, or <i>obusier</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carronade.</span>—From <i>Carron Ironworks</i>, near Stirling, where it was invented in -the year 1774.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bombard.</span>—From the Greek word <i>bombos</i>, or noise.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bombardille.</span>—A smaller kind of bombards.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Basilisk.</span>—The name of a snake.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Culverin.</span>—From the French <i>couleuvrine</i>, from <i>couleuvre</i>, a snake.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Saker.</span>—From <i>Saker</i>, or <i>Sacre</i>, a bird of the falcon species.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Falcon.</span>—From the <i>bird</i> of that name.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cannon Perers.</span>—<i>Stone-throwers</i>, from the French word <i>pierre</i>, a stone.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Toppe Peces.</span>—To be used in the tops, <i>i.e.</i>, the stands on the ship’s masts.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The History of Artillery is mainly -compiled from the following:—“Engines of War,” by Wilkinson; -“Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe,” by John Hewitt; “Military Antiquities,” by F. Grose; “Critical -Inquiry into Ancient Armour,” by Meyrick; “Elementary Lectures on Artillery,” by Major C. H. Owen and Capt. -T. L. Dames, R.A.; and “Our Engines of War,” by Capt. Jarvis, M.P., Royal Artillery.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page73">[73]</span></p> - -<h2>HISTORY OF PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<div class="sidenotetext"> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of early -hand-guns.</p> - -<p>The earliest hand-guns differed in nothing but in size from the small cannon of -the day: they consisted of a metal tube fixed in a straight stock of wood; the vent -was at the top of the barrel; there was no lock of any kind. The barrels were short -and made of iron or brass; they were occasionally furnished with moveable chambers. -(<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 1.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">With trunnions.</p> - -<p>A specimen of hand-cannon of the early part of the reign of Henry VI., is made -of iron, and furnished with trunnions, which from this specimen, appear to have been -appropriated to small fire-arms before they were adopted for artillery. <span class="sidenote">Breech-loader.</span>The breech is -made of a separate piece and screwed on to the tube, on the further end of which is a -sight. It was placed on a stock or club, and fired by hand with a match. -(<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 2.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Invented -14th century.</p> - -<p>That hand-guns were invented, though but rarely appearing, in the fourteenth -century, seems very probable from several cotemporary evidences. An inquisition -taken in 1375, at Huntercombe, (a place belonging to the Abbey of Dorchester) and -now preserved among the records at the Chapterhouse, Westminster, states that one -Nicholas Huntercombe, with others, to the number of forty men, armed with “haubergeons, -plates, bacenettes, cum aventayles, paletes, lanceis, scutis, arcubus, sagittis, -balistis, <i>et gonnes</i>, venerunt ad Manerium de Huntercombe, and there made assault,” -&c. It appears very improbable that a body of men making a sudden attack upon an -abbey manor-house, would be armed with any kind of “gonnes” except hand-guns.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bohemia 1340.</p> - -<p>Mons. Mangeot states that “canons de fusil” were said to have been first invented -in Bohemia, 1340, but that it is safer to fix the date at 1378, when mention is made -of the “arquebuse à mèche” in Germany. In the year 1381, the inhabitants of -Augsburg had thirty six arquebusiers, and in the following year they had portable -fire-arms at the battle of Rosabecque. <span class="sidenote">Lithuanians -1383.</span>In 1383 the Lithuanians were acquainted with -hand fire-arms, and used them at the siege of Froski. All these arms had straight -stocks.</p> - -<p>In the excavations of the Castle of Tannenberg, dismantled in 1399, there was -found a hand-gun of brass, with part of the wooden stock remaining, and the iron -rammer belonging to it.</p> - -<p>An early mention of the hand-gun is that of Juvenal des Ursins, who tells us, -under the year 1414, that they were used at the siege of Arras.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Siege of Lucca -1430.</p> - -<p>Billius, a learned and noble Milanese, who lived at the time, says that hand-guns<span class="pagenum" id="Page74">[74]</span> -were first used at the siege of Lucca, in 1430. The Florentines were provided with -artillery, which, by the force of gunpowder, discharged large stones, but the Luccquese -perceiving that they did very little execution, came at last to despise them, and every -day renewed their sallies to the great slaughter of their enemies, by the help of <i>small -fire-arms</i>, to which the Florentines were strangers, and which before this time were -not known in Italy. Billius explains this by saying, <span class="sidenote">Said to have -been invented -in Italy.</span>“That besides darts and balistas -for arrows, they invented a new kind of weapon. They carried in their hand a club, -a cubit and a half long, to which were affixed iron barrels. These they filled with -sulphur and nitre, and by the power of fire, iron balls were thus ejected.” -(<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 1 and 10).</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Scorpion.</p> - -<p>About this time the scorpion (afterwards a piece of ordnance) was a tube for -firing gunpowder, held in the hand, and called by the English, hand-cannon, and also -hand-culverines.</p> - -<p>From a roll of purchases for Holy Island 1446 is,—“bought 11 hand gunnes de -ere,” <span class="sidenote">Made of brass.</span>from whence we learn that they were made of brass.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Edward IV.</p> - -<p>Hand-guns, or hand-cannons were used in the early part of the reign of -Edward IV., and towards the close of it, we learn from Philip de Comines, <span class="sidenote">Harquebus -invented.</span>that the -harquebus was invented; this seems to have been an improvement on the hand-gun. -The Latin word used for this weapon was arcusbusus, evidently derived from the -Italian, arca-bouza, a bow with a tube or hole; to that people, therefore, <span class="sidenote">Stock, &c., -from cross-bow.</span>are we to -ascribe the application of the stock and trigger in imitation of the cross-bow. <span class="sidenote">Match-lock. -1478.</span>Hitherto -the match had been applied by the hand to the touch-hole, but the trigger of the -arbalest suggested the idea of one to catch into a cock, which having a slit in it, might -hold the match, and by the motion of the trigger be brought down on a pan which -held the priming, the touch-hole being no longer at the top but at the side. -(<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 9).</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Hand-gun improvements.</p> - -<p>The hand-gun was <i>cast</i> in brass, and, as a tube, was of greater length than the -hand cannon; a flat piece of brass, made to turn upon a pin, covered the pan which -contained the powder; <span class="sidenote">Sighted.</span>it had also a piece of brass fixed on the breech, and -perforated to ensure the aim.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Hand-guns in -England 1471.</p> - -<p>The first introduction of hand-guns into England, we find, was soon after their -invention in Italy; in the year 1471, King Edward IV., landed at Ravenspurg, in -Yorkshire, and brought with him, among other forces, three hundred Flemings, armed -with “hange-gunnes.” <span class="sidenote">Made in England, -1474.</span>In 1474, he directed “all the bombs, cannon, culverines, -fowlers, surpentines, and all other cannon whatsoever, as also powder, sulphur, saltpetre, -stones, iron, lead and other materials, fit and necessary for the same cannon, -wherever found, to be taken and provided for his use, paying a reasonable price for -the same.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Harquebusiers.</p> - -<p>Arquebusiers, or harquebusiers, are mentioned as troops, by Philip de Comines, -in these words, <span class="sidenote">Morat 1476.</span>where he speaks of the battle of Morat, fought on the 22nd of June, -1476. “The said towns had in their army, as some that were in the battle informed -me, 35,000 men, whereof fower thousand were horsemen, the rest footmen, well -chosen and well armed, that is to say, 10,000 pikes, 10,000 halberds, and 10,000 -harquebusiers.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Improvements.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page75">[75]</span></p> - -<p>Hitherto the harquebuss had only a straight stock, but now it had a wide butt -end, <span class="sidenote">Held to breast.</span>which might be placed against the right breast, and thus held more steadily. -Many ancient pieces were held to the breast instead of the shoulder, which will -account for their being so short in the stock. A notch was made in the butt for the -thumb of the right hand, in order to hold the piece more firmly. <span class="sidenote">Bent butt.</span>When the butt was -bent down or hooked as it was at a later period, it was called, from the German word -Hake, <span class="sidenote">Hackbutt.</span>a hackbutt, haggebut or hagbut, the small sort being denominated demi-hags.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mounted Harquebussiers.</p> - -<p>Philip de Commines mentions that there were at the battle of Fourniée, in 1495, -German harquebusiers, on foot and on horseback. (<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 6.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Arms in time -of Henry VIII.</p> - -<p>The small arms in the time of Henry VIII., were hand-guns, haguebuts, demi-hagues -and the pistol, and it was enacted, “that no hand-gun should be used, of less -than one yard, gun and stock included, and the haguebut was not to be under three-quarters -of a yard.” The demi-hagues were still smaller, and gave occasion for the -origin of pistols, which were invented in the latter part of this reign, at Pistoria in -Tuscany. The dag, dagger, or tache, differed from the pistol merely in the shape of -its handle.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Inconveniences -of match.</p> - -<p>The match was a constant source of trouble to the soldier, both from the -difficulty of keeping it alight in bad weather, and from the length of time it sometimes -took to ignite the charge. <span class="sidenote">Objections to -fire-arms.</span>It was therefore not without justice that many persons -clamoured about this time against the introduction of fire-arms. They contended that -upon no point, save that of penetration, was the harquebuss superior or equal to the -long-bow; <span class="sidenote">Rest.</span>its great weight 16 or 18lbs. (seldom less than 12lbs.) obliged it to be -supported by a rest, which had a kind of fork to receive the musket, and at the bottom -a sharp metal spike, to strike into the ground; (<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 5, 7, and 8). When -the harquebuss was shouldered the rest was carried in the right hand, and subsequently -hung upon it, by means of a string or loop. The difficulty of keeping the powder and -match dry, the time taken to load, and its comparative inaccuracy, rendered it of low -reputation. Nevertheless it held its ground, <span class="sidenote">Wheel-lock, -1517.</span>and the next improvement was the -wheel-lock, by which a more instantaneous ignition of the charge was secured; it was -invented at Nuremberg, 1517. It consisted of a little solid wheel of steel, fixed -against the plate of the lock of the harquebuss or pistol; it had an axis that pierced it -in its centre; at the interior end of this axis which went into the lock, a chain was -fastened, which twisted round it on the wheel being turned, and bent the spring by -which it was held; to bend this spring a key was made use of, into which the exterior -end of the axis was inserted. By turning this key from left to right, the wheel was -made to revolve, and by this movement a little slider of copper, which covered the -pan with the priming, retired from over it; and by the same movement the cock, -armed with a flint like the cock of a fusil, was in a state to be discharged on pulling -the trigger with the finger; the cock then falling on the wheel, produced fire, and -communicated it to the priming. <span class="sidenote">Used at Parma, -1521.</span>The wheel-lock was first used at the siege of Parma, -1521, <span class="sidenote">In England, -1530.</span>and was brought to England 1530. It was however complicated and difficult -to repair, for which reason it could not always be depended upon, as is proved by -some fire-arms of this description at the Tower, <span class="sidenote">Serpentine -and wheel.</span>which are made with a serpentine, as -well as with a wheel, both acted upon by the same trigger.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Musket in -Spain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page76">[76]</span></p> - -<p>The inconsiderable execution done by pieces of small calibre probably caused -the introduction of the muskets or mosquet, which originated in Spain about the time -of Francis I. <span class="sidenote">At Pavia, -1525.</span>They are said to have been first employed extensively at the battle of -Pavia, 1525; but, if we believe Brantome, it was the Duke d’Alva who first brought -them into use in the armies, when during the reign of Philip II., <span class="sidenote">Low Countries, -1567.</span>he went to take upon -him the government of the Low Countries in the year 1567; but that only means, he -brought them more into fashion than they were till that time, and that till then they -were rarely used, at least in the field, on account of their cumbrous nature. A -Spanish army of 10,000 men sailed from Carthagena, 27th April, 1567, <i>en route</i> for -the Netherlands, to do which they had to cross the Alps. It was a picked body of -troops, of whom about 1,300 were cavalry. The Duke d’Alva formed them into three -divisions, and dispensed with artillery, not wishing to embarrass his movements. -Each company of foot was flanked by a body of soldiers, carrying heavy muskets -with rests attached to them.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Lephanto, -1571.</p> - -<p>At the battle of Lephanto 1571, fought between the Venetians and Turks, it is -stated by the historian, that one chief reason why so few Christians were killed in -comparison, was because the Turks used for the most part bows and arrows, whereas -the former were supplied with muskets.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Caliver.</p> - -<p>A lighter kind of musket was called a caliver or calliver, which was only a -corruption of calibre, denoting that they were all of one guage, as the original -harquebuses were not of any particular length or bore; the caliver was fired without -a rest.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Dimensions, -1621.</p> - -<p>Sir Thomas Kellie in his “Art Militaire,” published in 1621, says, “The barrel -of a musket should be four feet in length, the bore capable of receiving bullets twelve -whereof weigh a pound, previous to this some had carried ten to the pound.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Hand-mortar, -1594.</p> - -<p>The hand-mortar for throwing grenades are said to have been first used in 1594, -and gave origin at a later date to the troops thence denominated, <i>grenadiers</i>. They -appear to have been fired from the shoulder. (<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 3.) In the reign of -James II., <span class="sidenote">From butt of -musket.</span>a flint-lock-musket was adapted to fire grenades from the butt, the small of -which was made to resemble a chambered mortar; the heel of the butt formed a -cover, which opened with a spring on a hinge; the priming was put into the usual -pan, and a small piece of metal moved so as to open a communication with the powder -in the chamber. A rest was formed by a slender iron rod, about three feet long, and -when not required let into the stock, in the place usually occupied by the ramrod, -and turning upon a pivot placed a few inches in front of the guard-brass. The -scouring rod is run through metal loops on one side of the stock. <span class="sidenote">By hand.</span>Afterwards -grenades were thrown by hand, the musket being slung over the soldier’s back, and -more recently experiments were made with an iron tube about four inches long, <span class="sidenote">From muzzle.</span>placed -on the muzzle in the same manner as the bayonets.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Match-locks -and rest, -James I.</p> - -<p>In the time of James I., part of the infantry were armed with calivers or muskets -and rests, both of which were fired with match-locks, the soldier carrying the match -lighted at both ends.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Trickerlock, -1629.</p> - -<p>“A match trickerlock compleat,” occurs in a schedule of 1629. This was the<span class="pagenum" id="Page77">[77]</span> -adoption of what is now called a hair trigger, which was added to the former one, and -gives a more instantaneous discharge. A tricker wheel lock of Charles I., a tricker -match-lock of Charles II., and a tricker fire-lock of James II., are preserved in Sir S. -Meyrick’s collection.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Fowling -pieces.</p> - -<p>The Earl of Albermarle in 1646, says, “It is very fit likewise that you have in -each company six good fowling pieces, of such a length that the soldier may well be -able to take aim and shoot off at ease; being placed six on each flank of a division of -foot to skirmish with an enemy. These soldiers ought to have command, when they -come within distance, that they shoot at officers only.” We have here plainly the -origin of riflemen.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tin tube for -match.</p> - -<p>Each musketeer formerly carried a tin tube, pierced full of holes, to contain the -match, and prevent his being discovered; in wet weather it was necessary to carry it -in the crown of his cap, to prevent it from being extinguished. <span class="sidenote">First fire-lock.</span>One of the earliest -attempts to overcome this difficulty is in the Arsenal, at Dresden, where there is an -old <i>buchse</i>, with a piece of pyrites fixed opposite to the touch-hole, and which requires -to be rubbed with a file, chained to it, until sparks are elicited sufficient to fire -the powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Snaphaunce.</p> - -<p>The next improvement upon the wheel-lock was the snaphaunce; a flat piece of -steel, furrowed in imitation of the wheel, was placed on a steel post, which being -screwed beyond the pan, was made moveable; the pan had a cover which required to -be pushed off by the thumb, and the furrowed piece being then brought to stand over -it, on pulling the trigger, the flint, which was substituted for pyrites, struck against it, -and gave the spark.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Flint lock.</p> - -<p>The next step in the improvement of the musket was the introduction of the -flint-lock, now so well known, that I need not enter into the details of its -mechanism.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">In France, -1630.</p> - -<p>It was used in France as early as 1630, but was not employed in the army until -1670 or 80, when it took the name of “fusil.” <span class="sidenote">In England, -1677.</span>It was not employed in England -until about 1677, and its advantages over the matchlock are thus described in a work -addressed to King Charles II., in 1677, <span class="sidenote">Earl Orrery’s -opinion.</span>by the Earl of Orrery:—“First it is -exceedingly more ready, for with the fire-lock you have only to cock, and you are -prepared to shoot, but with the matchlock, you have several motions, besides if you -fire not the matchlock as soon as you have blown your match, (which often, -particularly in hedgefights and sieges, you cannot do) you must a second time blow -your match. The match is very dangerous, either when bandoliers are used, or -when soldiers run hastily in fight to the budge barrel, to refill their bandoliers. I -have often seen sad instances thereof. Marching in the nights to avoid an enemy -or to surprise one, or to assault a fortress, the matches often discover you, whereby -you suffer much, and he obtains much. In wet weather, the rain deads the powder -and the match too, and the wind sometimes blows away the powder, ere the match -can touch the pan; nay, in very high winds, I have seen the sparks blown from the -match, fire the musket ere the soldier meant it, and either thereby lose his shot, -or kill some one before him. Whereas in the firelock, the motion is so sudden,<span class="pagenum" id="Page78">[78]</span> -that what makes the cock fall on the hammer, strikes the fire and opens the pan at -once. Lastly, the quantity of match does much add to the baggage, it naturally -draws the moisture of the air, which makes it less fit, and if you march without -close waggons, it is the more exposed, and without being dried again in ovens is but -of half the use which otherwise it would be of, and which is full as bad as the skeans -you give the corporals, and the sinks you give the private soldiers, being rendered -useless if damp; nothing of all which can be said of the flint, but much of it to the -contrary.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bows to be -replaced by -muskets, 1596.</p> - -<p>In a proclamation of Queen Elizabeth dated 1596, it is stated, “You shall bring -with you all such furniture and weapon for footmen as you stand charged withall by -statute, or have formerly shewed at other musters heretofore, changinge your billes -into pikes, and your bowes into muskettes accordinge to our sayde former letters.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Muskets with -two locks.</p> - -<p>In France, as late as 1702, when the flint had wholly superseded the pyrites, and -the structure differed very little from our present musket-locks, an additional cock was -attached to the end of the lock-plate, and a sliding cover placed over a hole in the -hammer-seat, for the purpose of lighting the powder by a match, if the flint failed. -<span class="sidenote">Match-lock -preferred.</span>The match was therefore from its simplicity, preferred from all others for a considerable -period, and is still used by the Chinese, Tartars, Persians, and Turks, in some -provinces either wholly, or partially. <span class="sidenote">Match made -of.</span>The match itself was made of cotton or hemp, -spun slack, and boiled in a strong solution of saltpetre, or in the lees of wine.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Iron ramrod -1740.</p> - -<p>In the time of Frederick the Great, (1740 to 1786), the invention of the iron -ramrod by the Prince of Dessau, trifling matter as it seems, doubled the value of the -fire of infantry. Prior to this the rammer had been made of wood, and was called -the scouring stick.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Dimensions, -&c. of English -musket, in -1800.</p> - -<p>At the commencement of this (19th) century, the weight of the English musket -and bayonet was, 11lbs. 4ozs., bayonet 1lb. 2ozs., length of barrel 3ft. 3-in., bore -·753-in., bullets 14<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> to the pound. -<span class="sidenote">Charge.</span>Charges of powder 6 drs., F.G. Every soldier -was furnished with three flints for 60 rounds. <span class="sidenote">Priming, 1st. -mode.</span>Originally it had been necessary to put -the priming into the pan from a flask, containing a finer grained powder, called -“Serpentine powder,” but in the early flint-lock musket this was rendered unnecessary, -as in loading, a portion of the charge passed through the communication -hole into the pan, where it was prevented from escaping by the hammer. <span class="sidenote">Priming, 2nd -mode.</span>Latterly a -portion of the cartridge was bitten off, and the pan filled with priming before -loading.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Objections to -flint-lock.</p> - -<p>The objections to the flint-lock were, that it did not entirely preserve the priming -from wet. Sometimes the flint failed to ignite the charge, and it was necessary to -change it frequently. Owing to these imperfections, in 1807, the Rev. Mr. Forsyth -obtained a patent for priming with fulminating powder. The composition consisted -of sulphate of potash, sulphur, and charcoal, <span class="sidenote">Priming by -detonation, -1807.</span>and exploded when struck by any metal -or hard substance. This composition was considered too corrosive, but was subsequently -improved, and finally applied to the musket, in the form of the present -percussion cap, which consists of chlorate of potash, three parts; fulminating mercury -two parts; and ground glass one part. <span class="sidenote">Experiments, -1834.</span>The experiments for Mr. Forsyth’s invention,<span class="pagenum" id="Page79">[79]</span> -commenced in 1834. Six thousand rounds were fired from each description of arm, -and the experiments conducted in all weathers, six of each kind of arm being used. -<span class="sidenote">Advantages -of percussion.</span>The result proved exceedingly favourable to the percussion principle, and may be briefly -summed up as follows:—1st, out of 6,000 rounds from the flint-lock, there were 922 -missfires, being 1 in 6<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>, whereas in the percussion musket there were only 36 misses -in 6,000 rounds, or 1 in 166. With the flint-lock there were 3,680 hits out of the -6,000, and with the percussion 4,047 hits, being 7 per cent. in favour of the latter. -To fire 100 rounds with the flint required 32 minutes 31 seconds, whereas the -percussion occupied only 30 minutes 24 seconds. Another advantage of the percussion -musket, was that it was capped <i>after</i> being loaded. Hitherto a certain amount of -powder had been allowed for priming, but as this vestige of the hand-gun could be -dispensed with, <span class="sidenote">Reduced -charge.</span>a reduction of charge could be made; a total reduction however was -made from 6 to 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> drs., which caused a diminution of recoil. The 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> drs. then -recommended was known to be more than was necessary for the projection of the -bullet, but an extra <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> dr. was retained to allow for the effect of damp or waste on -service. In the course of these experiments, <span class="sidenote">Reduced pull -of trigger.</span>it was found that the considerable force -required to pull the trigger might be advantageously reduced, and that increased -accuracy would ensue, therefore the pull of the trigger was lessened to 7lbs.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">New model -musket.</p> - -<p>The advantages of the percussion system having been satisfactorily shown, it was -decided to convert a portion of the old flint-locks into percussions, and to establish a -new model percussion musket for the English army.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Percussion at -Canton.</p> - -<p>The following anecdote illustrates the weak points of the flint-lock. During the -Chinese war, a company of the 37th Madras Native Infantry had been detached to -the left, when, the evening closing, the order was given to rejoin, and the whole were -to retire upon Canton, and just as it was being carried into execution, a tremendous -storm of wind and rain arose, making the air so dark, that no one could see 20 yards. -The detached company retired sounding bugles and beating drums, which were -drowned by the tempest, and they could not find the battalion. In a few minutes -the enemy got between this company and the retreating force. The muskets would -not go off, and several attempts of the enemy to close were with difficulty repulsed -with the bayonet. In the meantime, the enemy contrived to fire off their own -matchlocks, and some of the sepoys’ muskets of men who had dropped in the retreat, -by applying matches to them. The square into which the company was formed, was -thus being diminished, while the only return that could be made, was an occasional -shot from a solitary musket, which the three officers of the company managed to -clean out, under cover of great coats held over the muzzle. A company of Marines -was dispatched for the 37th party, armed with percussion muskets, scarcely one of -which missed at the first fire, and a few volleys sufficed to clear the way, and both -detachments reached the camp in safety, with but little loss. This happened in the -early part of 1841.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Percussion -introduced, -1842.</p> - -<p>After a “hang-fire” of about 200 years, a new pattern percussion musket was issued -in 1842. Its weight was greater than that of the old flint-lock, being with the bayonet about -11-lbs., 6-oz., bayonet 1-lb., 0-oz., 8-drs., bore ·753, barrel 3-ft. -3-in., length, with bayonet<span class="pagenum" id="Page80">[80]</span> -6 feet, length without 4-ft. 6<sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>-in., <span class="sidenote">Sighted for -150 yards.</span>a block sight for 150 yards, and a percussion lock. -For many years prior to 1839 no sight at all was thought necessary for the musket, -the bayonet stud being sufficient, but which was totally obscured when fired with -fixed bayonets. This arm continued as the approved weapon for our infantry without -improvement until 1851, when the Minié rifle was partially introduced.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Comparison -with foreign -muskets.</p> - -<p>The English musket (1842) differed from all those in use on the Continent, in -having, 1st, the least accuracy, 2nd, reduced range, 3rd, heavier, 4th, shorter, 5th, -larger bore, 6th, greater windage, 7th, double the charge of powder, 8th, the greatest -recoil, and 9th, the most expensive! <i>i. e.</i>, as compared with those of France and Belgium, -Prussia, Austria, or even with the old Sikh matchlock!! And yet a “stand -up fight” was stoutly maintained for this most inefficient arm, by many military men, -as may be seen from the following extract from a note in Part II., Vol. II., of the “Aide -Memoire to the military sciences:”—“<span class="sidenote">Brown Bess -advocated.</span>Erroneous ideas prevail as to the precise wants -of the service with regard to the musket, and its proper qualities and utility in the -field, as well as much exaggeration as to the defects of the new percussion musket -of 1842, for the infantry of the line. It is stated that it is too heavy and of imperfect -construction. Some prefer the French pattern, and others would lessen the -weight and calibre still more, reducing also the windage: as, however, the new regulation -has brought into use some hundreds of thousands of new muskets, and has been -approved by the highest authorities, some considerations are necessary before a -radical change can be effected beyond range and a nice accuracy of fire. 1st, -What are the essentials for a musket for the infantry of the line? 2nd, The application -of the musket to the infantry soldier. It is evident that the most essential -points are strength, and facility of pouring into your enemies’ ranks a powerful fire. -Troops do not halt to play at long bowls; a field of battle presents a series of movements -for the purpose of outflanking or closing in upon your enemy, and when -within two hundred yards, to deliver your fire with effect. Firing at 500 or 600 -yards is the business of artillery, and, therefore, to fire at 300 or 400 yards is -a misapplication of the musket, a loss of time, a waste of ammunition, and tends to -make men unsteady in the ranks.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Brown Bess -tried at -Chatham.</p> - -<p>The shooting powers of the musket (1842) are stated in the report on Experimental -Musketry firing carried on by Captain (now Lieut.-Colonel) McKerlie, Royal -Engineers, at Chatham, in 1846, which concludes as follows: “It appears by these -experiments, that as a general rule, musketry fire should never be opened beyond -150 yards, and certainly not exceeding 200 yards. At this distance, half the number -of shots missed a target 11-ft. 6-in., and at 150 yards a very large proportion -also missed. At 75 and 100 yards every shot struck the target, only 2-ft. wide, and -had the deviation increased simply as the distance every shot ought to have struck -the target 6-ft. wide at 200 yards, instead of this, however, some were observed to -pass several yards to the right and left, some to fall 30 yards short, and others to -pass as much beyond, and this deviation increased in a still greater degree as the -range increased. It is only then under peculiar circumstances, such as when it may -be desirable to bring a fire on Field Artillery when there are no other means of<span class="pagenum" id="Page81">[81]</span> -replying to it, that it ought ever to be thought of using the musket at such distances -as 400 yards.” <span class="sidenote">Merits of -“Brown Bess” -illustrated.</span>In fact, it has been stated that the probability of hitting one man -with a musket ball at 500 yards would be as one farthing to the National Debt! On -a recent occasion, at the Cape, 80,000 rounds were fired to kill 25 men!! To put a -man “<i>hors de combat</i>” requires his weight in lead, and six times his weight in iron!!!</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Price.</p> - -<p>Our musket cost £3, the French and Belgian £1 8s. 6<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>d. <span class="sidenote">Fastened by -bands.</span>In foreign arms the -barrel is fastened to the stock by bands, binding the two together, and thus adding -greatly to their strength. This mode, although acknowledged to be infinitely superior -for military purposes, by our Inspector of small arms, <span class="sidenote">Bands -unsightly!!</span>was condemned as unsightly!! -The French musket, although three inches longer, is beautifully poised, being lightened -forward. <span class="sidenote">Supposed -profit of large -bore.</span>Our bore being larger was considered an advantage, as their balls -could be fired out of our barrels, while our balls could not out of their muskets. It -was generally thought that the greater weight of the English ball produced an -increased range and momentum, but this was counteracted by the excess of windage.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Various forms -of early fire-arms.</p> - -<p>In former days small arms were made of various shapes and devices, and also -combined with other weapons of attack and defence.</p> - -<p>There is in the arsenal at Venice a matchlock containing twenty barrels, ten -gun barrels, about 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> feet long, and ten pistol barrels half that length. The match -exploded a gun and pistol barrel together.</p> - -<p>The Chinese of the present day make use of a species of matchlock revolvers, -and also of another matchlock, consisting of several barrels, placed on a common -stock, diverging from each other, and fired simultaneously. (<a href="#Plate4">Plate 4</a>, fig. 4 and 5.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Shield fire-arms.</p> - -<p>Soon after the invention of fire-arms, the boss, or spike, issuing from the centre -of the targets or shields, was superseded by one or more short barrels, fired by a -matchlock, and having an aperture covered with a grating above, for the purpose of -taking aim. <span class="sidenote">Breech-loaders.</span>These barrels were loaded at the breech, the charge being put into an -iron tube, or short barrel, which was pushed in at the end, and retained there by -shutting down a lid or spring.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bow -and pistol -united.</p> - -<p>There were cross-bows, which combined a pistol and cross-bow, the wheel-lock -being placed about the centre of the handle on one side, whilst on the other was the -string of the bow, and the windlass for drawing it up.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Pike and -pistol.</p> - -<p>Pistols were frequently introduced into the butt-end of pikes, and also, in the -reign of Edward VI., in the handle of the battle-axe, the spiked club, the martlet, -and other weapons, even the dagger.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Carabines -with joint.</p> - -<p>In the time of Charles I. there were esclopette carbines, made with the butt to -double back on a hinge, in order to get them into a holster; <span class="sidenote">Heel plate to -draw out.</span>and a little later the -butt was lengthened by drawing out the steel cap which formed its cover, now called -heel plate.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Revolvers in -Charles I.</p> - -<p>In the reign of Charles I. there were also revolvers, with eight chambers to hold -the charges; and in the time of Cromwell and Charles II. we find self-loading and -self-priming guns. <span class="sidenote">Double-barrelled -pistols.</span>Pistols were made both double-barrelled and revolving.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Arrows fired -out of muskets, -1591.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page82">[82]</span></p> - -<p>In Sir Richard Hawkins’ account of his voyage in the South Sea, 1591, mention -is made of his shooting arrows from muskets with great success at shipping: “for the -upper works of their ships being musket proof, they passed through both sides with -facilitie, and wrought extraordinary disasters, which caused admiration to see themselves -wounded with small shot when they thought themselves secure.” These -wooden arrows were called sprites or sprightes. Lord Verulam says, “it is certain -that we had in use at one time for sea fight short arrows which they call sprights, -without any other head save wood sharpened, which were discharged out of -muskets, and would pierce through the sides of ships, when a bullet would not -pierce.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Sprites required -wads.</p> - -<p>Sir Richard Hawkins informs us, that in a discourse which he held with the -Spanish General, Michael Angell, the latter demanded, “for what purpose served the -little short arrowes which we had in our shippe, and those in great quantity. I -satisfied him that they were for our muskets. Hereof they prooved to profit themselves -after; but for that they wanted the tampkins, which are first to be driven -home, before the arrow be put in, and as they understood not the secret, they rejected -them as uncertaine, and therefore not to be used; but of all the shot used now -adayes, for the annoying of an ennemie in fight by sea, few are of greater moment -for many respects, which I hold not convenient to treat of in public.”</p> - -<p>Thus it appears that bullets of metal, have been fired out of bows and slings, -stone balls out of guns, and arrows from muskets.</p> - -<p>The following are the names of different descriptions of small arms, <span class="nowrap">viz:—</span></p> - -<table class="inventory" summary="Weapons"> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Hand-cannon</td> -<td class="weapon">Musketoon</td> -<td class="weapon">Hand-mortar</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Hand-gun</td> -<td class="weapon">Hague</td> -<td class="weapon">Blunderbuss</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Arquebus</td> -<td class="weapon">Demi-hague</td> -<td class="weapon">Musket</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Caliver</td> -<td class="weapon">Esclopette</td> -<td class="weapon">Pistol</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Petronel</td> -<td class="weapon">Currier</td> -<td class="weapon">Dag</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Scorpion</td> -<td class="weapon">Fusil</td> -<td class="weapon">Tack</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Dragon</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page83">[83]</span></p> - -<h2>THE BAYONET.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Pointed stake.</p> - -<p>It was common with archers to place a long pointed stake in the ground to -protect themselves against cavalry. On the arquebus replacing the bow the same -practice was continued.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Pike.</p> - -<p>From the earliest ages it had been customary to arm some of the infantry with -pikes, and in the middle ages when cavalry was so much employed in armies, it was -found impossible to dispense with this weapon; for some time after the introduction -of fire-arms, only a portion of the infantry were armed with them, and the remainder -were pikemen. The proportion of each varied at different times, from one half to two -thirds, but as the proportion of musketeers increased it became necessary to contrive -some method, by which they could defend themselves.</p> - -<p>In the latter part of the reign of James I., some attempts were made to convert -the musketeer’s rest into a defence against cavalry. <span class="sidenote"><i>Marlets-de-fer</i> -with touch.</span><i>Marlets-de-fer</i> and small pole-axes -had a touch enclosed in them, which by touching a spring opened a small valve -and sprung out. <span class="sidenote">Rest, with -touch.</span>The musket rest, instead of having a wooden shaft, was now made -of a thin tube of iron, like these pole-axes covered with leather, and armed with the -touch. <span class="sidenote">Swines’ -feathers.</span>Rests thus armed were said to contain Swedish or Swines’ feathers. It was -found however that the musketeer could not do his duty when armed with musket, -sword, and rest, (especially if he had a Swedish feather to manage with them) which -led to the abandonment of the rest during the Protectorate.</p> - -<p>To remedy the inconvenience of a Musketeer being compelled to draw his -sword and defend himself after the discharge of his piece, and to render him more -competent to act against the pikemen, a long thin rapier blade fixed into a handle, -and carried in a sheath called a Swine’s feather, was drawn out of its scabbard, <span class="sidenote">Sword stuck -in muzzle.</span>and -fixed into the muzzle of his gun, which gave him a weapon of great length. -(<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 11.). And this dagger or sword, stuck into the muzzle of the gun, gave -origin to the bayonet, <span class="sidenote">Bayonets in -France, 1671.</span>which was first made at Bayonne, and introduced into the -French army in 1671.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Swords discontinued, -1745.</p> - -<p>Swords in general were left off in the battalion companies ever since the year -1745, and about 1762 by the grenadiers. <span class="sidenote">Improved -bayonet.</span>As a still further improvement the bayonet -was made to fit on to the side of the barrel, so as to leave it clear. <span class="sidenote">Bayonet in -Flanders, -William III.</span>An early -application of the improved bayonet took place in the campaigns of William III., in -Flanders. Three French regiments thus armed, marched with fixed bayonets, and -one of them against the 25th regiment. Lieut-Colonel Maxwell ordered his men to<span class="pagenum" id="Page84">[84]</span> -screw their bayonets into their muzzles to receive them; but to his great surprise -when they came within the proper distance, the French threw in such a heavy fire, as -for the moment to stagger his people, who by no means expected such a greeting, not -conscious how it was possible to fire with fixed bayonets. Macaulay in the 3rd -volume of his History, <span class="sidenote">Bayonet at -Killicrankie.</span>states “That at the battle of Killicrankie, the King’s army being -drawn up in position, the Highlanders advanced to the attack, and immediately after -having delivered their fire, threw away their muskets and rushed on to the charge -with Claymores. It took the regular musketeer two or three minutes to alter his -missile weapon into one with which he could encounter an enemy hand to hand, -and during this time the battle of Killicrankie had been decided.” Mackay therefore -ordered all his bayonets to be so made that they might be screwed upon the -barrel.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bayonets, -Marsaglia, -1693, and -Spiers, 1703.</p> - -<p>Bayonets were employed by Marshal Catinat at the battle of Marsaglia, when -the slaughter was immense. Also at the battle of Spiers, in 1703. Thus improved, -the bayonet came into general use, <span class="sidenote">Pike -abolished, -1703.</span>and the pike was abolished in France by Royal -Ordinance 1703, with the advice of Marshal Vauban. Before the introduction of the -improved bayonet, Lord Orrery, in 1677, thus speaks in favour of the pike:—<span class="sidenote">Earl Orrery in -favour of pike -versus musket, -1677.</span>“But -what need I more say of the usefulness of the pike above the musket, than that all -persons of quality carry the pike which they would not do unless it had adjudgedly -the honour to be the noblest weapon, since the bravest choose and fight with it. I -wish our companies consisted of fewer shots and more pikes, for they are not only -always in readiness but need no ammunition, which cannot be said of the musket -which requires powder, bullet, and match, and in wet or windy weather often disappoints -the service.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">M. Mallet, -pike versus -musket, 1684.</p> - -<p>Mons. Mallet in his “Travaux de Mars,” speaks lightly of the “mousquetaires,” -without pikemen; he says, “A horse wounded by a fire-arm is only more animated, -but when he finds himself pierced by a pike, all the spurs in the world will not make -him advance.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Gen. Loyd, -pike versus -bayonet, 1766.</p> - - - -<p>Even so recently as about ninety-two years ago, and ninety-five years after the -introduction of the improved bayonet, General Loyd in his history of the war in -Germany, recommends the abandonment of the system of arming the whole of the -infantry with fire-arms, “which he says are useful only in <i>defensive</i> warfare, and even -then not more than one shot in four hundred takes effect.” For many years after -pikes were discontinued by our infantry, the officers carried a short one, and the -sergeants only gave up their halberts within the last thirty years. The soldiers of -artillery when in Holland under the late Duke of York, <span class="sidenote">Pike recently -discontinued.</span>carried short pikes for the -defence of their field guns.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2>ACCOUTREMENTS AND AMMUNITION.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Armament of -infantry soldier.</p> - -<p>Besides his matchlock, the soldier carried a powder horn or flask, a ball bag, -slow match, a rest, and a sword. The two last changed for a bayonet. In order to -accelerate the loading, <span class="sidenote">Bandolier.</span>a -large leather belt, called bandolier, was worn over the<span class="pagenum" id="Page85">[85]</span> -shoulder. To this were hung twelve wooden cases, each of which contained one -charge, with a case of finer powder for priming, and at the lower end a bag for balls. -This system was soon found to be inconvenient, as the cases were apt to get entangled -in passing through woods, &c. <span class="sidenote">Bandolier -abandoned in -France, 1684.</span>It was therefore abandoned in France in 1684, <span class="sidenote">Flask -resumed.</span>and -the flask resumed. Sir James Turner, speaking of the pistol, says, <span class="sidenote">Patrons.</span>“All horsemen -should always have the charges of their pistols ready in patrons, the powder made -up compactly in paper, and the ball tied to it with a piece of pack thread.” <span class="sidenote">Cartridges.</span>In this -description we have evidently the cartridge, though not expressed by name. It is a -curious fact that these were first confined to the cavalry, and that the general adoption -of the cartridge was not earlier than the common use of the modern firelock. -The Patron was an upright semi-cylindrical box of steel, with a cover moving on a -hinge, filled with a block of wood with five perforations, to hold as many pistol -cartridges.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Earl of Orrery -in favour -of pouches.</p> - -<p>The Earl of Orrery, in 1677, writes, “I am, on long experience, an enemy to -bandoliers, but a great approver of boxes of cartridges for them, as by biting off -the bottom of the cartridge, you charge your musket for service with one ramming. -I would have these boxes of tin, because they are not so apt to break as the -wooden ones are, and do not, in wet weather, or lying in the tents, relax. Besides, -I have often seen much prejudice in the use of bandoliers, which are often apt to -take fire. They commonly wound, and often kill he that wears them, and those -near him, for likely if one take fire, all the rest do in that collar. They often -tangle when they have fired, and are falling off by the flanks of the files of the -intervals to get into the rear to load again. Their rattling in the night often -discovers the designs; and if the weather be windy, their rattling also often hinders -the soldier from hearing, and, consequently, obeying the word of command. -Whereas the cartridge boxes exempt those who use them from all these dangers -and prejudices. They enable the soldier to fire more expeditiously. They are also -usually worn about the waist of the soldier, the skirts of whose doublet and whose -coat doubly defend them from all rain, that does not pierce both, and being worn -close to his body, the heat thereof keeps the powder dryer. Besides all this, whoever -loads his musket with cartridges, is sure the bullet will not drop out, though -he takes his aim under breast high; whereas those soldiers on service who take the -bullets out of their mouths, which is the nimblest way, or out of their pouches, -seldom put any paper, tow, or grass, to ram the bullet in, whereby if they fire -above breast high the bullet passes over the head of the enemy, and if they aim low -the bullet drops out, ere the musket is fired, and it is to this that I attribute the -little execution I have seen musketeers do in time of fight, though they fired at -great battalions, and those also reasonably near.”</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note">The preceding article on Portable Fire-Arms is principally compiled from “Military Antiquities,” by Francis -Grose; “Ancient Armour and Weapons of War,” by John Hewitt; “Engraved Illustrations of Ancient Armour,” -by Joseph Skelton, F.S.A.; “A Critical Enquiry into Ancient Armour,” by Sir R. S. Meyrick, Knt.; and “Deane’s -Manual of Fire-arms.”</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page86">[86]</span></p> - -<h2>HISTORY OF THE RIFLE.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Invention of -the rifle.</p> - -<p>We shall now direct our attention to the rifle,—its invention is ascribed to Gaspard -Zollner, of Vienna, towards the end of the fifteenth century.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">1466.</p> - -<p>The first society for firing with the arquebuss was founded at Bâle, in Switzerland.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles at Leipsic, -1498.</p> - -<p>In the practice of firing at a mark, at Leipsic, 1498, the greater part of the Sharpshooters -or Marksmen, were armed with the Rifles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles used -first for -amusement.</p> - -<p>At first, Rifle arms were used only for amusement, and sometimes for the defence -of places, but very rarely as weapons of war in the field.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles used in -war.</p> - -<p>Their employment in a campaign only dates from a little before the middle of -the seventeenth century.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Landgrave of -Hesse, 1631.</p> - -<p>In 1631, the Landgrave William of Hesse had three companies of Chasseurs, -armed with rifles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elector Maximilian, -1645.</p> - -<p>In 1645, the Elector Maximilian of Bavaria formed three regiments of Chasseurs, -armed with rifles which he intended to employ principally in the minor operations -of war.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Frederick -William of -Prussia, 1674.</p> - -<p>In 1647, Frederick William of Prussia, in his campaign on the Rhine, distributed -in each company of infantry, some light infantry and Riflemen.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Frederick the -Great in -Seven Years’ -War.</p> - -<span class="sidenote">By Austrians -ditto.</span> - -<p>Frederick the Great, in order to counterbalance the Austrian Light Troops, more -particularly the Tyrolese Marksmen, whose fire was exceedingly deadly, felt obliged -during the seven years’ war to add a company of trained light infantry to the effective -strength of each battalion.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles in -France, 1674.</p> - -<p>In France the Cavalry were supplied with rifles before the Infantry. Towards -1674 Louis XIV. created some squadrons of Cavalry armed with “Carabines rayées.” -The name was given in France to all arms which were grooved, and it also served for -the name of the corps which were first armed with them, viz., “Carabins.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles in English -Life -Guards.</p> - -<p>In 1680 eight rifle carbines were carried in each troop of English Life Guards.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles in -Sweden, 1691.</p> - -<p>In 1691 the Non-Commissioned Officers of the Swedish Dragoons received the rifled -carabin, and in 1700 those of the Prussian Cavalry received the same rifled arms.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Experiments -in England, -1776.</p> - -<p>Experiments were tried with rifled small arms in England in the year 1776.</p> - -<p>We read in the Scots’ Magazine, vol. 36, that “the Guards are every day practising -the use of the Rifle Gun in Hyde Park. On Saturday, April 27th, 1776, -their Majesties attended a Review of the Rifle-men yesterday, and were much -pleased with the dexterity of the officer, who loaded and fired several times in a -minute, and hit the mark each time. He lies upon his back when he discharges -his piece.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles in Austria, -1778.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page87">[87]</span></p> - -<p>Austria kept 2000 Sharpshooters, having double carbines, which were supplied -with a crotch to rest them upon while shooting. Only one of the barrels was rifled.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles in -French infantry, -1793.</p> - -<p>In 1793 the first model carbine for French Infantry was made at Versailles; at -the same time the model for Cavalry was also fixed. Rifles were soon abandoned in -the French Army; they deemed them of more trouble than profit.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles, English, -1794.</p> - -<p>In 1794 the English adopted the Rifle, which, I fancy, was first used by a -Battalion of the 60th, or Royal American Regiment.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles numerous -in Austria, -1796.</p> - -<p>In 1796 there were in the Austrian Army 15 Battalions of Light Infantry, the -greater part of whom were armed with Rifles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles for the -95th regt., -1800.</p> - -<p>In 1800, Rifles were placed in the hands of the 95th Regiment, now the Rifle -Brigade of four Battalions. These Rifles weighed about 10<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>lbs. each, with the sword. -They were sighted for 100 and 200 yards, with seven grooves, having a quarter turn -in the length of the barrel, which was about 2 feet 6 inches, the length of the Rifle -3 feet 10 inches, weight of sword 1lb., diameter of bore ·623. The locks were -excellent, and had a detent, to prevent the nose of the sear catching at half cock, -and it had a bolt, to prevent its going off at half cock. The ball was spherical, and -driven in with a mallet, which was afterwards dispensed with, and a greased -patch substituted.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifle ball in -two sizes.</p> - -<p>During the Peninsular War, our Riflemen were supplied with balls of two sizes, -the easiest fitting being designed for use where celerity of loading was required. -Baker, who made these Rifles, says in his Work, 1825, <span class="sidenote">Range of English -rifle.</span>“I have found 200 yards the -greatest range I could fire to any certainty. At 300 yards I have fired very well at -times, when the wind has been calm. At 400 yards, and at 500 yards, I have -frequently fired, and have sometimes struck the object, though I have found it to -vary much.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles in 7th -and 10th -Dragoons.</p> - -<p>Colonel Dickson, R.A., says, “In the early part of the present century, there was -also introduced a rifle-arm for cavalry. The barrel 20 inches, calibre 20 bore, -grooves 7, having the same pitch as those for the infantry; the 7th and 10th light -cavalry were the only regiments armed with them, but they were soon discontinued -from being considered as unfit for cavalry service.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Brunswick -rifle.</p> - -<p>The Brunswick rifle was introduced in 1836. Weight with bayonet 11lbs. 5oz., -length of barrel 2ft. 6-in., bore ·704. Two deep spiral grooves with one turn in the -length of the barrel. Sighted for 100, 200, and 300 yards. Bullet spherical and -belted, diameter ·696. Weight of bullet 557 grains. The shooting of this arm was -superior to our first rifle, although the loading was not so easy as was desired, and a -great disadvantage existed in the bullet and cartridge being separate in the soldier’s -pouch, the grooves were deeper and rounder than those of the ordinary rifle, the -projecting zone of the ball was made to fit the grooves, the ball was wrapped in a -linen patch dipped in grease. It was found that, although the rifle loaded easily at -first, after constant firing the barrel became very foul, rendering loading nearly as -difficult as under the old system of the indented ball. The belt on the ball caused -considerable friction while passing through the air. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 1).</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Merits of the -Brunswick -rifle.</p> - -<p>By a committee of officers assembled at Enfield, it was determined that all firing<span class="pagenum" id="Page88">[88]</span> -with the Brunswick beyond 400 yards was too wild to give a correct angle of elevation. -It was tested at Antwerp in 1844, in an experiment extending to 44,000 rounds, and -declared to be the worst tried.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Improvements -from -France.</p> - -<p>From France chiefly have proceeded most of the modern improvements in -fire-arms.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">French at discount -without -rifles.</p> - -<p>The original French rifle (like our own) was loaded by force with a strong -ramrod and mallet, and they found that it gave precision with diminution of range. -For these reasons during the early campaigns of the French Revolution, the rifle was -given up in the French army; but as their Chasseurs were found to be unequally -matched against those of other armies, who surpassed them in accuracy as marksmen, -a series of experiments were carried on at different times, with a view to its reintroduction -into their service. No satisfactory result was obtained until the occupation -of Algeria, <span class="sidenote">Captain Delvigne’s -first -step to restore -rifles in -France.</span>when Mons. Delvigne, of the Guarde Royale, took the first step in its -restoration. In the flying wars kept up against them by Abd-el-Kader, they found -that masses of their men were struck by Arab balls at distances where the French -muskets were apparently powerless, and this they afterwards found arose from the -long matchlocks of their enemies being fired at a much greater elevation than was -ever thought of by European troops. <span class="sidenote">The French -desired to be -on an equality -with Arabs.</span>In order to put themselves on an equality with -their enemies, Mons. Delvigne showed in 1828 how the rifle bullet could be made to -enter the piece easily, and quit it in a forced state; a method of loading as easy and -simple as that of a smooth-bore arm. <span class="sidenote">Expansion by -chamber.</span>Expansion was obtained by the introduction of -a chamber in the bore, which furnished an annular surface to receive the bullet, and -on its being struck a small blow with the rammer it was expanded into the grooves. -(<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 2). <span class="sidenote">Defects of -chambered -rifle.</span>The objection to the chambered rifle, was that after frequently -firing, a residuum collected which eventually left the powder less room in the chamber, -and of necessity it then reached above the shoulder of the latter, so that the ball -resting upon the powder instead of upon the shoulder of the chamber, was not so -readily dilated by the strokes of the ramrod into the grooves. To remedy this defect -the wooden sabot and greased patch (<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 3) were suggested by Colonel -Poncharra, in 1833, <span class="sidenote">Poncharra -Delvigne rifle -1833.</span>introduced into the French army 1839, and employed in Algeria, -1840, but several inconveniences attended its use.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Carabine à -Tige, 1842.</p> - -<p>Colonel Thouvenin endeavoured to overcome these difficulties by fixing at the -bottom of the bore an iron shank, around which was placed the powder. This stem, -(<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 4) stopping the bullet, allowed it to be struck in such a manner as to -cause the lead to penetrate into the grooves. <span class="sidenote">Defects of -Tige.</span>There is much fouling at the breech, -and around the pillar of these rifles. They are difficult to clean, the soldier having to -carry an instrument for this purpose. <span class="sidenote">Tige introduced, -1846.</span>The Chasseurs and Zouaves of the African -Army were armed with the tige in 1846.</p> - -<p>At first a spherical ball had been used, and then a solid cylindro-conical bullet -was resorted to; (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 6.) Messrs. Delvigne and Minié having long previously -experimented with hollow cylindro-conical projectiles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Minié iron -cup.</p> - -<p>Some years after these experiments, Captain Minié proposed the adoption of a -bullet which should receive its expansion by placing an iron cup in the hollow of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page89">[89]</span> -base, which should be driven up by the gas, and force the walls of the cavity outwards, -thus making them enter the grooves. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 7.) <span class="sidenote">French army -1850.</span>In 1850 the Fusil -rayé with balle à culot was put into the hands of some French regiments of the line, -and since then the French Imperial Guard have been armed with the old musket -rifled, and a hollow bullet without a cup.</p> - -<p>At present it is understood that the French are rifling all their smooth bore -arms, and the Russians are doing the same.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Prussian. -army.</p> - -<p>The Prussians have many thousands of their infantry armed with a breech-loading -long range Rifle. <span class="sidenote">Russian -riflemen.</span>The Russian Army is to have fifty-four rifle regiments, with a -rifle company to each other regiment of Infantry. <span class="sidenote">Austrian -riflemen.</span>The Austrians are busy at work, -according to their means. The Tyrol has always supplied them with a large number -of marksmen. <span class="sidenote">Belgium.</span>The Belgians are, I believe, universally armed with rifles, -<span class="sidenote">Portugal.</span>and even -the little Kingdom of Portugal has ordered 28,000 rifles from Belgium.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Conoidal -bullet, with -Brunswick.</p> - -<p>Subsequent to the French experiments with the conoidal bullet, and the great -results obtained over the spherical from it, it was proposed to adapt a conoidal bullet -to the Brunswick Rifle. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig 5.) This was done as an experiment, and -succeeded very well, but at the same time the new arm, <span class="sidenote">Minié rifle, -introduced, -1851.</span>called the Minié pattern, -1851, was also tried, and the shooting exhibited greater accuracy with this latter arm. -Nothing further was done with the Brunswick rifle and conoidal bullet; and the -(then called) “new regulation Minié,” was introduced into the service by the late -Marquis of Anglesea, Master-General of Ordnance, with the approval of the late Duke -of Wellington. Its weight with bayonet, was 10lbs. 8<sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>ozs., bore ·702, four -spiral grooves, with one turn in 6 feet 6-in., powder, 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> drs., bullet, 680 grs., with iron -cup, diameter of bullet, ·690, windage, ·012. <span class="sidenote">Performance -and angle of -Minié.</span>When the axis is parallel to the ground -at 4 feet 6-in. above it, the first graze is about 177 yards, and the angle of elevation -at 800 yards, is 3° 25.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Consequences -of improvements -in military -rifles.</p> - -<p>A few years previous to the Russian war, rifles had attained to a degree of improvement -in structure and adaptability to the general purpose of war, which -threatened subversion to the established notions of the military world.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Probable -effect on -artillery.</p> - -<p>The artillery arm was menaced in its long rested monopoly of range and precision, -with an equilibrium in hands it had never dreamed to find it; one which not alone -would curb the wonted dash of field batteries to within the “shortest range,” <span class="sidenote">On cavalry.</span>but -also impress a more than wonted respect upon the best led and most daring cavalry, -for even the thinnest formation of that arm, which it had hitherto been taught to -despise. <span class="sidenote">Minié in -Kaffir war.</span>The Minié was first used in the Kaffir war, and next at Alma and Inkerman, -when it proved that the gallant Marquis had advanced a step in the right direction; -who had ordered 28,000, but quarrels taking place among the contractors this order -was never completed. <span class="sidenote">Bullet improved.</span>The accuracy of firing from the Minié was improved by -altering the form of the bullet from conoidal to cylindro-conoidal, (<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 8.) -and the iron cup from hemispherical to a conical shape with a hole in the apex.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Lord Hardinge’s -desire -for improvement.</p> - -<p>Lord Hardinge, succeeding to the post of Master-General, and after to that of -Commander-in-Chief, zealously followed out the prosecution of the now becoming -fixed idea, the general adoption for British infantry, of a pattern rifle-musket, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page90">[90]</span> -should combine lightness with solidity, precision, and superior range. Lord Hardinge -opened competition to the leading British gun makers, when the following sent in -muskets for trial, viz:—Purdy, Westley Richards, Lancaster, Wilkinson, and Greener. -<span class="sidenote">Experiments -at Enfield.</span>The Minié pattern, (51), and Brunswick, (36), were also subjected to a course of trial -before the committee assembled at Enfield, in 1852, for the purpose of determining the -best description of fire-arm for military service.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Merits of the -Brunswick.</p> - -<p>The Brunswick rifle showed itself to be very much inferior in point of range to -every arm hitherto tried. The loading was so difficult, that it is wonderful how the -rifle regiments can have continued to use it so long, the force required to ram down the -ball was so great as to render a man’s hand much too unsteady for accurate shooting. -Colonel Gordon, says, “It should be noticed here with the exception of Mr. -Wilkinson, every one of the makers changed either his musket or projectile during -the trials, thereby causing them to be protracted much beyond the time originally -intended.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">All had reduced -bores.</p> - -<p>The diameter of the bore of all the new muskets was less than that hitherto in -use, <span class="sidenote">Elongated -bullets.</span>all the bullets were elongated and had auxiliaries for expansion, being metallic, or -in one case a horn plug, one pattern had cannelures <span class="sidenote">Reversed -cartridge.</span>and the whole required the -cartridge to be reversed in loading. <span class="sidenote">Best shooting -from short -rifle.</span>It is worthy of remark that the best shooting at -these trials was from a short rifle made at Enfield, which was named the artillery -carbine, but not the one now used by the Royal Artillery. The barrel was only 2 feet -6-in. long, and the projectile cylindro-conoidal, with an iron cup weighing 620 grains; -thus proving that great length of barrel is not absolutely necessary in a rifle; but a -certain length of barrel is required to fire in double ranks, and so that the weapon may -be effectually used as a pike. <span class="sidenote">Advantage of -small bore.</span>With a small bore, a greater number of rounds of ammunition -may be carried, greater penetration, velocity, lower trajectory, and more -accuracy, than with larger projectiles of equal weight. <span class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of small -bore.</span>The alleged disadvantages of -small bore are, the slender form of cartridge and the smaller hole made in a man’s -body, as stated to be proved in the case of wild animals, in proof of which it is said -that they are found to run further when wounded with a small ball, than they do with -a large one; but this reasoning does not seem applicable to the human race, for it is -presumed that few men would be found willing to move far when wounded by a -musket ball, whether the hole in their body was ·702 or ·530 of an inch in diameter.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Objection to -reversing the -cartridge.</p> - -<p>An absurd objection was stated as to reversing the cartridge, viz:—that drill with -blank would be performed in a different manner to firing ball, and that in action the -soldier would forget to reverse his cartridge, and put in the ball first. As we now -always perform our drill, and as our present blank cartridges require to be reversed or -will not ignite, this objection is removed. It also was said that mice, rats, &c., &c., -would eat off the lubricating mixture!!</p> - -<p>It was proposed to give the Enfield, (1853,) a back sight to 900 yards, when an -outcry was raised against the monstrous proposition of giving to every common soldier -a delicately made back sight, whether he knew how to use it or not!!! and those -rifles first issued, were only sighted to 300 yards.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The Enfield -rifle.</p> - -<p>At the conclusion of the trials at Enfield, in August, 1852, two rifles were made<span class="pagenum" id="Page91">[91]</span> -at the Royal Manufactory, in which were embodied the improvements and alterations -suggested by the experience obtained during the course of the trials, and which was -hoped would possess the necessary requirements for a military weapon, and which -proved superior to the Minié, the Brunswick, and all those presented for trial by the -different manufacturers.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Dimensions, -&c., of Enfield.</p> - -<p>This beautiful rifle though 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>lbs. less than the old musket, is fully as strong, and -as capable of rough usage. Weight, including bayonet, 9lbs. 3 ozs., bore, ·577, length -of barrel, 3 feet 3-in., weight of barrel, 4lbs. 6 ozs., three grooves with spiral of one -turn in 6 feet 6-in.; the barrel to be fastened to the stock by bands. The bayonet to -be fixed by means of a locking ring. The lock to have a swivel. The bullet was -of a pattern suggested by Mr. Pritchett. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 9.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Attempts to -improve the -bullet.</p> - -<p>Lord Hardinge, desirous to improve the projectile, and if possible to get rid of -the cup, having requested the leading gun makers to lay any suggestions before the -small arms committee, none were submitted but one by Mr. Wilkinson, which was -not a compound. It was solid with two deep cannelures, but it lost its accuracy when -made up into a cartridge, and made very wild practice beyond 300 yards. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, -fig. 10.) Subsequently a bullet was proposed by Mr. Pritchett, <span class="sidenote">Description of -Pritchett.</span>being cylindro-conoidal -in form, with a small hollow at the base, which was made more to throw the -centre of gravity forward than to obtain expansion thereby. This bullet weighed -520 grains, or 24 guage, and excellent practice was made with it at Enfield, from 100, -to 800 yards, and it was accordingly introduced into the service, to the suppression of -the Minié, with iron cup; and for which Mr. Pritchett, received £1,000.</p> - -<p class="sidenote" id="Ref01">Lancaster -smooth <i>bore</i> -rifles.</p> - -<p>Shortly after the establishment of the School of Musketry, in June, 1853, twenty -Enfield rifles were sent down for trial in competition with the Minié, and also with -“Lancaster’s smooth bore eliptical rifle, with increasing spiral and freed at the breech,” -when the Enfield was found to be superior to both. It is stated that Mr. Lancaster’s -invention is intended to overcome the inconvenience attendant on the wearing out the -rifle ridges, by the ramrod, &c.; these rifles are also easily cleaned, the difference in -width between the major and minor axis of the ellipse was, <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>100</sub> of an inch.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Engineer -Carbine.</p> - -<p>Carbines on this principle are now carried by the Royal Engineers, and shoot -well, and by some persons are thought to be superior to the Enfield, 1853; they fire -the same ammunition, and there is no question but that their firing is much more -accurate from using the improved wooden plug bullet.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Failure of the -Pritchett.</p> - -<p>In May, 1855, the ammunition was found to be in a most unsatisfactory state -and unfit to be used, there being bullets of various diameters in many of the packages -of the cartridges. The correct size of the Pritchett bullet viz., ·568, was found to -produce accurate shooting, at 600 yards, while bullets of a smaller diameter fired -very badly.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Return to -iron cup.</p> - -<p>To get out of this difficulty, Colonel Hay recommended the application of the -iron cup to the bullet, which was approved, when more uniform expansion resulted -and greater accuracy.</p> - -<p>Thus by using an auxiliary to expansion there is a margin left to cover any trifling -inaccuracy in manufacture, in diameter of either bullet or bore.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page92">[92]</span></p> - -<p class="sidenote">Woolwich -account for -bad <i>ammunition</i>.</p> - -<p>The Woolwich authorities stated that they had seven dies at work making bullets, -and which were made small at first as they gradually wore larger; when any one die -became too large it was destroyed, and replaced by a smaller one. To this cause they -imputed the failure of our Pritchett ammunition. It was afterwards suggested from -the School of Musketry, to procure expansion by using a wooden plug, and after most -extensive experiments, this was found to be superior to any description of bullet yet -tried at Hythe, and the wooden plug has accordingly been established for the British -army. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 11.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">On expansion.</p> - -<p>Uniform accuracy mainly results from the bullet continuing to receive a sufficient -and uniform expansion into the grooves, so that the projectiles get such an amount of -rotation as shall last until they have reached the object fired at. The more perfect -the expansion, the less the accumulation of fouling and consequently accuracy is -further increased.</p> - -<p>The Enfield has frequently been fired to 200 rounds and the loading continued -easy.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Progressive -grooving 1858.</p> - -<p>Early in 1858, the regulation rifle, (53), was changed from grooves of uniform, -·014 in depth, to ·005 at muzzle, increasing in depth to ·015 at the breech; while -new, these rifles shoot well, but they require increased elevation at long ranges. How -far these shallow grooves will answer, or how long it will take to convert these aims -into smooth bores at the muzzle, by the continued friction of the ramrod, remains -to be seen.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Origin of -progressive -grooving.</p> - -<p>Captain Panot, of the French service, states, “it is but a few years since all our -smooth bore barrels were reamed so that they would carry the spherical ball of ·669, -instead of ·641. It was afterwards determined to convert these arms into rifles. To -prevent weakening the reamed up barrels, M. Tamisier proposed to vary the depth -of the grooves, making them deeper at the breech than at the muzzle.” <span class="sidenote">Advantages.</span>Grooves -thus made, are said to have a greater accuracy of fire from keeping the ball perfectly -tight as it leaves the bore and destroying all windage at the muzzle. This is called -“progressive grooving.” Rifles upon this principle require to be fired at an increased -elevation, attributed to the greater amount of friction experienced by the bullet while -passing down the barrel.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Short Enfield.</p> - -<p>Rifle regiments and all serjeants of infantry have been furnished with a weapon -requiring the same ammunition as the regulation arm, but six inches shorter, being -mounted in steel, with a sword bayonet.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Royal Navy -rifle.</p> - -<p>A five “grooved progressive” carbine has recently been given to the Royal -Marine Artillery and the Royal Navy, with the same bore as the Enfield.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>RIFLED BREECH-LOADERS.</h3> - -<p>It is worthy of notice that, while numerous attempts are now making to perfect -the breech-loader for sporting as well as military purposes, <span class="sidenote">Early guns -loaded at the -breech.</span>our early cannon and first -hand guns were loaded at the breech, and if all mechanical difficulties could be overcome, -the breech-loading principle for portable fire-arms would deserve the preference.<span class="pagenum" id="Page93">[93]</span> -We can easily understand why it did not continue in favour in early days, as this mode -includes a great deal of perfection in mechanical workmanship, and to which the ancient -gun maker was a stranger.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of breech-loaders.</p> - -<p>The great argument against breech-loaders as military weapons is the expense, -their intricate construction, the escape of gas, and the probable waste of ammunition, -in the hands of an uneducated soldier. It may be briefly answered.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">1st. As to -expense.</p> - -<p>1st.—As to expense, the most destructive weapon, by preventing and curtailing -war, must in the long run be the cheapest.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">2nd. As to -intricacy.</p> - -<p>2nd.—As to intricacy of construction, the soldier is the user, not the maker of his -gun; it matters not how delicate the mechanism of a watch may be, the only question -is, does it continue to go well!! And who dare say that the brains of man shall -never suggest a simple mode of construction. Of course anything fragile would be -totally unfit for military purposes. The escape of gas has been entirely overcome.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">3rd. As to -waste of ammunition.</p> - -<p>3rd.—As to waste of ammunition, is it absolutely necessary that a soldier should -remain uneducated? Are not soldiers men? And men can be taught almost anything, -or are they incapable of being taught? Does a soldier fire how, when and -where he chooses? Is it too high an aspiration that the British army should carry -the best arm that can be made, to be placed in the hands of a taught and skilful -soldier, acting under the guidance and control of intelligent officers?</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Breech-loaders -highly -improved.</p> - -<p>As far as the arm only is concerned, breech-loaders have now (1860) attained a -high degree of perfection, as is proved by the deserved celebrity of that made by -Mr. Westley Richards. <span class="sidenote">Ammunition -the difficulty.</span>The only remaining difficulty is one of ammunition. Loose -powder cannot be employed in loading with a breech as it can with a muzzle-loader. -We are up to this time under the necessity of introducing the whole of the cartridge, -this of course augments fouling and lessens accuracy; there is also increased difficulty -in producing ignition through the fold of the cartridge paper.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Capt. Brown’s -compressed -powder.</p> - -<p>Recently a most ingenious mode of compressing the grains of powder contained -in a charge into one mass, so that every description of rifle may be rapidly loaded -without any paper, has been invented by Captain Brown, R. N., and I have every -hope and confidence that the only remaining breech-loading difficulty may now be -considered overcome.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages -of breech-loaders.<br /> -1st. Celerity.<br /> -2nd. Load -lying down.<br /> -3rd. Easily -cleaned.<br /> -4th. Solid ball.</p> - -<p>The advantages of breech-loaders, are, 1st.—Celerity of fire, about ten rounds a -minute have been attained. 2nd.—The soldier can load while lying flat on the ground. -3rd.—The barrel can be easily cleaned and examined as to its state. 4th.—A solid -ball can be fired, and with less windage.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Self capping.</p> - -<p>Various modes of self capping have been brought forward, but that by Maynard -seems to merit the preference; time is further economized, and the powers of the -breech-loader thereby increased.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cavalry have -breech-loaders.</p> - -<p>Our cavalry regiments in India, are partially armed with breech-loading rifles, -and all their pistols are rifled, and upon the tige principle.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles universal -in English -army.</p> - -<p>The whole of our Guards, regular Infantry, Royal Marines, Militia, and Royal -Engineers, are armed with rifles, and the Carabine used by the Royal Artillery, is also<span class="pagenum" id="Page94">[94]</span> -rifled. All our Colonial corps are supplied with rifled arms, with the exception of the -Native corps, serving in the East Indies and Ceylon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">In larger -numbers.</p> - -<p>Thus rifles are introduced in larger numbers and of better quality in the armies -of England, in proportion to their numbers, than amongst any other nation. <span class="sidenote">Taught to use.</span>While -more care and expense is incurred in qualifying our soldiers efficiently to use them. -<span class="sidenote">Prizes.</span>In illustration of which, it is only needful to call attention to the simple fact that -£20,000 per annum is distributed as a stimulus to the marksmen of the British army, -for which boon all honour to our Royal Commander-in-Chief.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Explosive -shells.</p> - -<p>The idea has recently been revived to increase the destructive powers of Infantry, -by furnishing them with shells, with which they may explode ammunition waggons, -artillery limbers, &c., &c., to the distance of 1,000 yards. Captain Norton, Mr. Dyer, -Colonel Jacobs, and Mr. Whitworth, have directed their minds to this most -important subject.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page95">[95]</span></p> - -<h2>ON RIFLING.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p>It has been stated that amongst the different gun makers who assembled at -Woolwich, for the carrying on of experiments in 1851, no two agreed upon any one -thing; and in 1860, it may still be averred, with almost equal truth, and that it yet -remains an unsettled question as to the form, width, depth, number or degree of -spirality of the grooves, as also the harmony which should subsist between the grooves, -diameter of bore, the form and weight of projectile, and the quality and quantity of -charge.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Description -of Rifles.</p> - -<p>Robins, in 1742, says, “rifles though well known on the continent, being but -little used in England, it is necessary to give a short description of their make. -The rifle has its cylinder cut with a number of spiral channels, so that it is in reality -a female screw, varying from the fabric of common screws, only in this, that its -threads or rifles are less deflected and approach more to a straight line.” <span class="sidenote">Advantages -of a rifle.</span>The -advantage of a rifle (with a round bullet), is that the axis of rotation not being in any -accidental position, as in a smooth bore, but coincident with the line of its flight, it -follows that the resistance on the fore part of the bullet is equally distributed round -the centre of gravity, and acts with an equal force on every side of the line of direction, -and also should the resistance be greater on one side of the bullet than the other from -irregularities on its surface, as this part continually shifts its position round the line in -which it is proceeding, the deflections which this irregularity would occasion are -neutralized. With an elongated projectile rifling also prevents it from rotating round -its shorter axis.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifling invented -in Germany.</p> - -<p>It is to the artizans of Germany, that the rifle owes its origin, as at the close of -the fifteenth century barrels with straight grooves were used by the citizens of Leipsic, -at target practice, <span class="sidenote">Rifles used -1498.</span>in 1498, and the invention of grooving or rifling fire-arms is generally -supposed to be the result more of accident than theory. In Dean’s Manual of fire-arms, -it is stated that, “the idea of grooving arms in the direction of the axis of the -barrel to receive the residium of the powder, and thereby, not only facilitate the -loading, but increase both the bite or forcing of the ball, by impressing upon it the -grooves, and thus maintain it during its passage through the barrel in a direction -more in harmony with the line of fire, was doubtless a conception based upon no -previous theory or practice now to be traced, but was formed in that suggestiveness -which in the individual founds for itself a theory based upon the likelihood of -possible result. <span class="sidenote">Straight -grooves.</span>Upon trial also of the straight grooves a greater precision for<span class="pagenum" id="Page96">[96]</span> -short distances would have been observed than with the smooth bore.” This must -of itself therefore have led to the establishment of a certain grade of theory which it -was endeavoured to amplify by various means, such as increasing the number of -grooves, then of changing the inclination of grooves from the straight line to the spiral.</p> - -<p>To deem that the practised crack “shots and armourers of a time when target -practice was the constant recreation of the citizen, and his pride to excel in, were so -brainless as to conceive no theory, unelaborated though it may have been, and that -all their even now admired efforts in Germany, were the products of mere accident, is -therefore scarcely a rational supposition.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Spiral -grooves, by -Koster, of -Nuremberg in -1522.</p> - -<p>It is stated that Koster, of Nuremburg, in 1522, first suggested giving a spiral form -to the grooves, and experience proved that much greater accuracy of shooting was -the result.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Damer of -Nuremberg, -1552.</p> - -<p>In 1552, Damer, of Nuremburg, made some great improvements in rifles, but we -are not aware of their precise nature.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Koster of -Nuremberg, -1620.</p> - -<p>Koster, of Nuremburg, who died 1630, by some authorities is said to have discovered -that straight grooves did not fulfil the intentions of their inventor, and to have -been the first who suggested spiral grooves in 1620.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Robins first -explained -action of -grooves.</p> - -<p>The important stage next arrived at was the scientific explanation of the true -value of spiral grooves. The honor of this entirely belongs to our countryman, -Benjamin Robins, who in his Principles of Gunnery, gives a complete and satisfactory -explanation of the action of the grooves in determining the flight of the bullet. -<span class="sidenote">Robins structure -of rifles.</span>Robins states that “the degree of spirality, the number of threads, the depth the -channel are cut down to, are not regulated according to any invariable rule, but -differ according to the country where the work is performed, and the caprice of the -artificer. <span class="sidenote">Modes of -loading.</span>The most usual mode of charging rifles is by forcing the ball with a strong -rammer and mallet. But in some parts of Germany and Switzerland, an improvement -is made by cutting a piece of very thin leather or fustian in a circular shape, -somewhat larger than the bore, which being greased on one side is laid upon the -muzzle with its greasy part downwards, and the bullet being placed upon it, is then -forced down the barrel with it. When this is practised the rifles are generally -shallow, and the bullet ought not to be too large.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Early rifles, -breech-loaders.</p> - -<p>As both these methods of charging rifles take up a good deal of time; the rifled -barrels which have been made in England, (for I remember not to have seen it in -any foreign piece,) are contrived to be charged at the breech, where the piece is -made larger, and the powder and bullet are put in through an opening in the side -of the barrel, which, when the piece is loaded is fitted up with a screw. And -perhaps somewhat of this kind, though not in the manner now practised, would -be of all others the most perfect method for the construction of these sorts of -barrels.”</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ON THE NUMBER, FORM &c., &c., &c., OF THE GROOVES.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Number of -grooves.</p> - -<p>Almost every description of twist, number, &c., &c., of grooves have been tried, -according to the individual tastes and theories of the manufacturers. It is absolutely<span class="pagenum" id="Page97">[97]</span> -necessary to have two grooves, as a single one would give a wrong direction. Rifles -have been made with, from two to one hundred and thirty three grooves, and in the -majority of cases, an odd seems to have been preferred to an even number. In Dean’s -Manual it is stated, <span class="sidenote">Degree of -spirality.</span>that “in the numerous collections of arms that have at various times -come under our personal notice, some were rifled with straight, but the -majority with grooves in a spiral line, sometimes with a half, sometimes a three -quarter, and seldom more than a whole turn in a length of two, two and a half and -three feet; deviations based upon no principle transmitted to us, but requiring -nevertheless a decided research for principles upon which to establish a theory; we -have also met with every one of those configurations of the spiral and form of groove, -&c., &c., which have been arrogated as modern conceits and discoveries.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Spirality.</p> - -<p>Some rifles have sharp muzzle twist decreasing to the breech;—sharp breech -twist decreasing to the muzzle; an increase of twist in the middle of the barrel decreasing -at both extremities.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Modification -in France. -1740.</p> - -<p>In France a modification of the Carabine took place in 1740;—the grooves were -made to begin at eight inches from the muzzle, the unrifled part being of the same -calibre as the bottom of the grooves, so that the bullet might pass easily; thus also -facilitating the loading of the weapon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifled only at -muzzle.</p> - -<p>There is an old rifle in the United Service Institution, and also a barrel brought -from Lucknow, (in the Model Room of the School of Musketry,) grooved only for -about one foot from the muzzle, the remainder of the barrels are smooth bored.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Degree of -spirality.</p> - -<p>The degree of spirality is found to vary from a whole turn in 1 foot 5-in., to a -whole turn in 11 feet.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Depth of -spiral.</p> - -<p>The depth of grooves vary from ·005 of an inch, to about ·125; and some rifles -have been made with an alternate deep and shallow groove.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of -grooves.</p> - -<p>Grooves have been made round, circular, triangular, rectangular, and indefinite, -alternate round and angular, elliptical, polygonal; and some cut deep only on one side.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Proportion of -groove to land.</p> - -<p>Some gun makers are of opinion that there should be a greater proportion of -groove or furrow than of land or plain surface, because they say the ball is thus more -firmly held, while others maintain that by diminishing the number of the grooves, the -accuracy and range would be increased, and this has led to the opposite theory, that -perhaps if anything, the plain surface of the bore should predominate over the grooved.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of early -grooves -straight.</p> - -<p>The earliest rifles had two straight deep creases opposite to each other, the bullet -being spherical, and furnished with small circular knots of lead, large enough to fill -the creases.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form &c., of -ancient rifles.</p> - -<p>The greater number of ancient rifles have a whole turn, with an odd number of -deep and rounded grooves; hence we may infer these were considered the best forms.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Objects of -rifling.</p> - -<p>As accuracy of direction is the result of a spiral motion round an axis coincident -with the flight of the bullet, communicated to it by the grooves, it is clear that the -depth, number, and form of the grooves should be such as will hold the bullet firmly, -and prevent all tendency to strip.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">On the degree -of spirality.</p> - -<p>The degree of spirality should be sufficient to retain the projectile point foremost -during the whole of its flight. It was at one time supposed that if the spiral turn was<span class="pagenum" id="Page98">[98]</span> -great, and the charge strong, the bullet would not conform, but strip, and that the -same results would occur even with grooves but little curved. Unquestionably this -would prove true if certain limits were to be exceeded. A false conclusion was built -upon this theory, viz., that the greater the spiral turn the less the charge should be; -and that therefore in rifles intended for war, the greatest initial velocity being required -to produce the greatest range, the groove should have as little turn as possible; -for extreme ranges have been obtained with Jacob’s, Whitworth’s, and Lancaster’s -rifles; the first has a full turn in 24in. the second in 20in. <span class="sidenote">Sharp twist -and large -charge not -cause stripping.</span>These rifles perform well -with 90 grains of powder, and both Whitworth’s and Lancaster’s might even fire -better were the charge of powder increased to 100 grains, the recoil might be -objectionable while there would be no symptoms of stripping.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">On depth of -groove.</p> - -<p>Great depth of groove can only be hurtful, owing to the difficulty of closing up -all passage to the gas, which should not be allowed to escape round the bullet, as this -would cause deviation and shorten range. Deep grooves become a receptacle for -fouling, are difficult to clean; and high projections must offer great resistance to the -atmosphere, and particularly to a side wind.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Patches.</p> - -<p>When fustian or leather are used as patches, they receive and communicate the -spiral motion to the bullet, without the zone of the projectile being at all indented, -but in this case the spiral must be diminished, otherwise the bullet would not turn -with the grooves. If the patches be made of a thick material, the grooves should be -many, broad, and not too shallow, in order to receive the folds of the patch.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Shallow -grooves best.</p> - -<p>From our present amount of experience it seems safe to conclude that the -shallower the grooves are the better, so that they perform their intended functions.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Proportion of -groove to land.</p> - -<p>It is now generally recommended that the grooves be made broader than the -lands, <i>i.e.</i>, that the rifling surface should predominate over the unrifled part of the -bore. Shallow grooves with rounded edges, have the advantage of not leaving any -angular traces on the surface of the bullet, besides they afford a greater facility for -cleaning.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Circular -grooving.</p> - -<p>Circular grooving is composed of segments of circles, leaving no sharp edges on -the bullet, and is no doubt a very good form.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Gaining twist.</p> - -<p>An American gentleman named Chapman, who has written a very clever book -upon the rifle, is a strong advocate for the “gaining twist,” which form prevails -generally in American rifles. He states, “In a rifled barrel, it is obvious that a bullet -instantaneously started from a state of rest, with a velocity of 5,000ft. a second, -must exert at the moment of starting, a tendency to move along the bore in a -straight line. <span class="sidenote">Cause of -canting.</span>However, meeting with the resistance that the lands employ to keep -it to the twist, it communicates to the rifle itself a certain amount of motion in the -direction of the twist of the creases, and this as the angle of the twist increases, -combined with the size of the calibre, and the weight of the ball.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Remedy for -canting.</p> - -<p>“If the angle of the twist at the breech end can be reduced, the bullet at the -same time leaving the muzzle with sufficient spin to last throughout its flight, it is -certain we shall have less twisting of the rifle in the marksman’s hands, less friction -of the bullet against the lands, less tendency for the bullet to upset, (or be destroyed,)<span class="pagenum" id="Page99">[99]</span> -and consequently, from obtaining a higher velocity, (because enabled to -use a greater quantity of powder,) less time for the action of regular or irregular -currents of air.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Uniform -spiral by -American -Government.</p> - -<p>After careful experiments by the American Government, preparatory to the -establishing the model for their Military Rifle, it was decided that the turn for the -grooves should be uniform; and that those with an increasing twist did not give any -superiority of accuracy. The “gaining twist,” although adopted by Mr. Lancaster, -is opposed by Mr. Whitworth, and all other Rifle manufacturers, and our increased -experience does not prove it to possess any advantages over uniform spirality. Theory -would indicate that it must occasion increased friction.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Decreasing -spiral.</p> - -<p>Mr. Greener advocates decreasing spirality. It is to be hoped he is the only -advocate for so seemingly absurd an idea. To give a certain measure of spiral turn at -the breech, to be withdrawn gradually as the bullet reaches the muzzle, is simply -ridiculous, and which, with other conceits previously referred to, it is to be hoped -are no more to be repeated.</p> - -<p>By the desire of our first Patron, the late Lord Hardinge, Mr. Whitworth was -induced to turn his mechanical genius to the Soldier’s Gun, <span class="sidenote">Polygonal -rifling.</span>which resulted in his -adopting the polygonal form of bore. His barrel is hexagonal, and thus, instead of -consisting of non-effective lands, and partly of grooves, consists entirely of effective -rifling surfaces. The angular corners of the hexagon are always rounded. Supposing -a bullet of a cylindrical shape to be fired, when it begins to expand it is driven into -the recesses of the hexagon. It thus adapts itself to the curves of the spiral, and the -inclined sides of the hexagon offering no direct resistance, expansion is easily effected.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Westley -Richards -octagonal.</p> - -<p>Mr. Westley Richards has followed Mr. Whitworth, by using a polygonal bore, -having applied his highly meritorious system of breech-loading to a barrel upon the -Whitworth principle, of an octagonal form.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Eliptic rifling.</p> - -<p>The cardinal feature of this structure is, that the bore of the barrel is smooth, -and instead of being circular, is cut into the form of an ellipse, i.e., it has a major -and minor axis. Upon being expanded by the force of the powder, the bullet is -forced into the greater axis of the ellipse, which performs the office of the grooves, -rifling the projectile, and imparting to it the spiral or normal movement round its -own axis. <span class="sidenote">By Captain -Berner, 1835.</span>In 1835 a Captain Berner submitted his elliptical bore musket to the -inspection and trial of the Royal Hanoverian Commission, appointed for that purpose, -and which gave results so satisfactory, that it was considered admirably adapted for -the Jäger and Light Infantry Battalions. <span class="sidenote">By Mr. -Lancaster.</span>This principle has been patented by Mr. -Lancaster, and the advantages of this form have been <a href="#Ref01">previously</a> adverted to.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Odd number -of grooves.</p> - -<p>It is supposed by some persons that if the number of grooves be even, so that -they will be opposite to one another, the bullet would then require more force -to enlarge it, so as to fill them properly. If the number be unequal, the lands will -be opposite to the grooves, and the lead, in forcing, spreading on all sides, will -encounter a land opposite to each groove, which will in some measure repel it, and -render its introduction into the opposite groove more complete.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page100">[100]</span></p> - -<p>This ingenious theory is set at nought by Whitworth, Jacobs, Lancaster, W. -Richards, &c., &c., who all recommended an even number of grooves, while the -Government arms have an odd number.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Drift or cant.</p> - -<p>If the grooves twist or turn over from left to right, the balls will be carried to -the right; and if from right to left, they will group to the left; and this result will -be great in proportion to the degree of spirality. The causes of Drift or “Derivation” -will be treated of <a href="#Ref02">hereafter</a>. We know from observation that the majority of -balls strike to the right of the mark. The recoil and <i>pulling</i> the trigger throw -back the right shoulder, which tend to increase the “derivation” to the right. If the -twist were, then, from <i>right</i> to <i>left</i>, the drift, error from <i>pulling</i>, and from recoil, would -tend to neutralize each other; the twist of the grooves should therefore be from right -to left, instead of the present universal practice of from <i>left</i> to right.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">On length of -barrel.</p> - -<p>The barrel of a gun may be looked upon as a machine in which force is generated -for the propulsion of the bullet. It is well known that the continued action of a lesser -force, will produce a much greater effect, than a greater amount of power applied -suddenly; hence mild gunpowder is more suitable for rifle shooting than strong, or -that which evolves the whole of its gas instantaneously. Time is necessary for the -entire combustion of a charge of gunpowder, consequently more mild gunpowder can -be fired out of a long, than out of a short barrel, as if fired out of a short barrel, some -of the grains might be ejected unconsumed. All extra length, after the last volume -of gas is evolved, can only be injurious, by causing loss of velocity from friction. A -billiard ball would travel none the further nor straighter, were it to be propelled -through a hollow tube, neither would a barrel to a cross bow aid in killing rooks. <span class="sidenote">Favors -expansion.</span>A -barrel favours expansion of the bullet, which is produced by the force of the generated -gas, opposed by the column of air in the hollow tube and by the motion of the projectile. -<span class="sidenote">Assists -aiming, firing -two deep: -when using -bayonet.</span>Facility in aiming is promoted by the sights being distant from each other. -In a military arm a certain length is necessary in order to fire when two deep in the -ranks, and length is also advantageous, should the rifle be used as a pike.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages -of short rifle.</p> - -<p>The short rifle can be held steadier when standing, by a weak man, and during -wind, it is handy when passing through a wood or thicket, and a very short man has -more command of his gun when loading; <span class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of short -rifles.</span>but with the sword bayonet, it is heavier -than the long Enfield and bayonet; while the sword is very inconvenient when -running, firing kneeling, or lying down.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Thickness of -barrel.</p> - -<p>Great substance was at one time considered necessary for accurate firing, it being -supposed necessary to prevent vibrations in the barrel; this is true within certain limits, -and the heavier the charge, the heavier the metal ought to be, especially at the breech, -but diminishing the thickness, has been proved in no wise to lessen the accuracy. A -heavy barrel also lessens recoil, but it would be folly to carry more weight than would -neutralize the recoil which could be produced by a greater charge of powder than -could be consumed in a given length of barrel.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Size of bore.</p> - -<p>The two grand requirements of a soldier’s gun are, celerity of loading, combined -with accuracy at long ranges; and the distance at which he should have the power of -firing, should be limited by the strength of his eye. The weight of the projectile<span class="pagenum" id="Page101">[101]</span> -being fixed (·530 grs.), good shooting at extreme distances can only be obtained by -reducing the diameter of the bore, which, lessening the frontage of the bullet, causes -it to experience less resistance from the air; it therefore retains a higher degree of -velocity than a larger bullet of the same form and weight, and therefore travels further -and faster. Gravity has less time to act upon it, in a given distance, and therefore -it can be fired at a lower angle, or has what we call a lower trajectory, and its -accuracy is increased in direct proportion to the lowness of its flight, all other things -being equal.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Best form of -rifling still -undetermined.</p> - -<p>While the best form, &c., &c., for rifles is not yet determined, there are many -points upon which the generality of persons seem more agreed, viz., reduction of bore -to about <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>-in. in diameter, fewer grooves, shorter barrel, and with increased spirality; -at least, one may safely say that ideas seem to travel in this direction.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ON RIFLE PROJECTILES.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Projectiles -used in early -guns.</p> - -<p>We have learned that out of early Artillery were fired bolts, darts, bombs, stones -and (more recently) iron shot. From the harquebus and musket: arrows, darts, -quarrels, sprites, iron, and lastly leaden spherical balls. <span class="sidenote">Elliptical iron -bullets 1729.</span>Some assert that the idea of -lengthened eliptical bullets was enunciated so far back as 1729, and that good results -followed their employment, but it is doubtful whether such really did take place.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Leutman.</p> - -<p>Leutman, in his “History of St. Petersburgh,” says that “it is very profitable -to fire elliptical balls out of rifled arms, particularly when they are made to enter -by force.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Robins 1742.</p> - -<p>Robins, in 1742, recommended the use of projectiles of an egg like form, (see -<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 12), they were to be fired with the heavy end in front, to keep the -centre of gravity forward.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Beaufoy 1812.</p> - -<p>Colonel Beaufoy, in a work called “Scloppetaria,” 1812, remarks that several -experiments have been tried with egg-shaped bullets, recommended by Robins. It -was found, however, that these bullets were subject to such occasional random ranges, -as completely baffled the judgment of the shooters to counteract their irregularity. -Their deviations to windward most likely arose from the effect of the wind on the -after part, which, as being the lightest of the two, was driven more to leeward, and -consequently acted as a rudder to throw the foremost end up to the wind.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Turpin 1770.</p> - -<p>In 1770 Messrs. Turpin tried elongated bullets, at La Fiere, and at Metz.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifled guns -&c., 1776.</p> - -<p>We are informed, in the Annual Register for 1776, and also in the Scots Magazine -for the same year, that rifled Ordnance were experimented with at Languard -Fort, &c., &c., in 1774. Dr. Lind, one of the inventors, states that to remedy the -deflection of shot, “One way is to use bullets that are not round but oblong. But in -our common guns that are not rifled, I know no way to prevent deflection, except -you choose to shoot with a rifled bullet.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elongated -projectiles -1789.</p> - -<p>Elongated Projectiles were tried in the years 2, 6, and 9 of the Revolution, by -Mons. Guitton de Moreau. They were proposed by Mons. Bodeau. -<span class="sidenote">1800 and 1815.</span>In 1800 and<span class="pagenum" id="Page102">[102]</span> -1815 the Prussians tried ellipsodical bullets. Colonel Miller, Colonel Carron, Captain -Blois, and others, also experimented with the cylindro-conical form.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Captain -Norton 1824.</p> - -<p>Captain Norton (late 34th Regt.), the original inventor of the application of the -percussion principle to shells for small arms, in 1824, completed an elongated rifle -shot and shell, the former precisely of the form of the Minié bullet, with projections -to fit the grooves of the barrel.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr. Greener -1836.</p> - -<p>Mr. Greener, in 1836, presented an expanding bullet to the Government for -experiment, (<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 13). It is oval, with a flat end, and with a perforation -extending nearly through. A taper plug, with a head like a round-topped button, is -also cast of a composition of lead and zinc. The end of the plug being slightly -inserted in the perforation, the ball is inserted either end foremost. When the explosion -takes place, the plug is driven home into the lead, expanding the outer surface, -and thus either filling up the grooves of the rifle, or destroying the windage of the -musket. The result was favourable beyond calculation. Of about 120 shots by way -of experiment, a man was able to load three times to one of the old musket, and -accuracy of range at 350 yards was as three to one.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr Greener’s -invention -rejected.</p> - -<p>Mr. Greener’s invention was rejected, and the only notice he received from the -Board was, it being “a compound,” rendered it objectionable!!!</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr. Greener -rewarded.</p> - -<p>The following extract appears in the Estimates of Army Service for 1857-8. -“To William Greener, for the first Public Suggestion of the principle of expansion, -commonly called the Minié principle for bullets in 1836, £1,000.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Wilkinson -1837.</p> - -<p>Many experiments were made by Mr. Wilkinson in 1837, with balls precisely -similar in shape to the Minié, with a conical hole in them, using a wooden plug; <span class="sidenote">Cork plug -1851.</span>and -in 1851 experiments were tried at Woolwich with a soft elastic cork, fitting the -aperture in the projectile very closely, the compression of which it was conceived -would sufficiently expand the cylindrical part, and make it fit the grooves, &c. In -some instances it succeeded perfectly, but in many the cork was driven through the -lead.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Gen. Jacobs.</p> - -<p>Major-General Jacobs for many years carried on a series of experiments with -rifles, and in 1846 submitted a military rifle, with an elongated projectile, for experiments, -to the Government at home, and also to that in India. It did not meet with -approval in England, and the Company cut the matter short by stating, that what -was good enough for the Royal Army was good enough for theirs. There is nothing -peculiar in General Jacob’s rifle. He recommends an elongated projectile (<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, -fig. 14) solid at the base, cast with four raised flanges to fit into the grooves. General -Jacobs states, that the desired initial velocity could not be produced with a projectile -made entirely of lead, <span class="sidenote">Form of -leaden bullet -destroyed.</span>as a slight increase of charge had the effect of destroying the -form of the projectile. He also states that the limit of the powers of leaden balls -having been attained, it became necessary to find a method of constructing rifle balls, -so that the fore part should be capable of sustaining the pressure of large charges of -fired gunpowder, without change of form, and retain that shape best adapted for -overcoming the resistance of the air, on which all accurate distant practice depends; -and at the same time having the part of the ball next the powder sufficiently soft and<span class="pagenum" id="Page103">[103]</span> -yielding to spread out under its pressure, so as to fill the barrel and grooves perfectly -air tight. <span class="sidenote">Zinc point to -bullets.</span>And he professes to have solved the problem, by having the fore part of -the bullet cast of zinc, in a separate mould.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Expansion by -hollow bore.</p> - -<p>Captain Delvigne, who had been experimenting since 1828, proposed the -adoption of lengthened bullets, consisting of a cylinder terminated by a cone, which -was subsequently replaced by an ogive. He obtained a patent dated 21st June, 1841, -“For having hollowed out the base of my cylindro-conical bullet, to obtain its -expansion by the effect of the gases produced through the ignition of the powder.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Hollow in -case to throw -centre of -gravity -forward.</p> - -<p>The main object of Captain Delvigne in hollowing the base was, to throw the -centre of gravity forward; but a Captain Blois, in France, had previously tried this -important suggestion. Captain Delvigne states, if the hollow is too deep, the -expansion is too great, and the consequent friction enormous; or the gas may pass -through the bullet, and leave a hollow cylinder of lead within the barrel. Sometimes -the gas will traverse the sides of the bullet, and consequently the projectile is -deprived of a proportionate amount of velocity; if too small, the expansion does not -take place.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Capt. Minié -iron cup.</p> - -<p>Captain Minié, an instructor of the School at Vincennes, merely fitted into this -hollow an iron cup, hoping to prevent the gas forcing its way through the bullet, and -that the iron pressing upon the lead should increase the expansion. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 7).</p> - -<p>A perfect bullet was now supposed to have been discovered, of a cylindro-ogival -form, (no part was a true cylinder), having a groove originally intended to fasten on -a greased patch, and in some cases the cartridge, but the patch being dispensed with, -and the cartridge reversed, <span class="sidenote">Groove -suppressed.</span>the groove, supposed to be useless, was suppressed.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Results.</p> - -<p>People were then surprised to find that firing lost much of its accuracy, and the -groove was replaced; when it was observed that any variation in its shape and in its -position, materially affected the practice. Not only variations in the grooves caused -great alteration in the accuracy of fire, but any modification bearing on the trunk in -rear, or on the fore-ogive, altered the conditions of the firing, so that the groove -became lost in the midst of so many other principles, the functions of which were so -much unknown. These theoretical considerations served, however, as a point of -departure for further investigations.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tamisier -lengthened -bullets.</p> - -<p>Captain Tamisier had not ceased for several years, concentrating his attention on -the subject. He varied the length of the cylindrical part and the angle of the cone, -and tried experiments with bullets of 5-in. in length, and obtained considerable range, -and great accuracy with them; the recoil however was excessive, and to use such -bullets heavier arms, a smaller bore, and other modifications would be necessary.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Centre of -gravity -formed by -blunting tips.</p> - -<p>He endeavoured to carry the centre of gravity to the furthest possible point -forward, (which Robins suggested 100 years before), but to effect this he was compelled -to flatten the fore end of the bullet, which had the disadvantage of increasing -the resistance of the air to the movement of projection.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Path rectified -by resistance -in rear.</p> - -<p>He was then led to another plan for rectifying the path of the bullet through -each instant of projection, and which was by creating at the posterior end, resistances, -which should act in case the axis of the bullet did not coincide with the direction of<span class="pagenum" id="Page104">[104]</span> -motion, <span class="sidenote">Many -cannelures.</span>and this was carried out by cutting upon the cylindrical part, instead of one, -as many circular grooves of ·28 in depth, as that cylindrical, or rather, slightly -conical, part could contain. An increased precision in firing was the immediate -result. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig 15.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Shape of -cannelures.</p> - -<p>Feeling his way most carefully, Captain Tamisier then made a great number of -experiments in this direction, and perceived that it was important to render the -posterior surface of the grooves as sharp as possible, so as to augment the action of -the air; for these grooves lose their shape, owing to the lead, from its malleable -nature, yielding under the strokes of the ramrod.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elongated -Projectiles, -whose Centres -of Gravity do -not correspond -with -Centre of -Figure.</p> - -<p>Elongated projectiles, whose centres of gravity do not exactly coincide with the -centre of figure, when they do not turn over, tend to preserve their axis in the -primary direction which was imparted to them, in the same manner as an imperfectly -feathered arrow flying with little velocity, the point of the moving body being constantly -above the trajectory, and its axis making a certain angle (<a href="#Plate21">plate 21</a>, fig 1) with -the target to the curve. <span class="sidenote">Action of the -air.</span>Therefore the part <span class="smcapall">A.B.</span> of the bullet being exposed to the -direct action of the air’s resistance, the atmospherical fluid is compressed on the -surface <span class="smcapall">A.B.</span>, and rarified upon that of -<span class="smcapall">A.C.</span> Hence it will be perceived that the compressed -fluid supports the moving body, and prevents its descending as rapidly as -would a spherical bullet, which is constructed to meet the same direct resistance from -the air. This trajectory will therefore be more elongated than that of the spherical -bullet in question.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Remedied by -the grooves.</p> - -<p>But the resistance of the air, acting upon the groove of the projectile, produces, -on the lower part of this groove, an action which tends to bring back its point upon -the trajectory, yet with so little force, that often, in its descent, the projectile turns -over, and moves breadthways at ranges of 1000 and 1200 yards. The lower side of -the projectile, therefore, moving in the compressed air, and the upper in the rarified -air, deviation must ensue, for, as the upper part of the bullet moves from left to right, -the bottom must move from right to left. <span class="sidenote" id="Ref02">Cause of -deviation.</span>But the lower resistance to the motion of -rotation being produced by the friction of the compressed air, is greater than the -upper resistance, which depends on the friction of the rarified air. By combining -these two resistances, there results a single force, acting from left to right, which -produces what Captain Tamisier termed “derivation,” <span class="sidenote">Remedy.</span>and it was to overcome this -derivation that this officer proposed the circular grooves to the bullet, which he considered -would act, like the feathers of the arrow, to maintain the moving body in its -trajectory.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">How to obtain -knowledge of -the bullet’s -rotation.</p> - - - - - -<p>If, however, we would wish to obtain some idea of the rotatory motion of a -bullet in its path through the air, <span class="sidenote">By the arrow.</span>let us consider the action of the arrow, and see how -it is constructed, so that the resistance of the air should not act in an unfavourable -manner. First, nearly all its weight is concentrated at the point, so that its centre of -gravity is close to it. <span class="sidenote">Use of -feathers on -arrows.</span>At the opposite end feathers are placed, the heaviest of which -does not affect the centre of gravity, but gives rise to an amount of resistance in rear -of the projectile, and which prevents its ever taking a motion of rotation perpendicular -to its longer axis, and keeps it in the direction of its projection. This difficulty which<span class="pagenum" id="Page105">[105]</span> -the arrow finds in changing its direction must concur in preventing its descending so -rapidly as it would do were it only to obey the law of gravity, and must therefore -render its trajectory more uniform.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Similar effects -on bullet with -grooves.</p> - -<p>Let us, however, now come back to the grooves of Mons. Tamisier, and we shall -find that they concur in giving to the bullet the two actions of the resistance of the -air, which we have demonstrated with respect to the arrow.</p> - -<p>Suppose that such a bullet describes the trajectory <span class="smcapall">M</span>, -and <span class="smcapall">A.B.</span> be the position of -its axis, it will be seen that the lower part of the bullet re-establishes the air compressed, -whilst the upper part finds itself in the rarified air. That, consequently -the lower parts of the cannelures are submitted to the direct action of the air’s -resistance, whilst their upper parts totally escape this action. (<a href="#Plate21">Plate 21</a>, fig. 2). -<span class="sidenote">Effect of -grooves.</span>The resultant of the air’s resistance evidently tends to bring back the point of the -moving body, according to the trajectory; but as this action is produced by the -pressure of an elastic fluid, it results that the point <span class="smcapall">B</span>, after having been an instant -upon the trajectory, will fall below, in virtue of the velocity acquired; but then the -upper grooves finding themselves acted on by the action of the air’s resistance, this -action, joined to its weight, will force the point of the projectile upwards, which will -descend to come up again, so that the projectile will have throughout its flight a -vertical swing, which is seen distinctly enough in arrows.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Union of -Robins and -Tamisier.</p> - -<p>Let us connect the suggestion of Robins, with the experiments of Captain -Tamisier, to cause the posterior end to act as a rudder to guide the projectile in its -true path, as undoubtedly during the descent of a bullet there is a tendency for the -centre of gravity to fall first, as the ball of the shuttlecock. In the first Prussian balls, -and in those used in the Tige, the centre of gravity being nearer the base, the rear -end of these balls have a tendency to fall before the foremost, but this is most -undoubtedly counteracted by grooves, while it would be impossible to fire an -elongated projectile with its centre of gravity backwards, with any accuracy out of a -smooth-bored gun.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannelures -improved -shooting.</p> - -<p>Captain Jervis says that these grooves have the effect of improving the accuracy -of firing when the bullets are not perfectly homogeneous, is certain, <span class="sidenote">Why none in -English bullet.</span>but the British -Committee on small arms justly considered that owing to the careful way in which the -bullets are made in England by compression, these grooves might be dispensed with.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Variety of -forms.</p> - -<p>Almost every conceivable form of projectile, internal and external, have been -made and experimented upon. <span class="sidenote">Auxiliaries to -expansion, -various.</span>Auxiliaries to expansion have been used, made of -metal, horn, wood, and leather, with plugs, screws, or cups of divers shapes. Cannelures -are used, of varying forms, depth and number.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rotation from -smooth bores.</p> - -<p>It has even been attempted to construct bullets upon the screw principle, so that -the projectile should receive spirality from the action of the air upon its outer or -inner surface, when fired out of a smooth bore musket.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">General characteristics -of -modern rifles.</p> - -<p>The general characteristics of the European rifles, up to 1850, are a very large -calibre, a comparatively light short barrel, with a quick twist, <i>i.e.</i>, about one turn in -three feet, sometimes using a patch, and sometimes not, the bullet circular, and its -front part flattened by starting and ramming down.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">American -alterations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page106">[106]</span></p> - -<p>It appears that the introduction of additional weight in the barrel, reduction in -the size of the calibre, the constant use of the patch, a slower twist, generally one turn -in 6ft., combined with (what is now known to be a detriment) great length of barrel, -are exclusively American.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Picket bullet.</p> - -<p>A round ended picket (<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 16), was occasionally used in some parts of -the States, until the invention of Mr. Allen Clarke, of the flat ended picket, which -allows a much greater charge of powder, producing greater velocity, and consequently -less variation in a side wind.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">On the comparative -merits of rifles.</p> - -<p>A rifle may perform first rate at short ranges, and fail entirely at long, while a -rifle which will fire well at extreme ranges can never fail of good shooting at short. -In fact certain calibres, &c., &c., &c., perform best at certain distances, <span class="sidenote">Points in a -perfect rifle.</span>and in the -combinations of a perfect rifle there are certain points to be attended to, or the weapon -will be deficient and inferior.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Velocity.</p> - -<p>It is desirable to give a bullet as much velocity as it can safely be started with, -and the limit is the recoil of the gun, and the liability of the bullets to be upset or -destroyed, for as soon as this upsetting takes place, the performance becomes inferior, -and the circle of error enlarged.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Degree of -twist.</p> - -<p>It is clear that a bullet projected with sufficient twist to keep it steady in -boisterous and windy weather, must of necessity have more twist than is actually -necessary in a still favourable time; hence a rifle for general purposes, should always -have too much twist rather than too little.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Weight of -bullet.</p> - -<p>The weight of the bullet must be proportioned to the distance it is intended to be -projected with the greatest accuracy; for it is a law, that with bodies of the same -densities, small ones lose their momentum sooner than large ones. It would be -madness to use a bullet ninety to the pound at nine hundred yards, merely because -it performed first rate at two hundred yards; or a forty to the pound at two hundred -yards, because it performed well at nine hundred yards. The reason is that a forty -to the pound cannot be projected with as much velocity at two hundred yards, as the -ninety to the pound can, because the ninety uses more powder in proportion to the -weight of the bullet than the forty does. Again, the heavier bullet performs better -than the lighter one at nine hundred yards, simply because the momentum of the light -ball is nearly expended at so long a range as nine hundred yards, and its rotatory -motion is not enough to keep it in the true line of its flight, whereas a heavy bullet, -having from its weight more momentum, preserves for a longer distance the twist and -velocity with which it started.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Calibre.</p> - -<p>As weight of projectile is a leading element in obtaining accuracy at long ranges, -and as the weight cannot be increased beyond a certain limit in small arm ammunition, -hence a small bore is an indispensable requisite for a perfect rifle.</p> - -<p>In the foregoing brief summary of the most important properties which should be -possessed by a first class rifle, we have dealt in generalities, <span class="sidenote">Result of Mr. -Whitworth’s -experiments.</span>but we shall now record -the experience of Mr. Whitworth, who has entered into the most minute details, and -has pointed out the harmony which should subsist between the twist, bore, &c., and -the projectile, in the combinations of a perfect rifle.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bore and -weight -limited.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page107">[107]</span></p> - -<p>Premising, that when Mr. Whitworth was solicited by the late honored Lord -Hardinge to render the aid of his mechanical genius to the improvement or perfecting -a military weapon, he was restricted as to length of barrel, viz., 3 feet 3-in., and -weight of bullet, ·530 grains. We shall now proceed and use Mr. Whitworth’s -words.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Consideration -for curve.</p> - -<p>“Having noticed the form (hexagonal) of the interior which provides the best -rifling surfaces, the next thing to be considered is the proper curve which rifled -barrels ought to possess, in order to give the projectile the necessary degree of -rotation.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Hexagonal -form admits -of quick turn.</p> - -<p>“With the hexagonal barrel, I use much quicker turn and can fire projectiles of -any required length, as with the quickest that may be desirable they do not ‘strip.’ -I made a short barrel with one turn in the inch (simply to try the effect of an extreme -velocity of rotation) and found that I could fire from it mechanically—fitting projectiles -made of an alloy of lead and tin, with a charge of 35 grains of powder they -penetrated through seven inches of elm planks.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Degree of -spiral fixed.</p> - -<p>After many experiments, in order to determine the diameter for the bore and -degree of spirality, Mr. Whitworth adds: “For an ordinary military barrel, 39 inches -long, <span class="sidenote">Diameter of -bore determined.</span>I proposed a ·45-inch bore, with one turn in 20 inches, which is in my opinion -the best for this length. The rotation is sufficient with a bullet of the requisite -specific gravity, for a range of 2000 yards.” Under these conditions the projectiles -on leaving the gun would be about two and a half diameters of the bore in length. -“The gun responds to every increase of charge, by firing with lower elevation, from -the service charge of 70 grains up to 120 grains; this latter charge is the largest -that can be effectively consumed, and the recoil then becomes more than the shoulder -can conveniently bear with the weight of the service musket.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advocates of -slow turn.</p> - -<p>“The advocates of the slow turn of one in 6 feet 6 inches, consider that a quick -turn causes so much friction as to impede the progress of the ball to an injurious -and sometimes dangerous degree, and to produce loss of elevation and range; but -my experiments show the contrary to be the case. <span class="sidenote">Effects of -quick turn.</span>The effect of too quick a turn, -as to friction, is felt in the greatest degree when the projectile has attained its -highest velocity in the barrel, that is at the muzzle, and is felt in the least degree -when the projectile is beginning to move, at the breech. The great strain put upon -a gun at the instant of explosion is due, not to the resistance of friction, but to the -<i>vis inertiæ</i> of the projectile which has to be overcome. In a long barrel, with an -extremely quick turn, the resistance offered to the progress of the projectile is very -great at the muzzle, and although moderate charges give good results, the rifle will -not respond to increased charges by giving a better elevation. If the barrel be cut -shorter, an increase of charge then lowers the elevation.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Objections to -increasing -spiral.</p> - -<p>“The use of an increasing or varying turn is obviously injurious, for besides -altering the shape of the bullet, it causes increased resistance at the muzzle, the very -place where relief is wanted.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Length and -spiral -increased.</p> - -<p>“Finding that all difficulty arising from length of projectiles, is overcome by<span class="pagenum" id="Page108">[108]</span> -giving sufficient rotation, and that any weight that may be necessary can be obtained -by adding to the length, I adopted for the bullet of the service weight, an increased -length, <span class="sidenote">Diameter -decreased.</span>and a reduced diameter, <span class="sidenote">Trajectory -lowered.</span>and obtained a comparatively low trajectory; less -elevation is required, and the path of the projectile lies more nearly in a straight -line, making it more likely to hit any object of moderate height within range, and -rendering mistakes in judging distances of less moment. The time of flight being -shortened, the projectile is very much less deflected by the action of the wind.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Proper powder -for expanding -bullets.</p> - -<p>“It is most important to observe that with all expanding bullets proper powder -must be employed. In many cases this kind of bullet has failed, owing to the use of -a slowly igniting powder, <span class="sidenote">Powder for -hardened -bullets.</span>which is desirable for a hard metal projectile, as it causes -less strain upon the piece, but is unsuitable with a soft metal expanding projectile, -for which a quickly igniting powder is absolutely requisite to insure a complete -expansion, which will fill the bore. <span class="sidenote">Consequences -of imperfect -expansion.</span>Unless this is done the gases rush past the -bullet between it and the barrel, the latter becomes foul, the bullet is distorted, and -the shooting must be bad. <span class="sidenote">Advantages -of hexagonal -form.</span>If the projectiles used be made of the same hexagonal -shape externally as the bore of the barrel internally, that is, with a mechanical fit, -metals of all degrees of hardness, from lead, or lead and tin, up to hardened steel -may be employed, and slowly igniting powder, like that of the service may be -employed.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr. Whitworth’s -claims.</p> - -<p>Mr. Whitworth does not lay claim to any originality as inventor of the polygonal -system, but merely brings it forward, as the most certain mode of securing spiral -motion, but he deserves to be honored by all Riflemen, as having established the -degree of spirality, the diameter of bore, to ensure the best results from a given weight -of lead, and length of barrel.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>CONCLUSION.</h3> - -<p>In achieving the important position obtained by the rifle in the present day, it has -nevertheless effected no more than was predicted of it by Leutman, the Academician -of St. Petersburg, in 1728, by Euler, Borda, and Gassendi, and by our eminent but -hitherto forgotten countryman Robins, who in 1747, urgently called the attention of -the Government and the public to the importance of this description of fire-arm as a -military weapon.</p> - -<p>In the War of American Independence, the rifle, there long established as the -national arm for the chase, exhibited its superiority as a <i>war</i> arm also, in so sensible a -manner, that we were constrained to oppose to the American hunters the subsidised -Riflemen of Hesse, Hanover, and Denmark.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Robins’ -prophecy.</p> - -<p>We shall close by quoting the last words in “Robins’ Tracts of Gunnery.”</p> - -<p>“Whatever State shall thoroughly comprehend the nature and advantages of rifled -barrel pieces, and having facilitated and completed their construction, shall introduce -into their armies their <i>general</i> use with a <i>dexterity</i> in the -<i>management</i> of them; they<span class="pagenum" id="Page109">[109]</span> -will by this means acquire a superiority, which will almost equal anything that has -been done at any time by the particular excellence of any one kind of arms; and -will perhaps fall but little short of the wonderful effects which histories relate to -have been formerly produced by the first inventors of fire-arms.”</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The preceding articles on the Rifle, -Rifling, and Rifle Projectiles are mainly compiled from: “New -Principles of Gunnery, by Robins,” “Scloppetaria,” “Remarks on -National Defence, by Col. the Hon. A. Gordon,” -“Dean’s Manual of Fire Arms,” “Rifle Ammunition, by Capt. A. -Hawes,” “Rifles and Rifle Practice, by C. M. -Wilcox,” “Papers on Mechanical Subjects, by Whitworth,” “The -Rifle Musket, by Capt. Jarvis, Royal Artillery,” -“Des Armes Rayees, by H. Mangeot,” “Cours Elementaire sur les Armes Portatives, by F. Gillion,” and “Cours -sur les Armes a feu Portatives, by L. Panot.”</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page110">[110]</span></p> - -<h2>THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<h3>DEFINITIONS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Matter.</p> - -<p>Matter,—everything which has weight.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Body.</p> - -<p>Body,—a portion of matter limited in every direction.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mass.</p> - -<p>Mass,—the quantity of matter in any body.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Particle.</p> - -<p>Particle,—or material point, is a body of evanescent magnitude, and bodies of -finite magnitude are said to be made up of an indefinite number of particles, or material -points.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Inertia.</p> - -<p>Inertia,—passiveness or inactivity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Attraction.</p> - -<p>Attraction,—a fundamental law of nature, that every particle of matter has a -tendency to be attracted towards another particle.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Density.</p> - -<p>Density,—is in proportion to the closeness of the particles to each other.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Volume.</p> - -<p>Volume,—the space bounded by the exterior surface of a body, is its apparent -volume or size.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elasticity.</p> - -<p>Elasticity,—a body that yields to pressure, and recovers its figure again; hence -air and gasses are elastic bodies; lead a non-elastic body.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Motion.</p> - -<p>Motion,—is the changing of place, or the opposite to a state of rest.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Velocity.</p> - -<p>Velocity,—is the rate of motion; there are four rates of motion, viz., Uniform, -Variable, Accelerated, and Retarded.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">1st. Uniform.</p> - -<p>1st. Uniform,—when a particle traverses equal distances, in any equal successive -portion of time.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">2nd. Variable.</p> - -<p>2nd. Variable,—when the spaces passed over in equal times, are unequal.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">3rd. Accelerated.</p> - -<p>3rd. Accelerated,—when the distances traversed in equal times are successively -greater and greater.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">4th. Retarded.</p> - -<p>4th. Retarded,—when the distances traversed in equal times are successively -less and less.</p> - -<p>Acceleration or Retardation, may also be equal or unequal, that is uniform or -variable.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Friction.</p> - -<p>Friction,—arises from the irregularities of the surfaces which act upon one another.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Force.</p> - -<p>Force,—any cause which produces, or tends to produce a change in the state of -rest, or of motion of a particle of matter.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Measure of -force.</p> - -<p>Forces are measured by comparison with weights. Thus any forces which will -bend a spring into the same positions as weights of 1lb., 2lbs., 3lbs., &c., are called -respectively forces of 1lb., 2lbs., 3lbs., &c., &c.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Momentum.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page111">[111]</span></p> - -<p>Momentum,—or quantity of motion. If a body moving at first with a certain -velocity is afterwards observed to move with double or triple this velocity, the quantity -of motion of the body is conceived to be doubled or tripled, hence the momentum of -a body, depends upon its velocity, as the quantity of motion of a body is the product -of the velocity by the mass or weight.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Laws of -motion.</p> - -<p>The elementary principles upon which are based all our reasonings respecting the -motions of bodies, are called the “Laws of Motion,” and as arranged by Sir Isaac -Newton, are three in number.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">1st Law.</p> - -<p>1st. A particle at rest will continue for ever at rest, and a particle in motion -will continue in motion uniformly forward in a straight line, until it be acted upon by -some extraneous force.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">2nd Law.</p> - -<p>2nd. When any force acts upon a body in motion, the change of motion which -it produces is proportional to the force impressed, and in the direction of that force.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">3rd Law.</p> - -<p>3rd. Action and reaction are equal, and in contrary directions. In all cases the -quantity of motion gained by one body is always equal to that lost by the other in the -same direction. Thus, if a ball in motion, strikes another at rest, the motion communicated -to the latter will be taken from the former, and the velocity of the former be -proportionately diminished.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Centre of -Gravity.</p> - -<p>Centre of Gravity,—is that point at which the whole weight of the body may be -considered to act, and about which consequently, the body, when subjected to the -force of gravity only, will balance in all positions.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Specific -Gravity.</p> - -<p>Specific Gravity,—the weight belonging to an equal bulk of every different -substance, and is estimated by the quantities of matter when the bulks are the same; -or in other words, it is the density that constitutes the specific gravity. It is agreed -to make pure rain-water the standard, to which they refer the comparative weights -of all other bodies. Lead is about eleven times the weight of the same bulk of water.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Initial -Velocity.</p> - -<p>Initial Velocity is the velocity which a bullet possesses on leaving the muzzle of a -gun; and in the speaking of the velocity of bullets fired from the musket now used, -you understand 1200 feet per second, for the Initial Velocity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Angular -Velocity.</p> - -<p>Angular Velocity is the velocity with which the circular arc is described; and -depends upon the perpendicular distance of the point from the axis of rotation.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Terminal -Velocity.</p> - -<p>Terminal Velocity: if a cannon ball were to be let fall from a very great height, -it would by the law of gravity, descend with accelerated motion towards the earth, -but as the resistance of the air increases as the squares of velocities, a point would be -reached when the resistance would be equal to the force of gravity, from whence it -would fall to the earth in uniform motion.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Eccentric -Body.</p> - -<p>An Eccentric Body, is one whose centre of figure does not correspond with the -centre of gravity.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>MOTION OF A PROJECTILE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Modified by -Gravity and -air.</p> - -<p>If no force were acting upon the projectile, except the explosive force of gunpowder, -it would by the first law of motion, move on for ever in the line in which it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page112">[112]</span> -discharged; this motion is modified by the action of two forces, viz., gravity and the -resistance of the air.</p> - -<p>As the early cannons were of the rudest construction, and were used only to force -open barriers, or to be employed against troops at a very short range, it was a matter -of secondary consideration what course the bullet took, indeed it was generally -believed, that it flew for some distance in a straight line, and then dropped suddenly. -Acting upon this opinion we find that most of the early cannon had a large metal -ring at the muzzle, so as to render it the same size as at the breech, and with such as -were not of this construction they made use of a wooden foresight which tied on to -the muzzle, so as to make the line of sight parallel to the axis, by which they conceived -that they might aim more directly at the object which the bullet was -designed to hit.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Leonardo da -Vinci, 1452.</p> - -<p>The first author who wrote professedly on the flight of a cannon shot was a -celebrated Italian Mathematician, named Leonardo da Vinci, who explains his manner -of studying phenomena, in order to arrive at safe conclusions, thus: “I will treat of -the subject, but first of all I will make some experiments, because my intention is to -quote experience, and then to show why bodies are found to act in a certain -manner;” and taking as his motto, “Science belongs to the Captain, practice to -the Soldier,” he boldly asks: “If a bombard throws various distances with various -elevations, I ask in what part of its range will be the greatest angle of elevation?” -The sole answer is a small drawing of three curves, (<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 3.), the greatest -range being the curve about midway between the perpendicular and the horizontal. -Yet this small drawing is very remarkable when we come to examine it. In the first -place, we see that he recognises the fact that the trajectory is a curve throughout its -length; secondly, that a shot fired perpendicularly will not fall again on the spot -whence it was fired. Simple as they may seem, these two propositions recognise the -force of gravity, resistance of the air, and the rotary motion of the earth.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tartaglia, -1537.</p> - -<p>The next author who wrote on the flight of cannon shot was another celebrated -Italian Mathematician, named Tartaglia. In the year 1537, and afterwards in 1546, he -published several works relating to the theory of those motions, and although the then -imperfect state of mechanics furnished him with very fallacious principles to proceed on, -yet he was not altogether unsuccessful in his enquiries, for he determined (contrary to -the opinion of practitioners) that no part of the track of a bullet was in a straight line, -although he considered that the curvature in some cases was so little, as not to be -attended to, comparing it to the surface of the sea, which, although it appears to be -a plain, when practically considered, is yet undoubtedly incurvated round the centre -of the earth. It was only by an accident he nearly stumbled upon one truth in the -theory of projectiles, when he stated that the greatest range obtained by equal forces -is at 45°. Calculating that at the angle 0° the trajectory was null, that by raising -the trajectory, the range increased up to a certain point, afterwards diminished, and -finally became null again when the projective force acted perpendicularly, he concluded -that the greatest range must be a medium between these two points, and -consequently at 45°.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page113">[113]</span></p> - -<p>Others thought that a shot, on leaving the muzzle, described a straight line; -that after a certain period its motion grew slower, and then that it described a curve, -caused by the forces of projection and gravity; finally, that it fell perpendicularly. -Tartaglia seems to have originated the notion that the part of the curve which joined -the oblique line to the perpendicular, was the arc of a circle tangent to one and -the other.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Galileo, 1638.</p> - -<p>In the year 1638, Galileo, also an Italian, printed his dialogues, in which he -was the first to describe the real effect of gravity on falling bodies; on these -principles he determined, that the flight of a cannon shot, or of any other projectile, -would be in the curve of a parabola, unless it was deviated from this track by the -resistance of the air. A parabola is a figure formed by cutting a cone, with a plain -parallel to the side of the cone.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>GRAVITY.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Bullet as -influenced by -powder and -gravity only.</p> - -<p>We will now proceed to consider the course of a bullet, as affected by <i>two</i> forces -only, viz., 1st. The velocity communicated to it by the explosion of the powder; -and 2nd. By the force of Gravity.</p> - -<p>The attraction of the earth acts on all bodies in proportion to their quantities of -matter.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">If no air, all -bodies would -fall in same -time.</p> - -<p>The difference of time observable in the fall of bodies through the air, is due to -the resistance of that medium, whence we may fairly conclude, that if the air was -altogether absent, and no other resisting medium occupied its place, all bodies of -whatever size, and of whatever weight, must descend with the same speed. Under -such circumstances, a balloon and the smoke of the fire would descend, instead of -ascending as they do, by the pressure of the air, which, bulk for bulk, is heavier than -themselves. <span class="sidenote">Gold and dry -leaf in same -time.</span>A dry leaf falls very slowly, and a piece of gold very rapidly, but if the -gold be beaten into a thin leaf, the time of its descent is greatly prolonged. If a -piece of metal and a feather are let fall at the same instant from the top of a tall -exhausted receiver, it will be found that these two bodies, so dissimilar in weight, -will strike the table of the air-pump, on which the receiver stands, at the same -instant. Supposing the air did not offer any resistance to the onward course of a -projectile, and that the instantaneous force communicated to a bullet, from the explosion -of the gunpowder, were to project it in the line <span class="smcapall">A.B.</span> (<a href="#Plate21">plate 21</a>, fig. 4.) from the -point <span class="smcapall">A.</span>, with a velocity that will send it in the first second of time as far as <span class="smcapall">C.</span>, then -if there were no other force to affect it, it would continue to move in the same direction <span class="smcapall">B.</span>, -and with the same velocity, and at the next second it would have passed over -another space, <span class="smcapall">C.D.</span>, equal to <span class="smcapall">A.C.</span>, so that in the third second it would have reached -<span class="smcapall">E.</span>, keeping constantly in the same straight line.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bullet under -two forces, -powder and -gravity.</p> - -<p>But no sooner does the bullet quit the muzzle, than it immediately comes under -the influence of another force, called the force of gravity, which differs from the force -caused by the explosion of the powder, which ceases to influence the bullet, after it -has once communicated to it its velocity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">An accelerating -force.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page114">[114]</span></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Effect of gravity.</span>Gravity is an accelerating force, acting constantly upon, and causing the bullet -to move towards the earth, with a velocity increasing with the length of time the -bullet is exposed to its influence. It has been found from experiment that this -increase of velocity will cause a body to move through spaces, in proportion to the -squares of the time taken to pass over the distance. Thus, if a body falls a given -space in one second, in two it will have fallen over a space equal to four times what it -fell through in the first second, and in the three first seconds it will have fallen -through a space equal to nine times that which it fell through in the first second.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Result of gravity.</p> - -<p>The consequence of this principle is, that all bodies of similar figure, and equal -density, at equal distances from the earth, fall with equal velocity; <span class="sidenote">Course of the -bullet.</span>and if a body -describes a space of 16ft. in the first second of time, it will, in the next second of -time, fall <i>three</i> times 16, or 48 feet, and thus will have fallen, from the time it first -dropped, four times 16 feet, or 64 feet, because 4 is the square of 2, the time the -body was falling. In the third second, it will fall 5 times 16 feet, or 80 feet, and -these sums collectively, viz., 16 + 48 + 80 = 144 feet, the whole distance described -by the falling body in three seconds of time.</p> - -<p>From this it is evident, that instead of moving in a straight line <span class="smcapall">A. B.</span>, -(<a href="#Plate21">plate 21</a>, -fig. 5.), the bullet will be drawn from that course.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Parabolic -theory.</p> - -<p>From the point <span class="smcapall">C.</span>, draw <span class="smcapall">C. F.</span>, -equal to the space that the bullet may be supposed -to fall in one second of time, then at the end of the first second of time the bullet will be -at <span class="smcapall">F.</span>, instead of at <span class="smcapall">C.</span>, and will -have moved in the direction <span class="smcapall">A. F.</span>, instead of <span class="smcapall">A. C.</span>; at -the end of the next second it will have fallen a total distance <span class="smcapall">D. G.</span>, equal to four times -<span class="smcapall">C. F.</span>, thus the bullet will have fallen at the end of the third -second a distance <span class="smcapall">E. H.</span>, equal -to nine times <span class="smcapall">C. F.</span>, and it will have moved in the line -<span class="smcapall">A. F. G. H.</span> instead of the straight -line <span class="smcapall">A. B.</span>, in which it would have moved, had it not been affected by the force of gravity. -The curve <span class="smcapall">A. H.</span>, is of the form called a Parabola, and hence the theory is called the -“Parabolic Theory.” It is founded on the principle that the velocity given to the -bullet by the explosion of the gunpowder is continued throughout its course, but -this would only be true in vacuo, and is therefore of little value in calculating the -real course of the bullet in the air.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ON THE TIME TAKEN TO DRAW A BALL TO THE GROUND BY -THE FORCE OF GRAVITY.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">If fired with -axis parallel -to the ground.</p> - -<p>1st Case. Supposing a ball to be fired when the axis of the piece is parallel to -the ground and 16 feet above it, then the projectile will strike the earth in the same -length of time that it would have done, had it been rolled out of the muzzle, quite -irrespective of the velocity with which it may have been propelled, or the consequent -extent of range; that is to say the ball will have reached the point -<span class="smcapall">B.</span>, (<a href="#Plate22">plate 22</a>, fig. 1.), -in the same length of time that it would require to fall from the muzzle <span class="smcapall">A.</span>, to the earth -<span class="smcapall">C.</span>; <i>i. e.</i>, in one second.</p> - -<p>2nd Case. Were three guns to be fired at the same instant, with their three -axes parallel to the horizon as before, and loaded respectively with <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> drm., 1 drm., and -1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> drm. of powder of the same strength, then, -although the three initial velocities and<span class="pagenum" id="Page115">[115]</span> -three ranges would consequently all be different, yet the three balls would strike the -ground at the same time, <i>i. e.</i> at the points <span class="smcapall">B. B. B.</span> -in one second. (<a href="#Plate22">Plate 22</a>, fig. 2.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">If axis at an -angle to the -ground.</p> - -<p>3rd Case. When a ball is fired at an angle of elevation it will reach the earth -in the same length of time which it would occupy in falling the length of the tangent of the -angle of projection; hence supposing <span class="smcapall">F. G.</span> (<a href="#Plate22">plate 22</a>, fig. 3.) to be 16 feet, the ball -would reach the point <span class="smcapall">G.</span> in one second, irrespective of the distance from -<span class="smcapall">D.</span> to <span class="smcapall">G.</span></p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ATMOSPHERE.</h3> - -<p>Let us now take into our consideration the course of a projectile while under the -influence of <i>three</i> forces, viz., powder, gravity, and air.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Why named.</p> - -<p>The atmosphere, or sphere of gases, is the general name applied to the whole -gaseous portion of this planet, as the term ocean is applied to its liquid, and land to -its solid portions.</p> - -<p>Being much lighter than either land or water, it necessarily floats or rests upon -them, and is in sufficient quantity to cover the highest mountains, and to rise nine or -ten times their height, to about 45 miles above the sea level, so as to form a layer over -the whole surface, averaging probably between forty and fifty miles in thickness, which -is about as thick, in proportion to the globe, as the liquid layer adhering to the surface -of an orange, after it had been dipped in water.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Composition -of air.</p> - -<p>It consists essentially of two gases, called oxygen and nitrogen, and also contains -a variable quantity of aqueous vapour.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Qualities of -air.</p> - -<p>In common with matter in every state, the air possesses impenetrability. It can -be compressed, but cannot be annihilated. It has weight, inertia, momentum, and -elasticity.</p> - -<p>In consequence of its weight is its pressure, which acts uniformly on all bodies, -and is equal to between 14lbs. and 15lbs. on every square inch of surface at the -sea-level.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Early idea of -air’s resistance.</p> - -<p>The first experiments that were made on projectiles, were carried out on the idea -that the resistance of the air would not materially affect the track of a bullet which -had great velocity. <span class="sidenote">How air acts.</span>But the moment a body is launched into space, it meets with -particles of the air at every instant of its movement, to which it yields part of its -velocity, and the air being a constant force, the velocity of the body decreases at every -instant from the commencement of its motion.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>RESULT OF THE AIR’S RESISTANCE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Robins, 1742, -showed effect -of air’s resistance.</p> - -<p>It remained for Robins, 1742, in a work then published, to show the real effect -of the atmosphere upon moving bodies. He proved by actual experiment, <span class="sidenote">Course of ball -was not a -parabola.</span>that a -24lb. shot did not range the fifth part of the distance it should have done according -to the parabolic theory. If a cannon shot moved in a parabolic curve, then from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page116">[116]</span> -known properties of that curve, it was evident that when fired with elevation, the -angle of descent of the bullet should have been the same as the angle at which it was -projected, and this he showed was not the case in practice. Now Robins acknowledged -the opinion of Galileo, as regards the force of gravity, to be correct; he could not -therefore attribute to him any miscalculation on the score of gravity. <span class="sidenote">Why not a -parabola.</span>He therefore -concluded, that the error of the “parabolic theory” arose from the supposition that -the bullet continued to move at the same velocity throughout its course.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Ballistic -pendulum.</p> - -<p>Robins tried a series of experiments by firing at a ballistic pendulum at different -distances; the oscillation of this pendulum enabled him to calculate the velocity of the -bullet, at the time it struck the pendulum, and by this means he ascertained, that -according to his expectations, the bullet moved slower in proportion as it became -more distant from the point at which it was fired. This diminution he attributed to -the resistance of the air.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Trajectory -more curved -than a parabola.</p> - -<p>From these considerations it is evident that instead of moving over equal spaces -<span class="smcapall">A. C.</span>, <span class="smcapall">C. D.</span>, -<span class="smcapall">D. E.</span>, (<a href="#Plate22">plate 22</a>, fig. 4), at each succeeding second of time, it will require -considerably longer to traverse each succeeding distance, and the force of gravity will -consequently have longer time to act upon it, and will have the effect of lowering the -bullet much more than it would do according to the “parabolic theory;” moreover -it is evident, that as the velocity of the bullet diminishes, the trajectory or path -followed by the bullet, will become still more incurvated.</p> - -<p>Having now proved the error of the “parabolic theory,” Robins began his -endeavours to calculate the actual course of the bullet, according to this new theory -which he had demonstrated, but this calculation was necessarily attended with great -difficulties, for in so doing a number of circumstances had to be considered.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Resultant.</p> - -<p>The resultant of the three forces acting on a projectile, (<a href="#Plate23">plate 23</a>, fig. 1), viz., -gunpowder, gravity, and the resistance of the air, is a motal force, diminishing in -velocity at every instant, causing the projectile to describe a curved line in its flight, -the incipient point of the curve lying in the axis of the bore of the piece, and its -continuation diverging in the direction of the attraction of gravity, till the projectile -obeys the latter force alone.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>EXPERIMENTS IN FRANCE.</h3> - -<p>It is stated by Captain Jervis, R.A., in the “Rifle Musket,” that “From -experiments made in France, <span class="sidenote">Angle for -greatest -range.</span>it has been found that the greatest range of the -common percussion musket, with spherical bullet fired with the regulation charge, was -at 25°; yet, by theoretical calculation, it should be 45°; <span class="sidenote">Velocity.</span>also that the usual velocity -was some 500 yards per second, whilst in vacuum it would be 19,792 yards per -second.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elevation -giving certain -range.</p> - -<p>“At an angle of from 4° to 5°, the real range was about 640 yards; without the -resistance of the air, and at an angle of 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°, it would be 3,674, or six times -greater.”</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page117">[117]</span></p> - -<h3>ON THE EFFECT OF THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR UPON THE -MOTION OF A PROJECTILE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">The effect of -the air’s resistance -upon -the motion of -a projectile.</p> - -<p>The effect of the resistance of the atmosphere to the motion of a projectile, is a -subject of the greatest importance in gunnery. It has engaged the attention of the -most eminent philosophers, and on account of the great difficulty of determining by -experiment, the correctness of any particular hypothesis, much difference of opinion is -entertained as to the absolute effect of this retarding force upon bodies moving in the -atmosphere with great velocities; and although sufficient is known to guide the -practical artillerist in that art to which he is devoted, still as a scientific question, it is -one of considerable interest, but more on account of the difficulty of its solution, than -from its practical importance.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr. Robins’ -discoveries.</p> - -<p>To our distinguished countryman, Mr. Benjamin Robins, is due the credit of not -only being the first practically to determine the enormous effect of the resistance of -the air in retarding the motions of military projectiles, but also of pointing out and -experimentally proving other facts with regard to this resistance, which will be noticed -when considering the subject of the deviation of shot from the intended direction.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Result of Dr. -Hutton’s experiments.</p> - -<p>After him, Dr. Hutton made a great number of experiments upon the same point, -viz., the effect of the resistance of the air upon bodies moving in that medium, both -with great and small velocities; and the inferences which he drew from these experiments, -although not absolutely true, are sufficiently correct for all practical purposes.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ON THE RESISTANCE OF A FLUID TO A BODY IN MOTION.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Circumstances -affecting -the resistance -which a -body meets -with in its -motion in a -fluid.</p> - -<p>The resistance which a body meets with in its motion through a fluid will depend -upon three principal causes, <span class="nowrap">viz:—</span></p> - -<p>1st. Its velocity, and the form and magnitude of the surface opposed to -the fluid.</p> - -<p>2nd. Upon the density and tenacity of the fluid or cohesion of its particles, -and also upon the friction which will be caused by the roughness of the surface of -the body.</p> - -<p>3rd. Upon the degree of compression to which this fluid, supposed to be perfectly -elastic, is subjected, upon which will depend the rapidity with which it will -close in and fill the space behind the body in motion.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The resistance -of a fluid to a -body as the -squares of the -velocities.</p> - -<p>Firstly, with regard to the velocity of the body. It is evident that a plane -moving through a fluid in a direction perpendicular to its surface, must impart to the -particles of the fluid with which it comes in contact, a velocity equal to its own; and, -consequently, from this cause alone, the resistances would be as the velocities; but -the number of particles struck in a certain time being also as the velocities, from -these two causes combined, the resistance of a fluid to a body in motion, arising from -the inertia of the particles of the fluid, will be as the square of the velocity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cohesion of -the particles -of a fluid, and -friction.</p> - -<p>Secondly, a body moving in a fluid must overcome the force of cohesion of those -parts which are separated, and the friction, both which are independent of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page118">[118]</span> -velocity. The total resistance then, from cohesion, friction, and inertia, will be -partly constant and partly as the square of the velocity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Result.</p> - -<p>The resistances therefore are as the squares of the velocities in the same fluid, -and as the squares of the velocities multiplied by the densities in different fluids.</p> - -<p>Hitherto, however, we have imagined a fluid which does not exist in nature; -that is to say, a <i>discontinued</i> fluid, or one which has its particles separated and <i>unconnected</i>, -and also perfectly non-elastic.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Atmosphere, -and its properties -bearing -on the -question of its -resistance.</p> - -<p>Now, in the atmosphere, no one particle that is contiguous to the body can be -moved without moving a great number of others, some of which will be distant from -it. If the fluid be much compressed, and the velocity of the moving body much less -than that with which the particles of the fluid will rush into vacuum in consequence -of the compression, it is clear that the space left by the moving body will be almost -instantaneously filled up, (<a href="#Plate23">plate 23</a>, fig. 2); and the resistance of such a medium -would be less the greater the compression, provided the density were the same, -because the velocity of rushing into a vacuum will be greater the greater the compression. -Also, in a greatly compressed fluid, the form of the fore part of the body -influences the amount of the retarding force but very slightly, while in a non-compressed -fluid this force would be considerably affected by the peculiar shape which -might be given to the projectile.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Resistance increased -when -the body -moves so fast -that a vacuum -is formed behind -it.</p> - -<p>Thirdly. If the body can be moved so rapidly that the fluid cannot instantaneously -press in behind it, as is found to be the case in the atmosphere, the resisting -power of the medium must be considerably increased, for the projectile being deprived -of the pressure of the fluid on its hind part, must support on its fore part the whole -weight of a column of the fluid, over and above the force employed in moving the -portion of the fluid in contact with it, which force is the sole source of resistance in -the discontinued fluid. Also, the condensation of the air in front of the body will -influence considerably the relation between the resistances and the velocities of an -oblique surface: and it is highly probable that although the resistances to a globe -may for slow motions be nearly proportional to the squares of the velocities, they will -for great velocities increase in a much higher ratio.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ON THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH AIR WILL RUSH INTO A VACUUM.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">The velocity -of the rush of -air into a -vacuum.</p> - -<p>When considering the resistance of the air to a body in motion, it is important -that the velocity with which air will rush into a vacuum should be determined; and -this will depend upon its pressure or elasticity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Result.</p> - -<p>It has been calculated, that air will rush into a vacuum at the rate of about 1,344 -feet per second when the barometer stands at 30 inches, so that should a projectile be -moving through the atmosphere at a greater velocity than this, say 1,600 feet per -second, then would there be a vacuum formed behind the ball, and instead of having -merely the resistance due to the inertia of the particles of the air, it would, in addition, -suffer that from the whole pressure of a column of the medium, equal to that indicated -by the barometer.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page119">[119]</span></p> - -<h2>UPON THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR TO -BODIES OF DIFFERENT FORMS.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Difficulties of -the question.</p> - -<p>The influence of the form of a body upon the resistance offered to it by a fluid, -is a problem of the greatest difficulty; and although the most celebrated mathematicians -have turned their attention to the subject, still, even for slow motions, they -have only been able to frame strictly empirical formula, founded upon the data derived -from practice; while with regard to the resistance at very high velocities, such as we -have to deal with, very little light has hitherto been thrown upon the subject.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Compressed -fluid.</p> - -<p>When a body moves in the atmosphere, the particles which are set in motion by -the projectile, act upon those in proximity to them, and these again upon others; and -also from the elasticity of the fluid, it would be compressed before the body in a -degree dependant upon the motion and form of the body. Moreover, the atmosphere -itself partakes so much of the nature of an infinitely compressed fluid, as to constantly -follow the body without loss of density when the motion is slow, but not when the -velocity is great, so that the same law will not hold good for both. In an infinitely -compressed fluid (that is, one which would fill up the space left behind the body instantaneously) -the parts of the fluid which the body presses against in its motion -would instantaneously communicate the pressure received by them throughout the -whole mass, so that the density of the fluid would not undergo any change, either in -front of the body or behind it, consequently the resistance to the body would be much -less than in a fluid partially compressed like the atmosphere; and the form of the -body would not have the same effect in diminishing or increasing the amount of -resistance.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">When a -vacuum is -formed behind -the ball.</p> - -<p>When the velocity of a body moving in the atmosphere is so great that a vacuum is -formed behind it, the action of the fluid approaches to that of the discontinued fluid.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH SLOW MOTIONS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Resistance in -proportion to -surface.</p> - -<p>1st. It appears from the various experiments that have been made upon bodies -moving in the atmosphere, that the resistance is nearly as the surface, increasing a very -little above that proportion in the greater surfaces.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Resistance as -squares of -velocity.</p> - -<p>2nd. That the resistance to the same surface with <i>different</i> velocities, is in <i>slow</i> -motions nearly as the squares of the velocity, but gradually increasing more and more -in proportion as the velocities increase.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rounded and -pointed ends -suffer less resistance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page120">[120]</span></p> - -<p>3rd. The round ends, and sharp ends of solids, suffer less resistance than the -flat or plane ends of the same diameter. Hence the flat end of the cylinder and of a -hemisphere, or of a cone, suffer more resistance than the round or sharp ends of the same.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Sharp ends -not always -least resistance.</p> - -<p>4th. The sharper ends have not always the smaller resistances; for instance, the -round end of a hemisphere has less resistance than the pointed end of a cone, whose -angle with the axis is 25° 42′.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of base -affects resistance.</p> - -<p>5th. When the hinder parts of bodies are of different forms, the resistances are -different, though the fore parts are the same. Hence the resistance to the fore part -of a cylinder is less than that on the equally flat surface of the cone or hemisphere, -owing to the shape of the <i>base</i> of the cylinder. The base of the hemisphere has less -resistance than the cone, and the round side of the hemisphere less than that of the -whole sphere.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Only proved -for slow motions.</p> - -<p>The above refers only to <i>slow</i> motions, and the results given, from experiments -with very small velocities; and it is to be expected, that with very rapid motions the -form of the fore, as well as the hind part, of the projectile, will influence the amount -of resistance in a much higher degree.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of hind -part.</p> - -<p>That form for the hind part will be best which has the greatest pressure upon it, -when moving with a certain velocity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Best shape for -fore and hind -part.</p> - -<p>The ogivale form seems, from experiment, to fulfil the former condition. The -best form for the <i>hind</i> part, for <i>rapid</i> motions, has not been determined; it may, -however, be considered to be of much less importance than the shape of the fore part.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form determined -by extent -of range.</p> - -<p>Of course the best form can be determined by extent of range, but deductions -from this will depend upon such a variety of circumstances, the effects of some of -which must be entirely hypothetical, that the correctness of any formulæ obtained in -this manner must be very uncertain.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form suggested -by Sir -I. Newton.</p> - -<p>Sir Isaac Newton, in his “Principia,” has given an indication of that form of -body, which, in passing through a fluid, would experience less resistance than a solid -body of equal magnitude of any other form. It is elongated.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Axis of elongated -bodies -must be fixed.</p> - -<p>It is plain, however, that the minimum of resistance would not be obtained with -a shot of an elongated form, unless the axis can be kept in the direction of the trajectory; -as not only will the axis perpetually deviate from the true direction, but the -projectile will turn over and rotate round its shorter axis, that is, if fired out of a -smooth bore.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages of -conical bullets.</p> - -<p>Conical bullets have an advantage, from their pointed end, which enables them -to pass through the air with greater facility; and for the same reason they are better -calculated to penetrate into any matter than spherical ones.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of conical -bullets.</p> - -<p>A <i>solid</i> bullet cannot be pointed without sending backward the centre of gravity. -The sharper the point, the more it is liable to injury, and if the apex of the cone -does not lie true, in the axis of the projectile, then such an imperfection of figure is -calculated to cause greater deflections in the flight than any injury which a round -surface is likely to sustain. In penetrating into solid bodies, it is also important that -the centre of gravity should be near its work.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page121">[121]</span></p> - -<h3>RESISTANCE OF THE AIR, AS AFFECTED BY THE WEIGHT OF -PROJECTILES.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Resistance -overcome by -weight.</p> - -<p>Bodies of similar volume and figure overcome the resistance of the air in proportion -to their densities. The amount of the air’s resistance is in proportion to the -magnitude of the surface.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Contents of -circles.</p> - -<p>The superficial contents of circles are as the <i>squares</i> of their diameters. Hence -if the ball <span class="smcapall">A.</span> (<a href="#Plate23">plate 23</a>, fig. 3) be -2in. in diameter, and the ball <span class="smcapall">B.</span> 4in., the amount of -resistance experienced would be as four to sixteen.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Contents of -spheres.</p> - -<p>The cubical contents, or weights of spheres, are in proportion to the <i>cubes</i> of -their diameters. Hence the power to overcome resistance in the balls <span class="smcapall">A</span> -and <span class="smcapall">B</span> would -be as <i>eight</i> to <i>sixty-four</i>. Thus the power to overcome resistance increases in much -greater proportion than the resistance elicited by increasing the surface.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages of -elongated bullets.</p> - -<p>Suppose an elongated body to have the diameter of its cylindrical portion equal to -that of the ball <span class="smcapall">A.</span>, <i>i.e.</i>, <span class="smcapall">E.F.</span> = -<span class="smcapall">C.D.</span>, (<a href="#Plate23">plate 23</a>, fig. 4), and elongated so that its -weight should be equal to that of the spherical shot <span class="smcapall">B.</span>, it is evident that it would -meet equal resistance from the air, to the ball <span class="smcapall">A.</span>, having, at the same time, as much -power to overcome resistance as the body <span class="smcapall">B.</span></p> - -<p>Elongated balls, by offering a larger surface to the sides of the barrel, are less -liable to be affected by any imperfections in the bore; whereas the spherical ball, -pressing only on its tangential point, will give to any little hollows, or undulations, -wherever they occur.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Balls cannot -be expanded.</p> - -<p>A spherical ball cannot be expanded into the grooves, unless there be very little -windage, except by blows from the ramrod, the gas escaping round the circumference -of the ball, and giving it an irregular motion while passing down the barrel; <span class="sidenote">Elongated -projectiles -easily expanded.</span>but an -elongated projectile can be readily expanded, and the facility of doing so is in proportion -to the difference of length between its major and minor axis.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>DEVIATIONS OF PROJECTILES FROM SMOOTH-BORED GUNS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Causes of deviation -of -shot.</p> - -<p>Very great irregularities occur in the paths described by projectiles fired from -smooth-bored guns. It is a fact well known to all practical artillerists, that if a -number of solid shot or any other projectile be fired from the same gun, with equal -charges and elevations, and with gunpowder of the same quality, the gun carriage -resting on a platform, and the piece being laid with the greatest care before each -round, very few of the shot will range to the same distance; and moreover, the -greater part will be found to deflect considerably (unless the range be very short) to -the right or left of the line in which the gun is pointed.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Four causes of -deviation.</p> - -<p>The causes of these deviations may be stated as follows:—1st, Windage; 2nd, -Rotation; 3rd, Wind; 4th, from Rotation of the Earth.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>1st CAUSE, WINDAGE.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Action from -windage.</p> - - - - - -<p>Windage causes irregularity in the flight of a projectile, from the fact of the elastic<span class="pagenum" id="Page122">[122]</span> -gas acting in the first instance on its upper portion, and driving it against the bottom -of the bore; the shot re-acts at the same time that it is impelled forward by the -charge, and strikes the upper surface of the bore some distance down, and so on by a -succession of rebounds, <span class="sidenote">False direction.</span>until it leaves the bore in an accidental direction, and with a -rotatory motion, depending chiefly on the position of the last impact against the bore. -Thus should the last impact of a (concentric) shot when fired from a gun be upon the -right hand side of the bore, as represented, (<a href="#Plate23">plate 23</a>, fig. 5); the shot will have a -tendency to deflect to the left in the direction. <span class="sidenote">Gives rotation.</span>While at the same time a rotation -will be given to it in the direction indicated by the arrows.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>2nd CAUSE, ROTATION.</h4> - -<span class="sidenote">Rotation -without translation.</span> - -<p>Every body may have a twofold motion, one by which it is carried forward, and -the other by which it may turn round on an axis passing through its centre, called a -motion of rotation.</p> - -<p>When a body has only a motion of translation all the particles of which it is -composed move with equal swiftness, and also in parallel directions; and by the first -law of motion, every particle put in such motion will constantly move with the same -velocity in the same direction, unless it be prevented by some external cause.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rotation.</p> - -<p>By a motion of rotation, a body without changing its place, turns round on an -axis passing through its centre of gravity. <span class="sidenote">Rotation and -translation -combined.</span>A body may have at the same time both -a progressive and rotatory motion, without either disturbing the other, and one may -suffer a change from the action of some external force, while the other continues the -same as before.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Force through -centre of -gravity, -causes progressive -motion -only.</p> - -<p>If the direction of the force be through the centre of gravity, it causes a progressive -motion only, that is, if the body was at rest before, it will move forward in -the direction of the impressed force.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Effect of force -on a body in -motion.</p> - -<p>If a body had a progressive motion before, then impressed force will cause it to -move faster or slower, or to change its direction, according as the direction of this -second force conspires with or opposes its former motion, or acts obliquely on its -direction.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rotation not -disturbed by -second force -in direction of -centre of gravity.</p> - -<p>If a body, besides its progressive motion had a motion of rotation also, this last -will not be changed by the action of a new force passing through the centre of gravity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rotation of -force does not -pass through -the centre of -gravity.</p> - -<p>If the direction of the force does not pass through the centre of gravity, the -progressive motion will be altered, and the body will then also acquire a rotatory -motion round an axis passing through the centre of gravity, and perpendicular to a -plane passing through the direction of the force and this centre.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>CASES BEARING UPON THE FOREGOING THEORY.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">When ball is -perfectly -round, centre -of gravity -coincides with -figure, and no -windage.</p> - -<p>1st Case. Suppose the ball to be perfectly round, its centre of gravity and -figure to coincide, and let there be no windage. In this case the force of the powder -not only passes through the centre of gravity of the shot, but proceeds in a direction -parallel to the axis of the bore, and there would be but small friction due to the -weight of the shot.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">If windage -then rotation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page123">[123]</span></p> - -<p>2nd Case. But as there is a considerable amount of friction between the bore -and the projectile in the case where there is windage, the direction of this force being -opposite to that of the gunpowder, and upon the surface of the ball, it will therefore -give rotation to the shot.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Eccentricity -causes rotation.</p> - -<p>3rd Case. Suppose the ball to be perfectly round, but its centre of gravity not -to coincide with the centre of figure. In this case the impelling force passes through -the centre of the ball, or nearly so, and acts in a direction parallel to the axis of the -piece; but if the centre of gravity of the ball lie out of the line of direction of the -force of the powder, the shot will be urged to turn round its centre of gravity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Angular velocity.</p> - -<p>The angular velocity communicated to the body will depend, firstly, upon the -length of the perpendicular from the centre of gravity upon the direction of the impelling -force, and secondly, upon the law of density of the material or the manner -in which the metal is distributed. The direction of rotations will depend upon the -position of the centre of figure with regard to that of gravity. (<a href="#Plate23">Plate 23</a>, fig. 6.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Robins’ -remarks.</p> - -<p>Robins remarks, bullets are not only depressed beneath their original direction by -the action of gravity, but are also frequently driven to the right or left of that direction -by the action of some other force. If it were true that bullets varied their direction -by the action of gravity only, then it ought to happen that the errors in their flight to -the right or left of the mark, should increase in proportion to the distance of the mark -from the firer only.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Deflection not -in proportion -to distance.</p> - -<p>But this is contrary to all experience, for the same piece which will carry its -bullet within an inch at ten yards, cannot be relied upon to ten inches in one hundred -yards, much less to thirty inches in three hundred.</p> - -<p>Now this irregularity can only arise from the track of the bullet being incurvated -sideways as well as downwards. The reality of this doubly incurvated track being -demonstrated, it may be asked what can be the cause of a motion so different from -what has been hitherto supposed.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">1st cause of -increase, deflection.</p> - -<p>1st Cause. Is owing to the resistance of the air acting obliquely to the progressive -motion of the body, and sometimes arises from inequalities in the resisted -surface.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">2nd cause, -from whirling -motion.</p> - -<p>2nd Cause. From a whirling motion acquired by the bullet round its axis, for -by this motion of rotation, combined with the progressive motion, each part of the -bullet’s surface will strike the air in a direction very different from what it would do -if there was no such whirl; and the obliquity of the action of the air arising from this -cause will be greater, according as the rotatory motion of the bullet is greater in proportion -to its progressive motion; and as this whirl will in one part of the revolution -conspire in some degree with the progressive, and in another part be equally opposed -to it, the resistance of the air on the fore part of the bullet will be hereby affected, -and will be increased in that part where the whirling motion conspires with the -progressive; and diminished where it is opposed to it. <span class="sidenote">Direction of a -shot influenced -by -position of -axis round -which it -whirls.</span>And by this means the whole -effort of resistance, instead of being in a direction opposite to the direction of the -body, will become oblique thereto, and will produce those effects we have already -mentioned. For instance, if the axis of the whirl was perpendicular to the horizon,<span class="pagenum" id="Page124">[124]</span> -then the incurvation would be to the right or left. If that axis were horizontal to -the direction of the bullet, then the incurvation would be upwards or downwards. -But as the first position of the axis is uncertain, and as it may perpetually shift in the -course of the bullet’s flight, the deviation of the bullet is not necessarily either in one -certain direction, nor tending to the same side in one part of its flight that it does in -another, but it more usually is continually changing the tendency of its deflection, as -the axis round which it whirls must frequently shift its position during the progressive -motion.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Doubly incurvated -track.</p> - -<p>It is constantly found in practice that a shot will deviate in a curved line, either -right or left, the curve rapidly increasing towards the end of the range. This most -probably occurs from the velocity of rotation decreasing but slightly, compared with -the initial velocity of the shot, or, if a strong wind is blowing across the range during -the whole time of flight, the curve would manifestly be increased according as the -velocity of the ball decreased.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS OF ROBINS’ THEORY OF ROTATION.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">With ball and -double string.</p> - -<p>1st Illustration. A wooden ball 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> inches in diameter suspended by a double -string, nine feet long. It will be found that if this ball receive a spinning motion by -the untwisting of the string it will remain stationary. If it be made to vibrate, it will -continue to do so in the same vertical plane. But if it be made to spin while it -vibrates it will be deflected to that side on which the whirl combines with the progressive -motion.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">By firing -through screens.</p> - -<p>2nd Illustration. By firing through screens of thin paper placed parallel to each -other, at equal distances, the deflection or track of bullets can easily be investigated. -It will be found that the amount of deflection is wholly disproportioned to the increased -distance of the screens.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bent muzzle.</p> - -<p>3rd Illustration. To give further light upon this subject, Mr. Robins took a barrel -and bent it at about three or four inches from the muzzle to the left, the bend making -an angle of 3° or 4° with the axis of the piece.</p> - -<p>By firing at screens it was found that although the ball passed through the first -screens to the left, it struck the butt to the right of the vertical plane on which aim -was taken in line of the axis of the unbent portion of the barrel. This was caused by -the friction of the ball on the right side of the bent part of the muzzle, causing the -ball to spin from left to right.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ON ECCENTRIC PROJECTILES.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">How to find -centre of gravity.</p> - -<p>Sir Howard Douglas, in his “Naval Gunnery,” states:—“The position of the -centre of gravity can be found by floating the projectile in mercury, and marking -its vertex. Then mark a point upon the shot diametrically opposite to that point, -which will give the direction of the axis in which the two centres lie. Thus the -shot can be placed in the gun with its centre of gravity in any desired position.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page125">[125]</span></p> - -<p>“On making experiments, it appeared that not one shot in a hundred, when -floated in mercury, was indifferent as to the position in which it was so floated, but -turned immediately, until the centre of gravity arrived at the lowest point, and -consequently that not one shot in a hundred was perfect in sphericity, and homogeneity. -Shells can be made eccentric by being cast with a solid segment in the -interior sphere, left in the shell, or by boring two holes in each shell, diametrically -opposite to one another, stopping up one with 5lbs. of lead, and the other with -wood. <span class="sidenote">Effect of -eccentricity.</span>When the centre of gravity was above the centre of the figure, the ranges -were the longest, and when below, the shortest. When to the right or left hand, -the deviations were also to the right or left. The mean range which, with the usual -shot, was 1640 yards, was, with the shot whose centres of gravity and of figure -were not coincident, the centre of gravity being upwards, equal to 2140 yards, -being an increase of 500 yards.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Ricochet of -eccentric shot.</p> - -<p>“With respect to the ricochet of eccentric spherical projectiles, the rotation -which causes deflection in the flight, must act in the same manner to impede a -straight forward graze. When an ordinary well formed homogenous spherical -projectile, upon which probably very little rotation is impressed, makes a graze, the -bottom of the vertical diameter first touches the plane, and immediately acquires, by -the reaction, a rotation upon its horizontal axis, by which the shot rolls onwards -throughout the graze, probably for a straight forward second flight. But in the case -of an eccentric spherical projectile, placed with its centre of gravity to the right or -to the left, its rotation upon its vertical axis during the graze must occasion a fresh -deflection in its second flight, and it is only when the centre of gravity is placed in -a vertical plane passing through the axis of the gun, that the rotation by touching -the ground will not disturb the direction of the graze, though the extent of range -to the first graze will be affected more or less according as the centre of gravity may -have been placed upwards or downwards. Whether the rebounds take place from -water, as in the experiments made on board the “Excellent,” or on land, as those -carried on at Shoeburyness, the shot, when revolving on a vertical axis, instead of -making a straight forward graze, suffered deflection which were invariably towards -the same side of the line of fire as the centre of gravity; and at every graze up to -the fourth, a new deflection took place.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Knowledge -derived from -experiments -with eccentric -shot.</p> - -<p>“The results of these very curious and instructive experiments fully explain the -extraordinary anomalies, as they have heretofore been considered, in length of range -and in the lateral deviations: these have been attributed to changes in the state of -the air, or the direction of the wind, to differences in the strength of the gunpowder, -and to inequalities in the degrees of windage. All these causes are, no doubt, productive -of errors in practice, but it is now clear that those errors are chiefly -occasioned by the eccentricity and nonhomogeneity of the shot, and the accidental -positions of the centre of gravity of the projectile with respect to the axis of the -bore. The whole of these experiments furnish decisive proof of the necessity of -paying the most scrupulous attention to the figure and homogeneity of solid shot, and -concentricity of shells, and they exhibit the remarkable fact that a very considerable<span class="pagenum" id="Page126">[126]</span> -increase of range may be obtained without an increase in the charge, or elevation -of the gun.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">No advantage -in using -eccentric projectiles.</p> - -<p>It is not to be expected that eccentric projectiles would be applicable for general -purposes, on account of the degree of attention and care required in their service, nor -would much advantage be gained by their use, as the momentum is not altered, and -it is only necessary to give the ordinary shot a little more elevation in order to strike -the same object.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Range of elongated -projectiles -at certain -low elevations -greater -in air than in -vacuo.</p> - -<p>There is another point of great importance with regard to the range of elongated -projectiles. It is asserted by Sir W. Armstrong and others, that at certain low -elevations the range of an elongated projectile is greater in the atmosphere than in -vacuo, and the following is the explanation given by the former of this apparent -paradox. “In a vacuum, the trajectory would be the same, whether the projectile -were elongated or spherical, so long as the angle of elevation, and the initial -velocity were constant; but the presence of a resisting atmosphere makes this -remarkable difference, that while it greatly shortens the range of the round shot, it -actually prolongs that of the elongated projectile, provided the angle of elevation -do not exceed a certain limit, which, in my experiments, I have found to be about -6°. This appears, at first, very paradoxical, but it may be easily explained. The -elongated shot, if properly formed, and having a sufficient rotation, retains the same -inclination to the horizontal plane throughout its flight, and consequently acquires -a continually increasing obliquity to the curve of its flight. Now the effect of this -obliquity is, that the projectile is in a measure sustained upon the air, just as a kite -is supported by the current of air meeting the inclined surface, and the result is -that its descent is retarded, so that it has time to reach to a greater distance.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Charge.</p> - -<p>The form and weight of the projectile being determined as well as the inclination -of the grooves, the charge can be so arranged as to give the necessary initial velocity, -and velocity of rotation; or if the nature of projectile and charge be fixed, the -inclination of the grooves must be such as will give the required results. The most -important consideration is the weight and form of projectile; the inclination of the -grooves, the charge, weight of metal in the gun, &c., are regulated almost entirely by -it. The charges used with rifle pieces are much less than those with which smooth-bored -guns are fired, for little or none of the gas is allowed to escape by windage, -there being therefore no loss of force; and it is found by experience that, with -comparatively low initial velocities, the elongated projectiles maintain their velocity, -and attain very long ranges.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The foregoing articles on “Theory,” -are principally extracted from “New Principles of Gunnery by -Robins,” “Treatise on Artillery, by Lieut.-Colonel Boxer, R.A.” “The Rifle Musket, by Captain Jervis, M.P., -Royal Artillery.” “Elementary Lecturers on Artillery, by Major H. C. Owen and -Captain T. Dames, Royal Artillery.”</p> - -<p class="center blankbefore2 highline4 fsize80">THE END.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div><!--sidenotetext--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate1"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 1.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo01a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="469" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Powder Mill.</p> - -<p class="caption blankbefore1 sstype">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo01b.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="377" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Old Eprouvette Pendulum</p> - -<p class="caption blankbefore1 sstype">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo01c.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="340" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">New Pattern Eprouvette</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate2"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo02.jpg" alt="" width="363" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption"><i>Enlarged section of Valve</i></p> - -<p class="caption main blankbefore1">Hydraulic Press</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate3"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo03.jpg" alt="" width="355" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Robins’ Balistic Pendulum</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate4"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 4.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo04a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="186" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Bow unstrung</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo04b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="151" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Bow strung</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo04c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="102" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Hand or Arrow Rocket</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo04d.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="305" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Five barrelled Matchlock</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 5.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo04e.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="253" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Revolving Barrelled Matchlock</p> - -<p class="caption main blankbefore1">CHINESE EXPLOSIVE <span class="smcapall">AND</span> OTHER WEAPONS.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 6.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo04f.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="92" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Asiatic Bow</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate5"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 5.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo05a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="158" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Matchlock</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo05b.jpg" alt="" width="550" height="183" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Breech loading Gingal (Chamber in)</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo05c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="199" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Breech loading Gingal (Chamber out)</p> - -<p class="caption main blankbefore1">CHINESE EXPLOSIVE ARMS.</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate6"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 6.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo06a.jpg" alt="" width="416" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo06b.jpg" alt="" width="394" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo06c.jpg" alt="" width="497" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo06d.jpg" alt="" width="470" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon dele.</i></p> - -<p class="caption fsize100 sstype">MACHINES FOR THROWING DARTS AND STONES.</p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate7"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 7.</p> - -<p class="caption fsize100 sstype"><span class="gesp2">ONAGER</span> (SLUNG).</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo07.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="397" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son, Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate8"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 8.</p> - -<p class="caption main">Onager <span class="fsize90">(unslung)</span>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo08.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="431" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo08lg.jpg">Larger illustration</a></p> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate9"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 9.</p> - -<p class="caption main">Balista</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo09.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="350" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Arthur Walker C.<sup>t</sup> 79.<sup>th</sup> delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate10"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 10.</p> - -<p class="caption main">Catapulta.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo10.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="219" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Dessiné par Arthur Walker.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate11"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 11.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo11a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="393" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Staff slings, Longbows, Crossbows and Flail.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo11b.jpg" alt="" width="527" height="500" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Onager.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo11c.jpg" alt="" width="371" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Trepied.</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate12"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 12.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo12a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="184" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Detail of Springs.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo12b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="435" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Balista.</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon Staff Serj<sup>t</sup>. del.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate13"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 13.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.<span class="pad40pc"> </span>FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo13b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="562" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">A Cross bow man and Slinger.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo13a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="309" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker" >Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate14"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 14.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo14a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="226" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo14b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="216" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo14c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="214" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo14d.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="41" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Cross-bows and Quarrels.</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo14alg.jpg">Larger Fig. 1.</a><br /> -<a href="images/illo14clg.jpg">Larger Fig. 3.</a></p> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate15"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 15.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo15.jpg" alt="" width="487" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="caption main">A Cross bow man and his Paviser.</p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate16"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 16.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="59" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Gun and Querrel Temp:<br /> -Edward 3<sup>rd</sup>. Sloane M<sup>ss</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="100" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Small chambered Cannon<br /> -from the Santini M<sup>ss</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16c.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="248" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Santini M<sup>ss</sup>.<br />Early part of 15<sup>th</sup> Cent<sup>y</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16d.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="256" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Mode of mounting<br /> -from Froissart.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 5.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16e.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="273" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Method of obtaining elevation.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 6.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16f.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="365" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Mode of Mounting<br /> -from Valturius.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 7.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16g.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="138" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">From the wreck of the “Mary Rose” Temp: Henry 8<sup>th</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 8.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16h.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="174" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Hooped Cannon in wooden bed.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 9.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16i.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="122" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Ancient Screw piece.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 10.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16j.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="134" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Ancient Screw Breech loader.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 11.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16k.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="105" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Chinese Field piece Peiho 1860.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 12.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16l.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="176" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Ancient howitzer Cannon for<br /> -throwing balls Filled with powder</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Arthur Walker delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate17"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 17.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo17a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="77" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Giorgio Martini, 15<sup>th</sup>. Century, latter part.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo17b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="64" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main blankbelow1">Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket Pistol.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo17c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="122" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main blankbelow1">Mons Meg.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo17d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="74" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main noindent blankbelow1"><span class="padl2">Chamber.</span> -<span class="padl18">Pierrier or Paterera__16<sup>th</sup>. Century.</span></p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>H. Cautly del.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate18"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 18.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo18a.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="157" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Cart of War.__Temp: Henry 8<sup>th</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo18b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="230" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">“Moolik i Meidan.”</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo18c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="181" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Bombard and Carriage.__15<sup>th</sup>. Cent<sup>y</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo18d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="197" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Long Serpentine of Wrought Iron.__15<sup>th</sup>. Cent<sup>y</sup>.</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>R.G. Coles del.<sup>t</sup></i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate19"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 19.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo19a.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="105" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo19b.jpg" alt="" width="550" height="40" /> -</div> - -<table class="illolegend" summary="Legend"> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="side w45 caption sstype">FIG. 7.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side w20 caption sstype">FIG. 11.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side w50 caption sstype">FIG. 12.</td> -<td class="caption sstype">FIG. 3.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side w40 caption sstype">FIG. 4.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side w28 caption sstype">FIG. 5.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side w55 caption sstype">FIG. 8.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="caption sstype">FIG. 6.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="figcenter illoborder"> -<img src="images/illo19c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="449" /> -</div> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo19clg.jpg">Larger Figs. 3-8, 11, 12</a></p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 9.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo19d.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="531" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Musketeer 16<sup>th</sup>. Cent<sup>y</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 10.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo19e.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="593" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Earliest form of Hand Gun.</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Arthur Walker, delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate20"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 20.</p> - -<table class="illolegend" summary="Legend"> - -<tr> -<td class="side w200 caption sstype">2</td> -<td class="caption sstype">4</td> -<td class="side w200 caption sstype"><span class="padr2">3</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="figcenter illoborder"> -<img src="images/illo20a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="181" /> -</div> - -<table class="illolegend" summary="Legend"> - -<tr> -<td class="side caption sstype">1</td> -<td class="side caption sstype">5</td> -<td class="caption sstype">6</td> -<td class="side caption sstype">7</td> -<td class="side caption sstype">8</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="figcenter illoborder"> -<img src="images/illo20b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="110" /> -</div> - -<table class="illolegend" summary="Legend"> - -<tr> -<td class="side w100 caption sstype">9</td> -<td class="side caption sstype">10</td> -<td class="caption sstype">11</td> -<td class="side caption sstype">12</td> -<td class="side w100 caption sstype"><span class="padr2">13</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="figcenter illoborder"> -<img src="images/illo20c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="125" /> -</div> - -<table class="illolegend" summary="Legend"> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="side caption sstype">14</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side caption sstype">15</td> -<td class="caption sstype">16</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side caption sstype">18</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side caption sstype">19</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="caption sstype">17</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="figcenter illoborder"> -<img src="images/illo20d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="173" /> -</div> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo20lg.jpg">Larger Figs. 1-19</a></p> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate21"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 21.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo21a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="142" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo21b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="118" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo21c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="142" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo21d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="29" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 5.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo21e.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="115" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Arthur Walker del.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo21lg.jpg">Larger Figs. 1-5</a></p> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate22"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 22.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo22a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="105" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo22b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="106" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo22c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="131" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo22d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="158" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Arthur Walker L<sup>t</sup>. 79<sup>th</sup>. del.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo22lg.jpg">Larger Figs. 1-4</a></p> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate23"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 23.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo23a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="101" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo23b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="113" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo23c.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="173" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo23d.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="107" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 5.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo23e.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="87" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 6.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo23f.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="108" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon Staff Serj<sup>t</sup>. del.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo23lg.jpg">Larger Figs. 1-6</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div><!--bodycenter--> - -<h2 id="BetterToC">Extended Table of Contents</h2> - -<table class="toc" summary="Improved ToC"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="right fsize80">PAGE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">INTRODUCTION.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Pagei">i</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">CONTENTS</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Pageiii">iii</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ERRATA.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Pageiv">iv</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page1">1</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">GREEK FIRE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page4">4</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page7">7</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">SALTPETRE, OR NITRE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page7">7</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">OLD METHOD.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page7">7</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">NEW METHOD.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page8">8</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">CHARCOAL.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page9">9</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">SULPHUR.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page11">11</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">PULVERIZING THE INGREDIENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page11">11</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">MIXING THE INGREDIENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page12">12</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">THE INCORPORATING MILL.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page12">12</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">INCORPORATING THE INGREDIENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page13">13</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">BREAKING DOWN THE MILL CAKE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page14">14</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">PRESSING THE MEAL BY THE HYDRAULIC PRESS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page14">14</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">GRANULATING THE PRESS CAKE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page15">15</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">DUSTING LARGE-GRAIN POWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page16">16</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">DUSTING FINE-GRAIN POWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page17">17</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">GLAZING FINE-GRAIN POWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page17">17</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">STOVING OR DRYING POWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page17">17</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">FINISHING DUSTING.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page17">17</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">EXAMINATION AND PROOF OF GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page18">18</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">PROOF OF MERCHANT’S POWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page18">18</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">REMARKS ON THE PROOF OF POWDER BY THE EPROUVETTES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page19">19</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">OF THE SIZE OF GRAIN FOR GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page19">19</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">OBSERVATIONS ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER ON THE CONTINENT AND AMERICA.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page20">20</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OF THE INGREDIENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page20">20</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">PULVERIZING AND MIXING THE INGREDIENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page20">20</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">INCORPORATING PROCESS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page21">21</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">GRANULATING.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page21">21</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">STOVING OR DRYING.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page21">21</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">NEW RIFLE POWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page22">22</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ON MAGAZINES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page23">23</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page24">24</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ON THE EXPLOSIVE FORCE OF GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page29">29</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">FOULING.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page35">35</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">EFFECTS OF GUNPOWDER ON METALS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page35">35</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page36">36</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON THE TIME REQUIRED FOR IGNITION OF GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page38">38</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTAL EXPLOSIONS OF GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page38">38</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ON ANCIENT ENGINES OF WAR.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page39">39</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">THE SLING.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page43">43</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">THE BOW.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page44">44</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">MERITS OF THE LONG BOW.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page45">45</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">Our Forefathers encouraged to acquire skill in archery by legal enactments, -and by the founders of our public schools.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page47">47</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">1ST. BY LEGAL ENACTMENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page47">47</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">2ND.—BY THE FOUNDERS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page48">48</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">MEANS BY WHICH SKILL IN ARCHERY WAS ACQUIRED.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page49">49</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">PROOFS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF ARCHERY.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page52">52</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">MILITARY AND POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SKILL IN THE USE OF THE BOW.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page53">53</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">THE ARBALEST, OR CROSS-BOW.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page54">54</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">DESCRIPTION OF CROSS-BOW.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page57">57</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">COMPARATIVE MERITS OF THE LONG AND CROSS BOW.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page59">59</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">COMPARATIVE MERITS BETWEEN BOWS AND EARLY FIRE-ARMS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page59">59</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">HISTORY OF ARTILLERY.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page62">62</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ETYMOLOGIES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page72">72</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">HISTORY OF PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page73">73</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">THE BAYONET.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page83">83</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ACCOUTREMENTS AND AMMUNITION.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page84">84</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">HISTORY OF THE RIFLE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page86">86</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">RIFLED BREECH-LOADERS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page92">92</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ON RIFLING.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page95">95</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON THE NUMBER, FORM &c., &c., &c., OF THE GROOVES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page96">96</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON RIFLE PROJECTILES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page101">101</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">CONCLUSION.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page108">108</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page110">110</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">DEFINITIONS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page110">110</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">MOTION OF A PROJECTILE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page111">111</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">GRAVITY.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page113">113</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON THE TIME TAKEN TO DRAW A BALL TO THE GROUND BY THE FORCE OF GRAVITY.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page114">114</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ATMOSPHERE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page115">115</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">RESULT OF THE AIR’S RESISTANCE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page115">115</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">EXPERIMENTS IN FRANCE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page116">116</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON THE EFFECT OF THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR UPON THE MOTION OF A PROJECTILE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page117">117</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON THE RESISTANCE OF A FLUID TO A BODY IN MOTION.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page117">117</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH AIR WILL RUSH INTO A VACUUM.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page118">118</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">UPON THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR TO BODIES OF DIFFERENT FORMS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page119">119</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH SLOW MOTIONS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page119">119</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">RESISTANCE OF THE AIR, AS AFFECTED BY THE WEIGHT OF PROJECTILES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page121">121</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">DEVIATIONS OF PROJECTILES FROM SMOOTH-BORED GUNS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page121">121</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">1st CAUSE, WINDAGE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page121">121</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">2nd CAUSE, ROTATION.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page122">122</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">CASES BEARING UPON THE FOREGOING THEORY.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page122">122</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ILLUSTRATIONS OF ROBINS’ THEORY OF ROTATION.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page124">124</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON ECCENTRIC PROJECTILES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page124">124</a></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="right fsize80"><a href="#Pageiii">Original Table of Contents</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="tnbot" id="TN"> - -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>The original language has been retained, including inconsistencies and errors in spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation, -etc., except as mentioned below.</p> - -<p>Depending on the hard- and software used and their settings, not all elements may display as intended.</p> - -<p>Original Table of Contents: as present in the source document. The reason for the order of entries is not clear, and some chapters -are not listed, nor are the sections. The structure of the text has been determined based on what seemed the most logical -interpretation of (the lay-out of) the chapter and section headings in the text. -The Extended Table of Contents in the back of the book has been created for this text on the basis of this assumed structure; -the page numbers i through iv have been inserted for this Table of Contents.</p> - -<p>The text refers to the plates by both Roman and Arabic numbers. This has not been standardised. The numbering of the actual -plates has been standardised.</p> - -<p>The illustrations in the plates in the back of the book have been individually scaled for better visibility. Where relevant, -links to larger versions of the illustrations have been provided (not available in all formats).</p> - -<p>Page 29, great inconvenience ... quite preclude: as printed in the source document.</p> - -<p>Page 29 and 35 (and Errata), sulphite and sulphide: as printed in the source document.</p> - -<p>Page 30 and 31, calculations: as printed in the source document.</p> - -<p>Page 44, Slings were used in 1572, at the siege of Sancere by the Huguenots, in order to save their powder: there should be a -comma after Sancere, the Huguenots were the besieged party.</p> - -<p>Page 47, Our forefathers ... public schools: considered to be a section heading.</p> - -<p>Page 66, both the king’s feed men: other sources mention Peter Bawd and Peter Vancollen / Van Collen as freed men.</p> - -<p>Page 107, weight of bullet, ·530 grains: as printed in the source document, but unlikely to be correct.</p> - -<p>Page 114, paragraph on Parabolic theory: even with the corrections mentioned in the errata, some of the reference letters are -missing; <span class="smcapall">F</span>, <span class="smcapall">G</span> and <span class="smcapall">H</span> are presumably the -ends of the vertical lines through <span class="smcapall">C</span>, <span class="smcapall">D</span> and <span class="smcapall">E</span> -respectively.</p> - -<p>Page 119, strictly empirical formula: should probably have been a plural.</p> - - -<p class="blankbefore1">Changes made:</p> - -<p>Footnotes have been moved to directly after the paragraph to which they refer.</p> - -<p>Some minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected silently.</p> - -<p><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>/<span class="smcapall">B. C.</span> and -<span class="smcapall">A.D.</span>/<span class="smcapall">A. D.</span> have been standardised to <span class="smcapall">B. C.</span> -and <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span>, respectively. Minie, Miniè (the spelling used most commonly in this book) and -Minié have been standardised to Minié.</p> - -<p>The (corrected, see below) Errata have already been applied to the text.</p> - -<p>Errata: Page 32, para. 6, line 10 changed to Page 32, para.7, line 10; IX and XII changed to ix and xii; Page 84, para. 2, -line 1 (2nd entry) changed to Page 84, para. 3, line 1. Subalterns changed to subaltern officers; Page 91, para. 5 changed to Page -91, para. 4; sign changed to sine.</p> - -<p>Page 4: Poganatus changed to Pogonatus as elsewhere</p> - -<p>Page 5: Talavara changed to Talavera</p> - -<p>Page 21: frustrum changed to frustum</p> - -<p>Page 30: 3490 changed to 3940</p> - -<p>Page 32, sidenote: Robert changed to Piobert (as in text and Errata)</p> - -<p>Page 35: deliquescient changed to deliquescent</p> - -<p>Page 38: dull read heat changed to dull red heat</p> - -<p>Page 52: closing quote mark inserted after Shooting-fields</p> - -<p>Page 54: yeoman or archers changed to yeomen or archers</p> - -<p>Page 61: opening quote mark inserted before Report of the Rifle Match</p> - -<p>Page 65: opening quote marks inserted before Musée</p> - -<p>Page 74, sidenote: 1491 changed to 1471</p> - -<p>Page 86, Bàle changed to Bâle</p> - -<p>Page 88, sidenote: Carabine a Tige changed to Carabine à Tige</p> - -<p>Page 105: cups divers shapes changed to cups of divers shapes</p> - -<p>Page 115: Plate 21, fig. 2 changed to Plate 22, fig. 2</p> - -<p>Plate 18: opening quote marks inserted before Moolik.</p> - -</div><!--tnbot--> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Class Book for The School of Musketry -Hythe, by E. 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