diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/60830-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/60830-0.txt | 21778 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 21778 deletions
diff --git a/old/60830-0.txt b/old/60830-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 304b077..0000000 --- a/old/60830-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21778 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's How to Study Architecture, by Charles H. Caffin - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: How to Study Architecture - -Author: Charles H. Caffin - -Release Date: December 2, 2019 [EBook #60830] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO STUDY ARCHITECTURE *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - HOW TO STUDY ARCHITECTURE - - - - - HOW TO - STUDY ARCHITECTURE - - - BY - CHARLES H. CAFFIN - - Author of “How to Study Pictures,” “The Story - of French Painting,” “The Story of Dutch Painting,” - “The Story of Spanish Painting,” “Appreciations - of the Drama,” “Art for Life’s Sake,” etc. - - AN ATTEMPT TO TRACE THE EVOLUTION OF - ARCHITECTURE AS THE PRODUCT AND EXPRESSION - OF SUCCESSIVE PHASES OF CIVILISATION - - _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS_ - - [Illustration] - - - NEW YORK - DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY - 1917 - - - COPYRIGHT, 1917 - BY DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY, Inc. - - - - -ACKNOWLEDGMENT - - -The author gratefully acknowledges the critical assistance given to him -on certain points by Professor William H. Goodyear, W. Harmon Beers and -William Warfield; and his indebtedness to Caroline Caffin for compiling -the index and to Irving Heyl for several architectural drawings. For -some of the illustrations he has put himself under obligations to the -following publications, through the courtesy of the Librarian of the -Metropolitan Museum of Art--“Histoire de l’Art,” by Perrot et Chipiez; -“Assyrian Sculptures,” by Rev. Archibald Paterson; “Monuments Modernes -de la Perse,” by Pascal Coste; “Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian at -Spalato” by R. Adams, and “The Annual of the British School at -Athens.” - - - - -CONTENTS - - -BOOK I - -INTRODUCTION - -CHAPTER PAGE - -I PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 3 - -II PRIMITIVE STRUCTURES 13 - - -BOOK II - -PRE-CLASSIC PERIOD - -I EGYPTIAN CIVILISATION 25 - -II EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE 38 - -III CHALDÆAN, ASSYRIAN AND BABYLONIAN CIVILISATION 56 - -IV CHALDÆAN, ASSYRIAN AND BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURE 65 - -V PERSIAN CIVILISATION 74 - -VI PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE 80 - -VII MINOAN OR ÆGEAN CIVILISATION 88 - -VIII MINOAN OR ÆGEAN ARCHITECTURE 95 - - -BOOK III - -CLASSIC PERIOD - -I HELLENIC CIVILISATION 105 - -II HELLENIC ARCHITECTURE 116 - -III ROMAN CIVILISATION 147 - -IV ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 163 - - -BOOK IV - -POST-CLASSIC PERIOD - -I EARLY CHRISTIAN CIVILISATION 187 - -II EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 193 - -III MUHAMMEDAN, ALSO CALLED SARACENIC CIVILISATION 212 - -IV MUHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE 220 - -V EARLY MEDIÆVAL CIVILISATION 232 - -VI EARLY MEDIÆVAL OR ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 241 - - -BOOK V - -GOTHIC PERIOD - -I LATER MEDIÆVAL CIVILISATION 263 - -II GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 270 - -III GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE 281 - -IV GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND AND WALES 287 - -V GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, -AND SPAIN 301 - -VI GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY 310 - - -BOOK VI - -THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD - -I RENAISSANCE CIVILISATION 319 - -II RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY 338 - -III RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY--CONTINUED 357 - -IV RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE 375 - -V RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, -AND SPAIN 391 - -VI RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND AND AMERICAN -COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE 410 - - -BOOK VII - -POST-RENAISSANCE PERIOD - -I CLASSICAL AND GOTHIC REVIVALS 435 - -II THE MODERN SITUATION 454 - -GLOSSARY 479 - -INDEX 497 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FACING - PAGE - -Stonehenge. Salisbury Plain, England 12 - -Section and Plan of Treasury of Atreus 12 - -Teocalli or “House of God,” at Guatusco 12 - -Section of Pyramid 38 - -Models of Mastabas 38 - -Types of Egyptian Columns 38 - -Temple-Tomb of Rameses II at Abou-Simbel 38 - -Plan of Ramesseum 38 - -Model of Hypostyle Hall at Karnak 39 - -Peripteral Sanctuary, at Philæ 39 - -Temple of Edfou. Entrance to Hypostyle Hall 39 - -Example of Carved Decoration 39 - -“Sargon’s Castle.” Conjectured Restoration 66 - -Part of “Lion Frieze” and “Frieze of Arches” 66 - -Details of Wall Decoration at Koyunjik 67 - -Tomb of Darius I, Persepolis 80 - -Palace of Darius I, Persepolis. Conjectured -Restoration 80 - -Type of Persian Columns 81 - -Hall of One Hundred Columns, Persepolis. Conjectured Restoration 81 - -The Palaces of Persepolis. Conjectured Restoration 81 - -Wall Decoration in Palace of Cnossus 94 - -Lion Gateway at Mycenæ 94 - -Plan of Acropolis of Tiryns 94 - -Part of Staircase in Palace of Cnossus 95 - -Council Chamber, with Gypsum Throne, Palace of Cnossus 95 - -Some Temple Plans--Hellenic 116 - -Hellenic Orders (Columns and Entablatures) 116 - -Roman Orders (Columns and Entablatures) 116 - -Model of the Acropolis 116 - -Model of the Parthenon (restored) 116 - -The Parthenon 117 - -Temples at Pæstum 117 - -Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens 117 - -Temple of Nike Apteros, Athens 117 - -Portico of the Caryatides, Erechtheion 117 - -Detail of Ornament--Hellenic 117 - -Statues in the Round of Persephone and Demeter from the -East Pediment of the Parthenon 117 - -Figures in High Relief from Procession of Worshipers. -Frieze of the Parthenon 117 - -Plan of House of Pansa, Pompeii 117 - -Plan of Theatre of Dramyssus 117 - -Roman Forum, Conjectured Restoration 162 - -Maison Carrée, Nîmes 162 - -Arch of Constantine 162 - -Pantheon, Rome 162 - -Section of the Pantheon 162 - -Colosseum, Rome 162 - -Section of Colosseum 162 - -Basilica of Constantine 163 - -Roman Vaulting; from Baths of Diocletian 163 - -Gothic Vaulting; from Salisbury Cathedral 163 - -Theatre of Orange, France. Conjectured Restoration 163 - -Plan of Theatre of Orange, France. Conjectured Restoration 163 - -Porta Aurea--Golden Gate--Palace of Diocletian 163 - -Pont-du-Gard, Aqueduct Near Nîmes 163 - -Peristyle and Court of the House of the Vettii 163 - -Wall Paintings in the House of the Vettii 163 - -S. Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna 192 - -S. Apollinare-in-Classe, Ravenna 192 - -Church of Kalb-Lauzeh, Syria 193 - -Church of Turmanin, Syria 193 - -Tomb of Galla Placidia 202 - -Interior of San Vitale, Ravenna 202 - -Diagram Showing Pendentives 202 - -Section of SS. Sergius and Bacchus, Constantinople 202 - -Section of S. Sophia, Constantinople 202 - -Diagram showing how a dome rests on eight piers enclosing -an octagon, by niches or squinches 202 - -Exterior of S. Sophia, Constantinople 203 - -Interior of S. Sophia, Constantinople 203 - -Plan of S. Sophia, Constantinople 203 - -Plan of S. Mark’s, Venice 203 - -Exterior of St. Mark’s, Venice 203 - -Mosque of El Azhar, Cairo 220 - -Suleimaniyeh or Mosque of Suleiman 220 - -Arcades of the Mosque, now Cathedral, of Cordova 220 - -Court of the Lions, Alhambra, Spain 220 - -Palace of Ispahan, Persia. Conjectured Restoration of -Pavilion of Mirrors and Gardens 221 - -College of Shah Hussein, Restoration; Ispahan, Persia 221 - -Mosque of Akbur, Futtehpore-Sikri, India 221 - -Taj Mahal, Agra, India 221 - -Pisa Cathedral, Campanile and Baptistry 240 - -Interior of Pisa Cathedral 240 - -S. Ambrogio, Milan 240 - -S. Michele, Pavia 240 - -The Certosa, or Church of the Carthusian Order, Pavia 240 - -Church of Vézelay, France 240 - -Church of Abbaye-aux-Dames, Caen 240 - -Remains of the Church of Cluny Abbey 240 - -Church of the Apostles, Cologne 241 - -Doorway of Salamanca Cathedral 241 - -Anglo-Saxon Tower, Earl’s Barton, Northamptonshire 241 - -Iffley Church, near Oxford 241 - -S. John’s Chapel, Tower of London 241 - -Nave of Durham Cathedral 241 - -Peterborough Cathedral 241 - -English Romanesque Detail 241 - -Sculptured Details from Amiens Cathedral Doorway 270 - -Skeleton Structure, showing method of vaulting, by means of -pointed arch, and concentration of thrusts and counter-thrusts 270 - -Gothic Detail 270 - -Gothic Detail 270 - -Gothic Detail 270 - -Gothic Detail 271 - -Gothic Detail 271 - -Gothic Detail 271 - -Exterior and Interior Views of Lichfield Cathedral Showing -the Nave Widening 271 - -Notre Dame, Paris, Plan 280 - -Amiens Cathedral, Plan 280 - -Amiens Cathedral 280 - -Notre Dame, Paris 280 - -Rouen Cathedral 280 - -Rheims Cathedral 280 - -Interior of Notre Dame Cathedral 281 - -Interior of Amiens Cathedral 281 - -Interior of Rheims Cathedral 281 - -Hôtel de Bourgtheroulde, Rouen 281 - -House of Jacques Cœur 281 - -Sainte Chapelle, Paris 281 - -Nave of Norwich Cathedral 286 - -Salisbury Cathedral, Interior 286 - -York Minster, West Façade 286 - -Lincoln Cathedral 286 - -Wells Cathedral, West Façade 287 - -Winchester Cathedral 287 - -Henry VII’s Chapel, Westminster 287 - -Westminster Hall, Timber Roof 287 - -Strasburg Cathedral 300 - -Ratisbon Cathedral 300 - -Town Hall of Munster 300 - -Cathedral of S. Gudule, Brussels 300 - -Cologne Cathedral 300 - -Cloth Hall of Ypres 300 - -Town Hall, Louvain 301 - -Town Hall, Brussels 301 - -Mechlin Cathedral 301 - -Antwerp Cathedral 301 - -Toledo Cathedral 301 - -Burgos Cathedral 301 - -Siena Cathedral, Interior 310 - -San Miniato, Florence; Marble Façade 310 - -Cathedral of Florence and Campanile 310 - -Doge’s Palace, Venice 310 - -Siena Cathedral, Campanile attached 311 - -Orvieto Cathedral, West Façade 311 - -Milan Cathedral 311 - -Milan Cathedral, Interior 311 - -Pazzi Chapel, S. Croce, Florence 338 - -Santa Maria Novella, Florence 338 - -Strozzi Palace, Florence 338 - -Caprarola Palace 338 - -Gvimane Palace, Venice 339 - -Basilica Vicenza 339 - -Doge’s Palace, Venice; Renaissance Portal 339 - -S. Maria della Salute, Venice 339 - -Riccardi Palace, Florence 356 - -Palazzo Vecchio, Florence 356 - -Ca d’Oro, Venice 356 - -Vendramini Palace, Venice 356 - -Farnese Palace, Rome 356 - -Court of the Farnese Palace 356 - -Capitol Palaces, Rome 357 - -Library of S. Mark, Venice 357 - -S. Spirito, Florence 357 - -S. Andrea, Mantua 357 - -S. Peter’s, Rome 357 - -Interior of S. Peter’s, Rome 357 - -Château de Blois. Gothic part built by Louis XII 374 - -Maison François I, Paris 374 - -Château de Blois. Part added by Francis I 374 - -Château de Chambord 374 - -Luxembourg Palace 375 - -Plan showing growth of Louvre 375 - -Pavilion de l’Horloge, Louvre 375 - -Castle of Heidelberg 390 - -Another View of the Heinrichsbau 390 - -Bremen City Hall 390 - -Pellershaus, Nüremburg 390 - -Antwerp City Hall 390 - -Liège, Court of Palais de Justice 390 - -College of Santa Cruz, Valladolid 391 - -Court of the Casa de Zaporta 391 - -Court of the College of Alcala de Henares 391 - -Elevation and Plan of uncompleted Palace Charles V 391 - -The Escoriál 391 - -Plan of The Escoriál 391 - -Wollaton Hall, Nottinghamshire 410 - -Banqueting Hall, Whitehall 410 - -Haddon Hall, Derbyshire 410 - -Haddon Hall; the Long Gallery 410 - -S. Paul’s Cathedral, London 411 - -S. Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside, London 411 - -Old Charlton, Kent 411 - -Georgian Chimney piece and overmantel 411 - -Christ Church, Philadelphia 428 - -Home of the Poet Longfellow, Cambridge, Mass. 428 - -Washington’s Home at Mount Vernon 429 - -Another Southern Colonial example, Montgomery, Ala. 429 - -La Madeleine, Paris 436 - -S. George’s Hall, Liverpool 436 - -Panthéon, Paris 436 - -Arc de l’Etoile, Paris 436 - -Opera House, Paris 436 - -State House, Boston 436 - -Capitol at Washington 436 - -City Hall, New York 437 - -St. Thomas, New York 437 - -Houses of Parliament 437 - -Plan of the Houses of Parliament 437 - -Scotland Yard 454 - -Woodburn Hall, New Windsor, N. Y. 454 - -Trinity Church, Boston 454 - -County Buildings, Pittsburg 454 - -The Breakers, Newport, R. I. 454 - -Detail of residence of Mr. Thomas Hastings, Westbury, Long -Island 454 - -Schiller Theatre Building, Chicago 455 - -Woolworth Building 455 - -Steel Cage Construction. Scene in lower New York 455 - - - - -BOOK I - - - - -HOW TO STUDY ARCHITECTURE - - - - -CHAPTER I - -PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS - - -Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting share the distinctive title of the -Fine Arts, or, as the Italians and French more fitly call them, the -Beautiful Arts; the arts, that is to say, of beautiful design. They are -known by their beauty. - -By their beauty they appeal to the eye and through the eye to the mind, -stirring in us emotions or feelings of pleasure--a higher kind of -pleasure than that which is derived solely from the gratification of the -senses--the kind which is distinguished as æsthetic. - -The term æsthetic is derived from a Greek word, meaning perception. -Originally it described the act of perceiving “objects” by means of the -senses--“objects” meaning anything that can be perceived through the -senses. But the term æsthetic has come to have another meaning, -especially in respect to sense-perceptions derived from seeing and -hearing. It means that the perception gives us pleasure, because it -stirs in us a sense of beauty. It may do so without any conscious -activity on the part of our mind. We may be absorbed in the delight of -the sensation; or it may appeal to our mind--to our memory or -imagination--in such a way as to set us thinking and feeling not only -about the immediate “object” but also about something which our mind -associates with it. - -For example: by simple sense-perception we discover that one tree is -taller than another, or that one tree is an elm, another a silver birch. -Our perception may stop there; but not if we are in a mood to -contemplate. Then the perception that one tree is taller than the other -may be followed by the feeling that the taller tree gives us more -satisfaction. It may seem to us to be a better proportioned tree: its -parts are more pleasingly related to the whole mass; or it may seem to -be in a fitter relation to the spot it occupies and to the other -“objects” near it. Again, having ascertained by pure sense-impression -that one tree is an elm and the other a silver birch, we may find -ourselves thinking about the _qualities_ of difference presented by the -two trees. With what splendid assurance the elm trunk rears up! How -majestically the branches radiate from it and bear their glorious masses -of abundant foliage! On the other hand, how dainty are the stems and -branches of the silver birch, how delicately graceful the sprays of tiny -leaves! “How sensitive!” perhaps we say. For to our imagination the -slender tree may seem to be endowed with senses that respond to every -movement of the air, to every glancing of the sunlight. - -In all these cases we have gone beyond mere sense-perception. We are no -longer interested only in the “object.” Our interest has become -_subjective_. We are interested in the _subject_ not the object of the -verb, to perceive--the subject _who_ perceives, in this case, ourself; -how the thing affects oneself; how it stirs in one a sense of beauty. By -this time our thoughts may have been withdrawn from the concrete object -and have passed on to “abstract” ideas, suggested by the object. It is -grandeur of growth, as embodied in the elm, fragile tenderness, as -expressed in the birch, that absorb our thought; and the wonder also how -qualities so different can survive the rude shocks of nature, and find, -each its special function in the scheme of nature’s beauty. - -In thus feeling external objects through our own experience of life and -our own sense of beauty, we are employing the sense-perception that is -specially called _æsthetic_. And it is in the degree to which objects of -architecture, sculpture, or painting have the capacity of stimulating -this _æsthetic appreciation_ that they properly belong in the company of -the Fine Arts. - - * * * * * - -Architecture is the science and art of building structures that, while -in most cases they serve a useful purpose, are in all cases designed and -built with a view to beauty. Their motive is beauty as well as utility. - -In certain instances, as, for example, the triumphal arch, the motive -may seem to have been solely one of beauty. On the other hand, when we -recall that the arch was erected as a memorial to some great man or some -great exploit--the Arch of Titus, for example, commemorating this -general’s capture of Jerusalem--the imposing dignity of the structure, -by compelling attention and exciting admiration, would actually serve -the purpose for which it was erected. - -Indeed, the distinction which people are apt to draw between the -_useful_ and the _beautiful_ is not necessarily so sharp as is supposed -and is largely founded upon ignorance or a mistaken attitude toward -life. The tendency to be satisfied with the utility of a thing and to -regard beauty as a fad, impractical and wasteful, shows that, although -our civilisation may have progressed in some respects, it has fallen -back in others. For there is nothing more surely certain in the history -of human progress, than that, while primitive man had to exercise his -ingenuity in providing for the necessities of life and in the making of -tools, implements, utensils, and so forth to achieve his needs, he was -not satisfied that his work should be merely useful. He had a mind to -make it pleasing in shape and by means of ornament. And this attention -to beauty grew as men grew in civilisation, becoming most conspicuous as -their civilisation reached its highest point; and continued through the -ages, until machinery began to replace the individual craftsman. - -For the individual craftsman, responsible for making a thing from start -to finish, must, if he is worth a hill of beans, take a personal pride -in making it as well as he can. As the Bible relates of the Supreme -Creator, “And God saw everything that he had made and, behold, it was -very good.” And the craftsman, so long as he is free to create out of -his own knowledge and his own feeling, must be able to feel this, -because there is an instinct in him, an imperative need of his own -nature, that he shall be proud of his work. It is a wonderful fact of -human nature that when it works freely, putting forth all its -capacities, it is prompted by this instinct, not only to make useful -things but also to make them well and as beautiful as may be. - -But gradually machinery took away the workman’s control of his work. He -ceased to design, lay out, and carry through all the details of his work -to a finish. He has come to be intrusted with only a part of the -operation, and that is performed under the control of a machine that -turns out the work with soulless uniformity. The craftsman has -degenerated into a repeater of partial processes; he has become the -servant of a machine; a cog in a vast mechanical system. And, with the -development of high power machines the output of production has been -increased, until _quantity_ rather than quality has tended to become the -ambition of the system. - -It has followed as a logical result of this taking away from millions of -men and women the privilege of being individual craftsmen, creators of -their own handiwork, that they have grown indifferent to the quality of -the work turned out; taste, which means the ability to discriminate -between qualities, has diminished and a general indifference to the -element of beauty has ensued. - - * * * * * - -Of all the Fine Arts, Architecture is closest to the life of man. It has -been developed out of the primitive necessity of providing shelter from -the elements and protection against the assaults of all kinds of -aggressors. And chief among the aggressors against which primitive man -sought to defend himself were the mysterious forces of nature which his -imagination pictured as evil spirits. To ward off these and to enlist -the support of kindly spirits represented a necessity of life that -developed through fetish worship into some positive conception of -religion. This need was embodied in structures, which, originating in -the selection or erection of a single stone, gradually became composed -of an aggregation of stones variously disposed, in heaps, in geometric -groups of single stones, or in the placing of stones horizontally upon -two or more vertical supporting stones. - -In these crude devices to mark the burial places of dead heroes and to -provide for the necessities of religion, primitive man used the stones -as he found them, with a preference for those of enormous size, to -ensure permanency. Meanwhile, in the huts that he erected for the -living, it is reasonable to suppose that, when available, the more -perishable material of timber was employed. And here, again, he would -use at first the smaller limbs, planting them in the ground in a circle -or square and drawing them together at the top, so that they took the -shape of a heap of stones; and covering them with skins, so that they -became the prototype of the tent. Then gradually he would employ stouter -timbers, planting them upright and keeping them in place at the top with -horizontal timbers. On these would be laid transverse beams to form a -roof; the spaces between the beams, as between the uprights of the -walls, being filled in with wattles of twigs or reeds and rendered still -more impervious to weather by a coating of clay or mud. - -The efforts of primitive builders, it is true, are rather of -archæological than of architectural significance, yet they have this -much to do with architecture, that in them are to be discovered the -rudiments of the art. For by the time that man had superimposed a stone -horizontally upon two vertical ones, he had hit upon the principle of -construction, now variously styled “post and lintel” or “post and beam” -or “trabeated,” that is to say, “beam” construction. The embryo was -conceived that in the fulness of time would be developed into the -trabeated design of the Egyptian temple and the column-and-entablature -design of Classic architecture. From the colossal, monolithic form, -still preserved, for example, in Stonehenge, there is a direct -progression to the highly organised perfection of the Parthenon. - -It is this fact that makes the study of architecture so vitally -interesting. Its evolution has proceeded, stage by stage, with the -evolution of civilisation. Having its roots in necessity, it has -expressed the phases of civilisation more directly and intimately than -have the other Fine Arts; while the comparative durability of the -materials in which it has been embodied has caused more of its records -to survive. Even out of the fragments of architecture it is possible for -the imagination to visualise epochs of civilisation long since buried in -the past; while the memorials that have been preserved in comparative -integrity stand out through the misty pages of history as object lessons -of distinct illumination. - - * * * * * - -Accordingly, one purpose of this book represents an attempt to study the -evolution of architecture in relation to the phases of civilisation that -it immediately embodied; to find in the monuments of architecture so -many “sermons in stone”--discourses upon the character, conditions of -life, the methods and the ideals of the men who reared and shaped them. - -And this involves the second purpose, that we shall try to study -architecture as it actually evolved in practice. Remembering that it -originated in the need of making provision for certain specific -purposes, in a word, that its motive primarily was practical, moreover, -that from the first it has been the product of invention, we will try to -study it in relation to man’s gradual mastery of material and the -processes of building. We will regard architecture in its fundamental -significance as the science and art of building; tracing, as far as is -possible, the stages by which man has met the problems imposed upon him -by the purpose of the structure and by the conditions of the material -available; how he gradually surmounted the difficulties of building, -step by step improving upon his devices and processes and thereby -creating new principles of construction, and, further, how the practical -operations of one race and period were carried on, modified, or -developed by other races, under different conditions and in response to -differences of needs and ideals. - -And, while thus studying architecture as the gradual solution of -practical problems of construction we will also keep constantly in mind -the stages by which as man’s skill in building progressed, so also did -his desire to make his structures more and more expressive of his higher -consciousness of human dignity. How age after age built not only to meet -the needs of living but also to embody its ideals of the present and the -future life; how hand in hand with growing skill in workmanship was -evolved superior achievement in artistic beauty. - -Our methods of study shall follow, as far as possible, the architect’s -order of procedure. Given a site and the commission of erecting thereon -a building for a specific purpose, the architect first concerns himself -with the _plans_: the _ground plan_, and, if the building be of more -than one story, the several _floor plans_. He lays out in the form of a -diagram the lines that enclose the building and those that mark the -divisions and subdivisions; indicating by breaks in the lines the -openings of doors and windows and by isolated figures the position of -columns or piers which he may be going to use for support of ceilings -and roofs. The disposition of all these particulars will be determined -not only by the purpose of the building, but also by the character of -the site and by the nature of the materials and method of construction -that the architect purposes to employ. - -Then, having acquired the habit of thinking of a building as having -originated in a plan, we will follow the building as it grows up out of -the plan, taking vertical form in what the architect calls the -_elevation_, or, when he is speaking specifically of the outside of the -building, the _façades_. Sometimes we shall study one of the diagrams, -which he calls a _section_, when he imagines his building intersected by -a vertical plane that cuts the structure into two parts. The one between -the spectator and the cutting plane is supposed to be removed, and thus -is laid bare the system of the interior construction-work. - -In studying the exterior of a building, therefore, we shall keep in mind -the interior disposition, arising out of the planning, and acquire the -habit of looking on the outside of a building as logically related to -the interior. The design of a building will come to mean to us not a -mere pattern of façade, arbitrarily invented, but an arrangement of -vertical and horizontal features, of solid surfaces and open spaces, -that has grown out of the interior conditions and proclaims them. - -In a word, we shall regard a work of architecture as an organic growth; -rooted in the plan, springing up in accordance with constructive -principles; each part having its separate function, and all co-ordinated -in harmonious relation to the unity of the whole. For we shall find that -_unity of design_ is a special element of excellence in architecture; a -unity secured by the relations of _proportion, harmony and rhythm_ -established between the several parts and between the parts and the -whole. And, since architecture is primarily an art of practical -utility, all these relations are equally determined by the principle of -_fitness_; in order that each and every part may perform most -efficiently its respective function in the combined purpose of the whole -edifice. For this is the first and final criterion of organic -composition. - -[Illustration: STONEHENGE. SALISBURY PLAIN, ENGLAND - -PRIMITIVE USE OF POST AND BEAM CONSTRUCTION. PP. 8, 16] - -[Illustration: SECTION AND PLAN OF “TREASURY OF ATREUS” - -AT MYCENÆ. EXAMPLE OF “THOLOS” OR BEE-HIVE CONSTRUCTION. P. 14] - -[Illustration: TEOCALLI OR “HOUSE OF GOD” - -AT GUATUSCO, COSTA RICA. P. 20] - - - - -CHAPTER II - -PRIMITIVE STRUCTURES - - -The various remains that exist of prehistoric structures, though -scattered widely over different parts of the world, present a general -similarity of purpose and design. - -The earliest examples of domestic buildings are the lake-dwellings which -have been discovered at the bottom of some of the Swiss lakes, as well -as in other countries both in the Eastern and Western hemispheres. They -consist of huts, rudely constructed of timber, erected on piles, -sometimes in such numbers as to form a fair-sized village. Their purpose -was apparently to afford security against sudden attacks of enemies, the -danger of wild beasts and snakes and the malaria and fever of the swampy -shores, while bringing the inhabitants nearer to their food supply and -offering a crude but ready means of sanitation. The system still -survives among the natives of many tropical countries and has its -analogy in the boat-houses that throng the Canton River in China. - -More important, however, archæologically as well as in relation to the -subsequent story of building, as it gradually developed into the art of -architecture are: the single huge stone, known as a _Menhir_; the -_Galgal_ or _Cairn_ of stones piled in a heap; the _Tumulus_ or -_Barrow_, composed of a mound of earth and the _Cromlech_. - -The single stone seems to have been regarded as an object of veneration -and a fetish to ward off evil spirits. It may have been the primitive -origin of the Egyptian _obelisk_, the Greek _stele_ and the modern -tombstone. From the galgal and barrow may have been developed the -pyramids of Egypt and the _truncated_ pyramid which we shall find to be -the foundation platforms of temples in various parts of the world while -the cromlech is the prototype of temples. - -Two stones were set upright and a third was placed upon the top of them. -This represents in rudimentary form the so-called “post and beam” -principle of temple construction. Sometimes two or four uprights were -surmounted by a large flat stone. It had the appearance of a gigantic -table and is called a _Dolmen_. It is conjectured that this was a form -of sepulchral-chamber, in which the corpse was laid, being thus -protected from the earth that was heaped around the stones into a mound. -If so, the _Dolmen_ is the origin of the sepulchral chamber that was -embedded in the Egyptian pyramid. - -Meanwhile, an intermediary stage between the highly developed _pyramids_ -and the primitive _dolmen_ is represented in the =Altun-Obu Sepulchre=, -near =Kertsch= in the Crimea. Here the mound is faced with layers of -shaped stones, with which also the chamber and the passage leading to it -are lined. The ceilings of both are constructed of courses of stone, -each of which projects a little beyond the one beneath it, until the -diminishing space is capped by a single stone. In the angle of masonry -thus formed is discoverable the rudimentary beginning of the arch. - -It is also convenient here to note, though it anticipates our story, the -more elaborate example of this principle of roofing which is shown in -the so-called =Treasury of Atreus= at =Mycenæ= in Greece. In this instance, -moreover, there is a farther approximation toward the arch, since the -projections of the stones have been cut so as to present a continuous -line. And these contour lines are slightly concave and meet at the top -in a point, for which reason this class of tomb is known as _bee-hive_. - -Another form of this method of angular roofing is seen in an =Arch at -Delos=, which is part of a system of masonry that is known as -_Cyclopean_, after the name of the one-eyed giant whom Ulysses and his -followers encountered in Sicily, during their return from Troy. For the -masonry is composed of large blocks of unshaped stone, the interstices -of which are filled in with smaller stones. Here, too, the actual arch -is composed of a repetition of huge, upright monoliths, supporting a -series of single blocks, set up one against the other at an angle. - -While, however, these primitive forms of roof construction prefigure the -later development of the true arch, the student is warned in advance -that they represent rather a feeling of the need of some such method of -construction than any approach to a solution of the problem. For the -latter, as we shall find later, consisted in discovering how to -counteract the thrust of the arch; its tendency, that is, to press -outward and collapse; whereas in the primitive construction this danger -was evaded by embedding the roof in a mass of masonry or earth that made -lateral strains impossible. The system, in fact, was more like that -employed in shoring up the excavations in modern tunnelling and mining. - -Meanwhile, this rude method of spanning an opening with more than one -piece of stone was the primitive germ of the later development of arch, -vault, and dome construction, just as the placing of a single horizontal -stone on two upright ones is the prototype of columns and entablature. -Thus the instinct of man, in earliest times, reached out toward the two -fundamental principles of architectural construction. - -The most interesting examples of primitive structure are the so-called -_Cromlechs_, of which that of =Stonehenge=, in England, is the best -preserved. The unit of this and like remains is the “post and beam” -formation, composed of a block of stone, supported on two uprights. In -the case of Stonehenge this formation was repeated so as to form a -continuous circle one hundred feet in diameter. Within this was a -concentric circle, composed of smaller slabs, which enclosed a series of -five separate post and beam structures on a horse-shoe plan. The latter -is repeated by another series of slabs and in the centre stands the flat -altar stone. Seventeen stones of the outer circle, varying from sixteen -to eighteen feet in height, are still standing and in part connected by -their beam slabs. - -This impressive memorial stands on Salisbury Plain, eight miles north of -the cathedral city of Salisbury, in the neighbourhood of which are many -barrows. Was it then the temple of a burying place of mighty chieftains -or was it erected in memory of some great victory in honour of the dead -heroes and the nation’s god? According to Geoffrey of Monmouth (<small>A.D.</small> -1154) who is supposed to have compiled much of his history from Celtic -legends, Stonehenge is a Celtic Memorial, erected to the glory of the -Celtic Zeus. - -Rhys, in his “Celtic Heathendom,” accepts the probability of this -account and adds: “What sort of temple could have been more appropriate -for the primary god of light and of the luminous heavens than a spacious -open-air enclosure of a circular form like Stonehenge? Nor do I see any -objection to the old idea that Stonehenge was the original of the famous -temple of Apollo in the island of the Hyperboreans, the stories about -which were based in the first instance most likely on the journal of -Pytheas’ travels.” Pytheas was a Greek navigator and astronomer of the -second half of the fourth century <small>B.C.</small>, who was a native of the Greek -colony of Massilia (Marseilles) and visited the coasts of Spain, Gaul, -and Britain. - -Situated some twenty miles to the north of Stonehenge is the =Abury= or -=Avebury= monument. Its remains comprise two circles, formed of _menhirs_, -which are enclosed within a large outer circle of _monoliths_, about -1250 feet in diameter. This was further surrounded by a moat and -rampart, which suggest that the structure may have served at once the -purposes of a place of assembly and a stronghold. - -At =Carnac=, in the old territory of Brittany, in France, are the remains -of about 1000 _menhirs_, some of which reach a height of 16 feet, -disposed in parallel straight rows, forming avenues nearly two miles -long. They are unworked blocks of granite, set in the ground at their -smaller ends. The neighbourhood also abounds with _tumuli_, _dolmens_, -and later monuments that belong to the Polished Stone Age. - -Furthermore, remains of such monuments as we have been describing are -found in Scandinavia, Ireland, North Germany (in Hannover and the Baltic -Provinces); also in India and Asia Minor, in Egypt, on the northwest of -Africa and in the region about the Atlas Mountains. This fact, assuming -that the monuments are of Celtic origin, testifies to the wide-spread -migrations of this important branch of the Indo-European family which -in prehistoric times swept westward in successive waves. It is known -that this race also overflowed into Northern Italy and Spain. That none -of their monuments of the Rough Stone and Polished Stone ages exist in -these countries seems to point to the migration thither having been made -at a later period. - -From the time that the Celtic race finds its way into recorded history -it has been recognised as pre-eminently characterised by artistic -genius. The rude _menhirs_, under the combined influences of -Christianity and art were in time replaced by _Stone Crosses_ that in -form closely approximate the thickset simplicity of the monolith, but -are embellished with carved ornament. And the latter in its detail is -evidently akin to the motives of decoration found upon the weapons and -earthenware of the Bronze Age, combined with the interlace of lines, -suggested by the example of weaving, and the use of motives derived from -plant forms. These same principles of decoration were applied to the -metal-work in which the Celt excelled and later to the decorated -manuscripts in which he reached so high a degree of artistry. The Celtic -artists in time also introduced human and animal figures into their -designs, but always treated them solely as motives of decoration and -never with the purpose of representing them naturally. - -The prevalence of these decorative motives in ancient Asiatic and -European ornament may have been due to the extended migrations of the -Celts. But not necessarily; for they are equally to be found in the -primitive ornament of the South Sea Islanders, North American Indians, -and the inhabitants of Peru, Mexico, and Central America. Primitive man, -in fact, shows a tendency to similarity of motives and methods at -corresponding stages of his evolution. - - * * * * * - -In the last three countries have been discovered some of the most -remarkable remains of the Polished Stone Age and the Bronze Age. For it -was to this stage--after how many centuries of development is only a -matter of conjecture--that the mighty nations of the Incas, Aztecs, and -others had attained, when the Spanish invaders in the sixteenth century -overcame them and wiped out their civilisations. - -Hitherto the most famous example has been the ruins of =Cuzco=, the -imperial city of the Incas in Peru, which was captured by Pizarro; but -the exploration of Professor Hiram Bingham has recently unearthed, also -in Peru, =Machu Picchu=, a city of refuge, perched almost inaccessibly on -the heights of the Andes. It is the belief of the explorer that this is -the traditional city of Tampu Tocco, to which a highly civilised tribe -retreated, when they were hard pressed by barbarian enemies and from -which, legend says, they descended later to conquer Peru and found the -city of Cuzco, under the leadership of “three brothers who went out from -three windows.” Now Tampa means a place of temporary abode and Tocco -means windows; and in the principal plaza of this newly discovered city -has been found a temple with three windows. - -Thus it is possible that it was actually a deserted city at the time of -the Spanish invasion, held in reverence as the cradle city of the Incas. -Anyhow, it escaped the knowledge and the ravages of the Spaniards and -retains to-day its primitive state, unmixed with the additions of any -subsequent civilisation. - -It occupies an immense area, only rivalled by that of Cuzco, and is -constructed of stones, many of which weigh several tons, hewn into shape -with stone hammers. Large portions of the mountain sides are built up -with terraces, which were used for agricultural purposes and suggest an -analogy with the “hanging gardens” of Babylon. No less than a hundred -flights of steps connect the various parts of the city, which is divided -into wards or “clan groups” by walled enclosures, enclosing houses and -sometimes a central place of worship. The typical design of the houses -is much like that of an Irish cabin--a ground story and a half story -with gabled ends, each pierced by a small window. The wooden roofs have -disappeared, but the stones, bored with a hole, to which the timbers -were lashed, are still in place. In the burial caves bronze objects of -fine workmanship have been discovered. - -Among other noted remains of early buildings is the =Teocalli= or “House -of the God” of =Guatusco= in Costa Rica. It shows a truncated pyramid of -masonry, rising in steps, the top forming a platform on which the temple -stands. A still more important example of this form of structure must -have been the =Teocalli= of =Tenochtitlan=, the ancient name of Mexico City. -Built about 1446, it was destroyed by the Spaniards and part of its site -is now occupied by the Cathedral. According to accounts it comprised a -truncated pyramid, measuring at the top, which was 86 feet from the -ground, 325 by 250 feet. In the ascent it was necessary to pass five -times round the structure by a series of terraces. On the platform were -several ceremonial buildings, the terrible image of the god -Huitzilopochtli, supposed to be the one that is now in the Museum of -Mexico City, and the sacrificial stone. Upon the latter were sacrificed -immense numbers of human victims; report saying, though no doubt with -exaggeration, that at the dedication of the temple seventy thousand were -slaughtered to appease the sanguinary appetite of this hideous idol. - -The exteriors of the latest remains of Central America and Mexican -primitive civilisation are embellished with ornament, the motives of -which exhibit curved and rectangular meanders and interlacings, derived -from the example of weaving and plaiting, as well as vegetable and -animal forms. Often, as in the =Casa de Monjas= in =Yucatan=, the ornament -is so profuse that it obscures the character of the structure, while the -forms are fantastic and extravagant and in some instances horribly -grotesque. Their intention apparently was to strike awe into the -spectator. - -Most of what we have been studying in this chapter comes under the head -of archaeology rather than of art. Nevertheless, since it represents the -gradual approach of civilisation toward the artistic conception, it is -well worth attention. - - - - -BOOK II - -PRE-CLASSIC PERIOD - - - - -CHAPTER I - -EGYPTIAN CIVILISATION - - -The most ancient civilisation known to us is that of Egypt, and the -knowledge of it is mainly derived from its architectural remains and the -sculpture, painting, and inscriptions with which they are decorated. In -addition, there are the records written upon papyri, the Biblical books -of Exodus, and the history of Manetho, an Egyptian priest, who lived -about 250 <small>B.C.</small> By this time Egypt had been subdued by Alexander the -Great and had passed under the rule of the Ptolemies. So Manetho wrote -in Greek, but only fragments of his work have survived, through -quotations made from it by Eusebius, Josephus, and other historians. - -It is from all these materials that scholars have endeavoured to piece -together some sort of connected history of the period covered by -Manetho; the difficulty being increased by the fact that the Egyptian -system of chronology reckoned by dynasties and computed the time by the -years of the reigning sovereign, beginning anew with each succession. -Furthermore, the inscriptions omit references to any interruptions that -occurred in the sequence of the dynasties; recording only the periods of -Egyptian supremacy and leaving out those in which the country suffered -from the domination, short or long, of foreign conquerors. - -Accordingly, while Manetho names the first ruler of the First Dynasty as -Menes, there is nothing but the conjecture of scholars as to the date; -and the latter has been variously estimated as from 3892 to 5650 years -before Christ. - -It will be a help at the outset to summarise the Dynasties under two -heads: (A) those of Independent Egypt; (B) those of Subject Egypt. - -A. Dynasties of Independence. - - 1. I-X--THE ANCIENT EMPIRE; Capital, Memphis in - Lower Egypt. Lasted about 1500 years. - - 2. XI-XIII--THE MIDDLE EMPIRE, or First Theban - Monarchy; Capital, Thebes in Upper Egypt. - Lasted about 900 years. - - 3. XIV-XVII--Hyksos Invaders occupy Lower - Egypt; the Egyptian princes rule as vassal - princes in Upper Egypt: from 400-500 years. - - 4. XVIII-XX--THE NEW EMPIRE or Second Theban - Monarchy. The Great Epoch of Egyptian - power and art. Lasted about 600 years and - ended about 1000 <small>B.C.</small> - -B. Dynasties of Subjection. - - 5. XXI-XXXII--THE PERIOD OF DECADENCE under - various foreign rulers; sometimes called the - Saitic Period, because the first conquerors, the - Libyans, made their capital at Sais. Lasted - from about 1000-324 <small>B.C.</small> - - 6. XXXIII--THE PTOLEMAIC PERIOD of Greek rule, - following the Conquest of Egypt by Alexander - the Great; 324-31 <small>B.C.</small> - - 7. XXXIV--THE ROMAN RULE: Egypt a Province - of the Roman Empire; 31 <small>B.C.</small> to 395 <small>A.D.</small> At - the latter date it became a part of the Eastern - Roman Empire. - -In 389 the emperor, Theodosius, issued an edict proclaiming that -Christianity was to be recognised as the religion of Egypt. In -consequence of this change all knowledge of the old form of writing -gradually disappeared and the antiquities of Egypt remained a sealed -book for some fourteen centuries. - - * * * * * - -The commencement of the modern interest in Egypt, as a mine of -historical, archæological, and artistic lore, dates from Napoleon -Bonaparte’s invasion, for he took with him a body of savants to explore -the topography and nature of the country and its antiquities. The -results of their labours were published in 1809-13 in twenty-five -volumes, illustrated with 900 engravings. - -Meanwhile, in 1799, Captain Boussard, an engineer under Bonaparte, had -discovered in the trenches a tablet of black basalt, inscribed with -three kinds of writing, one of which was Greek. From the name of the -village near which it was found it is called the _Rosetta Stone_ and is -now in the British Museum. Various attempts were made to decipher -through the Greek the other two scripts, which were, respectively, -hieroglyphic and the demotic or popular writing-form of ancient Egypt. - -Finally, the clue was discovered by the French scholar, Champollion. He -found there had been three kinds of characters which represented -successive developments of one system of writing: that in the -hieroglyphic each letter was represented by a picture-form; that in the -hieratic or priestly writing, these forms were represented in a freer -and more fluent way, which was further simplified in the demotic -characters, used generally by the scribes. Two of these had been -repeated as nearly as possible in the Greek text. It is out of this -discovery that Egyptology, or the science which concerns itself with -the writing, language, literature, monuments, and history of ancient -Egypt, is being gradually developed. Yet the subject is still involved -in great uncertainty, owing to the difficulty in discovering principles -of grammar, so that the translations of one scholar vary from those of -others and all reach only the general sense, without assurance of -accuracy. - - * * * * * - -The civilisation of a country is always largely determined by its -geographical character and the latter, in the case of Egypt, is of -exceptional significance. Herodotus called Egypt the “Gift of the Nile.” -The great river created it and has continued to preserve it. For the -country comprises a narrow strip of soil varying from 4 to 16 miles in -width, bordering the two sides of the stream, and extending in ancient -times, as far as the second cataract, a distance of some 900 miles; -approximating, that is to say, the distance from New York to Chicago or -from London to Florence. It is bounded by rocky hills, and, as it -reaches the Mediterranean, fans out into a delta of flat lands, the -various streams being kept in place by dykes. The only thing that has -saved this country from being swallowed up in the desert is the annual -rise of the river, succeeding the tropical rains in the interior and the -melting of the snow in the mountains of Abyssinia. This floods the -lowlands and leaves behind an alluvial deposit, so richly fertile that -the soil, warmed by constant sunshine, yields three harvests annually. -Meanwhile, it is a remarkable fact that the records of ancient times -tally with those of to-day, both showing that the amount of the rise -varies but little from year to year. - -Before considering how these natural features of the country affected -the civilisation of its inhabitants, a fact is to be noted. At the point -of time when Manetho commenced his history of the Egyptians, variously -estimated from about 4000 to about 6000 years before the Christian Era, -they appear as a people already possessed of a high degree of -civilisation, surrounded by inferior races. An immense interval of -progress separates them from the earliest conditions that we considered -in the previous chapter. By what stages did they reach this footing of -superiority and through what length of time; moreover, what was the -origin of their race? To these questions of profound interest there is -no answer forthcoming. Some recent scholars are disposed to believe that -the civilisation of Egypt, as we first meet with it, had been preceded -by a still more remote civilisation in Babylonia; but as yet they have -not shaken the accepted view that priority in civilisation belongs to -the Land of the Nile. So far as knowledge exists, civilisation appeared -first in Egypt and by a wonderful combination of circumstances, -continued up to historic times. - -The tenacity of the civilisation of the Egyptians is a counterpart of -the tenacity of character of the people, as a result primarily of their -natural surroundings. Within the limits of Upper and Lower, that is to -say of Southern and Northern Egypt, the Nile has no tributaries. -Consequently, there was at first no urge to the inhabitants to push -outward; and every inducement to cling to their own strip of territory. -Moreover, since the periodic river floods were constant, there was every -inducement, nay almost necessity, that they should cling to the methods -by which they had learned to utilise them. Hence, _conservatism_ was -forced upon them and became ingrained in their character and -institutions. It was further encouraged by their isolation; for the -adjoining country was desert, meagrely occupied by nomad tribes. -Accordingly, that tendency of every nation to consider itself the salt -of the earth and especially favoured of the gods seemed justified -abundantly in their case. - -Again, their dependence on the Nile early taught them the habit of -noting the seasons, while the necessity of husbanding the water in -reservoirs and by irrigation made them skilled in engineering and -generally resourceful. And these characteristics of method and -constructiveness were reflected in the social organisation. - -The King was the supreme head of the whole system, descendant of the -Sun-god, Ra, the individual embodiment of the nation’s greatness, while -beneath him the people were divided into the official class, middle -class, and slaves. The first included generals, high-priests, officers, -physicians, overseers, district-chiefs, judges, master-builders, -scribes, and many others--officialdom being spun like a web over the -life of the people. The middle class, composed of merchants, traders, -ordinary priests, artisans, free working potters, carpenters, joiners, -smiths, and agriculturists, enjoyed many of the privileges of the upper -classes, but were not permitted to erect tombs, though their place of -burial might be marked by a _stele_ with inscriptions. The slaves were -mere hewers of wood and drawers of water. - -Title to all land, except that attached to the temples, was vested in -the King and the land was worked for the State by slaves or let out at -an annual rental. In connection with this subject compare the story of -Joseph, especially Genesis xli. - -Each administrative department had its own troops--or, to use the -modern word, _corvée_--of slaves, under an overseer who kept tally of -work done and rations distributed. It was the troop, not the individual, -that constituted the unit. Agriculturists ranked higher than the -artisans; although the work of the latter was highly esteemed. The -weavers made baskets, mats, and boats of papyrus leaves and produced -linen of the finest quality as well as coarser grades. The carpenter, -notwithstanding the scarcity of timber, did creditable work with the -simplest kind of tools. Little variation was attempted by the potters in -the forms of vessels, which were crude but often finished with fine -glazes. The metal workers used gold, silver, bronze, iron, and tin; -silver exceeding gold in value. Whence they procured tin is unknown, but -the other metals came from the mines of Sinai and Nubia. - -The processes of agriculture were of the simplest. The plough was formed -of a sharpened stake, dragged by oxen; the crops were cut with sickles, -and the grain was winnowed by casting it in the air, after which it was -stored in large, tunnel-shaped receptacles, filled from the top by a -ladder. While the Egyptians prided themselves on their immense herds of -cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and asses, the shepherds, living in the -remote marshes, were “an abomination unto the Egyptians” (Genesis xlvi, -34). - -Their recreations included the hunting of wild animals with dogs, while -the men were armed with lasso and spear and occasionally a bow and -arrows. In the marshy districts birds were brought down with a boomerang -or caught in nets and traps. The people indulged in wrestling matches, -gymnastics, ball-playing, quoits, and juggling, while work was performed -to the accompaniments of music and singing, and music and dancing -enlivened the feasts. The instruments comprised the flute and a kind of -whistle, the guitar, harp, and lyre, the last two having sometimes -twenty strings. - -The school, “bookhouse” or “house of instruction,” was presided over by -a scribe and attended by children of all classes. The curriculum -included orthography, calligraphy, and the rules of etiquette, together -with practice in the technical work of the department for which the -children were being trained. - -The uniform male garment for all classes was an apron fastened around -the loins. To this in early times the King added a lion’s tail and the -noble a panther-skin. In the Middle Empire the apron took a pointed, -triangular shape in front and became longer, while by degrees a single -apron gave way to a short, opaque under-apron with a long, transparent -one over it. The short apron, however, continued to be the sole garment -of the priest. In time, the costume of the King included garments -covering the upper part of the body, a practice which dates from the -Eighteenth Dynasty, when the vigorous Queen Hatasu adopted the male -costume. The uniform dress of women was a transparent robe hung from the -shoulders by straps and reaching from the breasts to the ankles. In -later times it was supplemented with a sleeved or sleeveless mantle. - -These, and countless other particulars of daily life, are pictured with -precise details, in coloured carvings and in paintings on the walls of -tombs, so as to continue after death, for the benefit of the _Ka_ or -double, the conditions which the deceased had been accustomed to in -life. This Ka was believed to be separate from the body, mind, or soul -of the individual; an independent spiritual existence which, as long as -it was present, ensured “protection, life, continuance, purity, health, -and joy.” Hence the care with which provision was made to induce it to -remain with the individual when dead. For continuance of life after -death was the cardinal principle of Egyptian religion. It was the -spiritualised expression of the people’s intense conservatism; and the -preservation of the body as a mummy and the taking of measures to ensure -that the Ka would abide with it or, at least, visit it frequently, were -the chief duties of the priesthood. The homes of the living, therefore, -were considered of less importance than those of the dead; and, while -few traces remain of dwellings or even of palaces, Egypt abounds with -Tombs. These are the memorials of individuals, while the Temples embody -the pride and glory of the national, collective life. Indeed, it would -seem that during life the individual, except only the King, who -represented the union of all, was regarded simply as a factor in the -collective organisation of the community, the splendour and power of -which was visualised in the Temples. - -Hence the importance which was attached to size and beauty of colour in -the Temple architecture. Evidence shows the Egyptians were not an -intellectual race. That is to say, they were not given to speculation; -nor did they carry their mathematical or scientific studies beyond the -point at which they were needed for material and practical purposes. And -equally devoid of abstract qualities was their imagination. It conceived -of “better” in terms of “bigger,” and “best” in terms of “biggest.” -Through all their centuries of civilisation they did not progress beyond -the crude stage of finding sufficient satisfaction in constructing or -possessing “the biggest thing on earth.” And the biggest was constructed -by sheer force of numbers of slave-workers, at an immense human -sacrifice. It has been computed that every stone in the huge Temples -cost at least one life. - -Accordingly, the distinguishing features of their Temple architecture -are colossal height and the spreading out over vast areas, as succeeding -kings added to the original building another Court or Hall to -demonstrate the grandeur of his reign. - -And, to repeat once more, it was the conservatism, characteristic of the -race, that encouraged this repetition of motives, while at the same time -establishing conventionalised forms for the details. Individuality of -artistic expression was curbed by the canons of form that the priests -had laid down and enforced age after age. Meanwhile, in the scenes of -life with which they decorated the walls, some latitude was allowed the -painters and sculptors in the direction of naturalistic representation; -and it was increased when, in later times, the influence of Cretan -civilisation penetrated to Egypt. - - * * * * * - -We will conclude with a brief summary of the part played by the several -Dynasties in the art which is discussed in the following chapter. - -It is to be noted that no inscriptions survive from the first three -Dynasties; but that with the Fourth commence the records which have been -recovered from the _Tombs_ or _Mastabas_. - -To Snofru (Greek Soris, as given by Manetho) is attributed the -stepped-pyramid at Sakkarah, while the four pyramids at Gizeh are known -by the names of their builders Khufu or Cheops; Khafra or Chephren, and -Menkara or Mycerinus. The Sixth Dynasty closed with the reign of Queen -Nitocris, who is supposed to have faced with granite the Pyramid of -Menkara, in which it is believed her funeral chamber was constructed. -After her reign a period of darkness intervened during which the power -of the monarchy was gradually developed, until, with the beginning of -the Eleventh Dynasty, the Government was established in Thebes. - -The Kings of the Middle Empire, Usertesen I, II, and III, signalised -their rule by reaching out beyond the limits of Lower and Upper Egypt. -They conquered Ethiopia to the south and opened up trade to the eastward -with Syria, and recovered possession of the mines of Sinai. Temples were -built and great public works of irrigation carried out, while changes -were inaugurated in writing and education. The process of development -seems to have been continued even during the Hyksos usurpation. For -these Asiatic invaders, whose race and origin are unknown--the term -Hyksos meaning Shepherd Kings or Bedouin Chiefs--confined their -occupation to Lower Egypt, while the Egyptian Kings continued to govern -Upper Egypt as vassal princes. - -It was an attempted interference with Egyptian self-rule that -precipitated the expulsion of the Hyksos. The latter’s chief had -demanded of the “Prince of the South” that he abandon the worship of -Ra-Ammon for that of the Hyksos god. A refusal led to war which was -brought to a successful end by Amasis or Ahmes I, first King of the -Eighteenth Dynasty. - -With the commencement of the New Empire Egypt entered upon an era of -prosperity and power that were reflected in the grandeur of her art. It -corresponded in Egyptian history to the age of Pericles in Athens; the -Imperial Epoch of Rome, and the High Renaissance of the sixteenth -century in Italy. Amenophis subdued the Libyans to the westward of the -Delta. His successor, Thothmes I, carried conquest as far south as the -third cataract and annexed the land of Cush as a province. Having thus -consolidated authority in the neighbourhood of Egypt, he invaded -Palestine and Syria as far as the Euphrates. His daughter, Queen Hatasu, -fitted out an expedition to the land of Punt (South Arabia) and brought -back incense, wood, and animals, such as the dog-headed ape; all of -which is duly recorded on the walls of her temple at Deir-el-Bahri. But -the acme of power was reached by her half-brother, Thothmes III; for -this monarch made fifteen expeditions, in the course of which he reduced -the rising power of the Hittites and made himself master of the -countries west of the Euphrates and south of Amanus. His two successors -managed to hold together this great empire; but in time these foreign -entanglements necessitated frequent expeditions. - -By the time of the Nineteenth Dynasty the federation of the Hittites had -been consolidated and Seti I advanced against them, claiming a victory -which was at least not final, for they threatened his successor, Rameses -II, who, however, made a treaty of peace with them and married the -daughter of the Hittite king. Rameses II also invaded Palestine and -afterwards penetrated as far as the Orontes. He reigned sixty-six years -and it has been estimated that half the buildings in Egypt bear his -cartouche; although in many cases he probably followed the practice of -adding his own cartouche to buildings already existing. - -It was during the reign of his son, Meneptah, that the Hebrew Exodus is -supposed to have taken place; an event that indicates the weakening of -the central authority, which was continued under this king’s successors. -Finally, during the reign of Rameses III, of the Twentieth Dynasty, -mercenaries were not only employed but allowed to settle in the country -and during the remainder of the Rameseide Dynasty the monarchs became -the tools of mercenaries and priests. Thus set in the decadence of power -and art, which marked the Saitic Dynasty. - -Then followed a short period of Persian domination, which was so hateful -to the Egyptians that they welcomed Alexander as a liberator. He -appointed as king one of his generals, Ptolemy, in whose family the -succession continued through sixteen rulers of the same name. During -this period Egypt became an intellectual centre, its splendid library -being the nucleus of scholarship. It was by order or at least permission -of Ptolemy Philadelphos, about 270 or 280 <small>B.C.</small>, that the Hebrew -scriptures were translated into Greek by seventy scholars, whence the -version is known as the _Septuagint_. The Ptolemies signalised their -rule by the restoration of the old temples and monuments, which had -suffered from the havoc of invasions. - -After the victory of Augustus Cæsar at Actium in <small>B.C.</small> 31 and the death -of Cleopatra the following year, Egypt became, as we have already noted, -a Roman province. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE - - -The remains of monumental architecture in Egypt afford a remarkable -opportunity of studying the development from primitive types of -structure. The earliest, which comprise the _pyramids_, _mastabas_, and -two examples of _temples_, represent developed forms of the _tumulus_ -and _dolmen_, while the later temples, which began to appear in the -Twelfth Dynasty, exhibit their origin in the primitive hut of the -country. - - -THE ANCIENT EMPIRE - -=Great Sphinx.=--Meanwhile among the earliest monuments, of uncertain date -and origin, is the Great Sphinx of =Gizeh=. It is the prototype of the -sphinxes that were afterwards used to form avenues of approach to the -temples, being distinguished from the Greek type of Sphinx by the fact -that the recumbent lion body is wingless and carries a male instead of -female head and bust. The heads of the later sphinxes represented -portraits of the reigning kings, the conception symbolised in the whole -figure being the royal power. An inscription, however, upon a small -temple, which was erected between the paws of the Great Sphinx in the -Eighteenth Dynasty, records that it was made in honour of Harmachis, one -of the forms of the Sun-god, Ra. - -Hewn out of the living rock, it faces eastward, as if on guard over the -pyramids and the entrance to the Nile Valley. The dimensions, when the -sand was cleared from - -[Illustration: SECTION OF PYRAMID - -SHOWING KING’S CHAMBER, QUEEN’S CHAMBER AND A THIRD ONE BELOW. P. 40] - -[Illustration: MODELS OF MASTABAS - -FROM THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. P. 40] - -[Illustration: TYPES OF EGYPTIAN COLUMNS - -BELL OR CAMPANIFORM HATHOR-HEADED LOTUS BUD: UPPER FROM - BENI HASSAN - -P. 52] - -[Illustration: TEMPLE-TOMB OF RAMESES II AT ABOU-SIMBEL. - -P. 45] - -[Illustration: PLAN OF RAMESSEUM OR TEMPLE-TOMB OF RAMESES II - -NEAR DEIR-EL-BAHRI. SHOWING PYLONS, TWO FORECOURTS WITH COLONNADES; -HYPOSTYLE HALL OR HALL OF COLUMNS, AND THE SANCTUARY AND RITUAL -CHAMBERS. TYPE OF ALL EGYPTIAN TEMPLE PLANS. P. 46] - -[Illustration: © Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y. - -MODEL HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK - -SHOWING CONSTRUCTION AND DECORATION. P. 51] - -[Illustration: PERIPTERAL SANCTUARY - -SURROUNDED ON FOUR SIDES BY COLUMNS. AT PHILÆ. P. 53] - -[Illustration: TEMPLE OF EDFOU - -ENTRANCE TO HYPOSTYLE HALL. METHOD OF ADMITTING LIGHT IN PTOLEMAIC -PERIOD. P. 54] - -[Illustration: EXAMPLE OF CARVED DECORATION P. 48] - -the body in the nineteenth century, were found to be: length, 189 feet; -height, 66 feet. The face, which was originally painted red, has lost -part of the nose and beard, as the result of being used as a target by -the Mameluke cavalry. - -=Pyramids.=--The Pyramids, numbering over a hundred, were the sepulchres -of the kings of the first twelve Dynasties. Some, for example, the one -at =Sakkarah=, attributed to Senefrou of the Third Dynasty, are of the -form known as _stepped-pyramids_, their sides ascending in six bold -steps; there is one at =Dashour= which slopes steeply from the ground and -then breaks to a gentler slope; but the usual type is an unbroken -pyramid on a square base. - -Three of these, situated at =Gizeh=, are of surprising size and known by -the names of their builders: =Cheops= or Khufu; =Chephren= or Khafra, and -=Mycerinus= or Menkara; all of the Fourth Dynasty. The largest of these, -that of =Cheops=, known as the Great Pyramid, is 482 feet high, with a -side length of 764 feet. It is, in fact, 150 feet higher than St. Paul’s -Cathedral, 50 feet higher than St. Peter’s, while it covers an area -nearly three times that of the latter. - -The evolution of the pyramid form has been traced from the method of -burial. In prehistoric times the body was laid in a square pit which was -roofed over with poles and brushwood, covered with sand. The kings of -the First Dynasty lined the pit with wood. Later a wooden chamber with a -beam roof was erected within the pit, descent to which was by a stairway -on one side. Still later, the whole was covered by a pile of earth, held -in place by dwarf walls. Then, in the Third Dynasty, the earth was -replaced by a mass of brickwork with a sloping passage leading down to -the mummy chamber, and subsequently stone was employed. The completed -development is represented in the pyramids of Gizeh. - -They are constructed of limestone upon a foundation of levelled rock and -were originally finished on the outside with massive blocks of polished -stone. The entrance is on the north side by a passage, which first -descends and then rises to the principal chamber, which contained the -king’s sarcophagus. This was lined on the east and west sides with -immense stones, supporting several layers of horizontal blocks, crowned -with a gable, formed of stones, which are so placed that they exert no -thrust upon the stones below. A similar gable formed the ceiling of the -Queen’s Chamber, which is situated at a lower level, while at a still -lower level is a third chamber. - -The statues and sculptured reliefs, discovered in the pyramids and -mastabas of the Fourth to Sixth Dynasties, exhibit not only a highly -developed skill in the cutting of hard and soft stone, and ivory and -wood and in beating copper but also remarkable expression of character. -The minute statuette in ivory of Cheops, though the face is only about a -quarter of an inch in length, is a portrait of extraordinary force, and -the life-size figure of Chephren, carved in hard diorite, is equally -distinguished for its serenity and power. The character of all the -sculpture, even of low-reliefs of everyday scenes, is but little -naturalistic, being impressed with a certain grandeur, as of something -inevitable and immutable. - -The earliest example of wall-painting appears at Sakkarah in the Pyramid -of Onas, the last king of the Fifth Dynasty; where, amid the record of -ritual observances, is depicted the grinding of the god’s bones to make -bread. - -=Mastabas.=--From the methods of burial were also developed the type of -the =mastabas= or tombs of the royal family, priests, and chieftains, -which were erected at =Sakkarah=, near Memphis, during the Fourth, Fifth, -and Sixth Dynasties. The name is derived from the Arabian term for a -bench, the familiar type of which is a seat, supported upon boards that -slope inward. Similarly the tomb has a flat roof and _battered_, or -inward sloping, walls of masonry. It is entered usually on the east -side, by a passage that descends to the Chamber of Offering, which -contains, to hold the offerings, a sculptured table. Near it a vertical -pit, or well, from forty to fifty feet deep, is sunk in the solid rock, -communicating with the mummy chamber. Another hidden chamber, often -connected with the Chamber of Offering, is known as the _Serdab_, which -was intended to serve as a home for the deceased’s Ka or “double.” It -contained a statue of the deceased and sometimes a model of his home and -representations of his occupations during life. Thus, in the =Mastaba of -Thy=, with a view to inducing the Ka to overlook the break that has -occurred in the life of the deceased, the reliefs depict harvest -operations, ship-building scenes, the arts and crafts of the period, the -slaughtering of sacrificial animals and Thy himself traversing the -marshes in a boat. - -=Sphinx Temple.=--Akin to the mastaba is the earliest type of temple, such -as the so-called Sphinx Temple, which although near the Great Sphinx is -now attributed to Chephren. Partially excavated out of rock, it is T -shaped in plan, with two rows of square piers in the longitudinal -portion and one row in the transverse, supporting the stone beams of the -roof. The piers are monoliths of polished granite, while the interior -walls are veneered with slabs of alabaster. The whole was embedded in a -rectangular mass of masonry. Another temple of the Fourth or Fifth -Dynasty is represented as restored in a model in the Metropolitan -Museum, New York. - - -FIRST THEBAN MONARCHY OR MIDDLE EMPIRE - -With the removal of the seat of government from Memphis to Thebes -commenced the First Theban Monarchy or Middle Empire, comprising the -Eleventh, Twelfth, and Thirteenth Dynasties. Abydos and Beni Hassan now -became the place of tombs. - -Two types of tomb distinguish this period. One, frequently found at -=Abydos=, consists of a pyramidal structure with a cubical porch on one -side, entered by an arched portal. The latter feature proves that the -Egyptians were familiar with the principle of the arch, although they -did not employ it in their monumental buildings. It appears later in the -elliptical barrel-vaultings which crowned the long tunnel-like cellars -that Rameses I (The Great) erected for the storage of grain. The above -mentioned tombs were structural, whereas those of the second type were -excavated in the vertical rock-wall that forms the west bank of the -Nile; their entrance thus being toward the east. At =Beni Hassan= is a -group of thirty-nine such tombs which show a marked progress in -architectural design. - -The front of each presents a porch, composed of columns supporting a -cornice, the latter being surmounted by a row of projections or -_dentils_ that resemble the ends of beams. The shafts of the columns are -polygonal, with eight, sixteen, or thirty-two faces, and are surmounted -by a square _abacus_. It has been conjectured that these columns may be -the prototype of the Doric column and accordingly their type has been -designated as _proto-Doric_. Meanwhile the columns inside the tomb -exhibit a stage in the development of the _lotus_ column; the motive of -their design having been derived from a post around the top of which had -been fastened the decoration of a cluster of lotus buds. The interior -walls of these tombs are decorated with pictorial scenes, executed in -red, yellow, and blue. - -=Obelisks.=--To the Twelfth Dynasty belongs the earliest =Obelisk= still in -position; that of =Usertesen I=, in the necropolis of =Memphis=, its -companion having fallen. For these developed forms of the monolithic -_menhir_, regarded by the Egyptians as symbols of royalty and of the -Sun-god, Ra, were placed in pairs, usually before the entrance of a -temple. Their design was of great refinement, the taper being regulated -very carefully in proportion to the width and height. The top was -crowned with a small pyramid which in certain instances, at any rate, -was capped with metal. The sides of the shaft were given a slight convex -curve, or _entasis_, to offset the effect of concavity which they might -have produced if rectilinear, and also to relieve the rigidity of the -design. It is one of the instances which prove that the Egyptians -understood and practised the principle of _asymmetry_, or deviation from -strictly geometrical formality--a subject we shall study more fully in -Hellenic and Gothic architecture. - -The two obelisks now known as =Cleopatra’s Needles=, one of which is on -the Thames Embankment, London, the other in Central Park, New York, were -removed from Heliopolis to Alexandria by the Romans. They were -originally erected by Thothmes III of the Eighteenth Dynasty, whose -half-sister, Queen Hatasu, numbered among her achievements the -completion and erection of an obelisk, 100 feet high, in the short space -of seven months. - -From this period of the Middle Empire survive the fragments of three -temples. Amid the ruins of =Bubastis= have been found examples of the type -of _clustered lotus_ columns, while portions of polygonal columns, -discovered among the ruins of the Great Temple at Karnak, have been -identified as belonging to a temple of the Twelfth Dynasty. The evidence -which these remains afford of the fact that such columns were employed -in actual construction as well as in rock-cut form, has been -corroborated by the recent discovery of a sepulchral temple on the south -side of the Temple of Deir-el-Bahri--to be mentioned later--of which it -is the prototype. For the earlier was reached by steps that led up to a -solid mass of masonry, which in the opinion of some authorities was -crowned by a pyramid. It was surrounded by a peristyle, composed of an -outer range of square piers and an inner one of octagonal columns. - -It is surmised, in fact, that during the Middle Empire, which was a -period of great development in the arts of peace, many of the -architectural problems were worked out in temples, afterwards destroyed, -to make way for the superior developments that were achieved under the -Second Theban Empire. - - -SECOND THEBAN EMPIRE OR NEW EMPIRE - -No architectural monuments mark the period of Hyksos usurpation. But the -expulsion of the invaders and the restoration of the power alike of the -monarchy and of the national religion produced an outburst of patriotic -ardour that was fostered by rulers of exceptional greatness. The -Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties are brilliant with the -prowess and architectural creations that are associated with such names -as Thothmes, Amenophis, Queen Hatasu, Seti and Rameses. - -The =Tombs= of the New Theban Empire comprised both the structural and the -excavated types. The rock-cut royal tombs are distinguished by the -extent and complexity of their shafts, passages, and chambers, designed -to baffle the efforts of any possible marauder, while notwithstanding -the darkness which fills all the spaces, the walls are brilliantly -decorated with coloured reliefs for the propitiation of the Ka. In -contrast with the interior is the extreme simplicity of the entrance, of -which the main features are the majestic colossal seated figures of the -Monarch, which take the place of the statue within the tomb. The -grandest example is the =Temple-Tomb of Rameses II= at =Abou Simbel=. - -An exception to this external simplicity is the =Temple-Tomb= of =Queen -Hatasu= at =Deir-el-Bahri=, which, however, presents a combination of the -structural and excavated types, for projecting from the face of the rock -was an extensive portico, from which steps seem to have descended to a -terrace bounded by a peristyle and communicating by another flight of -steps with the lower ground--an impressive architectural ensemble, -designed, apparently, for ritual ceremonies. - -The most magnificent examples of the purely structural Tomb are the -=Ramesseum= or =Tomb of Rameses II=, near =Deir-el-Bahri=, and that of =Rameses -III= at =Medinet Abou=. They may have been rivalled by the =Amenopheum= or -Tomb of Amenophis III, of which, however, scarce a trace remains except -the colossal seated figures, fifty-six feet high, of the King and his -Queen. The former is known as the “Vocal Memnon,” a name given to it by -the Greeks, after that of the son of Eos (Dawn), because of the legend, -that when the statue was smitten by the rays of the rising sun, it gave -forth a sound as of a broken chord. - -The Ramesseum is a sepulchral temple and its plan, involving a sanctuary -and ritual chambers, a hall of columns entered between pylons, and -forecourts, presents the typal form of Temple plan. - -=Temples.=--The New Theban Empire was the great age of Temple Building. It -is characteristic of the conservatism of the Egyptians not only that the -style of their monumental architecture was evolved from the rude -primitive hut-construction but also that it preserved features of the -latter, even though the necessity for them no longer existed. And so -persistent was the adherence to these features, now transformed into -elements of beauty, that they were continued even in the later temples, -built during the period of Roman domination. - -It has been suggested that the origin of the style can be discovered in -the modelled and sculptured reliefs of the house of the deceased, found -in the earliest rock-cut tombs. The house represents a developed stage -of the still earlier hut, the character of which was determined by the -scarcity of wood. Instead, therefore, of employing poles, connected by -wattled twigs or reeds and covered with mud, the Egyptians fashioned the -alluvial deposit into bricks, dried in the sun, which they laid in -horizontal courses, each layer projecting inwards, until the walls met -at the top. Gradually this beehive form of construction was modified in -the better class of dwellings, by the adoption of a square plan and the -use of the trunks of palm trees to form the lintel of the door and to -support a flat mud-covered roof. The representations at =Gizeh= show that -bundles of reeds were used to reinforce the angles of the structure and -were also laid along the top of the walls, so as to form a rolled -border, corresponding to what is later called a _torus_. This, through -the weight of the roof, had a tendency to be forced outward, so that it -formed what was practically a concave cornice along the top of the wall. -Hence the so-called _cavetto_ cornice which is one of the marked -distinctions of the Egyptian monumental style. Moreover, while the -sun-dried bricks acquire a hardness and compactness, they are unable to -sustain much pressure, so that it was necessary to make the walls -thicker at the bottom than at the top. From this resulted the _batter_ -of the walls, which is another distinctive characteristic of the -Egyptian style. Further, owing to the intense heat, windows were -dispensed with and the walls in consequence were unbroken except by the -entrance. To this day the houses of the poorer classes are built as of -old and present the rudiments out of which was developed the style of -the stone-built temples, so vastly impressive in the embodied suggestion -of elemental grandeur and eternal durability. - -From the outside were visible only the walls and portal of the -rectangular temple enclosure. The walls sloped backward, like the glacis -of a fortification. A clustered torus moulding, as of reeds bound -together at intervals, so as to produce alternate hollows and swells, -ran up each of the angles of the masonry and along the top of the walls, -where it was surmounted by a cavetto cornice, terminating in a square -moulding. A similar finish crowned the entrance door and its flanking -pylons. The door, framed at the sides and top with squared blocks of -stone, frankly proclaimed the post and beam principle that also -governed the interior construction of the temple. - -The door was flanked by _pylons_, each a truncated pyramid with oblong -base; the form, in fact, of a hut grandiosely enlarged into a decorative -feature of immense impressiveness. Set into its walls were rings to hold -flag-staffs, and the surface of the pylon, like that of the walls, was -resplendent with coloured reliefs, extolling the prowess of the King who -had erected the temple. His statue flanked the doorway, in front of -which soared two obelisks, while the roadway that led to the temple was -embellished with an avenue of sphinxes. These avenues were of great -length, the one from Karnak to Luxor extending a mile and a half. - -On the lintel over the door was the winged globe, symbol of the Sun’s -flight through the sky to conquer Night. Other symbolic ornaments -adorned the jambs and the various cornices, while historic pictures, -recording the achievements of the monarch’s rule, covered the surfaces -of walls and pylons. All were executed in the same way as the symbolic -ornament and the pictures in honour of the deity, which covered the -walls, columns, beams, and ceiling of the interior of the temple. The -forms were either cut down in very low relief or enclosed by incised -lines, the edges of which on the side nearer to the form were slightly -rounded, in order to give a sense of modelling. In both cases the -designs were filled in with the primary colours, blue, red, and yellow. -Thus the decoration, derived from the method of drawing patterns in the -mud of a wall while it was still damp, was inset, its higher parts being -in the same plane as the wall’s surface--a method distinctively mural -which also maintained the avoidance of projections. This avoidance of -projecting members, except in the cornice, was a marked characteristic -of the Egyptian use of the post and beam principle, as compared with the -use of it by the Greeks and Romans. - -The essential feature of the temple within the enclosure was the -sanctuary of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated, around which -were grouped chambers for the service of the priests in connection with -the ritual. Entrance to this Holy of Holies and its subsidiary cells was -through a _hypostyle hall_, so called because its ceiling of slabs of -stone was supported upon stone beams that rested upon columns. The -latter, to withstand the weight of the superincumbent mass, were of -great girth and closely ranged, so that an effect as of the depths of a -forest was produced, rendered more mysterious and apparently limitless -by the dim and fitful light. This penetrated through _clerestory_ -windows, covered with pierced stonework and set in the sides of the -central portion of the roof, which, supported on higher columns, rose -above the side roofs, as the nave of a Gothic cathedral rises above the -level of the aisles. When one recollects that the interior was -completely covered with symbolic ornament and pictures, one can imagine -no mode of lighting better adapted to produce a phantasy of effect, to -preclude distinctness of vistas and promote a suggestion of limitless -immensity, according with the idea of the eternal continuity of the -soul’s existence, on which the religion of the Egyptians was founded. - -The only approximation in architecture to the mysterious grandeur of the -hypostyle hall, leading to the sanctuary, is the nave and aisles and -choir of a Gothic cathedral. But the latter presents a great difference, -since it was arranged for the congregational service of crowds of -worshippers and, partly for this reason and partly because it was a -product of the comparatively sunless north, it is flooded through its -numerous and large stained-glass windows more abundantly with “dim -religious light.” - -It remains to note the approach to this hall through an open court which -was surrounded on two or three sides by a colonnade or peristyle, while -an avenue of columns frequently led through the centre from the main -entrance of the pylons to the portal of the hall. - -This combination of Court, Hall, and Sanctuary with its Chambers, -already present in the =Ramesseum=, formed the essential of every temple -plan, even during the period of Roman occupation. But while the nucleus -of the plan was organically complete, unity of effect was abandoned in -actual practice owing to the additions made to the original temple by -successive kings, who would contribute another hall of columns or -another court and sometimes erect another temple as an annex. The most -remarkable example of this gradual accretion of additional features is -to be found at Karnak; a group of temples in honour of the Sun-god -Ra-Ammon, the building of which extended throughout the period of the -New Empire. - -=Temples of Karnak.=--The nucleus of the scheme was the granite sanctuary -and chambers erected by Usertesen I of the Twelfth Dynasty. In the -Eighteenth Dynasty Thothmes I added to the west front of this a columned -hall with pylon entrances, surrounding the interior wall with _Osirid_ -statues, seated statues of Osiris, the wise and beneficent ruler of the -Second Dynasty, who after his death was honoured as the King of the Dead -in the nether world. Later a third pair of pylons was built by Rameses -I; and this was utilised as one of the sides of the Great Hypostyle -Hall begun by Seti I and completed by Rameses II. It communicated -through another pair of immense pylons with the Great Court of Sheshonk. - -In the northwest corner of the latter Seti II of the Nineteenth Dynasty -erected a small temple, while, protruding into the court on the opposite -side was the temple of =Ammon=, built by Rameses III of the Twentieth, who -also built the adjacent temple of =Chons=, connected with the main group -of buildings by an avenue of Sphinxes. It was from this temple that the -long avenue of sphinxes, already mentioned, extended to the =Temple of -Luxor=. - -Meanwhile, during the Eighteenth Dynasty, Thothmes III had erected at -some distance to the eastward of Usertesen’s original sanctuary, a large -hall and adjoining chambers. These are supposed to have been his palace, -though it is urged to the contrary that they offered but little -accommodation for the retinue of servants and officials which -distinguished an oriental court, besides being gloomy as a residence. -Possibly, however, Thothmes under the spell of religious feeling may -have used this palace for occasional occupation, even as Philip II of -Spain built a palace in connection with a monastery, a school of priests -and a great church and mausoleum--the aggregate of functions represented -in the Escoriál. - -The climax of the architectural ensemble at =Karnak= is Seti’s =Great -Hypostyle Hall=, the most imposing example known of post and beam -construction. It is 338 feet wide with a depth of 170. A double row of -six mighty columns 70 feet high and nearly 12 in diameter support the -central nave, on each side of which the flat roof is supported by 61 -columns, each about 42 feet high and 9 wide. The capitals of the taller -columns are of the so-called _bell_ type; those of the lower ones, -_lotus bud_. - -=Column Types.=--Reference already has been made to the _lotus-bud_ type -of columns found in the interior of some of the tombs at =Beni Hassan=. -These represented a conventionalised design as of four buds with long -stems bound around a circular post. The later columns, however, of the -lotus-bud type were no longer only a decorative feature but had to -support the immense weight of the beams and ceiling slabs, consequently -the diameter was increased to about one sixth of the height. The capital -suggests either one bud with numerous petals crowning a smooth circular -shaft or a cluster of buds and stalks bound at intervals with rows of -fillets; the design in both cases being more conventionalised than in -the early examples. - -The _bell_, or _campaniform_ type is distinguished by a smooth shaft -crowned with a conventionalised single blossom of the lotus, the petals -of which flare or curve outward so as to resemble the shape of an -inverted bell. - -Another example of the flaring capital is that of the _palm_ column, the -fronds of which are bound by fillets to a smooth shaft. It is a type -that appears in the later temples and was varied by the architects of -the Ptolemaic period, who substituted for the palm other motives derived -from river plants. - -An exceptional form, which appears in =Temples of Isis=, as at =Denderah=, -=Edfou=, and =Esneh=, is the so-called _Hathor-headed_ column, which has a -cubical capital, embellished on each side with a face of the goddess and -surmounted by a miniature temple. The latter takes the place of the -_impost_ block which in the other types of column sustains the weight of -the beam and protects the carving of the capital. - -In certain instances the columns were superseded by piers with -rectangular shafts, which sometimes were unadorned in their impressive -simplicity, at other times ornamented with lotus flowers and stalks or -heads of Hathor. In the so-called _Osirid pier_ a colossal statue of the -god projects from the face of the pier, being the only example of a -feature added to a pier or column for purposes solely of symbolic -ornament and without any structural function. - - * * * * * - -Next to Karnak in magnificence and extent is the neighbouring =Temple of -Luxor=. Another important example of the period is the temple erected at -=Abydos= by Seti I dedicated to Osiris and other deities. In consequence -it is distinguished by seven sanctuaries, ranged side by side and roofed -over with horizontal courses of stonework, each of which projects inward -over the one below it, until they meet at the top, the undersides being -chiselled into the form of a vault. - -A few examples are found of the _peripteral_ type of temple, consisting -of a _cella_ or sanctuary, surrounded on the four sides by columns. In -one instance--the temple erected by Amenophis III at =Elephantine=--the -columns are confined to the front and rear, while at the sides are -square piers. These structures are small, and, in two cases, at =Philae=, -are unaccompanied by a cella; which suggests that they were used as -waiting places in connection with the adjoining temples. - - -PTOLEMAIC AND ROMAN PERIODS - -During the period of political decadence the building of temples -declined, but it was renewed under the rule of the Ptolemies and -continued during the Roman occupation. While, notwithstanding foreign -domination, the Egyptian type was in the main adhered to, an important -change of detail was adopted in the manner of lighting the hypostyle -hall. The light was admitted from the front, over the top of screen -walls, which were erected between the columns to about half their -height. A celebrated example is at =Edfou=, the most perfectly preserved -temple of this period, which also conforms most closely to the old type. -For in other instances there was a growing tendency to introduce -novelties of detail, characterised by greater elaboration and -ornateness. It is signally represented in the =Temple of Isis= on the -island of =Philae=, for here the shape of the site has produced -irregularities in the planning of the various buildings, which enhances -the general picturesqueness of the whole group. Unfortunately, in -consequence of the erection of the Assouan Dam, these temples at =Philae= -are submerged for the greater part of the year. - -How far the Egyptians studied orientation, or the placing of a temple -with reference to the points of the compass, is uncertain. But there are -grounds for supposing that in some cases they orientated the principal -entrance toward the sun or a certain star, the exact position of which -on some particular day would indicate to the priests the exact time of -year. - - -=Palace and Domestic Architecture.=--Of palace architecture the only -conjectured remains are the buildings erected in the rear of the Temple -of Karnak by Thothmes III and the pavilion of Medinet Abou on the west -bank of the Nile at Thebes; the unsuitability of which as royal -residences has already been noted. - -A clue to the laying out of a town and the character of domestic -buildings has been found at =Tel-el-Amarna= and at =Kahun=, in the Fayoum. -On the latter site Petrie discovered the walls of a town which was -erected for the overseers and workmen employed in the construction of -the pyramid of =Illahun= (2684-2666 <small>B.C.</small>) and abandoned after the -completion of the work. The streets ran at right angles; and the houses -were built around open courts, whence the light was derived, for there -were no windows giving on to the streets. The houses varied in size from -the one room hut of the labourer to the group of rooms with their own -court occupied by the overseer, while a still larger group in the centre -of the town was the residence of the governor. - -From these remains and from pictures of “soul houses,” found in the -tombs, it is concluded that the houses of the richer classes -corresponded to a Roman villa; consisting that is to say of detached -buildings built within enclosures, which were surrounded on the interior -with colonnades and were laid out with groves, fishponds, and other -ornamental features. The material employed in the walls and buildings -was sunburnt brick which was overlayed with stucco decorated in bright -colours. The walls in the case of the residences were carried up through -two or three stories with windows in the upper ones and a verandah under -the flat roof. The latter, constructed of timbers, supporting smaller -beams, filled in with mud, was reached by a staircase in the rear. When -the rooms exceeded nine feet or so in width, their ceilings were -supported by columns or posts. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -CHALDÆAN, ASSYRIAN, AND BABYLONIAN CIVILISATION - - -Rooted deep in the recesses of the past was the ancient civilisation -that flourished in Mesopotamia. Some latest scholars are disposed to -believe that it even preceded the civilisation of Egypt, with which it -has some features in common. For this strip of territory, extending from -near the Persian Gulf in the south to the mountainous country of Armenia -in the north, is an alluvial plain, made and nourished by its -rivers--the Tigris on the east and the Euphrates on the west. The latter -is a shallow stream, except at the annual flood, when it sweeps over the -low banks and innundates the flat lands. Thus the inhabitants of -Mesopotamia, like the Egyptians, early learned to control the river with -drains and dykes and to construct canals and systems of irrigation. And -on a par with their engineering prowess became their achievements in -building. - -Like Egypt also, Mesopotamia came to have its upper and lower kingdoms. -The former, the Biblical Padan-Aram, became associated with the history -of the Assyrians; the latter, the Plain of Shinar, with that of the -Chaldæans and Babylonians. It was the lower or southern part that seems -to have been first occupied, by a people apparently of non-Semitic -stock, whose origin is unknown. Named by different scholars Akkadians or -Sumerians, they were an unwarlike race which early attained a -considerable degree of civilisation. Their chief city was Babylon, -whence the country derived the name of Babylonia. It is supposed that -these people invented the cuneiform system of writing, which was later -employed by the Babylonians and Assyrians, while its use spread to the -other nations from Persia to the Mediterranean. - -This wedge-shaped script was in its origin a form of pictorial or -ideographic writing and developed its peculiar character from the fact -that the writing was done on tables of soft clay. Pressure was needed to -make the marks and accordingly the stylus came to be formed of three -plane surfaces, meeting at a point like the angle of a cubic triangle. -As the system grew the ideogram from merely picturing the object was -used to denote the first syllable of its name and then by degrees to -denote that syllable in whatever word it might occur. - -The clue to the reading of the cuneiform script was discovered in 1802 -by a German, Georg Friedrich Grotefind, whose work was carried farther -by Christian Lassen of Bohn. Meanwhile, the Englishman, Henry Rawlinson -had mastered the secret through a study of Persian cuneiform script. -Thus an immense mine of knowledge was opened up to the scholars, for the -kings of Babylonia and Assyria kept most extensive records, not only of -their wars and personal prowess in the chase, but also of commercial -transactions, while many of them epitomised the history of past periods. -For example, it is from one of these records, made by Napa-haik, the -last native king of Babylonia (555-538 <small>B.C.</small>), that we get the earliest -date of the so-called Akkadians. For he caused it to be written that, -while he was restoring an ancient temple at Sippar, he found among the -foundations a record of Sargon I--not to be confused with the later -Assyrian king of the same name--which dated back 3200 years before its -discovery. Moreover, an Assyrian scribe makes this Sargon relate of -himself that he was born in secret, exposed as an infant in a basket of -rushes on a river, rescued and brought up by a shepherd, chosen the -leader of a band in the mountains and finally became a king. It would be -interesting to know the date of this record, but presumably it was after -the Jews had been carried captive to Assyria. - - * * * * * - -The prosperity of this early race and its unwarlike character invited -invaders. For, it is in this particular that the fortunes of Mesopotamia -differed from those of Egypt. While the latter was isolated by great -deserts and its people in early times were neither disturbed from the -outside nor tempted to stray beyond their borders, the deserts -surrounding Mesopotamia were broken up with frequent spots of fertility. -On these subsisted nomad tribes of Semitic origin, which early must have -looked with covetous eyes upon the superior abundance of the -river-enclosed lands. Thus the non-Semitic inhabitants became involved -with Semitic peoples: Chaldæans, Elamites, and Assyrians. - -Fortunately it is not necessary for our purpose to attempt the difficult -task of unravelling the stages of this obscure story. A few particulars -will suffice. - - * * * * * - -The Chaldæans appeared in the South and established a capital at Ur of -the Chaldees, extending their sway over what was called later Babylonia. -But so far from crushing the original inhabitants, they seem to have -assumed toward them the attitude of protectors. They were the strong -men, as it were, that kept the house armed against aggression, while the -peaceful occupants continued to pursue their industries and arts. Thus -ensued that period distinguished as THE EARLY CHALDÆAN (about 2250 to -1110 <small>B.C.</small>) which produced those treasures of art, especially in glazed -pottery, that recent exploration has been discovering. - - * * * * * - -And just as this older civilisation was respected by the warlike -Chaldæans, so also it was borrowed and imitated by the warlike Assyrians -who gradually gathered power in upper or northern Mesopotamia. They -founded a city and called it Assur, after their national god, in whose -honour they erected a temple in 1820 <small>B.C.</small> This is the first definite -date of this people, based on the authority of King Tiglath-Pileser -(about 1120-1100 <small>B.C.</small>), who relates that, while restoring the temple, he -found the ancient record of its founding. It is significant of the -general attitude of the Assyrians toward the civilisation of Babylonia -that they also borrowed the latter’s national god, Marduk. The first -extensive records of the Assyrians are derived from the “library” of -this Tiglath-Pileser, found among the ruins of Assur. They describe his -wars and hunting expeditions and how he killed with his own hands ten -elephants and nine hundred and twenty lions. This monarch, by the -capture of Babylon, brought to a conclusion the rivalry that had existed -since the fifteenth century <small>B.C.</small> between Assyria and the -Chaldæan-Babylonian kingdom. We may date from his reign, namely about -1110 <small>B.C.</small> the supremacy of the ASSYRIAN EMPIRE which lasted until 606 -<small>B.C.</small> - -Meanwhile, the city of Nineveh, now marked by the mounds of Koyunjik and -Nebi Yanus had been in existence as early as 1816 <small>B.C.</small> A palace was -erected there by Shalmaneser I (1330 <small>B.C.</small>) and at some date unknown a -temple to Ishtar. She was the goddess of Love and War and in her -voluptuous aspect corresponds to Ashtoreth or Astarte of the -Syro-Phœnicians. This cult characterised her shrine at Nineveh, while in -her warlike aspect she was worshipped at Arbela. - -For a time the prestige of Nineveh waned, as Assurnazar-pal (885 <small>B.C.</small>) -and Shalmaneser II erected palaces at Nimroud, the ancient Calah. The -latter monarch was the first, so far as known, to come in conflict with -Israel. He conquered Ahab and exacted tribute from Jehu. - -With Tiglath-Pileser III (also called Pul by the Hebrews) who carried a -portion of Northern Israel into captivity (2 Kings xv), began the period -of Assyria’s greatest glory. The last dynasty commences with Sargon -(722-705 <small>B.C.</small>) who built himself the famous palace at Khorsabad. He -conquered Samaria and carried the whole of northern Israel into -captivity, replacing them with men “from Babylon and from Cuthah and -from Ava and from Hamath and from Sepharvaim” (2 Kings, xvii, 24). This -allusion to Babylon is significant. It points to Sargon’s policy of -reducing the rival power of the city, which was destroyed by his son and -successor, Sennacherib. It was the latter who “came up against all the -fenced cities of Judah and took them,” afterward suffering the loss of -his army in the siege of Jerusalem, as chronicled in 2 Kings, xviii, -xix; though this disaster is not mentioned in the cuneiform records. He -revived the grandeur of Nineveh, which was added to by his son -Esarhaddon (680-668 <small>B.C.</small>). This monarch’s reign represented the -high-water mark of Assyrian supremacy. Among his exploits was the -conquest of Egypt, whereby he added to his titles that of “King of Kings -of Lower and Upper Egypt and Ethiopia.” He was also a great builder, -restoring Babylon and erecting for himself a superb palace at Nineveh, -the materials for which were supplied by twenty-two subject kings. - -Under his son Asurbanipal, the Sardanapalus of the Greeks (668-626 -<small>B.C.</small>), the last of the Sargon Dynasty, Assyrian prosperity reached its -culmination. Being, as he said, “endowed with attentive ears,” -Asurbanipal was inclined to the study of “all inscribed tablets” and -caused the collecting and re-editing of the whole cuneiform literature -then in existence. A great part of his “library” has been recovered from -the ruins of Koyunjik and is now in the British Museum. - -In the year following this monarch’s death Nabopolassar (625-604 <small>B.C.</small>) -who seems to have been the Assyrian vice-roy of Babylonia, entered into -alliance with the Medes and through their help destroyed the supremacy -of the Assyrians and became the first king of the NEW BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. - - * * * * * - -His son, Nebuchadnezzar, or Nebuchadrezzar, conquered Jerusalem and -carried its inhabitants captive to Babylon. To him this city owed its -final magnificence. Occupying both banks of the Euphrates, it was now -surrounded by two fortified walls, the outer one being fifty-five miles -in circumference, with a height of 340 feet and a thickness of 85. It -was further protected by 250 towers and pierced with a hundred gates of -brass. Numerous temples adorned the city, the grandest being that of the -national god, Marduk (Merodach). Near this was the royal palace, now -represented by the ruins of Al Gasr, “the Castle.” Sloping down from it -to the river were the terraced gardens laid out by the king for the -pleasure of his Median wife, Amytis. They are better known as the -hanging gardens of Semiramis, from the Greek account that attributed -various Oriental wonders to this mythical queen. Nebuchadnezzar also -restored the temple of Nebo in a suburb of Babylon, now called Borsippa. -This famous shrine was constructed in the form of a stepped-pyramid and -from its seven terraces was called “The Temple of the Seven Spheres of -Heaven and Earth.” Included in Assyrian temples was frequently a tower, -and the one belonging to this temple of Nebo is assumed to have been -associated with the story of the “Tower of Babel” (Genesis xi). - -Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his son, Nabonidus, whose eldest son, -Belshazzar, was co-regent with him and governor of South Babylon. This -is the cuneiform record, which varies from that of Daniel (Chapter v), -who makes Belshazzar the son of Nebuchadnezzar and last king of -Babylonia. In 538 <small>B.C.</small> Cyrus the Great took Babylon by storm and the -country passed under the Persian rule. Darius I razed the fortified -walls and Xerxes stripped the temples of their golden images and -treasure. The city fell into decay, until in 300 <small>B.C.</small> much of it was -demolished to provide material for building the neighbouring city of -Seleucia. By the time of Pliny (23-72 <small>A.D.</small>) the once proud city was a -place of desolation. - - * * * * * - -While the Assyrians and Babylonians were religious peoples, their -temples were insignificant, as compared with those of the Egyptians nor -have they left any tombs of architectural importance. Their religion was -of an eminently practical kind, devoted to securing benefits in this -world and concerned little with a future life. Thus their gods were -representative of natural phenomena or of their own pursuits: gods of -the sun, moon, the heavens, earth (Bel), weather; of water and canals, -the chase, war, invention of writing and literature; and unfriendly gods -of pestilence and fire. - -As may be seen in their sculptures, they valued the qualities of energy -and physical prowess. Their kings are not represented, like those of -Egypt, as of slim, svelte figure, or wrapped in monumental composure. -They are giants of exaggerated muscular development, engaged in conflict -with wild beasts of corresponding strength. They were mighty captains of -war and in times of peace, mighty hunters and builders. - -While Assyria borrowed its culture from Babylonia, the character of the -two nations was very different. Babylonia was a country of merchants and -agriculturists; Assyria, an organised camp. The latter’s dynasties were -founded by successful generals; while in Babylonia it was always a -priest whom a revolution raised to the throne and the king remained to -the last a priest under the control of a powerful hierarchy. The -Assyrian King, on the contrary, was an autocratic general, supported in -earlier times by a feudal nobility and, from the reign of -Tiglath-Pileser III, by an elaborate bureaucracy. In each country there -was a large body of slaves. - -In Assyria education was confined to the ruling class; whereas in -Babylonia every one, women as well as men, learned to read and write. -Most of the Babylonian cities and temples had their libraries and the -genius of the people displayed itself most characteristically in -literature. Among works which have been discovered, whole or in -fragments, were the “Epic of Gilgamesh,” consisting of twelve books each -of which recounts an adventure in the hero’s career; another epic, that -of the Creation, and the “Legend of Adapa,” the first man. In astronomy -and astrology the Chaldæans and Babylonians from early times were -adepts; observatories being attached to the temples from which reports -were regularly submitted to the King. They were also skilled in -mathematics and mechanics. For example, a glass lens, turned on a lathe, -was discovered by Layard at Nimroud, among the remains of glass vases -which bear the name of Sargon. - -While the Chaldæans in time had become mingled with the Babylonians, so -that the latter name was used to designate both peoples, the term -Chaldæan came to be used in a special sense. The “Wisdom of the -Chaldæans” continued to be recognised, and it was probably to the pure -race of Chaldæans that the priests, “astrologers” and “magicians” -belonged. And their distinction as wise men even survived the overthrow -of Babylon. In all likelihood they were Chaldæans, those “Wise men from -the East,” who saw and interpreted the star and followed it to -Bethlehem. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -CHALDÆAN, ASSYRIAN, AND BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURE - - -=Brick Construction.=--In its principal features and general character of -construction, the architecture of each of these three civilisations is -similar, being based upon the methods that originated with the -Chaldæans. These methods were the direct result of the geographic and -climatic conditions of the country they inhabited. For Lower -Mesopotamia, Babylonia proper, is an alluvial plain, interrupted by a -single ridge of limestone hills which were sparsely covered with small -trees, especially the scrub-oak. Timber and stone were scarce, while -everywhere clay abounded. Accordingly, the chief material of -construction was brick, shaped in wooden moulds and sun-dried. The -limited amount of fuel permitted only the making of burnt bricks for -special purposes: namely, the facing of the structures and the paving of -the floors. And these superior bricks or tiles were frequently glazed -and decorated with ornament in bright colours. - -Meanwhile, in Upper Mesopotamia, Assyria proper, the ground was -comparatively arid and plentifully supplied with limestone. Yet such was -the habit of the Assyrians to imitate the Southern kingdom in matters of -civilisation, that they also relied upon sun-dried brick for -construction, and employed glazed earthenware for decoration. In time, -however, they came to employ stone for facing as well as for the -sculpture, which was a characteristic decorative feature of the palaces. - -=Platforms.=--We shall see presently how the fierce heat affected the -principles of architectural construction, noting in advance the means -taken to provide against the periodical inundations due to the -torrential rains and the overflow of the Tigris. From earlier times all -important buildings were erected upon platforms, constructed of -sun-dried bricks and faced with fired bricks or stone, the walls having -a batter, that is to say, sloping inward. Approach to the summit was -either by flights of steps or an inclined roadway that paralleled the -wall--technically known as a _ramp_. Intersecting these mounds or -platforms was a system of arched culverts, designed, as in modern -railroad embankments, to carry off the water. - -In course of time, as buildings fell into decay or were replaced with -newer ones by later builders, the height of the mound increased. The -result is that the plain of Babylonia for 220 miles is studded with -immense mounds, some of them a mile in diameter and attaining 200 feet -in height, crowned with the remains of towns. Beneath these, the modern -explorer, cutting down into the interior of the mound, comes upon -successive stages of foundations, representing the remains of various -epochs. - -=Temple at Nippur.=--The earliest example, so far disclosed, is a temple -at =Nippur=, which bears a close resemblance to the oldest pyramid in -Egypt, =Medum=, before the latter had been faced. It is on the principle -of the _stepped-pyramid_, consisting of several stories, each of which -sets back from the one below it, while the walls of all have a batter. -The terraces on one side are of extra width to allow for the stairways. -This old type of stage-temple, called in the East _ziggurat_ (holy -mountain), derived probably from the ancient custom of worshipping in -“high places,” was still preserved in the famous - -[Illustration: “SARGON’S CASTLE,” NEAR KHORSABAD - -CONJECTURED RESTORATION. P. 67] - -[Illustration: PART OF “LION FRIEZE” AND “FRIEZE OF ARCHERS” - -EXECUTED IN GLAZED TILES. P. 72] - -[Illustration: DETAILS OF WALL DECORATION AT KOYUNJIK - -SHOWING (LEFT) THE HANDLING OF A COLOSSAL BULL STATUE; AND (RIGHT) THAT -THE ASSYRIANS USED SOME FORM OF DOME-ROOFS] - -=Temple of Nebo=, rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar at =Borsippa=. Only four stages -of the latter survive, but a record discovered in the ruins shows that -the original number was seven, dedicated to the seven planets and -decorated with the colours sacred to each. The ground story of this -temple was 272 feet square and 45 feet high, while the total height of -the structure was about 160 feet. It is noteworthy that the tomb-pyramid -of =Medum= also consisted of seven stories. - -In a ziggurat at =Tello=, opened up by the French savant, de Sarzac, was -discovered a magnificent collection of statues of diorite--a mixture of -granite, felspar and hornblende--dark grey in colour--which is now in -the Louvre. One of these, which has lost its head, represents a certain -Gudea, priest-king and architect of Lagash. He is seated and carries on -his lap a tablet, on which a fortified enclosure is engraved, while in -the corner appear a dividing scale and a stylos. - -=Sargon’s Castle.=--The oldest palace remains have been discovered at -=Nimroud=, the ancient Calah. They belong to the palace of Assur-nazar-pal -(885-860 <small>B.C.</small>). Ten miles to the northeast, at =Khorsabad=, the French -explorer P. E. Botta, discovered in 1843 the remains of a tower and -palace, which subsequent excavations have proved to be the ruins of -Dur-Sharrukim, “Sargon’s Castle,” built by Sargon as a royal residence -(705-702 <small>B.C.</small>). The remains of the palace, being the most extensive of -those hitherto explored, can be studied as a type of Assyrian palace -architecture. - -The platform on which the palace stood, constructed of sun-dried bricks -and faced with cut stone, reaches the immense size of nearly a million -square feet, raised forty-eight feet above the surrounding level -country. The total platform, therefore, measured about 23 acres, as -compared with the 3½ acres occupied by the Capitol at Washington, or the -8 acres occupied by the Houses of Parliament in London. Making allowance -for the fact that the Assyrian Palace did not extend over the whole of -the platform space, its actual dimensions must have been approximately -twice as large as the Houses of Parliament and four and a half times -those of the Capitol. - -Leading up from the level on the northeast side appears to have been a -double ramp, for the use of chariots and for general service, while the -state entrance was at the southeast by a double flight of steps. These -mounted to a terrace that extended the whole length of the palace front, -some 900 feet. In the centre of this façade was the principal gate, -which was small in actual size, but flanked by two tower-like -projections of masonry. These, for the moment, may recall the pylons -that flanked the entrance to an Egyptian temple. But the latter stately -structures, built with a batter and crowned with a _cavetto cornice_, -were designed for monumental dignity. On the other hand, the towers of -Sargon’s Castle were pierced near the top with loop-holes and surmounted -by battlements. They were designed to serve the purpose of warlike -defence and suggest appropriately that the entrance is not only to a -palace but also to the castle or stronghold of a feudal chieftain. The -same suggestion is prolonged in the battlemented walls, free of windows -and only occasionally pierced with loopholes, which seem to have -surrounded the entire structure. - -=Gateway.=--The towers were embellished with a notably structural -decoration, a system of rectangular panelling, filled with semi-circular -shafts. The ornamental details were derived from the Chaldæan use of -glazed tiles, decorated with rosettes, palmettes, lotus-flowers and the -_guilloche_ or repeat of intertwined bands, arching round a central -button. Similarly decorated is the _archivolt_ which surrounds the arch -of the entrance, the latter being a _barrel-_ or semi-circular-vaulted -passageway, carried right through the thickness of the walls. - -=Colossal Bulls.=--In Egypt the entrance to the temples was made solemn -and magnificent by colossal statues of the monarch. Here, the beholder -must have been filled with awe by the colossal monsters that stood as -guardians of the portal, projecting from the side-posts of the gateway -and ranged in pairs at the foot of each tower. These monsters, which are -now in the British Museum, fitly embody the warlike ideals of the -Assyrian nation. They loom up in height to twelve feet. Their bodies are -those of bulls, mighty in bulk and thews; yet they are quick to attack, -having eagle’s wings, while dominating them is the head of a man, -large-eyed, thick-lipped, square of jaw and hairy, implacably sensual -and cruel. - -The modeling of these monsters is for the most part as broad as a Barye -bronze; though minute detail is attained in the sculpturing of the -beards, hair and head-dresses. But, while their treatment is in the main -naturalistic, their motive is not representation of nature, but the -representation of an idea through natural suggestion. Accordingly, each -embodiment has five legs; the two forelegs, planted side by side, being -supplemented by another in the act of walking; so that whether the -monster be viewed from the front or the side, the full significance of -the legs is emphasised--the forelegs representing firmly established -power; the side view showing the legs in free and powerful movement. - -=No Columns.=--The arched entrance leads into a large open court that -corresponds to the great court of an Egyptian temple, although here the -sides are not embellished with colonnades. For, nowhere in Assyrian -architecture has the column been found as a structural member. The -single example which has been excavated, measured only three feet four -inches in height and, it is conjectured, was used for a pavilion, -possibly to support an awning. The absence of columnar construction in -the early buildings of the Lower Kingdom is easily accounted for by the -scarcity of stone; and the northern builders in dispensing with columns -were only following their usual habit of imitation. - -=No Windows.=--Meanwhile, another reason for the absence of columns may be -found in the fierce heat of Mesopotamia, against which colonnades would -prove no protection. The same cause explains the absence of windows in -Assyrian palaces, for none have been found or shown in any of the -bas-reliefs. It has been considered possible that such light as was -needed was admitted through terra-cotta pipes or cylinders, for many of -the latter have been come upon in the ruins and this method is still -employed in the East for the lighting of domes. - -=?Barrel Vaults?=--Another feature of the interior construction was the -immense thickness of the walls, which varied from nine to twenty-five -feet in solid brickwork. The object may have been to secure additional -coolness, but this reason will scarcely afford a complete explanation of -the extreme measurement. It is significant that the latter occurs in the -halls of state which are also distinguished by their great length of 150 -feet as compared with the width, 30 feet. When the narrow width of the -halls is considered in relation to the immense thickness of the walls, -it seems reasonable to conclude that the latter were intended to -support the downward strain of barrel-vaulted ceilings. Additional -probability is given to this conclusion by La Place’s discovery of great -blocks, curved like the soffits of a vault, which had apparently fallen -from a height. Moreover, in a bas-relief found by Layard in Koyunjik -some of the buildings are shown to be roofed on the outside by domes. -Accordingly, it is now the generally accepted belief that the usual -style of ceiling employed by the Assyrians, was the barrel-vault. - -The origin of the latter may be found in the culverts by which the -mounds were drained; but how, considering the scarcity of timber, it was -possible to construct vaults of thirty feet span, is purely a matter of -conjecture. It has been suggested that, while timber was costly, -slave-labour was cheap, and it is possible that temporary structures of -brick were erected as an underpinning to support the vault while in -process of construction. On the other hand, we shall note later on that -the architects of Gothic cathedrals, in countries where timber was -scarce, adopted the method of rib-vaulting. Can it be possible that this -invention was anticipated by the Assyrians? - -=Decorations.=--The walls of these halls of state were decorated up to a -height of nine feet with sculptured slabs of delicate white alabaster or -brilliantly yellow limestone, on which traces of paint have been -discovered. As in the case of the Egyptian temples, scenes of everyday -life, as well as of war or hunting, are represented, with a vividness -that shows how closely nature had been studied by the sculptors, who, -however, were more intent upon representing the spirit of the scene and -preserving the feeling of decoration than in imitating nature. - -Thus, when they represented an archer, stretching his bow, neither the -string nor the arrow was allowed to cut the lines of the figure. Both -were shown as if the hand which held them were on the opposite side of -the body. It is needless to say that this could not have been due to -ignorance or negligence on the part of the sculptor, who otherwise -proved his knowledge and observation of nature; but was a deliberate -kind of conventionalisation, adopted, like the five legs of the colossal -bulls, for a well-considered purpose--perhaps, not to interfere with the -action of the figure. - -Above the dado of sculpture the walls were embellished with glazed -tiles, decorated with winged figures of the King, and occasionally with -animals, especially lions, framed with borders of rosettes. The usual -colours were yellow, blue, green, and black. Coloured tiles also, as -well as slabs of alabaster, formed the paving of the floors, which, in -the case of smaller rooms, were formed merely of stamped clay, covered, -no doubt, while in use, with mats or rugs. - -Wall paintings of figures and arabesques seem to have been an -exceptional form of decoration, found at Khorsabad only in the larger -rooms of the harem. - -Yet for all this brilliance of decoration, the effect of the interiors -must have been one of subdued richness. The imagination, indeed, -pictures the vast palace with its labyrinth of seven hundred rooms, -surrounding three sides of the entrance court, where the glare of -sunshine would be pitiless, as a sort of subterranean arrangement of -tunnel-like passages and chambers. - -Their distribution can be studied in the ground plan restoration. There -were three groups, each disposed around its own central court. On the -left of the main court lay the harem, with its separate provision for -four wives, while on the opposite side was accommodation for the -service, including kitchen, bakery, wine cellars, and stables. Fronting -the main entrance were the King’s suite of rooms and the quarters of his -official staff, beyond which were the halls of state. In the open space, -adjoining the royal rooms, rose the ziggurat, or terraced temple, the -three lower stories of which still exist, connected by a winding ramp. - -The conception that one gathers of this huge pile is, externally, of a -stronghold, somewhat forbidding; internally, of a crypt-like maze, -offering perhaps comfort, but little beauty--the lair of the absolute -monarch of a race to whom the market-place and fields of battle and -hunting represented the chief ideals of existence. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -PERSIAN CIVILISATION - - -The name Iran, by which the Persians still call their country, preserves -the origin of their race. They were Aryans, as distinguished from the -Semitic peoples; a branch of the race which migrated from the country -now called Southern Russia and Turkestan into the rich lands of the -South. One branch pushed on to the Ganges and became identified with -India; the other settled about the Indus, whence they gradually pushed -their way westward. This branch comprised many tribes which in time -developed into peoples. - -The most powerful of these at the period when the Aryans first came into -conflict with the Semitic race, was the Medes, who occupied the northern -part of the west side of what is now Persia, while the Persians, who -rose to supremacy later, occupied the southern part. This western -division of the country, separated by a desert from the eastern, -entirely differs in character from Mesopotamia. - -For a distance of 50 miles from the Persian Gulf it is flat, swampy, and -unhealthful. Then it rises to a system of mountain ranges that average -five thousand feet in height, broken up with valleys, lakes, and -countless streams. It was a country admirably adapted to rear a hardy -and industrious race of men and fine breeds of cattle and horses. The -Aryans seem to have always been cattle breeders, from which fact is -supposed to be derived the reverence of the cow, which still exists in -India. They were also great lovers of the horse and it was not until -after 1700 <small>B.C.</small> when advanced posts of the Aryan migration came in touch -with the Semitic nations of the West, that the horse made its appearance -in Babylonia, Egypt, and Greece. But, while the bas-reliefs of the -Egyptians after this date show the horse used only in chariots, its -general use among the Persians was for riding purposes. So the love of -the modern Aryan races for the horse and horse exercise is an inherited -instinct that knits them like their language to their earliest -ancestors. - -Of the Assyrian Kings, Shalmaneser II was the first to come in conflict -with the Medes, and from this date (836 <small>B.C.</small>), the Medes are frequently -mentioned in Assyrian records as paying tribute. Finally, in 626 <small>B.C.</small>, -the fortunes of war began to be reversed. The Median King, Cyaxares, as -we have seen in a previous chapter, formed an alliance with Nabopolassar -that resulted in the ousting of the Assyrian domination from Babylon and -the establishment of the New Babylonian Empire. The Medes followed this -up by a vigorous campaign against Assyria which resulted, in 606 <small>B.C.</small> in -the taking and destruction of Nineveh. New capitals were built at Susa -and Ecbatana and the sway of the Medes extended over Northern -Mesopotamia, Armenia, and Cappadocia. - -Then in 550 <small>B.C.</small> the Median supremacy ceased. Cyrus, King of Persia, of -the clan Achæmenian, rebelled against his suzerain, Astyages, the son of -Cyaxares, conquered him in battle and became the founder of the Persian -Empire. He captured Babylon in 538 <small>B.C.</small> and gradually extended his sway -from the Indus River to the Ægean Sea and the borders of Egypt. In his -homeland of Persia he founded the city of Pasargadae, the modern -Murghab, where he built himself a palace and a tomb. For it was here -that his Persians, urged on by their women-folk, had struck the final -blow that conquered the Medes. Accordingly, each king of the Achæmenian -dynasty was here, in the temple of the warrior goddess, invested with -the garb of Cyrus and partook of a meal of figs, terebinth, and sour -milk; and, whenever he visited the city, gave a gold piece to every -woman. - -Darius I, fourth of the Achæmenian dynasty, founded Persepolis, about -forty miles northeast of the modern Shiraz, commenced building the -famous palace and constructed for himself a tomb. Xerxes I added a -palace and a tomb of his own, while tombs also were built by Artaxerxes -III and Darius II. But, while Persepolis remained the favourite resort -of the Persian Kings, it was too remote a spot to be the seat of -government, which continued to be divided between Babylon, Susa, and -Ecbatana. - -Meanwhile, under Xerxes I the Persian power came into conflict with the -Hellenic and was worsted in the battles of Platæa and Thermopylæ and the -sea-fight at Salamis. Henceforth the advance of the Persian Empire was -checked; dissensions began to weaken it; the central authority relapsed -into feebleness, with lurid intervals of cruelty, until finally it -succumbed to the rising tide of Macedonian conquest. In 331 <small>B.C.</small> -Alexander the Great crushed the army of Darius III near Arbela; took in -turn the cities of Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana and stripped them of -their treasure, finally capturing Persepolis, and setting fire to it. - -This act of vandalism has been variously explained. One story, which -forms the subject of Dryden’s “Ode to Saint Cecilia’s Day,” had it that -the wanton act was instigated by the courtezan, Thais. Another story is -that it was an act of revenge for the destruction of Greek temples by -Xerxes I; while still another relates that in this destruction of the -very heart of Iran, Alexander wished to impress the Oriental imagination -with the absoluteness of his supremacy. - -After being subject to the rule of the successors of Alexander and to -the domination of the later Parthian Empire, Persia once more became an -empire under the Sassanian Dynasty, Ctesiphon being one of its chief -cities. In the seventh century <small>A.D.</small> it was conquered by the Saracens and -entered into the Mohammedan civilisation, which we shall discuss in a -later chapter. - - * * * * * - -The rapid rise of the Persian power was due to the hardiness of this -mountain race and its highly organised preparation for war. Every -Persian able to bear arms was bound to serve the King: the great -landowners on horseback, the commonalty on foot. The army, therefore, -unlike those of the Oriental nations it encountered, was composed of -cavalry as well as infantry; and, while the latter, armed with bows, -kept the enemy at a distance and harassed them with storms of arrows, -the cavalry, operating on their flanks and rear, completed the rout. It -was only when the power had become unwieldy by its very vastness, that -this method of warfare proved useless against the Greek hoplites and the -massed formation of the Macedonian phalanx. - -In its beginning the Persian system was a beneficent feudalism. The -nobles, excused from personal cultivation of the soil, were pledged to -appear at Court as frequently as possible. Their children were brought -up in company with the princes “at the Gate of the King,” instructed in -riding, hunting, and the use of weapons, educated to the service of the -State and a knowledge of the law, as well as to the commandments of -religion. Under Darius, who completed the vast structure of empire which -Cyrus had founded, the organisation of government and society was on -broad and free lines; an empire established in righteousness, following -the precepts of Zoroaster. - -It is concluded from various testimony that this great prophet of the -Aryan peoples lived about 1000 <small>B.C.</small> He taught that in this world there -is a continual conflict between the Powers of Good--Light, Creative -Strength, Life, and Truth--and the Powers of Evil--Darkness, -Destruction, Death, and Deceit. At the head of the Good Powers is the -Great Wisdom Ahuramazda, whose helpers are the six powers of Good -Thought, Right Order, Excellent Kingdom, Holy Character, Health, and -Immortality. At the head of the Evil, Ahriman. Midway between these -Powers is Man, who has to make his choice on which side he will take his -stand. He is called to serve the Powers of Good; to speak the truth and -fight a lie; to obey the command of law and true order; to tend his -cattle and fields; to practise the Good and True in thought, word, and -deed, and to keep from pollution the elements of the earth, water, and -particularly fire. For Zoroaster preserved the old Aryan belief in the -element of fire. Altars were erected upon the hills, tended by -fire-kindlers, who were the ministers of the true religion and the -intermediaries between God and man. - -Moreover, Zoroastrianism was a proselytising religion. Ahuramazda, whom -king and people alike acknowledged, had given them dominion “over the -earth afar, over many peoples and tongues.” Yet, while they felt it to -be their destiny to rule the whole world, the Persians believed that it -was the will of Ahuramazda that they must govern it aright. Hence they -treated the conquered with clemency and employed their leaders as -administrators and generals. Cyrus, for example, permitted the Jews to -return to Jerusalem and restored to them the temple vessels of gold and -silver which had been taken by Nebuchadnezzar. - -Thus, the religion of Iran had to do with practical life, this world and -the joy thereof, and moral conduct; and as long as it retained its -character of plain living and high thinking--of which the simple -coronation ritual of the kings was symbolical--the Empire continued -strong. Luxury, however, gradually crept in; the Persian Kings vied with -the Kings they had conquered in magnificence of living and slowly but -surely the strength of the Empire was sapped. - -Cruelty also became part of the Persian religion, as indicated by -remains of human sacrifices taken from ash-heaps that stood beside -Zoroastrian altars. This also caused a degeneration to devil-worship, -which in some localities survives to-day. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE - - -=Combination of Style.=--In the days before their supremacy the Persians, -as agriculturists and breeders of cattle and horses, preserving their -simple existence, had no desire or need of monumental architecture. But -when Cyrus had overthrown the domination of the Medes, made himself -master of Mesopotamia and extended his conquests to the shores of the -Ægean Sea, he too was minded to immortalise in architecture the might of -the Persian Empire. Accordingly, as his race had no traditions in -building, he borrowed from the methods and styles of the nations he had -conquered. Thus Persian architecture represents a mingling of Median, -Assyrian, Asiatic Greek and, in a small degree, Egyptian. - -The boyhood of Cyrus was spent at the court of Astyages the Mede, so -that the Median palaces at =Susa= and =Ecbatana= were familiar to him. Those -of the latter city, according to Polybius consisted of porticoes and -hypostyle halls, the columns being of cedar or cypress, overlaid with -plates of silver. These have long since disappeared, and the remains -which now exist at =Ecbatana= are of columns of stone, which are supposed -to be part of the restoration of the palace under the Persian Kings. For -the substitution of stone for wood in the columns distinguishes -everywhere the Persian architecture. - - -=Tombs and Palaces; No Temples.=--The remains of Persian architecture -comprise tombs and palaces. The - -[Illustration: TOMB OF DARIUS I - -EXCAVATED IN THE MOUNTAIN SIDE, PERSEPOLIS. P. 82] - -[Illustration: PALACE OF DARIUS I, PERSEPOLIS - -CONJECTURED RESTORATION. OF WHICH THE TOMB FAÇADE WAS AN IMITATION. P. -82] - -[Illustration: TYPES OF PERSIAN COLUMNS P. 83] - -[Illustration: HALL OF ONE HUNDRED COLUMNS, PERSEPOLIS - -CONJECTURED RESTORATION. P. 85] - -[Illustration: THE PALACES OF PERSEPOLIS - -CONJECTURED RESTORATION. P. 84] - -Zoroastrian religion had no use for temples made with hands. Its temple -was the universe; the floor of it the mountain tops of Persia from which -countless altars, tended continually by the Fire-Kindlers, sent up -flames in worship of the element of Fire. Meanwhile it was the desire of -every Persian Monarch whom war and government obliged to be absent so -much from the homeland, that, when they died, their bodies should be -brought home “to the Persians.” Accordingly, when Cyrus erected a palace -at =Pasargadae=, the modern Marghab, he also built himself a =Tomb=, which -still exists. - -Its style is a singular mixture of Assyrian and Asiatic Greek. Built of -large blocks of white polished marble, it consists of a platform of -seven steps, on the top of which is a small shrine or cella, rectangular -in plan, covered by a pitched roof that terminates in the front and -rear, in a gable-end or pediment. It is, in fact, a Greek temple of very -rudimentary simplicity, mounted on a ziggurat. The ruins show that the -tomb was surrounded on three sides by colonnades. - -Following the Assyrian precedent, the =Palace of Cyrus= occupied a -platform, of about 40,000 square feet, which still exists and is known -to the natives as “The Throne of Solomon.” But here the terrace is of -natural rock, faced round the sides with cut stone walls distinguished -by the beauty of the masonry. It is the earliest instance known of the -so-called _drafted_ masonry, of which a magnificent example is found in -the terraces of Herod’s temple at Jerusalem. It represents a method of -cutting, which leaves the surface of the block of stone rough-hewn, as -when it left the quarry, but dresses the edges to a “draft,” or smooth, -bevelled surface. - -Such scanty remains as have been found suggest that Cyrus’s palace was -of the simplest kind, including a central hall, the roof of which was -carried by two rows of stone columns, thirty feet high, with porticoes -_in antis_. The latter is a feature borrowed from Greek-Asiatic -temple-building; the term, _in antis_, being used when the columns of -the portico are set between the prolongation of the side walls of the -main building. - -It is, however, from the remains of the group of buildings at =Persepolis= -that the magnificence of Persian architecture can be best appreciated. -Here, again, is a terrace of natural rock; but of vast size, covering an -area of about one million six hundred thousand square feet. This, like -the terrace of the Escoriál of the Spanish Kings, projects from the foot -of a rocky mountain side. The Escoriál includes a royal mausoleum, built -within the confines of the palace; but, at Persepolis, three tombs, one -of them unfinished, are excavated behind the palace in the mountain -wall. Two are supposed to be the resting places of later kings, -Artaxerxes II and III, while the unfinished one is that of Arses, who -reigned only two years. - -Meanwhile the =Tomb of Darius I=, the founder of Persepolis, has been -identified as one of four tombs, eight miles distant from the palace. -These also are excavated in the mountain side, and at such a height from -the bottom of the valley, that they corroborate the account which -Ctesias, the Greek historian of Persia, gives of the tomb of Darius, -that it was on the face of a rock and only to be reached by an apparatus -of ropes. The three other tombs of this group are ascribed to Xerxes I, -Artaxerxes I, and Darius II. - -The Tomb of Darius I is of special interest because it bears upon its -face a sculptured representation of the palace which he built at -Persepolis. This mode of decorating a tomb was probably derived from the -Lycians, whose custom it was to face their rock-cut tombs with a -representation of the house which the deceased had occupied while alive. -Meanwhile, there is little doubt that the Lycians derived the idea of -the rock-hewn tomb from Egypt. - -The sculptured front of Darius’s tomb shows the portico of the palace, -and above it, upon the roof, the monarch himself upon his throne. The -latter is an immense cube, the face of which is decorated with an upper -and a lower row of warriors, or perhaps, tribute-bearers, while the -corners are buttressed with baluster-shaped columns, surmounted by -bulls’ heads. The monarch stands before the altar, with hands uplifted -in worship of the sun and moon. This recognition of the religion of the -Babylonians and Assyrians is characteristic of the Persian attitude -toward conquered nations, and recalls Cyrus’s proclamation to these -nations, guaranteeing them their life and property and designating -himself the favourite of their own sun-god, Marduk, Bel-Merodach. - -The lower part of the façade of the tomb represents the portico of -Darius’s palace. The four columns are set _in antis_, but we have to -imagine the second row of columns as well as the windows which flanked -the door, and, like the latter, were constructed, as the ruins of the -palace shows, with monolithic jambs and lintels. - -The =columns= suggest two considerations: first, the use of them, as -compared with the entire absence of the structural column in Assyrian -and Babylonian architecture, and, secondly, the peculiar design of their -capitals. The use was derived through the Medes probably from -Asiatic-Greek models; but the form of the capital is peculiar to -Persian architecture. It is composed of the head and forelegs of two -recumbent beasts, which have been called bulls, but bear much more -resemblance to horses, and when they have a horn, to the unicorn, a -fabled creature that early legend attributed to India. It was identified -with strength and fleetness and might well have been used symbolically -by a race that derived from the same Aryan source as the Indians; while -the use of the horse in decoration would come naturally to a nation of -horse-lovers. It is also noticeable that these beasts are embellished -with trappings that suggest harness. - -However this may be, the tomb carving shows between the heads, the ends -of the beams that support the cornice and roof. As these are not found -in the case of the columns at Persepolis, it appears that the roofs of -the palaces were constructed of wood, which perished in the fire of -Alexander. It has been remarked that the character of this whole -portico, taken in connection with the wooden columns at Pasagardae, -suggests that the style of Persian palace architecture was derived -originally from a primitive wooden construction. But, while this may be -true, its development into stone construction was not affected by the -Persians themselves. They employed Asiatic-Greek workmen whose style of -temple-building, like that of the Mainland-Greeks, shows the traces of -primitive wood construction. - -Before leaving this tomb, there is one other feature to be noticed; -namely, that the lintel of the doorway is surmounted by a -cavetto-cornice, decorated with rows of conventionalised lotus-petals, -derived through Lycia, from Egypt. - -The restored plan of the platform of palaces at Persepolis exhibits a -monumental approach on the west side, formed of a double flight of -marble steps, set in double ramp. The steps are 22 feet wide, with a -rise of 4 inches and a tread of 15, so that they could easily be mounted -by horses. The stairs led to a terrace, paved, as was the whole -platform, with marble, in the centre of which was the entrance gate, or, -to use the later classic term, a Propylæa. This was square in plan, with -a portal, front and rear, flanked by winged bulls, while the ceiling was -supported by four columns. Its walls, like those of the other buildings, -built of sun-dried bricks or _rubble_ masonry, set with clay mortar, -have long since crumbled into ruins. - -The earliest palace of the group is that of Darius I, to the portico of -which we have already alluded. Its plan shows a room, right and left of -the portico, in which may have been stairs leading to the roof; then a -square hypostyle hall of sixteen columns, set in rows of four, with -various chambers, along the sides and at the end. - -In one building, the =Hall of a Hundred Columns=, the roof was carried by -ten ranges of ten columns; for the hall, as indeed were all the halls at -Persepolis, was square in plan. This can scarcely have been a mere -coincidence. Is it fanciful to imagine that a people, trained in -Zoroastrianism, found in the principle of the square a fitting symbol of -“Creative Strength” and “Right Order”? - -But the most important building at Persepolis, “one of the most -stupendous relics of antiquity,” is the great =Palace of Xerxes=. Elevated -on a terrace of its own, twenty feet high, which was ascended on the -north side by four flights of steps, it occupied an area of one hundred -thousand square feet, more than double that of the Great Hall at Karnak, -and larger than that of any Gothic cathedral in Europe, Milan and -Seville alone excepted. Two rows of six columns supported each of the -three porticoes, and six times six the ceiling of the Hall: in which -combination one may perhaps detect a symbol of the Six Helpers of -Ahuramazda, “the spiritual Wise One” or “Great Wisdom.” - -The columns, including base and capital, rose to a height of 65 feet, -which may be compared with the 69 feet of the central nave columns in -the Hall of Karnak. The latter, however, had a diameter of 12 feet, and -were separated by intervals of scarcely twice that width; while those in -Xerxes’ palace were set at a comparatively far greater distance from one -another and measured in diameter only about 5 feet. Moreover, instead of -a minimum of light percolating through a clerestory as at Karnak, the -light and air streamed freely through the windows in the walls of -Xerxes’ palace, so that in every respect the impression produced by the -two halls must have been very different. - -The grandeur of Karnak was weighted down with mystery and awe, while -Xerxes’ “lordly pleasure house” was an exalted symbol of the Zoroastrian -belief in the joy of life. For in addition to the grandeur of its -structural features, the imagination must picture the accompanying -gladness of marble floors, water basins, fountains, and flowers, and -varicoloured rugs and hangings. The walls, also, may have been -resplendent with brilliantly enamelled tiles as in Xerxes’ other palace -at =Susa=, where the French explorer, M. Dieulafoy, discovered the -magnificent frieze of archers, a frieze of lions, and other decorations -executed in bright-coloured enamels on concrete blocks. That Xerxes -spared no pains to render his palace at Persepolis as superb as possible -may be inferred from the columns in the hall and north portico. For in -them the double capital of beasts does not rest directly on the fluted -shafts, but is supplemented by two lower members; the first a curious -arrangement of scrolls or volutes, the second a sort of conventionalised -calyx of the lotus, beneath which, in bell-like form, is a -conventionalisation of pendant leaves. In the volutes a suggestion of -the Ionic capital has been detected, while the lower points to an -Egyptian origin. - -This medley of motives has a certain decorative value, but lacks the -supreme beauty of architectural relationship between the parts and the -whole. That is to say, the use of the various parts has not been -regulated by _constructive_ logic, necessity, or fitness; but represents -a purely whimsical and arbitrary multiplication of motive. The student -may assure himself of this by comparing the Persian column with the -Doric Order. In the latter he may observe a superior quality of fitness -in the relationship of the parts and of the sense of an inevitable -logical growth in the composition as a whole. - -The fantastic elaboration of the columns at Persepolis, as well as the -general conglomeration of motives in Persian architecture, points to the -fact that the latter was the work of foreign artists, imported from -various parts of the great Persian Empire. It represents the character -of the empire--a variety in unity; a unity, however, not of natural -growth, but one that, having no artistic traditions of its own, puts the -world under tribute to supply motives for the exploitation of its -magnificence. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -MINOAN OR ÆGEAN CIVILISATION - - -So far our study of ancient civilisation and architecture has been -fairly consecutive. We have now to break the continuity of the story and -take a leap back into a remote past and explore the origins of a -civilisation which was a forerunner of that of Greece. This civilisation -had been called “Mycenæan” because its existence was first brought to -modern knowledge by Schliemann’s discoveries in Mycenæ. But subsequent -exploration has proved that the civilisation was far spread and that -Mycenæ was not even the centre of it. - -One of the most astonishing results of recent exploration is the -knowledge of a civilisation that developed without break from the -polished stone age and reached its highest point contemporaneously with -the New Empire in Egypt; ending, that is to say, about 1000 <small>B.C.</small> Not the -least interesting feature of the discovery is that it throws a new light -on the civilisation of prehistoric Greece. - -The classical writers of Greece pointed to Mycenæ and Tiryns in Argolis -as being the principal evidence of a prehistoric civilisation, which was -assumed to belong to the Homeric period or even farther back to a rude -heroic beginning of Hellenic civilisation. This opinion continued to be -held by scholars until <small>A.D.</small> 1876. In this year, however, Dr. Schliemann, -opening up the graves which are just inside the Lion Gateway of the -citadel at Mycenæ, came upon a quantity of objects which proved the high -state of civilisation to which the prehistoric inhabitants of the city -had attained. Furthermore, they corresponded in character to the vases -and gold, silver, and bronze objects which, three years earlier, he had -dug from the ruins of the “Burnt City” (Troy) at Hissarlik in the Troad. -These objects from the peninsula of Peloponnesus and the mainland of -Asia Minor were not only similar in character but also of a fabric and -decoration which differed from those of any known art. But a relation -between the objects of art described by Homer and these “Mycenæan” -treasures was generally allowed. - -In 1884-1885 Schliemann and Dörpfeld, exploring the ruins of Tiryns, -came upon a building which offers the most complete example in Greece of -a palace of the “Mycenæan” age, belonging to a period probably between -1400 and 1200 <small>B.C.</small> During the subsequent years of the nineteenth -century, when exploration was extended to other parts of the -Peloponnesus and Northern parts of Greece, dome or beehive tombs, such -as had been found at Mycenæ, were discovered in Attica, Thessaly, and -elsewhere. By degrees, exploration was carried beyond the mainland of -Greece to the Ionian Islands and the islands of the Ægean, particularly -to Cyprus and Crete and the mainland of Asia Minor. This resulted in -further discoveries of objects, related in a common family, distinct -from that of any other art division. Meanwhile, objects of similar -character were met with in Egypt, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain. - -Finally, the culmination of all this mass of corroborative evidence was -reached by the explorations of Dr. A. J. Evans, at Cnossus in Crete, -which have been followed up by explorations in Phæstus, and other Cretan -sites. The net result is to establish the knowledge that Crete was the -centre of a civilisation which had dealings with Egypt and Mesopotamia -and extended to the sea-coast of Asia Minor and Phœnicia, the other -islands of the Ægean Archipelago, the Ionian Islands, and the mainland -of Greece and spread its offshoots along the west shores of the -Adriatic, into Sardinia and Spain and took deep root in Sicily. To the -far-extending ramifications of this civilisation has been given the -comprehensive name of Minoan or Ægean. - -In a most remarkable way the discoveries in Crete have corroborated the -Greek legends of the Cretan King Minos. It is conjectured that a Minos -may have been the founder of a dynasty and that the name passed into a -title of all the rulers, corresponding to the title, Pharaoh, in Egypt. -Scholars, therefore, have given the name Minoan to the civilisation of -Crete; dividing it into Early, Middle, and Late Minoan. - -In the Early Minoan Period, represented in the contents of early tombs -and dwellings and such objects as stone vases and seal-stones, there is -evidence that the Cretans had already reached considerable cultivation -and had opened up communications with the Nile Valley. The date of this -period is conjectured to have centred around 2500 <small>B.C.</small>, and to have -corresponded, roughly speaking, with the earlier of the Egyptian -dynasties. Most remarkable of Dr. Evans’s discoveries was the finding in -1900 of whole archives of clay tablets in the palace of Cnossus, which -prove that the Cretans had a highly developed system of hieroglyphics -and lineal script 2000 years before the time when the Phœnicians -introduced writing into Greece. Incidentally, this knowledge -corroborates the statement of the historian Diodorus, that the -Phœnicians did not invent letters, but only altered their forms. - -The Middle Minoan Period centres round 2000-1850 <small>B.C.</small>, and corresponds -with the Twelfth Dynasty in Egypt. It was the age of the earliest palace -building. Already appears the beginning of a school of wall-painting, -while a manufactory of fine faience was attached to the palace at -Cnossus. - -The Late Minoan Period covers the period of the Hyksos usurpation in -Egypt and reached its own culmination about the time of the Eighteenth -Dynasty when the New Egyptian Empire or Second Theban Monarchy -commenced. We have already noted the appearance in Egypt of this Cretan -influence, inducing a habit of naturalistic representation in place of -the old conventionalised forms of sculpture and painting. To this late -Minoan period belongs the greatest development of palace building, as -seen at Cnossus, Phæstus, and Tiryns, while the painting on walls and -vases becomes more free and animated than anything of the kind in Egypt. - -Toward 1400 <small>B.C.</small> a period of decline becomes apparent in Cretan art, -which is reflected all over the Ægean area. The conclusion is that the -islands and mainland of Greece had been invaded by less civilised -conquerors, who, having no cultivation of their own, adopted the art -they found and spoiled it. Probably they came from the North of Greece -and were precursors of the later “Hellenes.” - -Finally, about 1000 <small>B.C.</small>, the palace at Cnossus was again destroyed, -never again to be rebuilt; and at the same time the “Bronze Age” of -Minoan and Mycenæan civilisation came to an end. It fell before a -nation, barbarous, but possessed of iron weapons; probably the tribes -which later Greek tradition and Homer knew as Dorians. Then followed a -period of several centuries of unrest, as, successively, Achaæn, Æolian, -and Doric migrations came from the North through the mainland of Greece -and the islands of the Ægean, while an Ionian migration from Armenia -spread to the west shore of Asia Minor. Finally, when the Ægean area -emerges into history, it is dominated by Hellenes. - -The Ægean Archipelago has been called the ancient bridge between the -civilisations of the East and West, and the imagination pictures Crete -at the southern end of it, within easy distance of three continents and -engaged in peaceful intercourse with all; the head of a maritime -confederacy of sea-rovers who planted their trading stations throughout -the Mediterranean, their art everywhere following their trade. She -herself was protected from aggression by her island walls; while the -outposts of culture on the mainland of Greece--Mycenæ and Tiryns--were -compelled to erect their palaces within citadels. - -From the fact that no remains of Minoan and Mycenæan temples have been -found, but only shrines within the precincts of the palaces, it has been -concluded that, as in Assyria and Babylonia, the monarchs were also -priests. Evidence points to the principal Minoan divinity being a kind -of Earth Mother, who was associated with a satellite god. One part of -her religious attributes survived in the later Aphrodite, the other in -Rhea, the mother of the Olympian Zeus. While images of the deity were -made as early as 2000 <small>B.C.</small> the principal objects of worship, or -fetishes, in the Minoan age were natural objects: rocks and mountain -peaks, trees, and curiously shaped stones, and even artificial pillars -of wood and stone. Sometimes, as in the famous instance of the Lion Gate -at Mycenæ, the fetish object--here a pillar--was guarded by animals. - -A special form of fetish for the two principal divinities was that of -the double axes: one double-headed axe above another on the same handle. -“It has been discovered,” says the Encyclopædia Britannica (11th -edition), “that the great Minoan foundation at Cnossus was at once a -palace and a sanctuary of the Double Axe. We can hardly any longer -hesitate to recognise in this vast building, with its winding corridors -and subterranean ducts, the Labyrinth of later tradition. It is -difficult, also, not to connect the repeated wall-paintings and reliefs -of the palace, illustrating the cruel bull sports of the Minoan arena, -in which girls as well as youths took part, with the legend of the -Minotaur, or Bull of Minos, for whose grisly meals Athens was forced to -pay annual tribute of her own sons and daughters.” Actual figures of a -monster with a bull’s head and man’s body have been found on seals in -Crete, and evidence points to these bull sports being part of a -religious ceremony. - -Even the smaller houses were of stone, plastered within, while the -palaces suggest a luxurious mode of living; being richly decorated, with -separate sleeping apartments and large halls, fine stairways, -bath-chambers, windows, folding and sliding doors, and remarkably modern -arrangements for water supply and drainage. The furniture included -thrones, tables, seats, constructed of stone or plastered terra-cotta; a -great variety of cooking utensils and vessels of all sorts from stone -wine jars, ten feet high, to the tiniest ointment-holders. - -Ladies, in curiously modern costumes, formed a favourite subject both -for wall-decoration and miniature painting; many of the latter showing -groups with architectural and landscape surroundings, done with -remarkable spirit and naturalness. - -The clay tablets are almost exclusively concerned with inventories and -business transactions, and prove that a decimal system of numeration was -used. - -Next to Cnossus the most important sources of knowledge concerning this -ancient civilisation have been Hissarlik, Mycenæ, Phæstus, Hagia Triada, -and Tiryns. - -[Illustration: WALL DECORATION IN PALACE OF CNOSSUS - -SHOWING MALE AND FEMALE BULL-FIGHTERS. P. 93] - -[Illustration: LYON GATEWAY AT MYCENÆ - -P. 98] - -[Illustration: PLAN OF THE ACROPOLIS OF TIRYNS - -P. 100] - -[Illustration: PARTS OF STAIRCASE IN PALACE OF CNOSSUS - -P. 96] - -[Illustration: COUNCIL CHAMBER WITH GYPSUM THRONE - -IN PALACE OF CNOSSUS. P. 96] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -MINOAN OR ÆGEAN ARCHITECTURE - - -In so far as the prehistoric remains of Minoan or civilisation belonged -to the Polished Stone Age and Bronze Age, they are in the phase of -development that is represented in the Peruvian remains of the city of -Machu Picchu. Meanwhile, in its active consciousness of beauty as a -motive, the Minoan reached a perfection within the limits of its -possibilities that carried it far beyond the Peruvian. - -This may have been partly due to the influence of the neighbouring -civilisation of Egypt, and also to the fact that the people of the Ægean -area mixed freely in their roving life with one another and with outside -peoples, so that there was a free-trade in ideas, and the seed which -they planted grew and multiplied. But it must also have been due to -something inherent in the race itself. What the race was has not been -determined. So far, the examination of skulls and bones in Cretan tombs -has established only the fact that the race, while showing signs of -mixture, belonged on the whole to the dark, long-haired “Mediterranean -race,” whose probable origin lay in Mid-Eastern Africa. The main -interest of this is to discredit an Asiatic source for Minoan -civilisation. It is apparent from its achievements in engineering and -the arts and industries that it was a race of great intelligence, with -an active interest in life that led it to strive for the beauty as well -as the conveniences of living. - -=Palace of Cnossus.=--The palace of Cnossus occupies an area of about six -acres, surmounting the debris of human settlements, which go back, it -has been estimated, to a distance of from 12,000 to 14,000 years before -the Christian era. The remains show that the palace formed a hollow -square, constructed around a central court. The principal entrance was -upon the north, though what appears to have been the royal entrance was -upon the west, opening on to a paved court. - -The west wing contained a small council chamber, or office, in which was -found a throne, made of gypsum in a design curiously Gothic, around -which were lower stone benches. The walls of this chamber were decorated -with sacred dragons represented in a Nile landscape. They were executed, -like the other paintings found in these Cretan palaces, in fresco; that -is to say, in water colours mixed with some gelatinous medium, laid on -the still damp plaster, so that as the latter dried the colour became -incorporated in the actual material of the walls. To this council -chamber was attached a bathroom, probably for ritual purposes. - -Near it was also discovered a small shrine, containing figures and -reliefs, exquisitely fashioned in faience, one of which shows a snake -goddess and her votaries; this being one of the aspects of the chief -divinity. The walls and pillars of these chambers are repeatedly -decorated with the sign of the Double Axe, while miniature frescoes on -the walls exhibit pillared shrines, with double axes stuck into some of -the wooden pillars. - -For the remains of the palace itself show that the pillars used in this -construction were of wood, rounded like posts. The circular sockets -still remain in the stonework and a comparison of the top and bottom -ones shows that the pillar tapered downward, the diameter at the bottom -being six-sevenths of the top one. - -Another feature of this west wing is a series of eighteen magazines or -storerooms which contained quantities of clay documents and great stone -jars. The latter are decorated with horizontal bands, connected by -diagonal ones, like the straw work on a modern ginger jar. This design, -wrought upon the stone surface of these colossal jars, is an interesting -memento of one of the primitive methods of clay modelling. For, before -the invention of the potter’s wheel, the method of shaping, almost -universally adopted, was one of the three following: (1) _scooping_ out -from a ball of clay; (2) or _coiling_, in which the clay was rolled out -into thin ropes, which were coiled round and round upon one another and -then smoothed over; (3) or the building up of the form upon a shape of -_basket-work_ or _matting_. - -A large bathroom was discovered in the northwest corner of the -quadrangle but the actual residential quarters seem to have occupied the -east wing. There are the remains of a _Megaron_, or great hall of state, -approached directly from the central court, near which were found -painted reliefs, illustrating scenes of the bull-ring, with female as -well as male toreadors. These and other reliefs, some of which also -commemorated incidents of bull-fighting, were not carved upon the stone, -as in the Egyptian temples, or executed in tiles, as in Assyrian or -Persian temples, but applied to the wall with hard plaster. This method, -known as _gesso_ work, was used later in Byzantine decoration and by the -Italians of the Renaissance, for decorative details; by Pinturricchio, -for example, in the Borgia apartments of the Vatican. It has been -revived by modern mural decorators; John S. Sargent, for instance, -employing it in some of his panels in the Boston Public Library. - -To the south of the great hall a staircase, of which three flights and -traces of a fourth are still preserved, descended to a series of halls -and private rooms. Attached to one of these, identified as the “Queen’s -Megaron,” was a bathroom, decorated with frescoes of flying fish. The -drainage system in this part of the palace includes a water-closet and -is of a complete and modern kind. - -The character and features of this palace are repeated on a smaller -scale in those discovered at Phæstus, Hagia Triada, and other spots in -Crete, and resemble in the main those of Mycenæ and Tiryns. - -A glance at the map of ancient Greece shows that these last two cities, -situated at the north of the rich plain of Argolis, commanded the -approaches to the peninsula of the Peloponnesus; Mycenæ occupying a -strategic position on the highroad; Tiryns, on the sea. They were -equally important in resisting invasion from the North across the -Isthmus of Corinth, and in the struggle for supremacy that was waged -between Argolis and the Peloponnesus. Accordingly, the distinguishing -feature of each city was that it occupied an acropolis, the natural -strength of which was increased by fortifications built with irregular -blocks of stone of great size, in the style known as _Cyclopean_. - -=Mycenæ.=--Those at Mycenæ surrounded an area which is roughly triangular -in plan, the main entrance being through the above mentioned portal of -the =Lion Gate=. Its side posts and lintel are composed of monoliths and -surmounted by the famous lion-relief, which fills the triangular space -formed by the gradual projection of the stones of the wall. The pillar -or fetish-post corresponds to the alabaster columns, now in the British -Museum, which flanked the entrance of the =Treasury= or =Tomb= of =Atreus=, -just outside the Lion Gate. - -The shaft of these columns is without a base and tapers slightly to the -bottom. Ornamented with bands of repeated _chevrons_, which alternately -are plain and embellished with flutings, it supports a cushion or -_echinus_, decorated with plain and spiral bands, on which rests a -square plinth or _abacus_. It comprises, in fact, the features which in -later times were simplified into the Doric column. - -The tomb itself is a subterranean chamber, of the style known as -_beehive_ or in Greek, _tholos_. Its circular plan has a diameter of -nearly 50 feet, and the domed ceiling, commencing at the floor and -formed of inwardly projecting courses of stone, rises to about the same -height. It leads into a small square chamber and is itself approached by -a horizontal avenue, 20 feet wide and 115 feet long, the sides of which -are of squared stone, sloping upward to a height of 45 feet. - -A trace of this subterranean beehive method seems to survive in some of -the rock-hewn tombs at =Myra=, in =Lycia=. Here the façade represents the -front of a house, which is clearly of primitive wood construction. In -later instances it is composed of Ionic columns and cornices. In the -older examples the entrance is surmounted by a gable, which frequently -takes the curves of the beehive. - -Intermediate between these Lycian Tombs and the Minoan structures are -certain rock-cut tombs in =Phrygia= which recall the Lion Gate. The façade -comprises a cornice supported by columns, above which is a gable, -occupied by colossal lions. At =Arslan=, one of these _pediments_ shows -two lions, in this instance not rampant, which support a central pillar. -Inside, however, two rampant lions flank a nude human figure. - -At Mycenæ are earlier tombs than that of Atreus, which consist simply of -a deep shaft lowered into the rock. These are situated just inside the -Lion Gate, the area which they occupy being enclosed by two concentric -circles of thin slabs, set up on end with others laid across the top of -them. It is a feature that in its attenuated form seems to recall -Stonehenge. Dr. Schliemann reached the conclusion that these were the -graves which were shown to Pausanias, as being those of Agamemnon, -Cassandra, and her companions. - -On the summit of the Acropolis at Mycenæ are the remains of a palace, -similar to, but less extensive than, that of Tiryns, which we may -therefore examine in preference. - -=Tiryns.=--The palace of Tiryns, which probably dates to a period between -the fourteenth and twelfth centuries <small>B.C.</small>, seems to have combined the -luxuriousness of the residence of an Oriental king with the feudal state -of a mediæval baron and his crowd of retainers. The acropolis is of oval -shape, with its long axis north and south, surrounded by immense -ramparts of Cyclopean masonry, from 30 to 40 feet in thickness, while -the outside height was about 50 feet and that of the inside 10 feet from -the level of the ground. In certain parts chambers were embedded in the -thickness of the wall, and round its inner side ran a colonnade, -supported by wooden posts. - -The area thus enclosed was divided into three successive levels, of -which the highest was excavated by Schliemann and Dörpfeld, 1884-1885. -The plan shows the entrance situated on the west side, away from the -sea, which probably was once fitted with a gateway similar to that at -Mycenæ. The approach passes between massive walls to another gate, -whence it proceeds to a propylæa, with rooms for the guard. This opens -into a forecourt, from which another propylæa gives approach to the -actual palace. - -The first feature of the =Palace= is a court bounded on three sides by a -post-supported colonnade. An altar or sacrificial pit is in the same -position as that occupied by the altar of Zeus in a later Greek house. -It may be possible in this connection to see evidence that the principal -deity on the mainland of Greece was already, unlike that of Crete, a -male; perhaps a terrible prototype of the later benignant Zeus, to whom -human sacrifices were made, as to the hideous Mexican divinity, -Huitzilopochtli. - -On the north side of the court a portico, succeeded by a vestibule, -gives access to the Megaron. In the centre of this is the hearth, a -feature not needed in the warmer climate of Crete and therefore not -found in the palaces of that island. Four columns supported the roof, -the centre of which may have been raised to allow openings for light and -smoke escape. Adjoining the sleeping chambers on the west side of this -hall is a bathroom, about 12 feet by 10 feet, the floor of which is -composed of a single slab of stone, sloped so that the water drained out -through a pipe in the wall. - -Another group of buildings, supposed, though without authority, to be -the women’s quarters, lies to the east of the great hall, from which, -however, it is completely cut off by a solid wall; it is entered by two -circuitous passages, one leading from the first propylæa, the other from -a postern gate in the western rampart. Here again the plan shows an -open court, without an altar, from which a vestibule admits to a smaller -megaron. - -The floors of the megara are of stucco, incised with a series of lines, -coloured blue and red, while the walls are decorated with frescoes as in -the palace at Cnossus, one of the best preserved paintings showing a -bull-fight scene. On the other hand, the palace of Tiryns shows part of -a frieze of alabaster, sculptured in relief with rosettes and -interlacing patterns and studded with jewel-like pieces of blue glass or -enamel. - -The walls to a height of about three feet above ground were of stone, -above which they were continued with sun-dried bricks; the upper story -being probably of wood, with roofs of stamped earth. The doorways, -though sometimes of wood, were more usually constructed of monoliths. -Bronze cup-like sockets, let into the stone thresholds, show that the -doors revolved upon a pivot. - -It is agreed that while the palace of Tiryns represents the general -character of a royal house, as it is pictured in the Homeric poems, it -is a mistake to look in it for an explanation of details of -arrangement. - - - - -BOOK III - -CLASSIC PERIOD - - - - -CHAPTER I - -HELLENIC CIVILISATION - - -The use of the term Hellenic can be traced back to the seventh century -<small>B.C.</small> It was the name under which the various streams of -migration--Achæan, Æolian, Dorian, and Ionian--merged their differences -in the proud recognition of a common race. - -The date and extent of these migrations are clouded with obscurity; but -certain points are clear. The Ionians came from Armenia and settled in -Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, while the other three penetrated -into Greece from the shores of the Baltic. The Achæan was the first to -arrive and had maintained a long civilisation before the later migration -of Æolians and Dorians. The Dorian invasion seems to have been -especially aggressive and after fastening a hold upon the mainland of -Greece extended to the Ægean Archipelago, overrunning Crete and wresting -supremacy of the Mediterranean from the Minoan Sea-Kings about 1000 <small>B.C.</small> - -Hellenic, however, never implied a national bond. The Hellenes were -never united as one people under one government. Hellas was a congeries -of independent states which even allowed their colonies, from the first, -complete self-government. The bond which loosely held them together was -the common sense of superiority to all other races; and as their -civilisation developed, a common pride in its glory, not that this was -sufficient to prevent continuous rivalry and frequent warfare between -states and cities. Consequently, there is properly speaking no such -thing as Greek history; nor would it be profitable for our purpose to -trace the rise and decline of the several states. It is better to -consider Hellenism as a principle, the more or less common ideal of a -people, not confined to Hellas, but spread over the littoral of the -Mediterranean; wherever Hellenes settled--a race of mariners and -merchants, thinkers and artists, who lifted themselves to so high a -pitch of civilisation, that it became a source of inspiration to all -subsequent culture. - -In the Minoan and Mycenæan Age the political system was a monarchy that -combined the functions of high priest and commander-in-chief. In the -Homeric Age there were still kings who led their armies and acted as the -intermediaries of the gods, but their power was controlled by a _Boule_, -or consulting assembly. With the Dorians the rule of kings passed to -that of oligarchies, chosen from one or more of the noble classes whose -claim to government was founded on birth and the ownership of land. They -were associated with a Boule, representative of the privileged classes, -while the priestly functions were exercised by magistrates, who, -however, were drawn from the aristocracy. - -In many parts of Hellas the oligarchies gave way to “tyrannoi.” These -are not to be understood in the sense that our word “tyrant” has. They -were a step in the evolution of popular government, inasmuch as they -were a means of breaking up the exclusive authority of the privileged -classes. To consolidate their own power, the tyrannoi sought the favour -of the populace and made concessions in the direction of popular -government. Accordingly, while some of the tyrannoi were succeeded by a -return to the oligarchies, in more cases they prepared the way for a -democratic form of government. - -In order to take religion out of the exclusive domain of the -aristocracy, the tyrants established popular cults. Peisistrates, for -example, tyrant of Athens, is thought to have established the Great -Dionysiac festival and raised the Panathenæa to the position of the -chief national festival of the Athenian State. Everywhere the tyrants -were the patrons of literature and the arts. To Peisistrates is -attributed the first critical edition of the text of Homer, while under -the encouragement of himself and his successors (the Peisistratids) -which lasted from 560-511 <small>B.C.</small> architecture and sculpture also -progressed to a degree that made possible their grandeur in the “Great -Age.” He is also said to have encouraged Thespes, the Attic poet, to -impersonate characters and thus convert the narrative poem into dramatic -form, laying the foundation of Greek drama. - -Peisistrates also gave the people a constitution, extended the power of -Athens by alliances, and increased its commerce. With the fall of the -Peisistratids the rule of the many (_hoi polloi_) was assured. The -government of Athens became democratic. - -It is to be noted that while there were various forms of democratic -government in Hellas, all differed from our modern conception of -democracy. The latter is based upon the principle of doing away with -privilege, while the Greek form implied privilege, although it enlarged -its area. No foreigner could acquire citizenship, which also was denied -to native-born inhabitants who were of foreign extraction, on either the -father’s or the mother’s side. Furthermore, the Greeks regarded labour -as a disqualification for political rights, and almost all unskilled -labour and most of the skilled was performed by slaves. The latter, -however, were well treated and not only enjoyed personal liberty but -also the opportunity of becoming prosperous. - -Again, the government under the Hellenic democracy was not -representative. The citizen body was so small that all could meet in the -_Ecclesia_ and register their vote directly on any question. Appointment -to office was by lot and not election, and accordingly the number of -citizens who held at one time or another big or little offices included -a great majority of the whole body. The result of this was an intimacy -on the part of all the citizen body with the machinery of government and -the pros and cons of every question as it arose. They voted with -intelligence and their votes counted directly; a system which helped -immensely to cultivate their intellectual keenness. - -The two Persian invasions, the first under Datis and Artaphernes (490 -<small>B.C.</small>) in the reign of Darius I, the second by Xerxes in person (480-479 -<small>B.C.</small>), had proved the need of closer co-operation among the Hellenic -States, and the Delian League was formed under the leadership of Athens -and with Athens as the “predominant partner.” An annual tribute was paid -by all the member-states for the maintenance of a fleet. Athens was the -treasurer and the fleet was mainly Athenian, while the commanders were -entirely so. The power thus concentrated in Athens gave her so marked a -supremacy that Pericles used the League to form an Athenian Empire. This -lasted about thirty years (461-430 <small>B.C.</small>), during which period Athens -reached the culmination not only of her power but also of her -magnificence. For Pericles spent the money, contributed by the allies -for common defence, in beautifying the Acropolis; the excuse being that -in doing so he was giving glory to Athena, who was the patron goddess of -the League. Pericles also encouraged literature and counted among his -friends three of the greatest Greek writers--Sophocles, Herodotus, and -Thucydides. - -But the power of Athens incited the envy of the other states, which -ranged themselves with Sparta. In the Peloponnesian wars, the supremacy -of Athens was broken and the Athenian Empire was succeeded by a Spartan -Empire, which in time succumbed to the Theban Hegemony. Finally Hellas -was conquered by Philip of Macedon and passed into the Macedonian -Empire, established by this king and enlarged by his son, Alexander the -Great. - -Through all these struggles Athens, though despoiled of her supremacy, -played a big part until she was conquered by Philip at Chæronæa, in 338 -<small>B.C.</small> The latter date is adopted as the end of the Great Age which had -lasted since 480 <small>B.C.</small>, including within its circumference the age of -Pericles. Besides its triumphant achievements in architecture and -sculpture, the Great Age comprised in drama the names of Æschylus, -Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes; in history, Herodotus, -Thucydides; in oratory, Demosthenes; in philosophy, Aristotle and Plato. -Meanwhile, the century preceding it had produced, among the poets, -Anacreon and Sappho; and, as representatives of mathematics, astronomy, -geography, and metaphysics, Thales, Pythagoras, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, -Parmenides, Anaximander, and Hecatæus of Miletus. - -It is significant that none of these last named poets and thinkers -belonged to the mainland of Hellas, but to the islands and cities of the -Ionian group or to the adjacent Cyclades. And what is true of literature -is equally true of architecture and sculpture. In fact during the fifth -century <small>B.C.</small> and also the three preceding centuries, culture had been -more developed in Ionia than in Attica. For, through its commerce with -the East, Ionia reached a high state of prosperity and borrowed -something of Eastern luxuriousness as well as Eastern thought and art -ideals, just as in turn the East borrowed from it. Miletus was for a -long time the wealthiest and most luxurious of Hellenic cities, rivalled -only by Sybaris on the gulf of Tarentum; one of the flourishing cities -of the so-called Magna Græcia in the south of Italy. - -Similarly Corinth under the rule of her tyrants, Cypselus and his son -Periander (657-581 <small>B.C.</small>), had enjoyed a period of great prosperity. She -extended her trade from Asia Minor and Egypt to Magna Græcia in the -west, and was also a great industrial centre, famous for its pottery, -metal work, and other decorative crafts. Moreover, it was reported to -have “invented” painting. - -These brief references serve to emphasise two points: first, the wide -spread of Hellenic culture; and, secondly, the variety that it -exhibited. The most cherished sentiment in Hellas, as we have remarked, -was that of autonomy. Even under the hegemonies and empires, individual -cities and colonies were permitted self-government and, as its -corollary, self-development. Hence the variety in unity that -characterised Hellenic culture. The unity was strengthened and the -variety diffused throughout the whole by the Festival-contests which -were held at regular intervals. These originated in local religious -festivals, which in time were thrown open to competitors from all parts -of Hellas. - -The oldest and the greatest was the Olympic Festival, held in the valley -of the river Alphæus in Elis, which was celebrated at intervals of four -years. The event became so important in the life of Hellas that the -interval of four years between one celebration and the succeeding one, -called an Olympiad, became the measure for computing time, the first -Olympiad being reckoned as 776 <small>B.C.</small> Originally the festival was held in -honour of Hera, to whom a temple--the earliest as yet known in -Hellas--was dedicated, 1000 <small>B.C.</small> Later the chief honour was paid to the -Olympian Zeus. His temple, which in time contained the celebrated -chryselephantine statue of the god by Pheidias, stood in a sacred grove, -the Altis, which was adorned with statues of the successful athletes, -made by the most famous sculptors. The sacred enclosure was surrounded -by walls and colonnades, adjoining which, on one side, were the -gymnasium, palæstra, and baths for the use of the athletes, whose -training in the sacred precincts lasted for ten months, before they -could compete in the stadium. The latter adjoined the Altis on the east -side. - -From all parts of Hellas, states and cities vied with one another in -furnishing competitors and, as the date of the Festival approached, -heralds proclaimed throughout the Hellenic world the “Truce of God” -under which, for the time being, warlike operations were suspended and -safe conduct was guaranteed to all visitors to Olympia. - -The influence of Sparta had regulated the character of the contests of -endurance: running, leaping, wrestling, boxing, to which in time was -added chariot racing. But as the spirit of culture spread the Olympian -and the other festivals included musical contests, while the poet -declaimed his verses and the painter showed his work for the pleasure -and profit of the assembled multitudes. - -The Olympic festival, in fact, was the supreme realisation of the -Hellenic ideal: perfection of physical development, joined to highest -intellectual development and the finest development of the senses. It -was an ideal that involved the possible perfection of the whole man, a -harmony of body, senses, and intellect--the Hellenic ideal of Beauty. - -Olympia, wrote Lysias, is “the fairest spot on earth,” and, surely, in -the loveliness of its natural setting, in the embellishments which the -architect and sculptor had added, in the glory of the youthful vigour of -the competitors and the inspiration of poets and musicians, and, not -least, in the joyous enthusiasm of the spectators was realised, as -perhaps nowhere else at any time, the Beauty of Life; the idea, as Plato -taught, that the Good is the Beautiful, the Beautiful the Good. - -Such was the Hellenic ideal. And an ideal, need one add, is not an aim -that is actually achieved but one beyond our capacity to achieve wholly, -that yet gives continuous incentive to higher and nobler effort. This -ideal of the possible perfection of man in all his parts is the highest -to which man has ever aspired and the Hellenes of the Great Age came the -nearest to achieving it. Hence their example has become to succeeding -ages Classic. - -Having this ideal, the Hellenes translated it as far as possible into -visible form. No athlete could compete at Olympia unless his body and -his character were free from blemish; no statue or temple must be -erected except as the finest possible expression of organic perfection. - -For the beauty involved in the Hellenic ideal is organic beauty. -Everything about Olympia, as everything about a Hellenic Temple, must -perform its function in the organic beauty of the whole. - -Further, it is to be noted that in the pursuit of this ideal the Greeks -did not rely upon the feeling of the senses, nor yet upon the judgment -of the intellect; but upon a union of the two. They submitted the -inspiration of the senses to processes of reason. In a word, they -intellectualised their sensations. It is this which has made the -expression of their ideal Classic. - -It is not necessary for our present purpose to trace the ebb and flow of -the influence of this ideal through the centuries. But we may observe -that while the Romans despoiled Hellas of her works of art and imitated, -as far as they could, the externals of her ideal of beauty, the Arabs, -Moors, and Saracens in later years more intimately imbibed its spirit -and gave their own expression to it. Italy, however, in the latter half -of the fifteenth century and during the sixteenth, came nearer than any -other nation to both the spirit and the form of Hellenic culture. For -her scholars and artists were more inclined to emulate than to imitate -the example of the Greeks and tried to incorporate the Hellenic ideal -into their own lives. - -On the other hand, the Classical revival which began toward the end of -the eighteenth century and has continued intermittently to our own day, -has for the most part made the mistake of imitating instead of -emulating. Artists have tried to copy the form, without imbibing the -spirit. But form so used is like the letter that killeth; without the -spirit that giveth life. - -Meanwhile, there are indications that the world to-day is going to -approach nearer to the Hellenic ideal than ever before and in some -respects to better it. For there was a flaw in the latter. It despised -labour and denied workmen a share in government. Its democracy was -merely an extended aristocracy and, since those privileged to share in -it received payment while filling office, it has been said that “the -majority of the Athenian citizens were salaried paupers.” On the other -hand, the theory, at least, of modern society is the honourableness of -labour, and one of the best recognised problems of to-day is the shaping -of conditions in order that labour may in truth be honourable--a -blessing and not a curse, enhancing the beauty of the worker’s life -instead of starving it. In fact, the modern world in adopting anew the -Hellenic ideal of the beauty of the whole life is going to carry it -further, to include the whole life of the whole community. - -Moreover, our hope in being able to revive the Hellenic ideal and even -to carry it farther consists in the fact that the foundation of our -progress, as of the Greek, has again become reason, and reason -established on a wider and firmer basis, owing to the immense -development of modern science. And, while science encompasses every -field of human thought and activity, its tendency is more and more -directed to promoting the health and happiness of life. It is aiming -anew at the Hellenic ideal of physical, moral and mental perfection, not -confined to a few, but embracing whole communities and peoples. - -There was a further flaw in the Hellenic system. It relegated women to -an inactive position in the public affairs of life. Women were excluded -even as sight-seers from the Olympic Games. The Greek worshipped the -physical in woman, but refused development of her intellectual -faculties. Their ideal was, in fact, centred in a single sex; it could -not breed and perpetuate itself. But to-day the idea is spreading that -this is a woman’s as well as a man’s world, and that to approximate to -the ideal of human perfection needs the full, free, and independent -co-operation of the woman and the man. - -In conclusion let us note how in one respect the Hellenic ideal still -transcends our own. There was a logic in the Greek, to which we have -hardly yet attained. It practically amounted to this that “a tree is -known by its fruits.” If a thing is good physically, morally, and -mentally, it must naturally manifest its goodness so that it can be -appreciated by the senses. Beauty must be made visible and audible. The -possibility of the ideal must be made familiar to all, in literature, -song, dance, drama, and the arts of beautiful design. - -To the Greeks æsthetics, the study of what is appreciated as beautiful -by the senses, was not a separate department of life, as it is apt to be -with us, but only another aspect of morality and religion. It was the -natural and inevitable expression of the inward spirit of the ideal. How -could a man’s life reach its highest possibility if it did not love and -seek after beauty; how could a city be truly great unless it were -manifestly beautiful? - -One can hardly imagine a Hellen, who wished to retain any reputation for -intelligence, asserting, as many people are satisfied and even seem -proud to do in these days: “I don’t know anything about art, but I know -what I like.” To this it is on record that an artist retorted, “And so -does a cow.” Which would have been the sort of retort that a Hellen -might have made to the speaker, whom he would at once determine was a -person of low intelligence. - -For Greek art, as we have already said, was not an expression solely of -the senses; but of the sensations guided by the intellect; and it was -just as much a part of a Greek’s intellectual training to know and -understand and feel--in a word, appreciate--art, as it was to fit -himself for other services to the State. Yet, do not forget it, the -Hellenes were a race of traders and manufacturers, like the backbone of -our communities to-day. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -HELLENIC ARCHITECTURE - - -We have noted in the previous chapter that Hellenic art, like Hellenic -culture generally, was a product of the senses guided by the -intellect--the expression of intellectualised sensations. To his crude -sensations the artist applied very much the same process that the modern -scientist has applied to crude oil, until, through experiments guided by -observation and reasoning, he has developed refined oil, which gives the -purest and intensest possible illumination. Thus the Hellenic artists, -through generations, refined upon the forms of their architecture, to -create a unity, distinguished by fitness, proportion, harmony and -rhythm, until they brought it to the highest degree of expressional -capacity; appealing alike to feeling and to reason. It reached its -highest expression in the temple, the supreme monument of the -community’s civic consciousness. - -The developed form of the Hellenic Temple resembled the Egyptian in -being a product of the “post and beam” principle of construction; but -differed in its purpose that the outside rather than the inside should -present superior dignity of design. The chief feature of the latter was -the Order, as it is called in Hellenic and Roman architecture, or -combination of columns and entablature. It might be confined to a -portico at the entrance or supplemented by another portico in the rear, -or still further extended by a colonnade that surrounded all - -[Illustration: SOME TEMPLE PLANS P. 120 - -TEMPLE OF POSEIDON, PAESTUM. HEXASTYLE-PERIPTERAL - -PARTHENON. OCTOSTYLE-PERIPTERAL - -TEMPLE OF APOLLO, BASSÆ - -DISTYLE IN ANTIS - -TEMPLE OF JUPITER OLYMPUS, ATHENS. OCTOSTYLE-DIPTERAL - -ERECHTHEION. AT THE LEFT IS THE “NORTH PORCH” OF THE CARYATIDES] - -[Illustration: HELLENIC ORDERS - -(COLUMNS AND ENTABLATURES.) PP. 123, ET SEQ. - -IONIC ORDER - -DORIC ORDER - -CORINTHIAN ORDER MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES] - -[Illustration: ROMAN ORDERS - -(COLUMNS AND ENTABLATURES.) P. 163 - -ROMAN IONIC ORDER -TEMPLE OF FORTVNA VIRILIS: ROME -150 B.C.? - -SIDE ELEVATION OF CAPITAL - -Doric Order. - -ARCH OF -TIRVS: ROME -87 A.D. -ROMAN -COMPOSITE -ORDER - -ROMAN TVSCAN -ORDER -ACCORDING TO -VIGNOLA - -ROMAN -CORINTHIAN -ORDER -TEMPLE OF CASTOR -AND POLLVX, ROME. -6 A.D. -] - -[Illustration: MODEL OF THE ACROPOLIS - -(RIGHT) ROMAN GATEWAY AT PROPYLÆA; (LEFT) ERECHTHEION. ADJOINING REMAINS -OF EARLY TEMPLE OF ATHENÆ; BEYOND IS THE PARTHENON; BACK OF THE LATTER, -TEMPLE OF ROME AND AUGUSTUS] - -[Illustration: - -© Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y. - -MODEL OF THE PARTHENON - -(RESTORED)] - -[Illustration: THE PARTHENON - -P. 140, ETC.] - -[Illustration: TEMPLES AT PÆSTUM - -POSEIDON, AT THE RIGHT. P. 125] - -[Illustration: CHORAGIC MONUMENT - -OF LYSICRATES, ATHENS. P. 131] - -[Illustration: TEMPLE OF NIKE APTEROS - -ATHENS, “WINGLESS.” NOTICE LOOPING FILLETS IN CAPITALS. P. 141] - -[Illustration: PORTICO OF THE CARYATIDES. ERECHTHEION - -IONIC ARCHITRAVE AND CORNICE; NO FRIEZE. P. 141] - -[Illustration: DETAIL OF ORNAMENT - -IN ORDER FROM BELOW: ANTHEMION, BEAD-AND-SPOOL, EGG-AND-DART, -BEAD-AND-SPOOL, HEART-LEAF. P. 132] - -[Illustration: STATUES IN THE ROUND OF PERSEPHONE AND DEMETER - -FROM THE EAST PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON. P. 135] - -[Illustration: FIGURES IN HIGH RELIEF - -FROM THE PROCESSION OF WORSHIPERS. FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON. P. 135] - -[Illustration: PLAN OF HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII - -ENTRANCE FROM R. LEADING TO E. THE ATRIUM, WITH IMPLUVIUM IN THE CENTER. -F. PERISTYLE ENCLOSING A SMALL GARDEN OR FISH POND. B. LIVING ROOMS, -TRICLINIUM TO THE RIGHT. C. KITCHEN QUARTERS. SLEEPING APARTMENTS A. AND -OPENING ON THE COURTS. PLAN ENDS ON LEFT WITH PORTICO, OPENING ONTO -GARDEN. P. 181] - -[Illustration: PLAN OF THEATRE OF DRAMYSSUS - -ONE HUNDRED FEET TO ONE INCH] - -four sides of the _cella_ or _domos_, house of the god, in which case it -is called a _peristyle_. - -The emphasis of the order as a constructive and decorative feature has -been traced back by some students to the Dorian people’s primitive -custom of worshipping in groves. The religious ceremonies, which -included a procession of the worshippers, would be conducted amid the -trees surrounding the altar or shrine, and in time a roofing of cross -pieces thatched with boughs may have been attached to the trees. -Accordingly, those who adopt this view suggest that when the use of a -grove was succeeded by a constructed temple, the original feature was -the peristyle. And possibly there is a commemoration of this in the -peristyle of the Parthenon, where a procession of worshippers of the -goddess is represented in the sculptured frieze that embellishes the -outside of the walls of the cella--thus embodying in the most highly -developed form of Hellenic temple its origin in primitive religion. - -The character of the form seems to have originated in wood construction, -certain features of which--to be referred to later--were retained after -stone or marble was employed and were translated into details of -decoration. The gradual transition to materials of construction, less at -the mercy of fire, is hinted at by Pausanias, a Greek geographer and -writer on art of the second century <small>B.C.</small>, in his description of the -=Heraion= or =Temple of Hera= (Juno) at =Olympia=, the oldest known example of -a Doric Temple, attributed to 1000 <small>B.C.</small> - -The cella wall, he says, was constructed of sun-dried bricks on a lower -course of stonework, but the entablature was still of wood, covered with -terra-cotta. One wooden column was still standing in the _opisthodomos_, -but elsewhere as the wooden columns decayed they had been replaced by -stone ones; the design of their capitals showing that the work of -restoration lasted from the sixth century to Roman times. The roof was -covered with tiles. The cella was divided into a central _nave_ and -_side-aisles_ by two rows of columns for the support of the roof, and -the aisles were intersected by small screen walls; thus forming alcoves, -corresponding to the side-chapels of a Gothic cathedral. In one of these -alcoves German explorers in 1878 discovered the _Hermes_ of Praxiteles, -which is probably the only marble statue in existence that was actually -wrought by the hands of one of the great sculptors. - -=Early Doric Examples.=--The Dorian migration pushed down through -Macedonia and Thessaly into the peninsula of Greece and spread through -the islands of the Ægean as far as Crete, afterward planting colonies at -=Pæstum= and other sites in Southern Italy and at =Syracuse=, =Selinus=, and -=Agrigentum= in Sicily. Throughout all this wide area they carried their -particular style of Order--the Doric. In developing it, they brought -into play what has been judged their distinguishing trait of -character--sense of proportion. - -The earliest known examples of Doric temples, built originally of stone, -are at =Corinth= and that of =Phœbus Apollo= on the island of =Ortygia=, at -the entrance to the harbour of Syracuse. In these, which are attributed -to the seventh century <small>B.C.</small>, the columns are monoliths with widely -projecting capitals, and set so close together that the -intercolumniation was less than one diameter of the column. For the -early Greeks appear to have been distrustful of the bearing capacity of -stone as compared with wood. - -Belonging to the sixth century are the colossal =Temples= =of Zeus= at -=Selinus= and =Agrigentum= and the =Temple of Poseidon= (Neptune) in =Pæstum=. -In the last the columns are composed of sections or “drums,” and there -are still in position in the cella the smaller columns, superimposed on -the main ones for the support of the roof. - -The temples of the fifth century are distinguished by increased -refinement in the matter of proportion and details and by superior skill -and workmanship. They include the =Temple of Athene= (Minerva) on the -island of =Ægina=; the so-called =Theseum=, supposed to have been dedicated -to =Heracles= (Hercules), in =Athens=; and the =Temple of Zeus= which forms -one of the group of temples at =Olympia=. It is the most complete -temple-group yet discovered, and was the scene of the religious -ceremonies in connection with the Pan-Hellenic Games. - -With the second half of the fifth century began the supremacy of Athens -in the affairs of Hellas under the rule of Pericles, which enabled her -as custodian of the Hellenic treasury to undertake the beautifying of -the Acropolis. This culminated in the =Parthenon=, the noblest example of -the Doric style and, as Mr. A. D. F. Hamlin writes, “the most faultless -in design and execution of all buildings erected by man.” - -Following, apparently, the tradition of worshipping in groves, the -Dorians placed their temples in a _temenos_, or enclosure in which were -other shrines, altars, and treasuries. Whether this temenos was on a -hill-top, as in the case of the Acropolis in Athens and the site of the -temple-group in =Agrigentum=, or in a valley on sloping ground as at -=Delphi=, the irregularities of the ground were taken advantage of in the -disposition of the buildings. Thus was created an ensemble in which art -and nature united, while in the case of a level site, as at =Olympia=, -=Delos=, and =Pæstum=, the temples were grouped in picturesque -irregularity. - -=Temple Plans.=--The nucleus of the temple plan was the _naos_, containing -the statue of the deity. Adjoining it were other chambers, connected -with the ritual of worship; and this aggregate of naos and chambers, -enclosed within walls, is known as the _Cella_. - -It was approached from the front, which faced the _east_, by a covered, -columned vestibule, open at the sides, called the _pronaos_. This was -often repeated at the rear under the name of _epinaos_, or, as the -Romans called it, _posticum_. - -The pronaos was entered through a _portico_. When the latter was -composed of columns, set between the prolonged sides of the cella, the -type of plan was called _in antis_. - -When the side-walls were not prolonged, but terminated in pilasters, -known as _antiæ_, and the supporting members of the front façade were -solely columns, the type was called _prostylar_ or _prostyle_. - -If, under the same conditions the portico was repeated at the rear, the -type was called _amphi-prostylar_ or _amphi-prostyle_. - -If the whole were surrounded by a colonnade or _peristyle_ the type was -_peripteral_; while if a second row of columns were added on each side, -as in the great =Temple= of the =Olympian Zeus=, erected in Athens during -the Roman occupation, the type was _dipteral_. The external aisle, -formed by the colonnade on each side was known as the _pteroma_. - -Where there was no peristyle, but columns, known as false or -engaged, were built into the wall of the cella, the type was -_pseudo-peripteral_. - -There are also to be mentioned the octagonal plan, as seen in the =Tower -of the Winds= in =Athens=; the circular peripteral plan of the =Tholos= at -=Epidauros= and the examples of irregular planning presented by the -=Erechtheion= and =Propylæa=. - -The type was further distinguished by the number of columns--four, six, -eight, or ten--composing the portico, as, respectively, tetrastyle, -hexastyle, octostyle, and decastyle. - -Thus the =Parthenon= is _octostyle peripteral_; Temple of =Poseidon=, -=Paestum=, hexastyle peripetral; of =Jupiter Olympios=, =Atucus=, _octostyle -dipteral_; of =Apollo=, =Bassæ=, _in antis_. - -=Temple Form.=--The cella, or chamber for the god, was built originally of -wood; later of sunburnt bricks on a lower course of stonework, the whole -being coated with a thin layer of stucco, as is found to have been the -practice also in later Doric temples in Sicily and Italy, where the -material was soft stone. To protect it from the damp of the ground as -well as to dignify it, the cella was raised on a platform, approached by -steps. - -On the top of the walls was laid a framework of timber sills, crossed by -transverse beams, on which stood posts to hold the ridge-piece, from -which the rafters sloped to the sills, so that the roof which was of -wood, covered with sunburnt brick and later by tiles, formed eaves to -protect the cella from the roof-rain. - -The next step to add dignity to the entrance would be to prolong the -gable end in front and support it by posts, so as to form a porch or -portico. At first the weight of this might be chiefly carried by an -extension of the side walls. Then a superior effect of lightness and -dignity would be given to the portico by omitting the support of the -sides and substituting posts; while, for further embellishment, a -similar portico might be extended from the rear of the cella. - -Then, in the search for dignity and also to give more protection from -weather to the walls of the cella, the eaves of the roof would be -further prolonged outward and made to rest on sills that were supported -by a series of posts. In this way the cella was completely surrounded by -a colonnade or peristyle. - -As the use of stone or marble was adopted, the platform became the -_stylobate_, which was approached by three steps, carried along the -entire length of all the sides. The cella was built of marble or -stucco-covered stone, and marble or stone took the place of the sills -and beams of the roof, but the latter continued to be constructed of -wood, supported by small columns resting on the capitals of larger ones. -The outside sheathing of the roof was of terra-cotta or marble tiles. -Unlike the roof of an Egyptian temple which was raised in the centre to -admit clerestory windows, that of a Hellenic temple had an uninterrupted -slope. Whence then was the light derived for the interior? - -=Lighting.=--Since all roofs, being of wood, have perished, the -explanations that have been attempted are purely conjectural. A remark -by Vitruvius, the Roman architect and author of ten books on -architecture, regarding the =Temple of Zeus= at =Athens= that it was -_hypæthral_ (open to the sky) has led to a suggestion that part of the -roof may have been open, as in the case of the Pantheon in Rome. But, at -the time he wrote, the cella was exposed because Sulla had carried off -to Rome some of the supporting columns. Another Roman writer, Strabo, -describes the decastyle =Temple of Apollo= near =Miletus= as hypæthral, but -gives as the reason the enormous size of the cella, in which precious -groves of laurel bushes grew. So, it is purely a surmise that the -portion of the roof may have been omitted and that the temples were -hypæthral. - -Another theory, founded upon the discovery in a temple at =Bassæ= of three -marble tiles, or thin slabs, pierced with holes about 18 inches by 10, -is that some five of these, let into each side of the roof, would have -lighted the interior amply without admitting much rain. Again, the use -of marble tiles has afforded a suggestion that, Parian marble being very -translucent, the light might have penetrated through. James Fergusson, -on the other hand, conjectured that a trench was let into each side of -the roof; but this would have needed drains to carry off the water and -no sign of a system of drainage has been found in any temple. Other -authorities, however, maintain that it was only through the open doorway -that light was admitted, which owing to the clear atmosphere of Greece -and the reflection from the marble pavement, would be sufficient. - -=The Orders.=--In Hellenic architecture there are two fully developed -Orders--or combinations of Columns and Entablature--the Doric and the -Ionic. To these are usually added a third, the Corinthian, which, -however, though invented by the Hellenic artists, did not receive its -full development as an independent order until employed by the Romans. -The principal members of the classic column are the _capital_, _shaft_, -and, except in the Doric order where the shaft was set directly on the -stylobate, the _base_. - -=Doric Column.=--It is possible that the Dorians took the character of -their column originally from the example of Minoan architecture. For in -a fresco at Cnossos appear the façades of three temples with columns, -and the representation of the latter corresponds with the facts -discovered in the actual remains of the palace. The columns are of wood, -and have no base, since the shaft is let into a socket in the masonry. -It is crowned by a _torus_, or circular cushion with a half-round edge, -on which rests a square block, the _abacus_. The shaft differs in one -respect, it narrows downward; whereas all Hellenic columns taper upward. -The reason assigned for the Cretan practice is that the tree-trunk was -inverted so that it might retain the sap. - -All these features are reproduced in stone in the columns of the doorway -of the =Tomb of Atreus= at =Mycenæ=, which has been already mentioned. The -shafts of these columns are decorated with _chevrons_, whereas the -Greeks in their best examples never decorated the shaft, nor, in fact, -any other part of the structure that carried the chief strains. - -Upon this crude type the Dorian architects continually improved until -they had evolved an order of the most subtle refinement. In the earlier -examples the diminution upward of the shaft is more pronounced than in -the Parthenon, where the diameter at the bottom is 6 feet 3 inches and -at the top 4 feet 9 inches, which gives a diminution of slightly over -one quarter of the lower diameter. The shaft, except in one or two -temples that were not completed, was always fluted. The flutes usually -numbered twenty, and were elliptic in section, meeting in a sharp edge -or arris, thus differing from the flat-edged fillet that separated the -flutings of the Ionic and Corinthian. In order to correct the optical -illusion, suggested in a diminishing shaft, that the contours are -concave, they were made slightly convex, the swell of this _entasis_, -as the convex is called, being greatest at about one-third of the -distance from the bottom. - -As the shaft nears the capital, it is encircled by a narrow groove or -_annula_. At the top of the shaft is a series of annulæ, some of which -are cut in the shaft and others in the lower member of the capital, the -_echinus_, so that the shaft appears to project in a necking, into which -the capital is set. The _echinus_ is a circular cushion with an -eccentric curve; a curve, that is to say, that is not part of a circle. -(Compare by contrast the semi-circular curve of the _torus_.) Upon the -echinus sets firmly the _abacus_, a square block with a side measurement -the same as the diameter of the echinus. - -The height of the column varied in its proportion to the lower diameter. -In the =Temple of Poseidon=, at =Pæstum=, the height is four times the -diameter; in the later example of the =Parthenon= nearly five and a half -times, while in the =Temple of Jupiter Nemæus= it is six and a half times. - -The _intercolumniation_, or space between the columns, also varies. In -the older temples it was about one diameter of the column, the space -between the angle columns being always less; while in the case of the -Parthenon the distance varies from one diameter to 1.24; this being an -instance of deviation from geometrical regularity to be referred to -later. - -It remains to mention the _antæ_. These were flat, right-angled columns, -projecting slightly from the wall of the pronaos at the corners, facing -the end columns. While they correspond to the latter, they differ in -three respects. The shaft did not taper and was set on a small base, -while the capital was distinguished by different mouldings. For the -mouldings suitable to a free-standing column, supporting actual weight -were felt to be unsuited for a member attached to a wall, whose -functions were decorative. - -=Doric Entablature.=--The principal members of the entablature are the -_architrave_ or supporting member, the _frieze_ or decorative member, -and the _cornice_ or protecting member. - -The _architrave_, as its name implies, “the chief beam” of the -entablature, rests immediately upon the abacus; its edge corresponding -neither with that of the abacus nor with the top edge of the shaft, but -so adjusted to both as to ensure a feeling of complete stability. The -architrave was usually plain[1] and crowned with a projecting fillet, -called the _tænia_, which beneath the _triglyphs_, is supplemented by a -lower fillet, known as the _regula_. On the under side of the latter -were six studs, which recall perhaps the wooden pegs with which the ends -of the beams in primitive construction were fastened. - -The _frieze_ is a vertical surface, composed alternately of triglyphs -and metopes. The _triglyphs_, so called because they are divided into -three vertical channels, represent the ends of the primitive -longitudinal sills of the cella roof; and a recollection of the -woodworker’s craft was still preserved in the chamfer or hollow of their -outer edges. The function of the triglyphs was to support the cornice. -Generally they were set above and between the columns, but at each end -of the entablature one adjoins the corner, thereby increasing the effect -of stability. - -The space between the triglyphs, called the _metope_, was originally -left open, except for a wooden shutter to keep out birds. But in the -most elaborate examples of later date the metope was decorated with -sculpture in high relief. Those of the Parthenon contained groups, -representing fights with Centaurs, Amazons, and Trojans. - -Above the frieze was the cornice, which, as a protection from the drip -of the roof, projected to a distance, about one-third of the diameter of -a column. Its chief members were a vertical band, known as the _corona_, -and an under-part, the _soffit_. The latter sloped down under the corona -at about the same angle as the slope of the roof, and was decorated -above each triglyph and metope with a _mutule_ or square block, studded -with eighteen _guttae_, or drops, a device that recalls the method of -making fast the ends of the rafters with wooden pegs. - -The cornice was carried up the two sloping edges of the roof, but here -distinguished by an additional feature, the _cymatium_ or gutter. The -triangle or gable thus formed by the three cornices was called the -_pediment_. It was embellished at the top and ends with small pedestals, -_acroteria_, on which stood figures or conventional ornaments. - -In a Doric temple the corona, on the sides of the building was without a -cymatium, but studded instead with _ante-fixae_, ornaments of -terra-cotta or marble, placed opposite the end of each tile-ridge of the -roof. The latter, as we have already noted, was covered with tiles of -marble or terra-cotta, and finished at the top with ridge-tiles. - -The mere reading of these details is dry enough. They should be read -with an eye on the examples illustrated but also with a mind constantly -alert to think out the function and appropriateness of each feature. For -the principle of Hellenic construction was that every member should -perform a special function. The architect’s logic would not permit him, -as we say, to send a boy on a man’s errand or waste a man by employing -him at boy’s work, still less to confuse the responsibility for the -function between two or more members. Accordingly, the student who is -reading intelligently will assure himself at each step as to what -particular responsibility was laid upon each member and how -appropriately it was fitted to its function. - -=Ionic Order.=--From the grandiose simplicity of the Doric order we pass -to the slenderer and more graceful and decorated order of the Ionic. It -is almost like passing from a masculine to a feminine type: from a -reflection of the severe discipline of the old Dorian, as perpetuated by -the Spartans, to the more pleasure-loving and elegant life of the -wealthy Ionians; from the grave influence of the Olympian Zeus, chief -god of the Dorians, to the grace of the youthful Apollo and Artemis, -beloved of the Ionians. - -For the Ionic order, as the name implies, was developed by the Asiatic -Hellenes whose migration from Armenia has been already noted. From them -the Greeks of Europe borrowed it. Among the earliest known examples are -a =Temple of Apollo= at =Naucratis=, in Egypt, and the archaic =Temple of -Artemis=, at =Ephesus=, both belonging to about 560 <small>B.C.</small> The remains of the -latter are in the British Museum. They include two capitals, inscribed -with the name of Crœsus, who is known to have contributed to the temple. - -As in the Doric order, the Ionic temple rested on a _stylobate_ of three -steps, but the column is also provided with a base. The latter was -usually composed of two _tori_, of semi-circular profile, separated by -a concave moulding or _scotia_. Sometimes, as in the =Erechtheion= at -Athens, the base stood upon a square, flat base-block, or _plinth_. -Frequently the tori were embellished with horizontal flutings or the -interlacing wave-lines, called _guilloche_. - -The Ionic shaft was proportionately higher than the Doric, being from 8 -to 10 diameters in height as compared with the 4⅓ to 7 of the Doric. -Consequently, the entasis was less. The intercolumniation was sometimes -as much as two diameters. The shaft was incised with twenty-four narrow -flutings, separated by flat-edged fillets. - -The capital usually commenced with a narrow convex moulding, called the -_astragal_, which was often enriched with the alternate bead and spool -ornament. Above this was the _echinus_, decorated with the egg-and-dart -pattern. But the _echinus_ is only partly visible, since it is -encroached upon by the main feature of the capital, a fillet that passes -across the face and at the sides winds inward upon itself, forming a -_volute_, which projects beyond the _echinus_. Above this was a low -_abacus_, enriched with ornament, on which set the _architrave_. - -In some instances, as in the =Erechtheion=, the fillet forms a looping -curve, the volute is enriched with intermediate fillets and the necking -is decorated with the _anthemion_ ornament. - -The Ionic capital presented awkward features which the ingenuity of the -architects never quite succeeded in disguising. In the first place the -abacus projected beyond the face of the architrave which from the side -view offered an unsightly appearance. Secondly arose the problem of -treating the volutes of the corner columns, so that the effect might be -symmetrical on both sides of the building. This was solved by converting -the side end of the capital into another face, the adjacent volutes at -the corner being brought out at an angle of forty-five degrees. This -results in an awkward arrangement at the back where two half-volutes -intersect each other at right angles. - -The Ionic architrave consists of two or more _fasciæ_, or vertical -faces, projecting one over the other. This recalls the original wooden -construction and suggests that the Ionians used planks, while the -Dorians used a single beam. It was crowned with small mouldings, -frequently enriched with ornament. - -Above this was the frieze, sometimes left plain, at other times enriched -with sculptured reliefs. It was joined by a moulding to the cornice. - -The latter, in the simpler form adopted by the Athenians, consisted of a -plain corona, a fillet of _bead-and-spool_ ornament, a row of -_egg-and-dart_ moulding, and the cymatium or gutter, which was often -embellished with lion heads. - -In Asiatic-Ionic examples, however, the cornice was more elaborate: a -row of narrow blocks or _dentils_, crowned with a carved fillet, being -inserted beneath the corona, while, further, the cymatium was -embellished with a repeat of the _anthemion_ decoration. This style is -distinguished by the term Ornamented Ionic. - -The origin of the dentil may probably be traced to the Lycian Tombs, -where they are represented by the ends of the beams of the roof or -gable. The volute appears as a decorative feature on the façade of the -so-called =Tomb of Midas= in =Phrygia=. It also occurs as a decorative -feature in Assyrian art and is found in the capitals of the small -columns of a pavilion represented in the reliefs at Khorsabad. The -motive of the spiral is also found in Mycenæan jewelry. Professor -William H. Goodyear in his “Grammar of the Lotus,” suggests that the -volute may have originated in successive variations of the Egyptian -lotus patterns. - -The Doric and Ionic orders were sometimes combined in the same building, -as in the =Propylæa=. - -=Corinthian Order.=--The Corinthian order represents a still further -advance in ornateness, which however by the Hellenic architects was -confined to the capital of the column. For the base and shaft of the -columns and the entablature followed the Ionic order. The embellishment -of the capital may have been derived from the old custom of attaching -metal ornaments or actual foliage to altars and pedestals; and it may be -possible to trace the growth of the Corinthian style from the Ionic in -the repeat of palmettes that occurs below the volutes in the capitals of -the east portico of the =Erechtheion=. On the other hand, the general -bell-form of the capital may have been derived from Egyptian lotus -capitals. - -The Corinthian order was used by the Athenians only in their smaller -structures[2] and reached its most refined form in the =Choragic Monument= -of =Lysicrates= in =Athens=. Here the flutings of the shaft terminate at the -top in leaves that curve outward. Above them is a band that may have -been covered with a bronze collar, from which spring a row of small -lotus leaves. Then come eight beautiful acanthus leaves, between each of -which is an eight-petalled rosette, suggesting a lotus-flower. They are -surmounted at the corners by stalks of the acanthus, partly sheathed -with leaves, that turn over with a spiral and form scrolls to support -the abacus. The latter in the Corinthian order has concave sides. - -The details vary so much in Hellenic examples of Corinthian capitals -that, as we have already noted, the type had not yet been developed into -an independent order. Its final development was worked out by the -Romans, to whom its magnificence especially appealed. - -=Ornament.=--The _acanthus_ plant belongs to Southern Europe and the -warmer parts of Asia and Africa. The common species found throughout the -Mediterranean, has large, deeply cut, hairy leaves. As a decorative -motive the Greeks first reproduced it in metal and then carved it in -stone, using it with particularly fine effect on the upright form of -tombstone known as _stela_. While they conventionalised the leaves, they -preserved the character of vigorous and at the same time graceful -growth. They gave a sharpness to the tips of the leaves that -distinguishes their use of it from the Roman. - -The _anthemion_ ornament is often called the “honeysuckle pattern” from -its resemblance to that flower. But it is supposed to be a -conventionalisation of the flower of the acanthus, while related as a -decorative motive with the forms of the Egyptian lotus and the Persian -palmette. - -The _egg-and-dart_ border presents a repeat in which the form of an egg, -set in a concave oval, alternates with a vertical bar that may or may -not terminate below in a more or less pronounced arrow-tip. It permits -the most subtle treatment of the planes of the egg, and of the contrast -between the smooth surfaces and the sharpness of the other details. - -The _bead-and-spool_ repeat explains itself. It shows a variation, -according as the conventionalisation was derived from a spool that is -wound or that is unwound. - -The _heart-leaf_, also sometimes called the _lily-leaf_, is a remarkable -instance of the closeness with which the Greek artist studied nature and -of the imagination he displayed in simplifying the natural form into a -convention, while at the same time preserving the principles of its -construction. - -=Projections.=--Unlike Egyptian architecture, the Hellenic is -distinguished by the number and importance of its projections; which may -be compared to the lines, angles, and curves which constitute the -features of a human face and give it expression. They are the means by -which the architect engraves upon his buildings expressive designs of -light and shade. We have already spoken of the projections involved in -the column and entablature, but may now specifically enumerate the -various types of moulding that these involve; noting at the same time -the particular ornament that was employed on each, if it were decorated. -For such was the logic and refinement of the Hellenic taste that it -adopted motives of ornament that corresponded to the planes of the -surfaces of the moulding. - -Thus, when the moulding took the form of the _cyma recta_--a curve -outward growing into a curve inward--Hogarth’s “line of beauty”--the -decorative feature applied to it was the anthemion, whose curves have a -corresponding direction. On the other hand, for the reversed form of -moulding, known as the _cyma reversa_ where the inward precedes the -outward curve, they used the heart-leaf. Again, the moulding known as -_ovolo_, in which the contour of an egg is followed, is enriched with -the egg-and-dart. - -The _fillet_, a small band used to separate the other mouldings, was -usually left plain; as also were the simple hollow, called _cavetto_, -and the deep hollow which separated the two _tori_ in the base of -columns. When the torus was embellished, the motives used on the -semicircular surface were the interweave or plait, known as guilloche, -or rows of leaves, tied with bands, so that the moulding resembled a -wreath. Another small, separating moulding was the _bead_, which in -contour approaches a circle, and, when decorated, received the -bead-and-spool enrichment. - -The distinction of the Hellenic use of all these mouldings and -enrichments was the extreme delicacy of the cutting, which the hardness -of the marble permitted and the clear sunshine helped to reveal; so that -it has been said that “while the Hellenes built like Titans, they -finished like jewellers.” But this did not involve a finicking -precision, for it was but an instance of the feeling for proportion and -choice relation of parts to one another that embraced the whole -building. - -=Organic Relations.=--The height of the building was thoughtfully -proportioned to the length and width; the height of the shaft of the -column was considered in relation to the diameter. Similar care was -expended on the proportions of the several members of the capitals and -entablature, and the intercolumniation bore relation to the lower -diameter of the shafts. In every particular, great or little, the effort -was to create a unified impression of organic harmony and rhythmical -relations. - -Now the term organic is primarily used of the living bodies of animals -and plants, the parts of which are not only connected but perform -certain functions in relation to the well-being of the whole. And it is -an extension of this idea that the Hellenes applied to the geometrical -harmony on which their architecture was based. They considered the -functions of each part--the amount of support it gave or strain it had -to sustain and so forth; and having made provision for this as -constructors, they were consistent to the principle also in their -æsthetic consideration as artists. They modified the sculptural -decoration according to the function of the parts; giving least to those -whose function of support was most important and increasing the quantity -and the boldness of the curving as the structural strain diminished. - -Thus the shaft of the column was free of any carving except the fluting, -which, however, served the purpose of channels to carry the rain water -and helped to preserve the mass from decay. The capital in the Doric -style was not enriched with ornament, and similarly plain, with very few -exceptions, was the architrave. Meanwhile, sculptured figures in high -relief were introduced into the metopes which originally had been -openings, while the _tympanum_ or flat surface of the pediment received -groups of figures in the round. This increased boldness of relief, -accompanied by foreshortening of the figures, was adopted to offset the -diminishing effect that their greater distance from the spectator’s eye -would otherwise have suggested. Moreover, in the sculptures, as in the -carving of the mouldings, the varying quantities of light were -considered. The mouldings on the outside of a temple in full sunlight -were differently planned from those in the interior; and the shadow cast -by the cornices was taken into account in graduating the relief of the -sculptures in the metopes and pediments. - -Nor was the actual work done by artists, but under their supervision by -pupils and masons. From the records of payments made to the sculptors -who worked on the Erechtheion it appears that they were ordinary masons, -some of them not even citizens, who were paid for each figure the sum of -60 drachms, or 12 dollars! - -Finally, the decoration of a Greek Temple comprised not only sculpture, -but also painting. A large part of every Doric temple was covered with -strong, bright colours, while certain prominent details were treated -with elaborate patterns. The figures of the sculpture also were painted -and relieved against a background of contrasted colour. - -It has been discovered that the triglyphs were painted blue and the -metopes red and that the mouldings were decorated with ornament in red, -blue, green, and gold. The walls and the columns were probably stained -yellow or buff, perhaps by the use of wax melted on the surface -(_encaustic_). - -=Asymmetries or Refinements.=--It might seem that, in the various -particulars we have noted, Hellenic intellect and feeling had exhausted -the possibilities of refinement. But there is yet another instance, -which was first revealed by the detailed measurements of Hellenic -temples made independently by two Englishmen, Francis Cranmer Penrose -and John Pennethorne, and by a German architect, Joseph Hoffer. The -results were published in 1838 and in 1851, and have been corroborated -by other students. They are known as architectural “refinements” or -“asymmetries.” - -It had been assumed that, since the form of the temple type was -apparently symmetrical, it also involved absolute symmetry of details; -that geometrical regularity and mathematical accuracy were the necessary -and natural conditions of the architectural design. By those -investigators, however, it was discovered that though the principles of -geometry and mathematics were the foundation of the planning and -designing, regularity and accuracy were purposely avoided; and that so -far from the details being symmetrical they exhibit intentional -asymmetries. - -One of these irregularities is the substitution of curved for straight -lines. We have already mentioned the entasis or swell in the vertical -contour of the column--a fact not observed by modern architects until -1810; but curvature is also found in the horizontal lines of the -stylobate and the architrave, frieze, and cornice, and in the gable -lines of the pediments. And since these were discovered other variations -of equal importance and significance have been found. - -“In the =Parthenon=, for instance,” (the quotation is from the writings of -Professor William H. Goodyear) “surfaces or members which are set true -to perpendicular are most exceptional. Perhaps the end walls are the -only exception. All the columns lean inward about three inches in thirty -feet toward the centre of the building. The side walls lean inward. The -antæ, or flat pilasters at the angles of the ends of the walls, lean -forward one unit in eighty-two units. The faces of the architrave and -frieze lean backward, whereas the acroteria, the face of the cornice and -the face of the fillet between architrave and frieze lean forward. -Furthermore, the columns and capitals of the Parthenon are of unequal -size, and the widths of the metopes and the intercolumnar spacings are -also unequal.” - -The discovery of these variations was pooh-poohed by architects who had -been trained to believe that “correct” architecture depended upon -geometrical regularity and mathematical accuracy. They dismissed them -lightly as “mason’s errors.” But this will not hold for three reasons. -Firstly, these asymmetries only occur in the finest examples, where the -design and the details are of superior refinement and the skill of the -masons most unmistakable. Secondly, the number of variations increases -_pro rata_ with the superiority of the design, reaching their maximum in -the =Parthenon=. And, thirdly, in cases which are unquestionably due to -mason’s errors the amount of the variation is practically negligible. Is -it likely, for example, that the masons who brought the two ends of the -Parthenon within one quarter of an inch of being exactly equal in width, -would have been so careless as to let the presumably horizontal lines -curve up four inches on the sides of the buildings and two inches at its -ends? Or, again, would they have committed so flagrant an error as -giving the stylobate a convex curve upward, since it necessitated a -corresponding curve to the base of each column, a most difficult and -delicate operation of cutting? The perfect adjustment of these two -curves, by the way, is one of many arguments against the theory that -these variations were caused by settlements in the foundations or, in -the case of the Parthenon, by the explosion which wrecked it in 1687, -when it was being used by the Turks as a powder magazine. - -The fact having been established that these variations were intentional, -how are they to be explained? A generally accepted explanation of the -curvatures in place of straight lines has been that they were intended -to correct an optical effect of curvature in the opposite direction. -Thus, if the contour of a column shaft were a straight line, it would -appear to the eye to curve inward; similarly, the horizontal lines of -the stylobate and entablature would appear to sag downward. Accordingly, -the “refinements” were designed as optical corrections of optical -effects of irregularity; in other words, geometrical effect is supposed -to have been sought by departures from geometric fact. - -This, however, would not explain the other variations that have been -noted. Moreover, it is contradicted even in the case of curvatures by a -discovery of Professor Giovannoni of Rome, that the façade of the =Temple= -at =Uri= has a curvature in _plan_.[3] The columns, that is to say, are -not set to a straight line but to a curve which is concave to the -exterior; consequently the entablature is correspondingly curved, the -effect of which to the eye as it looks up is the very one that it was -explained the architects strove to avoid--a sag downward from the ends. -In this case they deliberately designed the façade to produce the -effect. - -This explanation of optical corrections, then, as well as others, have -been proved erroneous by Professor William H. Goodyear, who has made a -life-long study of the subject and carried his investigations also into -Gothic architecture, in which, as we shall see, he has discovered -numerous instances of refinements and asymmetries. His explanation, -supported by a wealth of conclusive evidence which is set forth in his -“Greek Refinements,” is that the motive was æsthetic. The refinements -were modulations designed to please the eye by avoiding the inartistic -effects produced by formal monotony. They were planned to do away with -the monotony and rigidity that result from geometrical regularity and -mathematical accuracy and to introduce a suggestion of elasticity. They -imparted to the structure something of the irregularity that -characterises organic growth. It is because, with rare exceptions, they -are not found in modern classical buildings, that the latter appear by -comparison so stiff and formal. - -These asymmetries, in fact, were intended to offset the liability of the -beauty’s becoming “faultily faultless, icily regular, splendidly null, -dead perfection, no more.” - - * * * * * - -With few exceptions the Hellenic temple was oriented; its four sides -facing exactly the four points of the compass, the principal entrance -being on the east. It opened into the cella which was usually divided -into what may be called a nave and side aisles by two rows of columns -which carried smaller columns that supported the pitch of the roof. -Where the cella was narrow, as in the =Temple of Apollo Epicurios= (“The -Helper”) at =Bassæ=, near Phigaleia, the rows of columns were replaced by -half-columns, attached to projections from side walls. The cella was -occupied by the statue of the deity, which in the case of the =Parthenon= -was the Athene Parthenos, the Maiden Athene, one of the most renowned -works of Phidias. The draped figure of the goddess was represented -standing, armed with helmet, spear and shield, supporting in one hand a -Wingèd Victory. The statue was about forty feet high and of the kind -known as “chryselephantine,” the draperies and accessories being of gold -plates, the flesh parts ivory, with precious stones inserted in the -eyes. - -Behind this statue was the entrance to a small room, situated between -the cella and the opisthodomos, an exceptional feature from which the -name of the temple was derived. It was the Parthenon proper, or -Virgin’s Chamber, which seems to have been used as a treasury. Its -ceiling was supported by four Ionic columns. - -The Ionic order in conjunction with the Doric was also employed in the -=Propylæa= or monumental gateway of the =Acropolis=. This masterpiece of -Mnesicles presents an irregularity of plan, exhibiting the Hellenic -architect’s readiness to adapt his design to the peculiarities of the -site. While Doric columns mark the exterior, Ionic were used in the -interior to dignify the central passageway. A similar use of this order -for interior embellishment was adopted by Ictinus, the chief architect -of the Parthenon, in his otherwise Doric design of the =Temple= of =Apollo -Epicurios=. - -On the other hand, the Ionic order was employed on the exterior of the -=Erechtheion=, another work of Mnesicles also irregular in plan. It -occupies a sloping site on the Acropolis, where an older temple, burnt -by the Persians, had stood. Spoils of the Persian conquest were -preserved in it with other relics, held in special veneration. The -nucleus of the design is a cella without colonnades (apteral), the -sanctuary of Athena Polias (the City’s Guardian) and of Erechtheus (a -mythic hero of the Athenians) and the Ocean-god, Poseidon. The exterior -is distinguished by two Ionic porticoes, and by a third, a smaller one, -in which the columns are replaced by caryatides, six draped female -figures whose heads support the architrave. All these figures face -south, the three to the west resting their weight on the right legs; the -three eastern on the left--in each case the outer legs--thus giving to -the outer contour of their bodies the effect of entasis. - -Another Ionic example on the Acropolis is the =Temple of Athene Nike= -(Victory), known as the Temple of =Nike= =Apteros=; the term “Wingless,” -however, not describing the statue of the goddess but, as used above, -the style of the design--without colonnades. - - -=Theatres.=--Only second in importance to the Hellenic temples were the -theatres. Both served as memorials of the ancient traditions of the race -and as an incentive to higher citizenship. For the drama, which had its -origin in religious observances, was a civic institution, maintained by -the state and free to all citizens. - -The origin of the Greek drama is to be found in the primitive worship of -Dionysos, the god of productiveness, and to the last the Greek stage and -auditorium perpetuated in their form some trace of their religious -origin. The nucleus was an altar consecrated to Dionysos. In earliest -times each family may have erected its own altar, presided over by the -father of the family as priest. Later each community would have its -official priest, and on the god’s feast-day all the villagers would move -in procession to the common altar, headed by the priest and a choir of -singers, trained by him. The altar reached, the priest would mount the -pedestal, surrounded by the choir, while the body of worshippers -disposed themselves around the spot. The priest would recite the -greatness of the god and at intervals the choir of voices would chant -the dithyrambic song, moving around the altar and accompanying the song -with rhythmic movement of body and limbs. - -From this root of a religious drama in time grew successive stems. The -prowess of some hero would be adopted as a theme. At first the priest, -or it may be some wandering poet, would narrate the story; later he -would treat it in the first person, impersonating the hero, sometimes -engaging in dialogue with the chorus. Still later, other personages in -the story would be separately impersonated, and so the scope of the -dramatic representation developed. - -Meanwhile the affair still maintained a semi-religious character; the -place of presentation was still around the altar of Dionysos and the -chorus was retained, taking its part in the action with explanation and -comment, still delivered, however, in dithyrambic measure and with -accompaniments of rhythmic gesture. The platform of the altar being -limited in space, the dialogue was usually confined to two actors at a -time, though a third was sometimes allowed. If there were other -characters involved, these actors would often “double” the parts; -disguising themselves by change of costume, especially by the use of -masks. This demanded some kind of a screen behind which the actors could -change their costumes and also wait until their presence was required. -Skins hung upon poles would at first serve the purpose, or a _skene_ or -tent, from which we derive our word scene, might be used. Whichever it -were, it would interfere with the view of the action from the back and -so draw the audience to the “front.” - - * * * * * - -The most important remains of Hellenic theatres are the =Theatre of -Dionysos=,[4] cut out of the side of the Acropolis, and the theatre at -=Epidauros=, in Argolis, Greece. The plan of the theatre of Dionysos is -that of a semi-circle, the ends of which are prolonged for a short -distance in a direction at right angles to the front of the skene. -Within the horseshoe was the circular orchestra, still whole at -=Epidauros=, in which the main action was carried on by actors and chorus. -A different plan is given by the Roman architect, Vitruvius. It is to be -noted, however, that Vitruvius lived in the reign of Augustus, by which -time what was pure Hellenic had become modified by foreign influences -into Hellenistic. He relates, for example, that in his time the height -of the _logeion_ or speaking platform--the stage of to-day--was from 10 -to 12 feet. In earlier times, including probably the period of the -Classic drama, the logeion was the platform around the altar, -supplemented possibly by a platform two or three feet high extending -across the front of the _skene_, from which, at certain points in the -play, some, at least, of the actors spoke. This platform, being in front -of the scene and enclosed at the sides by projections of the latter, was -called the _proskenion_, from which is derived our word proscenium with -its different meaning. - -By the time that the Hellenic theatre had evolved into a permanent -structure, the _skene_, originally a temporary screen, took the form of -an architectural background, some ten feet high, with a central door for -the entrances of the actors. But the idea of the original screen was -perhaps retained in the row of columns which stood a little in front of -the _skene_, and could be used, if needed, for the hanging of curtains -or even of painted cloths. Meanwhile, the roof of the portico, which -extended from the columns to the _skene_, could be utilised by the -actors at certain stages of the drama.[5] - -The interest of the discussion raised by Vitruvius’ description -consists in the question how far the actors mingled with or were -separated from the chorus, which continued to occupy the _orchestra_ or -circle on the floor of the auditorium, corresponding to the place of the -orchestra stalls in a modern theatre. The orchestra of a Greek theatre -was originally the sole “stage,” but gradually, as the dramas involved -more complexity of scenes, the actors would vary their position between -the orchestra and the proscenium; and later, in Hellenistic times, as -the religious origin of the drama was forgotten and the use of a chorus -began to fall into abeyance, the use of the proscenium would increase. - -Finally, when the Romans began to imitate the Greek drama, they dropped -the chorus; the acting was confined to the proscenium, and the orchestra -no longer needed for the play, became a part of the auditorium, reserved -for distinguished spectators. The Roman theatre, in fact, like our own, -represented the complete separation of the audience and the stage. - -=Odeion.=--Supplementing the theatre was the Odeion or concert hall, which -was constructed on the same general lines but distinguished by the -addition of a roof for acoustic purposes. The oldest known is the =Skias= -at Sparta, so called from its roof resembling the top of a parasol. The -=Odeion of Pericles=, which served as a model for subsequent halls, was -built on the southeastern slope of the Acropolis, its roof being made in -imitation of the tent of Xerxes and constructed of the masts of Persian -vessels, captured at the battle of Salamis. The most magnificent -example, however, was erected <small>A.D.</small> 162 on the southwest slope, by a -wealthy citizen, =Herodes Atticus=, in memory of his wife. Its ceiling is -said to have been composed of beams of cedar, carved with ornament, -while decorations in the form of paintings and other works of art -embellished the interior, which had accommodation for eight thousand -persons. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -ROMAN CIVILISATION - - -Such empire as Hellas achieved was succeeded by the Roman Empire. The -earlier, as we have seen, was an empire loosely founded on kinship of -race, ideals, and character, and on common interests of commerce. It was -an empire of individualism; preserving the individuality of cities and -their individual states, producing a few men of rare individuality and, -as it spread throughout the Mediterranean, planting colonies which -maintained their independence both against the Motherland of Hellas and -the people in their immediate surroundings. It was, from the first, an -empire of the spirit and, as such, survived its physical dissolution and -has maintained its dominion over the human mind even to the present -time. - -On the contrary, the Roman Empire, in so far as it succeeded, was an -empire of constructive organisation. It grew, cell by cell, each added -cell becoming gradually impregnated with the life-principle of the -earliest one, so that every part of the unwieldy body was an organic -part of the whole. Thus, in time, each independent city and its -adjoining community, alien races and huge slices of foreign territory, -became gradually absorbed into the practical system of government that -originated with the little settlement of Latins which first occupied the -Palatine Hill and then extended its authority over the seven hills of -Rome. Part after part became absorbed into the system of the Lex Romana -and enjoyed the benefits of the Pax Romana. The Roman citizenship, -judiciously extended over the whole empire, carried with it substantial -rights and equally substantial duties. The provinces of the empire -contributed men of learning, generals, and statesmen to the central -government. In time some of the provinces, notably those of Spain and -Southern France, became more characteristically Roman than Rome herself. -They had absorbed her system and her culture, and, far removed from the -petty intrigues which convulsed the capital, reached a degree of -civilisation that represented the finest product of the Roman ideal; an -ideal that included individual uprightness, a sense of service and -self-sacrifice for the common weal, and a high regard for order. It was -a practical ideal, little concerned with abstractions, not devoted to -excessive refinement, but centred on the effectual accomplishment of the -individual and collective requirements of everyday life. - -It is true that this ideal was never fully achieved. This is only to say -that the ideal was truly human and therefore at the mercy of human -chances and weaknesses. Moreover, that it was really an ideal; a -principle of life, that is to say, which by reason of its bigness was -only possible of partial achievement. And if the Romans failed in -achieving theirs, they failed nobly, and with sufficient success to have -left behind them a legacy of law and order and constructive principles -of government that, like the cultural ideals of the Hellenes, survive to -the present time. - -And the Roman Empire played a part in the progress of the world, more -immediately necessary than that of Hellas. The latter’s Empire of Spirit -was in advance of its age. The world outside of the scattered outposts -of Hellas was too rude, too backward in the very necessaries of life, to -accept its message of beauty. Recognising this, the Hellenes called all -other races and nations barbarians and held aloof from them. The Romans, -on the contrary, absorbed the aliens, instilled into them the rudiments -of their own civilisation, while taking advantage of any good trait in -the people themselves, so that they helped them to rise out of -themselves to a higher plane of living. In a lawless world they became -the great exponents of order, the upbuilders and engineers of a system -of organised society, and so firmly did they lay the foundations and so -strongly did they build that, although subsequent hordes of barbarians -overthrew the dominion of the empire of Rome and laid waste many of the -visible signs of her building, the destroyers were gradually absorbed -into her system and became its continuers. - -Therefore, when we consider the Romans specifically in relation to -architecture, we look back to them as tireless and prodigious builders, -constructors, and engineers, whose sense of beauty in architecture, as -well as their aspirations in all branches of higher culture, were -derived from the Hellenes. Their respect for the latter was such that so -long as possible they tried to treat them as an independent power, with -whom they could pursue the mutual advantages of commerce. Gradually, -however, the tangle of politics made absorption necessary, and after a -series of invasions Hellas herself became a province of the Roman -Empire. - -War, in those days, as for centuries after, involved the barbarous -practice of looting, and the Romans, with their shrewd instinct for -acquiring what they most needed for their own development, bore back -home in increasing quantity the treasures of architectural and -sculptural art. Later, as the power of Hellas dwindled, Rome became the -centre to which Hellenic artists and scholars flocked. - -The conquest of Hellas and gradual absorption of a part of her culture -occupied the second century before the Christian era and the earlier -years of the first. By this time, however, Rome herself had become a -prey to the rivalries of political factions, beginning with the -conspiracy of Sulla and ending with the civil war that followed upon the -assassination of Julius Cæsar. The latter’s great-nephew, Octavianus, in -conjunction with Marc Antony, conquered Brutus and Cassius at Philippi -in Macedonia and Octavianus assumed authority over the West, while -Antony established himself as ruler in the East. But his infatuation for -Cleopatra raised the suspicion in Rome that he intended to marry her and -make himself despot of an Oriental empire with Alexandria as its -capital. War was declared against him as a national enemy and he was -defeated at Actium, <small>B.C.</small> 31. The authority of Octavianus was now -supreme. Republicanism, as a practical form of government, was dead. -Conditions demanded one-man rule and Octavianus, in <small>B.C.</small> 27, resigned -his office as Triumvir and received from the Senate the title of -Augustus, which hitherto had been reserved for the gods. - -During this period of struggle the Hellenic influence had been rapidly -growing. The sons of the ruling class had Greek tutors; many studied in -the schools of Athens and Rhodes, and Roman writers began to emulate the -Greek authors. Cæsar published his Commentaries on the Gallic War and on -the Civil War; Sallust wrote on the Conspiracy of Catiline and the -Jugurthine War and Cornelius Nepos compiled biographies of eminent men. -Cicero published under the name of “Philippics” the speeches which he -made against Antony in the Senate, as well as “Letters” to various -friends on the topics of the times, while Lucretius composed in verse a -treatise on the “Nature of the World” and Varro was the author of an -encyclopædic work relating to the history, geography, agriculture, law, -literature, philology, philosophy, and religion of the Romans. To Varro -also had been assigned by Julius Cæsar the collection of a public -Library of Greek and Roman writers. - -The enthusiasm for literature was encouraged by Augustus and his -minister, Mycæenas, who saw in it a means of allaying the bitterness of -party strife. To this, the “Augustan” or “Golden Age,” as the writers -called it in flattery of their patron, belong Horace, Livy, and Virgil. - -In an effort also to lead the people back to the honourable simplicity -of their forefathers, Augustus revived the ancient religious ceremonies -and restored the temples. He became chief pontiff and, being regarded as -the son of the deified Julius--in reality, his great-nephew--was treated -almost as a divinity in Rome and deified by the provincials who built -temples in his honour. - -It was in the Augustan Age that Roman architecture virtually commenced -and its developments are associated with Imperial rule. Of the period -immediately preceding the new era Mommsen writes as follows: “There was -in the world as Cæsar found it much of the noble heritage of past -centuries and an infinite abundance of pomp and glory, but little -spirit, still less taste and least of all true delight in life. It was -indeed, an old world; and even the richly gifted patriotism of Cæsar -could not make it young again.” - -Rome, the heart of the Empire, was corrupt. The ruling class coveted -pensions from the public exchequer to be spent on luxurious living; -while the mass of the populace clamoured for “panem et -circenses”--feeding and shows at the public charge. To satisfy their -hunger both classes would have taxed the provinces. But among the chief -duties of the emperors were the development of the resources of the -provinces and the protection of the frontiers; and, while the best of -the emperors performed these functions from high motives, even the worst -found it politic to court the growing power of the provinces. Thus, the -main vitality of the empire was in its extremities, and, although the -emperors beautified Rome, they also encouraged public works of utility -and beauty in the provinces. To this end a law was passed, permitting -municipalities to receive bequests and gifts from private individuals. -In the liberality with which wealthy provincials enriched their -communities, Dr. Ferrero, the latest historian of Rome, has seen a -parallel to the munificent public gifts of American millionaires. - -Accordingly, this great era of Roman building left its impress not only -upon Italy, but in Greece and northward as far as the Danube, in Asia -Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, along the whole Northern coast of -Africa, and in Spain, France, and Great Britain as far as the Firth of -Forth. It was distinguished not only by the magnitude of the operations -but also by their character. - -Whereas in Egypt the architectural works had consisted of temples and -tombs; and in Hellas these had been supplemented by theatres and odeia; -while Assyria and Persia left their memorials in palaces, those of the -Roman Empire embraced all of these types and many more. The Romans -applied architecture to the practical needs of everyday life, and -reinforced it with engineering. They overlaid the Empire with fine -trunk-roads, many of which survive to-day; constructed sewers; spanned -rivers with bridges; conveyed water in countless miles of aqueducts; -erected fora and market-places, triumphal arches, temples, palaces, -villas, baths, basilicas, theatres, and hippodromes; providing alike for -the necessities of life, the needs of government, and the amusements and -luxuries of living. - -To accomplish so prodigious an amount of building the Romans -systematised the methods of construction in regard to both the labour -and the material. The labour was mainly of an unskilled kind, including -soldiers of the legions, slaves, and subjects liable through debt or -other causes to statute labour. This employment of unskilled labour was -made possible by the Roman habit of carrying the principle of repetition -of motives to its utmost limit, and also by the methods of construction -which they invented. - -This was the extended use of concrete. During the Republic the Romans -had followed the Greek method of building with large blocks of stone, -unconnected with mortar. Their practical spirit, however, urged them to -make a more economical use of materials and instead of composing the -walls entirely of blocks of stone or marble, they used these or bricks -as a facing, filling in the thickness of the wall with small fragments -of stone mixed with lime or mortar. - -They had been led to this practice by the existence of _pozzolana_, a -volcanic product of clean, sandy earth, found in Rome and in greater -quantities at Pozzuoli on the Bay of Naples, which, when mixed with -lime, formed a concrete of exceptional hardness, strength, and -durability. Material, approximating the properties of pozzolana and -lime, was procurable in all parts of the Empire. Accordingly the use of -this method of construction gave a similarity to Roman building -everywhere. - -While the chief, and almost sole building material in Greece was marble, -the geological formation of Italy supplied stone as well as marble and -plentiful supplies of clay, which was converted into terra-cotta or -bricks. The bricks were of two shapes: either square, from 1 to 2 feet -in size and 2 inches thick or triangular in plan and of about 1½ inches -in thickness. The latter were especially used for the facing of the -walls, their pointed ends being driven into the concrete to form the -smooth surfaces, while at the corners the points projected. In Rome -itself the following materials were available: _travertine_, a hard -limestone from Tivoli; _tufa_, a volcanic substance of which the hills -of Rome are mainly composed; and _peperino_, a stone of volcanic origin -from Mount Albano. - - * * * * * - -While Roman architecture was developed under the stimulus of Greek art -and culture it probably owes its origin to the example of the Etruscans. - -The origin of this race is uncertain, but its own traditions ascribe it -to Lydia in Asia Minor, whence it may have passed during that general -migration from Hellas into Italy about <small>B.C.</small> 1000. It was for long the -dominant power in Italy, extending at various times over a territory -that reached from the Tiber to the Apennines, and southward into -Campania. This gave the Etruscans command of the Tyrrhenian Sea and made -them commercial rivals of the Carthagenians. Their enmity toward the -rising city of Rome would be natural and some authorities believe that -the reign of the Tarquin kings was a period of Etruscan domination. Then -the Romans expelled the tyrants, established a republic of their own, -and by degrees wore down the power of the Etruscans, who had become -enervated through increase of luxury. Their civilisation long antedated -that of the Romans. The earliest remains of art, found in Etruria, are -now believed to have been imported from Hellas; but the tombs have -revealed a quantity of later art objects which prove this people to have -been skilful in the modelling and colouring of terra-cotta, in mural -paintings, jewellery, and household adornments. - -“The houses of the earliest period, to judge by the burial urns, known -from their shape as ‘hut-urns,’ were small single room constructions of -rectangular plan, similar to certain types of the _capanne_ used by the -shepherds to-day. Probably the walls were wattled and the roofs were -certainly thatched, for the urns show plainly the long beams fastened -together at the top and hanging from the ridge down each side.” -(Encyclopædia Britannica, “Etruria.”) Tombs erected even later than the -fifth century <small>B.C.</small> were cut in imitation of a most simple form of post -and beam construction. The elements of the decoration, such as capitals, -mouldings, rosettes, patterns, etc., were borrowed from Greece, Egypt, -and elsewhere. - -The architectural remains comprise tombs, city walls, gateways, bridges, -and aqueducts, the walls of which are remarkable for their cyclopean -masonry, while the general character of the construction resembles the -early work of Tiryns and Mycenæ. - -No example remains of Etruscan temples, but Vitruvius has described -them. The plan was nearly square and the cella was divided into three -chambers, since it was in groups of three that the Etruscans worshipped -their deities. The columns represented in rude form the Doric order, set -so far apart that it is concluded they were surmounted by beams of -timber. A further distinction of the Etruscan temple, adopted by the -Romans, was the replacing of the stylobate by a _podium_. This was a -continuous pedestal or low wall on which the columns were carried. It -was approached in front by a flight of steps, enclosed between the -prolongation of the side-walls of the podium. The most famous example -was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, dedicated <small>B.C.</small> 509, -which contained three chambers, for the statues of Jupiter, Minerva, and -Juno. It was destroyed by fire <small>B.C.</small> 83, and rebuilt by Sulla, who -brought over for the purpose some of the Corinthian columns from the -temple of Zeus Olympius in Athens. (See p. 122.) - -Until recently the great sewer, or “Cloaca Maxima,” of Rome, constructed -about <small>B.C.</small> 578, has been attributed to the Etruscans and considered a -proof that they introduced the use of the arch to the Romans. But in -1903, when excavating the Forum, Commendatore Boni proved that the drain -was originally uncovered and that the arch, which consists of three -rings of voussoirs, each 2 feet 6 inches high, was added at the end of -the Republic. “Thus the honour, not of discovering the arch, for it was -known in the East, as we noted, but of popularising its use, does not -belong to the Etrurians, though they did use it at a comparatively late -time for city gates, as at Volterra.” (Encyclopædia Britannica, -“Etruria.”) - - * * * * * - -Following Augustus, the emperors under whom Roman architecture chiefly -flourished were: Nero (<small>A.D.</small> 54-69), Vespasian (69-79), Trajan (98-117), -Hadrian (137-138), Septimus Severus (193-211), Caracalla (211-217), and -Diocletian (284-305). By Constantine (306-337) were inaugurated two -changes of policy, which affected the destinies of the world. For by -granting toleration to all religions he raised Christianity to equal -footing with paganism and thus paved the way for the power of the -Church; and in establishing his capital at Byzantium took the first step -in the partition of the Empire into East and West. Aided by his vigorous -efforts, architecture, which had declined, enjoyed a measure of revival, -in which, as we shall see later, the Church began to play a conspicuous -part. - -With the commencement of the fifth century, <small>A.D.</small>, began the irruption of -Barbarians. Attila’s Huns swept like a scourge over Europe, while the -German tribes conquered the provinces in turn and occupied them. In 455 -Rome was sacked by the Vandals. In 476 Odoacer was proclaimed by his -troops King of Italy, and thus the Western part of the Empire was -finally separated from the Eastern. This is the date selected to mark -the “Fall” of the Roman Empire. Meanwhile the steady decline of the -power of the emperors had been long in process and was accompanied by a -corresponding increase in the power of the Popes. Henceforth, during the -“Dark Ages” of civil confusion, the influence and authority of the -Church were the chief sources of social as well as religious -organisation. - - * * * * * - -The Roman ideal of civilisation received its most characteristic -architectural expression in the several fora, beginning with the -oldest--the Forum Romanum. From ancient times it was the heart of the -city; the centre of civil activity; the scene of some of the most -stirring incidents in the growth of Rome; in later times the nucleus of -the pomp and pride of the Empire. Here at some time was erected a -cylindrical monument in three tiers, the Umbilicus or Navel of Rome, and -hard by it stood the Milliarium, a marble column, sheathed in bronze -and inscribed with the names and distances of the chief cities on the -great trunk-roads that radiated throughout the Empire from the -thirty-seven gates of Rome. - -Between these two monuments extended a platform, decorated with the -bronze beaks of conquered vessels and hence called the Rostra, from -which any citizen could speak who had aught to say concerning the -commonweal. For it faced the Comitium or open space, which from earliest -times had been the meeting place of the General Assembly of the people. -It is true that the voice of the people was too often dominated by the -Patrician class whose Curia or Senate House overlooked the Comitium; but -the Comitium continued to represent, at least, the theory of Roman -Government and to be the veritable nucleus of the Roman Forum. - -Since the Forum embodied the ideals and the progress of Rome, its -architectural aspects were continually changing throughout the more than -one thousand years of Rome’s vicissitudes. But without attempting to -follow these changes--many of which are shrouded in obscurity--let us -try to picture the Forum in its general aspects and particularly as the -embodiment of the Roman ideal. - -The ancient citadel was the Capitoline Hill on which in early times had -been erected the temple already mentioned to the three divinities of -Male and Female Power and of Wisdom--Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. It -corresponded to the Acropolis of Athens and her Parthenon. But whereas -the Parthenon was the nucleus of the Hellenic ideal, as embodied in -architectural glory--the embodiment of an ideal, detached and lifted up -above the common life--the formal grandeur of Rome descended from the -Capitoline Hill and occupied the low ground that separated it from the -Palatine, so that it might identify itself with the practical, everyday -ideals of the city. - -And, first, for the purely practical. The southern side of the Forum was -in early times bordered with the tabernæ or wooden booths of the -butchers and other produce merchants, while on the north were the shops -of the gold-and silversmiths, and money changers. The Forum, in fact, -was the central market of Rome and came to be its financial centre, and, -as a necessary result, the centre also of legal and judicial procedure. -In later times, as the volume and intricacies of business increased, the -tabernæ were replaced by basilicas, which included halls of justice and -of exchange for merchants. Meanwhile, let us try to picture the Forum as -the embodiment of Roman ideals. - -It was bounded on both sides by the Via Sacra, or Sacred Way; the two -forks uniting near the foot of the Palatine Hill, around which the -Sacred Way continued to its junction with the Appian Way. Its stones -were sacred because they had been trod by the countless hosts of Rome’s -victorious armies, returning in triumphal procession to pay their homage -to the deities of Male and Female Power and of Wisdom upon the Capitol. - -As the soldiers swept out of the Appian Way, they would skirt the spot, -where in later times arose the Colosseum, and the roadway was spanned by -the Arch of Constantine, and a little farther on by the Arch of Titus. -From this the road advanced in an easterly direction and then turned -north. - -Then from earliest times two objects would greet the victors’ eyes. Upon -the right stood the arch of two-headed Janus, god of gates and doors. It -was all but a certainty that its two doors would be standing open; for, -although this army was returning victorious, there were others almost -continuously engaged on the frontiers of the empire. So the soldiers, -glutted with fighting and hungry for the sight of their loved ones, -would turn more eagerly to the left, where rose the circular temple of -Vesta, guardian of the home and hearth. It was the symbol of the ideal -of sane and simple home life, on which the greatness of Rome was -founded, and as the Vestal Virgins thronged the steps of their convent -or atrium, hard by the temple, the eagles would be lowered and every -bronzed warrior would salute the maiden priestesses, who, in their -absence, had kept perpetually alive the sacred fire. - -Just beyond this spot in later times Cæsar Augustus erected a Triumphal -Arch. Meanwhile, from Rome’s early days the victorious hosts would next -defile past the Temple of Castor and Pollux, memorial of the victory -gained at Lake Regillus with the help of these twin gods. Close by it -came to be erected the Temple of Cæsar, in front of which the great -Julius caused a rostrum to be placed, from the steps of which the -oration over his dead body was spoken by Marc Antony. - -At this spot the veterans would enter the Forum proper, welcomed by the -cheers of the merchants; in old times, from the fronts of their booths -and later from the porticoes of the Basilica Æmilia on the right and the -Basilica Julia on the left. Then, both early and late in Rome’s history, -would be reached the ancient Temple of Saturn, god of seed growing and -the bounties of the soil, a god of meaning to the soldiers, for many a -veteran had been left behind in distant lands, planted upon farms that -were to consolidate the power and prosperity of the Empire. Moreover, -in some of the chambers of the Temple, which formed the official -Treasury of Rome, a part of their spoils of war would be deposited. - -The procession by this time is filing past the Comitium, filled with -enthusiastic crowds, while orators welcome it from the rostra and the -Senators are ranged in ranks upon the steps of the Curia. The roar of -welcome is still in the ears of the host as it begins the ascent of the -Capitol, passing under the Arch of Septimus Severus, if the date be -after <small>A.D.</small> 203. Midway of the ascent, it passes the Temple of Concord, -memorial of the termination of the internecine struggle between the -Patricians and the Plebs; skirts the Tabularium, wherein the archives of -the Empire were preserved, and finally reaches the summit of the -Capitol. - -Let us take one glance back before the picture fades. The scene is -superb but not without confusion. The Romans paid no attention to -orientation; consequently there is little uniformity in the placing of -the several structures. They vary not only in size and design, but also -in the direction which they face. In the contracted space the various -edifices seem crowded. Indeed, the conjectured restoration of the Roman -Forum and vicinity suggests rather a medley of magnificence. - -But even in this respect the character of this heart of Rome, lying -between the Capitoline and Palatine hills, symbolised the magnificent -variety of elements that composed the Empire. One may find some parallel -to Rome’s confusion of appearances in the variety and, for the most -part, lack of an organic lay-out in the modern London, the present -mother-city of an Empire, founded, like the Roman, upon commerce, and -like it in having grown, cell by cell, transcending it, however, not -only in size but in grandeur. For the policy of the British Empire has -gradually evolved beyond the Roman, substituting for the process of -absorption the principle of free, self-governing dominions. - -[Illustration: - -Courtesy A. S. Barnes & Co. from “A History of Art,” by William H. Goodyear - -CONJECTURED RESTORATION OF THE FORUM ROMANUM - -LOOKING N. E. TO THE CAPITOL. ON LEFT, TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX AND -THE BASILICA JULIA. RIGHT, THE CURIA. AT THE END, TEMPLE OF VESPASIAN] - -[Illustration: MAISON CARRÉE: NÎMES - -ENGAGED COLUMNS ON CELLA WALL (PSEUDO-PERIPTERAL) COLUMNS SURMOUNT THE -PODIUM. P. 169] - -[Illustration: ARCH OF CONSTANTINE - -ENTABLATURE, BROKEN ROUND COLUMNS. NOTE DECORATIVE USE OF LETTERING. P. -178] - -[Illustration: PANTHEON, ROME - -P. 171] - -[Illustration: SECTION OF PANTHEON] - -[Illustration: COLOSSEUM, ROME - -P. 174] - -[Illustration: SECTION OF COLOSSEUM - -SHOWING THE SYSTEM OF VAULTING AND PIERS] - -[Illustration: BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE - -SHOWING THE BARREL-VAULTED CEILINGS. P. 178] - -[Illustration: ROMAN VAULTING - -FROM BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN. NOTE ABSENCE OF TRANSVERSE RIB AND DOMING. P. -166] - -[Illustration: GOTHIC VAULTING - -FROM SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. NOTE CURVE IN RIDGE BETWEEN GROINS. P. 272] - -[Illustration: THEATRE OF ORANGE, FRANCE - -CONJECTURED RESTORATION. NOTE RAISED STAGE, ARCHITECTURAL SCENE AND -CEILING ROOF, ORCHESTRA RESERVED FOR MAGISTRATES AND NOTABLES] - -[Illustration: PLAN OF THEATRE OF ORANGE - -CONJECTURED RESTORATION. P. 176] - -[Illustration: PORTA AUREA - -GOLDEN GATE, PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, SPALATO, DALMATIA. P. 180] - -[Illustration: PONT-DU-GARD; AQUEDUCT NEAR NÎMES - -P. 183] - -[Illustration: PERISTYLE AND COURT OF THE HOUSE OF THE VETTII - -WITH GARDEN AND SCULPTURED OBJECTS RESTORED TO THEIR ORIGINAL -ARRANGEMENT. P. 181] - -[Illustration: WALL PAINTINGS IN THE HOUSE OF THE VETTII] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -ROMAN ARCHITECTURE - - -The Romans enlarged the scope of architecture in the direction of the -art of the engineer. While Hellenic architecture had been an expression -of the faculties of reasoning and of taste, co-operating in a singular -harmony, Roman architecture was the product of reasoning stimulated by a -practical sense and an extraordinary energy and audacity. In place of -excessive refinement and sense of proportion, it is distinguished by -variety, vastness of scale and exuberance of decorative detail. While -every part of a Greek temple was constructional, having its distinct -function in contributing to the stability as well as adornment of the -whole structure, the Romans, as we have noted, had a uniform system of -building in which they applied the structural details of the Greeks, -very largely in the way of added embellishment. - -Their aptitude for borrowing and adapting is apparent in their orders of -columns and entablatures. - -=Roman Orders.=--In the first place, they borrowed from the Etruscans the -so-called Tuscan order. This had a rudimentary Doric form; the column -being seven diameters in height; the shaft unfluted and tapering toward -the capital, while the entablature was simpler, having no triglyphs, -mutules, or guttæ. - -In borrowing from the Hellenes, the Romans made little use of the Doric -order. When it is used, as in the form of engaged columns in the =Theatre -of Marcellus=, the height of the columns was increased in proportion to -their diameters; the shafts were either smooth or channelled with -semicircular, instead of the subtler, elliptic flutings, separated by -narrow fillets; a base was added and modifications were made in the -details of the capital. The architrave did not overhang the face of the -column and was reduced in height; the triglyphs were used in the frieze -only over the centre of the columns, even at the angles, while the -cornice was lighter, with dentils sometimes taking the place of mutules. -The Doric, in fact, did not appeal to the Roman taste for rich -decoration, and, in so far as it was used, was degraded in style. - -The same is true of the Roman adaptation of the Ionic order. Simpler and -more commonplace curves replace the extreme refinement of the volutes -and the fillet of the latter was carried invariably across the top of -the echinus or cushion, while the ornamentation of the entablature was -more profuse. The best use of this order is found in the upper story of -the =Theatre of Marcellus=; the worst, on the eight remaining columns of -the =Temple of Saturn= in the Forum Romanum. - -The Corinthian order, of which no type sufficiently definite to -constitute an order had been evolved by the Greeks, was fully worked out -by the Romans, with the assistance of Greek artists, and became the -favourite expression of their taste for richness. The shaft was either -smooth, as in the early example of the Pantheon (<small>B.C.</small> 27), or fluted as -in the great temple of Castor and Pollux; the heights in these two cases -being respectively 9¾ and 10 diameters. A special base was designed, -consisting of tori, scotia, and fillets, resting on a square plinth. - -The inverted bell of the capital was surrounded by an upper and lower -row of acanthus leaves, which differ from the Hellenic forms in being -blunter at the tips. Above the rows of leaves projected the stalks, or -“caulicolæ,” which terminated in spirals, both in the centre of each -face and at the angles of the abacus. The four sides of the latter are -concave and decorated in the centre with a rosette. In the more -sumptuous examples further enrichment of ornament was added to the -capital, while the capitals of the =Temple= of =Castor and Pollux= present a -unique instance of the central spirals being interlaced. - -The Corinthian architrave in Hellenic usage consisted, it will be -remembered, of three bands, as in the Ionic order. The Romans frequently -embellished the middle one with a version of the anthemion motive. They -also added enrichments to the bed mould beneath the frieze. The latter -was frequently carved with acanthus scrolls, grotesque figures, and -ox-skulls, and garlands. The cornice was also enriched with carved -ornament, of which the most characteristic were _modillions_ or -brackets, which appear to support the cornice. - -The Composite order was an invention of the Romans and possibly -suggested by the capitals of the =Erechtheion= in =Athens=, where the Ionic -spirals appear above a necking carved with anthemion ornament. The -capital of the Composite order consisted in the upper part of Ionic -spirals, often richly decorated with foliage, and in the lower of two -rows of acanthus leaves, as in the Corinthian order, which was followed -also in the other details of the column and entablature. - -The mouldings in Hellenic architecture are distinguished by the -refinement of the contours, in Roman by the richness of carved ornament. - -The anta, which appears in Greek temples at the corners of the cella -walls was developed by the Romans into the _pilaster_. This was a -square pier, projecting about one-sixth of its width from the wall; used -either to divide up and decorate the wall surfaces, or to serve as a -“respond” to a column. It was frequently fluted and corresponded with -the column in its details. - -=Arch-Vaulting.=--The Romans did not invent the arch, but generalised its -use and elaborated it into vaulting, thus introducing into architecture -an element of construction capable of endless application and lending -itself not only to utility but also to variety and magnificence. In -doing so they were assisted by their discovery of the use of concrete. -By means of supports and sheathings of rough timber, temporarily -erected, they were able to cast their arches or vaultings in any form -and practically of any size. The concrete “set” quickly and the arch or -vaulting thus became a solid mass, which exerted but little thrust and -covered the space with the rigidity of a lid or cup. - -Such method of construction lessened the tendency of the arch or -vaulting to exert a lateral strain or _thrust_ which occurs when the -arch is composed of _voussoirs_ or, similarly, separate blocks of stone -or brick are used in the vault. It tended to concentrate the strain on -the vertical supports. Yet the Romans, though concentration of strains -was a chief principle of their building, took no chances in the matter -of stability and also distributed the strains. For example, the nave -vaulting of a basilica would be reinforced by aisle vaulting, which was -carried on walls that were either at right angles or parallel to the -nave. But owing to the method of concrete construction and to the -facility with which it could be employed, the Romans were able to erect -vaults over buildings of complex plan and spaces of great size. - -The vaultings were of three kinds: - -1. The _semicylindrical_ vault, called also the _wagon-headed_ vault or -_barrel_ vault. - -2. The _cross_ or _groined_ vault. - -3. The _dome_ or _semidome_. - -The semicylindrical vault was a continuous arch spanning an oblong -space, a corridor, and sometimes a curved passageway. - -The cross or groined vault was used over square spaces, its weight being -carried at the four angles. It was formed by the intersection at -right-angles of two semicylindrical vaults. When employed over long -apartments or corridors, the ceiling was divided into a series of square -compartments or _bays_, each covered by a cross-vault. Since the -vaulting in each case was carried upon the corner supports, these became -piers, and the wall spaces in between them, being thus relieved of the -pressure of the vaulting, could be utilised for the openings of doors -and windows. Moreover, a square space could be subdivided into bays, -rendering it possible to vault a large area with no interruption to the -floor-space except that of the piers. - -The dome was used for covering circular spaces, and when the space is -small the covering is called a _cupola_ or little cup. Semidomes were -employed over recesses. - -The finest existing example of a Roman dome is that of the =Pantheon=, -which, however, affords an exception to the usual method of -construction. For here, instead of being composed of concrete, thus -forming a solid shell, the dome, so far as it has been examined, is -found to be built of bricks, laid in almost horizontal courses. - -It is to be noted that the so-called “pendentive” dome, supported by -arches over a space, _square in plan_, is not found in strictly Roman -buildings and was a development of the Byzantine architects. - -The Romans also employed flat roofs and ceilings. In certain of the -baths so much iron has been found amid the debris, that it is supposed -the roofs were constructed with a framework of this material, fitted -together with T joints. Otherwise the ceilings were made of crossed -beams, dividing the space into _coffers_. The exterior of the roofs was -covered with a sheathing of terra-cotta tiles or, as in the original -roof of the Pantheon, of bronze gilded plates, which now are replaced by -lead. - - -=Vault and Wall Decoration.=--Sheathing was also applied to the exterior -and interior of the whole structure, forming, as it were, a garment of -decoration. In the case of vaulting, the interior decoration was -composed of stucco coffering; square, hexagonal, or octagonal panels, -inclosed within raised framework that was arranged in a geometrical -pattern. Sometimes the coffering was replaced by mosaics; which were of -two kinds. - -1. _Opus tessellatum_ formed of tesseræ or cubes of marble or glass, -arranged in patterned designs that often included figures. - -2. _Opus sectile_, in which the tesseræ were cut into various shapes, to -form the pattern, as in marquetrie. A rich kind, made of red and green -porphyry, was distinguished as _Opus Alexandrinum_. - -At other times the vaulting and walls were covered with hard plaster, -wrought to a fine surface, which was polished and frequently embellished -with mural painting. - -The walls were also overlaid with slabs of coloured marble, in the -selection and treatment of which the Romans took a notable pride. - -Further, both the exterior and the interior walls were relieved with -carved decoration, which took the form of pilasters, arches, mouldings, -and panels, encrusted with arabesques. These and the other -embellishments could be so easily applied to the concrete shell, that -Roman decoration had a tendency to become profuse and over-elaborated. -Whereas in Hellenic architecture every decorative detail was an -intrinsic part of the structure, Roman decoration was something added -after the structure was completed. It was, in effect, like clothing, -fitted to the form of the body, and varying in design and sumptuousness -according to the taste and purse of the wearer. Since architecture -generally was an expression of pomp, pride, and power, it was inevitable -that the richness of decoration should frequently run to extravagance. - -To the lay-student, at least, the actual forms of Roman architecture are -of less interest than the uses to which they were put. For the Roman -genius was displayed in practicalness; in the resourcefulness with which -it extended the scope of architecture to serve the necessities and -ideals of life. Hence the temple-form has ceased to occupy the chief -attention; the truly monumental character of Roman architecture is -distributed over a variety of achievements of magnificence and utility. - -=Temple Plans.=--The plan of the Roman temple was circular, polygonal, or -rectangular; the last being the most usual type. The best preserved -example is the so-called “=Maison Carrée=” at =Nîmes= in Provence, which was -erected during the reign of Hadrian (<small>A.D.</small> 117-138). Its form is of the -favourite kind: pseudo-peripteral, that is to say, the columns which -surround the sides and end are not detached from but built into the -walls of the cella. The portico has a deep projection, supported by ten -detached columns. As usual in a Roman temple the stylobate is replaced -by a podium, in this case about twelve feet high, which projects in -front, enclosing the entrance steps. The columns are of the Corinthian -order, 32 feet in height, supporting an entablature which measures 8 -feet to the lower angles of the pediment. The frieze is bored with -holes, in which it is supposed the letters of an inscription were fixed, -and the cornice is richly decorated. - -Another very interesting example at =Nîmes= is the so-called =Temple of -Diana=, which probably was a _nymphæum_, or structure for flowers, -statuary, and fountains, attached to some _thermæ_. The plan shows a -central chamber, flanked by two passages; the exterior walls being -devoid of columns. Meanwhile, the interior walls of the central chamber -have a series of detached columns, supporting an entablature from which -spring the curves of the barrel-vaulted ceiling. The outward thrust of -the latter is offset by the continuous vaulting of the side-passages. It -is probable, as we shall see, that this arrangement furnished a type for -many of the Romanesque churches of Southern France. - -Of the circular temples the best known examples are the =Temple of Mater -Matuta= in =Rome=, the =Temple of Vesta= at =Tivoli=, and the =Pantheon=. Nothing -but a few fragments remain of the =Temple of Vesta= in the =Forum Romanum=. -The first named, situated in the =Forum Boarium=, is peripteral, -consisting of a cylindrical cella, 28 feet in diameter surrounded by a -circular colonnade of 20 Corinthian columns, 34 feet 7 inches high; the -whole standing on a podium raised 6 feet from the ground. In the case of -the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli the Corinthian columns, 18 in number, are -11 feet lower. “The reason for this difference,” writes Professor -Banister-Fletcher, “is instructive. The Temple of Mater Matuta, placed -in a low, flat situation, has columns of slender proportion in order to -give it the required height; whereas the Tivoli example, placed on the -edge of a rocky prominence and thus provided with a lofty basement, has -columns of sturdier proportions.” A further difference is found in the -foliage decoration of the capitals of the two temples; those of the -=Temple of Mater Matuta= having pointed leaves of the Hellenic type of -acanthus, while in the Temple of Tivoli the Roman type is adhered to. - -The most famous circular example, as well as the most impressive of -Roman temples to the modern mind, is the =Pantheon=. Investigation has -proved that the circular part or Rotunda occupies the site of an earlier -nymphæum, on the south side of which, in the reign of Augustus, <small>B.C.</small> 27, -Agrippa erected a temple, consecrated to the Divinities of the Julian -house under the name of Pantheum (“all-holy”). Hence the inscription on -the frieze of the present portico: “M. Agrippa L. F. Cos. tertium -fecit.” This temple, which, from Pliny’s account seems to have had a -dome, was destroyed in the great fire in <small>A.D.</small> 80. - -The present edifice was built by Hadrian, <small>A.D.</small> 120-124. The Rotunda -occupies, as we have said, the site of an ancient nymphæum, the floor of -which, however, was raised 8 feet. Agrippa’s portico was removed from -the south to the north side and set up with a front of 8 columns instead -of 10. There are 16 in all. The portico is supported by 16 Corinthian -columns, each a granite monolith 42½ feet high, with marble Corinthian -capitals. The tympanum was originally filled with bronze reliefs, -representing a _gigantomachia_, or battle of the gods and giants. - -The walls of the rotunda, which are of solid tufa concrete, faced with -thin bricks, are nearly twenty feet thick. This mass was partly to -support the dome and partly to admit of eight recesses, opening from the -interior. One forms the entrance, while three of the others are -semicircular in plan and the remaining four rectangular. The exterior -walls, carried far above the spring of the dome, was veneered with -porphyry and marble and enriched with Corinthian pilasters and -sculptured ornament, a considerable part of which still exists. - -Meanwhile, it is the interior of the building that presents the chief -impressiveness. Here the walls, which originally were faced with -precious Oriental marbles, extend to a height of only two stories, -crowned by the vast dome, which in the interior has a height equal to -its diameter--one hundred forty-two and one-half feet. It is embellished -with coffers, which in order to assist the perspective effect are -foreshortened, diminishing in width as they ascend. Thus the gaze is -carried up with a sweep to the central aperture at the summit, an open -circle twenty-seven feet in diameter, the sole source of light to the -interior. “One great eye opening upon Heaven--by far the noblest -conception for lighting a building to be found in Europe.” It is as if -the soaring imagination of the architect could brook no limit to its -vision and must incorporate with his vault the firmament itself. In this -magnificent audacity men have seen a symbolic reference to the ancient -worship of Jupiter, the god of gods, beneath the open vault of heaven. -Meanwhile, the architect may have derived the idea from the old nymphæum -with its court open to the sky. And of the two, some will prefer to -believe the latter, seeing in it a beautiful illustration of how the -artist can and sometimes will use the requirements of practical -conditions as an inspiration to the creativeness of his own imagination. - - * * * * * - -From structures circular in plan, we may pass to those in which the plan -had the form of an ellipse, or comprised as its chief feature portions -of a circle. In the first class belong the amphitheatres and to the -latter the various circuses and theatres. - -The prototype of all these was the Hellenic Theatre, in the construction -of which the architect took advantage of a sloping site. - -The Romans, on the other hand, with their general use of arch and -vaulting, were independent of natural assistance and usually built their -circuses and amphitheatres and theatres in the open. - -=Circus.=--The Roman circus was an adaptation of the Hellenic Stadium, -which, however, was used chiefly for athletic games, while the Circus -was employed for horse and chariot races. The oldest was the =Circus -Maximus=, situated between the Palatine and Aventine; but the one of -which most remains have been preserved is the =Circus Maxentius=, near the -tomb of Cæcilia Metella on the Appian Way. Its plan presents a long -rectangle terminating at one end in a semicircle. Surrounding this were -tiers of marble seats, supported by raking vaults and an external wall -of concrete. At the square end were situated the _Carceres_ or stables -and down the centre of the rectangle ran a _spina_ or barricade, with a -_meta_ or post at each end to mark the turning points. “To graze the -meta” was a Roman saying for the taking of great chances. The course was -seven times round and on the top of the spina were oval objects, one of -which was removed on the completion of each lap of the race. - -=Amphitheatre.=--The most magnificent of the amphitheatres was the -Flavian, known since the eighth century as the =Colosseum=, probably from -the colossal statue of Nero which once adorned it. Its plan is -elliptical, the main axis being about 615 feet and the shorter about 510 -feet; while the arena, which is oval, is 281 feet long by 177 feet wide. -The number of spectators that it could accommodate has usually been -stated as 87,000; but the calculation is now said to have been based on -a misapprehension of the records and has been corrected to 45,000 seats -and standing room for 5000. - -The exterior comprises four stories. The three lower are composed of -arches supported by intermediate piers which are ornamented with -columns, respectively, of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders. The -fourth story, which, when the amphitheatre was completed in <small>A.D.</small> 82, -appears to have been of wood, presents a wall adorned with Corinthian -pilasters. Between these, projecting from the cornice, were corbels, -pierced to hold the poles that sustained the _velarium_ or awning. The -imposing character of the exterior is due not only to the structure’s -immense size, but to the difference in unity secured by the application -of the three orders, and to the magnificently sweeping lines of the -entablatures. - -The interior shows the arena surrounded by a smooth wall, above which -the seats rise in concentric tiers to the height of two stories. Here -they are bounded by a wall, through which are entrances to the seats -while it also acted as a parapet to the upper gallery. The fourth story -formed a continuous peristyle. The whole area for spectators was called -the _cavea_. - -The place of honour was the circle nearest to the arena, called the -podium, in which sat the Emperor, senators, principal magistrates, -Vestal Virgins, and the provider or “Editor” of the show. In the -amphitheatre at Nîmes seats in the podium were also assigned to the -various guilds, whose names are still inscribed upon the seats with the -number of places reserved for each. - -The principle of construction adopted in the Colosseum, as may be seen -from the plan, is that of wedge-shaped piers, radiating from the arena -to the exterior. These were connected by vaults which ran downward -toward the centre and also in concentric rings, forming passageways to -all parts of the cavea. The system is one of concrete vaulting resting -on piers of the same material, the latter being reinforced by tufa where -the pressure was greater and in the parts of greatest strain by blocks -of travertine, four feet thick, sheathed with brick work. “The supports -have been calculated at one-sixth of the whole area of the building.” - -=Theatre.=--The form of the Roman theatre grew directly out of that of the -Hellenic, but was modified to suit the change which had come over the -character of drama. The religious origin of the Hellenic drama had been -completely left behind. There was no longer any pretence of a chorus; -accordingly the circular space of the orchestra, which had been used by -it, was now filled with seats, reserved for persons of distinction. It -became, in fact, that part of the auditorium which we still distinguish -as the orchestra seats. - -Already, in later Hellenic drama, the action of the principal players, -which originally had been confined to the orchestra, had extended more -and more to the slightly raised platform in front of the proskenion. It -was therefore but another step to limit the action to the platform, -which, now that the orchestra was filled with spectators, was raised -higher from the floor, and, to accommodate the players, was made -broader. The separation of the actors from the audience was complete. - -The proscenium now became a background, built up to represent a façade -of several stories, embellished with pilasters and engaged arches and -with niches holding statues. The remains of such a permanent “scene” are -found in the =Theatre of Orange=, in Southern France, where what we now -call the stage is 203 feet wide and 45 feet deep, framed in at the ends -by return walls at right angles to the proscenium. Near the top of the -walls are two tiers of corbel stones, pierced to receive flag-staffs -that supported the velarium. - -=Baths.=--Public baths, _thermæ_, were as necessary a feature of Roman -cities as the amphitheatre. Rich citizens, like Mæcenas and Agrippa, set -the fashion of building them, and it was followed by emperors seeking to -ingratiate themselves with the populace. For the charge for admission -was only a quarter of an =as=--about one quarter of a cent or half a -farthing; and even this was waived by certain emperors. - -The principal =Thermæ= in Rome were those of =Agrippa=, =Nero=, =Titus=, -=Domitian=, =Commodus=, =Caracalla=, =Diocletian=, and =Constantine=. Many of them -assumed immense proportions; the ground plan of the =Baths of Caracalla=, -for example, occupying a square quarter of a mile. Besides the actual -bathing conveniences, which included hot water baths, vapor baths, -cooling chambers and plunges, there were rooms for ball-playing, -gymnasiums, colonnades, libraries, theatres, and open courts with shade -trees. - -From two of the sides of the =Baths of Caracalla= projected long -_exhedras_, or semi-circular recesses, furnished with benches, which are -supposed to have been the meeting places for the discussion of -philosophy and poetry. In fact, the great thermæ were the clubs of the -period; the resort of all classes, offering cleanliness to the poor, -luxury to the rich, and healthful exercise and opportunity of cultured -intercourse between those who desired it. And the highest skill was -represented in making the walls of the various chambers and reservoirs -impervious to moisture, in conducting and heating the water, and in -providing flues for hot air. - -=Basilica.=--Equally characteristic of Roman life were the _Basilicas_. -These structures seem to have been intended at first to relieve the -congestion of business in the various fora and to afford quiet as well -as protection from the weather, for the transaction of business. The -earliest in Rome was erected <small>B.C.</small> 184 by Porcius Cato; hence called the -=Basilica Porcia=. Then followed the =Basilica Fulvia=, =Basilica Æmilia=, and -=Basilica Julia=, the last being the largest of the five which existed -during the reign of Augustus. In <small>A.D.</small> 112, Trajan built the great -=Basilica Ulpia= in connection with his forum, and some two hundred years -later was erected the vaulted =Basilica of Maxentius= or =Constantine= on -the Via Sacra. In all there came to be some twenty basilicas in Rome -alone. - -One great interest of the basilica halls consists in the fact that from -them were derived the plan and form of the early Christian churches. It -has been conjectured that the plan of a basilica was derived from that -of a Greek temple, the cella walls being replaced by ranges of columns, -opening into the peristyle where in turn the columns were replaced by -side walls. The colonnades thus became aisles to the central nave; the -vestibule being retained at one end and later to be called a _narthex_, -while at the opposite end an apse projected. Here in the Roman basilica -were the seats of the quæstor and his assessors, occupied in early -Christian basilica churches by the bishop and presbyters. - -The interiors of the Roman basilicas present two types of treatment. In -the =Basilica of Constantine=, for example, the nave columns were attached -to great piers which supported groined vaults, the thrust of which was -sustained by walls at right angles to the piers. These walls divided -each aisle into three _bays_, corresponding to the three bays of the -nave, and over each aisle-bay was a barrel-vault, which, being at right -angles to the nave, served as extra support to the nave-vaults. Light -was admitted through windows in the side walls of the aisles and also -through windows in the upper part of the nave, above the aisle vaults. - -On the other hand, in the interior of the =Basilica Ulpia= a range of -columns, supporting an entablature, took the place of the piers on each -side of the nave. On the entablature rested another range of columns, -surmounted by another entablature, above which walls, pierced with -windows, were carried up to carry the flat, coffered ceiling. Both tiers -of nave columns opened into the aisle, which correspondingly had two -stories, the upper crowned with a flat ceiling. - -=Arches, Columns of Victory.=--The magnificence of Rome and other cities -was further displayed in the Triumphal Arches and Columns of Victory -erected in honour of emperors and conquerors. The arch was of two types: -the single arch and the three-arched. A famous example of the former is -the =Arch of Titus=, which commemorated the capture of Jerusalem, <small>A.D.</small> 70. -Examples of the three-arched type are those of =Septimus Severus=, and of -=Constantine= in =Rome=, and the =Arch at Orange=. The façades were adorned -with columns of the Corinthian or Composite orders, partially or wholly -detached, supporting a _broken_ entablature--one, in which the -uniformity of projection is interrupted by a projection over each -capital. Above it is a top-story, known as the _attic_. The soffit of -the arch was richly coffered and the wall spaces embellished with -low-reliefs, representing incidents of triumph, while the attic bore -upon its face an inscription and was surmounted by statues or a -four-horse triumphal chariot (_quadriga_). - -The most famous of all the pillars of victory is =Trajan’s Column=, -erected in connection with his Basilica. It is a column of the Roman -Doric order, mounted upon a lofty pedestal, the height over all being -147 feet. The shaft, 12 feet in diameter at the base, encloses a spiral -staircase of marble, while its exterior is decorated with a spiral band, -800 feet long and 3½ feet wide, carved with reliefs, representing -incidents in Trajan’s victorious campaigns against the Dacians. It stood -originally in a court of the =Basilica Ulpia=, from the several galleries -of which the sculpture could be viewed. The statue of Trajan which -originally adorned the summit of the pillar has been replaced by a -bronze statue of St. Peter. - -A special pillar of imperial times was the Rostral Column, erected in -commemoration of a naval victory and decorated with the bronze beaks or -prows taken from the enemy’s ships. - -=Palaces.=--Augustus set the example of building himself a palace, -choosing the Palatine Hill, to which successive emperors, particularly -Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Domitian, and Septimus Severus, made additions -of increasing splendour. Nothing remains but ruins, which, however, -show that the principal apartments were as follows: the Tablinum or -throne-room; Basilica, or hall of justice; Peristylium or rectangular -garden-court, enclosed with colonnades; Triclinium, or Banquet Hall; -Lararium or domestic temple for the household gods and the Nymphæum. - -A remarkable example is the =Palace of Diocletian at Spalato, Dalmatia=, -built <small>A.D.</small> 300. The plan, rectangular in shape and covering an area of -4½ acres, about the same, in fact, as that of the Escoriál in Spain, -seems to have been laid out on the lines of a Roman camp. A square tower -occupies each of the corners, while three of the sides were pierced with -entrances, flanked by octagonal towers, which were distinguished as the -“golden,” the “iron,” and the “bronze” gateways. From these extended -colonnaded roads which met in the centre, thus dividing the area into -two northern sections, probably used by the principal officers of the -household and the guests, and a large southern portion reserved for the -imperial palace, and two temples. One of these was dedicated to -=Æsculapius=; the other, circular in plan, to =Jupiter=. - -The architecture was of a somewhat debased character, but offers certain -interesting features of transition to the later style of the Romanesque. -Thus, in the northern gateway an entablature is not employed, and the -arches rest directly on the capitals of the columns. - -=Domestic Buildings.=--The domestic architecture comprised three forms: -the _domus_, or city residence of the well-to-do; the _insula_, or city -tenement house, and the rich man’s country house or _villa_. - -The last term comprises the house and its accompaniments of beautifully -laid-out grounds and gardens. On a colossal scale of magnificence was -the =Villa of Hadrian= erected at =Tivoli=, where the whole area amounted -to seven square miles. It included, besides the usual palace apartments, -a gymnasium, thermæ and theatre, disposed amid terraced gardens, -peristyles, ornamental water-basins, and fountains. - -Some idea in miniature of the luxurious villa of the Romans is to be -gained from the various villas excavated in the summer resort of -Pompeii, such as the =House of Pansa= and the =House of Vetius=. It -comprised a rectangle bounded on three sides by narrow streets and on -the fourth by the garden. The lower story contained shops, opening on to -the streets, as in the case of many modern hotels. The principal -entrance to the house itself was a portico through which the visitor -passed into an _oecus_ or reception room. On the right of this were the -quarters of the kitchen and on the left was the _triclinium_ or -dining-room for use in cold weather. The reception-room led into a -peristyle court open to the sky, with covered colonnades that afforded -protection from the sun, while the rain was caught in an _impluvium_ or -central cistern. On one side of the court extended a row of _cubicula_ -or sleeping apartments, another row of which lined one side of the -_atrium_. This also was an open court, furnished with an impluvium, and -protected from the weather on its sides by the extended eaves of the -adjacent roofs. The atrium was the public reception place in which the -owner of the house interviewed his clients and transacted business. -Accordingly it had a separate entrance from the street. - -The walls of the principal apartments were decorated with paintings, -many of which involved architectural features; the floors were laid with -mosaics and the timber ceilings were probably painted and gilded, their -roofs being constructed of terra-cotta. The blocks of dwellings, called -_insulæ_, seem to have anticipated our modern apartment and tenement -houses, for they were carried up through many stories and housed -numerous families. It is probable that they involved few conveniences, -as we understand them to-day; the important necessity of water, for -instance, being met by public fountains, which supplied drinking water, -and by the public baths that made provision for cleanliness and health. - -=Bridges, Aqueducts.=--Among the great public works achieved by the Romans -were roads, aqueducts, and bridges; and, although these were, strictly -speaking, engineering masterpieces, the use of the arch in the last two -brings them within the scope of architectural grandeur. The visible -signs, and indeed the symbol of Roman civilisation, were the roads which -pushed their way forward to the limits of the Empire, as far as possible -with a directness that swerved aside from no obstacle, and with a -solidity of foundation that in many parts of the world survives to-day. -And a corresponding solidity allied with the dignity of simplicity of -design characterised the bridges. The best preserved in Italy is the -five-arched =Bridge of Rimini=, while impressive examples are found in the -favoured province of Spain; at =Cordova=, for instance, and =Toledo=. - -The Romans were lavish users of water, for purposes of luxury as well as -necessity. They understood the simple hydraulic law that water will rise -in pipes to its own original level and applied the system in their -buildings. But since pipes of lead and bronze were costly and none too -durable, they dispensed as far as possible with their use, conveying the -water in lofty aqueducts, with a fall, as Vitruvius recommended, of 6 -inches in 100 feet, so that the water was delivered from a height at -the spot it was needed. The channel, constructed of concrete, lined with -cement, was conducted upon a series of concrete arches, faced with -brick; the arches being of immense height and sometimes in several -tiers. The =Anio Novus=, constructed <small>A.D.</small> 38, was sixty-two miles in -length and entered =Rome= on arches carried over the =Aqua Claudia=, which -was erected at the same time and is still one of the water supplies of -Rome. The finest existing example, however, is the so-called -=Pont-du-Gard=, near =Nîmes=, which forms part of an aqueduct twenty-five -miles long. For a distance of about 900 feet it is composed of three -tiers of arches, crossing the valley 180 feet above the River Gard. - - * * * * * - -In conclusion, the genius of the Roman architect consisted in his -faculty of organisation, which enabled him to take the principles of -Hellenic architecture and apply them to a great variety of requirements. -What his architecture lost in refinement, it more than gained in -flexibility and resourcefulness, while creating for itself a distinction -of structural grandeur. It refertilised the Hellenic which had -threatened to become a barren style and produced a style that not only -was richly competent to serve the needs of its own time, but has proved -capable of being further developed to new needs. It involved principles -that had their influence on Romanesque and consequently on Gothic -architecture, became the source from which Renaissance architecture was -evolved, and, even in our own day, are still capable of new and active -service. - - - - -BOOK IV - -POST-CLASSIC PERIOD - - - - -CHAPTER I - -EARLY CHRISTIAN CIVILISATION - - -As the power of Rome waned and the Empire became disintegrated, the -force of Christianity increased and spread and the organisation of the -Church became consolidated. The immediate followers of Christ looked for -their Lord’s reappearance as a Jewish Messiah. Paul, however, taught -that there was no distinction in the sight of Christ between Jew and -Gentile and treated Christianity as a philosophic system of ethics, -applicable to all races and conditions of rich and poor. His view -prevailed and Christianity became a great proselytising force. - -Its idea of a universal brotherhood appealed especially to the -multitude, while men and women of the highest classes were attracted by -its ideals of better and purer living. For the period was one of social -unrest and of havoc of old faiths and standards of conduct. Profligacy -was sapping the vitals of the state and of society, and the need of new -moral ideals was insistent. “No one thing about Christianity commended -it to all, and to no one thing did it owe its victory, but to the fact -that it met a greater variety of needs and met them more satisfactorily -than any other movement of the Age.” - -Its growth was further facilitated by the proselytising zeal of its -adherents. Christianity spread not only throughout the Roman Empire in -Europe, but also fastened upon Asia Minor and North Africa, taking firm -root especially in Egypt, the intellectual centre of the Empire, and -extending even to the Germanic tribes which were to become the -conquerors of Rome. - -Its power, moreover, was strengthened by its organisation. In the -beginning each congregation had been independent. It had its officers, -deacons, who cared for its poor; elders or presbyters, who, as the -council of the church, looked after its interests; and its overseer, -episcopus, or bishop, the chief of the presbyters. In course of time, as -the church of a given city sent out branches to neighbouring towns and -rural districts, the bishop of the parent community came to have -authority over a group of congregations. In time the bishops of a -province learned to look for guidance to the highest religious officer -of the provincial capital, who acquired the high importance of a -“Metropolitan.” And above him in dignity were the “Patriarchs” of such -cities as Antioch and Alexandria, while the Bishop of Rome was acquiring -the greatest influence. “In brief, the government of the Church was -becoming a monarchy.” (Botsford.) - -Constantine, recognising the advantage of allying himself with such an -organisation, issued in 313 the Edict of Milan, which placed all -religions on an equal footing. Furthermore, to set at rest the -dissensions which were threatening to disrupt the organisation of the -Church, he summoned a council of the representatives of all the great -branches of the Church to meet in Nicæa, to decide upon a creed which -should be acceptable to all. - -For with the growth of the Church, Christianity had become encumbered -with doctrines that hardened into dogmas, and by this time a controversy -was raging over the rival dogmas upheld by two officers of the Church in -Egypt, Athanasius and Arius. Both held that Jesus Christ was the Son of -God, but Arius maintained that He had proceeded from the Father and was -therefore second to the latter, while Athanasius proclaimed the absolute -equality of the Father and the Son. The Council of Nicæa pronounced the -latter doctrine to be orthodox and branded the Arian as heresy. The -Nicene Creed, in which the orthodox was embodied, was accepted in the -West, but in the East, the Arian dogma continued to be held. - -Apart, however, from its bearing on this question, the Council of Nicæa -was an event of profound importance. This first Œcumenical Council, or -Council representative of the whole Christian world, not only was an -object lesson of the widespread power of the Church, but also exalted -the clergy to a high position of spiritual authority amid the temporal -distractions of the time. - -Constantine, upon his deathbed, accepted the Christian faith. Some fifty -years later Theodosius made Christianity the sole religion of the state -and the pagan temples were closed. - -By degrees the spiritual power of the Church was reinforced by the -temporal. The beginning of this change is sometimes dated from the act -of the Frankish king, Pepin, to whom the Pope appealed to stem the -attack of the Lombards, then pushing south from their possessions in -Northern Italy and threatening Rome. Pepin drove them back and handed -over a considerable slice of territory to the Pope, to swell the -so-called “Patrimony of St. Peter.” The latter, from this time on, -became a source of increasing wealth, which enabled the Popes to -maintain armies and play the part of princes in the world of politics. - -Meanwhile, the temporal power of the Western Church, centred in the -Papacy, had been helped by Constantine’s removal of the capital of the -Empire to Constantinople. Two circumstances contributed to the change. -By this time the Senate had lost even the semblance of authority, and -the real source of government was in the consent of the armies. -Secondly, the frontiers chiefly threatened were the eastern ones. -Constantine accordingly selected as the site of a Nova Roma, the ancient -Greek city of Byzantium. It, too, had its seven hills, occupying a -promontory between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmora, a spot -defended, as well as beautified, by nature and already an important -gateway of commerce, both by sea and land, between Europe and the East. -Constantine planned the new city of Constantinople on extensive lines -and set an example of magnificent building that was continued by his -successors; so that Constantinople continued for a thousand years to be -the Eastern bulwark of European civilisation, until it was conquered by -the Moslems in 1453. - -Among the results of this change of the capital was, firstly, that the -Empire gradually separated into East and West; secondly, that -Constantinople became the centre of culture, and, as darkness settled -down upon the West, the almost sole refuge of learning and the arts. In -the beginning Roman architects directed the character of the new city, -but even then the artisans who executed the work were either Byzantines -or Greeks, attracted to the new city from various parts of Hellas and -Asia Minor. In consequence architecture and the other arts gradually -became impressed with a new character, which, for convenience’ sake, is -styled Byzantine. It represents, in the case of architecture, a mixture -of Roman, Greek, and Oriental; and involved, as we shall see, the -treatment of old principles in a new spirit of invention. - -The change was encouraged by the contact of Byzantium with Eastern and -African civilisation. For as the Western Empire declined in power, the -Eastern grew; extending its sway in Asia, where it came into conflict -with the Parthians and Persians, and along the northern littoral of -Africa. The Metropolitan Bishop of Byzantium became to the Eastern -Churches what the Metropolitan Bishop of Rome was to the Western; and -exercised a spiritual headship over the Coptic Church in Alexandria, the -Syrian Church in Antioch, the Nestorian Church in Ctesiphon, and the -Armenian in Asia. Over this widely spread area religious art flourished, -coloured in each locality by racial influences, all of which influences -in a measure reacted upon the capital city of Byzantium. - -Meanwhile, in the West, the Church was labouring to reorganise a settled -condition of society by assisting the consolidation of authority. A case -in point is the welding of the Frankish tribes into some semblance of a -nation. By 486 they had found a great leader in Clovis, who led them -across the Rhine, conquered the Romans at Soissons, and proceeded to -extend his sway over Gaul. To consolidate his power he married Clotilda, -a princess of the Burgundian Goths, and accepted her faith of -Christianity. It chanced that she professed the orthodox belief, unlike -the majority of the Burgundians and the other German tribes at this time -in Gaul, who were Arians. Consequently the Roman Church threw the weight -of its influence on the side of Clovis and helped him to found a -monarchy in France that endured under the title of Merovingian, so -called from Merovech, the grandfather of Clovis. - -In time the vigour of the Merovingian kings declined, until the actual -power was wielded by the steward of the royal household, the Mayor of -the Palace. Gradually this office became hereditary in a dynasty of -rulers known as Carolingian or Charles Dynasty. The first great Charles -was Mayor Charles, surnamed Martel or the Hammer; the last, Charlemagne, -or Charles the Great. The former derived his name from the crushing -blows he inflicted upon his enemies, particularly the Saracens, the -followers of Mohammed, who by this time (732) had replaced the Vandals -along the north coast of Africa, conquered the Visigoths in Spain, and -were threatening France. Charles met them at Poictiers or Tours, and in -a complete victory saved Christianity to Europe. - -Charles remained simply Mayor; but the title of King was assumed by his -son, Pepin, who was first elected by the Franks and then anointed by the -Church, thus ascending the throne with the consent of the Pope. We have -already noted how he repaid the debt. He was succeeded by his son -Charlemagne, whose dream was to found an empire upon the ruins of the -Roman. It was fulfilled to the point that he extended Frankish sway over -Germany, as far as the Elbe, and into Italy. In the last named country -he conquered the Lombards and signalised the completeness of the -conquest by assuming the iron crown of Lombardy. On Christmas Day, <small>A.D.</small> -800, as he was kneeling at prayer in the Church of St. Peter in Rome, -Pope Leo III crowned him Emperor of the Romans. - -It was the aim of Charlemagne to establish his government on Roman -lines, to which end he reintroduced Roman laws and methods of -civilisation and ordained that Latin should be the official language. -The city selected as his capital was Aachen--Aix-la-Chapelle. - -[Illustration: S. APOLLINARE NUOVO, RAVENNA - -SHOWING CLASSICAL COLUMNS AND “IMPOST”: MOSAICS; ARCH OF TRIUMPH AND -APSE. P. 201] - -[Illustration: S. APOLLINARE-IN-CLASSE, RAVENNA - -EXTERIOR OF APSE. DETACHED CAMPANILE. P. 201] - -[Illustration: CHURCH OF KALB-LAUZEH, SYRIA - -SHOWING APSE, WOODEN ROOF, SUPPORTED BY SMALL COLUMNS ON CORBELS; ROUND -ARCHES ON PIERS. P. 200] - -[Illustration: CHURCH OF TURMANIN, SYRIA - -RUDIMENTS OF SUBSEQUENT ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC TREATMENT OF WEST FRONT. -P. 200] - - - - -CHAPTER II - -EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE - - -When the “Peace of the Church” had been proclaimed by Constantine and -Christians were able to worship openly, the age of church-building -commenced, the Emperor himself setting a lead. After the edict of -Theodosius, making Christianity the State religion, many of the pagan -temples were adapted to the purposes of the Christian ritual, or their -columns and decorative features were appropriated for the building of -new churches. The former practice accounts for the preservation of the -Parthenon, Erechtheion, and the Temple of Theseus at Athens. An instance -of the method of conversion is to be traced in the =Cathedral of -Syracuse, Sicily=, which occupies the site of an ancient temple. Walls -were built between the Doric columns of the peristyle, while the walls -of the cella were pierced so as to communicate with the peristyle, which -thus served as aisles. Another instance is that of a temple in -=Aphrodisias=, in Caria, Asia Minor, where the walls of the cella were -entirely removed, and walls were built outside the peristyle to form -aisles, while to increase the length of the nave the front and rear -portico columns were set in line with the others. - -=Basilican Plan.=--These changes coincided with the general adoption of -the basilica plan in the case of new buildings. For the early Christian -churches show very little regard for the appearance of the exterior. -Attention was concentrated on the interior, in fitting it for ritual -worship and in beautifying it, and to both these objects the basilica -plan most readily contributed. - -The earliest example in Rome of a church so planned is that of =St. John -Lateran=, which, however, has been completely remodelled by subsequent -additions. The next in point of time was the =Cathedral Church of St. -Peter=, erected near the spot in which the saint was martyred in the -circus of Nero. It was torn down in 1506 to make room for the present -cathedral commenced by Julius II; but the appearance of its principal -façade is known from Raphael’s mural painting “Incendio del Borgo,” in -the stanze of the Vatican, and there is a record of its plan. The latter -shows that the basilica building was approached by an atrium, surrounded -by either colonnades or arcades, enclosing a rectangular space, open to -the sky and having a fountain in the centre. With the water the -worshippers sprinkled themselves, a symbol of purification still -preserved in the “holy-water” vessel, placed inside the entrance of -Roman Catholic churches. - -The end arcade, abutting on the church proper, was used by penitents and -called the _narthex_. The body of the church was divided, as in the -basilica halls, into central nave and side aisles--the latter sometimes -double. Across the end of the nave extended the _bema_ or sanctuary, -corresponding to the space raised and enclosed for litigants and lawyers -in the basilica. Its ends projected beyond the line of the main -building, forming rudimentary transepts, which may have been used as -sacristies for the robing of the clergy and the preservation of the -sacred vessels and other ritual objects. The central part of the bema -was elevated and occupied by the altar which was surmounted by a -_baldachino_ or canopy, supported on four columns. Behind the altar was -the apse, lined with seats; those of the Roman assessors being now -occupied by the presbyters, while the centre one of the quæster or -praetor became the bishop’s throne. For the transference of the latter -to the side of the choir was of later date. - -The officiating priest stood behind the altar, facing the congregation -and the east. For as yet the main façade was not the western, a fact of -interest when we recall that while the Hellenic architects built facing -the four points of the compass and made the chief entrance on the east, -the Romans were indifferent to the matter of orientation. - -In certain instances as that of =S. Clemente=, in =Rome=, the accommodation -for the choir projected from the bema into the nave. It was enclosed -with low screen walls called _Cancelli_ (whence was derived the word -chancel); the side walls projecting to afford space for two reading -desks, or _ambones_; respectively, the Gospel _ambo_ and the Epistle -_ambo_. - -=Treatment of Columns.=--There were two ways of treating the columns. In -the earlier type of churches, the aisles were spanned by arches, while -those of the nave supported an entablature. But this necessitated a -narrow intercolumniation, considerably obstructing the view. -Accordingly, the practice ensued of placing the columns further apart -and surmounting them with arches. The first example of this use of -_arcades_ in a nave is believed to occur in the northern gallery of the -=Palace of Diocletian= in =Spalato, Dalmatia=. Both methods continued to be -employed and were sometimes combined in the same building. Over the -entablature or arches, as the case might be, was a high stretch of wall, -rising above the level of the aisle roof, pierced with a row of -_clerestory_ windows. The nave and aisles terminated in arches, that of -the former, the principal entrance to the sanctuary, being called the -Arch of Triumph. The roofs were of timber; that of the nave rising to a -ridge and finishing at each end in a gable, while a slope from below the -clerestory covered the side aisles. The construction work of the roofs -was usually hidden in the interior by flat ceilings, beamed and -coffered. - -The decoration of the interior included the use of antique columns, -which were sometimes adapted to their new place by cutting down or -removing the bases. The walls above the nave arcading or entablature -were adorned with mosaics, which also embellished the space above the -Arch of Triumph and the semi-dome of the apse. The floors were covered -with geometric patterns of marble sliced from columns and other antique -fragments. - -The principal examples of basilican churches, still existing in =Rome=, -are =St. Paul-without-the-walls=, =S. Clemente= and =S. Maria Maggiore=. The -first named is of modern construction, completed in 1854, but preserves -the plan and dimensions of the older church which was destroyed by fire -in 1823. It had been begun in 380 by Theodosius, on a plan closely -following that of the old St. Peter’s, except that the transepts of the -bema project less and the atrium was abandoned, leaving only the -narthex. Its construction and embellishment were continued by other -emperors and by many popes, the munificence of the latter being -commemorated in a series of portrait medallions of the popes which -extends in a band above the arcade-arches on each side of the nave. The -wall space above them is veneered with rare marbles, enclosing panels -filled with paintings representing incidents in the life of St. Paul. -Amid the somewhat extreme sumptuousness of the interior a feeling of the -older character of a basilican church is preserved in the mosaics of the -fifth century which adorn the arch of triumph, and in those of the apse -which date from the early part of the thirteenth century. - -=S. Maria Maggiore= presents an original basilican plan of nave and single -aisles, from each of which during the Renaissance was built out a square -side chapel, surmounted by domes, giving the plan the form of a cross. -But the interior of the nave dates from the time of Sixtus III in the -fourth century and shows on each side a series of Ionic columns, -supporting an entablature. Above this, as also over the arch of triumph, -are mosaics of the fifth century. - -The =Church of S. Clemente= is notable for the retention of the atrium and -also for the termination of the aisles in apses, a feature which -suggests Byzantine influence. - -=Circular and Polygonal Plans.=--In addition to the basilican buildings of -this period were some which involved a circular or polygonal plan, -suggested probably by the circular temples and tombs of the Romans. They -were applied in the early Christian era both to tombs, which in some -cases were afterward converted into churches, and to baptistries. The -latter were independent buildings, so called from their use at first -solely for the sacrament of baptism. In later times, however, it became -the custom to place the font inside the church; yet as late as the -eleventh century was erected the famous =Baptistry of Florence=, in which -even to this day every child born within the city is baptised. - -The examples in Rome of circular or polygonal buildings are the -Baptistry which forms part of the group of buildings of =S. John Lateran=, -the =Tomb of S. Constanza=, the daughter of Constantine, which was -converted into a church in 1256, and the church of =S. Stefano Rotondo=. - -The general character of the Roman tomb was a circular mass, -superimposed on a square podium. The cylindrical mass was sometimes -decorated with pilasters, supporting an entablature, and occasionally -was surrounded by a peristyle, while its roof was apt to be conical. - -In early Christian architecture this principle of construction was -developed. The peristyle was enclosed by outer walls, and the lower part -of the walls of the cylindrical mass was replaced by columns. Thus, in -the =Baptistry of S. John=, which has been called the =Baptistry of -Constantine=, the conical roof is supported by a circle of eight columns, -in two stories. - -The =Tomb of S. Constanza= has a dome which is supported on twelve pairs -of granite columns, while the wall of the circular aisle is inset with -sixteen recesses, alternately apsidal and rectangular in shape, one of -the latter being opened through to form the entrance. The sarcophagus of -the saint which formerly occupied one of the niches, is now in the -Vatican Museum. Its sides are carved with genii gathering grapes--a -motive which is also represented in the mosaics that adorn the vaulting -of the church’s circular aisle. - -=S. Stefano Rotondo=, though much reduced from its original size, is said -to be still the largest circular church in existence. The wall of the -cylinder, surmounted by a wooden conical roof, is supported on a -circular entablature, carried by antique columns. It was surrounded, -when built by Simplicius in the fifth century, by double circular -aisles, covered by a sloping roof. The latter was supported by columns -and arches, while the external wall was decorated with pilasters. Traces -of these are still apparent; otherwise the outer aisle has disappeared -and the present exterior represents the walling up of the spaces between -the columns. This was done by Nicholas V in the fifteenth century, by -which time the edifice, once richly decorated with marble veneers and -mosaics, had fallen into decay. Its lateral walls are now covered with -horribly naturalistic scenes of martyrdom, executed at the end of the -seventeenth century. - - -=Syrian Examples.=--Syria has disclosed to explorers--of whom the late -Marquis of Vogüé and Dr. H. C. Butler of the American Archæological -Expedition have been the foremost--a number of interesting monuments, -both civic and religious, erected between the third and eighth -centuries. While details of moulding and ornament appear to have been -copied from those of Roman remains, the methods of construction were -worked out by the builders themselves. They seem to have retained the -Phœnician preference for using the largest stones that could be -quarried, transported, and put in place. Thus, arches were frequently -carved out of a single stone, and when voussoirs were used, they were -either few in number or, if numerous, of great height and depth. Large -slabs of stone were also employed for roofing, especially in houses. In -imitating antique details the architects appear to have had little if -any feeling for their constructional origin or meaning; the capital and -half the shaft of a column, for example, being carved out of one piece -of stone, while the remainder of the shaft and the base were cut out of -another. On the other hand, they developed for themselves certain fine -features of construction, as for instance, in the arcading of their -basilican churches, in which the columns were sometimes replaced by -large rectangular piers, carrying arches of great width. An example of -this impressive method is found in the interior of the =Church of -Kalb-Lauzeh=. This corresponds with the larger =Church of Turmanin=, the -western façade of which shows a very independent spirit of design. It -has a broad arched entrance, flanked by two square towers, connected -over the doorway by an open gallery, constructed with columns. - -A corresponding inventiveness marked their use of the basilican plan. A -fine example is the large =Church of S. Simeon Stylites= at =Kalat-Seman=. -The nucleus of the plan is an octagonal court, open to the sky, in the -centre of which stood the pillar on which the saint spent thirty years -of his life. This court forms the intersection or crossing of four -rectangular wings, arranged in shape of a cross, each one of which has a -basilican form, the nave and aisles of the eastern one terminating in -apses. - -Another very interesting plan occurs in the =Cathedral at Borah=. It -presents a circle inscribed in a square, in the angles of which are -apsidal recesses projecting from the circle. Moreover, from the east -side of the square project three short rectangles, terminating in apses, -which suggest the prolongation of the nave and aisles that have been -interrupted by the circle. Nothing but the foundations of this church -remain. Meanwhile, the =Church of S. George= at =Esrah= shows a similar plan -and is surmounted by a high elliptical dome. It is conjectured that -these two churches were the prototypes of =S. Sergius, Constantinople=, -and =S. Vitale= at =Ravenna=, which will be discussed later, and of many -corresponding churches of Byzantine architecture. - -=Ravenna.=--In the development of early Christian architecture a very -interesting part was played by Ravenna. For this city, situated on the -Adriatic (though the sea has since receded to a distance of six miles), -was the chief port by which the trade of Constantinople or Byzantium -entered Italy. Accordingly some of the tombs and churches present a -fusion of Byzantine and Syrian influences with Roman. The change from -the basilican type is especially marked in the character of the plan and -by the adoption of domes. - -Thus the =Baptistry of Ravenna= is an octagonal structure, surmounted by a -dome of hollow tiles. The =Tomb of Galla Placidia= is cruciform in plan -with a lantern raised over the crossing or intersection of the arms of -the cross. The lantern is pierced with four windows and surmounted by a -dome, supported on pendentives--a method of construction, peculiarly -Byzantine, which will be considered presently. - -When Theodoric the Great, King of the Ostro-Goths and ruler of Northern -Italy, selected Ravenna as his capital, he built the =Church of S. -Apollinare Nuovo=, importing twenty-four marble columns from -Constantinople and employing Byzantine artists and artisans. The plan is -basilican, though the atrium and apse have been removed by subsequent -alterations, but the interior is richly embellished with Byzantine -mosaics. The latter also adorn the larger basilican =Church of S. -Apollinare-in-Classe=, so called from its being situated near the port. -Its columns also are distinguished by the peculiarly Byzantine feature -of the _impost block_, to be described later. - -After the death of Theodoric in 536 the Emperor Justinian, having -through his general, Belisarius, routed the Goths from the country, made -Ravenna the political capital of Italy, under the authority of an -exarch. Then was built, probably as Court Church, the famous example of -Byzantine influence, the =Church of S. Vitale=. We will return to this -after a consideration of what is involved in the Byzantine style. - -=Byzantine.=--The term Byzantine is applied to the style of architecture -gradually developed in Byzantium after Constantine, in <small>A.D.</small> 324, -transferred the capital of the Roman Empire to that city. Its -distinctive features are the use of brick and stone in place of -concrete; the use of imposts in connection with columns and arches; the -character of the carved ornament applied to surfaces and, most important -of all, a system of covering rectangular spaces with domes. It reached -its highest point of development under the Emperor Justinian, between -the years 527 and 565. - -The style was the result of evolution; a product of the combination of -principles of construction derived from Roman, Early Christian and -Syrian architecture, and from the traditional methods of the Iran -builders of Assyria; affected in matters of decoration by the luxurious -taste of the Orient. - -The favourite material of Byzantine builders was brickwork; the bricks -being one and one-half inches in thickness, like the Roman, and laid -between layers of mortar of similar thickness. In the case of cornices -the bricks were moulded to the required contours and when used for the -shafts of columns were circular in outline. The mortar was composed of -sand, lime, and crushed pottery, tiles, or bricks. Except in the case of -marble columns which were cut and put in place by masons, the whole of -the preliminary work was done by bricklayers who constructed the entire -“carcass” of the building. When this - -[Illustration: FROM THE INTERIOR OF SAN VITALE, RAVENNA - -SHOWING THE “IMPOST” ABOVE COLUMN, AND DECORATION. - -Pp. 202-204, 207] - -[Illustration: TOMB OF GALLA PLACIDIA, RAVENNA - -P. 201] - -[Illustration: SECTION OF SS. SERGIUS AND BACCHUS, CONSTANTINOPLE - -SHOWING FLUTED OR MELON-SHAPED DOME, SUPPORTED ON EIGHT ARCHES AND -“SQUINCHES.” NOTE LIGHTS ROUND DOME. P. 206] - -[Illustration: DIAGRAM - -SHOWING HOW THE PENDENTIVES, RESTING ON FOUR ANGLES OF A SQUARE, PROVIDE -A CIRCULAR BASE FOR THE DOME. P. 205] - -[Illustration: SECTION OF S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE - -SHOWING PENDENTIVE DOME. P. 207. SMALL DIAGRAM, AT RIGHT, SHOWS HOW A -DOME WAS MADE TO REST ON EIGHT PIERS ENCLOSING AN OCTAGON, BY NICHES OR -SQUINCHES.] - -[Illustration: EXTERIOR OF S. SOPHIA - -SHOWING THE IMMENSE BUTTRESSES THAT SUSTAIN THE THRUST OF THE DOME. -MINARETS ADDED LATER ARE OF CHARACTERISTICALLY TURKISH TYPE. P. 207] - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF S. SOPHIA - -SHOWING PENDENTIVES AND THREE OF THE DOME ARCHES (TWO OF WHICH ARE -CLOSED AND PIERCED WITH LIGHTS). NOTE ALSO RING OF LIGHTS ROUND NECK OF -DOME. PP. 202, 205, 207] - -[Illustration: PLAN OF S. SOPHIA - -P. 208] - -[Illustration: PLAN OF S. MARK’S, VENICE - -P. 209] - -[Illustration: EXTERIOR OF S. MARK’S, VENICE - -SHOWING GOTHIC DETAILS IMPOSED ON BYZANTINE DESIGN. P. 209] - -had dried and settled, the masons and the decorators completed the work, -by overlaying the walls, domes, and pediments of the interior with -marble or mosaics. - -The floors were paved with richly coloured marbles, in _opus sectile_ or -_opus Alexandrinum_. Marble, also, cut in thin veneers and arranged so -that their veining produced symmetrical designs, was applied to the -walls. Marble, again, but incised with carved ornament, covered the -soffits of the arches, the archivolts, and spandrels, while the vaulting -was resplendent with mosaics, composed of figures and ornaments, -executed in enamelled glass upon a background of gold or blue or, more -rarely, pale green. - -Colour was pre-eminently the motive of the interior decoration and to -this end carved work was subordinated. The ornament was in very low -relief, spreading over the surface in intricate patterns, that suggest -the delicate enrichment of lace. Mouldings were replaced by bands of -mosaic or marble, carved or smooth. The chief motive of the carved -ornamentation was the mingling of the acanthus and anthemion. The -treatment of both was rather Hellenic than Roman; the foliage having -pointed ends; but it was deeply channelled and drilled with deep holes -at the springing of the leaves. In fact, the use of the drill as well as -the chisel was characteristic of Byzantine carving and emphasises the -suggestion of the ornament being raised rather than, as in Roman -decoration, applied. Corresponding to the general flatness of the -ornament is the constraint of the contours of the mouldings, suggestive -of Asiatic languor and in marked contrast to the vigorous profiles of -classic architecture. The impression, indeed, of the whole scheme of -decoration is rather one of soft richness, as carving melts into colour -and colour deepens and glows and finally passes into the gold or depths -of azure of the vaulting. - -When the supply of antique columns was exhausted the Byzantine -architects began to imitate them, but soon departed from the classic -type. In certain cases the capital retained something of its derivation -from the Ionic or Corinthian styles; but gradually a new type was -evolved, which was distinguished by being convex to the outside rather -than concave. The motive appears to have been to give additional support -to the arch, for which purpose an _impost_ was, as the name implies, -“placed upon” the capital. It consists of a block, which projects beyond -the edges of the capital to fit the extra thickness of the wall and may -represent, as has been suggested, the survival of a part of the -architrave of the discarded entablature. In the decoration of the -capitals the foliage was sometimes enclosed in frames of interlace, or -the latter took the form of a basket, on which birds are perching. - -=Pendentive Dome.=--We have now to consider the most characteristic -feature of Byzantine architecture--the Dome. Briefly, in the 200 years -that divided Justinian from Constantine the Byzantine architects -perfected a principle of dome construction by which they crowned a -square plan with the circle of a dome. - -The Romans confined their domes to circular or polygonal buildings. -Meanwhile they had worked out the construction of groined vaulting upon -four supports. The Byzantine achievement was to make four supports carry -a dome. It was accomplished by developing the element of -construction--the _pendentive_. - -We have already noted the bas-relief found at Koyunjik, which shows that -the Assyrians understood the crowning of small square buildings with -domes. While actual examples have perished, the tradition of this -construction seems to have survived in the East. For in the third -century <small>A.D.</small>, when the Persians established the Sassanian Empire under -the impulse of a movement that sought to restore the ideals and habits -of the old national life, the builders erected domes in the palaces of -Serbistan and Firuzabad. - -The method they adopted was to bridge each angle of the square, at some -distance below the top, with a small arch. On these they erected two -small arches that projected beyond the face of the original arch and -accordingly extended the width of the bridge. They continued this -process of superimposing tier upon tier of arches, until the bridge was -level with the top of the square, by which time the latter was -transformed into an octagon. Then, by inserting a _corbel_ or bracket in -each angle of the octagon and taking advantage of the thickness of the -masonry, they were able to adjust a dome to the structure. This system -of dome-support, we shall find, was adopted in Gothic architecture, -where the arches are called _squinches_. - -Another method of dome-support, found in the =Mosque of Damascus= and -frequently employed in the churches of Asia Minor, was to bridge the -angle with a semi-circular niche. - -Meanwhile what the Byzantine architects developed was a geometrically -exact system of converting the square into a circle by means of concave -triangular members that are specifically called _pendentives_. - -The character and function of a pendentive may be readily grasped by a -practical experiment. Cut an orange into two hemispheres. Lay the flat -of one on four reels, placed at the four angles of a square, inscribed -within the circle. These reels represent the piers on which the -pendentives are to be constructed. Now by four perpendicular incisions -of the knife cut off the segments of the hemisphere that project beyond -the square. The lateral spaces between the piers will now be spanned by -four arches. Finally, a trifle above the top of the arches, make a -horizontal cut, removing the upper part of the hemisphere. The rind -which remains represents the four pendentives. The flesh inside of it -may be likened to the timber centering used in the construction of the -pendentives and, now that the latter are completed, may be removed. -Remove also the flesh from inside the upper part of the hemisphere. It -will then be a hollow cap, which you can replace on the top of the -pendentives. You now have an instance of a dome and pendentives included -in a single hemisphere. More usually, however, the architect makes the -curve of the dome different from that of the pendentives. Frequently, -too, to give the dome superior distinction, he constructs a cylindrical -wall on the circle of the pendentives, and on this _drum_, as it is -called, elevates his dome. - -Scientifically stated: “If a hemisphere be cut by five planes, four -perpendicular to its base and bounding a square inscribed therein, and -the fifth parallel to the base and tangent to the semi-circular -intersection made by the first four, there will remain of the original -surface only four triangular spaces bounded by arcs of circles. These -are called pendentives.” (Professor Hamlin.) - - * * * * * - -The first church built by Justinian was =SS. Sergius and Bacchus= in -=Constantinople=. The part dedicated to the latter saint--a small -basilica--was destroyed by the Turks. The remainder presents the plan -of a rectangle enclosing an octagon on which rests a dome of a curious, -fluted, melon shape. - -A few years later was erected the church of =S. Vitale= in =Ravenna=, -probably as the Court Church. Its plan is an octagon within an octagon; -the inner one being surmounted by a dome. - -The domical arrangement of both these churches may have been originally -derived from the =Pantheon=, modified by the example in Rome, of what is -called the =Temple of Minerva Medica=, though it was probably a nymphæum. -This building is decagonal with niches projecting from nine of the -sides, while the tenth provides the entrance. The dome, of concrete -ribbed with tiles, is built over an inner decagon of ten piers carrying -ten arches. These in turn support a decagonal drum, pierced with -windows, the angles at the top being filled in with rudimentary -pendentives. The same principle of construction reappears in both =S. -Sergius= and =S. Vitale=; the dome of the latter being composed, for the -sake of lightness, of earthenware, amphora-shaped pots, the bottom of -one being fixed in the lip of another. It is sheathed on the outside -with a wooden roof. - -This =Church of S. Vitale= became the model on which Charlemagne based his -domical church at =Aix-la-Chapelle=, which was built as a royal tomb, <small>A.D.</small> -796-814, and was afterward used as the crowning-place of the Emperors of -the West. - -=S. Sophia.=--Finally, the pendentive system was fully developed in -Justinian’s church in Constantinople dedicated to the =Holy Wisdom--Hagia -Sophia=, called, though erroneously, =S. Sophia=. It marks the highest -development of the Byzantine genius for domical construction. - -The architects were Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, who -began the work in 532 and finished it in 537. The plan shows four mighty -piers, 25 feet square, set at the angles of a square of 107 feet. These -support four arches and intermediate pendentives of noble height, the -apex of the dome being 175 feet from the pavement. For the original -dome, having collapsed in 555, was replaced by a higher one, lighted by -the introduction of forty circular-headed windows around the spring of -the curve; an arrangement not only excellent in admitting light to the -interior, but also as wonderfully impressive in its way as the single -eye of the =Pantheon=. Rows of small circular headed windows are also -pierced in the screens which fill in the north and south arches. - -Abutting on the east and west arches of this central mass are -semi-domes, supported upon the central piers and two others. And from -these project, as in =S. Sergius= and =S. Vitale=, small semicircular domes, -sustained by an upper and lower story of arcades. Thus was created a -vast oval-ended hall, 267 feet long by 107, from every part of which the -summit of the dome is visible. - -Outside this central feature are two side-aisles, each having two -stories, separated from the nave by arcading and formed of a series of -columns and vaulting. As in all Early Christian and Byzantine churches -which have upper and lower galleries, the former were occupied by women -worshippers. The outer walls on the north and south sides, as the plan -shows, are reinforced by immense buttresses, 25 feet wide and 75 long, -which appear on the outside of the buildings like huge pylons. On the -inside they are pierced with arches on each story. These buttresses -withstand the thrust of the dome which is reinforced on the east and -west by the semi-domes. - -The edifice, which occupies practically a square, is approached on the -west side by a narthex of magnificent proportions, 200 feet long by 30 -wide, which is divided like the aisles into an upper and lower story. So -far “the plan resembles that of =S. Sergius=, if the latter were cut in -half and a dome on pendentives inserted over the intervening square and -the whole doubled in size.” In front of the narthex, however, extends a -second one, opening, as in some of the basilican churches, into an -atrium. - -The exterior walls are faced with alternate courses of brick and stone -and the domes, all of which are visible, are covered with a sheathing of -lead. - -=S. Mark’s, Venice.=--=S. Sophia= is a marvel not only of construction but -also of unity of design. It is in this respect, among others, that it is -superior to =S. Mark’s= in =Venice=, which was erected by Byzantine builders -at the end of the eleventh century. Venice, like Ravenna, was in close -touch with Constantinople and when she determined to build a cathedral -to her patron saint, to replace an earlier basilican church destroyed by -fire, it was natural that she should look to that city for the character -of the design as well as for artists and artisans to execute it. The -actual model was the =Church= of the =Holy Apostles=, in Constantinople, -founded by Constantine, rebuilt by Justinian, and destroyed by the Turks -in 1463 to make room for the mosque of Sultan Mahomet II. - -The plan is a Greek cross, that is to say, a cross with the four parts -of practically equal length, grouped around a central square. Each of -the five divisions is crowned by a dome, supported on pendentives and -reinforced by transverse barrel vaults. The transept and choir domes are -slightly smaller than the ones over the crossing and the nave, because -of the restrictions of space caused by the chapel of S. Isadore in the -north transept, the Ducal Palace on the south, and the retention of the -apse of the ancient basilica. Originally all the domes were sheathed -externally with lead, but at a later date were covered with the -lead-sheathed wooden lanterns now existing. With their high-pitched -curves and ornamental terminals they represent a serious deviation from -the true Byzantine style. - -A similar departure from the latter is exhibited in the west façade. -This was completed in the fifteenth century and involves a curious -mixture of Orientalism and fanciful Gothic with features, such as the -clusters of columns in two tiers, flanking the five entrances, which -serve no structural purpose and have no architectural justification. -They are purely picturesque. But =S. Mark’s= was the city’s shrine, to -which each succeeding century added some embellishment and often with -more zeal than discretion. - -It is the interior rather that commands our admiration. For -notwithstanding certain distractions, even here, of later debased styles -of mosaic, enough of the tenth and eleventh century embellishments -remain to dignify the decoration. And in no other building in the world -is there so marvellous an ensemble of coloured marbles, alabaster, and -glass mosaics; or such subtleties, delicacies, and complexities of light -and shadow. - - -=Greece and Russia.=--In Greece and Russia the Byzantine has continued to -be the official style of the Greek Church. In Russia, however, many -fantastic elements have been introduced, particularly the bulbous form -of the domes. - -As an example of domestic Byzantine architecture may be mentioned the -=Monastery of Mount Athos= on a promontory of Saloniki, overlooking the -Ægean Sea. - -“In Armenia are also interesting examples of late Armeno-Byzantine -architecture, showing applications to exterior carved detail of -elaborate interlaced ornament, looking like a re-echo of Celtic M.SS. -illumination, itself, no doubt, originating in Byzantine traditions.” -(Hamlin.) - - - - -CHAPTER III - -MUHAMMEDAN, ALSO CALLED SARACENIC CIVILISATION - - -The introduction at this point of Muhammedan or Saracenic architecture -unfortunately breaks the continuity of the evolution of Early Christian -and Byzantine architecture into the Romanesque and thence into the -Gothic. Accordingly, some writers reserve this chapter until the end of -their book, treating it as an independent interlude. - -That method, on the other hand, has the disadvantage of not giving the -subject its proper place in the sequence of history; and since an -important motive of the present volume is to represent the growth of -architecture as the product of changing conditions of civilisation, it -seems more in accordance with this aim to let the conditions govern the -order in which the architectural phases are presented. So, in the -inevitable choice between two evils of arrangement we will select that -which, from our point of view, seems to be the least. - -For it is true that Muhammedan or Saracenic civilisation represents but -an interlude in the progress of Christian civilisation. What, however, -would have been the outcome, if Charles Martel, in 732, had not crushed -the advance of the Muhammedans into France? They might have fastened -upon the latter as they had upon Spain, the north of Africa, Egypt, -Syria. From France they might have descended upon Italy, and gradually -drawn tighter the circle of their conquest until the Western as well as -the Eastern Empire was entirely in their grasp. It needs but a little -effort of imagination to realise that on the issue of the battle of -Poictiers hung the fortunes of Europe; the survival of European -civilisation and possibly the continuance of Christianity. - -In fact, what was trembling in the balance was the extension of a new -and vigorous power over a social order that, except in the Frankish -kingdom, had grown more and more disintegrated and feeble. For in the -decline of Rome even her conquerors had been involved; the various other -Gothic nations in adapting the decay of her system had been corrupted by -it. The only unifying and uplifting force that glimmered amid the -general prostration was that of the Church, which might have been -engulfed in Islamism if the Franks had not prevailed at Poictiers. - -For in the present day we associate Islamism with the unprogressive -nations, whereas in the eighth century it was the symbol of -progressiveness. Its spiritual ideal was, at least, as high as that of -Christianity; while its intellectual and material ideals were superior -to those of Europe. - -Shall we speak of Saracenic civilisation or Saracenic architecture as -some do, or follow the example of others who substitute the term -Muhammedan? The former word was probably derived from the Latin -_Saraceni_, which was employed by the Romans to designate the Bedouins -who roamed a part of the Syro-Arabian desert, and committed depredations -on the frontier of the Empire. In the Middle Ages Saracen came to be -used as a general term for Moslems, especially those who had penetrated -into Spain. This latter use is too narrow, while the general use conveys -no meaning. - -Muhammedan, on the other hand, implies a follower of Muhammed or -Mahomet, and it was the oneness of faith that first united the Arab -tribesmen and in time gave a uniformity of ideal to their spread of -conquest from the Pillars of Hercules to Northern India. While the -character of the civilisation varied throughout this vast empire, being -coloured by local and racial characteristics that reacted on the styles -of architecture, it was everywhere impregnated with one belief. There is -no god but Allah and Muhammed is his prophet. - -Muhammed was born about 570 in Mecca, in the Arabian peninsula; a place -hitherto of little importance, which had a cube-shaped sanctuary, the -Kaaba, enshrining a Black Stone. It was the token or fetish of some god -of nature; for some kind of nature worship, including the worship of the -Sun, Moon, and Earth seems to have been the traditional religion of -Arabia. Meanwhile, Judaism had penetrated into the country and -Christianity had followed. Each figured in Muhammed’s imagination as a -world religion. Both professed one God. One had its prophets; the other, -its Messiah, and both its book of inspired revelation. - -Accordingly, when the vision of Muhammed embraced the idea of founding -at once a new nation and a new religion, he borrowed from both Judaism -and Christianity and proclaimed himself the new prophet or Messiah of -the one God and made known the New Revelation, which was embodied in the -Koran. The faith of Islam, as preached by Muhammed and practised by him -and his followers, was essentially one of proselytising by force. “The -sword,” he taught, “is the key of Heaven and Hell. A drop of blood shed -in the cause of God, a night spent in arms, avails more than two months -of fasting and prayer. Whoso falls in battle his sins are forgiven. At -the Day of Judgment his wounds shall be resplendent with vermilion and -odoriferous as musk, and the loss of limbs shall be supplied by angels’ -wings.” - -Muhammed’s self-imposed task of subjugating and uniting Arabia for the -Arabians was begun after his flight from Mecca to Medina, the celebrated -_Hejira_ (Arab _hijra_) which occurred on the Jewish Day of Atonement, -Sept. 30, <small>A.D.</small> 622. The further work of conquering the countries on -which the Arab tribes had been dependent, Syria, Abyssinia, Persia, was -continued by his followers. - -Of great importance in the history of architecture was the conquest of -Persia (632-651), for here the Muhammedan influence developed a style -that was distinguished by fine structural as well as aesthetic qualities -and generally developed a beautiful revival of the various arts of -decorative design. And it was Persian Muhammedan that strongly -influenced the architecture of India, where Muhammedan conquest was -established about <small>A.D.</small> 1000. - -Meanwhile, the Arabic Muhammedans had founded a dynasty under the -Ommayads with its capital in Damascus and a later one under the -Abassids, whose most celebrated caliph was Haroun-el-Raschid of Bagdad, -made famous by the “Thousand and One Nights.” Conquest was extended -westward, gradually comprising Egypt, the north of Africa, Sicily, and -Spain. - -In 1453 the Crescent displaced the Cross in Constantinople. - -Yet, notwithstanding the divisions of the Muhammedans and the immense -distances separating them, a unity not only religious but also -intellectual was maintained. The Muhammedans learned rapidly from the -peoples they conquered and established for the diffusion of learning a -sort of university system of travelling scholarships. Aided by Arabic as -the universal language of learning, students journeyed from teacher to -teacher, from the Atlantic to Samarcand, gathering hundreds of -certificates. The education was designed to turn out theologians and -lawyers; but theology included studies in metaphysics and logic, and the -canon law required a knowledge of arithmetic, mensuration, and practical -astronomy. - -Technical education was maintained by gilds who perpetuated the -“mysteries” of the craft through a system of apprenticeships. And it is -to be noted that there was no distinction made between so-called arts -and so-called crafts. The gild-system covered all kinds of constructive -work from engineering to the making of a needle, and if the work -permitted elements of beauty and decoration these were, as a matter of -course, included. Hence the proficiency and inventiveness and exquisite -perfection of workmanship displayed by the Muhammedan craftsmen. - -But their Koran enjoined a literal obedience to the Mosaic law against -“the making of any graven image, or the likeness of anything that is in -Heaven above or in the earth beneath or in the waters under the earth.” -Accordingly, there were no sculptors or painters in the full sense of -the term; only decorators of moulded, engraved, or coloured ornament, -the motives of which were confined to conventionalised flower and leaf -forms and to geometric designs of practically endless variations of the -straight line and curve, in meander, interlace, and fret, into which -they often wove texts from the Koran or the sacred name of Allah. It is -to these designs by Arab artists, influenced to some extent by -Byzantine, that the term _arabesque_ was first applied. - -Meanwhile it was the practice of Muhammedanism to absorb as far as -possible the traditions of each nation it conquered. Gradually, -therefore, the strictness of its orthodoxy was modified. In Persia, for -example, the representation of animals was permitted in the arts of -design, and the representation of human beings followed. - -Similarly, the architectural style of each locality was affected by the -previously existing architecture. The examples which remain are chiefly -of mosques, tombs, houses, and palaces. - -The word mosque comes to us through the French mosquée; the Spanish -equivalent is mesquita, while the Arabs call the “place of -prostration”--_masjid_. The nucleus of every one is the _mihrab_ or -niche in a wall, indicating the _kibleh_ or direction of the Great -Mosque at Mecca, with its shrine, the Kaaba. Beside the mihrab was a -pulpit, _mimbar_, for preaching, and sometimes in front of it, for the -reading of the Koran, stood a _dikka_ or platform raised upon columns. -Shelter for the worshippers was provided by arcades, which in the -immediate vicinity of the mihrab were often enclosed with lattice work, -thus forming a prayer-chamber--_maksura_. The size of the mosque was -indefinitely enlarged by the addition of more arcades, surrounding -usually an open court, in the centre of which, as in the atrium of the -Early Christian basilicas, was a fountain for ritual ablution. - -The tomb was usually distinguished by a dome and during the lifetime of -its founder served the purpose of a pleasure-house; corresponding -somewhat to the Roman nymphæum, and, as in the case of the Taj Mahal, -set in the midst of a beautiful system of gardens, water-basins, and -terraces. - -In his house also the Muhammedan jealously guarded his domestic privacy. -He followed the Romans in leaving the exterior of his house plain, -while centering all its luxury and comfort around an open interior -court. Special quarters were provided for the women and the seclusion of -their lives within the harem led to two features which are -characteristic of Oriental houses, the balcony and the screen. That the -occupants might take the air, balconies were built out from the walls -both of the court and the exterior; and screened with lattice work, on -the designs of which great skill and beauty were expended. - -The palaces represented the extension of the house-plan by the addition -of halls of ceremony. Sometimes, as in the case of the Alhambra, they -combined the character of a citadel, and were always generously supplied -with water, as well for the ablutions enjoined in the Koran, as for -purposes of beauty. The Arabs, in fact, readily learned the Roman -methods of engineering and hydraulics and in their houses and cities and -in the irrigation of land carried the system to a high degree of -perfection. - -The system by which learning and culture circulated throughout the -Muhammedan world was illustrated in the spread of the arts of design. -Persia, for example, was a centre of the ceramic art, and wherever the -Muhammedan civilisation spread, the art of pottery was revived and took -on new and distinctive splendour. Enamel colours of the purest tones and -finest translucence were developed and the glazes were distinguished by -extraordinary lustre. They were lavished not only on vessels of -practical service but also on tiles for the decoration of walls. - -With equal originality the Muhammedan artists developed the metal crafts -both in the direction of tempering the metal and in its decoration; -introducing and carrying to a wonderful pitch of perfection the -engraving, encrusting and inlaying of the surfaces with ornamental -designs; a process known as damascening, since Damascus was the earliest -important centre of the craft. - -Further, in weaving they developed a corresponding skill and feeling for -design. Rugs and carpets, laid on the floor or spread over doorways, -were the chief furnishing of a Muhammedan home, while a small rug was -carried by the worshipper or his servant to the Mosque to protect his -bare feet while he prayed. These “prayer rugs” were frequently -embellished with a representation of a mihrab, enclosed in borders -bearing Koran texts, and were of silk of finest weave; that is to say, -with an extraordinary number of knots to the square inch. There is a -fragment of silk weave in the Altman collection at the Metropolitan -Museum, of Indian craftsmanship, each square inch of which embraces 2500 -knots. - -In a way, however, the very exquisiteness of Muhammedan craftsmanship -prepared the way for its decay. It originated in the limitation of -motives permitted to the decorator, who in consequence had to satisfy -his love of perfection by resort to delicacies and intricacies of design -beyond which there was no further possibility of creative invention. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -MUHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE - - -The Koran prescribed that every believer when praying should face toward -Mecca. This could be done as readily in the open desert as in a -building, so the early mosques were probably of little importance. It -was only as the Arab tribesmen extended their conquests to the -neighbouring civilisations and came in touch with the temples of -antiquity and the churches of the present, that they began to raise -handsome places of worship for their own religion. - -As Muhammedanism spread eastward through Syria to Persia and later to -India and westward into Egypt, along the northern shore of Africa into -Spain and finally occupied Constantinople and Turkey, it absorbed much -of the civilisation of each country and employed the constructive -methods, the workmen, and the materials which it found ready to hand. -Consequently, the architectural expression of Muhammedanism, while -retaining everywhere certain essential characteristics, varies locally. -It offers notable distinctions according as it is found in Syria, -Persia, India, Egypt, Spain, and Turkey. - -=Mosque of Mecca.=--The =Great Mosque of Mecca=, called by Moslems the Haram -El Masjid el Haram, or Baisullahi el Haram, the “House of God, the -Prohibited,” represents a succession of additions, extending from early -Muhammedan times to the middle of the sixteenth century. It comprises an -enclosure, 300 yards square, the walls of which are pierced with -nineteen gateways and - -[Illustration: MOSQUE OF EL AZHAR, CAIRO - -SHOWING EGYPTIAN TYPES OF MINARETS] - -[Illustration: SULIEMANIYEH OR MOSQUE OF SULIEMAN - -FOLLOWS STYLE OF S. SOPHIA. NOTE THE SURROUNDING CLOISTERS AND TYPE OF -MINARETS. P. 228] - -[Illustration: ARCADES OF THE MOSQUE, NOW CATHEDRAL, OF CORDOVA, SPAIN - -NOTE EXTENSIONS OF COLUMNS TO SUPPORT UPPER ARCHES. PP. 221, 224] - -[Illustration: COURT OF THE LIONS, ALHAMBRA] - -[Illustration: CONJECTURED RESTORATION OF THE PAVILION OF MIRRORS, AND -GARDENS - -OF THE PALACE OF ISPAHAN] - -[Illustration: RESTORATION OF COLLEGE OF SHAH HUSSEIN: ISPAHAN - -SHOWING ARCADED FRONT AND LOFTY CENTRAL GATEWAY; ALSO BULBOUS FORM OF -DOME. P. 229] - -[Illustration: MOSQUE OF AKBUR, FUTTEHPORE-SIKRI - -NOTE GATEWAY, ARCADES AND SERIES OF LITTLE DOMES. P. 230] - -[Illustration: TAJ MAHAL, AGRA - -ERECTED BY SHAH JEHAN AS A TOMB FOR HIS WIFE. IN DISTANCE THE “PEARL -MOSQUE”, ANOTHER OF HIS MONUMENTS. P. 230] - -embellished with minarets. The chief sanctuary is the Kaaba, so called -from its resemblance to a cube, of about 40 feet measurement, to the -outside of which, on its southeast angle, is affixed the sacred Black -Stone, the chief object of veneration. The shrine is surrounded to a -depth of 20 yards by successions of colonnades with pointed arches. - -=Arcades.=--These arcades, affording protection to the worshippers, are a -feature common to all mosques; the direction of the arcades being -usually at right angles, though occasionally parallel to, the wall of -the mihrab--the niche which points toward Mecca. For columns the early -Muhammedan builders relied upon what they found in the buildings which -they replaced or remodelled; mixing the styles Egyptian, Roman, and -Byzantine, and bringing their different sizes to conformity by setting -blocks upon the capitals. To resist the thrust of the arches, wooden -tie-beams were built into the masonry at the spring of the arches, and -utilised for the hanging of lamps and lanterns. As these became a -recognised feature of mosques, the beams were retained even after the -skill of the builders had made them unnecessary as ties. - -=Domes.=--The roofs are flat, constructed of timber, and on the inside -coloured and gilded. A dome frequently crowns the _maksura_ or prayer -chamber, and the tomb of the saint, when the latter is included in the -sacred precincts. Almost always the dome surmounts a square plan and to -accommodate the latter to the circle the Muhammedan architects invented -a method of construction that corresponds to the Byzantine pendentive. -In principle it goes back to the ancient method of bridging over a space -by setting the stones on each side of it in layers that project over -one another until the two sides meet at the top. The Muhammedan builders -filled in the corners of the square with tiers of projecting brackets or -corbels with niches between them. At first they placed corbel above -corbel and niche above niche, but in time alternated them, so that the -niches in one tier were astride of the corbels in the tier below them. -This method of filling in the angles of the square, so as to bring the -latter to a circle, came to be known as “stalactite” work and from being -used as a constructive expedient was developed into a system of -decoration that was frequently extended over the whole ceiling of the -vault. - -The exterior of the dome was seldom spherical, as in Byzantine -architecture, but took the form of the _pointed_, or the _ogee_, or the -_horseshoe_ arch. It was built, either of brickwork in horizontal -courses, covered inside and out with plaster; or, in later mosques, of -horizontal layers of stone, engraved on the exterior with horizontal -patterns. Windows were frequently ranged round the lower part. In some -old tombs of the thirteenth century, as that of =Sheik Omar=, inside the -East Gate of Bagdad, the dome is pineapple shaped. - -The walls were built of local materials and decorated either with stone -or brick in alternate courses, or with plaster, inset with precious -stones or veneered with glazed tiles. - -=Minarets.=--A distinctive feature of the mosque was the minaret, a lofty -tower of lighthouse form, from the balcony of which the muezzin summoned -the faithful to prayer. While the minarets show a general similarity of -character, the details vary in different countries. Thus, in Persia they -rise from a circular base and are crowned by a round cap; in -Constantinople the base is round, octagonal, or square and the top is -finished with a cone; while in Cairo the top is flat. The shafts vary -from circular to polygonal, and are usually divided into three tiers of -balconies--though the Persian is generally distinguished by one--carried -round the shaft and supported by corbels, which in some instance are -embellished with stalactite ornament. - -During the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries the mosques -became an aggregation of buildings, including the tomb of the founder, -residences for priests, schools and hospitals. They correspond, in fact, -to mediæval monasteries, and the evolution of their styles presents a -certain parallel to the contemporary evolution of Gothic architecture. - - -=Syria.=--Among the existing mosques in Syria are those of =El-Aksah= on the -Temple platform at Jerusalem and of =El-Walid= in Damascus, both of which -are planned like a basilica. Also on the Temple platform is the =Dome of -the Rock=, misnamed the =Mosque of Omar=, the central feature of which is a -circular space, crowned by a dome, which was rebuilt by Saladin in 1189. - - -=Egypt.=--In Egypt one of the oldest is the =Mosque of Amru= in Cairo, in -which the square open court is surrounded by arcades, set at right -angles to the mihrab and supported by columns taken from Byzantine and -Roman buildings. Somewhat similar in plan is the =Mosque of Tulun=, where, -however, the arcades run parallel to the mihrab wall and the wide -pointed arches are supported upon massive piers. - -Then follow, during the period that corresponds to the development of -Gothic architecture, the =Mosque of= =Kalaoom=; that of =Sultan Hassan=, -which is cruciform in plan; that of =Sultan Barbouk=, celebrated for its -minarets and the beauty of the dome over the founder’s tomb; and the -small but richly decorated =Mosque of Kait-Bey=. In the prayer-chamber -(maksura) of the last-named appears, besides the stalactite -embellishment of the mihrab, a distinctive decoration of the arches. In -one case the arches are composed of voussoirs alternating in colour; in -the other the alternation is still further emphasised by the -interlocking shapes into which the voussoirs are cut, so that they fit -together with the variety and the exactness of a Chinese puzzle. - - -=Spain.=--Spain offers a very favourable opportunity for the study of -Muhammedan architecture. The =Mosque of Cordova=, begun by the Caliph -Abd-el-Rahman in 786, was enlarged by successive additions, until it -presents the appearance of a forest of columns and arches, apparently of -unlimited extent. There are said to be 860. The arcades are in two -tiers, the upper arches being supported on posts which are placed on the -capitals of the lower ones and at the same time form abutments to the -lower arches. In most cases the arches are of horseshoe form; but -elsewhere, as in the vestibule to the mihrab chamber the upper horseshoe -arches surmount a tier of cinquefoil or five-scalloped ones, and the -posts on which they abut are faced with attached columns. A remarkable -additional feature is the interlacing between the upper and lower arches -of portions of multifoil arches; so arranged that they appear to bridge -over the space between the alternate lower column and at the same time -to spring over the capitals of the intermediate upper column. The -arrangement is a striking instance of the Arab invention in the use of -repetition of motive, a use, in this case, governed by constructive -reasonableness as well as imposed by the desire for subtlety of -elaboration. - -The =Mosque of Cordova= is second in size to the =Great Mosque of Mecca=. -Though the superb adornments of mosaics and red and gold ceilings have -suffered from decay and restoration and its vista of arcades is blocked -in parts by the coro (choir), erected when the edifice was converted -into a cathedral, it is still a marvellous memorial of Cordova’s -supremacy as the most learned, cultured, and prosperous caliphate in -Islam. - -In Toledo there is nothing approaching the magnificence of the Mosque of -Cordova. Among the remains are the churches of =S. Cristo de la Luz= and -=Santa Maria la Bianca=, which are mosques converted to the Catholic -ritual. - -At Seville beside the much renowned =Alcazar= or Castle, is the celebrated -tower, =Giralda=, so named from the weather vane (giradillo), a figure of -Faith with a banner, some 305 feet from the ground. It surmounts the -Renaissance top of three stories, added in 1568 to the old tower, which, -as an altarpiece in the cathedral shows, originally terminated in -battlements. These suggest that the building was erected as a watch -tower or, may be, as a symbol of power. Its plan is a square of 45 feet, -the walls being about 8 feet thick, built of material from Roman and -probably Visigothic remains. Its surface is pierced by twenty windows, -many of which are subdivided by columnettes, and embellished with sunken -panels, enriched with arabesques. The =Giralda= is under the special -protection of SS. Justa and Rufina--a fact commemorated in the -above-mentioned picture and in another by Murillo, now in the Provincial -Museum. It was used as a model for the design of the tower of the -Madison Square Garden, New York. - -The =Alhambra, Granada=, represents the best preserved as well as the most -perfect example of the Moorish-Arabic genius. It was a fortress-palace, -much of it built on the brink of the rock, the steep slopes of which -were used to construct the lower stories of baths, offices, and -guardrooms. The exterior has no impressiveness, though the original -grouping of walls and roofs must have been highly picturesque. Its -halls, chambers, and remains of a mosque are clustered about two -rectangular courts or patios, which are joined like the two parts of an -“L”--the “Court of the Alberca” and the “Court of the Lions.” From one -of the ends of the Alberca Court projects the “Hall of the Ambassadors”; -from the other the “Hall of the Tribunal,” while the long sides of the -Court of Lions open respectively into the “Hall of the Abencerrages” and -the “Hall of the Two Sisters.” - -The “Court of the Lions” is so called from the fountain in its centre, -an immense marble basin supported upon twelve lions, which form a -remarkable exception to the Muhammedan rule against representing the -image of any living thing. Both these Courts are arcaded, the columns, -set singly or in pairs, or groups, exhibiting, as do all the columns in -the Alhambra, distinctive features in their capitals, which are -separated by a high necking from the shaft. - -It is, however, in the interior of the halls that the decoration reaches -its finest pitch and nowhere more than in the “Hall of the Two Sisters,” -which formed the culminating feature of the harem quarters. The name is -supposed to have been derived from two slabs of marble in the pavement -but may well have been suggested by the window, which occupies a bay and -is divided by a small column and two arches into two lights. The walls, -above a high wainscot of lustred tiles, are encrusted with flat moulded -arabesques, representing a delicate lacelike tracery of leafy vines and -tendrils, still tinctured with the red, blue, and gold that formerly -enriched them. The arabesques melt into the stalactite embellishments -which completely cover the hollow of the dome; created, as it seems, by -giant bees, whose cells hang down like grape-clusters in an endless -profusion of exquisite intricacy. Time was when this unsurpassable -delicacy of magnificence glowed with gold touched into a thousandfold -diversity of tones, by the light of hanging lamps. - -As an expression of the Arabic genius in the direction of subtlety this -represents finality. It embodies the culture of a race that in its -learning as in its art had been devoted to the exaltation of details; -and embodies also the latent instinct of a desert-wandering race whose -eye had been little habituated to varieties of form, but saturated with -colour and in the watches of the night had been long familiar with the -mystery of vaulted sky, sown with star-clusters and hung with the -jewelled lamps of planets. It was characteristic also of the Oriental -fondness of abstraction that revels in subtleties and loves to merge -itself in the contemplation of the infinite. It is the kind of -decoration that being denied the reinforcement of nature was bound to -evolve sterility. - - -=Turkish.=--When the Seljuk Turks, after occupying many parts of the -Byzantine Empire, finally took Constantinople, they converted =S. Sophia= -into a mosque, and more or less closely followed its style in the -mosques they themselves erected. - -Thus the =Suleimaniyeh= or =Mosque of Suleiman= the Magnificent, repeats the -central dome and the two apses of the Christian building, preserving -also the flatness of the dome-form. It is approached by a fore-court, -surrounded on all its sides by cloisters, roofed with a succession of -smaller domes, and embellished at the angles with minarets. These have -circular shafts terminating in sharply pointed cones. In the garden of -the mosque are the octagonal, dome-crowned tombs of the founder and his -favourite wife, Roxelana. - -The =Ahmedizeh=, or =Mosque of Ahmed= is square in plan, with a central -dome, flanked by four apses, the angles being filled in with four -smaller domes. The interior is lined with coloured tiles, while that of -the =Suleimaniyeh= is veneered with marble. - -The public fountains are distinctive features of the city. In one near -S. Sophia, for example, the water-basin, octagonal in shape and covered -with a dome-like grille of ironwork, is enclosed in an octagon of arches -that support a sloping roof which extends in wide eaves and is -surmounted by a dome. - - -=Persia.=--In point of time Persia enters early into the Muhammedan -conquest, but we have reserved the consideration of it until later, -because she did not reach the height of her renewed splendour in the -arts until the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and then contributed -to the Muhammedan art of India. - -When Muhammedanism extended to Persia, it came in touch with the -decaying Sassanian empire that from <small>A.D.</small> 226 to 641 had withstood the -power of Rome and extended its sway nearly to the gates of India. The -remains of its architecture consist chiefly of palaces such as those at -=Serbistan=, =Firuzabad=, and =Ctesiphon=. In these, with an inventiveness of -their own and on a great scale, the builders combined elements of -Assyrian and Roman architecture--square, domed chambers, barrel-vaulted -halls, and portals formed of huge arches, elliptical or horseshoe in -shape. - -The direct evidence of this style on the earliest Muhammedan buildings -has disappeared owing to the devastation of the Mongol invasion under -Genghis Khan; but the Sassanian influence is conjectured from the later -architecture which grew up after <small>A.D.</small> 1200. Important examples are to be -found in =Bagdad=, =Teheran=, and =Ispahan=. Among the memorials in the last -named city is the =Great Mosque=, which has an open court, surrounded by -two-storied arcades. Its special features include portal-arches, rising -above the highest of the adjoining walls; vaulted aisles, -_bulbous-shaped_ domes, and minarets of peculiar elegance. The walls are -decorated with enamelled tiles. - - -=India.=--Persian-Muhammedan architecture, probably because of the -Sassanian influence, was superior to the Arabian-Muhammedan in -constructive elements and represents more fully a developed style. Many -of its elements reappear in Indian-Muhammedan architecture, which by the -beginning of the fifteenth century was developing a style distinguished -alike by the grandeur of the whole and the structural meaning of the -details. The finest example of this early period is the =Jama Musjil= -(Principal Mosque), at =Ahmedabad=, which Shah Ahmed reconstructed out of -a Hindu temple. The Hindu influence is still apparent in the massive -detached pillars that buttress the chief entrance. - -The style reached its full development of structural logic, dignity, and -beauty under the Mogul dynasty (1526-1761). By this time the Muhammedan -architects had developed a method of dome support, different both from -the Byzantine and the Arabic pendentive, which combined corbels, ribs, -vaulting surfaces, and corner _squinches_. The last named are arches -placed diagonally at the angles to bring the square to an octagonal, -which was the favourite form of plan adopted for tombs. Of these the -most imposing is the =Tomb of Mahmud= at =Bijapur=. - -A noble example of the earlier Mogul style is the =Mosque of Akbar= at -=Futtehpore-Sikri=. Especially noteworthy are the southern and western -gateways. They tower up with emphatic assertion and yet with a finely -proportioned relation to the flanking arcades. This is due in a great -measure to the arches of the arcades being repeated with more elaborate -detail in the recess of the gateway, where also an upper tier of arches -balances the architrave of the arcades. These tiers of arches, leading -up to the semi-dome of the ceiling give a contrast of grace to the -sterner lines of the exterior arch, and introduce gradations of -refinement into its monumental scale. - -The later example, =Taj Mahal, Agra=, erected by Shah Jehan (1627-1658) is -distinguished by less force and a greater delicacy and refinement. -Though it is said to have been designed by a French or Italian -architect, it is regarded as the last word of beauty in -Indian-Muhammedan architecture and one of the most beautiful -architectural monuments in the world. - -This royal tomb, used as a ceremonial hall during its founder’s -lifetime, stands upon a marble platform, 18 feet high and 313 feet -square, at the corners of which spire up minarets of circular, that is -to say, of Persian design. The building occupies a square plan of 181 -feet, from which the corners have been removed; the façades being -composed of two tiers of deeply recessed arches, interrupted by four -monumental portals, which correspond, though with greater refinements of -proportion and detail, to those of the Mosque of Futtehpore-Sikri. The -central dome of bulb-form rises upon a lofty drum to a height of 80 feet -with 58 feet diameter, and is balanced by four small domes, supported on -columns. The material of the whole is white marble, enriched with -carvings and inlays of jasper, bloodstone, and agate. The =Taj Mahal=, as -exquisite as it is imposing, is set like an immense jewel in an -enchanting scheme of garden-planning that includes terraces, lakes, -fountains, and foliage. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -EARLY MEDIÆVAL CIVILISATION - - -The period of architecture to which this chapter forms an introduction -is from <small>A.D.</small> 1000 to 1200. It is usually known as the Romanesque period -because the architecture in certain structural particulars represented a -return to Roman methods. But the application of the principles varied in -different parts of what had been the Roman Empire under the influence of -local conditions; according as the locality was Northern Italy, or -Northern or Southern France, or England, or the Rhine Provinces of -Germany. - -On the other hand, when we come to consider the social and political -conditions, the word Romanesque is too narrow. It was, it is true, a -period of gradual reconstruction of order upon the ruins of the Roman -Empire and one of the forces that made for order was the partial revival -by Charlemagne of Roman Law. The latter became a model by which the slow -process of organising society anew could shape itself. So far, at least, -the social tendency of the period was Romanesque. But after all, this -was only a detail of the new order, and by no means the most -significant. - -Indeed the attempt to revive an empire was in itself reactionary and -opposed to the spirit of the time. For the latter was groping toward the -organising of independent nationalities. The millions who had -overwhelmed the Roman Empire possessed a certain kinship of race and -language; but they were divided into tribal units which clung to their -separate identities, the more so as the difference of localities in -which they settled increased their separateness. Thus the movement of -the time was a slow change from tribal to national unity, and the -gradual construction of a social and political order, suited to their -racial instinct of independent freedom. The advance was much more rapid -in social than in political order. For centuries the independent and -adventurous spirit of the various peoples was to keep them embroiled in -constant warfare, postponing the settlement of national landmarks. Back -of this political chaos, however, was a steady and sure growth in social -order, which, indeed, was largely assisted by the necessity of -self-preservation. - -While popes, emperors, kings, dukes, and counts were fighting in -colossal or petty rivalries, the “honest man,” as the saying is, “came -into his own.” The merchants grew in importance, the craft-gilds -consolidated their strength, and the cities became oases of comparative -order. It was an age distinguished by the growth of “communes”; that is -to say, of burgs, boroughs, and cities, possessing certain rights of -self-government and immunity from indiscriminate taxation. Not that -these privileges escaped infringement. The fight for them had to be -perpetually maintained and the fortunes of the commune varied from time -to time. Yet the seed of self-government was sown, to stay in the soil -of every Teutonic nation. - -The rise of the commune was partly due to the Feudal system, which had -its origin in the “fee” or tenure in land. As the system came to be -worked out, the tenant held in fief from an overlord, who in turn held -from some more powerful overlord and so on up to the King. When the -latter went to war, the word was passed down and each overlord had to -bring his quota of men, which he made up from the levies of the -overlords below him. It thus became an automatic method of raising an -army, of which the lowest knight with his few followers was the unit. On -the other hand, the ease with which the method could be put in operation -and the need of constant preparation for it, maintained a condition of -warlike feeling, that in the absence of a great war broke out in -jealousy and strife among the several constituent parts of the system. - -It was to guard against the inevitable miseries of this constant turmoil -that the merchants and artisans built their homes and shops around some -burg or castle, to the lord of which they looked for protection, walls -of defence being gradually built around the city, until it became -fortified with the castle as a citadel. The benefits were mutual. -Commerce and trade could be pursued in comparative peace, while the lord -in return for his protection would receive a portion of the profits to -finance his various expeditions or intrigues. To consolidate their -influence the merchants formed themselves into merchant gilds, while the -citizens established craft-gilds in the various trades. - -Thus gradually both commerce and trade spun a network of peaceful -activity and comparative stability over the otherwise troubled world, -knitting together its remotest parts. For while the agricultural -population was tied to the soil, and passed with its transfer from one -owner to another, the condition of commerce and to some extent of trade -was fluent. Merchants travelled and had their agents in distant -countries; and even the artisan might move from place to place and -enroll himself for the time being in the local gild of his craft. And -the merchants became also the bankers of their time: those of Lombardy, -for example, loaning money to kings as well as to other merchants; the -memory of which is preserved in “Lombard Street,” in London’s financial -centre. - -These merchants had become wealthy by trading in the merchandise from -the East and increased their wealth by distributing the merchandise -throughout the West. Milan, therefore, speedily grew in importance -because she commanded the roads leading over the passes of the Alps. -Thence the chief stream of commerce led at first through Provence. -Later, German cities like Augsburg and Nuremburg, became powerful and -prosperous on the road to such northern ports as Lübeck and Hamburg, -while the Rhine became the highway of commerce to Bruges, Ghent, and -Brussels. - -The gilds perpetuated what came to be called the “mystery” of their -crafts by organisations which combined a system of apprenticeship with -what we know to-day as a trade-union. One of these was the gild of -masons from which Freemasonry derived. It included various grades from -the ordinary worker of stone and marble, through the men skilled in -carved work, up to the few who were capable of designing and supervising -the construction. And although the tradition that these mason-gilds -travelled from place to place has been discredited, it is still allowed -that some of these master-masons or architects, as we call them to-day, -must have acquired a fame which caused them to be engaged by other -cities than their own. - -Meanwhile, there was another great influence operating in the interests -of social order--that of the Church. Many bishops occupied positions -corresponding to that of a feudal lord and some even went to war at the -head of their troops. The cathedrals, like the castles, became the -nuclei of cities. Moreover, the Religious Orders were increasing in -numbers and in influence, both spiritual and temporal. There had been a -widely held expectation that the end of the world was to come in 1000 -<small>B.C.</small> After the fateful date had passed, people breathed more freely with -a fresh zest of life and thankfulness to Heaven; and the Church -generally and, in particular, the Religious Orders, put themselves at -the head of this great revival. They became the leaders of a great -popular religious and civic enthusiasm that found expression especially -in church and cathedral building. - -The earliest Order, the Benedictine, had been founded by S. Benedict in -the sixth century and spread through the west of Europe, obtaining firm -hold in England. The Cluniac Order, with its headquarters in the Abbey -of Cluny in the Department of Saone et Loire, France, was established in -909 and in 1080 S. Bruno founded the Carthusian Order, whose chief -monastery in France was the Grande Chartreuse, near Grenoble. A little -later came the Cistercians, and the Augustinian Orders, while the -twelfth century saw the founding of the Dominican Order of Preaching -Friars and the following century the establishment of the mendicant -order of Franciscans. Nor does this summary complete the list. The -orders rivalled one another in the number and efficiency of their -monasteries, which were the centres not only of religion but also of -learning, art, and economic life, affording guest-houses for travellers -and serving as hospitals, schools, and colleges. - -The monastery was usually erected around a square enclosure still -called in England a “close,” surrounded by cloisters. On one side of it -adjoined the Church or Minster which, if it were cruciform, extended its -transept along one side of the cloister, while the nave occupied -another. Along the opposite side of the enclosure ran the refectory, or -common feeding-room of the brotherhood, while the fourth side was -occupied with dormitories. Grouped around this plan were the abbot’s -lodging, guestrooms, school, and dispensary, the bake-house and -granaries, fishponds, gardens, and orchards. And in some quiet room -where the light was favourable, certain of the brothers plied the task -of scribes and illuminators. Happy the monastery that could boast a -master-miniaturist or one who was of surpassing merit as a master-mason. -Down to the thirteenth century “Architecture was practised largely by -the clergy and regarded as a sacred science.” - -The influence of monkish architects may have had much to do with the -change of the cathedral or church plan from basilica to cruciform, which -is characteristic of this period. The clergy continued to be separated -from the laity and the extra accommodation needed for the monks of a -large monastery caused the apse to be replaced by a chancel, which was -raised by several steps from the level of the nave. It contained the -stalls for the monks and was divided from the nave by a screen -(cancellus), which was surmounted by a gallery or loft, in which the -rood (cross) stood. - -This rood-loft could be utilised for sacred tableaux which were given -for the edification of the people at certain festivals. At Christmas, -for example, the choirboys, playing the part of angels, would sing from -it the chant of Peace and Good Will, while a representation of the -Manger and the Kneeling Shepherds was displayed upon the top of the -chancel steps. For the Church recognised the power of drama to affect -the imagination, and in time the tableaux developed into “Passion Plays” -and “Mystery Plays.” In fact the nave of the church or cathedral was -treated as the meeting place for the laity and was used for a variety of -secular purposes in connection with the life of the community, while the -towers could be used, if necessary, for watch towers and for the safe -storing of treasure. - -Further among the circumstances that made a more ordered and more human -condition of society was the code of chivalry, demanding of all knights -or “fully armoured and mounted men,” a high sense of honour, gallantry -in battle and peace, and courtesy to women. Charlemagne had gathered -round him twelve “paladins” or paragons of knightly virtue, and the fame -of their example inspired to deeds not only of valour but of courtly -grace. Thus, in Provence, Spain, and Northern Italy there flourished the -graceful art of the Troubadour, which was paralleled in the Danube -provinces by that of the Minnesingers. The troubadours, originally of -noble birth, including princes in their ranks and one king, Richard the -Lion-Hearted, invented and sang songs to music of their own composing, -thus setting a model for the wandering troubadours and minstrels who -later travelled professionally from castle to castle, not overlooking, -we may be sure, audiences of people that might be gathered in the -churches. - -Chivalry was turned to shrewd account by the Church. It could not curb -the instinct of fighting but could direct it and did so by enjoining -upon knightly penitents a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Such expeditions -grew in number and size, travelling armed for protection on the -journey, and out of them came the Crusades for the recovery of the Holy -Spots in Palestine from the Moslem. These were far from being unmixed -blessings to the people, but at least they diverted for a time the -turbulence and left the cities freer opportunity of growth. And many a -noble on returning home, would build the church or chapel that he had -vowed, determined, perhaps, that it should rival in beauty some example -he had seen upon his wanderings. - -In view even of the few particulars summarised above, how is it possible -to relegate this period to “The Dark Ages” or even to dismiss it as -negligible, summing it all up as part of the Middle Ages, between the -fall of Rome and the revival of a knowledge of Classic learning and art -in the fifteenth century? It is to the Italians of the Renaissance that -we owe this distortion of history. Properly speaking there was no -Renaissance or Rebirth; but at least from the time of Charlemagne onward -a steady growth in civilisation, and how vigorous it was, -notwithstanding the many setbacks, due to the continuing confusion, may -be gathered from the architecture of the period. - -It is well to bear in mind that after the death of Charlemagne his -empire gradually fell apart. A German empire extended from the Rhine to -the Danube and was in constant conflict with the Popes to exert its sway -over Northern Italy; the growth of the communes or free cities being -perpetually disturbed by siding with one or other of the -contestants--the Imperial or Ghibelline and the Papal or Guelph. - -France, meanwhile, was not yet a united nation. The kings of the House -of Capet held only the so-called Ile de France or Royal Demesne, -extending from Paris to Orleans, and were surrounded on all sides by -independent Duchies and Countships, with which they were constantly at -war. The Duchy of Normandy had been established to the north by Rollo -and in 1066 his descendant, William, conquered England. - -These distinctions of territory help to explain the variations of the -Romanesque architecture, as it grew up, respectively, in Northern Italy, -the Rhine Provinces, Ile de France, Southern France, Normandy, and -Norman England. - -[Illustration: PISA CATHEDRAL, CAMPANILE AND BAPTISTRY - -PP. 244, 247] - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF PISA CATHEDRAL - -SHOWING A GLIMPSE OF THE NECK OF THE DOME SUPPORTED ON CORNER ARCHES, -THAT TAKE THE PLACE OF PENDENTIVES. P. 246] - -[Illustration: S. AMBROGIO, MILAN - -EARLY EXAMPLE OF RIB-VAULTING. P.240] - -[Illustration: S. MICHELE, PAVIA - -SHOWING RUDIMENTARY DIVISION OF WEST FRONT AND USE OF ARCADING. P. 251] - -[Illustration: THE CERTOSA, OR CHURCH OF THE CARTHUSIAN ORDER, PAVIA - -ROMANESQUE WITH RENAISSANCE LANTERN AND WEST FAÇADE. P. 313] - -[Illustration: CHURCH OF VÉZELAY, FRANCE - -EARLY EXAMPLE OF GROIN-VAULTING REPLACING BARREL-VAULTING. P. 253] - -[Illustration: CHURCH OF ABBAYE-AUX-DAMES, CAEN - -EARLY EXAMPLE OF CLERESTORY AND OF SEXPARTITE VAULTING. P. 254] - -[Illustration: REMAINS OF THE CHURCH OF CLUNY ABBEY - -WHICH IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY WAS THE INTELLECTUAL CENTER OF EUROPE. PP. -236, 253] - -[Illustration: DOORWAY OF SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL - -SHOWING PART OF THE BEAUTIFUL DOME OVER THE CROSSING. P. 260] - -[Illustration: CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES, COLOGNE - -NOTE THE ARCADING EMBELLISHMENTS AND GROUPING OF THE TOWERS. P. 259] - -[Illustration: ANGLO-SAXON TOWER - -EARL’S BARTON, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. P. 255] - -[Illustration: IFFLEY CHURCH, NEAR OXFORD - -P. 257] - -[Illustration: ST. JOHN’S CHAPEL, TOWER OF LONDON - -P. 255] - -[Illustration: NAVE OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL - -NOTE THE GIRTH OF PIERS AND CHEVRON ORNAMENT. VAULTING, EARLIEST EXAMPLE -IN ENGLAND, COMPLETED 1133. P. 256] - -[Illustration: PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL - -P. 256] - -[Illustration: ENGLISH ROMANESQUE DETAIL - -BILLET MOULDING - -CHEVRON MOULDING - -BALL-FLOWER MOULDING - -EASTON HAMPSHIRE - -TOWER WINDOW, BUCKNELL, OXON - -CASSINGTON, OXON - -LATE NORMAN. ST. JOHN’S DEVIZES - -STEETLEY DERBYSHIRE - -GLOUCESTER CATHEDRAL - -EARLY NORMAN ARCH. WESTMINSTER HALL] - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -EARLY MEDIÆVAL OR ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE - - -Romanesque is the term applied to the architectural style of the early -Middle Ages which prevailed from 1000 to 1200. It manifests considerable -variety, according to locality, but at the same time a distinct -character common to all branches, in that it embodied a return to -certain Roman principles of construction, modified more or less by early -Christian and Byzantine methods. It represents a stage in the evolution -of Gothic architecture. - -In such localities as the North of Italy and Provence, where Roman -remains were plentiful, the Romanesque architecture made free use of -antique columns and details. But in the Rhine Provinces, the North of -France, and England, the lack of such materials and of skilful workmen -encouraged the substitution of the pier for the column and caused the -latter to be of simpler and in many cases ruder design. Necessity, in -fact, compelled the adoption of new forms. Moreover, the desire of the -Church to build permanently led to the use of stone in place of -inflammable timber, especially in the building of the roofs. -Accordingly, the use of vaulting was revived. - -It was out of the application of these necessities of construction that -the Romanesque style was evolved. - -=Chevêt.=--The basilica plan became gradually modified. The nave and -aisles were retained, but the chancel, with or without an apse, was -carried farther back and the length of the transepts prolonged, so that -in time the cruciform plan prevailed and acquired a symbolic -significance. A special feature, gradually introduced, was the _chevêt_ -which formed an _ambulatory_ around the sides of the choir and the -semi-circle of the apse, and could be divided up into chapels dedicated -to individual saints. - -=Vaulting.=--In the earlier examples the nave was covered with a -barrel-vault, the thrust of which was sustained in the first place by -strengthening the nave walls by the omission of clerestory windows and, -secondly, by the weight of barrel-vaults over the side aisles, their -thrust, in turn, being sustained by thickening the outer walls and -keeping the windows small. As a further reinforcement of the walls, -projecting piers of masonry were built into them, which in time became -features of the external decoration. - -Gradually the barrel-vault was superseded by groin vaults; at first in -the aisles and later over the nave as well. The groin vaulting over the -aisles represented, as in Roman times, the intersection of two -semicircular vaults. But since the nave was usually twice the width of -the aisles, each of the nave bays would be oblong in plan. Accordingly -two of these were included in one square bay, which took in two of the -nave arches and corresponded to two aisle bays. - -In some instances a shaft was carried up from the intervening pier on -each side of the nave, supporting an intermediate transverse arch, so -that the vaulting became sexpartite, or divided into six compartments. -Whether the bay were six part or four part, the curve of all the -groins--longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal--were semicircular. -Accordingly, since the diagonals had a longer diameter, their curves -rose above the others. This variation was met by giving a concave or -domelike surface to each of the compartments, so that the workmen were -able to adjust the stones to the differences of the curves. - -=Rib-vaulting.=--While this was possible in the actual operation of -placing the stones, it would have needed exceedingly delicate -calculation to build timber centering adjusted in advance to these -domelike surfaces. Moreover, the ponderousness of the dome nave vaulting -had made the use of timber centering extremely costly, even where timber -was plentiful; while in districts sparsely supplied the cost had been -prohibitive. Consequently, the ingenuity of the builders devised a -system of construction that reduced the need of timber centering to a -minimum. This was the system known as rib-vaulting. Briefly, it -consisted in spanning the space--longitudinally, transversely, and -diagonally--with preliminary arches of masonry, thus forming a skeleton -frame composed of what are known as ribs. Each of these ribs, being -comparatively light, could be constructed on a single moveable and -expansible piece of centering, called a _cerce_. When the ribs had set, -they offered sufficient support to hold up the doming of the -compartments while it was being laid. - -To some extent this method of construction had been anticipated by the -Romans who in certain instances built preliminary transverse ribs to act -as permanent centerings of the vault, in the masonry of which the ribs -were buried from sight. The reintroduction of this device and its -further development, as above described, originated with the Lombard -architects. This has been definitely determined by the English -architect, Arthur Kingsley Porter, who has proved that the adoption of -the system was prompted by the scarcity of wood in this locality. From -Italy it spread to France, where it made its appearance in the Ile de -France about 1100 or some 60 years after its adoption in Lombardy. It -was at first employed purely as a necessary constructive expedient. -Later its æsthetic possibilities came to be recognised, and the rib was -developed by the Gothic architects into an element of great beauty, one -of the characteristic features of the Gothic style. - -Meanwhile, the use of vaulting by the Romanesque architects affected the -character of the exterior. Mention has already been made of the masonry -piers and the massive outside walls, pierced with small windows. For the -further support of the vaulting-thrust towers were freely used. While in -Italy the campanile was frequently detached from the main edifice, the -towers in western and northern Romanesque churches became elements of -prominence in the design. A pair frequently flanked the apse or four -rose in the angles of the transepts and choir, while another pair, -sometimes connected by a gallery, flanked the west end. A tower or dome -might also surmount the _crossing_ of the nave and transepts. The towers -were square, polygonal, or circular, divided into stories which were -pierced with windows or embellished with arcades. They were crowned, -like the nave and aisles, with an exterior sloping roof. - -=Arcading.=--The arcading, which now became a favourite method of -embellishing walls, was of two kinds; either being _open_ and permitting -a passageway at the back of them, or with columns and arch mouldings -attached to the wall, in the manner known as _blind arcading_. Another -feature for strengthening as well as embellishing the wall was the use -of masonry piers, which, resting on a plinth, projected from the wall -only as far as the width of the cornice. - -The exteriors, in fact, were no longer, as in early Christian churches, -plain and almost barn-like, but assumed a varied picturesqueness that, -however, was distinguished by a fine structural unity. - -The arch, whether used in interior or exterior arcading or for the tops -of doors and windows, was round; usually semicircular but occasionally -_stilted_, the ends of the semicircle, that is to say, being raised on -perpendicular lines. The later introduction of the pointed arch, it may -be added, marks the transition from Romanesque to Gothic. - -A characteristic development of the Romanesque style is the treatment of -the doors and windows. The jambs or sides were carried back in a series -of angular recesses, which were filled with small columns, whose abaci -frequently united in a continuous moulding. In many cases the angular -recesses of the jambs were prolonged around the arch. - -The shafts of columns were decorated with fluting, which might be -perpendicular, spiral, or barred like trellis-work. The capitals, except -when antique Corinthian or Ionic columns were utilised, display a -variety of embellishments, sometimes influenced by Byzantine examples, -at other times representing an original working out of foliage motives, -often rude in treatment, but, especially in the German work, vigorously -decorative. - -In the nave arcading, that is to say the series of arches on each side -of the nave, the supports consisted of square piers, to the faces of -which columns were attached. From two of them sprang the arches; a third -supported the vaulting of the aisles, while a fourth was run up to a -higher level to carry the vaulting of the nave. - - -=Italian Romanesque.=--Since the Romanesque style was coloured by the -locality in which it appeared, it is necessary to study examples of it -as they are found respectively in Italy, France, the Rhine Provinces, -Spain, and England. - -The Italian examples are conveniently subdivided into those of Northern, -Central, and Southern Italy, or, more specifically, into the examples -found in the districts north of the River Po, between the Po and the -Tiber, and south of the latter. Of these the northern, to be considered -later, are the most important, since they show, as we have noted, a more -adventurous spirit in the matter of construction. - -CENTRAL ITALY.--On the other hand, the builders of Central and Southern -Italy still followed the simple basilican plan and retained the wooden -roofs and, in consequence, clerestory windows. They raised, however, in -many cases the level of the choir and placed a crypt chamber beneath it; -which sometimes, as in =S. Miniato=, =Florence=, is open to the nave. But -their inventiveness was displayed rather in the details of decoration. -Central Italy being rich in marbles, the use of this material for -embellishing the exterior and the interior with bands and geometric -designs was carried to such a perfection as virtually to constitute a -style. The most beautiful example is that of =S. Miniato=, where, too, the -open woodwork of the roof has been restored to its original colouring of -gold, green, blue, and red. - -Another notable example of this developed style of decoration is -presented at =Pisa=, in the group of buildings comprising the =Cathedral=, -=Campanile=, and =Baptistry=. Here the façades are embellished--one might -almost say composed, for the embellishment is applied so -constructionally--with tiers of blind arcades or of open arcades of red -and white marble. Those of the Baptistry received in the fifteenth -century additions of Gothic canopies and traceries, but the front of the -Cathedral and the circular Campanile retain their original character. -The Baptistry, also circular in plan, is crowned by an outer -hemispherical dome, through which penetrates a conical dome, which in -the interior is supported on four piers and eight columns. The influence -of Byzantine workmen is seen here as well as in the dome which crowns -the crossing of the Cathedral. The transepts of the latter are prolonged -beyond the basilica plan and terminate in apses. - -The Campanile, which comprises eight stories embellished with arcading, -is known as “The Leaning Tower,” since it inclines from the -perpendicular about 13 feet in a height of 179, the greatest inclination -being in the ground story, after which there is a slight recovery toward -the perpendicular. It was begun in 1174 and completed in 1350. Vasari, -the historian of Italian artists, writing some 200 years later, ascribes -this lean to a settlement of the foundations. His explanation, though -occasionally disputed, had been generally accepted, until the -investigations of Professor William H. Goodyear, in 1910, established -the fact that the inclination was intentional and provided for from the -start of the work. - -The tower is constructed of an exterior and an interior cylinder of -masonry, the space between them being occupied by a spiral staircase. -The steps of the latter were individually measured by Professor -Goodyear, who has set forth the results in a Bulletin of the Brooklyn -Institute of Arts and Sciences (Jan. 21, 1911). Briefly, they show that -the treads of the steps vary in height and that they incline sometimes -toward the inner wall, sometimes toward the outer. In this way they tend -to create a balance of strains on the whole structure, which is further -secured by increasing the strength of the inner walls, where the -inclination is inward. That the careful calculation involved in this was -not due to an afterthought or the necessity of remedying the effects of -a settlement is proved by the fact that the inclination begins at the -lowest step. - -Why then was this design adopted? Professor Goodyear furnishes the -answer in two subsequent Bulletins. Reduced to briefest terms it is -this: The Pisan Baptistry also has an inclination from the normal, both -perpendicular and horizontal. Thus, in the south façade there is an -inclination in the horizontal lines of 2 feet 2 inches toward the choir. -Meanwhile, the vertical lines of the west façade are perpendicular to -this slope and, consequently, the front inclines inward toward the nave. -And these are only instances of a number of asymmetries that occur -throughout the cathedral, all of which are proved to have been -intentional in the original design. - -Further, the asymmetries at Pisa bear a close analogy to the numberless -asymmetries that appear in S. Mark’s, Venice. The latter was built by -Byzantine workmen, who therein followed the Oriental and the Hellenic -dislike of formal mathematical regularity; and it is the Byzantine -tradition again which in this respect, as in other details of -decoration, domes and so forth, influenced the Romanesque group of -buildings at Pisa. The order in which they were erected is, the -Cathedral, Baptistry, and Campanile; so that in the Leaning Tower the -architects merely carried the principle of asymmetry to an extreme -pitch. - -The influence of Pisa is found in =S. Michele= and =S. Martino= in =Lucca=, -and in the =Cathedral of Pistoia=. - - -=South Italy.=--The most important SOUTHERN examples are found in Sicily, -which in the tenth century was overrun by the Saracens, who in the -following century were routed by the Normans. Consequently, the -Saracenic influence is mingled with the Byzantine in the =Cathedral of -Monreale=, near =Palermo=. The plan is basilican, with apses at the eastern -ends of the nave and aisles. The choir is raised. The arches of the nave -are pointed but not recessed, and are supported on columns, with -Byzantine capitals. The aisle walls have a dado of white marble, twelve -feet high, inlaid with borders, composed of porphyry, while the arches -and clerestory of the nave are embellished with mosaics of biblical -subjects, framed in arabesque borders. Of a sombre richness of colour, -they display the Byzantine characteristic of severity of design, and -impart to the interior a solemn grandeur. - - -=North Italy.=--It is in NORTHERN Italy, particularly in the Lombard -churches, that the constructional development is most marked. For, while -the plan remained basilican, only occasionally showing well-defined -transepts, the architects devoted their energies to the problem of -vaulting. A notable instance is =San Ambrogio, Milan=, which is an early -example of the use of ribs in vaulting. The original church, erected in -the ninth century, had wooden roofs; but in the rebuilding the nave was -divided into four square bays, and immense piers were constructed to -carry the diagonal, transverse, and longitudinal ribs.[6] Of -corresponding massiveness are the transverse ribs, while to support the -strain on the longitudinal ribs intermediate piers were introduced with -an upper and a lower tier of double arches. These open into the two -stories of the groin-vaulted aisles, which are given this treatment in -order to act as buttresses to the thrust of the nave vaults. This -compelled the omission of clerestory windows, thus adding to the -sombreness of effect. Indeed the whole suggestion is one of -ponderousness. It is the work of men experimenting with a new method of -construction and intent for the present on achieving stability. The -combination of the latter with dignity of height and the grace of -lightness was yet to be developed in the Gothic treatment of the ribs. - -The west end is approached by a narthex, opening into an arcaded atrium. - -In the external decoration of the triple apse of the east end appears -the rudimentary principle of the open arcade. The walls above the -semi-dome and beneath the wooden exterior roof are crowned with a -cornice, composed of arches supported upon corbels, the space between -each being penetrated with a niche. This produces a series of deep -shadows, in contrast with which the actual construction of the corbels -assumes a lightness of effect. It was the preliminary step to the -substitution of small detached columns for the corbels and the -development of external arcading. - -The open arcading in its full development appears in the west façade of -=S. Michele=, =Pavia=, where it serves its characteristic purpose of -constructively lightening the effect of the cornice of the roof. In this -instance, as in many of the Lombard façades, the nave and aisles are -included in a single gable, their interior separation being marked upon -the exterior by masonry piers. Into this façade also, as in the older -part of the exterior of =San Ambrogio=, are set pieces of earlier -sculptured ornament. These exhibit a strange mingling of grotesque -animals with Scandinavian interlaces and Byzantine features--a notable -fact, since they correspond with the sculptured ornament found on some -of the Rhenish churches. This suggests that Lombard workmen were -employed in Germany and that they brought back with them some of the -German taste for symbolism in ornament. - -In the west front of the =Cathedral at Piacenza=, we find the same use of -single gable and masonry piers, but the cornice arcade is supplemented -by two horizontal bands, that mark the division of the aisles into two -stories. Moreover, each of the three entrances is embellished with a two -storied porch, supported on columns that rest on recumbent lions. Over -the nave porch the wall is penetrated by a characteristically Romanesque -feature--a _rose_ or _wheel_ window. A comparison of this façade with -the elaborate ones of Central Italy illustrates the preference of the -Lombard architects for organic disposition of decoration rather than -decoration for the sake of decoration. - -An important feature of North Italy is the Campanile. Intended, it is -supposed, as a symbol of power, it is usually detached from the church, -and square in plan. The walls are simply treated, being reinforced -often with masonry piers, but interrupted with as few windows as -possible, while the top is marked by one or two stories of arcaded -windows and is crowned with a pyramidal or conical roof. - - -FRENCH ROMANESQUE - -The map of France at the end of the tenth century shows the Royal -Domain, the Ile de France, a dense forest with Orleans, the city of -learning, at one end, and at the other, Paris, the city of the -future--hemmed in on all sides by counties and duchies over which the -Capetian King held little more than nominal suzerainty. For the purpose -of architectural study these territories may be divided into north and -south, on a line with the River Loire. Thus, to the north belong the Ile -de France, Normandy, and Brittany; to the south, Provence, Aquitaine, -Anjou, and Burgundy. - -Everywhere the builders were intent upon the problem of vaulting; but -were influenced in the south by local conditions. In Provence, for -example, the seat of Roman civilisation, not only does classical -influence appear in the details, but the vaulting is of the old Roman -kind. =Notre Dame=, =Avignon=, is a well-known instance. And the -barrel-vaulting was continued throughout the neighbouring Duchy of -Aquitaine. Here, however, another influence intervened. The district had -close commercial relations with Venice, Ravenna, and Byzantium, and it -is reflected in the domical vaulting of many of the churches. - -=S. Front=, =Perigeux=, for example, resembles S. Mark’s, Venice, in having -the plan of a Greek cross, surmounted by five pendentives. The arches, -however, are _pointed_; of great depth, resting on piers, pierced with -passages. In the =cathedral= of the neighbouring city, =Angoulême=, a Latin -cross is substituted for the Greek in plan. The aisleless nave is -surmounted by three stone domes, roofed on the exterior. Over the -crossing rises another dome, visible outside, which is raised upon a -drum that is pierced with pointed windows, disposed in pairs. The -southern transept is still crowned with a tower, its fellow to the north -having been destroyed in 1568. - -This building served as a model for the =Abbey of Fontevrault= in =Anjou=. - -In Burgundy the most renowned of the numerous monastic establishments -was the =Benedictine Abbey= of =Cluny=. Until the building of the present S. -Peter’s, its abbey church was the largest and most magnificent in -Christendom. The plan was a basilica with double aisles, the east end -terminating in a _chevêt_ (shě-vay´); that is to say, an apse surrounded -by a circular aisle, divided into chapels; in this case five in number. -The nave was arcaded with pointed arches and spanned by an immense -barrel vault. Groined vaulting, on the other hand, is supposed to have -covered the aisles. - -Groined vaulting takes the place of barrel-vaulting in the nave of the -=Church of Vézelay=, and was also used in the ante-chapel, erected some -thirty years later. But by this time the builders, in order to reduce -the thrust, adopted a pointed section for the ribs--the first instance -in France of the pointed groined vault, which was successfully developed -later by the Gothic architects. - -It is to be noted that the early vaulting, erected by the Clunisian -architects, compelled the abandonment of the clerestory windows. The -thrust of the great barrel vault of the nave was sustained either by -high side aisles with either transverse or groined vaults over the bays, -or by barrel vaults over the aisles, which in turn were supported by -the massive outer walls. For the use of the flying buttress had not yet -been adopted. - -Meanwhile, the northern climate demanded the additional light provided -by a clerestory, and the architects of Normandy applied themselves to -the problem. It was to be solved later in Gothic architecture by the use -of pointed groin vaulting, but, pending this discovery, a method of -vaulting was employed which is known as sexpartite. For the square bay -was crossed in the centre by another transverse arch, which, when cut by -the two diagonals, produced a plan of six parts. This, however, -necessitated two narrow skew vaults, meeting in the centre, which was -awkward in appearance. The method is illustrated in =S. Etienne=, the -great church of the =Abbaye-aux-hommes= and =La Trinité= of the -=Abbaye-aux-Dames=, both in =Caen=. These and other churches of Normandy -such as the Abbey church of =Mont-St. Michel=, are characterised by an -adventurous spirit as well as logic of design, marking a distinct -progress toward the Gothic. - - -ENGLISH ROMANESQUE OR NORMAN - -The audacity and resourcefulness of the Norman builders found extensive -opportunity after the conquest of England. But few remains survive of -Anglo-Saxon architecture, and they suggest that the buildings were of a -rude kind. They were constructed of rubble work, reinforced with engaged -piers and ashlar masonry at the corners, arranged in what is called -“long and short” courses. The columns were short, stumpy cylinders -crowned with one or two square blocks, and the details of doorways and -windows were roughly hewn with an axe, though in the case of certain -belfry windows, jambs of baluster shape, seem to have been turned upon -a lathe. The openings were either round-topped, suggesting a clumsy copy -of the Roman style or else triangular, as if perpetuating a form of -timber construction. The plan of the church appears to have been of the -simplest, representing an oblong nave, separated by an arch from the -smaller oblong of the chancel; the latter being lower than the nave and, -on the inside, approached by two or three descending steps. The -arrangement seems to have been derived from the example of the Celtic -churches, as also was the habit of erecting towers, which, however, are -not circular as in Ireland, but square without buttresses. One example -of such a tower exists at =Earl’s Barton=, =Northamptonshire=, in which -occur balustered windows. - -The Normans, therefore, had a free field for their architectural -enterprise and, while they immediately commenced the erection of castles -to overawe the country, they also erected monasteries and cathedrals, -designed to surpass in size and magnificence the ones in Normandy. While -following the latter in a general way, the English examples were -characterised, on the one hand, by a more massive and picturesque -treatment, and, on the other, owing probably to the scarcity of skilled -labour, by simpler and less refined details. - -The capitals of columns, for instance, were usually of the cubic-cushion -form, as may be seen in =S. John’s Chapel= in the =Tower of London=. The -piers were often round and frequently clustered with columns, the round -arches being recessed and framed with round mouldings. The latter, in -the case of doorways and windows, were enriched with ornament carved in -zig-zag, chevrons, billets, and beaked heads. The plan was apt to be -longer than that of the French churches, and the elevations were -proportionately lower. Vaulting was, for the present, confined to -smaller churches and the side aisles of the larger; but the nave walls -of the cathedrals were built sufficiently massive to support the -vaulting which in some cases was subsequently added. The clerestory -windows were set toward the outer part of the wall, the remaining space -being occupied by a passageway, which, in front of the windows was -screened from the nave by three arches. - -While the Norman style, as the English-Romanesque is usually called in -England, appears in many cathedrals, the character of it has been -greatly modified by later additions. But the finest example still -existing is that of =Durham=; next to which come =Peterborough= and portions -of =Norwich=. The tower above the crossing, which became a distinction of -English cathedrals and is so imposing a feature of =Durham=, was added -much later. But the original nave (1096) is a remarkable example of -massive Norman construction, the round piers having a diameter nearly -equal to the span of the arches and being channelled with flutings and -spirals. The vaulting was completed in 1133 and is said to be the -earliest example of Norman vaulting in England. Another notable feature -of Durham Cathedral is the so-called Galilee chapel, which, in imitation -of the ante-chapel in Caen, takes the place of a porch at the west end. -It was used by penitents. - -At =Peterborough= the nave, only second to Durham as an example of Norman -at its finest, is still covered with the original wooden ceiling, -divided into lozenge shapes and painted. It is believed to be the oldest -wooden roof in England. The Norman parts of =Norwich Cathedral= are the -long, narrow, aisleless nave, the transepts, and the choir with its -chevêt of chapels. =Ely=, again, has Norman nave and transepts; =Bristol=, a -Norman chapter house; =Oxford=, nave and choir; =Southwell=, Norman nave, -transepts, and towers; =Winchester=, transepts and towers; while =Worcester= -has a Norman crypt, transepts, and circular chapter house. The last -named is the only one of this design in England. Original Norman work is -also to be found in the transepts at =Canterbury=, while the narrowness of -its choir is due to the preservation of two Norman chapels. - -In England the interior wall spaces and vaulting were decorated with -paintings, for in this branch of decorative work the Normans found no -scarcity of skill, since the Anglo-Saxon school of miniaturists, -originally started by Celtic missionaries, had attained a high degree of -proficiency, and now developed the principles of missal-painting into -the larger and freer scope of mural decoration. - -A good example of the small Norman church is that of =Iffley=, near -Oxford. Especially interesting is the west front. In the larger examples -this feature underwent change with the introduction of the pointed arch; -but here is a distribution of the gabled end into three well defined and -excellently proportioned stories, pierced, respectively, with a doorway, -circular window, and an arcade of three windows. All are deeply recessed -and enriched with characteristic moulding, and the effect, while a -trifle barbaric, is vigorously decorative. - - -RHENISH ROMANESQUE - -In the Rhenish Provinces is found the most fully developed Romanesque -style, characterised by the fewest local differences. When, during the -years 768-814, Charlemagne built his royal tomb-church, which with -subsequent Gothic additions is now the =Cathedral= of =Aix-le-Chapelle=, he -adopted the plan of S. Vitale in Ravenna and imported classic columns. -Moreover, the Rhine Provinces possessed many remains of Roman -architecture. Later they became closely allied by commerce with Northern -Italy and seem to have employed the services of Lombard architects. - -All these circumstances tended to make Rhenish Romanesque resemble that -of Northern Italy. On the other hand, it developed a style more -constructively adventurous, vigorous, and picturesque; while at the same -time it was on the whole more systematically organised than the French. -It was, however, about fifty years behind the latter in its development -which began late and continued longer. - -A typical example of the earlier period of Rhenish Romanesque is the -=Cathedral at Worms= (1110-1200). Its design shows features that are -characteristically Rhenish: an apse at both the west and east end, -flanked in each case by two towers; the use of transepts at the west end -as well as the east (the eastern ones being here omitted), the erection -of octagonal lanterns over both crossings, and entrances on the north -and south sides instead of the west. - -The exterior exhibits a well-defined orderliness and picturesqueness. -The walls are reinforced with projecting piers and pierced with deeply -recessed, round-arch windows. Noticeable also is the effective use of -corbel arcades beneath the gable ends of the roofs and in various string -courses, while the richer emphasis of open arcades is applied with equal -discretion and effectiveness. Another noteworthy feature in the towers -is the use of dormers to embellish the conical or octagonal roof, which -in effect are rudimentary spires. - -Other early representative cathedrals are those of =Spires=, =Treves=, and -=Mayence= while to the later period belongs the =Church of the Apostles=, -=Cologne= (1220-1250). It offers a varied application of the same features -in a singularly perfect design. The transepts and choir present a -cluster of three apses round a low, octagonal lantern. The nave is -short, twice the width of the side aisles and has western transepts and -a square western tower. Especially fine are the exterior embellishments -of the apses, consisting of two stories of blind arcading, surmounted by -open arcades beneath the roof, while a corresponding sense of -proportional dignity characterises the grouping of the eastern towers -and lantern and the solitary distinction of the western tower. Here, as -in three other examples of triapsal churches in =Cologne=--=S. -Maria-in-Capitol=, =S. Martin=, and =S. Cunibert=--the domical vaulting is -supported by squinches or pendentives. - -The earliest example of nave vaulting is found in the =Cathedral of -Mayence=, closely followed in the Cathedrals of =Spires= and =Worms= and the -abbey church at =Laach=. - - -SPANISH ROMANESQUE - -In Spain great impetus was given to cathedral building by the recapture -of Toledo from the Moors in 1085. In architecture, as in painting, the -Spaniards seem to have sought their artistic impulses from abroad, since -the most important example of their early Romanesque style--the -Cathedral of =Santiago de Compostello=--is a modified copy of =S. Sernin=, -at =Toulouse=, =Aquitaine=. The plan is a Latin cross with aisles not only -flanking the nave but also carried round the transepts and choir apse -in the manner of the French chevêt. The aisles are groin-vaulted, while -a lofty barrel vault covers the nave, and an octagonal lantern crowns -the crossing. - -A special feature of Spanish Romanesque, also derived apparently from -Aquitaine, is the beauty of the dome, which covers the crossing, as in -the old =Cathedral of Salamanca=, the =Collegiate Church= at =Toro= and the -=Cathedral of Zamora=. They are circular in the interior and octagonal on -the outside with large turrets in the angles of the octagon. The -interior dome is carried upon pointed arches, between which and the -spring of the vault, in the case of Salamanca, are two tiers of arcaded -windows. For the admission of light the arrangement is excellent, while -the general character of these domes, covered on the outside with a low, -steeple-like roof of stone, is admirably monumental. - -Another characteristic Spanish feature, met with in some churches, as -for example, that of =San Millan=, =Sagovia=, is an open cloister, on the -outside of the aisle, from which doors open into it. - -Carved ornament was rather sparingly applied, and except in minute -details suggests no Moorish influence. - - - - -BOOK V - -GOTHIC PERIOD - - - - -CHAPTER I - -LATE MEDIÆVAL CIVILISATION - - -The change in architectural style, known as the Gothic, which began in -the twelfth century and reached its full development in the thirteenth, -represents so wonderful an expression not only of constructive genius -but also of spiritual aspiration that one would fain peer through the -mist of the past to discover the kind of civilisation that produced it. -The general conditions that shaped the civilisation we have already -noticed in the chapter on Early Mediæval Civilisation. There we -recognised the threefold influences of the power of the Church, the -extension and growing importance of Commerce, and the results of the -various Crusades. And these still continued to be the motive forces of -the later and fuller civilisation. - -Prominent among the causes of the confused conditions in Western Europe -was the multiplicity of rival authorities; which it had been -Charlemagne’s dream to subordinate to a centralised authority, emulating -that of the Roman Empire. But, while his attempt at temporal domination -failed, the more spiritual dominion exercised by the Church proved to be -a unifying agency. Through the influence which she exerted over -conscience and consequently over the actions of men through the -Sacraments of Confession and Penitence, she was able in considerable -measure to curb the license of feudalism. Furthermore, by allying -herself with the growing power of the burgher classes in cities and -standing as the champion of the defencelessness of the lower classes in -cities and country, she became the great adjuster of the fearful social -inequalities of the period. - -Her policy was one of checks and counter-checks. She could not subdue -the forces that made for disorder; but could and did restrain them. Thus -her support of the burghers built up a new force in the community that, -through trade and commerce, made for stability and set up the -constructive arts of peace as a make-weight against the destructive -conditions that the internecine strife of the nobility engendered. And -these last she further checked by utilising the enthusiasm for Crusades, -which had been first stirred by the missionary zeal of Peter the Hermit -in 1096. This first expedition, under Godfrey de Bouillon, resulted in -the capture of Jerusalem from the Arabs and the establishment of a -Christian Kingdom in Palestine. The six other Crusades, terminating with -the second expedition of Louis IX (St. Louis) of France in 1270, failed -to recover Jerusalem which had been recaptured by the Arabs. But in the -course of them a Latin kingdom had been established in Constantinople -under Count Baldwin of Flanders and a kingdom also had been formed in -Cyprus. It is unnecessary to attempt to follow these various expeditions -in detail, the more so that they represented only incidents in what had -become a perpetual progression of movement toward the East. It is the -effect of this that really concerns us here. - -The effect may be studied in relation to the spirit that was stimulated, -and to the economic and educational influence involved. The Church -originally favoured the Crusades as a means both of diverting the -savagery of the fighting class from internecine strife to distant -warfare and of intensifying religious faith and feeling. While it was -not strong enough to crush the fighting spirit, it could consecrate it -to some kind of an ideal, and thereby succeeded in tempering the stupid -savagery of feudalism with the finer spirit of chivalry. An idealism of -knighthood was encouraged that reverenced women, protected the weak, -redressed the wrongs of the oppressed, and wedded to the courtesies of -life a fervour of religious faith. Amidst the ugliness of the times -there sprang up the blue flower of an ideal of beauty that affected in -some measure both the spiritual and the social life. How real and -intense was the spirituality of the times may be gathered from its -excesses, as evidenced in the cruelties of the Crusade against the -Albigenses for their heresies, and in the pathetic tragedies of the -Children’s Crusades. In 1212 a French shepherd boy, named Stephen, -induced thousands of boys to follow him to Marseilles, promising to lead -them dry-shod through the sea to Palestine, and a boy of Cologne, named -Nicolas, led an army of twenty thousand children toward Italy. Such of -the French children as reached Marseilles were kidnapped and sold to -slavery in Egypt, while the German host perished from privations, -leaving only a memory that is preserved in the legend of the Pied Piper -of Hamelin. - -In the wake of military expeditions to the East there followed the -adventurers of commerce. Trade routes were opened up, the earliest of -which and for a long time the most important was by way of Venice, over -the Brunner Pass and up the Rhine to Bruges. And commercial relations -meant the continual passing backward and forward of persons in the -pursuits of peace and, in consequence, a growing intercourse between the -members of different nationalities. The old isolation of the western -and northern nations was gradually removed, and the individual’s narrow -horizon became broadened by travel, his restricted ideas of life -enlarged and enlightened by contact with the alien and superior culture -of the East. For it was in Constantinople and among the Arabs in Asia -Minor, Syria, and Egypt that secular learning at this period flourished. - -Accordingly, as a result of the Crusades, Western Europe indulged a -taste for foreign travel, which stimulated a prodigious adventurousness -that operated in the things of the spirit and the intellect as well as -in the material conduct of life. Geography, for example, began to arouse -a practical interest. It changed the attitude of men’s minds to the -outside world, opening up new paths of travel by land and sea and, -equally, new conceptions of the possibilities of the world and of life. -The interest also in Crusades aroused the desire to record them and an -impetus was given to historical writings, which, partaking largely of -romance, led to a renewed interest in such old romances as those of the -Knights of the Round Table of the Arthurian Legend and of Charlemagne’s -Paladins. - -A most significant testimony to the character of the civilisation of the -thirteenth century is afforded by the voluminous writings of Vincent of -Beauvais, who held the post of “reader” in the monastery of Royaumont, -on the Oise near Paris, which was founded by Louis IX. His work, written -in Latin and entitled the “Speculum Universale” or “Universal Mirror,” -is an encyclopædia of the knowledge of the Middle Ages; a mirror, in -fact, of the mind of the age of great cathedral building. It is divided -into three parts: the _Speculum_, respectively, _Naturale_, -_Doctrinale_, and _Historiale_; to which a _Speculum Morale_ was added -by another hand, being mainly a compilation from the works of Thomas -Aquinas and other contemporary writers. - -The “Speculum Naturale” has been described as a gigantic commentary on -the first chapter of Genesis. It opens with an account of the Trinity, -and of the attributes and orders of angels; proceeds to discuss our own -world, light, colour, the four elements, and Lucifer and his fallen -angels. Then it proceeds to the phenomena of time, the motions of the -heavenly bodies, and the wonders of the sky in thunder, dew, rain, and -so forth. Thence it treats of dry land, seas, and rivers, agricultural -operations, precious stones, plants, fruits, not omitting their use in -medicine. Other chapters discuss birds, fishes; another domesticated and -wild animals, serpents, bees, and insects, the seasons, and the -calendar. Then man is dealt with, his anatomy, his organs, and five -senses, and the phenomena of sleep, dreams, ecstasy, memory, reason, and -so forth. - -The “Speculum Doctrinale,” intended as a practical manual of knowledge, -covers the subjects of grammar, logic, rhetoric, including a Latin -vocabulary of some six thousand words; discusses the virtues and gives, -under the head of “economic art,” directions for building, gardening, -and agriculture, while under the head of “mechanical art,” it describes -the work of weavers, smiths, armourers, merchants, hunters, sailors, and -generals. Then, after prescribing rules for the preservation of health, -it proceeds to mathematics, under which it includes music, geometry, -astronomy, astrology, and weights and measures. And here it is -noteworthy that the author displays an acquaintance with the Arabic -numerals. - -The “Speculum Historiale” begins with the creation of the world and -continues a sacred and secular narrative down to the conversion of -Constantine to Christianity. The “origines” of Britain are discussed and -the story carried on to Mahomet and Charlemagne, after which comes a -history of the First Crusade, a dissertation on the Tartars, and, -finally, a short narrative of the earlier Crusade of St. Louis. One -chapter is devoted to miracles. The history is largely composed of -quotations from a variety of available sources, sacred and secular, -which include Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic writers--known to the author -through popular Latin versions--Eusebius, Seneca, Cicero, Ovid, Julius -Cæsar, the Early Fathers of the Church, and the Mediæval writers, -Sigebert de Gembloux, a Belgian Chronicler (1030-1112), and William of -Malmesbury (1095-1142). The last named, an English monk of the Abbey of -Malmesbury, wrote “De Gestibus Regum Anglorum,” a history of the English -Kings, and a continuation, entitled “Historia Novella,” bringing the -story down to 1142--works which have formed the basis of subsequent -histories of England. - -Mirrored in this compendium is the mind of the Middle Ages, that -realised its dreams and needs in the most imaginative, daring, and -grandly constructive type of building that the world had ever seen--that -of Gothic Architecture. It was a mind at once practical and -transcendental; grappling alike with the actualities of life and with -the mysteries of the universe; hungry for knowledge, uncritical in -appetite, accepting the miraculous as simply as it accepted the wonder -of the world that was opening out to its eager vision with an immensity -of promise. It was the mind of a giant youth, still exulting in the glow -of growth; audacious in courage, of vaulting imagination, with thews -and sinews that achieve prodigiously. In the pursuit of abstract -knowledge the age was prone to expend itself on subtleties, to entangle -itself in sophistries, to lose itself in merest speculation. But when it -grappled with the problems of building, this weakness was transformed -into strength. Then it displayed a faculty of reasoning, apt, direct, -and original, and a readiness in the practical application of -mathematical principles. Of these, however, it was not bent on giving a -scientific demonstration; it was satisfied to employ them in the pursuit -of beauty. And its feeling for beauty, as we shall see later, was of -extraordinary subtlety, expended upon relieving the structure of -formality and imparting to it the variety and elasticity of a living -growth. - -Nor was it only in this indirect way that the “Speculum Universale” was -reflected in Gothic architecture. Its chapters were represented in -sculptured illustrations upon the exteriors of the cathedrals, -particularly around the portals, in order that all who came and went -might see and learn. The statues and reliefs at Chartres comprise some -two thousand figures, while Amiens presents another memorable example. - -Thus the Gothic Cathedral was not only the House of God; it was also the -House of Man--the civic centre of his religious, social, moral, and -intellectual life. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE - -I - - -The term Gothic, with the suggestion of “barbarian,” was applied by men -of the Renaissance to Mediæval Art. Unlike the term Romanesque, it is -not a name that defines. Hence an attempt has been made to substitute -the word, _ogival_, from the French ogive, which is applied to the curve -of the pointed arch--a distinguishing feature of the Gothic style. But -in our own language, at least, Gothic has become so embedded that it is -more convenient to preserve it. - -We understand by it that style which was developed out of Romanesque -about 1150 and continued to flourish until the development and spread of -the Renaissance style. - -The change which is represented in Gothic is due to several causes: (a) -development of vaulting ribs; (b) the general use of the pointed arch; -(c) reapplication of the Roman principle of concentration of vaulting -strains upon four points; (d) the development of a buttress system to -reinforce the main parts of the strain, and (e) the development of -window openings both as to their size and ornamentation. - -=Periods of Gothic.=--The period of Gothic covers the thirteenth, -fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. The variations which it presented -in these several centuries are often characterised by the changes in the -treatment of the windows. Thus, in France, they have been divided - -[Illustration: SCULPTURED DETAIL - -FROM DOORWAY OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL. P. 269] - -[Illustration: SKELETON STRUCTURE - -SHOWING THE METHOD OF VAULTING, BY MEANS OF THE POINTED ARCH, AND THE -CONCENTRATION OF THRUSTS AND COUNTER THRUSTS. P. 273] - -[Illustration: GOTHIC DETAIL. - -EARLY ENGLISH HASELEY, OXFORDSHIRE - -PERPENDICULAR CHRIST CHURCH CLOISTERS, OXFORD - -DECORATED SANDHURST, KENT - -EARLY HEREFORD CATHEDRAL - -EARLY BYLAND ABBEY, YORKSHIRE - -DECORATED HAMPTON POYLE, OXFORDSHIRE - -DECORATED CHAPTER HOUSE, SOUTHWELL - -PERPENDICULAR EWELME, OXON - -DECORATED YORK MINSTER] - -[Illustration: GOTHIC DETAIL - -TOOTH ORNAMENT CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL - -A CUSP PERPENDICULAR PERIOD - -DIAPER OF FOUR-LEAFED FLOWER - -A CUSP DECORATED PERIOD - -EARLY ENGLISH WESTMINSTER ABBEY - -A CUSP EARLY ENGLISH - -NICHE OF DECORATED PERIOD - -FINIAL KING’S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE - -ORIEL WINDOW] - -[Illustration: GOTHIC DETAIL - -FLAMBOYANT. DOORWAY HARFLEUR, NORMANDY - -BAY WINDOW COMPTON WINYATE, WARWICKSHIRE - -TRANSITION TO PERPENDICULAR HEADCORN, KENT - -GATEWAY BRASENOSE COLLEGE, OXFORD] - -[Illustration: GOTHIC DETAIL - -DECORATED PRESTON, KENT - -EARLY DECORATED DORCHESTER, OXFORDSHIRE - -DECORATED CHRIST CHURCH, OXFORD - -FLAMBOYANT S. OUEN, ROUEN - -EARLY ENGLISH JESUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE] - -[Illustration: GOTHIC DETAIL - -LATER PERPENDICULAR ST. MICHAEL’S, OXFORD - -EARLY DECORATED PLATE TRACERY - -LATER DECORATED PLATE TRACERY STONE, KENT - -EARLY PERPENDICULAR KING’S SUTTON, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE] - -[Illustration: GOTHIC DETAIL - -ST. MARY’S CHURCH, DEVIZES, ENGLAND - -A. KING POST -B. QUEEN POST -C. BRACE OR STRUTS -D. TIE-BEAMS -E. PRINCIPAL RAFTERS -F. RIDGE PIECES - -G. PURLINS -H. COLLAR -J. COMMON RAFTERS -K. POLE-PLATE -L. WALL-PLATE - -HALL OF WEARE GIFFORD, DEVONSHIRE, ENGLAND] - -[Illustration: By Courtesy of the Brooklyn Museum of Arts - -INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR VIEWS OF LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL - -SHOWING THE NAVE WIDENING. THE PIERS ARE SET ON A STRAIGHT LINE, AND AT -EACH END OF THE NAVE ARE PERPENDICULAR UP TO THE CLERESTORY. MEANWHILE -THE PIERS IN BETWEEN LEAN OUTWARD WITH INCREASING INCLINATION TOWARD THE -CENTER OF THE NAVE. P. 280] - -into: _Primary_, or Thirteenth Century style; _Secondary_, or Fourteenth -Century, often called _Rayonnant_ from the wheel tracery of the rose -windows; _Tertiary_, or Fifteenth Century, called _Flamboyant_ from the -flame-like shapes of the window spaces. On the other hand, in England, -the divisions are: Thirteenth century or _Early English_; Fourteenth -century or _Decorated_, because of the increased elaboration both of -window tracery and rib vaultings; Fifteenth century or _Perpendicular_, -owing to the predominance of vertical members in the tracery of the -windows. - -The chief fountain-source of the early Gothic development was the Ile de -France, whence the new ideas were carried, largely by monastic activity -and especially that of the Cistercian order, to England, Germany, Italy, -and Spain. In each of these countries their application was coloured by -local conditions and England in particular produced a series of -buildings, characterised by originality of treatment and grandeur of -design. Nevertheless, it is recognised that French Gothic is -pre-eminent, not only for the logic and skill with which structural -problems were solved but also for sublimity of design, especially in the -interiors, and for the sense of proportion that distinguishes the best -examples. English Gothic, however, is a noble second. - -Before enumerating some of the famous examples of French Gothic, we may -summarise the principles and devices more or less common to all Gothic. - -Romanesque had substituted equilibrium in place of the inert stability -of the Roman architecture. The thirteenth century architects added to -equilibrium _elasticity_. - -They achieved this by a development of the concentration of strains, -which the Romans had invented or applied in the support of -groin-vaulting on four piers, and the Romanesque architects had further -developed by the system of rib-vaulting. - -=Pointed Arch.=--The Gothic was structurally evolved out of the rib -vaulting and the pointed arch. In the first place, while the Romanesque -architects used the rib system solely as a convenience of building, the -architects of the Ile de France, adopting it for the same purpose, -became conscious of its further possibilities in the direction both of -construction and of beauty. The rib, no longer a crude arch of masonry, -was constructed of mouldings that made it a feature of beauty, enhanced -by the increased height and the finer sweep of line that the skill and -taste of the French architects achieved. - -In this they were helped by the substitution of the pointed for the -semi-circular arch. Not only are the curves of the pointed arch more -beautiful, but they lent themselves also to a more daring method of -building. By means of them the tops of the longitudinal and transverse -arches could be lifted to the level of the diagonal ones, so that the -filling in of the _massives_ or spaces between the ribs, was simplified. -Moreover, the strain of the pointed arch was more directly downward, -which brought the main pressure down upon the piers. Advantage was taken -of this by clustering small columns around the piers, so that each -column carried its own rib, bringing the ribs and columns into a -structural harmony and creating a continuous effect of soaring growth -from the floor up to the summit of the vaulting. And this effect could -be enhanced by the opportunity which the rib construction allowed of -lifting the vaulting higher, and so affording space for ample -clerestories. - -=Buttresses.=--Meanwhile the lateral strain or thrust of the pointed arch, -though less than the vertical, had to be sustained, and this was done -by developing the buttress. These were of two kinds: abutting, as the -name implies, either on the nave wall or on the outer walls of the -aisles and chevêt. In both cases they were a development of the masonry -piers with which the Romanesque architects reinforced the walls. When -the buttresses were attached to the outer walls of the aisles and -chevêt, they were connected with the nave wall by arches which sprang -across the intervening space, and in consequence are known as _flying -buttresses_. - -Sometimes these buttresses were practically vertical, at other times -they descended in offsets or steps, increasing in width toward the -ground. Further to increase their resistance they were frequently -surmounted by finials or pinnacles. The buttress, in fact, was not only -a structural member of great importance, but one of the characteristic -elements of beauty in the design. - -=Concentration of Counter-thrusts.=--By the time these two principles--the -concentration of thrusts and the counter-thrusts--had been thoroughly -worked out, as they were in the thirteenth century, the Gothic -architects had extended to the whole edifice what the later Romanesque -architects had done for the vaulting. As the latter had been constructed -on a framework of ribs, so now the essential structure of the whole -edifice became a frame or skeleton, self-supporting, with its strains -distributed throughout, as in the muscular system of the human body, and -in the “steel cage” construction of modern buildings. - -This enabled the Gothic architects to erect loftier and larger buildings -and at the same time lighter in appearance, compared with which the -Romanesque seem squat and heavy. The French showed a preference for -lofty interiors; the English for length of vista, the proportionate -loss of height being offset on the exterior by the extra height of the -towers and spires. - -Another result of the framework system of structure was that the -intervening wall-spaces, relieved of strain, could be fully utilised for -openings, especially for windows, so important in the duller climate of -the north. The clerestory became an important feature of the Gothic -cathedral; so also the _triforium_, or gallery round the nave, which, -pierced in the thickness of the wall, separated the clerestory and -arcade arches. Further, the windows in all the outer walls took on a new -importance. - -=Windows.=--The windows, in fact, became another of the distinguishing -characteristics of Gothic architecture and the variety in their -treatment marks the several centuries of its development. At first there -was the plain _lancet_ (spear-headed) window, the top of which was -composed of two segments of a circle meeting at one point. The segments -were inscribed about a triangle, which was either equilateral or -isosceles. In the case of the equilateral triangle, whose base was equal -to the sides, the distance of the point of the arch from the spring of -the curves was equal to the width of the window. On the other hand, in -the case of the isosceles triangle, if the base were longer than the -sides, the point of the arch dropped lower, while, if the base were -shorter, the arch was higher than its width--the true lancet. - -Such plain openings, or _lights_, were used either singly or in pairs; -and in time two were included within one lancet opening, the space above -the heads of the lights being filled with a round or _quatrefoil_ light. -In this case the upper part or _tracery_ had the appearance of having -been cut out of one slab or plate of stone, and the pattern in -consequence was called _plate-tracery_. Later, when the number of -lights in a window was increased, the tracery above them was elaborated -into various geometric designs, technically known as _bar-tracery_. -Still later, when the architects had completely solved all the -structural problems and the only advance could be made in further -elaboration of details, the geometric forms were abandoned for more -flowing designs, which are called in French Gothic _Flamboyant_; in -English, _Decorated_. - -It is to be noted that the change in the treatment of the windows was -reflected in the carved ornamental details of other parts of the -edifice; especially in the canopies over niches and the embellishment of -gables, doors, choir-screens, wall-panelling, finials, and spires. These -in the Flamboyant period (fifteenth century) reached a degree of -lace-like elaborateness, that, while beautiful in itself, tends to -obscure the actual structural elements; thereby marking the decadence of -the Gothic style. - -This phase was represented in English Gothic by a gradual stiffening of -the tracery into rigid forms and barren repetitions. Because of the -insistence on rectangular motives it is known as _Perpendicular_. - -The windows were decorated with stained glass, the most beautiful -remains of which are to be found in the Cathedral of Chartres. They show -a prevalence of blue and violet tones and are composed of small pieces -of glass, joined by leading. This French method was also imitated in -England, as in the early windows of Canterbury; but by degrees an -English style was adopted, in which the pieces of glass were much -larger, and the subject consisted of large figures beneath traceried -canopies, in imitation of the carved work of the sculptors. - -In the decoration of =columns= the French long preserved the Corinthian -type, but in place of the acanthus, used foliage forms studied directly -from nature. The forms at first were freely conventionalised; but by -degrees, as the skill of the carver increased, became more and more -naturalistic and thereby less finely decorative. The corresponding -progress in England is from conventionalised nature to frankly -naturalistic imitation and thence to a somewhat dry and barren -conventionalism. - -=Sculpture.=--A conspicuous feature of Gothic decoration is the figure -sculpture. It was used with profusion, especially in France, where the -monumental treatment of the west fronts gave freest scope for the -multiplication of niches, filled with statues. The deeply recessed -portals, for example, were flanked with tiers of figures, which were -also prolonged into the recessed planes of the arched top, while the -lunette, or half-moon space between the arch and the horizontal top of -the door, was filled with reliefs of the Saviour or Madonna. Meanwhile, -figures beneath canopies stretched in a band across the upper part of -the façade, or stood singly in niches that penetrated the surface of -buttresses; until, in time, every vantage point, whether within or -without the edifice, was enriched with statues. The noblest period of -this efflorescence was the thirteenth century, when the French -“imagers,” particularly, attained a remarkable balance between truth to -nature and decorative convention. The statues seem to have grown into -human shape out of the very material of the edifice and retain its -character. With increasing cleverness, this magnificent -conventionalisation passed into naturalistic imitation and the statues -seem to be something added for elaboration’s sake. - -=Contrast to Classic.=--Gothic architecture, though it developed through -Romanesque and Early Christian out of Roman, presents an almost complete -contrast to Classic style. It is an expression of many individualities -rather than of conformity. Plans are more or less uniform; generally -basilican in France, cruciform in England. But the superstructure, while -embodying certain common features, exhibits the freedom of individual -treatment, as each city or monastery vied with others in a mighty effort -to excel. - -A cathedral embodies such miracles of audacity and aspiration, that one -scarcely looks in it for that complete harmony of proportion which -distinguishes a Classic temple. The latter was the product of men who -had ceased to believe in the deities they professed to honour and had -made a religion, according as they were Hellenes or Romans, of abstract -perfection or of systematised order. - -Gothic cathedrals, on the other hand, were the material and spiritual -expression of intense religious devotion and of civic pride and freedom. -They were the memorials, not of old nations in the decline of their -political and social ideals, but of young races, struggling toward -nationalism and fired with the splendour of dawning aspirations. No -level line of entablature, resting upon columns ever so stately, could -embody such elevated enthusiasm. It must mount into the sky, with -soaring lines and vaulting arches, spires and pinnacles, ever straining -upward; giving voice to the grandeur of concerted uplift. Some of the -cathedrals grew up from ground to ridge roof and towers under the -guiding mind of one architect; more represent the continuous growth of -the community; but in either case embody in their variety and organised -complexity the Soul of the Crowd. - -For one must not think of them only as temples of worship. They embraced -also the functions now distributed in schools and libraries. They were -the shrines of the culture of their day, in which the truths of -religion, legends of saints, and the mysteries of belief were unfolded -in sculpture, paintings, and stained glass. - - -=Asymmetries or Refinements.=--In order to ensure their monopoly the gilds -of masons of the Middle Ages jealously preserved the secrets of their -art. Accordingly, there are no written treatises of the period. -Moreover, with the advent of the Renaissance the Gothic was held in -contempt and the indifference to it continued until about the middle of -the nineteenth century. Then, in the renewed enthusiasm for Mediæval -architecture, buildings were studied, measurements taken, and plans of -the old churches and cathedrals were drafted. But the surveyors, having -measured the distance between one pair of piers on opposite sides of the -nave and between two piers on one side, plotted the plan as if these -measurements were uniform throughout the whole nave. In this and in -other matters they assumed that the design was symmetrical. The -contrary, however, in the case of many churches and cathedrals, has been -proved by the recent researches of Professor William H. Goodyear, whose -work in connection with Hellenic, Byzantine, and Romanesque refinements -or asymmetries has been noted already. - -His researches, which have covered most of the Gothic edifices of Italy, -many of the most important churches and cathedrals in France, and some -in England, prove that the “mysteries” of the Mediæval gilds included -asymmetrical refinements. The most important deviations from mechanical -formality are as follows: - -1. _Widening of the Nave_ in a vertical direction. Where this occurs, -each side of the nave leans outward; three methods being employed, -though not more than one appears in a given church. In one case, there -is a continuous and absolutely straight outward inclination from floor -to vaulting. In another, the outward inclinations recede from floor to -vaulting in delicate vertical curves. In the third, the piers are -perpendicular up to the arcade capitals, where the inclination begins -and is continued in straight lines through the triforium and -clerestories. In this last case, the angle, formed by the two lines, -produces in the large scale of the building the effect of a curve. - -The widening in all cases tends to offset the perspective illusion of -vertical lines converging toward the vaulting; but also appears to have -been preferred for other aesthetic reasons. - -Instances of continuous widening in straight lines are found in the -=Cathedral= and =Church of St. Ouen=, in =Rouen=. Continuous widening combined -with vertical curvature occurs at =Canterbury=; while the perpendicular -pier, combined with inclined vaulting-shafts, triforium and clerestories -is found in =Amiens= and =Rheims=. - -2. _Horizontal Curvature in Plan._ Where this occurs, one of five -methods is adopted. - -In the first, the piers are set on parallel curves, which consequently -are convex to the nave on one side and concave to the nave on the other. -In the second, both curves are concave to the nave, which thus widens -slightly from both ends toward the centre. In the third, both curves are -convex to the centre. In the fourth, the curves are parallel, but -reverse their direction at or near the choir, in the form of an -attenuated S, or “Hogarth’s line of beauty.” In all the above instances -the curves start at the bases of the piers and continue in the -triforium, clerestory and roof parapets; in certain cases being also -repeated in the outer aisle walls. - -The fifth system is connected with a special phase of the Widening. For, -in this case, the piers are set on a straight line and with the -triforium and clerestory are perpendicular from floor to ceiling. That -is to say, at the west end and the crossing; but, in between, from both -ends, the piers gradually lean outward with an increasing inclination -toward the centre of the nave. Thus result curves, concave to the -interior, which, however, since the bases of the piers are on straight -lines, are found only in the triforium, clerestory and parapet walls. -=Lichfield Cathedral= presents an example; =Rheims= another, but with a -difference. For while the widening in Lichfield begins at the pavement, -that of Rheims starts at the arcade capitals. - -3. _So-called Perspective illusions._ These were intended to emphasise -the effect of the choir and generally to increase the suggestion of size -and distance. This was accomplished in three ways. - -a. By making the nave arcade and the outside walls converge toward the -choir. - -b. By lowering the height of the arches as they approach the choir. - -c. By reducing the width of the arches as they approach the choir. - -The result of all these asymmetries is to create an impression of -elasticity in place of rigidity; an impression, in fact, of life; of the -flexible, varied movement of organic growth. - -[Illustration: - -PLAN OF AMIENS PLAN OF NOTRE DAME -The Perfect Plan of French Gothic - -BOTH PLANS ARE BASILICAN AND HAVE DOUBLE AISLES AND CHEVÊTS. BUT IN -AMIENS NOTE THE SERIES OF APSES AND THEIR COMPLICATED VAULTING. THE NAVE -VAULTING OF NOTRE DAME HAS SIX DIVISIONS IN EACH DOUBLE BAY; THAT OF -AMIENS IS TREATED IN A SINGLE BAY WITH FOUR DIVISIONS BY MEANS OF GROIN -RIBS AND POINTED ARCHES. P. 281] - -[Illustration: NOTRE DAME, PARIS - -EARLY TYPE] - -[Illustration: AMIENS CATHEDRAL - -TRANSITION TO RAYONNANT] - -[Illustration: RHEIMS CATHEDRAL - -UPPER PART MARKS TRANSITION TO FLAMBOYANT] - -[Illustration: ROUEN CATHEDRAL - -FLAMBOYANT] - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF NOTRE DAME - -NOTE THE CLASSIC CAPITALS. P. 281, ET SEQ.] - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL - -NOTE THE INCREASED SENSE OF ELASTICITY, GRACE AND SOARING. P. 281, ET -SEQ.] - -[Illustration: HOTEL DE BOURGTHEROULDE, ROUEN - -LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. NOTE HEXAGONAL TOWER] - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF RHEIMS CATHEDRAL] - -[Illustration: HOUSE OF JACQUES CŒUR - -NOW THE PALAIS DE JUSTICE, BOURGES. P. 286] - -[Illustration: SAINTE CHAPELLE, PARIS - -OWING TO THE SIZE OF THE WINDOWS, THE WALL SPACES ARE VIRTUALLY PIERS, -SUPPORTING THE VAULTING. P. 285] - - - - -CHAPTER III - -GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE - - -The Early French Gothic dates from about 1150 to 1275. It is the period -in which most of the great cathedrals were created and in most instances -with money contributed by the laity. Roughly speaking it begins with -=Notre Dame=, in =Paris=, and ends with the =Cathedral of Amiens=. - -=Notre Dame, Paris, and Amiens.=--The plan of Amiens is regarded as the -typical example of French cathedrals. Comparing it with that of Notre -Dame one observes that, while both are of the basilican type, the latter -is distinguished by having double side aisles enclosing the entire nave, -choir, and chevêt. The only other example of this is the =Cathedral of -Bourges=. In Notre Dame the transepts do not project beyond the aisles. -Further, in the vaulting of the nave the system is still one of square -bays, embracing two aisle bays, having six divisions in the vaulting. In -Amiens, however, the groin rib and pointed arch have taken the place of -the sexpartite plan and the bays are oblong. The elasticity of this -later system simplified the vaulting of the curved aisle of the chevêt, -whereas in Notre Dame the awkwardness of the rhomboidal spaces was -ingeniously evaded by dividing each into nearly equal triangles, which -could easily be vaulted. Note in both plans the disposition of the -buttresses in the outer walls. It is interesting to know that the area -of Notre Dame is about equal to that of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, -while that of Amiens is smaller, but the height of its nave is 140 feet -as compared with 80 at Karnak. - -=West Fronts.=--In all French cathedrals a special feature of the exterior -is the West Front, and a comparison of that of Notre Dame may well be -made with the façade of Amiens, which marks the transition to the second -style, the _Rayonnant_, and with that of Rheims, the upper part of which -marks the transition to the third style, _Flamboyant_. The design of all -three is constructively the same--a development of the Romanesque twin -towers, connected by an arcade, while a rose or wheel window is placed -above the central recessed door. The spires, which were intended to -crown the towers, were never built. How they would have affected the -appearance may be gathered from a comparison of the West Front of -=Cologne Cathedral=--a cathedral that is “completely French in plan, -uniting in one design the leading characteristics of the most notable -French Churches.” (Hamlin.) - -It is in the West Front of =Notre Dame= that the structural purport of the -design is most definitely pronounced. When we study the vertical -elements of the design, we note the division of the façade into three -vertical masses corresponding with the interior divisions of nave and -double aisles. The division is made by the buttresses which sustain the -longitudinal strain of the interior arcades and the outer walls and -insure the stability of the towers. And this stability is also -associated with a suggestion of upward growth, due to the three setbacks -in the profile of the buttresses; which setbacks, it is to be noted, -correspond to the three main horizontal divisions of the façade. - -The lowest is distinguished by massive simplicity; an effect of solid -masonry, the thickness of which is emphasised by the deeply recessed -door arches, while its simplicity is finely contrasted with the ordered -distribution of the sculptured enrichments. Greater diversity -characterises the second horizontal division. The openings present a -varied patterning of light and shade, while the arcading lends a -lightness of effect, echoing also the ordered repetition of the band of -figures below, and at the same time involving variety according as the -arcade is seen against the sky or is felt as a breastwork of the towers. -Lastly, there is a reassertion of the vertical direction in the masses -and coupled openings of the towers. - -And if the contrast of these several divisions delights us, what is to -be said of the balance that correlates these vertical and horizontal -features, these various values of form, of plain and ornamental work, of -light and shade, into a harmonious unity? It is the product of -structural logic and grandeur of feeling; and compared with the reserve -of its nobility the west front of Amiens, even the still finer one of -Rheims, may seem less impressive. In these, it will be noted, the depth -of the door recesses is increased by a pronounced offset in the lower -story of the buttress, into which the sculptured jambs of the doorways -merge, while the projection thus contrived is crowned with a canopy in -the nature of a porch. How does the division at Amiens of the second -story into two compare with the simple unity of the one in Notre Dame? -Or how does the latter’s arcade compare with the corresponding band at -Rheims of figures in arcaded niches, surmounted by ornate canopies? - -The answer will depend on one’s individual temperament; perhaps also on -one’s mood. It may seem to some that in Notre Dame the variety in unity -is worked out with more consciousness of the principles to be applied, -whereas in the other two façades there is a suggestion of freer and more -individual treatment. - -So much for the exteriors of these cathedrals. It is, however, when we -compare the interior of Notre Dame with that of Amiens, that we see in -what direction French Gothic was travelling. In the case of Amiens, it -is as if some power had pulled the older form upward into a slenderer, -more elastic fabric; less massive, possibly less stately, but also less -inert, infinitely alive in its inspiring growth, with grace of movement -as well as dignity. Notre Dame is still, as it were, anchored to the -comparative ponderousness of the Romanesque style. The round columns -with capitals of the Corinthian type still follow the model, though not -the proportions, of the Roman. Their effect of dumpiness is further -increased by the projecting half-round pilaster column that supports the -main member of the vaulting shaft. On the other hand, the clustered -piers at Amiens are slender, loftier in proportion to width; while a -simple logic of structural purpose is apparent in the three-quarter -attached shafts which carry the arches and aisle-vaults, and the main -shaft of the nave vaulting rises uninterruptedly from the ground. The -pier, in fact, operates as an abutting support to the members, which -actually sustain the arch and vaulting, and their relation to the pier -is asserted by the continuous _abacus_ which binds all lightly but -firmly together. A corresponding logical simplicity distinguishes the -four-part nave vaulting at Amiens, where the pressure is concentrated -equally on all the columns in succession without the need of -intermediate ones to carry the added transverse rib. - -Other great examples of the thirteenth century are the cathedrals of -=Laon=, =Chartres=, =Rouen=, =Beauvais=, =Auxerre=, =Bourges=, and =Le Mans=--the -last especially celebrated for its superb chevêt and flying -buttresses--and the =Collegiate Church= of =S. Quentin=. - -=Sainte Chapelle.=--The problem of concentration of strains was most -triumphantly solved in the _Sainte Chapelle_ (1242-1247) or Royal -Chapel, in Paris, in which the Gothic system of construction may be said -to have reached complete maturity. Here the vaulting is carried on -buttress-piers, and the spaces between the latter are entirely filled -with windows, 15 feet wide and 50 high. The structure below the vaulting -is literally a framework, a lantern for the display of the stained -glass; “a great translucent tabernacle merely ribbed and braced with -stone.” - -The influence of Sainte Chapelle affected French construction for half a -century and was developed to its furthest possible point in =S. Urban= at -=Troyes=, begun in 1260. - -=Second Period.=--This cathedral represents the transition into the second -period of French Gothic, which may be roughly placed at 1275 to 1375. -The principles of construction could be carried no further and the style -began to turn in on itself, the designers expending their invention on -elaboration of ornament. This period is called in France the -_Rayonnant_, from the raylike traceries that were introduced into the -rose-windows and from the prevalence of circular forms in windows -generally. The façade of =Amiens= is one of the best examples of the -style. - -=Third Period.=--By degrees the Rayonnant style passed into the so-called -_Flamboyant_, which lasted until the introduction of the Renaissance -style early in the sixteenth century. In it the principles of design -were gradually sacrificed to the multiplication of decorative details. -Constructive imagination disappeared in a maze of skilful elaboration. -The transition from Rayonnant to Flamboyant is shown in the upper part -of the west front of =Rheims=. Some of the finest memorials of this -period’s maturity are to be found in =Rouen=: namely the nave and central -tower of the =Church of S. Ouen=; the west portals of =S. Maclou= and the -façade of the =Cathedral=, the last being a late example in which the very -material of the stone seems to have dissolved into lace. Other instances -are the church of =S. Jacques= at =Dieppe=, =S. Wulfrand= at =Abbeville= and the -façade of the =Cathedral= of =Tours=. - -=Secular Gothic.=--Gothic architecture was not confined to cathedrals and -churches. Monasteries, hospitals, civic buildings, houses, and castles -were erected in profusion, especially during the fifteenth century, -though few survive to the present day. But a strikingly picturesque -monument is the monastery of =Mont-St.-Michel=, of thirteenth century -design, which clusters around the base of the Abbey Church, which was -built in the eleventh century and remodelled in the sixteenth. Among the -hospitals is that of =Chartres=. Rouen possesses a fifteenth century -example of civic architecture in the =Palais de Justice=. The home of a -great merchant prince of the same century is preserved in the =House of -Jacques Cœur= at =Bourges=, while the east wing of the =Château de Blois= -represents military architecture at the commencement of the sixteenth -century. - -[Illustration: SALISBURY CATHEDRAL - -NOTE THE FOUR-PART RIB-VAULTING OF THE NAVE, AND THE LIERNES IN THE -VAULT AT THE CROSSING. P. 294] - -[Illustration: NAVE OF NORWICH CATHEDRAL - -ROMANESQUE UP TO THE VAULTING: THE LATTER AN EXAMPLE OF FAN-VAULTING. P. -295] - -[Illustration: YORK MINSTER. WEST FAÇADE - -THE FINEST IN ENGLAND. LOWER PART EARLY DECORATED; UPPER LATE DECORATED; -TOWERS, PERPENDICULAR. P. 298] - -[Illustration: LINCOLN CATHEDRAL - -NOTE SCREEN EFFECT OF WEST FAÇADE. WESTERN TOWERS ARE ROMANESQUE UP TO -RIDGE OF ROOF; PERPENDICULAR ABOVE. P. 298] - -[Illustration: WEST FAÇADE OF WELLS CATHEDRAL - -P. 298] - -[Illustration: WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL - -BEAUTIFULLY SITUATED IN ITS CLOSE. P. 288] - -[Illustration: HENRY VII’S CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER - -EXAMPLE OF STELLAR AND PENDANT VAULTING. PP. 294, 295] - -[Illustration: TIMBER ROOF, WESTMINSTER HALL - -PP. 296, 297] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND AND WALES - - -The three periods of the Gothic style in Great Britain, corresponding -broadly to the Primary, Rayonnant, and Flamboyant, of France are the -Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. - -While the two later phases are distinguished, as in France, by the -character of the decorative details, they also involved in England a -certain development of constructive principles, particularly in the -matter of vaulting, and, as a result of this, in the shape of arched -openings. - -=Periods.=--The Early English style, also known as Lancet, First Pointed, -Early Plantagenet, or Thirteenth Century, lasted approximately from 1189 -to 1272, covering the reigns of Richard I, John, Henry III, and Edward -I. - -The Decorated, also known as Geometrical or Curvilinear, Middle Pointed, -Later Plantagenet, or Fourteenth Century, comprises the reigns of Edward -II, Edward III, 1307-1377. - -The Perpendicular, also called Rectangular, Late Pointed, or Fifteenth -Century, extends from 1377 to 1558, including the reigns of Richard III, -Henry VII, and Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Mary. It continued, that is to -say, through the period of the Reformation and Dissolution of -Monasteries, until it gradually became mixed with elements borrowed from -the Renaissance style. The style which prevailed from Henry VII to Mary -is sometimes specially designated Tudor. - -Unlike the French cathedrals, which were mostly erected for the secular, -that is to say non-monastic, clergy with funds provided by the laity, -the English were frequently attached to a Benedictine or Augustine -monastery. In consequence they retain some of the features of a monastic -establishment, especially the cloisters and chapter-house, or room for -the transaction of business by the bishop’s or abbot’s chapter -(council). - -According to the circumstances of their founding, the English cathedrals -are divided into three classes. - -=Three Classes of Cathedrals.=--I. Thirteen cathedrals of the Old -Foundation, which being served by secular canons, underwent no change of -control at the Reformation. Though not attached to monastic buildings -they have chapter-houses and in some cases cloisters. They include: in -England, =Chichester=, =Exeter=, =Hereford=, =Lichfield=, =Lincoln=, =S. Paul=, -=London=, =Salisbury=, =Wells=, =York=; and, in Wales, =Bangor=, =Llandaff=, =St. -Asaph’s=, and =St. David’s=. - -II. Cathedrals of monastic or New Foundation; so called because they -were originally attached to monasteries and at the dissolution of the -latter by Henry VIII were re-established under chapters of dean and -canons. They include seven, originally attached to Benedictine -Houses--=Canterbury=, =Durham=, =Ely=, =Norwich=, =Rochester=, =Winchester=, -=Worcester=, and one Augustine foundation--=Carlisle=. Further, they -comprise the following churches, converted into cathedrals by Henry -VIII--(Benedictine): =Chester=, =Gloucester=, =Peterborough=; (Augustine): -=Bristol= and =Oxford=. - -III. Cathedrals of Modern Foundation, converted Churches, =Birmingham=, -=Liverpool=, =Manchester=, =Newcastle=, =Ripon=, =St. Albans=, =Southwark=, -=Southwell=, =Truro=, =Wakefield=. - - -=Comparison with French.=--The study of English cathedrals is more -complicated than that of French, owing to the long period over which -their construction extended. Additions were made as funds permitted and -to meet the growing needs of the community, or restorations replaced -earlier buildings that had collapsed, as some did, or had been destroyed -by fire. Accordingly, each example is more or less an epitome of all the -phases of the Gothic style; often combined with Norman (Romanesque) and -also with fragments of Anglo-Saxon architecture. They are in a very full -sense an expression of the nation’s growth. - -English cathedrals differ from the French in being lower, longer, and -narrower. The extreme length of the plan is in France seldom more than -four times the width, whereas in England it sometimes reaches six times. -The square east end is characteristic; the transepts project further; -these are seldom double aisled and have few side chapels; the plan is -inclined to cruciform, and a prominent feature is a central tower over -the crossing, sometimes surmounted by a spire. The choir is -proportionately longer and occasionally projects into the crossing or -even a little way into the nave. At the east end of it is the -_presbytery_ or sanctuary; beyond which is a _retrochoir_, containing an -ambulatory or procession passage, one or more chapels to saints and a -_Lady Chapel_, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. The arcading is more -closely spaced than in French Cathedrals and generally the relation of -the parts is less large in character. The triforium in many cases is -highly elaborated; in some it is noticeably reduced and occasionally -omitted. - -The doorways are often placed on the north and south sides and provided -with porches. The windows, in the Early English Period, are either of -simple lancet form, used singly or grouped in pairs or threes, united -over the top by tracery; or the lights terminate at the top in trefoils -or cinquefoils, a heading rare in France known as _cusps_. Plate tracery -is comparatively rare in England, and the tracery of the Decorated -Period is of a geometric character. Gradually the tracery becomes more -flowing, including lines of double curvature, which somewhat resembles -the French Flamboyant. Finally in the Perpendicular Period, the pointed -arch of the window becomes flattened until it reaches the slight curve -of the so-called four-centre arch. The window is divided up into many -lights (nine in =King’s College Chapel=, =Cambridge=) by vertical mullions, -which in the larger examples are reinforced by horizontal transoms, thus -producing parallel rows of cusped lights, surmounted in the heading by -small replicas of the latter in several tiers--an arrangement somewhat -rigid and monotonous. - -The mouldings are generally richer and more varied than in French -cathedrals, and, owing to their being nearer to the eye, are wrought to -a greater refinement of finish. - -=Ornament.=--The characteristic ornament of the Early period is the -“dog-tooth” used profusely in hollow mouldings. The foliage is -conventionalised, crisply carved in bold curving and curling masses, -known as “stiff-leaf foliage,” which in the case of capitals sometimes -projects beyond the abacus. The flat surfaces of the walls are often -diapered. - -In the Decorated Period the characteristic ornament of hollow mouldings -is the “ball-flower”; but the “four-leaf flower” is frequently used. By -degrees other motives of ornament were drawn from ivy, oak, and vine -leaves; and the treatment grew more and more naturalistic. - -In the Tudor period the special ornament is the Tudor rose, two -concentric layers of five petals, symbolising the union of the Houses of -York and Lancaster. Other frequent motives are the portcullis and, in -reference to the continued claim of the English kings to the throne of -France, the fleur-de-lys. The traceries of the windows were repeated in -the panelling of the walls and in the elaborate choir and chancel -screens, which were a special feature of the period. - - -=Stained Glass.=--Stained glass played a very important part in the -embellishment of cathedrals and churches. York Minster presents an -opportunity of studying the progress of the art through some four -centuries, as it was practised, not only in England, but throughout -Europe. - -The early examples show the influence of the Byzantine enamellers. The -windows are filled with jewel-like patterns composed of small pieces of -glass, enclosed with lead-lines, like the “cloisons” in cloisonné -enamels. Gradually the figure subject becomes more pronounced; at first -in comparatively small medallions set in a frame of tracery, then -increasing in size until they become the leading motive. They are -surmounted by canopies, enriched with ornament, as in the sculptured -work of the period, and the character of the ornament reflects that of -the carving. - -It is interesting to note that until the sixteenth century no use was -made of painted glass. The material was what is known as “pot-metal”; -that is to say, glass dyed with colour while in a condition of flux. The -quality of these pieces of glass was translucent, permitting the passage -of light, though not transparent. However, the deep red of ruby was so -dense that the practice was adopted of fusing a layer of ruby on a layer -of colourless glass and then of grinding away portions of the ruby, so -as to brighten the mass by the contrast of white. In time this method of -“flashing,” as it was called, was extended to other colours. Further, -about the beginning of the fourteenth century it was discovered that a -solution of silver applied to glass would under the action of the firing -impart to it a “yellow stain.” Thus it was possible to infuse a yellow -into the whole or parts of the colourless glass, and to introduce yellow -into the “flashed” parts of blue and ruby, while the stain applied to -greyish blue produced delicate tones of green. - -Another process was developed; namely, the use of enamel paint. A -pigment composed of powdered coloured glass, mixed with some such binder -as glue, was applied with a brush, after which the glass was subjected -to a comparatively low degree of heat, sufficient to flux the pigment -and fuse it into the body of the material. At first the only colour -employed was brown, which being opaque in the firing was used for the -line of the drawing. It was even used for shading, the paint being -spread in gradations of thickness and, when dry, scraped off in parts -or reduced to a stipple of tiny dots, by the action of a stiff brush. -This process was also applied upon the yellow stain and comparatively -colourless glass (_grisaille_) to produce diapers of pattern and other -ornament. - -Finally, about the beginning of the sixteenth century, enamel paints of -other colours were employed, and painting _upon_ glass marks the last -stage in the European technique of window glass. While the colours, -unlike the opaque brown, were translucent, they lacked the brilliance -and purity as well as the richness and depth of pot metal. But by this -time, as in other kinds of decoration, the designers were absorbed with -details. A favourite task enforced upon them was the insertion of -heraldic insignia in the windows, and brushwork was the only method that -could reproduce the complicated devices of “quartering” the coats of -arms. Window decoration, in fact, had ceased to be an art of glass work -and become confused with the art of painting. The end of glass -decoration was completed when the window was filled with rectangular -panes of white glass, on which the painter depicted figures of saints or -symbolical nymphs, as Sir Joshua Reynolds, for example, did in the -windows of the ante-chapel of =New College=, =Oxford=. This masterpiece of -the trivial is popular, but represents a debased taste, founded upon a -complete ignorance of the glass-technique, for Sir Joshua called in to -his assistance a china painter! - -=Vaulting.=--The treatment of the roofing displays more variety in English -Gothic than in French. Wooden ceilings, which we will return to -presently, often replaced the vaulting and the latter also became -distinguished by elements that were only sparingly, if at all, employed -in France. The French, as we have noted, constructed the diagonal as -well as the longitudinal and transverse ribs with pointed profiles, so -that their vaults were domical. The English, on the contrary, frequently -used the half-circle for the diagonal ribs. Thus the vaults have level -tops or _ridges_, the latter being marked by ridge ribs. - -=Tiercerons.=--In England, during the thirteenth century, as in France, -the plain four-part ribbed vault was used, as in the naves of =Salisbury= -and =Gloucester=, and the aisles of =Peterborough=. Toward the end of the -century, however, came in the use of subordinate ribs, called -_tiercerons_. These were introduced between the transverse and diagonal -ribs, as may be seen in the nave vaulting of =Westminster Abbey=. Their -purpose was to decrease the pressure on the main ribs, and for their own -further security a _ridge_ rib was employed for them to abut on at the -top. - -=Liernes.=--During the Decorated Period of the fourteenth century a new -set of ribs were introduced, which were known as _Liernes_--holding or -binding ribs. The name was applied to any rib, other than the ridge rib, -that did not spring from an abacus. They were ornamental rather than -constructional and were freely employed to form a network of geometric -pattern over the vaulting. Meanwhile, although they increase the -apparent complexity of the vaulting, the actual constructive plan of the -latter is not affected and may be simply four part. Such multiplication -of ribs reduced the size of the intervening spaces or panels, whence -this kind of vaulting is sometimes called _rib and panel_. It is also -named _stellar_ vaulting from the star-shaped patterns produced by the -ribs. Examples are to be found in the choirs of =Gloucester=, =Wells=, =Ely=, -the nave of =Tewkesbury Abbey=, and the vaulting of =Winchester Cathedral=, -as rebuilt by William of Wykeham (1390). - -=Fan Vaulting.=--The development of the Perpendicular Period or Fifteenth -Century is that of _Fan Vaulting_, examples of which occur in =Henry -VII’s Chapel=, =Westminster=; =Divinity Schools=, =Oxford=; =King’s College -Chapel=, =Cambridge=; the =retro-choir=, =Peterborough=; =Gloucester Cathedral=, -and =St. George’s Chapel=, =Windsor=. In this type of vaulting the ribs are -all of equal curvature, and separated from one another by equal angles, -terminating at the top in a circular ridge, which leaves a series of -flat lozenge-shaped spaces. - -=Pendant Vaulting.=--A further development, often used in connection with -“Fan Vaulting,” as in Oxford Cathedral and Henry VII’s Chapel, is the -device known as _Pendant_ vaulting. It was at first adopted to sustain -the flat spaces of the vaulting and consisted of a stone support -suspended from an arch concealed above the vaulting. It was, in effect, -a prolonged keystone, and its lowest part formed a base from which to -build up. For by this time the old method of constructing ribs and -laying panels upon them had been abandoned, and the vaulting was -constructed of parts, interlocking like a Chinese puzzle. - -A beautiful feature of English vaulting occurs in the polygonal Chapter -Houses, in which the ribs radiate from a central column to the sides and -angles of the polygon. “If these vaults are less majestic than domes of -the same diameter, they are far more decorative and picturesque, while -the Chapter Houses themselves were the most striking and original -products of English Gothic. Every feature was designed with strict -regard for the structural system determined by the admirable vaulting -and the Sainte Chapelle was not more logical in its exemplification of -Gothic principles.” (Hamlin.) Among the finest examples are those of -=Westminster=, =Wells=, =York=, =Lincoln=, and =Salisbury=. - -=Open Wood Roofs.=--The Saxon use of timber construction survived as a -tradition and was developed by the Gothic builders, in the interior -roofs that sheathed the vaulting and with specially fine effect in the -ceiling-roofs of churches and halls. The simplest principle of it is the -so-called _tie-beam_ roof. In this, a succession of rafters slope up to -each side of a ridge beam and are prevented from spreading by beams that -tie them together at the foot. If the pitch of the roof were high, the -construction would be strengthened by a post supported on the centre of -the tie-beam, which is called a _King-post_. Instead of or in addition -to this, two posts might be erected between the centre and the ends of -the beams, known as _Queen-posts_. Each complete section of this -arrangement is called a _truss_. It might be further stiffened by -_struts_, that is to say cross pieces which, instead of tying the parts, -keep them from being drawn together. - -The next principle is the _trussed-rafter_ or _single-framed_ roof. -Since the transverse beam might interfere with the vaulting, it was -replaced by one or more cross-beams near the upper angle of the roof -known as _collars_. These might be further stiffened by braces, fixed -diagonally from the under side of the beam to the rafter. Further, short -struts or upright posts might be added near the lower angles, connecting -the rafters with short, horizontal pieces, attached to the ends of the -rafters and resting on the wall. These were called _sole-pieces_ and -represent what would be left if the intermediate part of the tie-beam -were sawn away. Sometimes an arched profile was secured by curving -braces fixed to the rafters and collars. Or the collars were omitted and -the curved braces were carried up to the ridge-beam, forming the variety -of roof styled _arch-braced_. Frequently this style of roof was sheathed -on its under side with boards decorated with ribs and bosses. - -The further development was the _hammer-beam_ roof, which came into -general use in the fifteenth century. The hammer-beam resulted from the -lengthening and thickening of the sole-piece and was supported by a -curved brace, connecting its under side with a vertical piece, attached -to the wall and hence called _the wallpiece_. The combination of this -construction with struts, collars, and curved braces produced the -magnificent effects to be seen in the roofs, for example, of =Westminster -Hall= and the =Hall= of the =Middle Temple=. - -=Exteriors.=--Unlike the French cathedral, which is apt to be crowded upon -by other buildings, the English usually stands amid smooth lawns and -shade trees--a secluded spot known as the “close,” around which are the -houses and gardens of the dean and canons. Cloisters also frequently add -to the spirit of quiet. Durham is superbly set upon a steep bluff above -the River Wear. In harmony with the charm of the setting a noble -picturesqueness characterises the English cathedral. Flying buttresses, -it is true, are little in evidence, owing to the comparative lowness of -the structure and to the fact that they are often concealed in the -aisles, but the façades, because of length of transepts and additions -of Retrochoir, Lady Chapel, Chapter House, Cloisters, Chantries, and so -forth, are more irregular than in the French. There is greater variety -of points of view; frequent surprise of vistas, while from near and far -the great central towers are features of impressiveness and grandeur, -and the occasional spires, the most beautiful of which is =Salisbury’s=, -are singularly sublime. - -On the other hand, the west fronts have not the special splendour of the -French cathedrals. Yet there are a few exceptions. That of =York Minster=, -for example, with its immense window and twin towers, is in respect of -size, decorativeness, and proportion a magnificent façade. Those, again, -of =Lichfield= and =Wells= are grand and beautiful, while the west fronts of -=Lincoln= and =Peterborough= are strikingly imposing and picturesque. - -Both the latter are virtually screens pierced with deeply recessed -openings that include windows above doors. The designs are arresting and -boldly picturesque, but arbitrary in invention. For the façades, being -applied to the building and not growing out of its internal purpose, -lack the dignity of logical arrangement and, moreover, are deficient in -proportion of parts and harmonious unity. - -=Interiors.=--Grand picturesqueness, also, rather than ordered grandeur, -characterises the English interiors. Lower and narrower than the French, -and longer, they have not their stately unity and sublime simplicity. -But their very length and the closer intercolumniation of the pillars -and the ampler size of the transepts present a greater variety of -vistas. And the picturesqueness is also increased by the variety and -superior elaboration of the vaulting and the profusion of decorative -features, the frequent use of black Purbeck marble in the cluster -columns, the number of fine mouldings on the arches, the richness and -variety of design in the triforium and clerestory, the wealth of carved -ornament in the wooden screens and choir-stalls, and the marble -enrichments of the numerous tombs. On the other hand, though an English -Cathedral is more decorative architecturally, it lacks the warmth and -colour that the embellishments of a Roman Catholic ritual impart to the -French examples. - -=Secular Examples.=--The interest of English Gothic extends beyond -cathedrals to the profusion of edifices--chapels, churches, colleges, -hospitals, and almshouses--that stud the country. Oxford presents a mine -of study; Cambridge has its splendid examples; there are Royal Chapels -of magnificence, such as =St. George’s Chapel, Windsor=; and town churches -of extraordinary beauty, while scarce a village, however tiny and -remote, but has an architectural treasure in its little church, -sheltering the graves of its quiet “God’s Acre.” - -The homes of the nobles, during the Norman Period, had been frankly -armed castles, including an outer “bailey” or court, an inner bailey, -and a donjon or keep, surrounded by a moat and ramparts. In the -fifteenth century the idea of domesticity increased, other buildings for -various uses clustered round the main ones and the hall became the -centre of the life of the inmates. At first there was a central -fireplace, where the logs were piled on dogs, the smoke escaping through -a flue or opening in the ceiling. The need of protecting this led -gradually to the erection on the roof of a lantern-like turret, -technically known as a _louver_, which became a characteristic feature -of the exterior of a hall, even after the central fireplace had been -moved to one of the walls and connected with a chimney. By this time -the fireplace had grown to be the distinctive feature of the hall, -embellished with a massive carved chimney-piece, around which the lord -and his lady and guests gathered, while the house-fool laboured at his -quips, or some wandering minstrel regaled the family with song or story, -while the retainers of the establishment sat in the outer ring on the -rush-strewn floor. For the hall was the common dining-room and -recreation centre of the whole establishment, and on a dais at one end -stood the high table at which the family and guests were served at -meals, the retainers occupying the body of the hall. A salt-cellar was -conspicuous in front of the lord, symbol of hospitality and also of -class distinction, since the persons of “inferior quality” were -entertained “below the salt.” In earlier times the hall also served as a -sleeping place for the retainers. - -By degrees, however, as ideas of comfort and privacy increased, this -habit was abandoned. Withdrawing rooms or bowers opened from the dais of -the hall for the private use of the lord and lady, and bedroom -accommodation was improved. And the progress toward greater domesticity -was assisted by the discovery of gunpowder, which rendered the old -system of fortification useless for defensive purposes, so that the idea -of a castle was gradually superseded by that of a mansion. - -[Illustration: RATISBON CATHEDRAL - -P. 302] - -[Illustration: STRASBURG CATHEDRAL - -P. 302] - -[Illustration: TOWN HALL OF MUNSTER - -P. 305] - -[Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF S. GUDULE, BRUSSELS - -P. 307] - -[Illustration: COLOGNE CATHEDRAL - -P. 302] - -[Illustration: CLOTH HALL OF YPRES - -OLDEST OF THE GUILD HALLS (1304). P. 307] - -[Illustration: TOWN HALL, LOUVAIN - -P. 307] - -[Illustration: TOWN HALL, BRUSSELS - -THE EARLIEST OF THE FLEMISH GOTHIC HALLS (1377). P. 307] - -[Illustration: ANTWERP CATHEDRAL - -P. 308] - -[Illustration: MECHLIN CATHEDRAL] - -[Illustration: TOLEDO CATHEDRAL - -NOTE THE CORO, OCCUPYING THE THREE LAST BAYS OF THE NAVE, AND -OBSTRUCTING VIEW OF THE SANCTUARY BEYOND THE CROSSING. PP. 308, 309] - -[Illustration: BURGOS CATHEDRAL - -OPEN-WORK SPIRES RECALL COLOGNE. P. 308] - - - - -CHAPTER V - -GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, AND SPAIN - - -In Germany the Romanesque style had been developed on lines so -monumental that the architects were slow to abandon it for the Gothic. -Accordingly, while the French and English worked out the constructive -principles that produced a new style, the Germans were content to borrow -its features, especially as represented in the French cathedrals. They -were drawn to this imitation through the commercial relations which -existed by way of Burgundy between the cities of Germany and Northern -France. For at the commencement of the thirteenth century the cities -played a most important rôle in the political as well as the economic -life of Germany. - -Kings and emperors, recognising the value of their support, had -conferred special privileges upon them, which in times of confusion they -had themselves increased until they were practically self-governing. -Their power rivalled that of the duchies, countships, and other -governments which made up the fluctuating aggregation of authorities -comprised in the empire. Moreover, the cities had increased their power -by combinations. The most important of these were the Rhenish -Confederation and the Hanseatic League of German merchants, the latter -extending its activities to points outside of Germany, as far distant as -London and Novgorod. - -Another phase of the prominence of cities lay in the fact that they -were frequently the sees of Archbishops, who were fiefs of the empire -and vied with other feudal lords in political importance. Meanwhile, -this period was marked by a revival of culture. “It was a period of -great men and great ideas, of dramatic contrasts of character; on the -one side a broad humanitarianism combined with a gay enjoyment of the -world and on the other an almost superhuman spirituality that sought its -ideal in a rejection of all the world could give.” It was the age of the -Minnesinger and of the rise of the Friars; an age, too, in which the -voice of the laity was raised on behalf of purity of religion and -religious tolerance. This higher spirit of the time found expression -both in literature and architecture, and, though in the latter field -some noble palaces and castles were created, the chief glory is to be -found in the cathedrals and town-halls--the embodiment of the religious -and civic life of the burghers. - -The examples of German Gothic cathedrals are few as compared with those -in France and England. Of the three finest--=Strasburg=, =Ratisbon=, -=Cologne=--the last is the most magnificent and is also the largest of all -Mediæval cathedrals after =Seville= and =Milan=. Its plan is derived from -Amiens, while the edifice embraces the chief features of many French -cathedrals and is, in fact, an epitomised imitation of French Gothic. - -=Cologne.=--Meanwhile, there is a German legend of the origin of the -design, which is interesting for the light it throws on the Mediæval -spirit. While the architect, bidden by the archbishop to build the -noblest shrine in Christendom, sat beside the river pondering, an old -man approached him and, having traced in the sand a plan, immediately -obliterated it. But the architect had seen enough to know that the plan -was the one that was dawning in his mind yet still eluded him. When the -old man consented to give it and moreover promised the master-builder a -life of fame and riches, demanding only his soul in recompense, the -master-builder’s eyes were opened and he cried “Get thee behind me, -Satan.” Then he told his confessor, who contrived a scheme whereby the -devil might be circumvented. Satan had promised to return, bringing the -plan. The master-builder kept the appointment and, snatching the -precious document with one hand, in the other brandished a fragment of -the True Cross. “I am vanquished!” exclaimed Satan; “but you shall reap -no benefit, through your treachery. Your name will be forgotten and your -work will never be completed.” - -Time, however, discounted the Devil’s curse, for the cathedral was -completed during the nineteenth century. It had been begun in 1270 and -in all the additions subsequently made the original design was adhered -to. Hence =Cologne= presents a very remarkable example of structural -unity; and, by the same token, a rather chill precision, product of -imitation, instead of a growth which reflects the changing style of -successive centuries. - -The plan, as at Amiens, includes double side-aisles and a chevêt of -seven apses and an ambulatory, but its transepts are extended by an -extra bay and one bay of the nave is included in the western entrance. -Here the German fondness for towers and spires, already noted in their -Romanesque architecture, finds expression in twin towers, crowned with -spires of openwork tracery. This last feature is a characteristic of -German Gothic. The transition from the tower to the spire is admirably -arranged so as to enforce the function and beauty of each; and the -effect should be compared with that of =S. Stephen, Vienna=. In the latter -the transition is more gradual, so that the spire seems to start from -the ground and, notwithstanding the splendour of the whole, “it lacks -the vigour and accent” that a better definition of tower and spire -produces. - -=S. Stephen= is an example of the so-called “Hall Church,” in which the -nave and aisles are of equal height. This typically German feature, seen -also in =S. Lambert, Hildesheim=, =S. Quentin, Mainz=, and =S. Elizabeth, -Marburg=, abolishes the clerestory and triforium and thus dispenses with -flying buttresses. It reduces the importance of the nave and, while -giving the interior an impression of superior spaciousness, minimises -the variety and picturesqueness of the vistas. The nave and aisles are -covered on the exterior by a single roof of high pitch. - -The German builders made up for their lack of originality by extreme -skill of handicraft, which tended to over-elaboration and a merely -mechanical excellence. This was displayed in the increasing intricacy of -the window traceries, which were more regarded than the proportions of -the window openings. Thus, an excessive height was given to the -clerestory windows and in many cases the opening is too narrow for its -height. A characteristic which often appears is the _double tracery_; -that is to say, the employment of tracery on both the outer and the -inner wall surfaces. - -Piers usually take the place of columns and are treated as lofty posts -for the support of the vaulting, their surfaces being frequently -indented with niches bearing statues. The vaultings are quite often -distinguished by complicated ribs, which, however, are not employed so -constructively as in England, but rather as decorative details. The -mouldings show a steady growth away from simplicity toward increased -complexity, until in the fifteenth century occurs the characteristic -feature of “inter-penetration.” In this two separate sets of moulding -are interwoven, alternately appearing and disappearing in and out of the -same stone. Where foliage is thus used with intertwining branches the -forms are treated naturalistically; and this aptitude for exact -imitation led also to the occasional abandonment of the more formal -tracery of windows in favour of “branch tracery” or the representation -of branches of trees--another instance of preoccupation with technical -execution rather than with design. - -While the stained glass is good, the iron-work is a special -characteristic of German ornamentation. Another typical feature is the -Tabernacle for enshrining the Host. It is a structure of stone or wood, -standing independent of the altar, rising to a considerable height in -the form of a tower and spire, richly decorated. - -In the north, as at Lübeck and neighbouring cities in the valley of the -Elbe, the lack of stone led to the use of brick, and the substitution of -moulded and coloured brickwork for sculptured ornament. - - -=Secular Buildings.=--The most famous of the Gothic castles is =Marienburg= -in Prussia, including the chapel and chapter house and the Great Hall of -the Order of the German Knights. Other examples are =Heilsberg=, in =East -Prussia= and the =Albrechtsburg= at =Meissen= in Saxony. Among the finest of -the Town Halls are those of =Ratisbon=, =Brunswick=, =Halberstadt=, -=Hildesheim=, and =Munster=, and the brick examples of =Breslau= and =Lübeck=. -In domestic architecture the roofs were carried to a remarkable height, -consisting of several stories lighted by dormer windows; the space being -utilised for storage and the drying of linen in the monthly wash. And a -picturesque diversity is given to the character of the streets according -as these roofs run parallel to it or at right angles. In the latter case -the gables mount up with stepped outlines, and often are decorated with -frescoed paintings. - - -NETHERLANDISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE - -The Gothic architecture of the Netherlands appears at its finest in -Belgium, where it is distinguished by a mingling of French and German -influence. The latter is to be accounted for chiefly by the trade -relations which existed between the great commercial cities of Germany -by way of the Rhine, with such centres of commerce as Louvain, Brussels, -Ghent, Antwerp, Mechlin (Malines), Ypres, and Bruges. On the other hand, -the province of Flanders came under the French influence through the -marriage of Margaret of Flanders with the first Duke of the French royal -house of Valois, whose successors gradually brought the whole of Belgium -under their rule. Further, the Abbey of Noyon early established close -relations with that of Tournai, and in this way the religious -architecture of France penetrated Belgium. Owing to their pre-eminence -in weaving the Netherlandish cities became the most prosperous of the -period and this is reflected in the florid decoration of the later -ecclesiastical building, as well as in the magnificent Town, Trade, and -Guild Halls, which are the special distinction of Netherlandish -architecture. - -=Guild Halls.=--They present a general similarity of character. The -façades mount in several stories, which are defined by bands of ornament -or string-courses and pierced with rows of pointed windows. These are -framed with rich traceries of carved work and separated by canopied -niches, designed for and often filled with statues. The façades -terminate at the spring of the roof in an adaptation of the Romanesque -arcaded eaves, which occasionally project like a continuous balcony, -while balconies with traceried parapets often decorate the gabled -fronts. The corners of the façade are occupied by towers, frequently -carried above the line of the eaves, in pinnacle-like structures, the -stories of which are marked by balconies. The roofs have a steep pitch -and are enriched with dormer windows and decorated chimneys. - -The oldest of these beautiful edifices is the Cloth Hall of =Ypres=, -erected in 1304, while other notable examples are those of =Louvain=, -=Mechlin=, =Ghent=. The earliest of the Town Halls is the imposing one of -=Brussels= (1377), distinguished by its graceful tower and spire. The -right to attach a belfry or beffroi to a town hall was a special -privilege, granted by charter, and the bell-towers of Netherlandish -cities are among their most picturesque features. That of =Bruges=, which -forms the theme of one of Longfellow’s poems, is famous in the annals of -the city. It surmounts the central mass of a façade plainer than those -described above, offering more wall spaces and representing another type -of Gothic façade peculiar to the Netherlands. - -=Ecclesiastical Buildings.=--The earliest example of Gothic work in -ecclesiastical buildings is said to be the choir of the =Cathedral of S. -Gudule in Brussels.= =Tournai Cathedral=, erected between 1146 and 1338, -illustrates three successive periods. The nave is Romanesque; the -apse-ended transepts mark the transition stage, and the choir, with its -complete chevêt, the fully developed Gothic. But the largest and most -magnificent cathedral of the Netherlands is that of =Antwerp=, -distinguished by three aisles of equal height on each side of the lofty -nave and by narrow aisleless transepts. The west front, flanked by -towers, one of which has been completed by a spire of extreme richness -and grace, belongs to that later period (1422-1518) when the taste for -decoration had become somewhat florid. Other notable =Cathedrals= are -those of =Ghent=, =Bruges=, =Ypres=, =Utrecht=, and of =Haarlem= and =Dordrecht= in -Holland.[7] - - -SPANISH GOTHIC - -It was in the north of Spain, following the gradual destruction of the -Moorish rule and the replacing of the Crescent with the Cross, that -Gothic art took root. The time is the thirteenth century, when Ferdinand -(1217-1252), canonised as saint, united the kingdoms of Leon and -Castile, and James, called the Conqueror (1213-1276), carried the -conquest through to the east so that only Granada remained in the grip -of the Infidel. - -While it is supposed that Moorish workmen were employed in the -cathedrals, the designs were derived from French examples, with certain -borrowings from the German. Thus the original of =Leon Cathedral= was -Amiens, from which, however, it differs in the larger area of its window -spaces; while Notre Dame was the model for the Cathedrals of =Toledo= and -=Barcelona=; and the west front of =Burgos=, with its openwork spires, -recalls Cologne. - -Among the characteristic features of Spanish cathedrals are: the -occasional use of cloisters; the excess of width in proportion to the -length; the use of a _cimborio_ or lantern over the crossing; the -placing of the choir or _coro_ west of the chancel, so that it occupies -the centre of the edifice and with its high enclosures blocks the vistas -in all directions; an elaborate treatment of the vaulting, prompted by -decorative rather than structural considerations, and a general -tendency, especially in the later work, toward excessive embellishment. - -The largest cathedral in Spain, the largest, indeed, of all mediæval -cathedrals, is =Seville=, which was erected on the site of a mosque. It -has four side aisles, each of which corresponds in height and width to -the nave of Westminster Abbey, yet the length of its nave is little more -than that of the latter’s. =Toledo=, again, has four aisles and a nave, -recalling the plan of Bourges, which it follows in length, though it is -wider by fifty feet. - -=Retablos, Rejas.=--Among the distinctive features of the interior -decorations of a Spanish cathedral are the _retablo_ and _reja_. The -former, a reredos, erected behind the great altar, reaches immense -dimensions, often occupying the full width of the nave and rising as -high as the vaulting, embellished with sculpture. This is apt to be -grossly naturalistic and violently dramatic or sensational, representing -colossal figures, sprawling amid marble clouds and sunrays of gilded -metal. Far more beautiful are the _rejas_ or lofty grill-screens, upon -which the skill of Moorish metal-workers or the skill derived from their -traditions, is lavished with extraordinary fertility of design; a -special device being the enrichment of the vertical bars by the -insertion of canopied figures. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY - - -We have already noted that the rib-vault, which made possible the -development of Gothic architecture in the Ile de France, originated in -Lombardy. But the Italian builders used the rib solely as a structural -convenience, not recognising either its further structural or its -æsthetic possibilities. Accordingly, when the Gothic style appeared in -Italy, it was imported thither by northern, usually German, architects. - -=General Character.=--Nor did the style, as employed in Italy, preserve -the grandeur or purity of the northern type. The sunny climate did not -invite the large openings that had become a distinction of the true -Gothic. The windows were small, with little tracery, while the walls, -being in consequence more solid, did not need the same enforcement with -buttresses. Structurally, therefore, the walls are uninteresting, and -are regarded as surfaces to be made attractive by applied decoration. -Further, the Italian builder was everywhere influenced by the classic -tradition. He clung to the round arch, even while he employed the -pointed; frequently resorted to the Roman acanthus and Corinthian -capital as decorative features; felt his columns as columns rather than -as piers logically connected by the shafting to the vaulting, and in the -vaulting confined his design to the main ribs, instead of enriching it -with minor ones. In fact, he used the style without the structural logic -and adventurous - -[Illustration: SIENA CATHEDRAL - -NOTE HALF COLUMNS ATTACHED TO THE PIERS. SEXAGOXAL DOME OVER THE -CROSSING; PULPIT BY THE PISANI--MARBLE PAVEMENT WITH GRAFFITO DESIGNS.] - -[Illustration: MARBLE FAÇADE OF SAN MINIATO, FLORENCE - -P. 246] - -[Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF FLORENCE AND CAMPANILE - -BEHIND THE LATTER SHOWS THE BAPTISTRY. PP. 311, 312, 342] - -[Illustration: DOGE’S PALACE, VENICE - -P. 315] - -[Illustration: WEST FAÇADE ORVIETO CATHEDRAL - -MARBLE VENEER, MOSAICS AND SCULPTURE FORM SUPERB POLYCHROME DECORATION. -P. 311] - - -[Illustration: SIENA CATHEDRAL, CAMPANILE ATTACHED - -FAÇADE RED, BLACK AND WHITE MARBLE, RICHLY SCULPTURED; MOSAICS MODERN. -P. 311] - -[Illustration: MILAN CATHEDRAL - -NOTE HOW THE FAÇADE SUGGESTS THE GERMAN USE OF INCLUDING NAVE AND AISLES -UNDER A SINGLE HIGH-PITCHED ROOF. P. 313] - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF MILAN CATHEDRAL - -SHOWING CANOPIED FIGURES ABOVE THE CAPITALS. P. 314] - -enthusiasm of the truly Gothic architect. He treated the edifice as a -shell to be enriched with decoration. - -In the interior, the walls and vaultings offered surfaces for painting. -When this was accomplished as, for example, in the frescoes by Cimabue, -Giotto, and others in the =Church of S. Francis= in =Assisi=, by Giotto in -the =Arena Chapel, Padua=, and the chapels of the =Perozzi= and =Bardi= in =S. -Croce, Florence=, and in =S. Maria Novella=, possibly by Taddeo Gaddi, or -at any rate by some painter of the school of Giotto, the effect is -incomparably resplendent. Where, however, as in the =Cathedral of -Florence=, frescoes are missing, the appearance is cold and barren; -redeemed somewhat, it is true, in this case by the colossal dimensions -and sense of spaciousness. - -For the exteriors reliance was placed upon applied embellishments. The -side walls, for example, of =Florence= are veneered with marble; those of -=Siena= and =Orvieto= with horizontal stripes of black and white masonry. -But this colour decoration is a poor substitute for the structural -enrichments, the traceried windows, flying buttresses, and mounting -roofs of the true Gothic. - -The Italians concentrated chief ornateness on the west façade; the most -celebrated examples being those of =Siena= (1243-1284) and =Orvieto= (1290). -They present elaborate compositions of vari-coloured marble, charmingly -diversified, nicely balanced, sumptuously elegant and graceful. But -compare, for example, Siena with, say, Rheims or Amiens, and how it -sinks into insignificance! - -In the French examples the pointed door-arches start an upward movement -which is continued to the top in the organic relations of the parts to -one another and to the interior arrangement. But in the Siena façade, -the round arches hold the eye down; for their feeling is not repeated -in the upper part, which, notwithstanding the gables, turrets, finials, -and culminating gable, has no suggestion of growth-up, but is rather a -geometric design of curves and triangles, horizontals and verticals, -carried up to a height. It is not organically structural; it is a -built-up pattern. The designer was a sculptor--Giovanni Pisano. - -=Campanile.=--The campanile is usually attached to the building. In place -of string courses and mouldings are alternate courses of black and white -masonry; the sole contrast being supplied by the rectangular window -openings, which, possibly to offset the diminishing effect of -perspective, increase in number upwards. The low spire is typically -Italian Romanesque. - -Fine examples of the period are to be found in Verona, Mantua, and -Pistoia, while the most beautiful is that of =Florence=, designed and -begun by Giotto and completed after his death by Andrea Pisano. It is -distinguished from other bell-towers of the Italian Gothic by the -projections which mark its four stories and the bold cornice with -machicolated ornament. The surface is further varied with geometric -designs, composed of coloured marbles; while the windows are embellished -with tracery of an elementary design, corresponding to that of the -adjoining Cathedral windows. The sides of the lowest story, broken only -by a small light, are enriched with statues and bas-reliefs, some of -which were designed by Giotto and executed partly by him and partly by -Andrea Pisano, others being added later by Luca della Robbia. In -character of subjects they correspond to the selections at Amiens from -the Encyclopædia of Vincent of Beauvais. Ruskin says of this building -that it is the only one in the world, so far as he knows, in which the -characteristics of Power and Beauty exist “in their highest possible -relative degrees.” But power is a term that connotes varied qualities to -different minds; and still more different to various temperaments and -experiences is the term beauty. Perhaps if he had said that it combined -strength and grace, or stability and tenderness, it would be easier to -appreciate his judgment. For Giotto’s Campanile has an exquisiteness -allied to dignity which is characteristic of Italian Gothic at its best, -yet to the taste of many will ill compare with the vigour of the French -and English styles. - -Suggestive of the persistence of the Romanesque style during the Gothic -period the most notable instance is the =Certosa=, or Church of the -Carthusian Order, in =Pavia=. The façade and lantern over the crossing are -Renaissance additions; otherwise this splendid edifice, constructed of -brick and terra-cotta, is, except for the Gothic refinement of the -rib-vaulting, purely Romanesque. A gift to the monastery by Duke Gian -Galeazzo Visconti, it was begun in 1396, nine years after this patron of -art and letters had begun to build =Milan Cathedral=, the most important -example in Italy of the Gothic style. - -Yet =Milan= involves peculiarities that may be due to the dissensions of -the Italian architects with the German and French who were called in at -various times to collaborate in the work. So strong a German influence -is perceptible in both the character and details, that the main design -has been attributed to Heinrich of Grund. Constructed entirely of white -marble, the exterior is distinguished not so much by structural grandeur -as by decorative richness. The windows, said to be the largest in any -Gothic Cathedral, have intricate and lace-like tracery; the walls are -panelled with vertical string courses; the buttresses embellished with -canopied niches, holding statues; lace-like again is the enrichment of -the parapets of the roofs, while from them rises a forest of spiring -finials, surmounted by the marble spire which was designed in 1440 by -Brunelleschi. - -And in the interior, also, organic relation is sacrificed to imposing -display and delight in embellishment. The dominating feature is the -avenue of nave columns, nine on each side. They are 12 feet in diameter, -over 100 feet high, and crowned above their capitals with a cluster of -canopied niches, containing statues--a German feature. The columns -isolate themselves in the design; count only as an avenue of columns, -while their immense size dwarfs the height of the vaulting, the more so -that the height of the side aisles made a triforium impossible, and -reduced the clerestory to insignificant proportions, with mean small -windows. And the impression of squatness in the vaulting is increased by -the rupture which the canopied niches make between the pier shafts and -vault ribs. Upward growth is arrested; organic relation violated by a -merely decorative intrusion. To realise fully the diminution of -structural impressiveness thereby produced, one may compare the Milan -interior with that of Amiens or St. Ouen in Rouen. - -=Secular Gothic.=--It was in their secular architecture that the Italians -used the Gothic with the greatest freedom. The official buildings of -this period, when the government of the cities and communes still -preserved a popular form, comprised the city hall or _podesta_ and the -council hall, which was variously known as the _palazzo publico_, -_palazzo communale_ or _palazzo del consiglio_. - -The most important example of a podesta is the =Palazzo Vecchio= in -=Florence=, which was designed, 1298, by Arnolfo di Cambio, the first -architect of the Cathedral. We shall study it later in comparison with -the beginnings of the Renaissance (p. 358). Opposite to it stands the -=Loggia dei Lanzi=, an example of the open-air tribunes erected for -popular ceremonies. Built in 1376 by the architects Benci di Cione and -Simone di Talenti, its design is rather Romanesque than Gothic. Its name -is derived from the fact that it was used as a guard house by the German -spearmen of Cosimo I, after he had usurped the government of Florence -and established his residence in the Palazzo Vecchio. - -The finest examples of Gothic domestic architecture are to be found in -the northern cities, =Florence=, =Pisa=, =Siena=, =Bologna=, and particularly in -=Venice=, where the immunity from social disorder and outside attack, -combined with commercial prosperity, encouraged a more luxurious mode of -living. We shall refer to the =Ca d’Oro= as a type of the Gothic Venetian -palace of a merchant prince, in the chapter on the Early Renaissance (p. -360). Here let us study the =Ducal= or =Doge’s Palace=, which adjoins St. -Mark’s, the two buildings, one civil and the other religious, -representing in visible union, the mind and the soul of Venice. - -=Doge’s Palace.=--Instead of preserving the suggestion of a mediæval -fortress as the Palazzo Vecchio does, the centre of Venetian authority -is a palace, designed to represent the grandeur of the city’s destiny -and to provide a setting for sumptuous civil functions and the -ceremonial entertainment of ambassadors and other distinguished guests. -The building, since it was founded in 800, thirty years before the -founding of St. Mark’s, has undergone many vicissitudes; five times -destroyed by fire and on each occasion rebuilt with greater -magnificence, so that the present design is a composite of Gothic and -Renaissance. - -The Gothic is chiefly represented in the magnificent loggia, which -comprises two open arcades, ranging along two fronts, facing, -respectively, the Piazzetta and the Lagune. The lower arcade consists of -pointed arches, resting on circular columns, the shafts of which are of -stumpy proportions and rise directly from the pavement without bases. -The capitals, carved with foliage, figures, and animals, combine to an -unusual degree richness of design with delicacy of execution, while that -of the corner column, which is surmounted by a group of Adam and Eve, is -described by Ruskin in his “Stones of Venice” as being, in respect of -workmanship and the grouping of the foliage, the finest he knows in -Europe. The upper arcade is composed of twice the number of columns, -which again have circular shafts without bases, but are proportionately -taller and more graceful. They support trefoiled arches, whose ogee -curves slide up into a series of circles pierced with quatrefoils--a -combination of tracery characteristically Venetian; as indeed, is the -mingled massiveness and elegance of the whole design. - -This double arcade must have presented a still finer effect in the -original design when it stood clear of the main façade. For the -advancing of the upper part to the arcade line, which dates from a -restoration after a fire in the fifteenth century, produces an effect of -top-heaviness. Moreover, its direct juxtaposition with the elaborateness -of the arcade accentuates the contrast, presented by the severe -simplicity of the surface, patterned with red, white, and black marbles, -and meagrely pierced with windows. - - - - -BOOK VI - -THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD - - - - -CHAPTER I - -RENAISSANCE CIVILISATION - - -In the early years of the fourteenth century a new spirit became -manifest in art. It showed itself, for example, in the sculpture that -embellishes Amiens and Chartres, in the bronze doors of the Baptistry of -Florence by Andrea Pisano, and in the painting and sculpture of Giotto. -It is supremely manifested in the poetry of Dante. - -All of these works belong to the Gothic period. The soul in them is -still composed of the faith and knowledge of the Mediæval mind and -imagination; but the form in which the soul is enshrined has become less -generalised, abstract, and symbolical; it has become more -individualised, concrete, naturalistic. In a word, it has become more -humanised. - -It represents a change of attitude toward life; a disposition to regard -the world, no longer exclusively or chiefly in relation to a future -existence, but as the scene of human endeavour, human aspirations, human -emotions. It represents a renewed consciousness on the part of Man of -his own Humanity. In a word, the thought of the world was gradually -evolving from the scholastic attitude of the Middle Ages to the -_Humanistic_ spirit, which was the breath of life of the Renaissance. - -At first the movement groped. The thinker and the artist, while intent -upon the study of life, were ignorant of exact methods of study. These -were gradually learned through the rediscovery of the Greek and Roman -classics. The Rebirth, in fact, which is metaphorically suggested in -the term Renaissance, was the result of the spread of the humanistic -spirit and the “Revival of Learning”; and, in recognition of this, -Classic literature was called “Litteræ Humaniores,” the students of the -Classics were called Humanists, and Humanism is the term often applied -to the whole movement. - -The movement was one that affected the whole fabric of civilisation, for -it involved no less than the self-emancipation of the human intellect -and will. The human will began to free itself from the shackles of -dogmatism and the domination of absolute authority, whether exercised by -the Church or by civil rulers. The human intellect gradually freed -itself from the subtleties and sophistries of the “Schoolmen,” ceased to -speculate on abstract questions, such as the language spoken by the -angels, and how many angelic beings could be supported on the point of a -pin, and began to apply itself to the exact study of what was actually -within the reach of human experience or research. And for this exactness -of study the Revival of Learning laid the foundation, because the -students of the Classics learned to collate the various manuscripts, -comparing them critically so as to discover the correct reading, and -were also obliged to compile grammars and dictionaries--in fact, to -construct from the ground up, a fabric of reliable knowledge and at the -same time a system of education. It was a process that encouraged both -exact and critical research. - -Meanwhile, before the Revival of Learning could make itself a force, -there had been other influences which prepared the way for emancipation -from the despotism of authority. The Middle Ages had been dominated by -two authorities, the Church and the Holy Roman Empire. The former, as we -have seen in a previous chapter, was the sole agency to introduce -organisation into the chaos that succeeded the fall of the Roman Empire. -It gradually subdued the barbarian conquerors not only to a semblance of -religious fellowship but also to some degree of social order, and -further fostered the latter by throwing the weight of its influence on -the side of popular rights. - -On the other hand, the attempt of Charlemagne to revive the magnificence -and the authority of a Roman Emperor had been directly to force upon the -various racial divisions of Europe the yoke of a political despotism, -under the sanction of the Church’s co-operation. The Holy Roman Empire -was an arbitrary and artificial union of unmixable elements and did not -survive the death of its founder. The central authority could not hold -in check the ambition and power of local authorities. The Frankish group -fell apart from the Germanic groups across the Rhine. The authority of -succeeding emperors was confined to the east of the Rhine and had to -meet the growing opposition of the Feudal system. The result was a -continual clash of authorities, in which all parties intrigued for the -assistance of the Church, so that the Papal authority also was drawn -into the struggle for civil power, thereby weakening its prestige in -religious and social directions. - -The outcome of the prolonged embroilment was the gradual consolidation -of peoples into nationalities. France, England, and Germany emerged as -separate unities, each drawn into a whole by racial similarities and -local self-interest. The dream of a centralised and absolute authority, -whether civil or religious, was slowly replaced by the practical policy -of attempting to establish a balance of European powers. - -And, while this gradual disintegration of the absoluteness of authority -was in process, other circumstances operated to undermine the old -traditional order. We have spoken of one of them--the spread of -Humanism. Meanwhile the use in warfare of gunpowder and guns hastened -the overthrow of the Feudal system. The introduction of the mariner’s -compass made possible the exploration of continents beyond the ocean. -The substitution of the Copernican for the Ptolemaic system of astronomy -revolutionised men’s idea of the universe. Further, the growth in -nationality was accompanied by the development of separate languages, -and the diffusion of these, as well as of knowledge generally, was -increased by the invention of paper and printing. - -Thus, from diverse directions light was breaking into the darkness of -life, dispersing the superstitions and terrors that had shackled the -human will, and illuminating positive pathways for the human intellect -to travel. Thought ceased to be involved in allegory; the study of -nature to be “perverted into grotesque and pious parables,” while -sorcery and magic no longer seemed to be the means of compassing control -over nature and obtaining insight into the mysteries surrounding human -life. The other world, with its imagined heaven and hell, loosened its -grip on the conscience, and the joys and possibilities of this world -began to occupy men’s minds. The beauty of the visible world and the -delights of sense ceased to be regarded as snares of the devil, and in -their growing independence and belief in themselves men turned to -mastering the resources of this world and to making it better for the -purpose of life. No wonder, that as the consciousness of this new and -fuller existence became confirmed, men spoke to one another of a -Rebirth! - -How this movement, which was in ferment throughout Western Europe, -operated specifically in different countries, is now to be traced. The -leadership in it was taken by the Rinascimento, to use the Italian word, -of Italy. - - -ITALIAN RENAISSANCE - -Ever since Charlemagne’s conquest of Lombardy the Emperors had held a -foot in Italy, contesting authority with the Pope. Meanwhile, the -successors of Roger, the Norman conqueror of Sicily, held sway over the -Kingdom of Naples, which occupied the southern part of the peninsula, -and at different times was joined to or independent of the Kingdom of -Sicily. Italy, in fact, had proved herself incapable of forming a united -nation or of establishing a national state. Like Hellas of old, she was -an agglomeration of communes and cities, capable of being inspired by a -common sentiment of race, but unable to merge their independence and -mutual jealousies and rivalries in a single political organisation. Even -the individual communes and cities were split into factions: the -Ghibellines, representing the aristocratic party, favouring the Emperor, -and the Guelphs, who comprised the popular party and were assisted by -the Popes. - -The result of these conditions was to quicken the growth of local -feeling. Patriotism was replaced by intense civic pride, which centred -in the city or commune and made it vie with others in self-development. -And this self-centering resulted, firstly, in each nucleus of energy -developing an independent type of community and, secondly, in bringing -to the surface the personal force of individual citizens. The Duke who -had been elevated to or usurped the headship of the community, was -compelled to maintain his position by force of character and by acts -that would redound to the pride and power of the community. He needed -the assistance of other men of parts and employed their services, no -matter from what class of the community they had sprung. There was room -higher up for every citizen who could contribute something to the -community’s power and dignity. As one result of these conditions there -sprang into existence a class of professional soldiers, or condottieri, -who sold their services and those of their trained bands to the highest -bidder, and who, when occasion offered, lifted themselves, as in the -case of Colleoni and Gattamelata, to high military commands. Moreover, -the perpetual intriguing that the conditions of politics had developed -between cities and rival authorities, encouraged the employment of a -large body of secretaries and diplomatic go-betweens, men of education -and superior sharpness of wit. In fact, any one who by his brains or his -handiwork could furnish eminent service to the community was eagerly -sought after and promoted. Such men were held in high esteem and -regarded as an honour to the community. - -In an environment such as this it followed that the Italian Rinascimento -was the product of men of powerful individuality and that the trend of -it led to the exaltation of individualism. The first great personality -associated with it is that of Petrarch. - -Son of a man who had shared Dante’s exile, he himself emulated the poet -of Beatrice in _canzoniere_, composed to his ideal mistress, Laura. He -too helped to refine and vivify, as Boccaccio did a little later, the -Italian tongue; but he was filled with the pride of being a descendant -of the Roman People, and looked back to Latin literature as the -worthiest object of his study. In his zeal for collecting and collating -manuscripts and through the richness of his imagination and critical -judgment, joined to a tireless devotion, he became the pioneer in that -Italian scholarship which restored to Western Europe the knowledge of -the Classics and laid the foundation of modern thought. - -For hitherto, although an acquaintance with Latin had survived, it was -chiefly in the monkish form, and the Latin authors were known only by -fragments, often mutilated in the process of copying. The knowledge of -the Greek tongue, while preserved in Byzantium, had all but entirely -disappeared from Western Europe, and Petrarch, realising the need of -recovering it, urged Boccaccio to begin the work. Accordingly the latter -took lessons of an adventurer, named Leone Pilato, a native of Calabria -who had resided in Thessaly, and succeeded also in having him appointed -professor of Greek language and literature in the University of -Florence. Boccaccio, like his friend Petrarch, was indefatigable in the -search for manuscripts among the libraries and, as often, the -lumber-rooms of the monasteries. And frequently he had to mourn their -mutilation, as on one occasion when he found the precious sheets of -vellum had been scraped clean of the classic text and inscribed with -psalms for the use of the choirboys, while the decorated margins had -been cut into bits and sold to women as amulets. - -During the fifteenth century the pursuit of scholarship continued, -receiving a great advancement when Constantinople, in 1451, was -conquered by the Turks. For many of the Greek scholars found refuge in -Italy, where they were received with the highest enthusiasm in -universities and the palaces of princes. Thus for a century the keenest -spirits of what was then the most intellectually advanced people of -Europe, devoted themselves to classical erudition. The world’s debt to -them is incalculable, but the boon they conferred on others was not -without detriment to themselves. Preoccupation with scholarship produced -a certain affectation and pedantry of mind; led to an extravagant -valuation of the antique over everything modern and undermined -Christianity with Paganism. Nor was it the Stoic side of Paganism that -was emulated. The pleasures of life were pursued as an ideal, and with -no moral curb on conduct; freedom was confused with license and the -desire of the senses ousted the restraint of law. The organisation alike -of the Church and of society in time became honeycombed with corruption. - -In such an intellectual and moral atmosphere the ego in man was -worshipped as divinity. Individualism, extolled to a fetish and -unbridled by any considerations of good and bad, engendered faculties of -glorious capabilities and also of monstrous depravity. Individualism, in -fact, ran its hot and heady course at the expense of everything that had -once counted for strength in communal and civic spirit. By the beginning -of the sixteenth century, the culmination of the Renaissance, a few -giants survived, but the Italian people, while intellectually in the -ascendant, had degenerated physically and morally and fell an easy prey -to foreign aggression. - -The expedition which Charles VIII made to Naples in 1494 brought the -French into Italy. They were soon followed by the Spaniards, until Italy -became the cockpit of European rivalries. Political as well as moral -degradation was reached when, by the League of Cambrai, 1508, Pope -Julius II made alliance with Louis XII of France, the Emperor -Maximilian, and Ferdinand “The Catholic” of Spain for the partition of -the Venetian territories. Humiliation ensued sixteen years later, when -German and Spanish mercenaries, led by the renegade Constable Bourbon, -sacked Rome. Italy, after having led the van in the emancipation of -human intellect and will, had prostituted both. Even the -Counter-Reformation, instituted by the Church to reform her own abuses -as well as to resist the tide of Protestantism, could not save Italy to -the Italians. Three hundred and fifty years had to elapse before they -could recover their nationality and once more set themselves upon the -road of progress. - - -GERMAN RENAISSANCE - -The influence of the Italian Renaissance was firstly and most directly -absorbed by France. But the consideration of this may conveniently be -postponed until after a review of its operation in Germany and Spain. -For in both these countries the Renaissance influence bred antagonisms: -in Germany the Reformation and in Spain the Counter-Reformation. - -The Renaissance which the Italians had initiated as a thing of Beauty, -began to operate in Germany as a thing of Power; the emancipation of the -human intellect and will was supplemented by the emancipation of the -human conscience. The Italian indifference to the latter was more than a -source of decadence to themselves; for it cleft into two channels what -should have been united in a single stream of human endeavour; it forged -barriers between what should be component elements in human ideals. It -started that antagonism between Beauty and Morality, between Æsthetics -and Ethics by which even to this day civilisation is being retarded in -its richest and most beneficent possibilities of progress. - -Germany was quick to absorb Italian erudition. Hebrew, Greek, and Latin -scholars, rivalling those of Italy, became numerous in German -universities and in the free cities of Nüremburg, Augsburg, Basel, and -Strassburg. But even students who attended the universities of Italy -escaped the Pagan influence. They returned to a homeland which was not -strewn with classic remains, and whose traditions were still deeply -rooted in mediævalism and expressed in the Gothic spirit. It was the -same with the artists. For example, the art of Schongauer, Dürer, -Holbein, and Cranach is untouched by that sense of beauty which their -Italian contemporaries had evolved from classic influence. Moreover, the -German mind was more penetrating, earnest, argumentative than the -Italian, more occupied with substantial than with abstract problems. The -German temperament also was more combative; incapable of the Italian -cynical toleration and at once deeper and narrower in its character. - -Consequently the German erudition began to apply itself to concrete -problems, such as theological criticism and the absolute authority -claimed by the Church. The Bible was opened up to the Germans as a new -book. As the Classics had served to emancipate the Italian intellect and -will, so the Bible emancipated the German conscience. “The touch of the -new spirit which in Italy had evolved literature, art, and culture, -sufficed in Germany to recreate Christianity.” The sale of Indulgences -by Leo X and Luther’s protest but served to set the spark to the -explosion, which, long in preparation, split Teutonic and Latin -Christianity, and involved Western Europe for two centuries in -politico-religious strife. - -For gradually it had become recognised that the new “heresy” threatened -the authority alike of monarchical government and the Papacy. Orthodoxy -and absolutism were the two sides of the same shield. The Church had -begun to realise that there was as much danger to its authority in the -Pagan revival of the Italian Renaissance as in Protestantism. Both papal -and imperial authority were threatened. Accordingly, Pope Clement VII -and Emperor Charles V entered into a compact at Bologna in 1530, to -maintain in its integrity the Catholic Faith. Thus began the -Counter-Reformation, which reformed many of the abuses that had crept -into the Church and renewed the fervour of the Catholic religion, but on -the other hand, arrayed the forces of conservatism against the march of -progress. - - -SPANISH RENAISSANCE - -It was in Spain that the Counter-Reformation was most zealous. Although -the influence of the Italian Renaissance had reached her, she had -rejected its pagan aspects. On the one hand, her rulers jealously -guarded their title of “Catholic Majesty.” On the other hand, the -released energies of the country had been largely directed to the -commercial conquests, opened up by the discovery of America, which -encouraged that self-reliance and absorption in self that were -characteristic of the Spanish temperament. Spaniards had upheld the -Faith in their long contest with the Saracen intruders and still -considered themselves the Champions of Christendom. Meanwhile, the -intellectual activity inspired by the Renaissance gave them renewed -belief in themselves and established them in their interest in the -affairs of their own life. - -Typical alike of the Spanish race and of the effect upon it of the -Renaissance is the “Don Quixote” of Cervantes, whom Symonds ranks with -Ariosto, Rabelais, and Shakespeare as the four supreme literary -exponents of the Renaissance. For each of these caught the spirit of the -Renaissance when it was at the first freshness of its vigour in their -respective countries and, instead of using it to imitate the past, -captured its imagination into the vernacular of his own language, making -it a most flexible and vital medium for the expression of the spirit of -his own time and country. In Cervantes’ case the racial humour punctured -with ridicule the affectations into which the old order of Chivalry had -degenerated. - -That the new attitude toward life which it indirectly advocated, failed -to be realised by the Spaniards may be attributed to two causes. One is -the Counter-Reformation which rallied the forces of reactionism and the -other, the easily gotten wealth that poured into the country from the -New World. The one, associated with Monarchical absolutism, destroyed -political progress, while the other swamped initiative and the vigorous -handling of life, resulting in both moral and economical decadence. - -Yet the inherent raciness of the Spanish people could not be entirely -suppressed. It declared itself especially in the prolific, versatile, -truly national drama of Lope de Vega and Calderon, which pictured the -life of the people with a variety and richness that have been surpassed -only by Shakespeare. Moreover, after an apprenticeship of the Spanish -painters to the works of Raphael and other Italians, the seventeenth -century produced the greatest of all naturalistic painters in the person -of Velasquez. Nevertheless, despite certain brilliant exceptions, it was -the tragedy of Spain that at the moment, when her Renaissance was -approaching fulfilment, it was strangled. - - -FRENCH RENAISSANCE - -Very different was the part played by France. Her native genius had to -some extent anticipated the spirit of Humanism, so she embraced the -learning and culture of the Renaissance eagerly but with discrimination. -She utilised both, not in the way of imitation, but as enrichment to her -own self-expression; and, finally, as Italy declined, assumed the -leadership of European culture. - -Already in the twelfth century Abelard had initiated the spirit of free -inquiry in theology; later, it was upon the love-songs of the -_trouveres_ or troubadours of Provence that Petrarch patterned his -_canzoniere_, and from the _fabliaux_, popular in France, that Boccaccio -derived the character and some of the themes of his Decameron. - -While in the north France maintained close relations with Flanders, she -was drawn into commercial relations with Italy, directly, in the south, -and by way of the German cities and Burgundy on the east. Her political -relations began, as we have noted, with the expedition of Charles VII to -Naples, and were continued by the efforts of Louis XII and Francis I to -secure and hold possessions in Italy. Even the latter’s disastrous -defeat at Pavia did not discourage him from subsequent warlike -enterprises, but meanwhile his zeal for things Italian caused him to -invite many Italian artists to Fontainebleau. Henri II’s queen was -Catherine de Medici and her children, Charles IX and Henri III, were -brought up as Italianated Frenchmen. - -Thus, during the sixteenth century the Court and nobility of France -became largely Italianised in manners, although the survival of the -Feudal system and the distinctly military character of the aristocracy -rendered France very different from Italy in many vital particulars. -For France was engaged in developing her nationality and these -disintegrating and aggressive elements had to be subdued to the central -authority--a process made more complex by the spread of the Reformation -under the leadership of Calvin, so that the struggle was one of -conscience as well as political power. But in the process France was -awakened to a real sense of nationalism. The Gallic spirit became aware -of itself and intent upon development and consolidation. - -Consequently, the presence of such artists as Leonardo da Vinci, Del -Sarto, Primaticcio, and Benvenuto Cellini could not stifle the native -art. They left their impress on the decorations of Fontainebleau and -served as models of superior knowledge and refinement to French painters -and sculptors, yet did no more than modify the French originality of -inspiration. Painters like the Clouets and the unnamed painter of the -“Diana” of the Louvre and the sculptors Goujon and Pilon, despite some -debt to Italian influence, preserved unmistakably their Gallic spirit, -as we shall also find did the architects of the French _châteaux_. - -It was the spirit that had created the miracles of Gothic architecture; -a spirit highly adventurous, yet logical, which overflowed with -enthusiasm for life, but was controlled by instinctive taste. - -It suffered a clipping of its freedom when France was finally -consolidated as a State and Absolutism was enthroned in the person of -Louis XIV. Under the officialdom that he established French art was -compelled to sit at the feet of the Italians. Yet, even so, the native -genius shines through acquired affectations in the work of Poussin and -Claude, while the eighteenth century witnessed the reblossoming of the -Gallic spirit in the dainty fancies of Rococo decoration. On the other -hand, the sterner issues of the Renaissance, as they affected political -liberty, culminated after long delay in the Revolution. - -That the Gallic genius has been and still remains a powerful factor in -the progress of civilisation is due to its blend of the intellectual and -the aesthetic faculties. It thinks clearly and feels subtly and adjusts -thought and feeling into an admirable accord by its tact of taste. It -approximates most closely to the quality of the old Greek genius. At its -best, under the impulse of a high spiritual purpose, it has expressed -itself in terms of Truth and Beauty that no modern nation has rivalled. -Even when its motive has been trivial, its manner of expression has -redeemed it from insignificance, the craftsmanship being in itself so -true and beautiful. Moreover, the French spirit is so agile and -responsive, that it has caught and reflected back the diverse thought -and feeling of other countries, and, further, has so marked a strain of -originality that it has preserved the faculty of creativeness. - - -NETHERLANDISH RENAISSANCE - -The Netherlands, through their commercial intercourse with Italy, early -came in touch with the Renaissance. But the self-reliance of the people -was such that the earliest influence only improved their own way of -expressing their racial consciousness. For example, the town halls in -which the pride of their cities was enshrined, owed nothing to Italy -except some later refinements of decoration. The painting of the Van -Eycks was not only different from but technically superior to the -contemporary art of Italy and furnished the latter with the practical -processes of the oil medium. In time the mannerisms of Italian painting -made themselves felt in the work of Van Orley and others, but the -genuine reaction of the Flemish genius to the Italian Renaissance did -not develop until the seventeenth century, when it produced a -reinvigorated expression of itself in the genius of Rubens. - -Political and religious causes, due to the grip of the Spanish rule, had -retarded the progress of the Flemish provinces, while, on the other -hand, it was the break away from this absolutism that started the -northern provinces of Holland on their Renaissance. The Holland -Renaissance of the seventeenth century, which moved step by step with -their struggle for political and religious liberty and their -consolidation into a united nation, represented a most remarkable blend -of Humanism and Revival of Learning. It was unique at its time and has -preserved its significance, because both these engines of activity were -devoted deliberately to national and individual betterment. The Dutch -zest of life stimulated them not only to obtain their liberty, but also -to improve in a multitude of practical ways the conditions of living. It -caused them to organise industry and commerce, to cultivate their land -intensively and to extend their explorations and trade over the seven -seas. Nor were the intellectual resources overlooked. The university of -Leyden became a great centre of human culture and its scholars and -scientists set the course of thought and research in the direction of -modern life. - -Holland’s prosperity, however, proved her undoing. After defying and -withstanding the absolutism of Spain, she fell a victim to that of Louis -XIV. And less by direct conquest than by the insidious sapping of -French influences. She became inflated with the ambition of being a -world-power, while her citizens emulated the fashions of French society. -Losing at the same time political liberty and intellectual and artistic -initiative and independence, she followed the human sheep-trail that led -southward over the Alps and for more than a century became a clumsy -imitator of the past art of Italy. - - -ENGLISH RENAISSANCE - -England’s insular position tended to delay her reception of the New -Spirit. When at length it reached her it came simultaneously in the form -of Italian influence and of the Reformation. Yet both had been -anticipated a century earlier; the Reformation in the teaching of -Wycliffe, the Renaissance in the poetry of Chaucer. But the harvest of -the new spirit had been deferred by the French wars, the Wars of the -Roses, and the persecution of the Lollards, so that it was not until -1536, when the King, Lords, and Commons by the Act of Supremacy -established the Reformed Faith as the State Religion, that England -entered definitely, says Symonds, on a career of intellectual activity -abreast with the foremost nations of the Continent. - -By this time the latter had accomplished the work of collating and -printing the classic authors and had produced a varied mass of -literature in the modern languages; all of which became food for the -omnivorous appetite of the English. Assimilation, at first, was slow and -retarded by imitation. Wyatt and Surrey, for example, grafted the graces -of Italian poetry onto the native stock, introducing the forms of the -sonnet and blank verse; Sidney experimented with the classic metres, -while tragedies in the style of Seneca, rivalled the similarly pedantic -imitations of Italian and French dramatists. Gradually, however, the -vigour of English digestion accomplished a complete assimilation. - -England, through her sympathy with Holland, had found herself involved -in the conflict of the Counter-Reformation. She broke the rival power of -Spain by the destruction of the Armada, and through the buccaneering -exploits of Raleigh, Drake, Frobisher, and Hawkins opened up the -beginnings of colonial expansion. She leaped at a bound into -consciousness of nationality and in the glow of her enthusiasm -discovered her own capacity of originality. - -Shakespeare is at once the crown and symbol of the English Renaissance. -He drew the material of his plots from a variety of foreign sources, but -creatively impressed upon his plays either a new and a universal -significance or unmistakably the English spirit of his day. Meanwhile, -Spenser, while deriving his allegory from the Middle Ages and decorative -richness from the Italian Renaissance, added thereto a sweetness, -purity, and splendour of imagination peculiarly English. And by the side -of Spenser and Shakespeare, as representative of the creative -imagination of the English Renaissance, must be set Bacon, the expositor -of the modern scientific method. - -This flowering of the English Renaissance, in which intellectual -brilliance walked hand in hand with beauty, was rudely interrupted, -firstly, when the spirit of the Counter-Reformation was revived by James -I and Charles I; secondly, by the resultant Puritan reaction, and the -equally resultant license of the Restoration. A cleavage between morals -and beauty was opened up that to this day has not been bridged. On the -other hand, the spirit, let loose by the Renaissance and the -Reformation, pushed forward persistently on the path of political -liberty, and England’s mightiest contribution to the civilisation of the -world has been the realisation, however imperfect, of the ideal of human -freedom. Meanwhile, in the realm of the arts, it is in the province of -Literature, rather than in those of the Fine Arts, that her Renaissance -has reaped its most abundant harvest. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY - - -The foregoing summary of Renaissance culture anticipates three marked -characteristics of the architecture which responded to it. - -Renaissance architecture was developed from the study of classical -antiquities and, to some extent, of classic literature. It was adapted -to conditions of society which became increasingly elegant and -luxurious. It was created, no longer by gilds of craftsmen, but by -individual designers, whose names are recorded and identified with their -respective works. - -We are also prepared to find that as the study of classic examples lost -the freshness of its early inspiration, it led to a growing formalism in -the use of the classic details; and that, as the temper of the time -declined in taste and grew in grossness, the architectural style -reflected the decadence in increasing pretentiousness and extravagance -of forms. - -The Renaissance proper, in so far as the term New-birth is justified, -occupies the fifteenth century, the period called by the Italians the -Quattrocento. To the first half of the sixteenth century, the -Cinquecento, belongs the more formally classic style, after which -appeared the decline of the latter half of the century, known as the -Baroque style, followed during the seventeenth century by the further -degeneration into the Rococo. - -[Illustration: PAZZI CHAPEL - -BY BRUNELLESCHI: IN S. CROCE, FLORENCE. P. 343] - -[Illustration: SANTA MARIA NOVELLA, FLORENCE - -BY ALBERTI. EARLIEST EXAMPLE OF FLARING CONSOLES. P. 345] - -[Illustration: STROZZI PALACE, FLORENCE - -BY CRONACA. A FORTRESS TYPE OF CITY RESIDENCE. P. 345] - -[Illustration: CAPRAROLA PALACE - -BY VIGNOLA. EXAMPLE OF COUNTRY VILLA. P. 348] - -[Illustration: GVIMANE PALACE, VENICE - -BY SAMMICHELE. P. 355] - -[Illustration: BASILICA VICENZA - -BY PALLADIO. TWO-STORIED CLASSICAL ARCADES SURROUNDING THE OLD GOTHIC -EDIFICE. P. 351] - -[Illustration: DOGE’S PALACE, VENICE - -RENAISSANCE PORTAL ADJOINING THE GOTHIC ARCADES. BY GIOV. AND BART. -BUON. P. 353] - -[Illustration: S. MARIA DELLA SALUTE, VENICE - -BY BALDASSARE LONGHENA. P. 356] - -The decline of taste may have been hastened by the fact that Renaissance -architecture involved no new principles of construction. It was -essentially a product of adaptation, and with less consideration for -structural problems than for external appearances. There was a change in -the status of the architect: he ceased to be pre-eminently the -master-builder; he became a designer, specifically interested in what -one may perhaps call, the pictorial aspects of his building. He was -occupied with the composition of his façade, as a painter is with the -composition of his picture. He designed it on paper, as an organised -arrangement of lines, masses, details, and patterning of light and -shade. The days of working out the structural problems in the course of -construction and of employing the co-operation of skilled craftsmen, to -create the details of decoration had ceased with the passing of the -mason-gilds. In their place were workmen, who followed implicitly the -drawings of the designer. - -And the latter, as was characteristic of the time, had become an -individualist, stamping his design with the impress of his own -personality. It was revealed not only in the larger elements of the -composition but also in the exquisiteness of detailed decorations. Nor -was the actual creativeness, involved in this tireless pursuit of the -refinements of beauty, confined to the externals of buildings; it was -expended with prolific invention on the interior fittings. Thus, -churches and palaces alike became museums, enshrining endless objects of -beautiful craftsmanship in metal-work, marble, terra-cotta, ivory, and -textiles, as well as the mural decorations of the painter. - -Museums, however, it is to be noted, which were not, as in our own day, -huge storehouses of objects, separated from their original environment -and use, but treasure houses of beautiful things that formed part of -the habitual life of the people, palaces for those of high degree, -churches and town halls for all classes of the community. We cannot -enter into the spirit of the Renaissance unless we realise that to all -classes of the Italians of the period beauty was a familiar and living -element in their lives. - -=Classic Influences.=--The influence of the classic remains began to be -apparent in the sculpture of Nicolas Pisano, who died in 1278. It -continued in the work of his son and became more marked in that of the -latter’s pupil, Andrea Pisano. There are distinct traces of it in -Giotto’s painting, especially in the details of the buildings, which are -evidently rude imitations of Roman antiquities. That they are rude is -fortunate, a proof that imitation of the past was not Giotto’s chief -concern. Indeed, the vital thing in Giotto, which made him the leader of -a new school of painting, was his effort to bring the arts into closer -touch with human nature. It was his pursuit of natural representation -and expression which caused him to be a leader in an age that was -rediscovering an enthusiasm for human nature; and in this respect he set -the main course for the whole of the fifteenth century. The trend of -Quattrocento painting and sculpture was to relearn the principles of -correct drawing and perspective and to use the growing knowledge and -skill for the expression of subjects that, while they were suggested -both by the Christian religion and the classic mythology, were informed -with the naïve freshness and independence of the expanding Italian -spirit. - -A corresponding freedom from subservience to antique forms and a truly -creative adaptiveness characterised the architecture of the period. It -was during the Quattrocento that what is most original in Renaissance -architecture was achieved, and the old methods of construction and old -details of decoration were successfully applied to the new problems -imposed by changed conditions of living and habits of thought. It is by -the actual creativeness with which the readjustment was accomplished, as -well as by the discretion and refinement of taste, exhibited in the -whole and every part of the design, that the architecture of this period -is distinguished. - -The qualities which it exhibits are a direct reflection of the influence -of the classic literary revival. The latter encouraged mental qualities -of logic and orderliness and an appreciation for beauty that was -characterised by precise taste and exacting refinement. And, just as -Petrarch, Boccaccio, and Ariosto on their foundation of classic learning -built the beginnings of a literature in the native tongue--the first -natural expression of the Italian genius, liberated by the study of -antiquity to new ideals of their own modern life--so it was with the -artists. Having graduated from the school of the past, they applied what -they had learned to meeting the needs and conditions of their own day. - -=Perfection of Detail.=--Again, just as Petrarch and Boccaccio and their -followers in literature devoted themselves to perfection of expression, -so the architects of the Renaissance were distinguished by the -exquisiteness of the details they introduced into their designs. They -were, in the first analysis, individualists, so that the great ones--and -they were numerous--created individual styles. But, further, they -brought the keenness of their Italian intellect and the consummate -refinement of their taste to the disposition and actual execution of the -details. It has been said--and one may believe the truth of it--that -“the layman is not capable of appreciating the refinements and the -clearness of their mouldings, and the vigour and strength their virile -natures put into their silhouettes.” - -Individualism being the characteristic of the Italian architects of the -Renaissance, we will enumerate the most important personalities. - - -PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTS OF THE FLORENTINE SCHOOL - -=Brunelleschi.=--Among the first of these deliberate students of antiquity -was the architect Brunelleschi. He was born in Florence in 1379 and -displayed early a talent for mechanical construction. Accordingly his -father apprenticed him to the Gild of Goldsmiths. He quickly became a -skilled workman and acquired a knowledge of sculpture, perspective, and -geometry. During a visit of some five years to Rome, the chief -repository of classic remains, he made a profound study of architectural -construction, especially as illustrated in the dome of the Pantheon, the -vaulted chambers of the baths, and the use of successive orders of -columns in the exterior of the Colosseum. - -Returning to Florence, he entered into deliberation with the city -council to erect the =Dome of the Cathedral=. It crowns, like his Milan -cathedral dome, an octagonal plan. A design for it, which is pictured in -a fresco in the Spanish Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria Novella, had -already been prepared by Arnolfo di Cambio, the first architect of the -cathedral and the designer of the Palazzo Vecchio. Brunelleschi deviated -from it by raising the dome upon an octagonal drum, pierced with -circular windows, thereby securing the impressiveness of additional -height, while preserving the lightness of effect. He undertook to erect -the dome without the great expense of timber centerings, and -accomplished the feat, it is said, by placing voussoirs one above -another with horizontal joints. - -The dome is composed of an inner and an outer shell of brickwork, -reinforced by eight main and eight intermediate ribs. It is 138 feet -wide, with a height from the spring of the drum to the eye of the dome -of 135 feet. The lantern was added after Brunelleschi’s death, from the -design he had prepared. This dome is not only a monument to the genius -of its creator, but scarcely rivalled in beauty by any other work of the -Renaissance. That of St. Peter’s may be a prouder and more imposing -structure, but it is more sophisticated in its use of classic details -lacking the grand simplicity of Brunelleschi’s--the natural nobility, if -one may say so, of a thing that has grown to life. It may be less -stately, but is more companionable; less imposing, but more intimately -inspiring. The contrast between the two domes reveals in a remarkable -way the difference between the dawn of the Renaissance and its high -noon. - -Brunelleschi’s churches in =Florence= include =S. Lorenzo= and =S. Spirito=, -both of which are on a basilican plan, with elevations that involve -modifications of Roman construction. The former is barrel vaulted in the -Roman manner, but the nave ceiling of S. Spirito is of wood and flat. -The dome of the latter is erected upon _pendentives_ which henceforth -were employed on all Renaissance domes. Brunelleschi’s choicest -ecclesiastical design, however, is the =Pazzi Chapel= in =S. Croce=--a dome -over a square compartment, entered through a colonnade. He introduced -columned arcades into cloisters and palace courts and used them also as -features of the arcade in the =Loggia S. Paolo= and the =Ospedale degli -Innocente= or Foundling Hospital. - -The two lower stories of the main front of the Pitti Palace were -designed by Brunelleschi, who also carved the fine crucifix in the Santa -Maria Novella. He died in 1446 and was buried in the Cathedral of -Florence. - - -=Michelozzo.=--Michelozzo, born in Florence in 1391, was the son of a -tailor and became a pupil of Donatello. He worked in marble, bronze, and -silver, one of the examples of his sculpture being the young S. John -over the door of the cathedral. As an architect he enjoyed the -friendship and patronage of Cosimo de’ Medici, for whom he built the -=Riccardi Palace=, which was the earliest example of stately domestic -architecture in Florence and proved a model for subsequent Tuscan -palaces. During a temporary exile of his patron he accompanied him to -Venice, where he designed the =Library of San Giorgio=. When in 1437 -Cosimo bestowed the =Monastery of San Marco= on the Dominican monks of -Fiesole, Michelozzo was employed to remodel it, erecting, among other -features, the beautiful arcaded cloisters, which no doubt inspired the -architectural details in Fra Angelico’s picture of “The Annunciation.” -At his death, which appears to have occurred in 1472, he was buried in -San Marco. - - -=Alberti.=--Even in a higher degree than the two already mentioned, -Alberti represented the versatility of the Renaissance, for besides -being an architect he was also a painter, poet, philosopher, and -musician. He was born in Venice in 1404 and at the age of twenty wrote a -comedy in Latin verse, which in later years the publisher, Aldus -Manutius II, printed under the impression that it was a genuine classic -work. Alberti was appointed to a canonry in the Cathedral of Florence -and there established a reputation for being the finest organist of his -time. He wrote works on sculpture and painting but is most celebrated -for his treatise on architecture, “De Re Ædificatoria,” which has been -translated from the Latin into Italian, French, Spanish, and English. He -was employed in Rome by Pope Nicholas V to restore the papal palace. At -=Rimini= he was commissioned by Sigismondo Malatesta to remodel the =Church -of S. Francisco=. - -Its design, of which only the lower part of the façade was erected, was -based on the Roman arch in Rimini, and along the south side Alberti -constructed vaults to receive the bodies of his patron’s friends. Both -these elements of design were introduced into his church of =Sant’ Andrea= -in =Mantua=. Here the place of the side aisles is taken by successive -chapels, separated by massive piers, which sustain the barrel vault of -the nave. The piers are faced by coupled Corinthian pilasters, mounted -upon pedestals. The intersection of nave and transepts is crowned by a -dome, which was replaced by the present one in the eighteenth century. -The façade of this church also is based upon the character of a -triumphal arch, and =Sant’ Andrea= became a type that was followed in many -subsequent churches. In Florence Alberti designed the marble-encrusted -façade of =S. Maria Novella=, in which he connected the side aisles to the -nave by means of flaring consoles, a device that was unfortunately -imitated in later churches. He died in Rome in 1472. - - -=Cronaca.=--Cronaca is to be mentioned as the architect of the =Strozzi= and -=Guardagni= Palaces. - - -PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTS OF THE ROMAN SCHOOL - -The Renaissance of the Fine Arts in Rome may be dated from the -pontficate of Nicholas V (1447-1455), who vied with the Medici as a -patron of scholars and artists. Alberti--we have noted--was employed by -him, for as yet there was no Roman architect approaching the talent of -the Florentine. And the dearth continued until the accession of Julius -II in 1503, by which time Bramante had arrived in Rome and there began -the golden period of Roman architecture, identified particularly with -him and Raphael and Michelangelo. - - -=Bramante.=--Bramante was born in Urbino about 1444 and as a young man -studied painting as well as architecture, the latter presumably under -Alberti. He travelled through Umbria and Lombardy, studying Roman -antiquities and obtaining various commissions, and passed some years in -Milan, where his work included the enlargement of the abbey church of =S. -Maria della Grazie=, to which he added a choir, transepts, and dome, in a -style that represents the transition between the Gothic and Classic. -Then, settling in Rome, he was commissioned by Pope Alexander VI to -erect the =Cancellaria Palace=, and shortly afterwards prepared designs -for the =Palazzo Giraud=. In both of these the Classic tendency is -developed. It is even more pronounced in the beautiful little church of -=S. Pietro in Montorio=. Founded on the design of a small Roman circular -temple, it consists of a circle the interior diameter of which is only -fifteen feet, crowned by a dome and surrounded with a peristyle of -columns of the Doric order. - -By the advice of Michelangelo Julius II entrusted Bramante with the -design of the new =S. Peter’s=, which the Pope intended as a mausoleum -for his own tomb. The work, which will be discussed later, was -interrupted by Bramante’s death, which occurred in 1514. - -=Raphael.=--The continuation of =S. Peter’s= was officially assigned to -Bramante’s nephew and pupil, Raphael (1483-1520), who, however, under -the pressure of other engagements, did little to advance the work. -Raphael’s architectural designs in Rome include the =Façade of S. Lorenzo -in Miranda=, the =Villa Madama= with stucco decorations by his pupil Giulio -Romano, and the =Pandolfini Palace=, which was erected ten years after his -death. - - -=Giulio Romano.=--Giulio Romano (1492-1546) was the architect of buildings -in Mantua, his masterpiece being the =Palazzo del Te’=, at =Mantua=. - -Meanwhile, Bramante’s other pupils were Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536), -and Antonio da Sangallo (1485-1546). - - -=Peruzzi.=--Peruzzi passed his early life in Siena, but while quite young -moved to Rome and studied architecture and painting. His reputation was -established when he built for the Sienese banker, Agostino Chigi, a -villa on the banks of the Tiber, which is now known as the =Farnesina=, a -design remarkable for its grace and the delicacy of its details. The -interior is famous for the frescoes, representing the myths of Psyche -and Galatea, executed by Raphael and his pupils, while Peruzzi himself -decorated a loggia with frescoes of the story of Medusa. - -He was appointed architect of S. Peter’s, though his design for its -completion was never carried out. During the sack of Rome in 1527 by the -troops of the Constable Bourbon, Peruzzi fled to Siena, where he was -elected city architect, and, as the city was preparing to resist attack, -planned the fortifications which still in part exist. Returning to Rome, -he designed several villas, of which the most important is the =Massimi -Palace=. It is significant of the esteem in which Peruzzi was held by his -contemporaries that at his death in 1536 he was buried by the side of -Raphael in the Pantheon. - - -=Ant. da Sangallo.=--Antonio da Sangallo the Younger was one of the five -members of a Florentine family, distinguished variously in architecture, -engineering, sculpture, and painting. Coming to Rome when very young he -became a pupil of Bramante, whose style he closely followed. Among his -most notable works are the church of =S. Maria di Loreto=, near Trajan’s -Column, and the =Farnese Palace=. The latter, completed by Michelangelo by -the addition of a grand cornice, is regarded by some experts as the -finest example of a Roman palace. - - -=Vignola.=--Distinguished among the upholders of the purity of the Classic -style was Giacomo Barocchio or Barozzi, better known as Vignola, from -the name of the place in which he was born, in 1507. After practising -for some time in Bologna, Piacenza, Assisi, and Perugia, he was summoned -to Rome by Pope Julius III, and built the villa Pope Julius, which is -now the =Etruscan Museum=. But the principal example of his style is the -=Palace of Caprarola=, erected some thirty miles from Rome for the Pope’s -nephew, Cardinal Alessandro Farnese. It has a pentagonal plan enclosing -a circular court. Above the ground story the façades consist of two -stories, which have rusticated quoins at the angles and are composed of -an order of Ionic, superimposed upon Doric. Situated on a craggy -projection, overlooking the little town of Caprarola and commanding wide -vistas that reach to the Volscian Hills and the Apennines, with the dome -of St. Peter’s in the middle distance, this palace is embellished with -beautiful gardens, the whole representing one of the most magnificent -palace-villas of the Renaissance. - -Vignola was one of the artists invited to =Fontainebleau= by Francis I. -After the death of Michelangelo he was appointed architect of =S. Peter’s= -and erected the cupolas. He also furnished the design of =Il Gesu=, the -Jesuit church in Rome, which was one of many erected along the lines of -S. Peter’s. His fame further rests on his writings, which include “The -Five Orders of Architecture” and a work on perspective. He died in 1573. - - -=Michelangelo.=--At this date Michelangelo had been dead nine years, but -it is convenient to consider him as the last great architect of the -Roman School, for he introduced new elements of design, which in the -hands of smaller men contributed to the decadence of the Renaissance -style. Architecture played a relatively small part in his titanic and -tempestuous career, which through the political confusion of the times -and changes of popes, oscillated between Florence and Rome. In the -former city he designed, as additions to Brunelleschi’s Medici church of -S. Lorenzo, the =Laurentian Library= and the =New Sacristy= or Mausoleum -which contains the tombs of Giuliano, Duke of Nemours, and Lorenzo, Duke -of Urbino. - -In Rome, as early as 1505, Julius II had entrusted Michelangelo with the -commission of erecting his tomb. The ambition of the patron and the -imagination of the artist united in a project so colossal that =S. -Peter’s= was to be rebuilt to serve as a mausoleum for it. Unfortunately -for Michelangelo and perhaps for art, the death of Julius interfered -with the project. His heirs desired a less expensive monument and -succeeding popes were interested only in the rebuilding of S. Peter’s. -After forty years all that had been accomplished of the tomb were the -statues of Moses and the “Bound Captives.” “My youth has been lost,” -cried the sore-afflicted artist, “bound hand and foot to this tomb.” - -Even in the lifetime of Julius the planning of =S. Peter’s= had been taken -from Michelangelo and given to Bramante, and it was not until his -seventy-second year that Michelangelo was called in to supervise the -work. He adhered to Bramante’s plan and added the supreme feature of the -dome, which was completed after his death. Meanwhile, he finished, as we -have noted, the =Farnese Palace= and remodelled the =Palaces of the -Capitol=, the latter being his most characteristic work in architecture. - -For in the novel design of these he introduced the so-called “one-order” -treatment, abandoning the horizontal lines that mark the stories and -carrying up through them a colossal order of pilasters. The effect lends -grandeur and unity to the design, but at the expense of a violation of -the principle of fitting the character of the exterior to the -constructive character of the interior. It was a sacrifice of parts to -the whole such as Michelangelo employed in sculpture and by his genius -justified. When, however, his example was followed by others who had not -his genius, it led to the degradation of style of the Baroque that alike -in sculpture and architecture resulted in pretentiousness and -extravagance. - -The gradual decline from the purity of the Classic style to the showy -and meretricious magnificence of the so-called “Baroque” period, was -encouraged by the wealthy order of the Jesuits. It was characterised by -a growing lack of architectural propriety, an increasing use of heavy -and ill-applied ornament, and a general tendency to profusion of details -for the sake of display--seen in broken and distorted pediments, huge -scrolls, sham marble, excessive gilding, and a general riot of -sculpture, often hysterical in its excess of emotional expression. The -chief promoters of this decadence were =Carlo Maderna= (1556-1629), and -=Borromini= (1599-1667), although the latter was an architect, capable -also of finer achievement, as is proved by his colonnade enclosing the -=Piazza of S. Peter’s=. - - -=Palladio.=--In some degree a contributor to this decadence, through the -misuse of his example by others, was Andrea Palladio (1518-1580), a -native of =Vicenza=, where his most characteristic work is to be seen. In -youth he studied the writings of the Roman author, Vitruvius, and of -Alberti, and familiarised himself with the classic style by study in -Rome. His own work, “The Four Books of Architecture,” which contains -measured drawings of antique buildings many of which have since -disappeared, had a wide and great influence upon architectural -development throughout Europe. In England, for example, it was -translated and furnished with notes by Inigo Jones, whose own style was -largely based on Palladio’s. - -The latter’s work is chiefly associated with =Vicenza=, where his most -important example, considered also his best, is seen in the -double-storied arcades, added to the =Mediæval Basilica=. In the lower -story he introduced the Doric order; in the upper, the Ionic; and, in -both instances, supported the arches on small columns, while large -engaged columns, acting as buttresses, occupy the centre of the spaces -between the arches. This treatment has been known since as the Palladian -motive. These imposing and beautiful arcades were executed in fine -stone, whereas through no fault, it is believed, of the architect, his -palaces in Vicenza are mostly of brick, with stucco front that has -suffered from decay. They include the =Palazzo Capitania= and the =Palazzo -Barbarano=, and the =Villa Rotonda= which was freely imitated by the -English amateur architect, Lord Burlington (1695-1753) in his villa at -Chiswick on the Thames. Palladio’s design of the Villa Rotonda is a -square building fronted on all four sides by a portico, surmounted by a -pediment, the roofing of the square sloping up to a low dome which -crowns the central rotunda. At the end of his life he designed the -=Teatro Olympico= of =Vicenza=, which was completed after his death by -Scamozzi. In this he followed the directions of Vitruvius, but -introduced features of his own, among which is the interesting one of an -architectural background to the stage, built in perspective. Palladio -executed work also in Venice, the churches of =Il Redentore= and =S. -Giorgio Maggiore= being from his design, though the façade of the latter -was by Scamozzi. - - -PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTS OF THE VENETIAN RENAISSANCE. - -The Venetians had developed a beautiful type of Gothic, touched, through -their relations with the East, by Byzantine influence. It was admirably -suited to the social requirements and taste of a community of merchant -princes and wealthy middle-class, comparatively removed by geographical -position from the confusion of the times. For the wars of Venice, -conducted on foreign soil, left her unscathed, and during the fifteenth -century she reached the zenith of her commercial glory. But the decline -set in, when her trade with the Levant was blocked by the Turkish -occupation of Constantinople in 1453, and it was confirmed by the -passing of her Eastern commerce to the Portuguese, following Vasco da -Gama’s discovery of the Cape of Good Hope route to India (1497-1503). -But during the sixteenth century, though menaced both by the Emperor -Charles V and the French king, Francis I, and engaged in almost -perpetual struggle with the Turks, Venice maintained a splendid -isolation and reached the height of her artistic development. - -The gradual modification of the Gothic style was effected by the -introduction of Classic features, especially at first of a decorative -character. One of the earliest examples of this transition is the fine -=Portal= of the =Doge’s Palace=, adjoining S. Marco, which was erected by -=Giovanni= and =Bartolommeo Buon=, who share with the Lombardi the chief -place in the early Venetian Renaissance. - - -=The Lombardi.=--This celebrated family of architects became known in the -person of a certain Martino who had two sons, Moro and Pietro -(1435-1515), and two grandsons by the latter, Antonio and Tullio. To -Martino belongs the façade of =S. Zaccaria=, the design of which was -developed in Pietro’s treatment of the beautiful little church of =S. -Maria dei Miracoli=. Its plan is an oblong, terminating in a square -chancel which is elevated considerably above the nave and is crowned by -a dome. The façade is decorated with two stories of engaged columns, -dividing the surface into panels which are encrusted with coloured -marbles, while the whole is surmounted by a semicircular pediment. The -carved details are of exquisite refinement. This choiceness of -decorative treatment reappears in the façade of the =Scuolo de S. Marco=, -which was also by Pietro, who further proved himself to be the most -accomplished member of the Lombardi by his façade of the =Vendramini -Palace=. - - -=Sansovino.=--The full development of the Renaissance style in Venice is -chiefly associated with Jacopo Sansovino (1477-1570). A pupil of the -Florentine sculptor, Andrea Sansovino, from whom he took his name, he -was at first employed by Julius II to restore antique statues and also -to make the bronze reproduction of the Laocoön group, which is now in -the Uffizi. After working in Florence and again in Rome, from which city -he fled when it was sacked by the Germans, Sansovino reached Venice in -1527 and was welcomed by Titian and Pietro Aretino. Here from time to -time he still produced indifferent sculpture, but became distinguished -as an architect, his most important works being the =Library of S. Marco=, -the =Zecca= or Mint, the =Cornaro Palace=, and the =Church of S. Giorgio del -Greci=--the last-named, erected by the Greek residents, being a -remarkable evidence of the tolerant spirit of the Venetians in the -matter of religion. In 1545 the roof of Sansovino’s library collapsed -and he was fined, imprisoned, and deprived of his office of chief -architect of S. Marco. He was, however, reinstated through the -intercession of Titian, Aretino, and other powerful friends and in the -course of his duties reinforced the domes with bands of iron. - -The free invention with which Sansovino used the Classic orders and the -vigour and richness of his façades set the fashion for a sumptuousness -of style that in his hands had an imposing magnificence, but in his -followers degenerated into excess. - - -=Sammichele.=--Since Michele Sammichele (1484-1559) designed the =Gvimane -Palace= in Venice, considered his masterpiece, and was also employed by -the Signoria to construct the fortifications of the Lido, he may be -mentioned here, but his chief work is associated with Verona. Born near -the latter city, in the village of San Michele, the son of an architect, -he was sent as a youth to Rome to study Classic sculpture and -architecture. Among his earliest works is the uncompleted =Cathedral of -Montefiascone=. His fame as a military architect was established when he -remodelled the fortifications of Verona, introducing the new system of -corner bastions and giving grandeur to the gateways by the use of -rusticated masonry--a feature which he used effectively in his palace -designs. The finest of these in his native city are the =Canossa=, -=Bevilacqua=, and =Pompeii Palaces=. He wrote a work on “The Five Orders of -Architecture.” - - -=Scamozzi.=--Scamozzi has already been mentioned as adding the façade to -Palladio’s =Church of S. Giorgio Maggiore=. That his name disappears from -Venetian architecture is due to the fact that he was one of the Italian -artists who carried the Renaissance into Bohemia, and designed parts of -the Hradschin palace in Prague. - - -=Longhena.=--One exception to the excessive mannerism of the Baroque, -which characterised the Venetian style of the seventeenth century, is -found in the designs of Baldassare Longhena. These include the palaces -=Pesaro= and =Rezzonico= and the church of =S. Maria della Salute=. The -palaces are overcharged with ornament, especially with sculptured -figures, yet as a whole they are dignified, with the imposing character -due to bold, rich contrasts of light and shade that recall the example -of Sansovino. S. Maria is built on the plan of a Greek cross, with a -central dome, rising above an octagonal drum that is supported by -curving buttresses. A secondary dome surmounts the chancel, while -adjoining it is a campanile. Situated at the entrance to the Grand -Canal, the whole mass, especially when viewed from a distance that -reduces the disturbance of the statue-ornaments, presents a mingling of -picturesqueness and stateliness that makes it one of the most beautiful -features of the city. - - * * * * * - -To the latter part of the sixteenth century belong a number of imposing -palaces, erected in Genoa by the commercial princes, many of which were -designed by =Galeazzo Alessi= (1502-1572). They include the =Balbi=, -=Brignole=, =Durazzo=, =Doria-Tursi=, and =Pallavacini=. - -[Illustration: RICCARDI PALACE, FLORENCE - -BUILT FOR COSIMO I DE’ MEDICI, BY MICHELOZZO. EARLY RENAISSANCE. P. 358] - -[Illustration: PALAZZO VECCHIO - -OR MUNICIPAL PALACE OF FLORENCE; BY ARNOLFO DI CAMBIO. GOTHIC STYLE. P. -358] - -[Illustration: CA D’ORO, VENICE - -GOTHIC STYLE, BY GIOV. AND BART. BUON. P. 360] - -[Illustration: VENDRAMINI PALACE, VENICE - -RENAISSANCE STYLE, BY PIETRO LOMBARDO. P. 360] - -[Illustration: FARNESE PALACE, ROME - -BY SANGALLO; THE CORNICE BY MICHELANGELO. P. 363] - -[Illustration: COURT OF THE FARNESE PALACE - -CONSIDERED THE MOST IMPOSING IN ITALY. P. 363] - -[Illustration: CAPITOL PALACES, ROME - -BY MICHELANGELO. P. 363] - -[Illustration: LIBRARY OF S. MARK, VENICE - -BY SANSOVINO. P. 365] - -[Illustration: S. ANDREA, MANTUA - -BY ALBERTI. P. 367] - -[Illustration: S. SPIRITO, FLORENCE - -BY BRUNELLESCHI. P. 367] - -[Illustration: S. PETER’S, ROME - -SHOWING FAÇADE, PIAZZA AND COLONNADES. P. 370, ET SEQ.] - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF S. PETER’S, ROME - -P. 370, ET SEQ.] - - - - -CHAPTER III - -RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY--CONTINUED - - -The method that we have followed so far in this book has been to study -architecture in relation to problems of construction and to the -materials employed, and to think of a building as an organic growth -determined by plan, site, and the purposes for which it is intended--as -a structure in which all the parts are co-ordinated to the whole, each -directly functioning in the completed scheme. This is the architect’s -way of considering his problem. So we have followed it, in the desire to -avoid the error into which architects tell us that most laymen fall of -thinking only of the outside of a building--how it is decorated, whether -the design seems to be handsome or the reverse. - -When, however, we come to the study of Italian Renaissance architecture, -some architects tell us that we must adopt another method of judgment. -These are the architects who are out-and-out advocates of the Italian -Renaissance style, considering its achievements to be “supreme.” They -admit that the Italian architects were less concerned with problems of -construction than with general beauty of design; hence they were -actuated not so much by logic as by feeling; and feeling especially for -detail. They displayed extraordinary genius for design, both in the -choice and disposition of the decorative effects and in the skill and -refinement of their execution. They were designers rather than -constructors. - -This being the case, they should be judged accordingly. To estimate -their work by the test of constructive logic is arbitrary and unfair. -They should be judged by what they started out to accomplish; by the -character and quality of their designs. - -In a word, as it may appear, these advocates would have us apply a -pictorial test; such a one, for example, as may serve in the case of the -great picture, “Marriage in Cana of Galilee,” by Paolo Veronese. We do -not trouble to consider the appropriateness of the architectural -setting, still less to explain the functions of its several parts; we -accept it without qualification as contributing to a monumental design. - -Very possibly this actually represents the main attitude of the Italian -Renaissance artists toward architecture. They thought of it in its -pictorial aspect and practised it primarily as an art of design. With -them began the modern habit of conceiving a building primarily as a -design on paper. It is an effect of what we have already mentioned--the -separation of builder and designer that characterised the Italian -Renaissance. - -Accordingly, while the following comparisons are based upon the -principles that we have been adopting throughout this book, the reader -should bear in mind the exception that has been taken to this method of -judgment. - - -=Palazzo Vecchio--Riccardi Palace.=--A good idea of the transition from -the Gothic to the Early Renaissance in Florentine Architecture may be -gained from a comparison of the =Palazzo Vecchio= and the =Riccardi Palace=. -The former was built by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1298, as the Municipal -Palace of the Podesta and Signoria. The Riccardi was erected in 1430 by -Michelozzo for Cosimo I de’ Medici. While the Republic still survived as -a name, he had usurped the actual power and occupied the Palazzo -Vecchio until the completion of his own mansion, which was thenceforth -to be the centre not only of the Medicean domination but also of its -courtly splendour and liberal patronage of literature and art. - -Each edifice presents to the outside world a cubical mass, while the -interior includes a cortile or open court. But the Vecchio is the -severer in design, as befits Republican simplicity; it still has -something of the character of a mediæval fortress, due largely to the -heavy battlemented cornice that projects on massive corbels, with -machicolations or openings in the floor of the gallery, from which -defenders might drop missiles on an attacking force. A similar feature -surmounted the original tower (for the present superstructure was added -later)--a tower that was an additional source of defence as well as a -lookout for the detection of fires or other local disturbances. It still -served these purposes under the despotism of Cosimo; so that no tower -was needed for his house. Meanwhile, he and his successors had ever to -be on the watch against sudden alarms, so that it was admissible to -preserve somewhat of the fortress character--massive masonry, with door -and window openings, that might not be difficult to defend. On the other -hand, it would be impolitic either to make the purpose of protection too -apparent or to excite hostility by too lavish an appearance of grandeur -on the exterior. Moderation must be the keynote of the design, and the -facilities of luxurious living should be confined to the interior. - -The result is a modification of the Palazzo Vecchio design by the -introduction of classic details. A classic cornice replaces the -machicolated; round arches supplant the pointed arches, the windows of -the upper stories, in place of trefoils, have round-top lights, -separated by a circular column. They are technically known as of the -_arcade_ type, while the windows of the ground floor are changed to -rectangular shapes and are of the _architrave_ type, that is to say set -in moulded frames, which are supported on consoles and surmounted by -classic pediments. Moreover in all these details, attention has been -paid to refinements of modelling; there is a choicer feeling of -proportion in the adjustment of the openings to the solid wall spaces -while the divisions of the stories have been distinguished by projecting -string courses and in such a way as to mark the importance of the second -story or _piano nobile_. A superior refinement and logic of arrangement -have regulated the whole design. The building, in fact, reflects the -changed social conditions and the new mental and æsthetic attitude -toward life produced by the study of classic literature and works of -art. - - -=Ca d’Oro--Vendramini.=--Now if we shift our glance to Venice and compare -the façades of the =Ca d’Oro= and =Vendramini Palaces=, we discover a great -difference between them and the Florentine examples. The Ca d’Oro was -erected by the Brothers Buon in the fifteenth century, a reminder of how -late the Gothic style was continued in Venice. The Vendramini, Pietro -Lombardo’s great achievement in domestic architecture, was completed in -1481. What a contrast both present to the Riccardi! It is an expression -of different habits of life. There is in both Venetian buildings the -suggestion of greater social security and a freer intercourse with the -outside world and less obstructed enjoyment of out of doors. The ample -windows of the Vendramini spread a welcome broadcast. And while the -arcaded loggia which distinguished the Ca d’Oro have been replaced in -the Vendramini by a balcony in the principal story and have disappeared -above, the change means a brighter lighting of the interior. - -It is to be noted that the design of the Ca d’Oro is incomplete. One has -to imagine on the left a wing similar to that on the right. The massing -of the openings in the centre of the façade, instead of their even -distribution along the whole front, was peculiar to Venetian palaces. It -is apparent, although in a less pronounced manner, in the spacing of the -façade of the Vendramini. Another Venetian peculiarity is the limiting -of the beauty of the design to the main façade. Even when a side abutted -on another canal or a garden, the walls were finished in stucco instead -of marble; embellishments were omitted and, worst of all, not even was -the cornice continued. These limitations impair the integrity of the -design and seriously diminish its dignity. The fact is even more -apparent in the case of the Vendramini, for by this time the horizontal -members of the façade had acquired a definite constructive meaning, and -the failure to continue them around the sides betrays an indifference to -the logic of design. - -The façade of the Vendramini is no longer _astylar_ (columnless), as, -with the exception of the window columns, is that of the Riccardi. The -adaptation of classic details has proceeded so far that pilasters are -introduced as decorative features in the ground story, and engaged -columns in the upper ones; an excuse for their appearance being -suggested by attaching their capitals to the string courses and cornice. -This device was drawn from the example of the Roman buildings, in which -the Greek relation of upright and horizontal members was diverted from -an element of construction into an element purely of design. Further, -while the windows of the Vendramini recall the character of the _arcade_ -type, they have advanced to the _order_ type, the openings being framed -by pilasters or columns. Thus, this design embodies more or less all the -changes which the Early Renaissance brought about in secular buildings. - -=Vendramini--Cancellaria.=--Comparing the =Vendramini=, however, with -Bramante’s adaptation of classic details as illustrated, for example, in -the =Palazzo della Cancellaria=, we can see how far removed it is in -feeling from the productions of the fully developed Renaissance. By the -latter time (1505) the nutriment derived from the antique had been -digested and assimilated. The antique not only contributed to, but, in -its revived form, was becoming a part of the spirit of the time. -Architecture was becoming identified with a culture that was fast losing -its fresh, Italian inspiration in an unqualified admiration and -imitation of what was antique and pagan. - -Compared with the Vendramini or even the severer Riccardi, the -Cancellaria exhibits a precision of style that is rather close to -formalism. The design is less a product of inspired invention than of -scholarly adaptation. It may well strike one, especially at first sight, -as cold, lifeless, even pedantic; and it is not until one has studied -the design in some detail and become conscious of the refinement of -feeling and finesse of taste, involved in the relation of the parts to -the whole, that one is in a mood to recognise its claim to admiration. - -The façade is constructed of blocks of travertine, taken from the -Colosseum--for notwithstanding their reverence for antiquity the -Italians of the Renaissance were prone to the vandalism of robbing Peter -to pay Paul. An order of Corinthian pilasters with strongly marked -cornices and string courses, embellishes the upper stories, in which -also is introduced the novel arrangement of alternately narrow and wide -spacings, the contrast being subtly balanced by the window openings. -Noticeable is the variety attained by the alternating of square and -round topped windows, and also their distribution to mark the relative -importance of the several stories. In the windows of the _piano nobile_ -the effect of the round-top lights is heightened by a rectangular frame, -formed of pilasters, decorated with arabesques, while the upper part -includes spandrels relieved by a single large rosette and surmounted by -a delicately proportioned cornice. - -=Cancellaria--Farnese.=--It is interesting to compare the official -=Cancellaria= with the famous domestic example, the =Palazzo Farnese=. The -latter dates from 1530 to 1546, when the façade designed by Sangallo, -some say with Vignola’s co-operation, was completed by Michelangelo. His -contribution was the cornice, which by its boldness of projection and -richness of detail redeems the comparative monotony of evenly spaced -windows and repeated framings. However, it is the court of this palace, -said to be the most imposing in Italy, that presents its finest claim to -distinction, and here the two lower stories, erected by Sangallo, are -superior in freedom of design, as well as dignity, to the more cramped -and crowded upper one that was added by Michelangelo. - -=Capitol Palaces.=--The latter, a few years earlier, namely in 1540, had -begun the erection of the =Capitol Palaces=, a design that flanks three -sides of a square, the right and left of which are occupied -respectively, by the =Palazzo dei Conservatori= and the =Capitoline Museum=, -both completed in 1542, while the centre, finished in 1563, a year -before Michelangelo’s death, holds the =Palazzo dei Senatori=. - -In these façades appears the innovation of pilasters, carried through -the two upper stories. This emphasis of the vertical lines contradicts -the internal division of the structure into stories and is at the -sacrifice of the horizontal lines of the façade. The latter are broken -up into balconies, while the interior division is only hinted at by the -windows. But Michelangelo with the audacity of genius rejected -proprieties of detail and even logic of structure, as he was prone to do -also in his sculpture--witness the recumbent figures on the Medici -tombs--for the sake, as we should say to-day, of a grander and more -impressive synthesis. In a word, he sacrificed the parts to the whole; -and to secure the impressiveness of the whole, ties the pilasters -together at the top with an entablature that comprises a boldly -projecting cornice and is additionally emphasised by the crowning -feature of a balustrade. Except that the cornice takes the place of -pediments the principle of design is virtually that of a Roman temple, -diverted from its purpose and brusquely made to accommodate itself to -novel conditions. In the hands of Michelangelo the end may be said to -justify the means, but this device of ignoring the interior necessities -of construction in favour of an arbitrary exterior design became a -precedent that contributed largely to the decadence of the Renaissance -style. Yet, after all, it was only carrying to a destructively logical -conclusion the use of the classic orders as elements not of constructive -but of purely decorative design. - -We have already noted in the case of Gothic architecture that its -decadence was exhibited in a superabundance of decorative detail, and a -similar course appears in the Renaissance. Much of the responsibility -of the change is attributed to Sansovino. While Michelangelo magnified -the decorative, the Venetian architect elaborated it. His façade of the -=Library of San Marco= may be cited as an example. - -=Capitol Palaces--Library of S. Mark.=--If we compare the Library with the -=Capitol Palaces= we discover several important differences. In the -Venetian building the divisions of the interior are indicated by the -emphatic horizontal features; and the latter, as well as the deep -openings of the arcade and of the windows, produce a depth of shadow -effects, which in combination with the lighted surfaces results in great -variety and richness. It is precisely these qualities, which are also -elements in the design of Hellenic and Roman temples, that Michelangelo -lost or discarded in his adaptation. Contrasted either with a temple or -with Sansovino’s Library, the Capitol Palaces, grandiose although they -are, seem tame and tight, lacking in structural vitality. Sansovino -introduced vigour into his design by increasing the projection of his -large and small columns and by using the latter in couples; also by -giving a corresponding projection to all the decorative details and by -introducing sculptured figures into the spandrels of the arches and the -frieze. - -The principle of his design, stated in ordinary terms, was: If such and -such things are good, more of them will be better. It was a principle -that might well commend itself to the Venetians’ love of pageantry and -display. Sansovino had sufficient taste to know how far to carry the -elaboration; but in the hands of succeeding architects his restraint was -exchanged for license, variety degenerated into fussiness, and -elaboration became extravagance. - -=Pesaro Palace.=--These faults are discernible in the Pesaro Palace -(1650-1680) by Longhena, a product of the Venetian Rococo spirit, and by -no means an extreme example. For it preserves a certain dignity of mass -notwithstanding that it is overcharged with ornament that gives it an -effect of trickiness and restlessness. And the latter, it is to be -noted, is partly due to the device, which for a long time had been -prevalent, of carrying the horizontal moulding around the projecting -capital of an engaged column or pilaster. Borrowed from Roman usage, it -represents an element of decoration that tends to convert the -contrasting quietness of the horizontal lines into a jiggety -disturbance. This palace, however, can lay claim to the distinction that -the superimposed orders are continued, with pilasters instead of -columns, along the façade that abuts on the side canal. - - -ECCLESIASTICAL BUILDINGS - -We have now to trace the progress of the Renaissance style as it -affected Ecclesiastical architecture. It is maintained by enthusiastic -advocates of Gothic architecture, such as Ralph Adams Cram in his -inspired little book, “The Gothic Quest,” that whereas Gothic -architecture was evolved by the Church and laity through the impulse of -a common Faith, and was determined in all its essential particulars by -the symbolism of the Christian religion and the requirements of -Christian worship, the change effected by the Renaissance was a -reversion to the architectural types of Paganism. Renaissance -ecclesiastical architecture did not grow; it was formulated out of -precedents that were the direct antithesis of Christianity and Christian -worship; derived either from temples that were built after the belief -even in the Pagan religion had languished or died out, or from types of -secular architecture, such as baths, basilicas, and triumphal arches. -Therefore it was false in principle and illogical and insincere in fact. - -It is difficult not to agree with this criticism; the more so, that it -is a matter of knowledge that the Renaissance style was developed by -ecclesiastics and laity who, while they tolerated the traditional -religion--“If we are not ourselves pious,” as Pope Julius II said, “why -should we prevent the people from being so?”--were in their own tastes, -convictions, and habits of life notoriously pagan. Accordingly, it is -not the aspiration of the soul, the ascending confidence of faith, the -yearning of the spirit beyond the confines of the flesh that are -embodied in Renaissance church architecture; but, increasingly, the -pride of intellect, the pride of life, and the satisfaction of the -senses in ceremonial display. - -=S. Spirito--S. Andrea.=--We will compare first Brunelleschi’s Church of -=S. Spirito= in =Florence= (1476) with Alberti’s =S. Andrea= in =Mantua= (1512). -Professor Fletcher points out the close analogy between the former and -the Romanesque church of the Apostles, erected in Florence during the -ninth century. It represents, in effect, a reversion to the features of -the Tuscan Romanesque--vaulted aisles, a flat ceiling over the nave, -surmounting a high clerestory and aisles. For the support, however, of -the low dome over the crossing, Brunelleschi revived the Byzantine -system of pendentives, which henceforth were used in all the Renaissance -domes. Classic influence is chiefly apparent in the details of the -columns, which present probably the first example of fragments of -entablature placed upon the capitals to sustain the spring of the -arches. - -Alberti’s design, on the other hand, is unqualifiably an adaptation of -Roman style, except in the case of the dome, which is supported by -pendentives and raised on a drum. But the latter assumes the classical -form of a peristyle of columns surmounted by an entablature. The roof of -the nave is barrel vaulted and coffered in the Roman manner and springs -directly from the entablature, which rests on piers that are decorated -with engaged pilasters of the Corinthian order. The façade of the porch -supplies the motive of the whole design, being an adaptation of the -Roman triumphal arch in Mantua. Accordingly, it is composed of four -Corinthian engaged columns, mounted on pedestals in the Roman manner, -supporting an entablature and pediment. The three intervening spaces are -occupied by doors, over each of the side ones being a window above a -window, while the central door is flanked by two columns, which support -a cornice and arch that frame a lunette. If the student will compare it -with the main portal of some Gothic or Romanesque church, he will -discover an instructive difference. - -=Il Gesu--S. Giorgio Maggiore.=--Here is a further comparison of -Renaissance church-façades:--the Jesuit Church in Rome, =Il Gesu= (1568) -and =S. Giorgio Maggiore= in Venice (1560). The former is by Vignola; the -latter was erected by Scamozzi, the pupil of Palladio. But Palladio -designed the rest of the church and, since the façade was built during -his lifetime, may have had more or less to do with its design. It is at -any rate in the Palladian manner. - -Both Palladio and Vignola were pronounced classicalists, and yet they -contributed to the decadence of the Renaissance style. It is true that -Palladio’s own style was characterised by a marked severity; note the -present façade which presents a severely formal application of columns, -entablatures, and pediments. But it involves a feature that readily lent -itself to extravagant exploitation; namely, the emphasis upon colossal -columns. Vignola’s design, on the other hand, is characterised by a -multiplication and elaboration of features, which his sense of classic -propriety has kept within ordered bounds but which a less refined taste -might easily degrade into exuberant pretentiousness. - -And indeed a certain pretentiousness marks both these façades. They make -claim to being imposed by methods that are actually a pretence. For -neither design has grown out of the necessities and circumstances of the -building. Each represents the arbitrary importation of alien -ingredients, pieced together to conform to the principles of a style -that was evolved for other purposes and conditions. Each design is false -in motive and specious in its application of principles; and, since lies -breed lies, it must share responsibility for the flagrancy of specious -and pretentious shams that in time ensued from it. - -And, already, in both these designs the imitation of the antique results -in cold and rigid formalism. Compare, for example, Vignola’s façade with -one of the Tuscan Romanesque, for instance, Pisa cathedral. The -architects of the latter borrowed from the Romans the use of applied -arcades of arches and columns; but used the device frankly as a -decorative sheathing, subordinated in scale to the constructive mass, -and maintained the rich simplicity of effect by repetition of the same -decorative motive. - -Vignola, however, treated his sheathing as if it had actual constructive -meaning; and, moreover, multiplied the motives. Big, coupled columns, -mounted on pedestals, supported an entablature, the cornice of which -becomes the support of another series of big, coupled columns, which -make a great display of supporting a little pediment. Comparing this -Renaissance example with the Pisan, one may be reminded of a circus -incident. At first there enters a performer who with delightful agility -and grace keeps a number of balls moving lightly in the air. He is -followed by another, who, assuming the attitudes of an Atlas supporting -the world, labours with a cannon ball, which, when it is finally tossed -aside, proves to be no heavier than a football. - -Scarcely less incongruous is the Palladian design, with its colossal -framework of columns, entablature and pediment, and the paltry scale of -its doorway and windows. And then the enormity of the broken pediment, -the two parts of which form the front of the series of side-chapels that -flank the interior of the nave. Of course there is a sort of callous -logic represented. The pediment is the end of a sloping roof; therefore, -if the roof be separated into two parts, why not separate the pediment? -But what about the taste which, as we have seen, always tempered the -logic of the Greeks? Could the Greek taste have tolerated the cleavage -in half of a little temple design and the swaggering intrusion between -them of a giant design and persuaded itself that the domination of the -latter produced a harmony of relations? - - -S. PETER’S - -The culminating achievement of the Italian Renaissance was the new -Church of =S. Peter’s=, the erection of which, dating from 1506 to about -1626, covers the whole period of the rise and decline of the Classic -movement in Rome. - -The original plan, as laid out by Bramante, was a Greek cross, -comprising, that is to say, four equal parts. On this he proposed to -design a building that should combine the three great barrel-vaulted -halls of the Basilica of Constantine with the dome of the Pantheon. In -1514, the year preceding Bramante’s death, Sangallo the Elder, Raphael, -and Fra Gioconda da Verona were associated with the work; but the -advanced age of the first and third and Raphael’s preoccupation with -painting and his early death caused little to be accomplished. - -Meanwhile a difference of opinion had arisen as to whether the plan -should be a Greek or Latin cross. The construction was continued under -the directorship of Sangallo the Younger and Peruzzi, until in 1546 -Michelangelo was appealed to. He rescued the ground plan of Bramante, -reinforced the piers which the latter had begun at the crossing, and -made drawings and a wooden model of the dome as far up as the lantern -and actually completed the erection of the drum. - -He was succeeded by Vignola, who added the four cupolas around the dome. -The dome itself was completed from Michelangelo’s model, and finished -(1585-1590) with a lantern, by Giacomo della Porta and Fontana. - -During 1605-1612, at the instance of Paul V, the nave was lengthened by -Carlo Maderna to form a Latin instead of a Greek cross and the façade -was erected. - -Finally, between 1629 and 1667, Bernini constructed the brazen -baldachino and lavished sculpture on the interior, while completing the -exterior effect by the colonnades which enclose the Piazza. - -Easily the largest church in the world, S. Peter’s compares with other -large churches as follows, the figures representing square yards of area -in round numbers: =S. Peter’s=, 18,000; =Seville=, 13,000; =Milan=, 10,000; =S. -Paul’s=, =London=, 9000; =S. Sophia=, 8000; =Cologne=, 7000. The interior -measurement of S. Peter’s is approximately 205 yards long; the nave -being 150 feet high and 87 feet wide (the same dimensions as those of -the great hall of the Constantine basilica). The dome from the pavement -to the summit of the lantern is 403 feet, the cross adding another 30; -while the diameter is 138 feet, about five feet less than the dome of -the Pantheon. - -The prolongation of the nave by three bays has destroyed the symmetry of -mass, conceived by Bramante and Michelangelo, besides interfering with -the exterior view of the dome, which is visible only from a distance. -The east façade (for S. Peter’s reverses the usual orientation from west -to east) is, for all its magnitude, unimpressive. Its extension beyond -the actual edifice at each end still further accentuates the -comparatively mean scale of the portal. But scale is very generally -sacrificed both on the exterior and in the interior of S. Peter’s. This -is attributed by experts to the change of design introduced by -Michelangelo. - -As arranged by Sangallo the Younger, the façades were to comprise the -superimposed orders; for which Michelangelo substituted his scheme of -the Capitol Palaces--a single colossal order, surmounted by an attic. He -thus gained dignity at the expense of scale; for although the huge -pilasters are eighty-seven feet high, they look much smaller, while the -windows between them, each twenty feet in height, give an impression to -the eye of about half that size. There is a similar apparent dwarfing of -size in the piers and engaged columns of the nave, which actually -measure to the top of the entablature one hundred feet. And this -necessitated a corresponding increase of the dimensions of the -sculptured figures in the spandrels, which are twenty feet high, thus -further overpowering the sense of height. - -The noblest feature of the interior is the magnificent barrel vault of -the nave, while the surpassing grandeur of the whole edifice consists in -Michelangelo’s dome. - -Like Brunelleschi’s it has an inner and an outer shell, and is -constructed on sixteen ribs, which, however, are all visible internally. -The chief difference is the elevation of the dome and drum upon a second -and loftier drum, composed of coupled Corinthian columns and intervening -windows. This design was an adaptation of those which had been made by -Bramante and Sangallo the Younger. The former had suggested a peristyle -of columns; the latter, two drums; and Michelangelo virtually combined -the two. But, in doing so he conceived new proportions between the -vertical parts of the drum and the curve of the dome, that give his -design not only a superior majesty but also a superior lightness and -airiness. - -S. Peter’s indeed, notwithstanding much extravagant, tasteless, and -meretricious sumptuousness, due to Bernini and others, remains a -stupendous monument to the genius of Michelangelo and Bramante and to -the genius of the Italian Renaissance. It is the fit symbol of an age -that gradually lost touch of the finer things of the spirit and grew to -worship greatness, power, and pomp; that had all but discarded -Christianity for Paganism. - - * * * * * - -Meanwhile the noblest trait of the Italian genius was its worship of -beauty as well as power. The creativeness of the Italians was revealed -in their extraordinary sensitiveness to all forms of beauty in the -visible world; and in the world of intellectual conception, and in their -marvellous aptitude for translating their impressions of beauty into -forms of equivalent refinement. Accordingly, the student of to-day -visits churches to enjoy the treasures of pictured altar-pieces, -sculptured tombs, pulpits, wonders of metal-work in screens and sacred -vessels, marvels of exquisite craftsmanship in objects too numerous to -mention. The =Sistine Chapel= draws him because of Michelangelo’s -frescoes, the =Stanze= apartments for Raphael’s, and the adjoining =Loggia= -for his pictured Bible. Again, it is Raphael’s frescoes that lead him to -the =Villa Farnesina=, while many another villa charms to-day by the -beauty of its gardens and terraces, fountains, cascades, and fish-ponds, -shaded alleys and grottos. In innumerable ways it is the accompaniments -of Italian Renaissance architecture, as well as the architecture itself, -that excite admiration and have their message for ourselves. - -[Illustration: CHÂTEAU DE BLOIS - -GOTHIC PART BUILT BY LOUIS XII. P. 379] - -[Illustration: MAISON FRANÇOIS I. PARIS - -BUILT IN 1527. NOTE UNUSUAL SIZE OF WINDOWS; ALSO RICHNESS OF -INTERVENING PILASTERS. P. 380] - -[Illustration: CHÂTEAU DE BLOIS - -PART ADDED BY FRANCIS I, SHOWING STAIRCASE TOWER. P. 380] - -[Illustration: CHÂTEAU DE CHAMBORD - -PERIOD FRANCIS I. P. 380] - -[Illustration: LUXEMBOURG PALACE - -ERECTED FOR MARIE DE MÉDICIS, WIFE OF HENRI IV; BY SALOMON DE BROSSE. P. -386] - -[Illustration: PLAN SHOWING GROWTH OF LOUVRE - -FROM THE ORIGINAL PART ERECTED BY PIERRE LESCOT--THE LEFT LOWER CORNER -OF THE DARK QUADRANGLE ON RIGHT OF PLAN. P. 382, ET SEQ.] - -[Illustration: PAVILLON DE L’HORLOGE, LOUVRE - -WING TO THE RIGHT, THE ORIGINAL PART BY PIERRE LESCOT. THE PAVILLON AND -LEFT WING BY LEMERCIER (LOUIS XIII). PP. 384, 385] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE - - -1. _Early Renaissance._ Reigns of Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I -(1483-1547). - -2. _Advanced Renaissance._ Henri II, Francis II, Charles IX, and Henri -III (1547-1589). - -3. Classic Period. Henri IV, Louis XIII, and Louis XIV (1589-1715). - -4. _Rococo._ The Regency and Louis XI (1715-1774). - - * * * * * - -By the middle of the fifteenth century commercial relations with Italy -and the number of Italian ecclesiastics holding benefices in France, had -caused a steady influx of Italian influence, which became intensified by -the military interferences of Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I in -the politics of Italy. The practical issue of these otherwise disastrous -expeditions was the invasion of Italian culture into France. - -=Italian Culture.=--It produced a new era of intellectual activity and -fostered a new refinement of taste and social conditions. Its earliest -results are typified in the career of Francis I. No French king before -his time had received so liberal an education. Under the enlightened -care of his mother, Louise of Savoy, he was early trained in Latin, -Italian, and Spanish, sharing the studies with his gifted sister, -Margaret, afterward Queen of Navarre, a patroness of literature and -herself the author of the “Heptameron,” a collection of stories, -supposed to extend over seven days in the telling and modelled on the -style of Boccaccio’s “Decameron.” Francis also played the rôle of -patron, surrounding himself with men of letters and artists; but while -he encouraged the visits of Italian artists he was no less eager to -encourage native talent. His patronage of Clement Marot, the first great -poet of the French Renaissance, is a case in point and, corresponding -with this _amour propre_ regarding native talent notwithstanding his -love for things Italian, was his employment of French architects, the -services of foreign artists being used chiefly in the way of sculptural -and painted decorations. - -By the middle of the fifteenth century the great era of church building -had been exhausted. The needs of the population for places of worship -were fully satisfied; the profession of architect passed from the -clerics to laymen, who, so far as ecclesiastical work was concerned, -were busy embellishing existing churches with altar-furnishings, -screens, pulpits, fonts, tombs, and so forth, in which the novel skill -of the Italian craftsman was freely used. - -=School of Tours.=--Thus, in consequence of Italian influence, a new -school of French sculpture grew up, which centered in Tours, a city at -this period specially favoured by the kings of France. The genius of -this “School of Tours” was Michel Colombe, whose art represented a blend -of Italian refinement and Gothic vigour; and it was precisely this -mingled quality that characterised the architecture of the Early French -Renaissance. It, too, was centered in Tours, and blossomed forth -throughout the Province of Touraine. For it was a distinction of the -French Court life of the period that it avoided cramped conditions of -city environment and spread itself luxuriantly in the pleasures of -country life. Accordingly, the architectural memorials of the Early -French Renaissance are mainly the royal and noble châteaux that stud -Touraine, especially along the banks of the rivers Loire and Cher. - -=Châteaux.=--The conditions being so local and essentially an expression -of the French idea of living, the model of the Italian palace--a product -primarily of the needs and conditions of city life--could not be -directly applied, while the logic of the French genius, working at that -time freely, eschewed the attempt to make a compromise with imitation. -So the châteaux of the Early French Renaissance retain the structural -character of the Gothic Feudal castle but modify it in the way of -Italian refinements, passing from military offensive and defensive -purpose to that of elegant and luxurious living. Hence a distinction of -these French châteaux is their picturesqueness and the degree to which -they participate in the natural picture. - -Instead of the unity of effect presented by an Italian palace, -completely enclosing its cortile, they retained the Gothic -characteristic of variety in unity; their extensive and differing -façades being grouped around a spacious courtyard, and composed so as to -furnish a variety of effects from different view-points of the -landscape. - -One side of the court was occupied by a windowless screen wall along -which, upon the inside, ran a colonnade, while the centre was pierced by -a large covered gateway that afforded a _porte-cochère_. The sides of -the courtyard were flanked by buildings, devoted to the servants’ -quarters and the various offices connected with the home-life and the -outdoor pastimes, while on the fourth side, facing the entrance, -extended the main edifice, designed for the occupation of the family -and the entertainment of guests. The chief architectural distinction of -this main part was reserved for its outer façade, where it abutted on a -terrace, which communicated with the alleys, parterres, and fish-ponds -of the formally laid out gardens and commanded views of the surrounding -park. - -In this adaptation of the plan of a Gothic fortress to the conveniences -and pleasures of a country palace, some of the old architectural -features were preserved but modified to decorative purposes. Thus the -gateway was square and massive, recalling distantly the appearance of a -donjon keep; the more so that round towers, built, however, with squared -walls in the interior, projected from the angles. The angles also of the -outer façades were embellished with similar towers, that preserved a -picturesque contrast to the straight lines of the intervening masonry as -well as presenting from their windows a variety of views of the -surroundings. The actual machicolations that previously overhung the -walls were now reduced to a decorative motive of little arches upon -corbels, and the battlements gave way to balustrades. Further, the great -hall was replaced by state apartments which, as in an Italian palace, -occupied the second floor or _bel étage_. - -Meanwhile, the crowning distinction of the Early Renaissance palaces was -the high-pitched roofs, surmounted in the case of the turrets with -lanterns or louvers, and everywhere enlivened with tall decorated -chimneys and recurring dormer windows, in frames of richly carved -tracery. It was, in fact, in the treatment of the roofs that the French -architects chiefly preserved the Gothic tendency to verticality; and, -correspondingly, it was in the gradual lowering of the roofs and the -emphasis of the horizontal features of the façades that they exhibited -their gradual conversion to Italian influences. - -To-day, these _châteaux_ of Touraine, embosomed in the beauty of their -natural surroundings, quietly mirrored in the river’s surface, still -testify to the vigour and freshness of the Gallic genius in the -dayspring of its acceptance of Italian refinements. A little effort of -imagination, assisted, maybe, by pictures such as those of Eugène -Isabey, can reconstruct in fancy the splendour and vivacity of the -scene, when the terraces vied with the parterres in their blossoming of -colours, as courtly men and women in the bravery of imported Italian -velvets and brocades, lounged in elegant ease or gathered in a group to -listen to a poet’s latest _chanson_, while the activity of the -courtyard, with its constant coming and going of russet and green-clad -serving men, was stirred to a gayer aspect by the arrival or departure -of a brilliant cavalcade of hunters with hawk and hound. - - -=Château de Gaillon.=--One of the earliest of the castles that marked the -transition from Gothic to Renaissance was the =Château de Gaillon=, which -was built for a Tourainer, the Cardinal George of Amboise, not, however, -in Touraine, but in the neighbourhood of =Rouen=. Only fragments of it -remain which are now preserved in the École des Beaux Arts in Paris; but -in its day it was a masterpiece of the Rouen School, which preceded that -of Tours as a flourishing centre of art and letters. It much more nearly -resembled in its lay-out the character of a fortified castle, having -among other defensive details, a moat and drawbridge. - -=Château de Blois.=--Meanwhile, a surviving example of the transition and -Early Renaissance, is the =Château de= =Blois=, the first of the Royal -Palaces, begun by Charles XII and completed by Francis I. The earlier -façade is still unmistakably Gothic; the arches of the colonnade are -flat segments, characteristic of the latest period; the shafts of the -columns are attached to piers that reinforce the upper walls and run -into the cornice; the windows still have stone mullions and transoms, -and the design and decorative detail of the dormer windows are purely -Gothic. - -On the other hand, in the façade of Francis I, the ornament of the -dormer windows, as well as the decorative details elsewhere, are of -Italian design. The cornice has been given a more pronounced decorative -treatment; it has a bolder projection and, while the old machicolations -are represented they are converted into a purely decorative motive. -Further, although the square mullion windows still appear, they are -framed with pilasters and cornice and the intervening spaces of solid -wall are treated as panels and enriched with arabesques. - -The finest feature of this wing is the staircase tower, which occupies -the centre of the façade on the side facing the court. Polygonal in -plan, it is constructed with four great piers, extending from the ground -to the cornice, to which are fitted the rising balustrades. The whole is -magnificently Gothic in its structural design as well as in the -character of the canopied niches; but the actual ornament is Renaissance -and was probably executed by Italian artists. In the pierced carving of -the balustrades the decorative motive is the King’s monogram, “_F_,” -intertwined with his emblem, the Salamander. - -=Château de Chambord.=--Another famous staircase appears in the =Château de -Chambord=, a palace which in other respects also presents most -interesting features. It was erected by Francis I (1526), probably as a -hunting box, and the architect, Pierre C. Nepveu, has adhered more -closely than had been usual to the plan of a feudal fortress. For in -place of the gateway in the centre of the screen wall, a square -structure with corner towers, which are round outside but square in the -interior, projects into the courtyard, in the manner of a donjon-keep. -Yet its purpose was not for defence but for ceremonial entertainment, -since the interior contains four halls carried up to a great height and -covered with coffered barrel vaults, while the centre of the plan is -occupied by the staircase. - -The latter, constructed in a stone cage, consists of a double spiral -stairway, respectively for ascent and descent. It communicates with -small rooms in the angles of the square and in the turrets, and finally -with the lantern, which commands a superb view of the surrounding -country. This lantern, octagonal in plan, the crowning feature of the -exterior design, rises above the surrounding roofs, dormer-windows, and -chimneys in two tiers of arcades, noticeably Italian in their system of -pilasters and entablatures. They are surmounted by a domed roof, which -supports an elaborate cupola. While the sky line thus presents a richly -picturesque confusion, the façades are comparatively severe and in the -ordered repetition of their details reflect the Italian influence. This -is especially perceptible in the orders of Corinthian pilasters, in the -general emphasis of the horizontal features, and in the use of round -arches in the arcades. Meanwhile, the uniformity of the façades are -relieved by the projecting angle-turrets, and by the admirably disposed -masses of solid masonry, which besides their decorative value serve the -practical use of backings to the interior fireplaces. - -Other famous châteaux of =Touraine= are those of =Bury=, =Chenonceaux=, -=Azay-le-Rideau=, and =Amboise=. Then came the day when Francis moved his -court to Paris, thus shifting the scene of architectural activity. A -rural palace sprang into form at Fontainebleau, a royal château at St. -Germain-en-Laye, and a start was made with the city palace of the -Louvre. - -=Palace of Fontainebleau.=--The =Palace of Fontainebleau= was begun in 1528 -by the architect Gilles le Breton. It followed the plan of a convent -which it replaced, so that a remarkable irregularity distinguishes its -arrangement. The design of the façades was probably influenced by -Vignola and Serlio, who were among the artists invited from Italy by -Francis I. They included also the painters Niccolo dell’ Abbati, Il -Rosso, and Primaticcio, and the sculptor, Benvenuto Cellini, who were -employed upon the decoration of the interior. Indeed, it is for the -magnificence of the interior decoration, especially in the Galerie de -François I, and in the Salle des Fêtes, added by Henri II, and the -Galerie de Diane and Galerie des Cerfs of Henri IV, rather than for -architectural distinction, that Fontainebleau is celebrated. - -=Louvre.=--The =Louvre= was commenced in 1546, the year preceding the death -of Francis I. The design was entrusted to the French architect, Pierre -Lescot, but is supposed to have been influenced by Serlio. It exhibits, -in fact, a noticeably Italian character and marks the beginning of the -advanced phase of the French Renaissance, associated with the reigns of -Henri II, Charles IX, and Henri III (1547-1589), while subsequent -additions, made during the reigns of Henri IV, Louis XIII, and Louis -XIV, record the progress of the matured Renaissance toward the period of -pronounced Classicalism. Accordingly the history of the Louvre is an -epitome of what this development involved. - -The Palace was originally designed to cover the comparatively small -square plan which had been occupied by the Gothic, fortified palace of -Philippe Augustus, and the parts, executed by Lescot, comprise the west -and south façades. In the reign of Louis XIII the original square was -doubled in size, so as to enclose the present court of the, so-called, -“Old Louvre.” Meanwhile, under Charles IX, the adjacent palace of the -Tuilleries was erected by the architect, Philibert de l’Orme, for -Catherine de Medicis; and to connect it with the Louvre, a long gallery, -subsequently completed by Henri IV, was built along the bank of the -Seine. This was supplemented later by wings, forming three sides of the -larger Court of the =Place du Carrousel=, which was finished by Napoleon -I. Meanwhile, by Louis XIV a new front, bordering on the Seine, had been -added to the =Old Louvre=, and finally, under Napoleon III, two wings were -projected from the Old Louvre on the north and south of the Place du -Carrousel, forming what is now known as the =New Louvre=. At present the -only change from the plan thus gradually compiled, consists in the loss -of the =Tuilleries= which was burnt by the Commune mob in 1871. - -=Old Louvre--Blois.=--Returning to the original façade by Pierre Lescot, -one may compare it profitably with both the earlier and the later -façades of Blois. The Louvre design, like the earlier Blois, consists of -three parts, but has become more unified. The arcade is replaced by -deeply set windows, under round arches; the _bel étage_ now presents a -regular recurrence of windows at closer intervals, and the dormer -windows have given way to a continuous attic with a consequent lowering -of the pitch of the roof. Again, when compared with the later façade of -Blois, one notes in that of the Louvre the disappearance of the mullion -divisions in the windows, their narrower and higher shape, and the -Italian detail of their pedimental tops. Particularly noticeable is the -more simplified and organic effect produced by compressing the four -stories of the older design into an appearance of three divisions, very -carefully balanced. Under this appearance, however, lies an actual -fourth story, introduced as a mezzanine floor between the first and -second. It is betrayed by the bull’s-eye window or _œil de bœuf_, a -characteristically French shape of window, and by a range of -semi-circular windows which at first sight may seem to be a part of the -windows below them. This exterior blending of the mezzanine with the -first story results in strengthening the character of the lower part, so -that it affords a resolute foundation for the _bel étage_, which in -itself is effectively emphasised by the special treatment of the -windows. - -And this unity of design is further increased by the bold projection of -the entablatures and cornice. The suggestion of verticality has been -abandoned in the frank acceptance of the horizontal motive. Lest, -however, this should produce monotony, the Gallic preference for variety -relieved the flatness of the façades by doubling the width of the -window-bays at the ends and in the centre, and by giving them a slight -projection. Around this the entablatures are broken, while double -pilasters are employed and the summit terminates in segmental pediments, -which break into and relieve the continuous line of the cornice. When -further we note that in addition to the Corinthian and Composite -pilasters and other carved details of purely Italian design, there are -statues and much other enrichment, characterised by the free, vigorous -feeling of French sculpture, the work it is said of Jean Goujon, we -realise than even the advanced phase of French Renaissance, at least in -its early stage, reflects still a temperament noticeably Gallic. - -When it was decided, in the reign of Louis XIII, to double the size of -the court of the Louvre, Jacques Lemercier, who was entrusted with the -work, erected as a central feature of the prolonged façade, the -“=Pavilion de l’Horloge=.” This was supplemented on the side facing west -by another pavilion called after the famous minister of Henri IV and -Louis XIII, the =Pavilion Sully=. The former occupies a width twice that -of the double, projecting bays, and, while it continues the sequence of -windows in the _bel étage_ and attic, introduces in the former a large -round-topped window. Further, the attic is surmounted by a clerestory of -three windows, framed with twin-figured caryatids by Jacques Sarrazin. -They support a pediment, above which rises a domical roof, divided by -four well-defined ribs and terminating in a balustraded crown--a -treatment of pavilions essentially French in character. - -It is akin to that type of roof construction, which was called after the -architect, François Mansart or Mansard, who popularised its use. The -principle is the replacement of the continuous slope by a “hip” or -“curb”--namely, the meeting of an upper and a lower slope at an obtuse -angel; a form of construction which reduces the outward thrust on the -walls by directing much of the strain to the post that supports the -angle. When used upon pavilions, it gives them something of the effect -of towers. - -=East Façade.=--Under Louis XIV the Old Louvre was completed by the -addition of the east façade. The work had been entrusted to Bernini, who -was a visitor at the court, but his project was rejected in favour of -one designed by the King’s physician, Dr. Perrault. This involved again -doubling the size of the plan by the continuation of the north and south -façades. In these the style of Lescot’s was fortunately preserved, -though another story was added to accommodate the extra height of the -east façade. - -The latter represents the full acceptance of the classical style, which -reflects the taste of the time; and is such a design as an intelligent -student of the writings of Vignola might compile. Its main feature is a -colossal order of coupled Corinthian columns, forming a colonnade, -behind which the walls of the edifice are set back. The uniformity of -this front of six hundred feet is interrupted by projections at the ends -and in the centre, the predominance of the latter being asserted by a -pediment. The character of this façade is echoed on the south one, -overlooking the Seine, by an order of colossal pilasters. - -=Luxembourg Palace.=--Before enumerating other examples of the Classicism -of Louis XIV, we must revert to a notable example of the advanced -Renaissance; namely, the =Luxembourg Palace=, which was erected in 1611 by -Salomon de Brosse for Marie de Médicis, the wife of Henri IV. In -conformity with her Florentine tastes the design was based upon that of -the garden front of the Pitti Palace, which is distinguished by its -orders of rusticated pilasters. But the French character prevails in the -plan, which presents a central main building or _corp_ _de logis_, -flanked by wings that extend back and form the sides of a courtyard, -which is separated from the street by a screen-wall with -_porte-cochère_. Moreover, the garden front is distinguishably French in -the picturesque variety obtained by the projecting portions that form -terminal and central pavilions, crowned with characteristic roofs. It is -a design of quietly elegant refinement. - -A corresponding choiceness of quality was prolonged into the classical -régime in the =Château de Maisons=, near =St. Germain-en-Laye=, by François -Mansart and in the same architect’s domical church of =Val de Grace, -Paris=, in which he was assisted by Lemercier. Meanwhile, Mansart’s -nephew, Jules Hardouin Mansart, was associated with Levau in Louis XIV’s -special pride, =Versailles=. - -=Versailles.=--This immense palace is representative at once of the -monarchical spirit of the time and of the sterility of classicism. -Colossally pretentious, for the total length of the garden façade is one -thousand three hundred and twenty feet, the design in its monotonous -repetition of orders, scarcely relieved by the tame projections, is also -monumentally dull. It fronts upon formal gardens, laid out with terraces -and fountains, that in their magnificence are a memorial to the genius -of Le Nôtre. The decorations of the interior of the palace exhibit the -unfortunate taste for prodigal display, represented in exuberant and -oppressively heavy relief work, executed in gilded _papier maché_, and -set off with prodigious canvases by Lebrun and his assistants. - -J. H. Mansart also designed the =Place Vendome=, around the four sides of -which all the houses are treated with a uniform order of colossal -pilasters, out of scale with the size of the square and pretentiously -inappropriate. His, too, was the Veterans’ home, the =Hôtel des -Invalides=. - -=Hôtel des Invalides.=--The latter is vast but truly barrack-like, with -tedious repetition of the orders; but is celebrated for the stately -grace of the dome. This surmounts the church that is in the form of a -Greek cross, the angles being filled with chapels, so as to make the -complete plan a square. The exterior design of the dome includes a high -drum, pierced with windows, between which project eight coupled columns -that form buttresses. These terminate in carved corbels, which reinforce -a smaller drum, with round topped lights. From this springs the dome; -the grace of its curve being echoed in the airy cupola whose roof -diminishes in concave curves to a soaring point. - -The somewhat excessive height of the exterior needed on the inside very -considerable reduction, in order to bring it into proportion with the -rest of the interior. This the architect accomplished by erecting -beneath the wooden shell of the outer dome two interior ones, a middle -and a lower one, independently constructed. The lower, which rises -immediately above the lower drum, has a large circular opening, through -which is visible the decorations painted on the middle dome, which rests -upon the upper drum and is lighted by its windows. The whole structure -is supported upon four large piers, which, as in S. Paul’s, London, are -pierced by arched openings, leading, in the case of the Invalides, into -the four angle chapels. - -Another instance of a triple dome occurs in the Church of =S. Geneviève=, -better known as the =Pantheon=, which we shall refer to later in -connection with the Classic revival, although its construction, -extending from 1755 to 1781, occupied a considerable part of the Rococo -period. - -=Rococo.=--The Rococo is marked by a further decline into dry and -pedantic formality in the use of the orders, which, however, in time -produced a reaction toward a more intelligent, if uninspired, observance -of the principles of classic design. It appears in the façade added to -the Church of =S. Sulpice= in 1755 by the Italian, Servandoni. This -comprises a Doric portico, supporting an Ionic arcade, above which, at -the extremities, rise turrets in two tiers of orders. Other examples -which mark the end of the reign of Louis XV will be referred to in the -subsequent chapter on Classic Revival. - -Meanwhile the style that is recognised as Rococo is characteristically -exhibited in the interior decorations. These reflect the change of -spirit that came over court life with the death of Louis XIV and the -succession of the Duke of Orleans as regent during the minority of Louis -XV. The old King under the control of Madame de Maintenon and his -confessor had become gloomily religious; the court spirit, punctilious -as ever, was ponderously dull. With the Regency it rebounded into -lightsomeness. Versailles was abandoned for the Luxembourg; the peruke -and stiff fashions gave way to powdered hair and elegance of costume; -rigid etiquette was replaced with gay wit and gallantry; all that was -lightest in the Gallic temperament bubbled sparkling to the surface. To -the call of this new spirit the decorators responded. The papier-maché -ornament was discarded for stucco; profusion still abounded, but it was -no longer heavy and oppressive; it wandered in light luxuriance over -walls, doors, and ceilings; exhibiting a fertility of decorative -invention in its combinations of curly-cues, scrolls, shells, foliage, -flowers, and rockwork. The last named motive (_rocca_ in Italian) is the -doubtful origin attributed to the term Rococo. - -It was a style that characteristically avoided straight lines and, in -general, the formality of arrangement which distinguishes classic -ornament. Accordingly it fell under the ban of the Classical Revival and -is always condemned by those whose preferences are classical. And, -undoubtedly, its freedom often degenerated into license and its -profusion became excess, especially in the hands of German or Spanish -imitators. Yet, at its best, when considered as a setting to the -costumes and manners of the period and as an expression of the social -spirit, it represented something so vitally appropriate to the time and -place of its creation that it commands the consideration of the student. -Under an impulse infinitely inferior to that which inspired the -decorators of the Gothic and Early Renaissance, it yet represents the -same fecundity of Gallic creativeness. - -[Illustration: CASTLE OF HEIDELBERG - -ON RIGHT RUINS OF THE HEINRICHSBAU WING, ADJOINING REMAINS OF OLD GOTHIC -PORTION: ON EXTREME LEFT THE FRIEDRICHSBAU WING (1601). P. 394] - -[Illustration: ANOTHER VIEW OF THE HEINRICHSBAU - -P. 394] - -[Illustration: BREMEN CITY HALL - -NOTE GOTHIC WINDOWS, WITH RENAISSANCE PEDIMENTS, AND INTERVENING -“GAINES.” P. 395] - -[Illustration: PELLERSHAUS, NÜREMBERG - -RUSTICATED MASONRY. P. 395] - -[Illustration: ANTWERP CITY HALL - -P. 406] - -[Illustration: LIEGE, COURT OF THE PALAIS DE JUSTICE - -GOTHIC VAULTING AND OTHER DETAILS COMBINED WITH RENAISSANCE. NOTE -BALUSTER-SHAPED COLUMNS; CAPITALS COVERED WITH GROTESQUE MASKS, FIGURES -AND FOLIAGE. P. 406] - -[Illustration: COLLEGE OF SANTA CRUZ, VALLADOLID - -CHOICE EXAMPLE OF EARLY RENAISSANCE, BY ENRIQUE DE EGAS. P. 399] - -[Illustration: COURT OF THE CASA DE ZAPORTA - -NOTE ARCADE IN THE SECOND STORY. P. 400] - -[Illustration: ELEVATION AND PLAN - -OF THE UNCOMPLETED PALACE IN CLASSICAL STYLE, OF CHARLES V IN THE -ALHAMBRA GROUNDS. P. 402] - -[Illustration: COURT OF THE COLLEGE OF ALCALA DE HEÑARES - -BY ALONZO DE COVARRUBIAS. P. 400] - -[Illustration: THE ESCORIÁL - -A PALACE, MONASTERY AND MAUSOLEUM. P. 403] - -[Illustration: PLAN OF THE ESCORIÁL - -IMITATING THE GRIDIRON ON WHICH S. LAWRENCE WAS MARTYRED. P. 403] - - - - -CHAPTER V - -RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, AND SPAIN - - -Notwithstanding the close commercial relations that cities such as -Augsburg and Nüremburg maintained with Northern Italy, especially with -Venice, the Renaissance influences did not make much impression on -German architecture until about the middle of the sixteenth century. It -had, however, appeared in the paintings and engravings of Dürer and -Burkmair and in the sculpture of Peter Vischer--as in his =Tomb of S. -Sebald= in =Nüremburg=. But even in architecture there had been symptoms of -the spread of Italian taste, Italian architects being employed on -castle-building, as in the case already mentioned, of the Venetian, -Scamozzi, in Prague. These, however, were only sporadic instances; for -two reasons conspired to defer a general movement: the deep-rooted -Gothic feeling and the political conditions. - -Architecture depends largely upon conditions of social stability, making -for wealth and ease, and these had been disturbed by Charles V’s long -struggle to crush the nobility that upheld the Protestant faith. It was, -therefore, not until security had been established by the Peace of -Augsburg in 1555, that a widespread activity of architecture was -resumed. It lasted until the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War in 1618. -This covers the period of the Early and Later German Renaissance; the -remainder of the seventeenth century being marked by a gradual decline -into the extravagance of Rococo. - -=Characteristics.=--Moreover, the German architects, after borrowing the -Gothic style, had so fitted it, especially in the way of decorative -details, to their own taste, that when at length they borrowed from the -Renaissance, they preserved, except in rare instances, much of the -Gothic feeling. The new style was employed chiefly in castles, domestic -buildings, city halls, gild and corporation houses. In these the German -love of irregularity, profusion, fantasticalness, and general -picturesqueness still prevailed. It was displayed in the continued -partiality for towers and turrets (octagonal, not circular, as in -France), often containing spiral staircases; high-pitched roofs and -decorated gables, carried up in steps; dormer windows, prolonged through -several stories up to the height of the roof and emulating the effect of -gables; oriel windows, curved or polygonal, projecting from the face of -the façade or from the angles upon corbel-supports. - -The German taste also showed itself in the character and distribution of -the ornament. While this was apt to be spread freely over the façades -and was used profusely in the decoration of the windows and doors, it -was lavished especially on the gables and dormer gables, so that they -are the distinctive feature of the design. To some extent the details of -Italian ornament were introduced, but more generally the German carver -followed his own taste for bold and deeply cut designs, showing a -preference for rusticated masonry, including rusticated pilasters, and -drawing on his fancy for grotesques, caryatids and the half-length -figures, terminating in a pedestal, known as _gaines_. And the wood -carver vied with the sculptor, especially in the interior decoration of -ceilings and wall panelling, while the exteriors as well as the -interiors afforded scope for the fancy of the painter. - -The ornamental tendency increased until the purpose seemed to be to -cover every available space with decoration; while as the latter grew -less and less organic, it became less original. The carver ceased to -invent his designs and was satisfied to copy them with tedious -repetitions from the pattern books which, compiled apparently in the -Netherlands--one of them by Cornelius de Vriendt--circulated through -Germany and, as we shall see, found their way to England. They comprised -a heterogeneous assortment of motives, for title pages and frontispieces -of books as well as for doorheads and other architectural details, and -introduced a variety of designs in bands and straps, borrowed from the -work of locksmiths and leather-workers. The degradation reached its -climax in the Rococo ornament of the early eighteenth century, -especially in the Zwinger Palace, Dresden, “the most terrible Rococo -work ever conceived, if we except some of the Churrigueresque work in -Spain.” - -In the neighbourhood of the Hartz Mountains, where forests abounded, -timber was used with handsome effect in the design of the structure; -beams, doors and window frames, corbels, and so forth being richly -carved and often coloured. In the alluvial plain of the North, bounded -roughly by a line drawn east and west through Berlin, the absence of -stone and the abundance of clay encouraged the use of brick both for the -structure and its decoration, and developed a skill in the handling of -this material that could scarcely be surpassed. Elsewhere stone was -plentiful and the main walls were constructed either of masonry or -rubble covered with stucco. - -=Castle of Heidelberg.=--Among the highest achievements of the German -Renaissance is reckoned the =Castle of Heidelberg=, which affords a -comparison of the early and later styles. For to the old Gothic fortress -was added, in 1556, the wing known as the =Heinrichsbau=, which was -supplemented in 1601 by the wing called =Friedrichsbau=. The latter is in -good repair and used as a museum, but the earlier is a roofless shell, -devastated, as was the Gothic part, by a fire which originated in a -stroke of lightning in 1764. Consequently, to-day we view the façade of -the Heinrichsbau without the dormer gables which are so marked a feature -of the later design. And the loss, no doubt, helps to emphasise the -horizontal character of the older façade. The design, in fact, -throughout suggests a struggle to apply Italian principles and adjust -them to German Gothic characteristics. Thus, orders of pilasters are -employed in all three stories, but these are rusticated and alternately -broken in upon by niches embellished with gaines. The windows have -double lights separated by sculptured mullions and, although they are -surmounted by pediments and cornices, the constructive simplicity of -these details is interfered with by ornamental accessories. - -The general conflict of effects becomes more perceptible when one -compares this façade with that of the Friedrichsbau. Here the pilasters -and entablatures are of bolder projection; the windows are well set -back, their repetition is pleasantly varied by the traceried windows of -the first story; the pediments are undisturbed by accessory carving. The -walls present an agreeable balance between the horizontal and the -perpendicular features; and then, above the cornice, the perpendicular -asserts a final quiet predominance in the dormer gables. The whole -façade, indeed, suggests that the architect had thoroughly mastered the -principles of Italian design and could apply them freely; neither -yielding to them unduly nor muddling them with the Gothic motive, but -blending them flexibly in an ensemble that, while it has derived a -certain orderliness from the Italian, preserves the essential spirit of -German picturesqueness. - -=City Halls.=--Out of the variety of City Halls space permits only a -comparison of two famous ones--those of =Cologne= and =Bremen=. Both are -Gothic buildings modified by Renaissance additions. In the case of -=Cologne= the two-storied porch was added in 1571. In style and detail, it -is more purely Italian than usual. So much so, that it presents a -somewhat incongruous addition. On the other hand, the Renaissance façade -of the =Bremen= Hall, is more in harmony with the original Gothic edifice. -It is true the arches of the arcades are pointed instead of round; but -the spacing, proportions, and treatment of the upper masonry are very -Italian in feeling. Again, while the windows are capped with pediments, -they retain the mullions and, which is more significant, the height of -the older, purely Gothic lights. Finally, the façade is crowned by a -cornice, markedly Italian in the depth of its projection, above which -appears the characteristically German roof and dormer gables. This -façade, in fact, erected in 1611, presents another example of -intelligent combination of the two styles. - -=Domestic.=--As an example of domestic architecture we may study the -famous =Pellershaus=, of =Nüremburg=. The masonry of the wall is rusticated -throughout. The treatment of the first story with its arched doorway and -windows is as massively reposeful as that of a Florentine palace; while, -except for the corbels alternating with the pilasters in the support of -the entablature and the corbel-supported bay windows, the upper stories -present a quite Italian orderliness. It is only in the huge dormer gable -that the German feeling is allowed full play. The architect has utilised -Italian principles of design; but he has emphasised the projection of -the pilasters and of the entablatures that break around them; has -exercised his German taste in the details of the pilasters; retained the -German steps to the gable and embellished them with the characteristic -ornament of obelisks, but has also filled in the angles with curving -buttresses and, when he reached the summit, let himself go in the way of -enrichments, using German gaines, the French bull’s-eye, and Italian -pediment, on which, with a fine flourish of German independence, he -props a statue! Note also the pilasters and curved pediments of the -small dormer windows. - -Here, as in most examples of the German Renaissance, the decorative -emphasis is lavished above the cornice in the treatment of the roof. And -the Pellershaus combines the two principles of German roof treatment. -For in some cases the roof ridge is parallel to the street and the -several stories into which the interior is divided are marked by tiers -of dormers, while elsewhere the roof runs at right angles to the street -and the gable-end is the imposing feature. In this instance, however, -while the ridge is parallel and two small dormers are introduced, the -main dormer feature is magnified to the importance of an actual gable, -and thus the picturesqueness of the two methods are united in one -effective design. - -=Fountains.=--Among the smaller memorials of the Renaissance are the -fountains which abound in German cities: some of the finest examples -being those of =Tübingen=, =Hildesheim=, =Mainz=, =Rothenburg=, =Ulm=, and -=Nüremburg=. - - -SPANISH RENAISSANCE - -The election in 1492, of the Spaniard, Roderigo Borgia, to the Papacy -under the title of Alexander VI, drew Spain into close relations with -Rome, while the absorption of the Kingdom of Naples into the Spanish -monarchy by Charles V in 1522 involved the country more and more in the -political intrigues of Italy. At the same time the immense wealth that -was flowing into Spain from her possessions in the New World gave an -impetus to her trade with Italy and fostered the enrichment of such -families as the Mendoza, Fonseca, Miranda, Ribera, and Velasco, who -rivalled the merchant princes of Genoa and Milan. Thus a new era of -splendour and of lavish expenditure was promoted in which the influence -of Italian art began to penetrate Spain. The date of this Spanish -Renaissance may be reckoned from the beginning of the sixteenth century. - -In Spanish painting the example of the Flemish School was abandoned for -that of the Italian; especially for the Milanese School of Leonardo da -Vinci and the works of Raphael and Michelangelo. The sculptors absorbed -the Italian influence either through the example of Italian craftsmen -invited to Spain or by direct study in Italy, while architecture became -affected by the example first of Bramante and later of Michelangelo. But -the reaction to Italian influence of these three arts was different. - -Painting needed reinforcement; it went to school with the Italians to -master principles of drawing, foreshortening, perspective, and -composition, as well as the art of fuller and more refined expression. -It had to serve an apprenticeship of imitation before it could develope -its own individually native strength in the seventeenth century. But it -was otherwise with architecture. The fundamentals of the art were -thoroughly understood by the Spaniards through Gothic tradition and, -when they came under the spell of the Italian, it was in the way only of -modifying the design, especially the character of the decorative -elements, in which they were assisted by their sculptors. In place of -the flamboyant decoration of the late Gothic there grew up a new style -of more refined ornament. And it was also a new style, both in its -character and in the use made of it; a style created by Spanish -architects and sculptors and confined to Spanish art, and known as -_estilo plateresco_ or silversmith’s style. - -=Plateresque Style.=--The Spaniards had inherited from the Moors a -consummate skill in metal-craftsmanship; and now the inflow of silver -from the New World gave a stimulus to the craft of the silversmith. It -reached extraordinary development in the making of church plate, -particularly in the _custodias_ or tabernacles, designed to hold the -“Host,” which reached the magnitude of lofty structures, simulating -towers and decorated with a wealth of intricate ornament of the most -exuberant and yet delicate fancy. Foremost among these artists in silver -was the family of Arphe, consisting of Enrique de Arphe, his son -Antonio, and grandson Juan. Their work, which extended throughout the -sixteenth century, began by being Gothic in character, but gradually -reflected the Italian influence. It was so remarkable in its exuberant -creativeness and so widely spread throughout the country--in =Toledo=, -=Cordova=, =Santiago=, =Seville=, =Valladolid=--that its enormous effect upon -architectural decoration is quite comprehensible. - -The plateresque style is a combination of several elements: the freedom -of the Gothic, the delicate profusion of Moorish ornament, and the -ordered refinement of Raphael’s arabesques, mingled into a new and -living medium of decorative expression by the vitality and fecundity of -the Spanish fancy. And a corresponding originality was displayed in the -manner of using it. It was massed chiefly around the doors and windows. -Its earliest appearance is in the decorated portals, added to the Gothic -cathedrals or to the newly erected secular buildings, of which a famous -example is the doorway of the west façade of the =University of -Salamanca=, in the province of Castile. - -The earliest architect to apply this sculptural embellishment to the -façades of buildings is said to have been Enrique de Egas, a native of -Brussels, trained in the Gothic style, who was supervising architect of -the Cathedral of Toledo. Among the gems which he contributed to the -Early Spanish Renaissance are the =College of Santa Cruz= in Valladolid, -built for Bishop Mendoza, and the =Hospital= of the same name, erected by -Cardinal Pedro Mendoza in =Toledo=, which served as a model for the -=University of Salamanca=. All three of these edifices are celebrated for -the magnificent decoration of their principal portal: the one in -Salamanca being specially notable for the device adopted to offset the -effect of foreshortening in the ornament remote from the eye. For the -depth of the cutting is graduated from flat relief in the lowest panels -up to a bold enrichment of light and shade at the top. Another feature -of these buildings, particularly fine in the two earlier ones, is the -interior court or _patio_. - -=Patio.=--The importance of the patio is a distinctive characteristic of -Spanish architecture, deriving, not from the _cortile_ of the Italian -palace, but from the _atrium_ of the Roman villa, preserved in the -courts of Moorish buildings. The patio is surrounded on all four sides -by colonnades of two stories into which all the rooms open, while -approach to the second floor is given by a handsome staircase. A -characteristic feature is the use of bracket columns, a well-known -example being in the patio of the =House of Miranda= in =Burgos=. Sometimes, -in the second story, an arcade is substituted for columns and -entablature, as in the =Casa de Zaporta=, also known as the Infantado -Palace, in =Guadalajara=. - -Frequently the columns and surfaces of the patio are richly decorated -with plateresque ornament, for the patio was the centre of the life and -ceremony of the family. And this habit of domestic seclusion, inherited -apparently from Moorish times, reacted on the exterior of the buildings; -and, while the patio was luxuriantly decorated, a singular barrenness -characterised the façades. - -Thus the chief feature of the latter was the entrance doorway; the -windows were few, small in size, and raised high above the level of the -street, while occasionally a portico was added under the roof, where the -inmates could take the air and view the outside life without themselves -being seen. A famous example of this is seen in the =college= erected for -=Cardinal Ximenes= in =Alcala de Henares= by the Castilian architect, Alonzo -de Covarrubias, son-in-law of Enrique de Egas. He also designed the -=Archbishop’s Palace= in the same city and the celebrated =Chapel of the -New Kings= in the =Toledo Cathedral=. - -=Cathedrals.=--Another northern centre of the Early Spanish Renaissance -was =Burgos=. Here the master of the plateresque style was Diego de Siloe, -sculptor and architect, who built the celebrated =Golden Staircase= in -the Cathedral, to connect the higher levels of the old, thirteenth -century Puerta de la Coroneria, with the floor of the north transept by -a flight of 39 steps, which has a gilded balustrade, richly embellished -and bearing the arms of Bishop Fonseca. - -In 1520 Siloe was summoned to =Granada= to superintend the building of the -=Cathedral= which had been designed in the Gothic style by Enrique de -Egas. This, the earliest and most remarkable of the Renaissance -cathedrals of Spain, represents an application of the Classic orders to -the piers which support the vaulting. But its most distinctive feature -is that the sanctuary or _capilla mayor_, instead of terminating in an -apse, is fully circular in plan and crowned by a lofty dome, under -which, in a flood of light, stands the high altar. - -Two other important examples of Renaissance =Cathedrals= are those of =Jaen= -and =Valladolid=, while amongst the Gothic edifices that were embellished -with magnificent Renaissance portals may be mentioned the =Cathedrals= of -=Malaga= and =Salamanca= and the =Church of Santo Domingo= in the latter city -and of =Santa Engracia= in =Saragossa=. Also of the Early Renaissance period -are the octagonal lantern of =Burgos Cathedral=, designed by Vigarni, -called de Borgoña, because he was born in Burgundy, famous as a sculptor -even more than as an architect; and the towers of the =Cathedral del -Pilar= and of =La Seo= in =Saragossa=. The last named, octagonal in plan and -consisting of four stories, diminishing in size and crowned with a -lantern, bears some resemblance to the English steeples of Wren. - - -=Casa Lonja.=--The most splendid Municipal building of Spain is the =Casa -Lonja=, or Exchange for merchants, in Seville, which was built in -1583-1598 by Diego de Riano from a design, not closely adhered to, by -Juan de Herrera. The most highly decorated façade, which is on the side -removed from the Square, shows a more than usual following of the -Italian style in its system of pilasters and entablatures and the -repetition and treatment of the windows. Yet the style is used with a -decorative freedom, characteristically Spanish. - -Thus the pilasters of the second story are of the baluster type, -emulating, that is to say, the forms which can be obtained in wood by -turning on a lathe; the ornament is lavishly expended over the whole -front in a rich encrustation, and, as in the case of Salamanca, already -alluded to, increases in boldness of relief toward the top. Moreover, -the vivacity is enhanced by the intricate mitreing of the courses of the -entablatures, broken round the projection of the pilasters. The handsome -patio is double-storied, respectively in the Doric and Corinthian -orders. The sumptuous marble staircase was added in the eighteenth -century, during the reign of Charles III. - - -=Classical Style.=--Even while the plateresque style was flourishing a -more direct invasion of Italian influence was in progress. - -=Palace of Charles V.=--The earliest example of this is in the =Palace= -which Charles V began to build on the hill of the Alhambra. The work was -entrusted to Pedro Machucha, who, like Berruguete, his assistant in the -design, had studied in Rome. The plan is a square, enclosing a circular -court, and the style is Palladian. Each façade, measuring 207 feet in -length and 53 in height, is composed of rusticated masonry and pilasters -in the first story and, in the second, of an order of Ionic pilasters, -supporting a Doric cornice. In both stories occurs a mezzanine floor -lighted by circular windows. The circular court, nearly one hundred feet -in diameter, is surrounded by a lower and an upper open colonnade, -respectively of the Doric and the Ionic order. A tribute exacted from -the Moriscoes or survivors of the Moors, who were permitted to remain -after the expulsion of the majority, defrayed the cost; but their -insurrection in 1568 interfered with the work, which dragged on during -Philip II’s reign, until it was abandoned before completion. The roof -was never built; nor the octagonal chapel, crowned with a dome which, at -the northeast angle, was to dominate all the buildings of the Alhambra. -The unfinished building further suffers from the competition of the -Alhambra, which is the chief attraction to every visitor, so that -insufficient justice has been done to the grandeur and dignity of the -design. - -=The Escoriál.=--Philip II’s cessation of work upon his father’s palace -may have been largely due to his preoccupation with the memorial to his -own memory--=the Escoriál=. By the terms of his inheritance he was bound -to erect a mausoleum for his father. He enlarged the scheme to be a -burial place also for himself and succeeding Catholic Kings and added a -church, a monastery, and palace. - -Situated thirty-one miles from Madrid and overlooking the intermediate -landscape, this prodigious congeries of buildings occupies a rocky -plateau that juts out from the precipitous side of the Guadarrama Sierra -and is extended by immense foundations. Its plan, which tradition says -was to reproduce the gridiron on which St. Lawrence suffered martyrdom, -is a gigantic rectangle, 675 feet by 530, from which projects the -handle, a small rectangle. One enters on the mountain side, the Patio -of the Kings. Along the right extends the monastery, terminating in the -cloistered Patio of the Evangelists; while along the left is the -College, terminating in the Palace. But the chief feature is in front of -us, the vestibule of the church. - -The latter is built over the mausoleum-crypt, in the form of a Greek -cross, after the original plan of S. Peter’s, Rome. Its Capilla Mayor -adjoins the small projecting annex, which contained the private -apartments of the royal family: the King’s small, cell-like bedroom, -commanding a view of the High Altar, so that, unseen, he could -participate in the service of the Mass. - -The work was begun by Juan de Bautista and continued by Juan de Herrera. -But Philip himself perpetually supervised the design, which reflects his -character not only in the ambitiousness of its dimensions but also in -the grim plainness of the façades. Constructed of grey granite, cut in -large blocks, they are composed of five stories, the windows of which -are square headed, without dressing of any kind, and ranged in rows, -without any attempt at grouping, so that the façades present a bare and -barrack-like appearance. Meanwhile an effect of grandeur is produced by -the immense scale of the whole mass, while the sky-line is rendered -imposing by the towers, crowned with lanterns, which flank the façade of -the church, and by the noble dome and lantern, built entirely of stone, -on which rises in sequence a pyramid, a hollow ball, and a cross. The -interior of the church, designed in the Doric order with flattish -vaulting, is again of majestic scale and of extreme simplicity, which, -however, is contradicted by the extravagant paintings on the ceilings. A -feature of the church is the removal of the coro from the floor to a -gallery so that there is less interference than usual in a Spanish -church with the impressiveness of space. - -The severely classical style of the Escoriál was a reaction from the -luxuriousness of the plateresque and the extravagance of the so-called -“Grotesque Style,” which Berruguete, a pupil of Michelangelo, introduced -into his sculptural decorations. The absence of embellishment and -reliance upon a strict use of the orders caused the classic style to be -known as _Griego-Romano_, though, as a matter of fact, it was in nowise -Greek. - -=Churrigueresque Style.=--By the seventeenth century Spain, denuded of her -foreign possessions by Holland and England and impoverished with war and -corrupt government, had reached a condition of national exhaustion. In -consequence no new buildings of importance were created, and such -additions as were made to existing ones were chiefly in the nature of -sculptural embellishments, which reflected the prevailing taste for the -baroque. This, toward the end of the century, passed into the glaringly -ostentatious and vulgarly meretricious Churrigueresque style, called -after its principal perpetrator, the sculptor Churriguera. - - -FLEMISH AND HOLLAND RENAISSANCE TYPES - -At the beginning of the sixteenth century the Netherlands, especially -the southern provinces now comprised in Belgium, entered upon a period -of enhanced commercial prosperity. Through their textile industries, -their overland trade with Italy and the East, and their sea traffic with -Cadiz and Lisbon, which tapped the trade routes to India and the New -World, they had become the richest country in Europe. They were the -favourite dominions of Charles V, who was born in Brussels, and, while -he allowed his “dear Netherlander” municipal self-government, taxed them -roundly for the privilege. It was inevitable that Netherlandish art -should become affected by the Italian influence. - -It showed itself first in painting: Mabuse, Floris, Van Orley being -among those who sought inspiration in Rome, where Raphael’s and -Michelangelo’s fame was supreme. One can picture the sensation in -Brussels, in 1515 and 1516, while the former’s cartoons for the Sistine -Chapel were being executed in tapestry by Flemish weavers. Brussels -shared the glory of the achievement and her artists and decorators may -well have aspired to emulate the Italian manner. At any rate, it shortly -began to appear in the decorative treatment of certain buildings: the -superb chimney piece in the Council-Chamber of the =Palais de Justice=, in -=Bruges= (1529); the façade of the gild-house of the Fishmongers in -=Malines=, known as the =Salm= or =Salmon House= (1534), and the two courts of -the Archbishop’s Palace, now the =Palais de Justice=, in =Liège= (1533). -These courts, attributed to François Borset, are surrounded by vaulted -arcades, in which occur baluster columns, and capitals carved with -grotesque masks and fantastic figurines and foliage--features that -suggest a Spanish influence. - -Then, about 1565, was built the =City Hall of Antwerp=, which represents -the most imposing example of the Renaissance in Belgium. It corresponds -to the importance which the city had now attained as the chief -commercial emporium of the Netherlands. For the supremacy of Bruges was -past: her harbours had been allowed to fill up with silt and in 1505 the -Fuggers, merchant princes of Augsburg, removed their affairs to Antwerp, -whither the “factories” of the Hanseatic League soon followed. By the -middle of the century a thousand foreign commercial firms were -represented there; her great fairs attracted merchants from all parts of -the world; the Scheldt was filled with shipping and over a hundred -vessels are said to have passed in and out of her harbour daily. She -surpassed in wealth and prosperity even Venice and Genoa. - -The design is by the sculptor and architect, Cornelius de Vriendt, also -known as Cornelius Floris. The principal façade, over three hundred feet -long, consists of four stories; the first being of rusticated masonry, -forming an open arcade; the second and third embellished with pilasters -and entablatures, framing a regular repetition of mullioned windows, -while the fourth comprises, as occasionally in Spain, an arcaded loggia, -the shadowed effects of which correspond to those of an Italian cornice. -The roof has a slight _curb_ inward and is studded with two tiers of -small dormers. The monotony of the façade is somewhat relieved by the -projection in the centre. But, though this involves a change in the -shape of the windows, there is a new kind of repetition, while above the -third story the place of a dormer-gable is taken by an erection that has -no structural significance and is merely a piling up of ornamental -details to produce a colossal embellishment. It is instructive to -compare this pavilion with the Pavillon de l’Horloge of the Louvre, -which represents a logical as well as flexible and original application -of the Palladian style. Compared with it De Vriendt’s design exhibits a -formality which suggests that it had been copied from some work in the -Orders of Architecture, while the top part proclaims him a sculptor of -florid taste, rather than an architect. - -The best examples, however, of Flemish Renaissance are to be found in -the gild houses and domestic buildings. Magnificent examples of the -former are the =Houses= of the =Brewers=, =Tanners=, =Archers=, and =Cordeliers= -or rope-makers, in =Antwerp=, and in =Brussels= those of the =Archers=, -=Butchers=, =Carpenters=, and =Skippers=; the gable-end of the last-named -representing the stern of a vessel with four protruding cannons. - -=Musée Plantin.=--The most interesting example of domestic architecture is -the =Musée Plantin-Moretus=, originally the home, office, and printing -house of the great publisher, Charles Plantin, who obtained from Philip -II a monopoly in the printing of breviaries and missals for the -Netherlands and Spain. After his death the business was continued in the -family of his son-in-law, Moretus; and the building which had been -erected in 1549, received various additions down to the middle of the -seventeenth century. Meanwhile the interior presents a complete picture -of the combined residence and place of business of the period, since -there are still preserved the wainscots, Spanish wall-leather, panelled -ceilings, chimney-pieces, stained glass, and other furnishings, as well -as the fittings of the various departments of the shop, devoted to -composing, printing, proof-reading, binding, and display of goods. - -=Carillons.=--An incidental feature of the Flemish Renaissance is the -Carillon, or set of bells, tuned to the chromatic scale and connected -with a manual keyboard, so that they can be played by hand. The most -famous of these is in the Cathedral Tower of =Malines= (=Mechlin=). It -comprises 45 bells, most of which were cast in the seventeenth century -by the great bell-founder, Hemong, of Amsterdam. They surpass in volume -and tone even the famous chimes of the Belfry of Bruges, which were set -up in 1743. - - -HOLLAND - -The earliest Renaissance =City Hall= in Holland is that of =The Hague=. -Erected in 1564, it exhibits the picturesque features of stepped gables -and octagonal turrets that became characteristic of later examples, such -as the =City Hall= at =Leyden= (1597) and the Renaissance addition made to -that of =Haarlem= between 1620 and 1630. While the decorative details of -the façade are of stone, the walls are constructed of red brick. This -material is the distinctive feature of Holland domestic architecture, -and the combination of its red, blue, or buff tints, weathered by time, -with the green of foliage, reflected in the sleepy waters of the canals, -gives a colourful picturesqueness to the quaint street fronts that is -peculiarly fascinating. - -=Weighing Houses.=--The best preserved buildings of the seventeenth -century are to be found in the South at =Dordrecht= and =Delft=, and in the -North in =Leyden=, =Haarlem=, =Alkmaar=, =Hoorn=, =Enkhuisen=, and, across the -Zuyder Zee, in =Leuwarden=, =Bolsward=, =Zwolle=, and =Kampen=. Of particular -interest are the =Waaghuisen=, or =Weighing Houses= for cheese, which are -often of imposing size and richly decorated. - -During the latter part of the seventeenth and the following century -Holland architecture emulated the styles of Louis XIV and XV, though -without the refinement of the French models. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND AND AMERICAN COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE - - -=Transition.=--The direct effect of the Italian Renaissance did not reach -English architecture until the seventeenth century, when Inigo Jones -introduced the Palladian style. The so-called “Anglo-Classical” style -which then ensued had been preceded by a period of transition from the -Gothic, which is usually divided into “Elizabethan” and “Jacobean.” -These represent not so much styles as mannerisms. Just as, according to -Shakespeare, the Englishman derived the fashion of his clothes from -various foreign sources, so, at this time, he decked out what was left -of the Gothic style with details borrowed from Italian, French, -Netherland, and German models. - -The debased form of Gothic, known as Perpendicular, involving the use of -the low, four-centered arch, emphasising vertical and horizontal lines, -and covering surfaces with mechanically repeated geometrical patterns, -lingered on into the sixteenth century. But conditions in England were -changing. The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485), waged by the nobles on one -another, had completed the break up of the Feudal System. Castles were -destroyed and the powerful families exterminated or represented mainly -by minors. Statesmanship passed into the hands of an intellectual middle -class whose power was advanced by the growing prosperity of trade and -commerce. - -[Illustration: WOLLATON HALL, NOTTINGHAMSHIRE - -BY ROBERT SMITHSON. ELIZABETHAN EXAMPLE OF GOTHIC COMBINED WITH -RENAISSANCE. NOTE THE GERMAN INFLUENCE IN THE STRAPWORK GABLES. P. 412] - -[Illustration: BANQUETING HALL, WHITEHALL - -BY INIGO JONES. P. 418] - -[Illustration: HADDON HALL, DERBYSHIRE - -GOTHIC EXTERIOR. P. 412] - -[Illustration: HADDON HALL. THE LONG GALLERY - -ELIZABETHAN-JACOBEAN. P. 412] - -[Illustration: S. MARY-LE-BOW, CHEAPSIDE, LONDON - -BY SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN. P. 423] - -[Illustration: S. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, LONDON - -BY SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN. P. 420] - -[Illustration: OLD CHARLTON, KENT - -JACOBEAN, RED BRICK AND STONE FACINGS] - -[Illustration: GEORGIAN CHIMNEY PIECE AND OVERMANTEL - -BY ROBERT ADAMS. P. 428] - -=Italian Influence.=--This was augmented, as the century advanced, by the -foreign craftsmen who sought refuge in England from the religious -persecutions in the Netherlands and the Huguenot war in France. They -introduced not only superior skill of workmanship, but the French, -Dutch, and Flemish modes. Meanwhile Henry VIII, in surrounding himself -with a new kind of political advisers, had also welcomed foreign artists -to his court. Among them were Holbein, a versatile designer in various -mediums as well as a great portrait painter; Torrigiano, who executed -=Henry VII’s Tomb= in =Westminster Abbey= (1512); Giovanni da Majano, who -modelled the busts of the emperors in the terra-cotta medallions over -the entrance-gates of Hampton Court; Benedetto da Rovezzano, designer of -the Tomb of Cardinal Wolsey, which has perished, and a certain John of -Padua, who is supposed to have been the architect of =Longleat House= in -=Wiltshire=. - -Henry’s partiality for Italian artists may well have been inspired by -the example of Francis I, whom he met in 1520 on the celebrated “Field -of the Cloth of Gold.” At any rate there are many examples of sculpture, -dating from the first half of the sixteenth century, represented in -tombs, choir-screens, and organ-screens, which were purely Italian in -their decorative design and of marked refinement. Terra-cotta -enrichments, of similarly pure Italian craftsmanship, are to be seen in -certain specimens of domestic architecture, such as =Sutton Place=, near -=Guildford=, Surrey, and the entrance tower of =Layer Marney, Essex=, both -of which were completed in 1525. - -The suppression of the monasteries, 1536-1540, resulted in a revival of -architecture, for in many cases the buildings were bestowed upon laymen -who converted them into mansions, while a large part of the Church funds -was devoted by Henry VIII and Edward VI to the erection and endowment of -Grammar Schools. - - -ELIZABETHAN AND JACOBEAN PERIODS - -Under Elizabeth England reached a hitherto unexampled prosperity and the -period is one of country-house building, in which especial attention -began to be paid to the allied art of landscape gardening. Among the -most famous are: =Burghley House= and =Kirby Hall=, =Northamptonshire=; =Knoll= -and =Penshurst=, in =Kent=; =Charlecote=, =Warwickshire=; =Longleat House= and -=Longford Castle=, =Wiltshire=; =Wollaton=, =Nottinghamshire=, and =Haddon Hall=, -=Derbyshire=. - -Some of the mansions built during the reign of James I, the so-called -“Jacobean Period,” are =Holland House, Kensington=; =Bolsover Castle, -Derbyshire=; =Old Charlecote House, Kent=; =Audley End, Essex=; =Hatfield, -Hertfordshire=; =Ham House, Surrey=; =Bramshill, Hampshire=; =Bickling Hall, -Norfolk=; and =Aston Hall, Birmingham=, which was completed in the -following reign. - -The houses mentioned in both these lists are constructed of stone or -brick; but timber construction was still employed, especially in -Cheshire, Lancashire, and Shropshire. To these periods also belong the -following Colleges. In Cambridge: =The Gate of Honour, Caius=; =Emmanuel=; -the courts of =Sidney Sussex= and =St. John’s=; the quadrangle, =Clare=, and -=Nevill Court=, =Trinity=. In Oxford, =Jesus=, =Wadham=, =Pembroke=, =Merton -Library=, and the =Gateway of the Schools=, now the =Bodleian Library=. - -It is of little advantage to try to distinguish between the Elizabethan -and the Jacobean period. Both represent a progression from the Gothic in -the direction chiefly of superior conditions of comfortable living; but -they retain many of the Gothic characteristics, while the modifications, -more or less Renaissance, are in the manner of embellishments, and -applied not according to any structural principles but as opportunities -of imitation were available. - -=Books of Design.=--There were books on the use of Classic Orders. The -first to reach England was the work of the Italian Serlio, who had -become domiciled in France. In 1567, John Shute, a painter and -architect, who had been sent to Italy by the Duke of Northumberland, -brought out his “Chief Groundes of Architecture,” the first work of its -kind published in England. In 1577 appeared the pattern book of Vredeman -de Vries of Antwerp, representing Italian details, debased by Flemish -and German ingenuity, which was responsible especially for the -prevalence of _strap-ornament_, that is to say, geometric designs of -flat bands, studded with knobs, as if they were metal or leather work, -attached to the wall by rivets. - -The decorative inspiration, therefore, was purer at the beginning than -in its subsequent development. For example, the decorative use of the -orders is better in some of the earlier buildings than the later ones. -In fact, what chiefly distinguishes the Jacobean from the Elizabethan is -an increasing grossness of detail, apparent in the furniture and -fittings, as well as in the embellishment of the exteriors. - -=Architect’s Function.=--These conditions were fostered by the -circumstances under which the building was conducted. There were -architects whose names survive, the earliest being John Thorpe, the -designer of Kirby, Burghley, Longford Castle, and Holland House. But the -custom of the time seems to have limited the architect’s function to the -supplying of a plan and design; probably more in the nature of a sketch -than of actual detailed drawings, after which the building was handed -over to the sole control of a master-mason, who worked out his details -from the pattern book. Naturally, such a divorce of construction and -design was little likely to result in the consistent development of an -architectural style. - -=Plans.=--The square plan was retained from Gothic times in the case of -colleges and in some mansions. But usually, to secure more air and light -the fourth side was dispensed with, the gate-house, which had been its -central feature, becoming a separate building. And the tendency was to -prolong one side and shorten the wings, so as to produce the E plan, or -to lengthen the wings by projecting them on each side of the main -façade, thus forming a letter H. Or the wings are replaced by outlying -pavilions joined to the main building by corridors. Sometimes the plans -are irregular, representing the additions made to an original Gothic -house. - -=Roofs.=--Many Gothic features were preserved. Oriel and bay windows were -frequent, and the windows retain their mullions and transoms, and -increase in size, being often carried up through several stories. Square -or octagonal towers abound, occasionally battlemented but generally -finishing in a parapet or cresting, the roof being concealed or rising -in a low cone or pyramid. Similarly, the main roofs vary; high, flat, -and low ones even occurring in the same design. They are covered with -lead or tiles, and surrounded by balustrades, formed of battlements, -successive arches, or pierced ornament. Gables are edged with -scroll-work, while dormer-gables, as in the Netherlands and Germany, are -stepped or carried up with variously curved outlines. The chimneys, -single or grouped in stacks, continue to be a prominent feature, their -decoration, occasionally, as at Kirby and Hatfield, involving a use of -orders. - -=Use of Orders.=--The orders when applied to the façade, are treated with -little regard to purity of style and are often disfigured with strap -ornament. When used in interior decoration, the pilasters frequently -diminish in width toward the base, or swell out in bulbous curves; there -being little or no limit to the extravagance of form that columns and -pilasters alike assume in chimneypieces and furniture. Indeed, during -the Jacobean period the grotesqueness of ornament notably increased, -accompanied by a corresponding coarseness in the modelling. Moreover, -this characteristic invaded the gardens, where trees and hedges were -trimmed or “pleached” into the shape of birds, or beasts, or fantastic -designs. - -However, although the mansions of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods -will not stand scrutiny on the score of architectural propriety, they -have besides their picturesqueness a quality that is aptly characterised -in Cowper’s phrase, “the stately homes of England.” They possess dignity -and, above all, are homelike. They bear the stamp, not of the -professional architect, but of the variegated family life that they have -fostered for successive generations. - -=Interiors.=--And this is equally true of the interiors. Comfort is not -sacrificed to stateliness. The chief apartments may attain grand -proportions, but they do not give the impression of being reserved for -merely ceremonial purposes; they are centres of domestic life. The -Gothic feature of the Great Hall was preserved; and, in the early -examples, while the family and the retainers still took their meals -together, a dais occupied one end, the opposite end being separated from -the buttery or larder, and the kitchen by a richly decorated wooden -screen, above which was the minstrel gallery. The conspicuous feature of -the hall was the fireplace, with a chimneypiece on which the most -elaborate decoration was lavished, the rest of the walls being panelled -in wood to a height of eight or ten feet, leaving a space above for -trophies of the chase or family portraits. This type of hall is still -retained in all the dining halls of the Oxford and Cambridge colleges. - -Adjoining the hall was a _solar_ for the intimate life of the family. -Gradually, as the taste for privacy increased, a separate room was used -for dining and other living-rooms were added until the hall came to be -more and more an entrance hall, and the main living apartments were -disposed as in Italian and French custom, on the second floor. This -caused the staircase to be treated as a prominent feature, which, as it -were, prolonged the spaciousness of the hall. Occasionally of marble or -stone, it was usually constructed of oak with massive newel-posts and -balustrade, richly decorated. - -In the earlier examples, and even in some later ones, as Inigo Jones’s -design of =Chevening House=, the apartments are arranged on the -“thoroughfare” system, opening into one another en suite. But the -inconvenience of this in the entertaining of guests led to the adoption -of a corridor along one side. By degrees this was widened and developed -into what is the most distinctive feature of these old English -houses--the Long Gallery. Lit with tall windows, often with deep bays -that form attractive alcoves, it served as a pleasant sitting-room and -equally as a place for exercise in wet weather, while its inner wall -provided space for pictures. In fact, this room seems to have been the -origin of the term “_picture gallery_.” - -Special care was bestowed upon the ceilings. Occasionally the beams were -exposed, but the usual practice by this time was to sheathe them with -lath and plaster, the surface of which was decorated with stucco relief -in geometrical designs. At times the flat of the ceiling was connected -with the walls by a concave member, called a _cove_. Often, when the -wainscot was not carried up to the level of this, the upper part or dado -also was decorated with stucco relief. - -It is characteristic of the use of the pattern books that the motives of -decoration employed in the exterior and interior embellishment are used -also in the furniture of the period, which on the whole is distinguished -by its massiveness, exuberance of ornament, and the mechanical method of -the workmanship. For much of the ornament is either cut out of the flat -wood with a jig-saw or carved upon forms that have been turned upon a -lathe. - - -ANGLO-ITALIAN PERIOD - -With the accession of Charles I commenced an era of more refined and -cultivated taste. The King, as a young man, escorted by the -pleasure-loving Duke of Buckingham, had visited the Court of Spain in -search of a wife, and had seen the wonderful array of Titians and -Rubens’s in the Royal Gallery. Later he had married Henrietta Maria, -daughter of Henri IV, who, under the inspiration of his wife, Marie de’ -Medici, was introducing the classical style into French architecture. - -=Inigo Jones.=--Charles himself had planned to erect a palace at Whitehall -that should surpass the Louvre in grandeur and found in Inigo Jones -(1573-1652) an architect fully qualified for the ambitious enterprise. -He had made a prolonged study of the Renaissance style in Italy, -spending much of the time in Vicenza, where he had become an ardent -admirer of Palladio’s work. - -=Whitehall Palace.=--His plan of =Whitehall Palace= provided for an immense -rectangle, 1152 by 720 feet, surrounded by façades, three stories high. -The interior court was to be divided into three parts by two wings of -two stories, which were to be united to the main side-façades by -transverse wings, so that the plan would have embraced a large court and -six smaller courts, one being circular in plan. However, a scheme of -such magnificence was entirely beyond the King’s means and the only part -erected was a small portion of one of the interior wings--the =Banqueting -House=, which now abuts on the street that retains the name, Whitehall. - -The façade that it presents to the latter is in the Paladian style and -of extreme purity. Constructed throughout of fine, rusticated masonry, -it consists, above the basement, of two stories, decorated, -respectively, with the Ionic and the Corinthian orders, while a -well-proportioned cornice, surmounted by a balustrade, defines the -sky-line. An admirable feature, apparently originated by Inigo Jones, -for it is not found in Italy, is the slight prominence given to the -central three window bays by substituting columns for pilasters and -breaking the entablature and cornice round them. The interior contains a -handsome vaulted hall, divided into three aisles. - -Another design by Jones, which recalls Palladio’s Vicenza gates is the -=Water Gate=, now in the =Embankment= =Gardens=, which formerly was the water -entrance from the river to old York House, which has been destroyed. He -also built =S. Paul, Covent Garden= (1638), a severe but imposing design -that suffers from its proximity to the market, the arcades of which are -also his. His design for the river façade for =Greenwich Hospital=, in -which the two lower stories are included in one colossal Corinthian -order, was executed by his pupil, John Webb. Among the examples of -Jones’s domestic buildings are =Raynham Hall, Norfolk=; =Wilton House, -Wiltshire=; =Chevening House, Kent=; =Stoke Park, Northamptonshire=, and -=Coleshill, Berkshire=. - -But the erection of country houses and indeed all architectural activity -were seriously interrupted by the Civil War and the consequent unsettled -conditions. - -=Wren.=--More fortunate in opportunity was Sir Christopher Wren -(1632-1723), upon whom it devolved to repair some of the damage wrought -by the Great Fire of London, in 1666. He was never in Italy and his -foreign experience was limited to six months in Paris, where Bernini’s -design for the Louvre, fortunately never executed, was being commenced. -Consequently he did not possess the technical equipment of Inigo Jones -and was not always successful in the decorative sheathing which he -applied to the construction. It was on the constructive side that his -genius lay and in this he was assisted by his previous career as a -mathematician and professor of astronomy at Gresham College and the -University of Oxford. - -Wren’s earliest architectural works, executed before he went to Paris, -were the =Library of Pembroke College, Cambridge= and the =Sheldonian -Theatre, Oxford=. His scientific knowledge was demonstrated in the -ceiling of the latter, which has a span of 68 feet. After the fire of -London he planned to lay out the devastated part of the city on new and -broader lines; but the reconstruction was defeated, as city replanning -is liable to be in our own day, by the opposition of property owners. -Meanwhile a plan he had previously made for the enlargement of S. Paul’s -was now superseded by the necessity of erecting an entirely new -building. - -=S. Paul’s.=--The plan of S. Paul’s is a cross with short arms; both the -choir and nave, comprising three bays, flanked, like the transepts, with -aisles. The choir terminates in a small apse; the transepts in -semi-circular porticoes and the west end in a vestibule with lateral -chapels. - -The internal piers are embellished with Corinthian pilasters, supporting -an entablature and attic, the latter containing clerestory windows, -which, however, though giving light to the interior, are not visible -from outside. The ceilings, throughout, are composed of repetitions of -flat, saucer-like domes. - -But the dominant feature of the interior is the octagon at the crossing, -which comprises the width not only of the nave and choir but also of the -aisles. It permits four great arches, opening into the nave, choir, and -transepts, and four smaller and lower arches, connecting with the -ambulatory, which is formed by the aisles. This arrangement is somewhat -similar to the octagon of Ely Cathedral and may be compared with the -plan of the dome of the Invalides. - -Surmounting the eight pendentives of St. Paul’s is a circular gallery, -known as the “Whispering Gallery,” above which rises a circular -peristyle. The latter’s entablature supports the interior dome, which -mounts to a height of 281 feet from the floor. - -In recent years the barrenness of the interior has been considerably -relieved by glass mosaic decorations, designed by Sir William Richmond. - -=The Façades= comprise two stories; the lower embellished with the -Corinthian order, the upper with the Composite; the line of division -being at the height of the aisles. Thus, on the north and south sides of -the building, the upper part of the façade is only a screen, carried up -for the purpose of composing with the mass of the dome. The flying -buttresses of the latter are concealed behind it, while light penetrates -through it to the clerestory windows. Admirable features of the lower -story of the side façades are the semi-circular porticoes, of beautiful -design, which project from the ends of the transepts. Excellently -proportioned, if somewhat bald, is the west façade, which is a double -storied portico of coupled columns, supporting a pediment. This is -flanked by two towers, which rise above the sky-line in diminishing -stories, terminating in bell-shaped cupolas. Not only are they fine -compositions in themselves, but they are also designed in fine relation -to the dominating feature of the dome. - -=The Dome.=--The latter, in mass and outline and in the relation achieved -between its several parts, can lay claim to being the most majestic dome -of the Renaissance. Among the elements that enter into its -impressiveness is the emphasis given to the lowest course of masonry, -which well suggests the union of the nave, choir, and transepts and -forms a substantial stylobate to the peristyle. The latter, again, is -exceptionally fine in proportion. In appearance, relatively higher than -that of S. Peter’s and related with more freedom to the mass above, it -is formed of coupled columns attached to radiating buttress walls; -every fourth space between the columns being filled with solid masonry, -which is relieved in the way of light and shadow by a decorated niche. -The effect is at once strong, stately, and of airy lightness. Very fine -also, in its peculiar accent of effectiveness is the proportion of the -upper drum to the superincumbent mass of the dome, whose curve is lifted -to a culminating springiness by the height and freedom and sensitive -proportions of the lantern. - -No less remarkable is the scientific knowledge expended in the -construction of this externally superb masterpiece. It is composed, like -the domes of the Invalides and the Panthéon in Paris, of three shells, -although the arrangement is different. For the intermediate shell -consists of a cone of brickwork, 18 inches thick. It springs from behind -the upper drum, and on it bears the stone lantern, ball, and cross; the -last being 365 feet above the ground level. It also helps to bear the -weight of the timber supports of the outer shell, which is constructed -entirely of wood, sheathed with lead. The inner dome, resting on the -peristyle, is of brickwork, and of the same thickness as the cone. - -=Wren’s Churches.=--Between the years 1670 and 1711 were erected some -fifty-three London churches, in which Wren displayed remarkable -versatility in adapting Renaissance design, not only to the different -conditions which the crowded site involved but also to the requirements -of Protestant worship, which laid so much stress on preaching and needed -chiefly an auditorium. A famous example is that of =S. Stephen’s -Walbrook=, in which sixteen columns support a coffered ceiling, -interrupted by a pendentive dome. This is the predominating feature, for -its diameter is 43 feet in a total width of 60 feet. - -Wren’s churches, however, are better and more characteristically known -by the variety of steeples, which may be considered an invention of his -own. From a square tower, which is treated as the main feature of the -front façade, they pass into circular or octagonal stories, diminishing -in diameter, clothed with Renaissance details, and terminating in a -slender spire. Their beauty consists in the variety and proportions -given to the several parts, achieving an ensemble of peculiar elegance. -Occasionally they suggest a certain mechanicalness of repetition; hence -the example which is considered the best is that of =S. Mary-le-Bow=. For -here the repetition of the orders is interrupted by a story composed of -inverted consoles, the effect of which is to vary not only the character -of the embellishment, but also, by introducing the contrast of a curve, -the regularity of successive steps. Wren’s inexhaustible activity is -represented also, among many other examples, by the =Monument= at =London -Bridge=; =The Fountain Court= and =Garden Façade= of =Hampton Court=; =Chelsea -Hospital=; =Marlborough House, Pall Mall=; and =Temple Bar=. The last, -forming the entrance gate to the City of London proper, has been removed -from its old site at the foot of Fleet Street, and set up in Theobald’s -Park, Northamptonshire. - -He lies buried beneath the choir of his masterpiece, a tablet bidding -you, “Si monumentum requiris, circumspice.” - -=Hawksmoor, Gibbs.=--The most notable of =Wren’s= pupils were Nicholas -Hawksmoor (1666-1763) and James Gibbs (1683-1754). The latter published -a book of his own designs, which, as we shall see, exercised a -considerable influence on the beginnings of architecture in the American -Colonies. - - -EIGHTEENTH CENTURY STYLES - -ANGLO-CLASSICAL. QUEEN ANNE. GEORGIAN - -This period comprises the reigns of Anne (1702-14) and of the three -Georges (1714-1820). In the case of large mansions it represents a -continuation of the “Anglo-Palladian” style, with an increased -importance given to the use of columns, especially in porticoes. Hence -it is sometimes called the “Anglo-Classical,” or more specifically, the -“Portico Style.” - -In less pretentious houses the tendency was to avoid columns and -ornamental details and to rely upon the sterling character of plain -brick work. The so-called _Flemish bond_ was introduced, a method of -binding a wall into solidity by laying the bricks in courses of -alternate _stretchers_ and _headers_--bricks, that is to say, laid, -respectively lengthwise with and at right angles to the outer surface of -the walls. It differed from the _English bond_, in which stretchers and -headers were laid in alternate courses. A single projecting string -course might mark the division of the stories, while several, projecting -one over the other, would form a cornice under the eaves of the tiled -roof. Or this arrangement might be replaced by a wooden cornice. -Windows, owing to the tax upon them, were reduced in number and often -increased in size, especially in the direction of height. -Correspondingly, doors were heightened until they had an effect of -narrowness. In all these particulars, as also in the introduction of -pediment-shaped gables and wooden cornices under the eaves of the tiled -roofs, there was a disposition to follow the seventeenth century type of -Dutch and Flemish domestic architecture. This so-called “Queen Anne” -style--though it is more a manner than a style--involved a certain -primness of effect, quite in keeping with the somewhat pedantic attitude -of the time, but is characterised by simple refinement and suggestion of -comfortable domesticity. - -By the time of George III--1760 and onward--certain modifications were -introduced into the Anglo-Classical style, which are sometimes -characterised by the distinction, “Georgian.” - -=Anglo-Classical.=--The Anglo-Classical is frankly a style of ostentation -and magnificent pretension. So far as one man could be responsible for -what was in effect an expression of the temper of an age that was -amassing great wealth in the Indian and Chinese trade, the man was Sir -John Vanbrugh. But it is significant that he first became famous as a -writer of witty and spicy comedies. Then he “turned his attention to” -architecture and wrote to his friend Tonson, the publisher, for a -“Palladio.” With the aid of this he qualified himself as an -architectural designer and having already gained the favour of society -by his talents as a wit was readily accepted as an architect, enjoying -particularly the patronage of Queen Anne, who sent him abroad on a -special mission. His first important mansion was =Castle Howard= (1714), -followed a year later by =Blenheim Palace=. - -In both of these he achieved what may be described as a scenic -impressiveness on a prodigious scale, but without much reference to -architectural logic or to internal convenience. The two plans have a -general similarity, consisting of a main block with an extensive garden -front, connected at the rear by two corridors with the kitchen block and -the stable block. These flank a great court, which at Blenheim is closed -by a screen wall and gateway in the manner of a French château. The -kitchen at Blenheim was some 400 feet distant from the dining room! -Windows in both designs were disposed for exterior effect and not for -proper lighting of the interior. In numberless particulars internal -convenience was sacrificed to palatial planning and display. As Voltaire -said, if the rooms had been as wide as the walls were thick the palace -would have been passably convenient. Amongst the new features, -introduced by Vanbrugh, was the converting of the ground story into a -kind of mimic cellar, with inconveniently small staircases to the floor -above, the main approach to which was on the outside of the building, by -a grand flight of steps leading up to a superb portico. - -Notwithstanding the magnificence of scale, these designs have a chill -formality that makes their dignity rather dull. - -Meanwhile they set a fashion exactly suited to the taste of the time, -which in literature also was disposed to substitute dilettantism for -culture, and, in its infatuation for what it called “style,” to attach -more importance to form than to subject-matter. It was the age of the -amateur. Lord Burlington, for example, a patron of art, designed a villa -at Chiswick in a free translation of the Villa Capra, Vicenza by -Palladio. Also, in conjunction with his protégé, Kent, he erected the -=Horse Guards= and =Devonshire House= in London and =Holkham Hall, Norfolk=; -the last-named presenting a central block connected by corridors with -four outlying pavilions. One of the shibboleths of this time that passed -for a principle was that to a style of this grandeur only one form of -roof was appropriate--a dome. Interior proprieties were sacrificed to -the securing of a dome, and where the exigencies of building -necessitated a flat or pointed roof it was hidden behind an attic or -balustrade. - -=Pope’s Satire.=--The fatuities, however, of this craze for the monumental -did not escape contemporary satire. When Lord Burlington published the -designs of Inigo Jones and Palladio’s drawings of the “Antiquities of -Rome,” Pope referred to them in one of his epistles-- - - “You show us, Rome was glorious, not profuse, - And pompous buildings once were things of use. - Yet shall, my Lord, your just, your noble rules, - Fill half the land with imitating fools; - Who random drawings from your sheets may take - And of one beauty many blunders make; - Load some vain church with old theatric state, - Turn arcs of triumph to a garden gate: - ....... “’tis very fine, - But where d’ye sleep or where d’ye dine? - I find by all you have been telling - That ’tis a house, but not a dwelling.” - -=Chambers.=--It was a reaction from this mania for magnificence that -encouraged, in the case of more modest houses, the so-called “Queen -Anne” style, and later, in large and small alike, the “Georgian.” The -change to the latter, moreover, was assisted by the influence of Sir -William Chambers, who acquired a real knowledge of architecture through -long study in Italy and in 1759 published his “Treatise on Civil -Architecture.” His most important work is the river front of =Somerset -House=. He, too, however, was responsible for a craze. In early life he -had visited China, where he made sketches of architecture, furniture, -and costumes, which formed the basis of his “Designs for Chinese -Architecture, Etc.” published in 1757. It led to an infatuation for the -socalled “Chinese Style” which survives directly in the Pagoda at Kew -Gardens and indirectly in the Chinese motives that Chippendale (d. 1779) -introduced with so much taste into his furniture designs. - -=Adam.=--Meanwhile, the Georgian revival was due even more to the genius -of the Scotsman Robert Adam (1728-1792). Realising that the existing -knowledge of Roman architecture had been derived from public buildings, -he visited the only example known then of domestic architecture, the -ruins of Diocletian’s Palace at Spalato in Dalmatia. Here in -co-operation with the French architect, C. L. Clerisseau, and two -experienced draughtsmen, he made the measurements and drawings out of -which he projected a restoration of the building in a fine work entitled -“The Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian” (1764). To him belongs the -credit of inaugurating the modern idea, not yet sufficiently lived up -to, of using the monumental style for a number of separate buildings, -grouped in one design. His first achievement was on the banks of the -Thames just east of Buckingham Street, where the steep descent -necessitated a system of vaulted foundations that are said to be a -remarkable example of engineering skill. On this Adam erected the -dignified design, which, since his brother James co-operated with him, -was called after the Greek word _adelphoi_, brothers, =Adelphi Terrace=. -Other instances of his group designs are parts of =Fitzroy Square=, the -older portion of =Finsbury Circus= and =Portland Place=. Among his country -houses is =Keddleston Hall, Derbyshire=. Here he clung to the sprawling -plan, in which the offices are widely parted from the main block; but, -in the façades, employed large windows, finely grouped, and permitted -the sloping roofs to be a strong feature of the design. - -[Illustration: HOME OF THE POET LONGFELLOW, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. P. 431] - -[Illustration: CHRIST CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA P. 430] - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON’S HOME AT MOUNT VERNON - -REAR VIEW. EXAMPLE OF SOUTHERN COLONIAL. P. 432] - -[Illustration: ANOTHER SOUTHERN COLONIAL EXAMPLE, MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA P. -432] - -It was Adam’s idea that the architect should be responsible also for the -interior decorations and furniture, thus making each room and its -furnishings a unified design. Indeed, that everything outside as well as -inside the house, summer-houses, terraces and so-forth, should unite in -a single ensemble. In the style of furniture that has been associated -with his name he showed a rare taste in blending classical motives with -elements of his own fancy; exhibiting a particular skill in the graceful -use of curvilinear forms, in which he had a partiality for ovals, and in -modelling details that, while very delicate, were neither weak nor -petty. As the result of his influence the Georgian interior presented an -appropriately dainty setting to the costumes and manners of society, -which had abandoned the stiff ostentation of the earlier Georgian period -for the graceful elegance of the later mode. - - -AMERICAN COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE - -Naturally it was from the Mother-Country that the American Colonies -derived the models of their earliest architecture. The date at which -increased population and prosperity encouraged buildings of a more -permanent character, distinguished by their appearance as well as by -their immediate utility, is placed at about 1725. From this time the -rigour of life in New England, and particularly in Massachusetts, began -to be considerably abated. The theocratic form of government, in which -the clergy were the arbiters of moral and social conventions, had given -way to the active participation of laymen in public affairs. The manners -as well as the costumes of society became elegant and the pleasures of -life were no longer frowned upon. The change which thus came over -social life is reflected in the contrast presented by Copley’s portraits -and those of his predecessor, Smibert. - -A corresponding advance in the amenities of life was represented also in -New York and Philadelphia; while, as to the Southern States, which had -been colonised by Royalists rather than by Puritans, the tradition of -elegant life had always been maintained and the change at this period -was only in the increased opportunity of realising it. - -=English Influences, Modified.=--The edifices which began to be erected -comprise churches and meeting-houses, mansions, and a few public halls; -the last being of historical rather than architectural interest. The -places of worship represent an adaptation of the Wren-Gibbs type, while -the domestic designs are based on Queen Anne and Georgian styles. In a -few cases the prototype was fairly reproduced; notable examples being -=Christ Church, Philadelphia= (1727-35); =Old South Church, Boston=, now -used as a museum (1730-82), and =S. Paul’s, New York= (1766). The last -named is one of the few instances of stone building at this period; the -usual material being either brick imported from England or, far more -usually, wood. This affected the use which was made of the drawings of -Gibbs, Adam, and others, from which the Colonial church-builders derived -their designs. Brick did not permit of carved enrichment. Mouldings -were, in consequence, of extreme simplicity and such embellishments as -columns, pediments, and cornices were constructed of wood. The character -of the design was still further modified in the New England States, -since wood was used also for the main structure. - -=Colonial Style Developed.=--Thus there was developed a skill of design in -the use of wood alone and of wood in combination with brick that is -distinguishable as a distinct style, to which the term “Colonial” has -been applied. It is a style in no sense monumental, even when it -includes spires, columns and porticoes. On the contrary, it is -characterised by simplicity and reserve but is saved from insignificance -by the quiet dignity of the whole and the refinement of the details. The -wooden spires of the innumerable meeting-houses distributed over New -England, many of which were designed by the almost forgotten worthies, -Ascher Benjamin and Ithiel Town, present a type of their own, -distinguished by extreme sensitiveness of outline and aspiring grace and -airiness. These are veritable creations, growing logically out of the -wood construction. And even in the porticoes, although their columns are -structurally shams, being mere shells enclosing a post, the feeling of -woodwork is so frankly retained, that in association with the wooden -walls they seem quite reasonable. - -A corresponding unity of effect is achieved in the best examples of -wooden domestic buildings, such as the =Craigie House=, Longfellow’s home -in =Cambridge=; the =Sherburn House, Portsmouth=, and innumerable other -examples throughout New England. They are characterised by the choice -proportions and distribution of the windows, by the pilasters running up -through two stories, to a well-designed cornice, broken in the centre by -a pediment that serves as a porch. The roofs vary. Some are flat; some -slope up from front and rear, with a gable at each end. In other cases, -the continuous slope is broken by a _gambrel_ into two slopes, forming -an obtuse angle, as in the Mansard roof. While again, the roof may be -_hipped_, sloping up, that is to say, from all four sides, the four -planes meeting in hips or ridges. - -While similar styles of roofs and windows reappear in the Southern -Colonial type of house the latter is distinguished by the addition of a -verandah. It may take the form of a pedimented portico, composed of -colossal columns, carried up to the cornice, or of a colonnade extending -along the entire front and frequently consisting of two stories; the -floor beams of the upper one being let into the columns--a device that -violates structural propriety but may be overlooked in the comfortable -dignity of the whole design. The latter in some cases covers an -extended, symmetrical plan, as, for example, in Washington’s home, =Mount -Vernon=, where the main block is connected by curving colonnades with the -kitchen wing on one side and offices on the other, while the -slave-quarters were in detached buildings, separated by formal gardens -from the mansion. The comparative smallness of the latter emphasises the -suggestion of the patriarchal character of the best of the old Southern -life before the Civil War, while the quiet dignity of the exterior is -repeated in the spirit of refined and gentle breeding that pervades the -interior. - -Both in Southern and Northern Colonial houses the wainscots, door-and -window-trims, the mantelpieces, cornices, and balustraded staircases -exhibit a choiceness of design, derived from the models of Adam and -Sheraton. - - - - -BOOK VII - -POST-RENAISSANCE PERIOD - - - - -CHAPTER I - -CLASSICAL AND GOTHIC REVIVALS - - -In the latter half of the eighteenth century commenced a Classical -Revival, which in the various countries that it affected lasted far on -into the nineteenth. In some directions it represented a reaction from -the debased Renaissance styles of the baroque and rococo; in all it was -largely promoted by a more accurate study of antiquities and by the -discovery of the distinction between Greek and Roman art. Its effect -upon architecture was but one phase of its influence, which penetrated -more or less the thought of the world and found expression in -literature. This revival belongs rather to a history of architecture -than to a study of fundamentals, such as this book has attempted. -Accordingly we must be satisfied here with a brief sketch of the -subjects. To continue the thread of the previous chapter let us start -with the appearance of the classical revival in Great Britain. - - -CLASSICAL REVIVAL IN GREAT BRITAIN - -=English Exploration.=--The “Revival of Learning” had been followed in -England by a continuous fondness for Greek and Roman literature. Milton, -as late as 1654, was writing his political tracts in Latin; and, -although such use of the language was abandoned, a familiarity with -Latin and at least some acquaintance with Greek continued through the -rest of this century and the following one to be the ordinary mark of an -educated gentleman. In 1647 Dryden popularised the Æneid of Virgil by -translating it, and in 1720 Pope produced his translation of Homer’s -Iliad. For the promotion of arts and letters the Dilettanti Society was -founded in 1734; and some twenty years later financed the archæological -exploration of Stuart and Revett in Greece. Their work, “Antiquities of -Athens,” was published in 1762. One of the results of the interest it -created was the acquisition through Lord Elgin of the bulk of the -sculpture of the Parthenon and a caryatid and column from the -Erechtheion which were purchased by the Government (1801-1803). These in -turn prompted the researches of the architect, H. W. Inwood, who -published in 1831 his study of the “Erechtheion.” - -=Winckelmann’s Critical Studies.=--Meanwhile in Germany Winckelmann had -given to the world in 1763, practically at the same time as the -appearance of the work of Stuart and Revett, his famous “History of -Art.” The product of thirteen years of study of the antique sculptures -in Rome, by one who was a profound classical scholar as well as a man of -remarkable independence and extraordinary critical faculty, this work, -for the first time, made exact distinction between Greek and Roman -examples, established a basis of sound criticism, and analysed the -characteristic quality of Greek art. This Winckelmann found to consist -in a relation between the whole and the parts, so completely harmonious -and so balanced and controlled by refined feeling that, if one quality -can be selected as typical of Greek work, it is _repose_. - -The influence of Winckelmann’s work and that of Stuart and Revett was -reciprocal in the two countries. But that the functions of Greek -sculpture and Greek architecture were also reciprocal escaped -observation. Even - -[Illustration: LA MADELEINE, PARIS - -P. 443] - -[Illustration: ST. GEORGE’S HALL, LIVERPOOL - -P. 438] - -[Illustration: PANTHEON, PARIS - -BY J. J. SOUFFLOT. P. 442] - -[Illustration: ARC DE L’ETOILE, PARIS - -P. 443] - -[Illustration: OPERA HOUSE, PARIS - -BY CHARLES GARNIER. P. 444] - -[Illustration: - -© Detroit Photographing Co - -STATE HOUSE, BOSTON - -BY CHARLES BULFINCH. P. 448] - -[Illustration: CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON - -ORIGINAL CENTRAL PORTION BY WILLIAM THORNTON, ADVISED BY B. H. LATROBE -AND CHARLES BULFINCH. WINGS AND DOME ADDED 1851 TO 1865. P. 446] - -[Illustration: CITY HALL, NEW YORK - -BY MANGIN. LOUIS XVI STYLE. P. 448] - -[Illustration: - -Courtesy Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue - -ST. THOMAS, NEW YORK - -BY CRAM, GOODHUE AND FERGUSON. P. 453] - -[Illustration: HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT - -BY SIR CHARLES BARRY AND AUGUSTUS W. N. PUGIN. VICTORIA TOWER, LEFT; -CLOCK TOWER, RIGHT. IN THE DISTANCE, LEFT, WESTMINSTER ABBEY. P. 450] - -[Illustration: PLAN OF THE HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT - -P. 451] - -more than the combination of architecture and sculpture in a Gothic -cathedral, because more deliberately, as a result of reasoned logic as -well as of feeling, Greek sculpture and architecture were constituent -parts of one design. To divorce the architecture from its sculptural -enrichments, is to reduce the temperature of feeling in a building, to -make it cold and too severe in its refinement. Moreover, the exterior -design of a Greek building was so calculated to its plan, which was -usually that of a temple, that to attempt to adapt it to the different -needs of modern planning is not only a violation of its logic but also -an attenuation--a stretching out to thinness--of its expressiveness. - -=Adaptation Limited.=--In fact, a Greek façade cannot be an integral part -of a modern building. Instead of growing out of the interior conditions -it is merely a screen, as arbitrary in its separation from what is -behind it, as was the old painted act-drop of a theatre. The realisation -of this has influenced architects to emulate or imitate, as the case may -be, the Roman rather than the Greek style. And, so far as Roman -architecture was an adaptation of Greek particulars to the new problems -of the basilica, palace, public bath, triumphal arch, amphitheatre and -so forth, the model may be judiciously followed. But, when the architect -essays to adapt the colossal orders of a Roman temple to the front of a -bank, library, museum, or railroad station he may display a feeling for -impressiveness that gives little proof of intelligent comprehension of -design. He commits the same error that he is fond of charging to the -layman, who, he says, thinks of the design of a building only as an -exterior effect and not also in relation to the plan and internal -structure. For, to take but one point, that of the lighting. Windows -are an essential of a modern building, while in a Roman temple they -played only a subordinate part; so that the pedimented, columned porch -at the entrance and the colonnades at the sides were not employed at any -sacrifice to the internal requirements. - -=Greek Model.=--The window problem did not enter into the earliest example -of the Classical Revival in England--the Greek design of the =Bank of -England= (1788) by Sir John Soane. For, as the building was for the -safe-keeping of gold and securities, the walls behind the colonnades and -porch could appropriately be solid. Yet, even so, the character of the -principal façade is not carried round to the side of the building and -the design of the façade is merely a frontispiece. Still more so is the -Greek façade of the =British Museum=, erected (1823-47) by Soane’s pupil, -Sir Robert Smirke (1780-1867), which not only has no co-ordination with -the interior arrangement, but also obstructs the needed light. - -George Basevi, another pupil of Soane’s, contrived a more appropriate -use of the Greek style in the =Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge=, because he -was able to avoid the incongruity of windows. H. W. Inwood (1794-1843) -applied the results of his study of the Erechtheion to the design of =S. -Pancras Church=; while among the examples of William Wilkins (1778-1839) -are the =University of London= and the =National Gallery=. The design of the -latter, which is very inferior to that of the University, was unhappily -fettered with conditions. Most fortunate of all the buildings of this -Classical revival in England is =St. George’s Hall=, Liverpool, by H. L. -Elmes (1815-1847). It is lifted well above the level on a -stylobate-terrace and the design presents a stately treatment of Greek -porticoes and colonnades; but the Greek is abandoned on the threshold, -the interior being an adaptation of the Roman thermæ. - -The incongruity of the Greek style with modern requirements led to a -reaction in favour of astylar or columnless buildings; a return, in -fact, to Renaissance design, which was started by Sir Charles Barry, -whom we shall meet again in the Gothic Revival. - - -GERMAN CLASSICAL PERIOD - -In Germany the classical revival in architecture was intimately related -to the thought-movement of the time, especially as it expressed itself -in literature. We have already noted the almost simultaneous publication -of Stuart and Revett’s “Antiquities of Athens” and Winckelmann’s -“History of Art,” and the welcome which the former received in Germany. -It was stimulated by the appearance in 1765 of Lessing’s “Laokoon,” a -critical treatise on painting, sculpture, and poetry. He based it upon -the Classic Canons; by which he meant not the canons of French -pseudo-classicalism, which had hitherto stood for classic in Germany, -but the Greek canons of art and literature as laid down by Aristotle. -Indeed, he affirmed that Shakespeare, despite the irregularities of his -style, was nearer to the spirit of Aristotle than Racine. - -=Goethe’s Influence.=--Goethe, at the court of Weimar, where French -pseudo-classicalism was the vogue, espoused the new movement. He had -visited Italy and confirmed for himself the studies of Winckelmann and -Lessing’s attitude. Being director of the Ducal Theatre, he was able in -a large measure to control the dramatic taste of Germany, and encouraged -Schiller to write his classical dramas. The aim of both Goethe and -Schiller was to reconcile the cultural ideals of the eighteenth century -with the models of ancient Greece. - -The zeal of this movement spread to architecture. The earliest example -is the =Brandenburg Gate= in =Berlin= (1784); but the actual revival did not -begin till some thirty years later, when its leaders were Friedrich -Schinkel (1781-1841) and Leo von Klenze (1784-1864). The scene of -Schinkel’s achievements is mainly Berlin, where he is responsible for -the fine design of the =Old Museum= and the =Royal Theatre=. The =New Museum= -of Berlin was erected later (1843-55) by Stühler. - -Klenze’s opportunity came with the ambition of Louis I of Bavaria to -increase the architectural magnificence of Munich and make it the rival -of Berlin and Dresden as an artistic centre. Among the chief works of -Klenze are the =Glyptothek= (Sculpture Gallery), the =Pinacothek= (Picture -Gallery), and the =Propylæa=. Associated with him in the decoration of -these and other buildings were the painters Peter von Cornelius and -Wilhelm von Kaulbach and the sculptor, Ludwig Schwanthaler. - -To this period belongs the =Parliament House= (Reichsrathgebande) at -=Vienna= (1843) by Theophil Hansen. - - -FRENCH CLASSICAL PERIOD - -=Philosophic and Social Movement.=--In France also the Classical revival -was due to the momentum of writers and thinkers, impelled, however, in -the first place, not so much by æsthetic considerations as by -philosophic. It represented a revolution against the degradation of -individual and national life, the corruption of the ruling forces of -Church and State, the soulless frippery of courtiers and the abject -destitution of the masses of the proletariat. The last term was revived -from the vocabulary of Imperial Rome and designated the peasantry and -labourers of all kinds, whose duty was to labour for the benefit of the -privileged classes and whose sole right was that of propagating their -species. - -The protest against this social rottenness was voiced by Jean Jacques -Rousseau in treatises on “The Inequality of Conditions” and “The Social -Contract” and by Diderot and the other Encyclopædists, who in the form -of a dictionary, the first volume of which appeared in 1751, not only -disseminated information but sought to guide thought, especially as to -the rights and duties of government and the governed. Notwithstanding -the effort of Church and State alike to strangle this intellectual and -social movement, its influence spread not alone in France but throughout -Europe and reached the American Colonies. - -=Example of Rome.=--Gradually the traditions of Roman culture inherent in -the French led them to reason that, since the evils of the State had -grown out of the autocracy of Louis XIV, who emulated the authority and -magnificence of a Cæsar, alleviation was to be sought in a return to the -frugal living and high patriotic thinking of the Early Roman Republic. -Suddenly, while all thoughts were being directed to this model, the -young painter, Jacques Louis David, returned from Rome and exhibited at -the Salon of 1785 his “Oath of the Horatii.” The picture marked the -beginning of a new epoch. It gave concrete expression to the fluid -thought of the time. The austerity of the early Roman ideal became the -watchword and the aim of the many as well as of the few intellectuals. -Men began to address one another as _Citoyens_. When the Revolution -burst, David was made Minister of the Fine Arts and dictated the style -of fashions and furniture, based on Roman models. From their places in -the National Assembly the orators, clad in Roman togas, emulated the -oratory of Cicero in his attack on the corrupt Catiline. - -Then came the victories of Napoleon, and the ideal of a united and -powerful France dictating policies to Europe took the place of the ideal -of “Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality.” David turning his coat and, -vying with the rest in acclaiming Napoleon Emperor, painted pictures of -Imperial magnificence and designed the so-called Empire furniture and -costumes to suit the new ideas of splendour. Napoleon himself emulated -the Roman Emperors by becoming a great constructor; on the one hand, -prescribing a codified system of law, based on that of Justinian, and on -the other patronising the construction of buildings of Imperial -grandeur. - -In later years, when after an interregnum of the Bourbon Kings Napoleon -III snatched the crown, he too was ambitious to be the patron of great -building achievements. - -Such, in sketch, was the background of the Classical Revival in France. - -=Panthéon.=--The first notable example is that of the =Panthéon=, originally -dedicated to the patron saint of Paris, =S. Geneviève=. Erected (1755-81) -during the reign of Louis XV, by J. J. Soufflot, its plan is a Greek -cross, four halls surrounding a central one which is surmounted by a -dome. The latter is composed of three shells, the exterior presenting a -rare blend of grace and dignity, though the peristyle of Corinthian -columns which forms the drum is somewhat lacking in force because of the -absence of bases to attach the columns to the stylobate. The façades -are of monumental simplicity, consisting of solid masonry unbroken by -windows and crowned with a chaste but emphatic cornice; the sole -departure from the severity of design being a magnificent portico of -Corinthian columns. The vaulted halls have been decorated in recent -years by some of the foremost painters of France; but most of the work -is pictorial rather than mural, and serves to accentuate the superior -decorative quality of the panels by Puvis de Chavannes, which -commemorate incidents in the life of Ste. Geneviève. - -=Imperial Period.=--This example of correct classicalism, designed in -protest against the rococo of its time, is also by its originality of -treatment in marked contrast to the great production of the imperial -period--the =Madeleine= (1804). Dedicated to Glory, it is a direct -imitation of a Roman Corinthian temple of vast size; the only deviation -from the antique model being the vaulting of the interior, which, -inclining toward the Byzantine method, consists of three flattish -pendentive domes, pierced with large eyes, the sole source of light to -the interior. - -Another imitation of the Roman model is the =Arc de Triomphe= in the Place -du Carrousel, commemorating the victories of 1805 and intended as a -principal entrance to the Tuileries Palace. On the other hand, the =Arc -de l’Etoile=, largest of all triumphal arches, being 162 feet high by 147 -feet wide, represents a free translation of the antique into an imposing -design, sufficiently modern to form a fitting background to the -passionate intensity of François Rude’s sculptured group of the -Volunteers of 1792, known as _La Marseillaise_. These, and other -classical structures, which were planned by Napoleon, were completed -after the restoration of the Bourbons. - -Between 1830 and 1850 an echo of the Neo-Greek movement was heard in -France, but French logic repudiated the direct imitation of Greek forms -and strove to reflect the Greek spirit only in a superior refinement of -feeling. Its chief exponents were Duc, Duban, and Labrouste, who are -represented, respectively, by the remodelling of the =Palais de Justice=, -the =Library of the Ecole des Beaux Arts= and the =Library of Ste. -Geneviève=. - -=Second Empire.=--Chief among the architectural memorials of the Second -Empire (1852-70) are the completion of the =Louvre= and the =Tuileries= by -Louis Visconti and Hector Lefuel; and the =Paris Opera House= by Charles -Garnier. The Tuileries was destroyed by the Commune in 1871, but the two -wings of the New Louvre, which occupy the western corners of the Place -du Carrousel, worthily continue in a modern spirit the character of -Pierre Lescot’s Renaissance façade. They represent, in fact, not -Classicalism, but rather a reversion to Renaissance inspiration, as also -does Garnier’s masterpiece, which is a brilliant adaptation of the -Italian style to the sumptuous requirements of a modern ceremonial -theatre and to the extravagant ostentation and somewhat meretricious -taste of a society of _nouveaux riches_. - -=Paris Re-planned.=--A memorable feature of this period is the extensive -replanning of Paris, projected under Baron Haussmann. It involved the -widening of streets, creation of new boulevards, and general -improvements of sanitation, as well as increased magnificence--a scheme -of such magnitude that it has been but recently completed. Meanwhile, -this gradual development of an organised plan, regulated in its progress -so as to reconcile the rights of private ownership with the interests of -the community, has been an object lesson in the proper course of city -reconstruction. - - -UNITED STATES CLASSICAL REVIVAL - -The United States of America having won their independence as a nation, -there was an immediate need for Government buildings. That they should -be designed in the classical style naturally followed from the intimate -relations which had grown up between the New Republic and France. When -Washington had been selected as the seat of the National Government, it -was a Frenchman, Major Pierre Charles l’Enfant, who laid out the city on -a plan so convenient and ornamental, that it is strange no other city of -America, with a similar chance of starting forth from the beginning, has -emulated it. Instead, the general practice both with new cities and the -extension of older ones, has been to adopt the gridiron plan of a -repetition of parallel streets, cut at right angles by another -repetition of parallels; a deadly monotonous system and far from -convenient. For it makes no adequate provision for the gravitation of -government, finance, and so forth to certain centres, which in -consequence become inconveniently congested. - -=Plan of Washington.=--The Washington plan, on the contrary, is logically -designed about two foci: the Legislative centre, the =Capitol=, and the -Executive centre, the Mansion of the President, =The White House=. - -From these radiate broad avenues, called after the names of States, -which in turn are cut by a repetition of streets, running east and west, -and by another series, running north and south; the odd-shaped spaces, -formed by the intersection of these streets with the avenues, being -utilised as little public gardens. Thus Washington is a city of -beautiful breathing spaces, its gardens, parks, and tree-bordered -avenues comprising one-half of its total area. - -The first official building was the =Treasury=, which was commenced in -1781 by Robert Mills, who held the position of United States Architect. -The design, as completed, presents an imposing rectangular mass, the -east side of which is masked with a colonnade of 38 Ionic columns, while -Ionic porticoes decorate the other three façades. In 1792 work was -started on the =White House= and a year later on the =Capitol=. - -=White House.=--The Executive mansion, designed by James Hoban after the -model, it is said, of a seat of the Duke of Leinster near Dublin, -consisted of a two story house, surmounted by a balustrade and fronted -by an Ionic portico. Even with the additions, made in recent years to -serve as Executive offices, it is characterised by a dignified -simplicity, befitting the residence of “the first gentleman of the -land.” - -=The Capitol.=--The Capitol is finely placed on a hill some 100 feet above -the level of the Potomac River. Its central portion was designed by -William Thornton with some modifications suggested by his collaborators, -B. H. Latrobe and Charles Bulfinch. The wings and dome were added 1851 -to 1865. The main façade is on the east, where three imposing flights of -steps lead up to three Corinthian porticoes which indicate the special -functions of the building. That on the left, with allegorical sculpture -in the pediment by Thomas Crawford, forms the main entrance to the wing -occupied by the Senate Chamber, while that on the right, to which -sculpture by Paul W. Bartlett has just been added, distinguishes the -Hall of Representatives. - -The curtain building that connects this south wing with the central -block, was formerly occupied by the Hall of Representatives, but now -contains the National Hall of Statuary, to which each State may -contribute two statues of her “chosen sons.” The corresponding building -on the north, which until 1859 housed the Senate, is now devoted to the -Supreme Court. The Central Portico is the ceremonial entrance to the -whole and here the outgoing President hands over his functions to his -successor. It leads into a rotunda which is decorated with the following -historical paintings: “Landing of Columbus” by John Vanderlyn; “De Sota -Discovering the Mississippi” by William Henry Powell; “Baptism of -Pocahontas” by John Gadsby Chapman; “Embarkation of the Pilgrims from -Delft Haven” by Robert Walter Weir; “Signing of the Declaration of -Independence” by John Trumbull, who also painted the remainder: -“Surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga,” “Surrender of Cornwallis at -Yorktown” and “Washington resigning his Commission at Annapolis.” - -The dome which forms a stately climax to the dignity of the whole design -was erected in iron by Thomas Ustic Walter. It rises to a height of 268½ -feet and is crowned by a statue of Liberty, nearly 20 feet high, the -work of Thomas Crawford. - -The organic fitness of the Capitol to the functions of Government has -been supplemented in recent years by additional buildings, connected by -subways: on the east, by the Congressional Library, primarily for the -use of the Legislature, but virtually a national library; and on the -northeast and southeast, by office-buildings, respectively, for the -Senate and the House of Representatives. - -=Bulfinch.=--Mention has been already made of Charles Bulfinch -(1763-1844). The son of a wealthy physician in Boston, he graduated from -Harvard and spent some five years travelling and studying in Europe, -after which he settled in Boston and practised as an architect. He built -the old =Federal Street Theatre= (1793), the first playhouse erected in -New England, and in 1798 completed the work with which his name is most -associated, the =State House= on Beacon Hill. It has been overgrown with -additions but the original part, surmounted by a small, -well-proportioned dome, still testifies to its designer’s refinement of -taste and constructive sincerity. - -An exception to the use at this time of the Classical style is the =New -York City Hall=, built 1803-12 by the Frenchman, Mangin. The design is -Renaissance, influenced by the manner of the Louis XVI period, and is -particularly choice in the refinement of its proportions and details. - -Meanwhile, the =Sub-Treasury= and the =Old Custom House= in =New York= were -built in the Classical style; as also were the =Custom House= in =Boston=, -the =Mint= in =Philadelphia=, =Girard College= for Orphans in the same city; -Thomas Jefferson’s design for his new foundation, the =University of -Virginia=, and most of the National and State Buildings that were erected -before the Civil War. - - -GOTHIC REVIVAL - -The Gothic Revival of the nineteenth century was chiefly confined to -England where it grew out of a revival of spiritual energy in the Church -itself. This spiritual Renaissance had begun in the last quarter of the -eighteenth century, as a protest against the rationalistic temper of the -age, its tendency to disregard the claims of faith and dogmatic -authority in favour of what appealed to reason. - -=Religious Revivals.=--The Evangelical revival which ensued was an earnest -attempt to awaken the Church from the supine indifference into which it -had sunk, to kindle in the clergy a higher sense of their -responsibilities and generally to promote a spiritual regeneration. The -movement was reinforced both within the Church and on the part of the -State by the excesses of the French Revolution, which seemed to menace -all forms of authority. The revival grew apace during the early years of -the nineteenth century and in time was supplemented by another which is -known as the Oxford Movement. - -For it originated in the University of Oxford with a group of men, -including Keble, Newman, and Pusey, who felt that the Church was in -danger of becoming merely a humanitarian institution. Accordingly they -held that the Church of England was a branch of the Catholic Church and -that its priesthood was in direct succession from Apostolic times; and -in accordance with this urged a return to the ritual and the rubrical -observances, enjoined in the First Prayer Book of Edward VI. This -movement, known also as the Tractarian movement, from the tracts issued -by its advocates, or Puseyite, from the name of its chief exponent, was -assailed by the parties in the Church, distinguished as Broad and Low in -opposition to the new party which came to be known as High. - -The point of the controversy, as it concerns our study, is that the -religious revival on the one hand led to a general restoration of the -cathedrals and churches which had fallen into a condition of shameful -neglect and, on the other, laid stress upon mediæval church architecture -as the form which had been inspired by the fervour of the Catholic -faith and was alone suited to a Catholic ritual. Hence arose the study -and the revived use of Gothic architecture. - -=Pugin.=--Early in the century John Britton and Thomas Rickman had -published an illustrated work on “Cathedral Antiquities and the Gothic -Style,” which went through many editions. They prepared the way for the -influence of Augustus W. N. Pugin (1812-1852), who stood forth as a -veritable apostle of the Gothic. For he supplied passion to the -movement, so that it represented no shallow fad but, for the time being, -a conviction that the characteristic tradition of the English must be -the mediæval style. And to the realisation of it he brought a knowledge -of detail and ornament, gained from many years spent in measurements and -drawings of Gothic buildings; while for the purpose of reproducing the -spirit of the originals he established and trained a school of -craftsmen. He was, in fact, the pioneer of the later Arts and Crafts -Movement. He became a convert to Roman Catholicism and his most -important ecclesiastical work was expended on Roman Catholic churches -and monasteries. - -=Houses of Parliament.=--When the commission for the =New Houses of -Parliament= was given to Sir Charles Barry with the proviso that the -style must be Gothic, Pugin was associated with him as chief designer of -the exterior details and interior decorative work. - -The style selected by the authorities, under the unfortunate impression -that it should correspond with the adjacent Henry VII’s Chapel, was the -Tudor Gothic, or late Perpendicular Style, so that the façades in their -lineal repetition present a certain stiffness and monotony. This effect, -however, is offset by the grandiose scale of the vast building and the -picturesque sky-line of towers and spires and turrets. Of these the two -dominating features are the lantern over the octagonal central hall, the -richly decorated Victoria Tower marking the ceremonial entrance of the -sovereign to the House of Lords, and the Clock Tower, which stands at -the Commons’ end, proclaiming its simple purpose as a clock tower and, -when the summit-light is burning, the fact that the House is sitting. - -But the grandest feature of Barry’s conception is the plan, accommodated -to the site of the still-existing Westminster Hall. Notwithstanding the -cell-like complexity of its innumerable units, the whole presents an -organic completeness of comparative simplicity, so adapted to the -functions demanded, that it has served more or less closely as a model -for many other buildings, notably for the =Parliament House= in =Budapest=. - -The merit both of the plan and of the façades is emphasised by contrast -with the =New Law Courts=, designed by G. E. Street (1824-1881). Here the -zeal for archæological revival ran ahead of reasonable adaptation. So -the exterior presents a congeries of mediæval details that have little -or no relation to the internal necessities, with the admitted result -that the interior is inconvenient, while its one fine feature, the great -vaulted Hall, is rendered useless by not being on the same floor as the -Courts. - -Street was a pupil of Sir Gilbert Scott (1810-1877), under whose -influence the Gothic revival reached its full flood. He, too was an -archæological enthusiast, with a preference for the Early Decorated -style, and his numerous churches are frankly reproductions, as near as -possible, of Mediæval architecture. - -On the other hand, a freer adaptation of the Gothic to modern needs and -feeling appears in William Butterfield (1814-1900); for example, in the -design of =Keble College, Oxford=, =All Saints, Margaret Street, London=, -and his little church at Babbacombe in Devonshire. Other independent -Gothicists were J. L. Pearson, architect of =Truro Cathedral= and eight -London churches; James Brooks, who successfully employed brick in -ecclesiastical design, and Alfred Waterhouse. The last has proved -himself a master of plan in adapting the Gothic to secular buildings, -two of his most important designs being the =Law Courts= and =Town Hall=, -=Manchester=. - - -FRANCE - -A characteristically French independence distinguishes the few churches -in which the influence of the Gothic revival may be traced. The most -essentially Gothic church of the period is =S. Clotilde, Paris=, designed -by Theodore Ballin, who, however, in his later work, =La Trinité=, -exhibits a remarkably interesting blend of Renaissance details with -Gothic feeling. But the tendency in French ecclesiastical architecture -was rather toward Byzantine, a movement which culminated in the great -church of =Sacré Cœur= on =Montmartre=, erected by Paul Abadia (1774-1812). - - -UNITED STATES - -In the United States the Gothic Revival made its appearance as early as -1839-40, in the work of two English architects, Richard M. Upjohn and -James Renwick. The former was entrusted with the rebuilding of =Trinity -Church, New York= and later erected the =State Capitol= of =Connecticut=, -while Renwick is responsible for =Grace Church= and =S. Patrick’s -Cathedral=, New York. - -With the advent, to be noted later, of architects trained in the Ecole -des Beaux Arts, the Gothic vogue declined. But in the past ten years it -has taken on a new life of remarkable achievement, under the leadership -of the New York and Boston firm of Cram, Goodhue and Ferguson, which -recently has been dissolved, the late partners now working -independently. The vitality which they have succeeded in giving to their -work in the number of examples distributed over the country may be -traced to two causes. - -The first is revealed in a little book, “The Gothic Quest,” written by -Ralph Adams Cram. It breathes the passion of a Pugin; it is inspired -with such religious faith and devotion as the builders of the old -cathedrals and churches must have possessed. Hence its author’s -conviction that the architectural forms, evolved as an expression of -that faith and in accordance with the needs of the worship it inspired, -are the only fit embodiments for the continuance of that faith and -worship. To Mr. Cram, in fact, the Gothic does not represent merely a -style to be professionally employed; but a living concrete expression of -the soul. Furthermore, the thorough mastery of Gothic forms has been -directed, not as in the beginning of the Gothic Revival, to a -reproduction of old models, but to an application of the old principles -of Gothic design to the changed conditions of modern times. There is, -accordingly, in the designs of these architects no evidence of the “dead -hand.” They belong to and serve the present, while preserving a link of -tradition with the past. By few, indeed, if any, has the Gothic been -revived with so much material and spiritual vitality. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE MODERN SITUATION - - -Following the trend of modern civilisation, architecture to-day, in so -far as it is not continuing to imitate the past, is becoming, on the one -hand, more cosmopolitan and, on the other, more individualistic. The -free-trade in ideas, encouraged by travel and through the interchange of -architectural magazines, is obliterating the distinctions of -nationality. Moreover, the immense variety and the newness of problems -that now confront the architect are tending toward a personal solution -of them. They demand invention on his part and stimulate him to -individual expression. - -=The Student’s Attitude.=--Hitherto in this book we have studied the -historic styles of architecture, in their origins and revivals; but, if -it has served its purpose of awakening interest in the art, we shall for -the future think less of styles and acquire the habit of studying a -building very much as we study an individual. We do not estimate an -individual, in the first analysis, at any rate, by comparing him with -some worthy of history, but by his fitness to the present--the front he -presents to society at large and his value in the specific part that he -plays in the common life. Has he, for example, dignity and some other -charm of character? Are his motives sincere? Does he possess the -qualities that make his work not only well-intentioned but practically -efficient, and so forth? - -Similarly, we shall estimate a building not as a thing - -[Illustration: - -Courtesy The Encyclopædia Britannica Company - -SCOTLAND YARD, BY RICHARD NORMAN SHAW] - -[Illustration: - -Courtesy of Architect, Wm Harmon Beers - -WOODBURN HALL - -RESIDENCE OF MRS. COOPER HEWITT, NEW WINDSOR, N. Y. P. 468] - -[Illustration: - -© Detroit Publishing Co. - -TRINITY CHURCH, BOSTON - -BY HENRY H. RICHARDSON. P. 462] - -[Illustration: - -© J. G. Bragdon, Pittsburgh, Pa. - -COUNTY BUILDINGS, PITTSBURGH - -BY HENRY H. RICHARDSON. P. 462] - -[Illustration: - -© Frank H Child Courtesy of Architect - -THE BREAKERS, NEWPORT, R. I. - -RESIDENCE OF CORNELIUS VANDERBILT, BY RICHARD MORRIS HUNT. P. 462] - -[Illustration: - -© The American Architect. Courtesy Architects, Carrere & Hastings - -DETAIL OF RESIDENCE OF MR. THOMAS HASTINGS - -WESTBURY, LONG ISLAND. P. 468] - -[Illustration: SCHILLER THEATRE BUILDING, CHICAGO - -BY LOUIS H. SULLIVAN. A DESIGN THAT ASSERTS THE HEIGHT AND UPWARD GROWTH -OF THE STRUCTURE. ONLY CENTRAL PART CARRIED TO FULL HEIGHT, SO AN -ALL-AROUND CORNICE WAS POSSIBLE. P. 474] - -[Illustration: - -Courtesy of Thompson-Starrett Co - -WOOLWORTH BUILDING - -BY CASS GILBERT. FIFTY-ONE STORIES. PP. 471, 476] - -[Illustration: - -Courtesy of Thompson-Starrett Co. - -STEEL CAGE CONSTRUCTION - -SCENE IN LOWER NEW YORK; SPIRE OF TRINITY CHURCH IN THE FOREGROUND. P. -470] - -apart from our lives, but as a product and expression of and a -contribution to, the living present. We shall think of it in terms of -life, as simulating the organic and functional qualities of a living -thing. It will be all but a living thing, both as it takes its place -amid the life of its surroundings and also as it serves the needs of -life in its specific capacity. - -Already we have thought of buildings as organic, as structures that have -been built upon a well-considered plan, with parts that perform their -individual functions in the common purpose. We have also noted that the -character of the structure was affected by the actual methods of -building and the material employed. We have learned to be critical on -certain points. Was the plan a fit one for its purpose? Did the façades -conform to or confuse or contradict the character of the plan? Did the -design conform to the purpose of the building and the methods of -construction, or was it, however handsome, in effect a sham? Was it -overladen with arbitrary enrichments that had little or no relation to -structure and were mainly or only designed for display? Did it sacrifice -the necessities of the interior to merely æsthetic considerations? - -And these processes of appreciation which we have acquired the habit of -applying to buildings of the past, we have but to bring to bear upon the -buildings of the present. For the architecture of to-day is true or -false, good or bad, reasonable and admirable, not because it does or -does not conform to such and such types, but because it succeeds or -fails in meeting the practical and æsthetic requirements of to-day. - -=Need of Public Appreciation of the Art.=--Hence the need of an -intelligent appreciation of architecture on the part of the public. It -is requisite for their own sake as well as for that of the architect. -One of the great difficulties with which the latter has to contend is -the ignorance and indifference not only of the public but also of -official authorities. They do not give the sincere architect the -encouragement of intelligent praise; they exercise no restraint upon the -insincere and inefficient. They dismiss all responsibility for the -result by “putting it up” to the “expert.” Architecture, in consequence, -is liable to be regarded not as an art but merely as a profession. Thus -aid and encouragement are given to those architects who practise it -mainly or solely as a “business proposition.” - -And in these days the responsibility of the public is more necessary -than it ever was. For the problems of architecture are so infinitely -more various and exacting, that they demand for their successful -solution the co-operation of the layman. But, although people profess -democratic ideas, they act in the matter of architecture as though they -were living in aristocratic times, when respect was paid to birth, and -not in times when we are trying to cultivate respect for common -humanity. To-day, if we are true to our professed ideals, the tenement -house of the worker is as important in the social scheme as the palace -of the rich or the country house of the well-to-do. And it should be a -subject of public concern. - -Or, to consider another of the many new types demanded by modern -conditions--the factory. It must meet the need of the specific industry. -That is its utilitarian necessity. But there is also the humanitarian -necessity that it shall be a fit place for the men and women who spend -in it one-half of their waking lives. And, again, there is what we may -call the communal necessity, as it affects the outside lives of the -community, that the factory shall not be a thing of ugliness or drear -monotony, sordidly devastating the possible beauty of the locality. For -we have advanced little in civilisation if we are content to substitute -for the grim castle of the Middle Ages, surrounded by its huddle of -retainers’ huts, a grim fortress of industry, entrenched amid the mean -homes of men and women, not considered in their individual and -collective capacity as human beings, but massed under the mechanical -term--“operatives.” - -And what is true of the factory is true of the retail shops and -department stores, city markets, warehouses, docks, and watersides, and -of the hundred and one varieties of need created by modern industry and -commerce. It is also as true of the provision for the cultural needs of -the community in churches, schools, colleges, libraries, and museums, as -well as for needs of recreation and health--theatres, concert halls, -moving picture houses, dance-halls, baths, hospitals and parks. But why -attempt to enumerate the innumerable problems that modern life presents -to the architect? The point is that all involve sociological -considerations, affecting intimately the lives of common humanity. -Architecture, in fact, when properly considered and practised, is the -great democratic art, which through co-operation of artist and layman, -may become one of the greatest means of human betterment. How essential, -therefore, that the understanding and appreciation of it should be -fostered by public education! - -Since this is the purpose of the present book, which only incidentally -has suggested the history of the art, it is not possible or necessary to -attempt to cover the modern manifestation of it in all the countries. It -must suffice to allude briefly to those of Great Britain and the United -States, in which architectural activity has been conspicuous, though the -results are widely different. - - -MODERN MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN - -In Great Britain the modern tendency has been especially marked in the -direction of independence and individuality. It began with certain -movements, which perhaps might be more correctly styled fashions. There -was the =Queen Anne= revival, which, although it involved much that was -tricky and much gerrymandering in construction, drew renewed attention -to the capabilities of brick and its suitability to the climate. -Further, from the fact that it gained the popularity of a fashion, it -encouraged the public to take some sort of interest in architecture. And -this interest was further stimulated by the “Morris Movement.” - -=William Morris’s Movement.=--It was the limitation of William Morris, -that in his zeal for things Mediæval he had no toleration for any other -forms of decoration. Moreover, he assumed that the art of the Middle -Ages was created solely by craftsmen working in harmonious co-operation. -He refused to believe that their work was controlled by a master -designer and inveighed in general against architects as the cause of -everything that is objectionable in subsequent architecture. In both -respects, therefore, his influence was reactionary rather than helping -forward. But, on the other hand, it has lasted and borne valuable fruit -in promoting a regard for honest craftsmanship, on which he laid -essential stress, and in reviving a recognition of the parts played by -painting and sculpture and the decorative arts generally in alliance -with architecture. Accordingly, one indirect result of Morris’s -influence has been the increased attention given to the character and -quality of simple masonry, a refreshing and salutary reaction from the -notion that the interest of architecture depends on picturesque variety -of detail and ornament. There was even a group of young architects who, -inspired by Morris’s idea of craftsmanwork, sought to confine their -designs to the simplest elements of building. They would be first, last, -and all the time, builders; all precedents of architectural detail -should be disregarded; they would confine themselves to the simplest -abstractions of structural elements and out of these in time a new -decorative vernacular might be evolved. - -It is interesting to note the analogy between this aim and that of -Matisse and others in painting. In both arts it represents a revolt -against the sophistication and mechanicalism that are apt to result from -the repetition of school-learned styles. It would dig away the surface -and get down to the sub-soil, in which elemental principles are rooted, -in order to encourage a growth that more nearly may conform to modern -needs and ideals. - -On the other hand, there is the obvious objection, too obvious by the -way to be accepted as conclusive, that the past has so grown into the -present, the inheritance has become so integral a part of present -understanding and feeling, that one cannot eliminate it from one’s -consciousness by taking thought, as one can strip one’s body of clothes. -Meanwhile, although this argument seems plausible the fact remains that -in painting, at any rate, many artists, ignoring argument in favour of -actual doing, are clothing their ideas in new forms that are coming to -seem reasonable to an increasing number of people. - -=“Free Classic” Movement.=--However, many architects, accepting the -inheritance of the past and yet themselves in revolt against the -scholastic reproduction of the styles, initiated a movement in favour of -what they called “Free Classic.” Their endeavour was to discover the -elementals in a given style and to use them with flexible understanding -and feeling and with free play, especially of decorative accessories. -The first to give practical evidence of this idea was R. Norman Shaw, R. -A., in the =New Zealand Chambers=, in Leadenhall Street, =London=, which -were erected as far back as 1873. - -It was an artist’s essay in personal liberation; the work of a man who, -while he did not love the Classics less, loved life and his own -participation in it more, who claimed for himself the artist’s -birthright of personal expression and creativeness. Fortunately his -adventure aroused considerable interest in the intelligent public, while -other architects saw in it a promise of their own artistic deliverance. -The result has been for Great Britain a genuine rebirth of architecture -as a living and personal art. In no other country have the variety and -versatility of our modern life been more freely expressed in its -buildings. Not always happily, no doubt. The purist may point to some as -“awful examples,” and thus seek to justify his belief in safe mediocrity -rather than what he considers dangerous latitude. But the purist is not -an individualist and Great Britain is individualistic, even to a fault. -Therefore, what her architects are doing is racy of the country’s -temperament--a thing commendable in itself. Meanwhile, there is an -abundance of recent buildings in which reasonableness and adventure are -happily united and a sound regard for the utilities and for structural -logic are wedded to originality and taste. - -In the past twenty-five years London, for example, has been transformed -into one of the most architecturally impressive cities of Europe. And -not in the way of aping in more or less perfunctory fashion the -splendours of imperial Rome; but in a spirit of artistic individual -enterprise, and with that courage even to make mistakes, provided the -end be liberty, that befits the Metropolis of self-governing Dominions. - - -MODERN MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES - -Since the middle of the nineteenth century the United States has -experienced an extraordinary activity in building. An unprecedented -demand was created by the opening up of the West and the rapid increase -of population and wealth, as well as by the destruction wrought by the -great fires in Chicago and Boston. On the other hand, circumstances led -to the development of a new method of construction--that of the “steel -cage.” Meanwhile the new period discovered two architects--Richard -Morris Hunt (1828-1895) and Henry Hobson Richardson (1838-1886)--whose -influence had a marked effect upon the architectural development. - -=Hunt and Richardson.=--The former, younger brother of W. M. Hunt, the -painter, was born at Brattleboro, Vermont, in 1828; while Richardson, -ten years his junior, was a native of Louisiana. Both received their -training in the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, and by their influence -established the vogue for that celebrated school which has so strongly -affected architectural progress in America. When they returned -home--Hunt in 1855 and Richardson in 1865--they brought back a -thoroughly scientific training, already reinforced by practical -experience in Paris. And the genius of the one complemented that of the -other; for while both had a personal force that commanded attention and -compelled respect, Hunt’s special faculty was executive and organising, -while Richardson’s was more specifically that of the artist. Thus -between them they established in the public mind the understanding of -architecture as, not merely a process of building, but one of the Fine -Arts, and also set the profession of architecture on a sound basis. For -in 1885 Hunt took a prominent part in founding the American Institute of -Architects, of which he was the first president. - -Among his most important works are the =Theological Library= and =Marquand -Chapel= at =Princeton University=; the =Divinity College= and =Scroll and Key -House= at =Yale=; the =Lenox Library, New York=, since removed; the =New York -residences= of =W. K. Vanderbilt= and =Henry G. Marquand=; George W. -Vanderbilt’s country house at =Biltmore= and some of the palatial -“cottages” at =Newport=, including “=Marble House=” and “=The Breakers=.” He -also exhibited his genius for planning in the laying out of the -=Metropolitan Museum of Arts= in =New York=. - -Richardson took as his model the Romanesque of Southern France, but used -it with so much freedom and adaptability that, it has been said, he came -very near creating a style of his own. It is seen to best advantage in -those examples in which he was unhindered by outside interference, -especially in the =County Buildings= in =Pittsburgh= and =Trinity Church, -Boston=. Both of these are distinguished by structural significance; -dignity of mass, fine correlation of parts to the whole and by a -decorative distinction that avoided alike the flamboyance of some of -his earlier embellishment and the baldness of simplicity that -characterised the work of some of his imitators. Other notable instances -of his art are: =Sever Hall= and =Austin Hall=, =Harvard=; the =City Halls= of -=Albany= and =Springfield=; the =Public Libraries= of =Woburn=, =North Easton=, -=Quincy=, =Maiden= and =Burlington= and the =Chamber of Commerce, Cincinnati=. - -While Richardson’s artistic seriousness and refined taste left a lasting -impression, his selection of the Romanesque style, although it obtained -some following, was abandoned in favour of the Roman and the -Renaissance; the change being due to the way in which the subsequent -American students of the Ecole des Beaux Arts reacted to its teaching. - -=Beaux Arts Training.=--The “Beaux Arts” training is based upon the study -of Greek, Roman, and Renaissance Styles. The Greek, within a limited -range of building types, exhibits the most perfected relation of plan to -elevation, of form to function; the most harmonious combination of mind -and feeling. The Roman represents a genius of constructive logic and -practical inventiveness in applying principles to a wide variety of -problems. The Renaissance replaced constructive logic by a logic of -taste and rehandled Roman details with a finesse of skill that was as -subtle as the Greek. Moreover, the Greek, Roman, and Renaissance are (to -use a modern word) _standardised_ styles; in which proportions have been -calculated and the principles reduced to certain recognised relations of -harmonious agreement. Thus they lend themselves to a more exactly -determined kind of study than is possible with the Gothic, which more -nearly corresponds to the free growths of nature, involving all the -principles of structure and the elements of beauty, but with a freedom -of application that makes formulation difficult. - -Now the effects of this Beaux Arts training by no means always -corresponds with its aim. The aim of the School, responding to the -French aptitude for logical processes, is to teach the student to -reason, to cultivate the habit of applying to every problem an -independent and individual process of logic. He is taught to get down to -the bone of any problem and discover its cleanest and simplest solution. -The historic styles are treated not as models for imitation but rather -as a grammar of principles and applications, by means of which the -student may fit himself for original composition. The system, in a word, -encourages originality and not imitation. - -=Effect of Beaux Arts Training.=--Meanwhile, among the many architects in -America whose names are associated with the “Beaux Arts,” only a -minority is composed of actual graduates of the school. The remainder -have availed themselves more or less of the courtesies that the school -extends to foreign students; but have not enjoyed the exhaustive -training in the direction of independent reasoning that it is the -school’s purpose to impart. The result is that many of them acquired the -habit, not of approaching the solution of each problem independently, -but of becoming more or less intelligent and tactful adapters of Roman -and Renaissance characteristics. In consequence of thus misrepresenting -the aim of the Beaux Arts, the latter has incurred in this country the -unjust charge of promoting imitation--the precise antithesis of what the -school actually stands for. Accordingly, there has arisen a reaction -against what is supposed to be the “Beaux Arts” influence. - -In this reaction there is a possibility of less than justice being done -to some of these quasi-Beaux-Arts architects. Many of them have been men -of exceptionally fine taste. They raised the standard of taste in the -community, accustomed the public to consider beauty as well as utility, -and added greatly to the dignity and beauty of the externals of life. -They played not only an excellent part but a necessary one in the -evolution of architecture in America. They will be looked back to as the -men of the transition, who established the recognition of architecture -as an art, fostered higher standards of taste and compelled a public -that was chiefly interested in commercial expansion to begin to regard -art as an indispensable element in progress. - -=Influence of Chicago Exposition.=--The opportunity of propagating these -ideas on a large scale was furnished by the International Exposition at -Chicago in 1892-93. Already the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in -1876 had awakened manufacturers to a need of artistic design, if their -products were to compete successfully with those of the older countries. -Moreover, innumerable persons had found their imaginations stimulated by -the varied display of the Department of Fine Arts. The ground was thus -prepared for the organised effort in the direction of an object lesson -in beauty, such as that of “The White City” at Chicago. - -Here the Directors virtually gave free hand to the Committee of -Architects, in the lay-out of the grounds and the disposition of all the -buildings. The result was an ensemble on a scale, not only more -magnificent than ever had been attempted before for such a purpose, but -complete in its union of variety and harmony. It represented, on the one -hand, what could be accomplished by the co-operation of the allied arts -of landscape and garden design, architecture, sculpture, and painting, -and, on the other, an extraordinary lesson in the desirability of beauty -as a practical asset. The impression that it made was nation-wide. -Everywhere the dry bones of indifference to beauty began to quicken into -a living interest in beauty as the fit and natural expression of the -nation’s progress in civilisation. It has found abundant activity during -the past twenty-five years in Federal, State, Municipal, and commercial -buildings, in the development of parks and boulevards and, more -recently, in the increased attention given to the scientific and -artistic planning of cities. - -And this movement, which has transformed the character of public -buildings, has worked as freely in the case of domestic buildings, and, -on the whole, with more originality. For the principle of the movement -has been _eclecticism_; the more or less intelligent adaptation of old -styles to new needs; the styles especially followed being the Roman and -the Italian Renaissance. The axiom of the body of men which had -controlled the movement has been that it is safer and better to follow -good models than to try to be original. And for the time being very -possibly they were right. But this has always been the plea of -eclectics, whenever and wherever they have occurred in the history of -all the arts; and such eclecticism has always marked a transition -period, leading up to a fresh outburst of original creativeness. - -=Weakness of Imitation-Tendency.=--The immediate and great advantage to -the architects of thus following old models has been, to establish, -through the Roman, a familiarity with large problems of construction -and, through the Italian Renaissance, a refinement of taste in the -handling of details. Meanwhile, the disadvantage has been a tendency to -take an excess of interest in merely stylistic considerations. The -architect has often seemed more intent upon reproducing with taste an -old style than upon adapting it to the practical needs of the living -present. - -It would be possible to point to libraries, for example, that have been -designed with a view to beautiful exteriors rather than to that of -storing and distributing books. The design has not grown out of the -practical needs but has been more or less arbitrarily adopted for its -own sake. The architectural principle of fitness has been violated. -Furthermore, this preoccupation with the faithful reproduction of an old -style has made a fetish of consistency. Everything in and out of the -building must be “in the style.” The architect, being an imitator, -compels all his co-operating artists to imitation. The painter must -imitate such and such a style of mural decoration; the sculptor, such -and such a style of sculptural embellishment. Sculptors and painters -alike have been trained to forget that they might be interpreters of the -life of the present and to work and feel in the manner of the past. The -manner--not the spirit--for the spirit of the old decorators was keenly -alive to the life of their own times. Hence these architects of the -transition have done much to find employment for painters and sculptors, -but practically nothing to promote the development of creative artists. -Indeed, their influence in this respect has been quite the other -way--retrogressive rather than progressive. - -Possibly an even more flagrant illustration of this tendency is to be -found in the palatial residences, erected during this period in town and -country. So slavish was the insistence upon conformity, that the -furniture and fittings had to be either antiques or imitations of -antiques. The occupants of such houses were trained to be blind to the -beauty of anything that was not in the style of their surroundings; and -were forced to try to feel at home in surroundings of the past. Typical, -possibly, is the story of the millionaire, who fled from his stylistic -apartments to one of the attic bedrooms, provided for the servants, and -fitted it up to suit his own ideas of comfort. - -The result of all this has been that the majority of the rich, who might -have been leaders of taste and played the part of Mycænas or Medici to -the artists of to-day, have been the victims of an obsession, imposed -upon them by architects, that has made them neglect and even discourage -the art of the present. They have put a premium on antiques and a -devastating discount on contemporary art. While bled by the speculators -in antiques and near-antiques, they have doled out patronage, for the -most part, only to those workers in metal, wood, and other fabrics who -were willing or compelled by necessity to imitate. The idea of -encouraging native art or of fostering the genius of some individual -creator has been all but entirely overlooked. Creative genius has been -stifled. - -=Freer Tendency in Domestic Architecture.=--On the other hand, in the case -of domestic buildings, erected during say, the past ten years, -especially country houses, there are the evidences of a veritable -renaissance of architectural art. It is due in a great measure to the -improved taste of the community. A new generation has grown up which by -travel and study has familiarised itself to a more or less extent with -art and has come to think of art as an expression of life and, -therefore, has desired to embody its sense of beauty in the home. Such -people have co-operated with the architects who are no longer designing -merely for them but also with them. The result has been an increased -attention to the question of fitness; fitness of design to the character -of the locality; to the conditions of climate and to the various needs -and necessities arising out of the modern circumstances of living. To -cite but one example: the problem of domestic help in America is so -urgent that labour-saving considerations have affected the planning of -the homes, tending to concentration rather than diffusion in the -arrangement of rooms, service offices, staircases, and so-forth; and out -of this organic lay-out of the interior a suitable exterior treatment -has developed. - -Thus, while the architect may still be adapting motives derived from old -styles, he is no longer doing so for the main purpose of reproducing a -given style; he has ceased to be a stylistic pedant. He adapts with -flexibility and freedom; using a style in so far as it conforms to the -character of his plan. The plan is his own creation and, if in the -development of his design he feels the fitness of adapting, he adapts -creatively. The result is that, since the domestic architecture of the -past has been made to contribute to the needs of the present, a new kind -of domestic architecture has been evolved in America, characterised by -variety of design, originality of treatment, and, more and more, by a -regard for that fitness to the special requirements of each problem, -which is the foundation of every true advance in architectural design. - -=Office Buildings.=--Side by side with this progress toward originality in -domestic architecture has been a similar tendency in that of public -buildings, especially the office building. The office building is -distinctively a feature of American cities, because it grew out of -conditions in certain cities which imperatively demanded some such -expedient; and, having in these cases proved its fitness to business -situations, has been adopted elsewhere. Though the earliest of these -tall buildings, characteristically known as “sky-scrapers,” were erected -in Chicago, the spot which now contains the greatest aggregation of them -is Manhattan Island, the section of New York City bounded by the North, -East, and Harlem Rivers, in which the business of the city is -concentrated. - -In the situation thus existing was an area, limited in size and -incapable of being enlarged, while the business demands upon it were -continually expanding, in the way both of increased accommodation and -adequate financial return upon the value and cost of the land. It was -impossible to meet these conditions by spreading out laterally; the only -alternative was to build skyward. By the time the necessity of this was -realised, two inventions made it practicable--an improved method of -rolling steel and the development of elevator connection. The problem of -accessibility was solved by the latter; that of economical and efficient -construction by the former. Accordingly, once again, as so often in the -history of architecture, practical expediency, methods of building, and -the material employed were operative in evolving a new kind of form. - -=“Steel-Cage” Construction.=--The method of building is that of the -so-called “steel-cage” construction: a new application of the principle -of “post and beam” construction, in which the vertical and horizontal -members are composed of steel and riveted together. The foundation posts -are anchored to the ground, which in the case of Manhattan Island -mostly consists of a very hard species of rock. The posts are connected -at the top by cross beams, thus forming the skeleton frame of a complete -story, upon which other similar skeleton stories are erected, their -number varying up to the present extreme in the =Woolworth Building=, of -fifty-one stories. This mode of construction does away with the -necessity of external buttressing; the strain is one of tension on the -ground, the problem of wind pressure being met by the introduction of -interior cross-braces. By this system also the downward pressure is -distributed throughout the several stories, each carrying its own weight -of exterior and interior walls; so that, in the process of construction -it is not unusual to see some of the upper stories apparently completed, -while lower ones are still in a skeleton state, awaiting the arrival of -the material that is to sheathe them. - -The character of the sheathing, representing the design of the building -from the outside, will be considered presently, for of primary and -essential importance is the character of the interior. Here is -manifested at its highest the creative originality of the American -architect in constructive adaptability to the needs and necessities of -the problem. These office buildings and their counterparts in domestic -life--the tall apartment-houses--represent the economic tendency of this -age in its progress through combination to possible co-operation. They -also embody the latest achievements of science and invention, applicable -to the requirements of convenience and health. They are thus in a -distinctively modern way, as well as with remarkable completeness, -organic architectural structures. In a singular degree, they are -self-efficient. Their cellular arrangement comprises an elaborate -aggregation of members, each having its special function; while the -whole is provided with its own system of power plants for the supply of -heat, air, light, and locomotion. They are in a way the equivalent of -the Roman basilica and insula, developed to that higher degree of -complexity that the modern age demands and modern progress in science -and invention has made possible. In their organic completeness one -discovers conspicuous evidence that architecture, after a long period of -revivals, has recovered its creativeness. - -=Exterior Design of Office Buildings.=--It is in studying the exterior -design of these sky-scrapers that one finds the progress toward -originality has been more halting and uncertain. The explanation of this -cuts deep down to the fundamentals of all progress in art and life. It -is out of man’s needs and necessities, physical, intellectual, -emotional, and spiritual, that he is impelled to advance, and the -advance is most sure according as it most closely fits the -circumstances. In so far as the architects were dealing with the -practical problems of the interior of these buildings they conformed -consistently to the demands of fitness, and their advance was sure. But -when they approached the problem of the exterior, the necessities of -which are few and comparatively unexacting, the logic of fitness was apt -to be superseded by mere caprice of choice. They experimented, for the -most part rather aimlessly, with various historic styles of treatment; -clapping on to the façade embellishments derived from Roman, Italian, -Renaissance, Venetian Gothic, and so forth; treating the design mainly -as a matter of added ornamentation instead of something to be evolved -out of the special character of the structure. - -We must remind ourselves that the façades of these buildings, whether -the material be stone or marble, brick, terra-cotta, or reinforced -concrete, are virtually only a sheathing to the actual organic structure -inside of them. They correspond to the clothes on a human body. There -are certain necessities to be served in the case of the building: on the -one hand, financial; on the other constructive. The investors demand a -certain return on the cost or value of the site, which determines the -aggregate of rentable floor space, and hence the height of the building -and the amount to be expended on the façades. Again, the lay-out of the -floors calls for a certain quantity of window-spaces and there is the -further constructive necessity that, while parts of the building may -under certain restrictions overhang the sidewalks, nothing may project -over adjoining property. Within these limitations the architect is -usually free to adopt such design for the exterior as he chooses. - -In the early days of the sky-scraper, which coincided with the period of -more or less imitative reproduction of old models, the architect found -himself confronted with an entirely new problem in design. His classical -studies had familiarised him with buildings comparatively low and -characteristically horizontal in design. His experience of Italian -Renaissance had involved buildings, still inconsiderable in height -though they included several stories, and had led him to be pre-occupied -with details of design, especially with the effectiveness of a cornice. -On the other hand, the characteristic of the new problem was vertical -instead of horizontal, and on a scale that gave predominance to mass -over detail; while the specific detail of the crowning cornice could -only be fully adopted in the case of structures that did not abut on -adjoining property. - -=Height--the Principle of the Design.=--But, for a time, the architect -failed to grasp the newness of his problem. He was confronted with -height, but did not start with it as a principle of design. Instead, he -tried to accommodate the old principles to the new conditions; -experimenting with various methods of embellishment near the ground and -at the top, and treating the main, intermediate part as merely a -repetition of floors. - -Gradually, however, he realised the fact that the new buildings actually -presented a new problem which could only be solved by taking the -vertical principle as the basis of the design. So he bethought himself -of a precedent in the column. It is the vertical member in the Classic -design, and comprises three subdivisions: base, shaft and capital. The -base might be emulated in the treatment of the lower part of the façade, -which generally encloses a bank or some feature of special importance, -surmounted by a mezzanine floor. The counterpart of the column’s shaft -was the repetition of stories, while the effect of the capital could be -reproduced in some emphatic crowning treatment. And those architects who -most logically adopted the precedent of the column, recognising that the -beauty of a tall building must be evolved from its special -characteristic of height and that the beauty would be enhanced by a -suggestion of height growing up in its own strength, abandoned the mere -repetition of stories for a vertical treatment that would emphasise the -suggestion of upward growth. - -In some cases they applied to the masonry between the windows continuous -bands of vertical ornament, projecting in the nature of shafting or -piers, which by their effect of light and shade carry the eye upward, -giving to the whole structure a suggestion of soaring. Or, in other -cases, they so proportioned the width of the windows to the width of the -masonry that the latter, especially at the angles of the building, gave -the suggestion of soaring piers. Meanwhile there still continued to be -architects who ignored these devices, treating the windows and masonry -solely as recurring horizontal features, with the result that their -repetition contradicts both the vertical feeling and that of upward -growth. - -By degrees, however, as the principles of verticality and growth came to -be generally accepted, it was recognised that the analogy of a tall -building to a Classic column was fallacious, since the building should -involve a complete design, while the column is only a constituent member -of a structure and one, too, that is designed to support a horizontal -member. Possibly the realisation of this was assisted by the difficulty -of treating the top of the building. For the most frequent conditions -permitted the projection of a cornice only on one side, that of the -front side of the building, where it sticks out like a prodigious -mantelshelf. That architects should have persisted so long in -reproducing this futile expedient seems only to be explained by a habit -of seeing a design on the drawing board as an elevation to be viewed -from one fixed point, instead of as a structural composition, occupying -space and to be seen from a variety of directions. Moreover, it is a -fact that, as one walks along a street, it is the side of a building -that is chiefly and longest visible, while, by the time one is opposite -the front, the narrowness of the street and the height of the building -make it difficult to view the façade as a whole. - -=Gothic Influence.=--Accordingly, in time, as the logic of the problem of -the tall building came to be more resolutely grasped, it was realised -that, if a precedent was to be adopted, it might be found in the Gothic -style. This is essentially the style of vertical design and upward -growth, and its characteristic profile has a tendency to set back from -the ground line instead of projecting over it. Furthermore, if you -choose to consider it, it was the style of the Northern nations as -contrasted with the horizontal styles of the Mediterranean nations; the -style of the races most represented in our population, evolved by them -as an expression of their adventurous and daring spirit. Even in -relation to inherited racial genius, as well as to fitness of design and -practicability of conditions of site, the Gothic is full of suggestion. - -Its influence at first appeared in the character of detail of some of -the later sky-scrapers; but gradually more fundamentally, as the -architect began to give fuller attention to the masses of his -composition. Up to the present, the noblest example of this new movement -is the =Woolworth Building=, which is not only the tallest of the tall -buildings but a monument of arresting and persuasive dignity. The -repetition of ornamental detail may be somewhat dry and mechanical; but -from a short distance off this melts into the mass, which vies with -mediæval towers and spires in its splendid assertion of organic upward -growth. - -Such a building supplies an uplift to the spirit, whereas the exteriors -of many sky-scrapers, conveying no suggestion of organic growth, being -only monstrous piles of masonry, produce instead an oppression of the -spirit. Nor is such an impression imaginary; it is a physical result of -the sunless, airless canyons into which these cliff-like walls have -transformed the narrow streets. Architects, in fact, realise that the -problem they present is one not only of construction and design but also -of relation to the general city plan. Various proposals have been made -to confine them to certain areas; to restrict their height on the street -line, while setting back the higher portions, which would rise like -towers above the rest of the building; to limit the number of such -towers in a given space, and so forth. Some such restrictions are -enforced in certain cities; but in New York, where the problem is -greatest and most urgent, the consideration of the question has not made -much headway against the general indifference to matters of large public -concern. Here, as in so many other instances, the welfare of the -community, as a collective whole, is not properly adjusted to -individualistic interests. - -=Architect and Engineer.=--This and other matters of “city planning”--a -subject that is more and more engaging the attention of progressive -communities--demands the co-operation of the architect and engineer. -Indeed, the co-operation of their functions in all important works, -especially those of a public character, is one of the urgent needs of -the age. There is scarcely an architectural scheme that does not involve -problems of engineering; and many an engineering achievement would have -been of greater public utility if beauty of design had been considered. -For it is only a narrow view of utility that overlooks the utility of -beauty. It is in the power of an engineer to improve or mar the -appearance of a locality, and hence to add to or detract from the -happiness of the human lives which inhabit it. - -Nor is the union of the functions of engineer and architect a new thing. -The only difference between the past and the present is, that in -Classic, Gothic, and Renaissance periods the functions were united in -one person, whereas with the advent of the age of iron, followed by -that of steel, they have been specialised in separate individuals. -Accordingly, to-day there is one school of Architecture, and another -school of Engineering; and the separation has caused each to disregard -the points at which their respective arts can and should unite. The -desirability, however, of some affiliation is being recognised and -certain schools of engineering now include a course in the principles of -architectonic design. - - * * * * * - -Any termination of a book on Architecture is but an abrupt stop in the -telling of a story that is perpetually continuous. It will go on as long -as man applies his creative ability to the solution of new problems of -construction as they arise, and persists in stamping the work of his -hands with the evidence of his desire of beauty. This little book, -however imperfect, will add its mite to human progress if it has -awakened or stimulated in the reader a realisation of the rich and -varied humanness of the art of Architecture in its intimate relation to -the lives of individuals and the progress and welfare of the community. - - - - -GLOSSARY - - - =Abacus=: the block that forms the uppermost member of the capital of - a column. Usually a square block; but in Roman Ionic and - Corinthian, the sides are concave, while in Gothic the block may - also be circular, octagonal or clustered. - - =Abutment=: a member of solid masonry to sustain a lateral strain or - thrust; e.g., that of an arch. - - =Acanthus=: a plant of the warmer regions of Europe, distinguished by - large, handsome leaves, with indented and sharply pointed edges. - Conventionalised as a decorative motive in Classic architecture: - specially in the Corinthian capital. - - =Acropolis=: a hill within a city, converted into a citadel; often - containing, as at Athens, the temples of the tutelary or guardian - divinities. - - =Acroteria=: plinths or blocks, placed on the apex and ends of a - =Pediment= (which see), for the support of a carved ornament. - - =Æsthetic=: of or pertaining to beauty. That quality in anything, - especially a work of art, that stimulates the senses, emotions or - imagination to an appreciation and love of the beautiful. - - =Aisles= (lit. “wings”): the lateral divisions of a church or - cathedral, parallel to the nave and separated from it by columns. - - =Alcove=: a covered recess, opening from a room or corridor. - - =Ambo=: plural Ambones: raised pulpits from which the Epistles and - Gospels, respectively, were read. - - =Ambulatory=: a space, usually covered, for walking in. - - =Amphi-prostyle=: used to designate a temple-plan that has a rear as - well as a front portico. Compare =Prostyle=. - - =Anta=: plural Antæ (lit. opposite): specially in Classic - architecture, the pilaster attached to the side of a temple, - opposite a column. Generally, any pilaster opposite a column. For - =In Antis= see =Portico=. - - =Antefixæ=: ornamental blocks placed along the lower edge of the roof - of a temple, to cover the joints of the tiles. - - =Anthemion=: a decorative device, also called =Honeysuckle= or =Palmette= - ornament, composed of flower forms or fronds, radiating from a - single point. Used especially on the cyma recta moulding, round the - necks of columns and on stele-heads and antefixæ. - - =Annula= or =Annulet=: a small fillet or flat band, encircling a Doric - column below the =Echinus= (which see). - - =Apse=: originally, the semi-circular projection at one end of a - basilica hall; later, the semi-circular or polygonal termination of - a choir in a Continental Gothic cathedral, as contrasted with the - square-ended choir of English Gothic. - - =Apsidal=: having the form of an Apse. - - =Apteral= (Gk. “without wings”): applied to a temple that has no - colonnade on the sides. - - =Arabesque=: a fanciful, painted, modelled, or carved ornamentation, - composed of plant forms, often combined with human, animal, and - grotesque forms. Used by the Romans and revived by the Renaissance - decorators. Also used by the Arabs--hence the name--for a flatly - modelled and coloured ornament of intricate design, without human - or, generally, animal forms. - - =Arcade=: a system or range of arches, supported on columns, e.g., - the range of arches and columns on each side of the nave of a - cathedral or church. When used as an embellishment of exterior or - interior walls, it is distinguished as Open or Blind Arcade, - according as it is detached from or attached to the plane of the - wall. - - =Arch=: generally, a structure supported at the sides or ends and - composed of pieces, no one of which spans the whole interval. - Specifically, a structure, involving one or more curves, supported - at the sides, spanning an opening and capable of supporting weight. - Distinguished according to the nature of the curve as, segmental, - semi-circular, ogee, pointed, horseshoe, four-centred, trefoil, - cinquefoil, and multifoil. Arches, involving straight lines as well - as curved, are known as “shouldered.” - - =Architect= (pr. ar-ki-tect): lit. the master-builder. - - =Architectonic=: possessing an architectural, or organically - constructive, character. See =Organic=. - - =Architecture=: the science and art of designing and constructing - buildings, with a view to Utility and Beauty. See =Beauty=. - - =Architrave= (lit. “principal beam”): the lowest member of an - =Entablature= (which see); hence applied to any beam that rests on - columns and carries a superstructure; also to the moulded frame - which bounds the sides as well as the head of a door or window - opening. - - =Archivolt=: the mouldings around the face of an arch. - - =Arris=: the sharp edge at which meet two flutings of a Doric Column. - - =Ashlar=: applied to masonry of which the stones are squared and - dressed with hammer or chisel. - - =Astragal=: a convex moulding with a profile semi-circular, like that - of the Torus, only smaller in width. Often decorated with Bead and - Spool ornament. - - =Astylar=: used of a façade, not treated with columns. - - =Asymmetries=: deviations from geometrical symmetry and precision; - such as substituting a slight curve for horizontal and vertical - straight lines; varying slightly the spaces between columns, - setting columns on a curving instead of a straight line, and so - forth. Refinements which Hellenic, Byzantine, and Gothic architects - introduced to give flexibility and rhythm to their structures. See - =Refinements=. - - =Atlantes=: See =Caryatid=. - - =Atrium=: in Roman houses an entrance court open to the sky, but - surrounded by a covered ambulatory. In Early Christian - architecture, a similar entrance court in front of churches. - - =Attic=: the upper story of a building, above the cornice. - - =Axis=: an imaginary line, about which an architect arranges the - symmetry of his design. The main axis usually runs through the - longest direction of the building and may be intersected at right - angles by a second axis. See =Crossing=. - - =Baldachino=: or Baldachin: a canopy supported on uprights; used - especially to surmount an altar. - - =Baluster=: a small ornamental pillar supporting a rail or coping; - the whole structure being called a =Balustrade=. - - =Balustrade=: See =Baluster=. - - =Baroque=: fantastic, grotesque, applied to some of the heavily - decorated architecture of the eighteenth century. - - =Barrel-vault=: also called Semi-circular or Wagon-headed vault: a - continuous arched roof over an oblong space, resting on the side - walls. - - =Barrow=: an artificial mound of earth, forming a prehistoric - sepulchral monument. - - =Bar Tracery=: See =Tracery=. - - =Base=: the lower member of any structure; compare =Plinth=. - - =Basilica=: originally a building erected for business or legal - procedure; specifically the large hall of such a building; later, - in Christian times, a church that more or less retains the plan of - such a hall. - - =Batter=: the upward, inward slope of a wall, affording greater - resistance to =Thrust= (which see). - - =Battlement=: the termination of a =Parapet= (which see) in a series of - indentations, called embrasures, while the intervening solid parts - are called merlons. - - =Bay=: each of the principal compartments into which the vaulting of - a roof is divided; also used of the space between any two columns - of an =Arcade= (which see) of a Gothic church. - - =Bay-window=: a window of angular plan, that projects from the wall - and reaches to the ground. Distinguished from an Oriel window that - is supported on a bracket or =Corbel= (which see) and from a - Bow-window which is curved in plan. - - =Bead=: a small convex moulding; often decorated with =Bead and Spool= - ornament. - - =Bead and Spool=: an ornamental device of small halved spheres, - alternating with halved spools; used on small convex mouldings. - - =Beauty=: as applied to Architecture, those qualities in a building - that stimulate and gratify the æsthetic sense. They result from the - architect having created an Organic structure according to the - principles of =Fitness=, =Unity=, =Proportion=, =Harmony=, and =Rhythm= (see - these terms). - - =Bel Étage=: French term for the principal story of a building. - Compare Italian, =Piano Nobile=. - - =Belfry=: specifically, the part of a tower in which the bells are - hung; hence, sometimes, the whole tower. - - =Bema=: a raised platform, reserved for the clergy in Early Christian - churches. - - =Blind Arcades=: See =Arcade=. - - =Bond=: the method of laying bricks or stones to bind the masonry. In - =English Bond=, the courses are composed alternately of =Headers= and - =Stretchers= (which see); =in Flemish Bond= the Headers and Stretchers - are laid alternately in each =Course= (which see). - - =Boss=: ornamental projection at the intersection of the ribs of - vaults and ceilings. - - =Bow-window=: See =Bay-window=. - - =Branch Tracery=: See =Tracery=. - - =Broken Entablature=: one that projects over each column or pilaster - instead of maintaining a single straight plane. - - =Broken Pediment=: where the triangular or curved form is broken into - in the centre; an ornamental device adopted in the Renaissance. - - =Buttress=: a mass of masonry, projecting from the face of the wall - to resist the thrust of an arch or vault. When the mass is - separated from the wall and connected with it by an arch, the arch - and mass form a =Flying Buttress=. - - =Byzantine=: the style evolved in Byzantium (Constantinople) in the - fifth century, <small>A.D.</small> - - - =Cairn=: an artificial heap of stones, sometimes piled about a - corpse-chamber, which served as a prehistoric sepulchre and - monument. - - =Campanile= (cam-pah-neé-la): Italian term for bell-tower. - - =Canopy=: specifically, the carved ornamentation that surmounts a - niche, altar or tomb. - - =Capella Major=: the space in a Spanish cathedral, enclosed with - screens or =Rejas= (which see) and containing the High Altar. - - =Capital=: the upper member of a column, pier, pillar or pilaster. - - =Carillon=: a set of stationary bells, played upon by a mechanical - contrivance, regulated from a keyboard. - - =Caryatid=: plural Caryatides: sculptured female figures, used - instead of columns or pilasters to support an entablature or - cornice. Said to be so called after the women of Caria, who aided - the Persians and were made slaves. Male figures, so used, are - called =Atlantes=. - - =Caulicoli=: the eight stalks of the acanthus ornament, supporting - the volutes of a Corinthian capital. - - =Cavetto=: a simple concave moulding. - - =Cavetto Cornice=: the hollow member that crowns a wall or door in - Egyptian architecture. - - =Cella=: the portion of a temple enclosed by walls. - - =Cerce=: a mechanical supporting device used in the construction of - vault ribs and light arches. Shaped like a bow, in sections that - work telescopically, so that it can be adjusted to the width of the - span. - - =Chamfer=: the edge produced by chamfering; that is to say cutting a - square edge or corner to a flattened or grooved surface. - - =Chancel= (Lat. cancellus, a screen): See =Choir=. - - =Chapter-house=: originally the assembly place of the Chapter or - fraternity of abbot and monks of a monastery, for the transaction - of business. Now attached to English cathedrals for the - transactions of the Chapter of bishop and canons. - - =Chevêt= (pr. shev-ay): term applied to the east end of a Romanesque - or Gothic church, when it takes the form of a circular or polygonal - apse, surrounded by an aisle which opens into chapels. - - =Chevron=: a decorative device, like a V, repeated either vertically - or horizontally; forming in the latter case a zig-zag. - - =Chryselephantine= (Gk. “gold-ivory”): applied to a sculptured figure - of wood, when the nude parts are covered with gold and the - draperies with ivory. - - =Choir= or =Chancel=: the portion of the church or cathedral east of - the nave, screened off for the use of the choir. See =Coro=. - - =Cimborio=: See =Lantern=. - - =Cinquecento=: Italian term for the period called in English the - sixteenth century. - - =Cinque-foil=: See =Foil=. - - =Clerestory= or =Clearstory= (Fr. clair = light): the highest story of - a nave immediately above the =Triforium= (which see), containing - windows overlooking the roof of the aisles. - - =Cloison=: a partition; specifically, the metal bands dividing the - pattern in _cloisonné_ enamel. - - =Cloisters= (lit. enclosed space): the covered ambulatory around the - open court of a monastery; still retained as an adjunct of many - English and Spanish cathedrals. - - =Close=: the precinct of an English cathedral; survival of the - “Garth” or grassy enclosure of a monastery. - - =Coffer=: one of the sunken panels of geometrical design, used in the - ornamentation of a ceiling, vault or dome. - - =Colonnade=: a system or range of columns, surmounted by an - entablature. When it entirely surrounds a temple or court it is - called a Peristyle. When it is attached to the front of a building - it is known as a =Portico= (which see). - - =Column=: a vertical member, consisting of a =Shaft=, surmounted by a - =Capital= and resting, usually, on a =Base=. Its function is to - support, in Classic architecture, an entablature, and in Gothic, an - arch. - - =Composite=: a Roman Order in which the capital is composed of the - upper part of an Ionian Capital and the lower part of a Corinthian. - - =Concave=: curving, like the segment of a circle, inward, forming a - hollow to the eye of the spectator. - - =Concentric=: having a common centre. - - =Console=: a supporting block, projecting from a wall, generally - decorated; specifically the supports of the cornice over a door or - window. See =Modillion=. - - =Conventionalisation=: the representing of something in a formal way, - generally prescribed by custom. For example, it was neither - ignorance nor lack of skill, but a custom, prescribed by the - priesthood, that caused Egyptian artists to represent the human - figure with head and legs in profile and trunk full front. In - decorative design, based on natural objects, the best usage avoids - naturalistic representation, and translates the form into a - convention, which, however, reproduces and even emphasises the - salient features of structure and of growth or movement. Thus, the - Greek acanthus ornament actually suggests more energy of growth and - more expressiveness of form than the natural plant. - - =Convex=: curving, like a segment of a circle, outward or toward the - spectator. - - =Corbel=: a block of stone, often elaborately carved, which projects - from a wall to sustain a weight, especially that of roof-beams, or - vaulting shafts. See =Console=. - - =Corinthian=: latest order of Hellenic architecture, commenced by the - Hellenic architects and fully developed by the Romans. - - =Cornice=: specifically, in Classic architecture, the crowning or - uppermost member of an entablature; generally, the crowning feature - of any wall construction, or doors and windows. - - =Coro=: the space screened off for the use of the choir in a Spanish - cathedral, situated in the nave, west of the Crossing. - - =Corridor=: a wide gallery or passage within a building, usually with - rooms opening into it. - - =Cortile=: Italian term for interior court, open to the sky and - surrounded by arcades. - - =Course=: a continuous horizontal layer of stones or bricks. See - =Bond=. - - =Cove=: specifically, the concave surface that may occur between the - top of an interior wall and the flat of the ceiling. - - =Crenellated=: fortified with battlements. - - =Cromlech=: a prehistoric memorial, composed of stones of huge size, - disposed in one or more circles; e.g., Stonehenge. - - =Cross=: adopted by the Church in the fourth century as the symbol of - Christianity. The separation of the Eastern or Greek Church from - the Western or Latin Church, was reflected in the shape of the - Cross; the Greek having all its four members equal, while the lower - member of the Latin is lengthened. - - =Crossing=: the space about the intersection of the two =Axes= (which - see) of a church or cathedral, on which the nave, transepts, and - chancel abut. Often surmounted by a dome or tower. - - =Cruciform=: used of the plan of a church that is based on the form - of a cross. Where a Greek cross is followed the nave, choir, and - transepts are of about equal length; while if the Roman is the - model, the nave is lengthened. See =Cross=. - - =Crypt=: vaulted chambers beneath a building, especially beneath the - chancel of a church, in which case often used for burial. - - =Cupola=: See =Dome=. - - =Cusps= (lit. points): one of the points forming the feathering or - foliation of Gothic =Tracery=. Frequently ornamented with a carved - termination. - - =Custodia=: See =Tabernacle=. - - =Cyclopean=: of colossal size; derived from Cyclops, a giant of Greek - myth. - - =Cyma= (pr. Si-mah) (lit. “wave”): the rising and falling curve; a - moulding, perfected by the Hellenic sculptors, whose profile - combines a convex and a concave curve. When the curve begins in - convex and flows into concave, it is known as =Cyma Recta= (Hogarth’s - “Line of Beauty”). When the concave precedes the convex, the - profile is called =Cyma Reversa=. The latter is also called =Ogee=. - - =Cymatium=: the crowning member of a Classic cornice, so called - because its profile is a =Cyma Recta= (which see). - - - =Dado=: the surface of an interior wall, between the base moulding - and an upper moulding, placed some distance from the ceiling. - - =Decastyle=: See =Portico=. - - =Decorated=: used to distinguish the second period of English Gothic - (fourteenth century), owing to increased richness of window - traceries and other ornamentation. Compare =Rayonnant=. - - =Dentil=: one of a series of square, so-called tooth-like, blocks - that ornament the cornice in the Ionic and Corinthian Orders. - - =Diagonal=: specifically applied to the arches or ribs of a vaulting - that are diagonal to the main axis. Compare =Longitudinal=, - =Transverse=. - - =Dipteral= (lit. “double-winged”): designating a temple that has a - double range of columns on each side of the cella. Compare - =Pseudo-dipteral=. - - =Dolmen=: a prehistoric megalithic monument, composed of single - stones set on end or on edge and crowned with a single slab; - forming a sepulchral chamber, often embedded in a mound. See - =Mastaba=. - - =Dome=: a spherical roof, over a circular, square or polygonal space - rising like an inverted cup. Hence, when the structure is small, - called a =Cupola=. - - =Doric=: the earliest and simplest =Order= (which see) of architecture - developed on the mainland of Hellas. - - =Dormer= (lit. “sleeping”): a window in a roof, usually of a bedroom, - often projecting with a gable end. - - =Drum=: specifically a cylindrical wall, supporting a dome; used also - of a section of the shaft of a column. - - - =Early English=: first period of English Gothic, evolved during the - thirteenth century. - - =Eaves=: the edge of a roof projecting beyond the wall. - - =Eclecticism=: the practice of combining various elements of style, - derived from various sources. - - =Echinus=: the cushion-shaped member of the Doric capital, just - beneath the =Abacus= (which see). It has an ovolo or egg-shaped - profile. Also used of the =Egg and Dart= moulding (which see). - - =Egg and Dart=: an ornamental device, composed of an alternate - repetition of an egg-shaped form, halved vertically, and a spear - head. Used especially on mouldings that have an ovolo or egg-shaped - profile. - - =Embrasure=: the sloping or bevelling of an opening in a wall, so as - to enlarge its interior profile. See also =Battlements=. - - =Enamel=: a material composed of pigment and glass, fused and applied - in melted state to surfaces of metal, porcelain or pottery, for - decorative purposes. See =Mosaics=. - - =Encaustic=: a process of painting in which the pigments are - dissolved in melted bees-wax and applied hot. - - =Engaged Column=: a column that does not stand clear of the wall at - the back of it. - - =Entablature=: the horizontal member of a classic or columnar order. - It rests upon the =Abacus= of the column and consists of a lower, - middle, and upper member--the =Architrave=, =Frieze=, and =Cornice=. - - =Entasis= (Gk. “Stretching”): a curved deviation from the straight - line; specifically, the swell in the profile of the shaft of a - Classic column. - - =Epinaos=: See =Naos=. - - =Exhedra=: a curved recess, usually containing a seat; hence a curved - seat of marble or stone. - - - =Façade=: the outside view or elevation of a building that faces the - spectator. - - =Fan Vaulting=: See =Rib=. - - =Fascia=: one of the flat, vertical faces into which the Architrave - of an Ionic or Corinthian Entablature is divided. - - =Fenestration= (lat. _fenestra_, window): the distribution of windows - and openings in an architectural composition. - - =Fillet=: a small flat band, used especially to separate one moulding - from another. - - =Finial=: the finishing part or top, frequently decorated, of a - spire, pinnacle or bench-end. See =Pinnacle=. - - =Fitness=: a principle of beauty; that the design of a work of art - shall conform to the necessary requirements of its purpose, - material and method of making. - - =Flamboyant= (“flaming”): used to distinguish the third period of - French Gothic (fifteenth century), from the encreased elaboration - of the window traceries. - - =Fleche=: specifically, a wooden spire surmounting a roof. - - =Fluting=: the vertical grooving, used to enrich the shaft of a - column or pilaster. - - =Flying Buttress=: See =Buttress=. - - =Foil=: a leaf-like division in carved ornamentation; especially in - the tracery of a Gothic window or the panelling of walls and - bench-ends. According to the number of foils included, the design - is distinguished as trefoil, quatrefoil, cinquefoil, etc. - - =Formeret=: See =Rib=. - - =Fresco= (lit. fresh or damp): see =Secco= and =Tempera=; terms used in - =Mural Painting= (which see). After the wall had thoroughly dried - out, a portion, such as the artist could cover in one day was - spread with a thin layer of fine, quick-drying plaster. While the - latter was still fresh or damp, the artist, having prepared his - drawing or “cartoon,” laid it in place and went over the lines with - a blunt instrument, which left the design grooved in the plaster. - Then he applied the tempera colours, finishing as he proceeded, for - the colour sank into the plaster and rapidly dried with it, so that - subsequent touchings up or alterations could only be applied by - painting in Secco. As long as the surface of the wall remains - intact, the colours are imperishable and retain their vivacity and - transparence. They have, too, the appearance of being part of the - actual fabric of the wall, as the bloom of colour upon fruit. Thus - =Fresco= is the fittest and most beautiful process of mural painted - decoration. - - =Frieze=: specifically, the middle division of an Entablature, - between the Architrave and the Cornice (which see). Also the - continuous band of painted or sculptured decoration that crowns an - exterior or interior wall. - - - =Gable=: the upper part of the wall of a building, above the eaves; - triangular in shape, conforming to the slope of the roof. Compare - the Classic =Pediment=. If the edge of the gable rises in tiers it is - distinguished as =Stepped=. - - =Gaine= (lit. a sheath): a sculptured decoration of a half-figure, - terminating below in a sheath-like pedestal. - - =Galilee=: a porch or chapel, sometimes attached to an English Gothic - cathedral, usually at the west end. For the use perhaps of - penitents. Compare =Narthex=. - - =Gambrel=: applied to a roof, the slope of which is bent into an - obtuse angle. - - =Gesso-work=: a decorative design in =Relief= (which see) executed in - fine, hard plaster. - - =Gothic= (lit. of, or pertaining to the Goths): a term applied to - Mediæval architecture by the Italians of the Renaissance to mark - their contempt for what was non-Classic. The term without reproach - has been continued to designate the architectural style between the - Romanesque and Renaissance, during the thirteenth, fourteenth and - fifteenth centuries. The French have tried to substitute the term, - =Ogival=. See =Ogee=. - - =Grille=: a wrought metal screen of openwork design. - - =Grisaille=: a style of painting in greyish tones, in imitation of - bas-relief. - - =Groin=: the angle or edge at which the surfaces of a cross or - groined vault meet. See =Vault=. - - =Groined Vault=: See =Vault=. - - =Guilloche= (=pr.= =Gil-losh=): an ornament composed of the repeated - intertwining of two or more bands; frequently used to decorate a - =Torus= (which see). - - =Gutta= (lit. “drop”): one of the small truncated cones, attached to - the underside of a =Regula= (which see) and the =Mutules= (which see) - of a Doric =Entablature=. - - - =Half-Timbered=: when the construction has a timbered frame, the - interstices of which are filled in with masonry or concrete. - - =Hammer-beam roof=: late form of timber roof construction, without - continuous =Tie Beams= (which see). - - =Harmony=: a principle of Beauty, that governs the variety in unity - of a work of art, relating all the parts in an accord of feeling. - - =Header=: in masonry, a brick or stone, laid across the thickness of - the wall. See =Bond=, =Stretcher=. - - =Heart-leaf and Dart=: an ornament composed of a heart-or leaf-shaped - form and a dart or tongue. Used specifically on Cyma Reversa - mouldings. - - =Hexastyle=: See =Portico=. - - =Hip-roof=: a roof that rises from all the wall-plates and, - accordingly, has no gable. - - =Honeysuckle=: ornament. See =Anthemion=. - - =Hypæthral=: completely or partially open to the sky. - - =Hypostyle=: having the roof beams supported on columns. - - - =Impluvium=: the cistern sunk in the =Atrium= (which see) of a Roman - house to receive the rain water. - - =Impost=: the member above the capital of a column, on which the arch - rests, usually composed of mouldings. - - =In Antis=: See =Portico=. - - =Ionic=: the order of architecture, developed by the Hellenes of Asia - Minor and adjoining islands, and borrowed and modified by the - mainland Hellenes. - - =Insula=: Roman term for a residential building, housing many - families. - - =Intercolumniation=: specifically in Classic architecture, the space - between any two columns, or between a column and the wall of the - =Cella=. - - =Interlace=: in decoration, an ornament composed of interwoven bands - or lines. - - - =Jambs=: the side members of the openings of doors and windows. - - - =Kaaba=: the cube-like shrine in the Mosque of Mecca. - - =Keystone=: the central stone of an arch. - - =King-Post=: in timber roof-construction; a central post, resting on - one of the =Tie-beams= (which see) to support the ridge. See - =Queen-Post=. - - - =Lady-Chapel=: a chapel in an English cathedral, dedicated to the - Virgin Mary, usually situated at the back of the altar. - - =Lancet=: applied to an arch or window that has a sharply pointed, - lance-shaped opening. - - =Lantern=: a superstructure that rises above the roof level, open - below and admitting light through its sides. Called in Spanish a - =Cimborio=. - - =Lierne-rib=: See =Rib=. - - =Lintel=: the horizontal beam, supported on two uprights or posts, - covering an opening and supporting weight, e.g., the top member of - the frame of a doorway or window. - - =Loggia=: a covered gallery, open to the air on one or more sides. - - =Longitudinal=: parallel to the direction of the main axis. - Specifically applied to the arches and ribs of the vaulting of a - nave or aisle in the direction East or West. Compare =Diagonal= and - =Transverse=. - - =Louver=: a lantern-like cupola on the roof of a mediæval building, - originally the flue for smoke from the fire in the centre of the - hall. - - =Lunette=: a space somewhat resembling a half-moon, with the curve - uppermost. Especially the wall-space, enclosed by the ends of a - barrel-vault; or by the wall-arch of a groined or rib vault. - - =Lych-Gate= (lit. “corpse-gate”): covered gateway at entrance to a - churchyard, where the coffin rests during the first portion of the - burial service. - - - =Machicolation=: the opening between a wall and a parapet, when the - latter is built out on =Corbels= (which see). Through it missiles or - burning liquids could be showered upon assailants. - - =Mansard= or =Mansart=: applied to roofs which have a hip or - angle--instead of a continuous slope--on all four sides. Named - after the French architect who popularised, though he did not - invent, it. - - =Mastaba=: an Egyptian tomb, so-called from its construction - resembling the ordinary Egyptian bench, which is composed of a - horizontal board, supported upon boards that slope inward toward - the seat. - - =Mausoleum= (mō-so-lée-um): tomb of more than ordinary size and - architectural pretensions. So called from the tomb erected at - Halicarnassus in 325 <small>B.C.</small>, in memory of Mausolus, King of Caria, by - his widow, Artemisia. - - =Megalith= (lit. huge stone): =Megalithic=, composed of such. See - =Cyclopean=. - - =Megaron=: Homeric word for palace or large hall. - - =Member= (lit. limb): any component part of a structural design that - has a specific function to perform. - - =Menhir=: a prehistoric monument, consisting of a single rough or - rudely shaped stone, usually of large size (megalithic); perhaps - originally connected with fetish worship, to ward off evil spirits; - then as a memorial of a dead chieftain or a victory. The prototype - of the =Obelisk=. - - =Merlons=: See =Battlements=. - - =Metope=: the space between any two of the =Triglyphs= (which see) of a - Doric =Frieze=. Originally left open, later filled and often with - sculptured relief. - - =Mezzanine=: a low story situated between two higher ones. - - =Mihrab=: a niche in the wall of a mosque that marks the “Kibleh,” or - direction toward the =Kaaba= (which see) at Mecca. - - =Minaret=: the tall slender tower, attached to a Mosque, from a - balcony of which the muezzin summons the people to prayer. - - =Modillions=: the decorated blocks ranged under the Cornice of a - Corinthian or Composite =Entablature=. - - =Monolith= (lit. single stone): usually of large size. =Monolithic=, - composed of such. - - =Mosaic= (lit. belonging to the muses, the goddesses of the arts): - decorative designs composed of particles, usually cube-shaped, of - marble, stone, glass or enamel, used to enrich the surfaces of - vaults, walls and floors. See =Opus=. - - =Motive=: in decoration, the form on which the ornament is based; - e.g., the acanthus motive. - - =Mullion=: one of the vertical stone bars dividing a Gothic window - into two or more “lights.” Also one of the bars of a =Rose-Window= - (which see). The horizontal bars are called =Transoms=. - - =Mural=: of or pertaining to a wall; e.g., a mural decoration. See - =Secco=, =Fresco=. - - =Mutule=: one of a series of rectangular blocks under the =Cornice= of - a Doric =Entablature=, studded on the underside with =Guttæ= (which - see). - - - =Naos=: the principal chamber of an Hellenic temple, containing the - statue of the deity. Entered from the front through an unwalled - vestibule, called the Pronaos and from the rear by a corresponding - vestibule, called Epinaos or Opisthodomos. - - =Narthex=: the arcaded porch of a Christian basilica, where - penitents, barred from full communion, worshipped. See =Galilee=. - - =Nave= (from =Naos=, which see): central division of a church or - cathedral; usually west of the choir. - - =Necking=: the hollowed surface between the =Astragal= (which see) of - the shaft and the commencement of the capital; specifically of a - Roman Doric column. - - =Necropolis=: city of the dead: an assemblage of graves or tombs. - - =Newel Post=: the shaft around which a spiral staircase is - constructed; also the principal post supporting the handrail of a - staircase. - - =Norman=: the style in England, preceding Early English: - corresponding to Romanesque on the Continent. - - =Nymphæum= (consecrated to the nymphs): a building containing - ornamental water, plants and statuary. - - - =Octastyle=: See =Portico=. - - =Ogee= (pr. O-jée): another term for the =Cyma Reversa=. See =Cyma=. - - =Ogival=: term applied to the Pointed Arch, because it is composed of - two contrasted curves. Owing to this arch being characteristic of - the Gothic style, the French have proposed to call the latter - =Ogival=. - - =Open Arcades=: See =Arcades=. - - =Opisthodomos= (Gk. “room behind”): same as =Epinaos=. See =Naos=. - - =Opus reticulatum= (lit. “net work”): a veneering composed of equal - square slabs, arranged so that their joints are diagonal and form a - net-like mesh. - - =Opus Sectile= (lit. “Cut-work”): a mosaic ornament, composed of - glass or marble, cut into various shapes to form a pattern. The - richest variety of it is known as =Opus Alexandrinum=. - - =Opus Spicatum=: pavement composed of bricks laid in “herring-bone” - fashion. - - =Opus tesselatum=: a mosaic ornament composed of tesseræ or square - blocks of glass or marble. - - =Order=: specifically, in Classic architecture, the combination of - =Column= and =Entablature=. - - =Organic=: primarily used of the structures of animals and plants; - secondarily, of any organised, whole, composed of parts that - perform definite functions; always in this book with an implication - that the relation between the whole and its parts partakes of the - nature of a living, as opposed to a mechanical, structure. - - =Oriel-window=: See =Bay-window=. - - =Orientation=: the construction of a temple or church on a main axis, - regulated to the position of the sun or a star on some particular - day or night; or to the points of the compass, usually an east and - west axis. - - =Ovolo= (lit. “egg-like”): a Classic convex moulding--a quarter-round - in Roman architecture; in Hellenic, the curve of conic section - known as hyperbolic. - - - =Palmette=: See =Anthemion=. - - =Papier-maché=: a tough plastic substance, formed of paper-pulp, - mixed with glue, or of layers of paper, glued together; and - modelled into ornamental forms. - - =Parapet=: specifically, the portion of the wall of a building above - the eaves of the roof. Generally, a retaining wall, or enclosing - wall, e.g., the walls of a bridge, above the roadway. - - =Patio=: the open, inner court of a Spanish or Spanish-American - house. - - =Pavilion=: specifically, a section of a building that projects from - the plane of the main façade and has a distinct roof treatment. - - =Pediment=: specifically, the triangular member surmounting the - =Portico= of a Classic temple. It rests on the Entablature and - terminates on each side in a raking Cornice, paralleling the slope - of the roof. In Renaissance and later times, a triangular surface, - framed by a horizontal and two sloping cornices, e.g., the - embellishment surmounting windows and doors. The triangular space - within the horizontal and raking cornices is called a =Tympanum= and - is frequently decorated with sculptured figures or ornament. - =Tympanum= is also used for the surface between a lintel and the - _curved_ cornice over it. - - =Pendentive=: one of the four triangular, concave members that - convert a square space into a circle for the support of a dome. - Their apexes rest on the four piers at the angles of the square, - and, as the triangles arch inward, their bases unite in a circle. - - =Peripteral= (lit. “winged-around”): designating a temple, when the - cella is surrounded by a single range of columns. Compare - =Pseudo-peripteral=. - - =Peristyle=: a system or range of Columns, specifically surrounding a - temple or court. See =Colonnade=. - - =Piano nobile=: Italian term for the principal story of a building. - Compare French =Bel Étage=. - - =Pier=: a vertical supporting member, other than a column or pillar. - - =Pilaster=: a square column, projecting about one-sixth of its width - from the wall, and of the same proportions as the Order with which - it is used. - - =Pinnacle=: a small turret-like termination; especially at the top of - buttresses to increase their weight and capacity of lateral - resistance. - - =Plate Tracery=: See =Tracery=. - - =Plinth=: specifically, a block, usually square, which forms the - lowest member of the base of a column. Generally, the block on - which a column, pedestal or statue rests. - - =Podium=: a wall supporting a row of columns; specifically, in Roman - architecture, the temple platform that does not project beyond the - line of the columns as does a =Stylobate= (which see). - - =Polygonal=: a figure composed of more than four angles, of equal - size. - - =Porte-cochère= (pr. port´-co-share´): a covered entrance, under - which a carriage can be driven. - - =Portico=: an open space or ambulatory covered by a roof, supported - on columns, forming a porch. In Classic temples the front of the - portico consists of =Columns=, =Entablature=, and =Pediment=, covered by - the extension of the roof of the =Cella=. According as the =Portico= - has four, six, eight or ten columns in front the temple is - distinguished as Tetrastyle, Hexastyle, Octostyle or Decastyle. - When the Portico is enclosed on the left and right by an extension - of the sides of the Cella it is distinguished as “=In Antis=.” - - =Post=: an upright supporting member, as of a door. An element in the - principle of construction known as Post and Beam. - - =Post= and =Beam=: generic term for the constructive principle of a - horizontal member, supported upon vertical ones. - - =Posticum= (Latin for =Epinaos=): See =Naos=. - - =Pot Metal=: glass fused in a crucible. - - =Pozzolana=: a clean, sandy earth, of volcanic origin, used by the - Romans in combination with lime to form concrete. - - =Profile=: specifically, the outer edge of the section of a moulding. - - =Projection=: a general term for any member that extends beyond the - main planes of a structure, especially used of mouldings. - - =Pronaos=: See =Naos=. - - =Proportion=: a principle of Beauty, that regulates the quantity and - quality of the parts of a work of art according to their functional - importance in the organic unity of the whole. - - =Propylæa=: the entrance gate or vestibule to a group of buildings. - - =Proscenium= (lit. “before the scene” [skene]): in the Classic - theatre a structure, occupying the open end of the horse-shoe plan, - to screen from view the “skene” or actor’s dressing-place. It - formed the background to the Drama. - - =Prostyle= (lit. “having columns in front”): used to describe a - temple plan that has a =Portico= at only one of its ends. Compare - =Amphi-prostyle=. - - =Prototype=: the primitive, rude, original form, out of which finer - and more efficient types have been developed. - - =Pseudo-dipteral= (lit. “false-double-winged”): when the temple - appears to have a double row of columns on the sides, but the inner - range is omitted and the space between the columns and wall of the - =Cella= is thereby double the usual =Intercolumniation= (which see). - - =Pseudo-peripteral= (lit. “false-winged-around”); when the columns on - the sides of a temple, instead of standing free, are =Engaged= (which - see) in the wall of the =Cella=. - - =Pteroma= (pr. ter-ō´-ma): pl. pteromata: term applied to the side - walls of a Cella; hence, sometimes to the space between the latter - and the columns of the Peristyle. - - =Pylon=: a doorway, flanked by two Truncated Pyramids with oblong - bases. See =Pyramid=. - - =Pyramid=: a structure of =masonry=, generally with a square base, with - triangular sides meeting at an apex. When the sides mount in steps - it is distinguished as a =Stepped Pyramid=. When the sides end - abruptly, before reaching the apex, it is called a =Truncated - Pyramid=. - - - =Quadriga=: a four horse chariot. - - =Quatrefoil=: See =Foil=. - - =Quatrocento=: Italian term for the period called in English the - fifteenth century. - - =Queen-Post=: in timbered roof construction, one of the two posts - resting on one of the =Tie-beams=, at equal distance from the centre, - to reinforce the rafters. See =King-Post=. - - =Quoin=: specifically, one of the large, square stones at the =angle= - (coign) of a building. - - - =Ramp=: an inclined approach to a terrace or platform, usually - parallel to the sustaining wall of the latter. - - =Rayonnant=: (“radiating”): used to distinguish the second period of - French Gothic (Fourteenth Century); from the characteristic - radiating or “wheel” tracery of the rose-windows. Compare - “=Decorated=.” - - =Refinements=: a term applied to the instances in Hellenic, - Byzantine, and Gothic architecture of deviations from geometrical - symmetry, to secure a more flowing, rhythmic beauty. See - =Asymmetries=. - - =Regula=: one of a series of short, flat fillets placed under the - =Tenia= (which see) of a Doric =Architrave=, above each of the - =Triglyphs= (which see); usually having six =Guttæ= (which see) on the - under side. - - =Reja= (pr. rā-hah): Spanish term for an elaborate grille or screen - of hammered and chiselled iron, characteristic of which were - _repoussé_ figures set into or attached to the vertical bars. - - =Relief=: a design of ornament or figures _raised_ upon a surface - that forms the background; distinguished, according to the extent - of projection, as =High= or =Low=; in both cases distinguished from - modelling or carving “in the round” where the design, is detached - from the background; and from =Intaglio=, where the design is sunk - below the surface. - - =Renaissance=: the period of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in - which the Classic culture and the Classic forms were revived in - Europe. - - =Reredos= (pr. rir´-dos): a screen behind an altar, usually of - marble, decorated with sculptured ornament and figures. Called - =Retablo= in Spain, where examples reach prodigious size and great - elaboration. - - =Retablo=: Spanish for =Reredos= (which see). - - =Retrochoir=: the space, other than that of the Lady Chapel behind - the altar. - - =Rhythm=: primarily used to describe the harmonious recurrence of - certain sound-relations in musical and poetic compositions; a - movement of sound characterised by recurrence of stress and accent. - It is based on time, but eludes the measured repetition of the bar - and metre. Hence a relation of lines and masses, characterised by - harmonious recurrence of stress or accent. Not a repetition of - measured intervals and identical parts, but of general - similarities, involving variety, uniting in closest relationship - the parts of an organic design to one another and to the whole. - Rhythm is the subtlest element of artistic harmony and yet is - nearest to the free growth and articulations of nature. - - =Rib=: a projecting band or moulding on a ceiling. Specifically, the - projecting members of Gothic vaulting. These were first - constructed--probably with the support of a =Cerce= (which see) as - light arches, which then formed the support of the intervening - masonry surfaces. The Ribs which parallel the axis of the nave are - called =Longitudinal=, those which cross it from column to column at - right angles are called =Transverse=, while those crossing the axis - diagonally are called =Diagonal=. Sometimes, especially in English - Gothic, to strengthen the vault, extra ribs, known as =Tiercerons=, - were inserted between the main ribs. They spring from the =Impost= - (which see) and abut on an extra ridge, projecting along the axial - line, known as the =Ridge-Rib=. The vaulting, thus formed by the - tiercerons radiating from the Impost is called =Fan Vaulting=. - Sometimes, for additional strength and to increase the - decorativeness, short intermediate ribs were introduced, which are - known as =Liernes=, their distinction being that they do _not_ - connect with the Impost. When the geometrical pattern, made by the - Liernes, resembles a star the vaulting is distinguished as =Stellar - Vaulting=. Sometimes a vertical rib, known as a =Formeret=, was - applied to the wall to separate one vault compartment from another. - - =Rib Vault=: See =Vault=. - - =Ridge=: the highest point or line of a roof. - - =Ridge Rib=: See =Rib=. - - =Rococo=: style of decoration, distinguished by rock-work, shells, - scrolls, etc., which originated in France during the period of the - Regency and Louis XV. - - =Rood-loft=: a gallery over the entrance to the chancel, in which - stood a cross or rood. Used for reading portions of the service and - also in the performance of miracle plays. - - =Rose-window= or =Wheel-window=: a circular window, whose =Mullions= - (which see) converge toward the centre. - - =Rostral Column=: a column decorated with imitations of the prows - (rostra) of vessels; used by the Romans to commemorate a naval - victory. - - =Rubble=: Rubblework: masonry composed of irregularly shaped or - broken stone, whether mixed or not with cement; also the fragments - of stone, mixed with cement, used to fill in the thickness of a - wall, between the two faces of dressed stone. - - =Rustication=: treatment of masonry with deeply recessed joints, - grooved or beveled; the surface of the stone is sometimes made - rough. - - - =Scotia=: a concave moulding, frequently used in the base of Classic - columns. - - =Screen=: a partition of wood, metal, marble, or stone, separating - the choir from the nave. Latin _cancellus_; hence by corruption the - English term, Chancel. - - =Secco= (lit. “dry”): as contrasted with =Fresco= (which see), “fresh - or wet.” Terms used in connection with =Tempera= painting (which see) - according as the surface of plaster be dry or freshly spread at the - time the colour is applied. - - =Section=: a drawing showing a building or part of a building, as it - would appear if it were cut through vertically, and the part - between the plane of section and the spectator’s eye were removed. - - =Serdab=: the cell within an Egyptian tomb, in which images of the - deceased were placed. - - =Sexpartite=: applied to vaults, divided into six compartments. In - Romanesque churches, owing to the short intercolumniation, the bays - were oblong. Hence for convenience of construction two were treated - together as a square. Sometimes from the intermediate columns a - transverse shafting was constructed, which together with the - diagonals divided the square into six divisions. - - =Shaft=: the main member of a Column between the Capital and (where - there is one) the Base. - - =Soffit=: the under side of an entablature, lintel, cornice, or arch. - - =Solar=: a private upper chamber for the use of the family, in a - Mediæval Castle. - - =Spandril= or =Spandrel=: the triangular space on each side of an arch - that is enclosed in a rectangle. - - =Sphinx=: a winged monster, combining human and animal forms. - - =Spire=: the pointed termination to a tower. See =Steeple=. - - =Squinch=: a small arch, set diagonally across the angle of a square - space to transform the latter into an octagon. - - =Stalls=: the fixed seats in a chancel for the clergy and choir. - - =Stanza=: Italian for Chamber. - - =Steeple=: the combination of tower and Spire. See =Spire=. - - =Stele=: =Stela=: an upright tablet of stone or marble, often - sculptured and engraved; serving as a tombstone, or boundary mark - or milestone, etc. - - =Stellar Vaulting=: See =Rib=. - - =Stepped=: See =Gable=; =Pyramid=. - - =Stilted=: applied to an arch when its curve begins some distance - above the impost and is connected to the latter by vertical - sections of moulding. - - =Strap Ornament=: geometrical patterns formed of bands, that suggest - straps of leather kept in place with studs. - - =Stretcher=: in masonry, a brick or stone, laid lengthwise of the - course. See =Bond=, =Header=. - - =Stucco=: specifically, a plaster made of gypsum, powdered marble or - fine sand, mixed with water; used for wall surfaces and raised - ornament; generally, any plaster or cement used for external - coating. - - =Stylobate= (lit. “column-stand”): in Classic Architecture, a - continuous base supporting columns; specifically, the platform on - which a Greek temple is raised. Compare =Podium=. - - - =Tabernacle=: a structure to contain the “Host” or consecrated Bread; - resembling a tower or spire and elaborately embellished with - windows, mouldings, pinnacles, etc., often rising to a great - height--90 feet in the Cathedral of Ulm. A feature of German - decorative art. Appears in Spanish Gothic under the name of - =Custodia=. - - =Temenos=: the sacred enclosure or precinct of a Greek temple or - group of temples. - - =Tempera= painting or painting in distemper: the process of painting - on a ground, usually prepared with a coat of fine plaster, with - pigments that are mixed with yolk of egg or some other glutinous - medium and are soluble in water. The method employed for all - paintings before the development of the oil medium in the fifteenth - century; and continued in use by the Italian mural decorators. See - =Fresco=, =Secco=. - - =Tenia= or =Tænia=: the flat fillet or band, forming the upper member - of a Doric =Architrave= (which see). - - =Terminal=: applied to posts, originally used to mark boundaries. - Made of marble, with a head and bust or half figure, surmounting - the pedestal, it is used as a garden ornament. - - =Terrace=: a raised level space or platform, sustained by walls or - sloping banks, usually approached from below by a flight of steps - or =Ramp= (which see). - - =Terra-cotta=: a species of hard clay, moulded and baked: especially - used in ornamentation. - - =Tessera=: a cube of glass or marble used in =Mosaic= decoration (which - see). - - =Tetrastyle=: See =Portico=. - - =Tholos=: a building of the beehive type, circular in plan, with a - domed roof. - - =Thrust=: a strain that tends to push the downward pressure toward - the sides; as in the case of an arch. - - =Tie-Beam=: in timber roof construction, the transverse beam that - ties together the lower part of opposite rafters. - - =Tierceron-rib=: See =Rib=. - - =Tile=: a thin piece of terra-cotta, stone, or marble for the - external covering of roofs. - - =Torus=: a large convex (usually semi-circular) moulding used - especially in bases of columns. See =Astragal=. - - =Trabeated=: having a horizontal Beam or Entablature. - - =Tracery=: the pattern of stonework that fills the upper part of a - Gothic window. Distinguished as =Plate Tracery=, where the tracery - looks as if it were pierced in a single plate or slab of stone; =Bar - Tracery=, when composed in an arrangement of geometric designs. The - German imitation of branches is known as =Branch Tracery=. - - =Transepts=: the parts of a church or cathedral that project at right - angles to the nave and choir, forming the arms of the Cross in a - =Cruciform= (which see) plan. - - =Transom=: See =Mullion=. - - =Transverse=: at right angles to the main axis. Specifically applied - to the arches and ribs of the vaulting of a nave or aisle that are - in the directions of north and south. Compare =Longitudinal= and - =Diagonal=. - - =Travertine=: a hard limestone found in Tivoli. - - =Trefoil=: See =Foil=. - - =Triclinium=: dining room of a Roman house. - - =Triforium=: the arcaded passage above the arches of the nave of a - Gothic cathedral, opening into the space between the vaulting and - roof of the aisle. - - =Truncated=: finishing abruptly instead of in a point. See =Pyramid=. - - =Tufa=: a volcanic substance of which the hills of Rome are largely - composed. - - =Tumulus=: a prehistoric artificial mound, serving as a sepulchral - monument. - - =Tympanum=: See =Pediment=. - - - =Unity=: a principle of Beauty, that the work of art shall present an - organic oneness and completeness. - - - =Vault=: an arched covering of stone, brick or concrete over any - space. =Barrel vault=: a continuous semicircular arched covering over - an oblong space, supported on the side walls. =Groined vault=: a - vault formed by the intersection of two barrel vaults, at right - angles to each other, supported on four corner columns or piers. - =Rib vault=: a development of the groin vault, the groins being - replaced by ribs or profiled bands of masonry, which are erected - first, the vaulting spaces being filled in subsequently. - - =Vestibule=: the walled space before the entrance to a Roman house; - later an enclosed or partially enclosed entrance space beneath the - roof of an early Christian church; generally, the entrance space of - any building, especially, if used for public assemblage. - - =Volute=: the scroll or spiral feature occurring in a capital of the - Ionic and Corinthian Orders. - - =Voussoir=: one of the wedge-shaped stones, composing the curve of an - arch. - - - =Wainscot=: the lining or panelling of an interior wall, skirting the - floor and carried up to only a part of the height of the wall. - - =Wheel window=: See =Rose-window=. - - - =Ziggurat=: (a “holy mountain”): the platform usually =Stepped= or - rising in receding tiers, on which the Chaldæans erected a temple; - they were also used for astronomical observations. - - - - -INDEX - -(For the Compilation of which the author is indebted to CAROLINE CAFFIN) - - -A - -Abacus (Gloss.), 42 - Corinthian, 132, 165 - Doric, 125 - English Gothic, 291, 294 - Ionic, 129 - at Mycenæ, 99 - Romanesque, 245 - -Abelard, 331 - -Abury, monument at, 17 - -Abutment (Gloss.), 284 - -Abydos, tomb at, 42 - Temple at, 53 - -Acanthus (Gloss.), in ornament, 132, 164, 165, 171 - -Achæan migrations, 91, 105 - -Acropolis (Gloss.): - of Athens, 108, 119, 141 - Athene Nike, 141 - Erechtheion, 141 - Odeion of Herodes Atticus, 145 - Odeion of Pericles, 145 - the Parthenon, 119 - Propylæa, the, 141 - Theatre of Dionysos, 143 - Mycenæ, of, 100 - -Acroteria (Gloss.), 127 - on Parthenon, 137 - -Ægean, civilisation, 88 et seq. - Islands of, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95 - -Æolian, migrations, 91, 105 - -Æsthetic (Gloss.), defined, 3, 4, 5 - -Africa, Mediterranean race in, 95 - Muhammedans in, 215, 220 - Romans, in, 150 - -Agrippa, erects Pantheon, 171 - -Aix-la-Chapelle, Charlemagne’s capital, 192 - Cathedral at, 258 - Church at, 207 - -Akkadia, race, 56, 57, 58 - -Alberti, author of “De Re Ædificatoria,” 344, 345 - -Alcove (Gloss.), in English galleries, 417 - in temple of Hera, 118 - -Alexander the Great, in Egypt, 37 - in Macedonia, 109 - in Persia, 25, 76 - -Alhambra, 218, 226-7 - -Almshouses, 299 - -Altars, of the Dorians, 117 - Early Christian, 194-5 - Escoriál, Church in, 404 - Granada Cathedral, 401 - Greek drama, 142 - Minoan Palace, 101 - Persia, 81, 83 - Stonehenge, 16 - -Altun Obu, Sepulchre of, 14 - -Ambo (pl) ambones (Gloss.), 195 - -Ambulatory (Gloss.), 242 - Gothic, 289, 303 - S. Paul’s Cathedral, 420 - -Amenopheum, the, 45 - -American Institute of Architects, 462 - -Amphi-prostyle--stylar (Gloss.), 120 - -Amphitheatres, 173, 174, 175 - -Anglo-Classical, 435, 436 - -Anglo-Saxon architecture, 254, 255, 289 - -Annula (Gloss.), 125 - -Antæ (Gloss.) 120, 125, 165 - in Parthenon, 137 - -Ante-fixæ (Gloss.), 127 - -“Antiquities in Athens” by Stuart and Revett, 436, 439 - -Apse (Gloss.), origin of, 177 - replaced by Chancel, 237 - in Cathedrals of Granada, 401 - Monreale, Palermo, 249 - Pisa, 247 - S. Paul’s, 420 - Worms, 258 - Churches of - The Apostles, Cologne, 259 - Early Christian Churches, 195, 198, 200, 201 - Romanesque churches, 244 - Santiago de Compostello, 260 - S. Cunibert, Cologne, 259 - S. Maria-in-Capitol, Cologne, 259 - S. Martin, Cologne, 259 - Turkish Mosques, 228 - -Apteral (Gloss.), 141 - -Aqueducts, 182 - Agua Claudia, 183 - Anio Novus, 183 - Pont du Gard, Nîmes, 183 - -Arab alliance with Moors, 226, 227 - -Arcades (Gloss.), in Akbar, mosque of, 230 - Alhambra, the, 226 - Amiens, cathedral of, 282-3 - Amru, Mosque of, 223 - Antwerp City Hall, 407 - Bremen City Hall, 395 - Brunelleschi’s, 343 - Chambord, 381 - Cordova, Mosque of, 224, 225 - Diocletian, Palace of, 195 - Doge’s Palace, 316 - English Gothic, 289 - Iffley Church, 257 - Ispahan, Great Mosque of, 229 - Library of S. Mark’s, 365 - Liège, Palais de Justice, 406 - Mecca, Great Mosque, 221 - Mosques, 217, 221-223 - Nôtre Dame, Paris, 282-3 - Palladian style, 352 - Patios, 400 - Pavia, S. Michele’s, 251 - Romanesque, 244, 245, 253 - S. Paul’s Covent Garden, 419 - S. Peter’s, 194 - S. Sophia’s 208 - S. Sulpice, 389 - Syria, Early Christian Churches, 200 - Worms, Cathedral, 258 - Asymmetries in, 280 - -Arcade, blind, 244, 247, 259 - -Arcades, type in windows, 360, 362 - -Arch (Gloss.): - Anglo-Saxon use of, 255 - Assyrian use of, 69 - Basis of design, 202 - Bridges, use in, 182 - Byzantine use of, 202 - Delos, at, 15 - Domes, built on, 205-6 - Egypt, use in, 42 - English Renaissance, 420 - Etruria, use in, 156 - Four-centre arches, 290, 410 - Gothic, 270, 284 - English, 298 - Italian, 310 - Horseshoe, 229 - Mediæval, 252 - Muhammedan, 221, 224, 230 - Norman, 255-6 - Palace of Diocletian, in, 195 - Pointed, 272, 252 - Roman use of, 156, 166, 174 - Romanesque, use in, 245, 249, 250 - Spanish, 260 - Rudimentary arch, 14-15 - Single stone, 199 - Stilted, 245 - Triumphal, 5 - Arc de l’Étoile, 443 - Arc de Triomphe, 443 - Constantine, of, 159-178 - Early Christian churches, 196 - Janus, of, 159 - Mantua, at, 368 - Orange, at, 178 - Septimus Severus, of, 161, 178 - Temple Bar, 423 - Titus, 5, 159, 178 - -Architects (Gloss.): - Abadie, Paul, 452 - Adam, James, 428 - Adam, Robert, 428, 429, 430 - Alberti, Leo Battista, 344, 345, 368 - Alessi, Galeazzo, 356 - Anthemius of Tralles, 208 - Arnolfo di Cambio, 315, 340, 355 - Ascher, Benjamin, 431 - Ballu, Theodore, 452 - Barry, Sir Charles, 439, 450, 451 - Basevi, George, 438 - Bautista, Juan da, 404 - Benci di Cione, 315 - Benedetto da Rovezzano, 411 - Bernini, Lorenzo, 371, 373, 386, 419 - Berruguete, Alonzo, 402, 405 - Boromini, Francesco, 351 - Borset, François, 406 - Brunelleschi, Filippo, 342-344, 367, 373 - Bulfinch, Charles, 446, 448 - Buon, Bartolommeo, 353, 360 - Buon, Giovanni, 353, 360 - Buonarotti, Michelangelo, 346, 349, 350, 363-365, 371-373, 397, 405 - Burlington, Lord, 352, 426 - Butterfield, William, 452 - Chambers, Sir William, 427 - Clerisseau, C. L., 428 - Colombe, Michel, 376 - Covarrubias, Alonso de, 400 - Cram, Ralph Adam, 366, 453 - Cram, Goodhue and Ferguson, 453 - Cronoca, 345 - De l’Orme, Philibert, 383 - De Vriendt, Cornelius, (Floris), 407 - Diego da Siloe, 400, 401 - Duban, Felix, 444 - Elmes, H. L., 438 - Enrique de Egas, 399, 400 - Fontana, Domenico, 371 - Garnier, Charles, 444 - Giacomo della Porta, 371 - Giacondo, Fra, 371 - Gibbs, James, 423, 430 - Giotto di Bondone, 312 - Giulio Romano, 347 - Hansen, Theophil, 440 - Hawksmoor, Nicholas, 423 - Herrera, Juan de, 402, 404 - Hoban, James, 446 - Hunt, Richard Morris, 461, 462 - Inwood, H. W., 436 - Isidorus of Miletus, 208 - John of Padua, 411 - Jones, Inigo, 416, 418, 427 - Klenze, Leo von, 440 - Labrouste, Henri, 444 - Latrobe, B. H., 446 - Le Breton, Gilles, 382 - Lefuel, Hector, 444 - Lemercier, Jacques, 385, 387 - L’Enfant, Pierre Charles, 445 - Le Nôtre, 387 - Lescot, Pierre, 382, 383, 386, 444 - Levau, 387 - Lombardi, Antonio, 353, 354 - Lombardi, Martino, 353 - Lombardi, Moro, 353 - Lombardi, Pietro, 353 - Lombardi, Tullio, 353 - Longhena, Baldassare, 355, 366 - Machuca, Pedro, 402 - Maderna, Carlo, 371 - Mangin, 448 - Mansart, François, 385, 387 - Mansart, Jules Hardouin, 387 - Michelozzi, Michelozzo, 344, 358 - Mills, Robert, 446 - Mnesicles, 141 - Nepveu, Pierre Le, 381 - Palladio, Andrea, 351, 368 and 369, 418, 426, 427 - Pearson, J. L., 452 - Perrault, Claude, 386 - Peruzzi, Baldassare, 347, 348, 371 - Pisano, Andrea, 312, 319, 340 - Pisano, Giovanni, 312 - Porter, Arthur Kingsley, 243 - Pugin, Augustus Wild, 450, 453 - Raphael, 346, 347, 348, 371 - Renwick, James, 452 - Richardson, Henry Hobson, 461, 462 - Sammichele, Michele, 355 - Sangallo, Antonio da, (the Elder), 371 - Sangallo, Antonio da (the Younger), 371-373, 347, 348 - Sansovino, Jacopo da, 354, 363, 365 - Scamozzi, Vicenzo, 352, 355 - Schinkel, Friederich, 440 - Scott, Sir, Gilbert, 451 - Serlio, 413 - Servandoni, 389 - Shaw, Norman, 460 - Shute, John, 413 - Smirke, Sir Robert, 438 - Soane, John, 438 - Soufflot, J. J., 442 - Street, G. E., 451 - Stühler, 440 - Talenti, Simone di, 315 - Thornton, William, 446 - Thorpe, John, 414 - Town, Ithiel, 431 - Vanbrugh, Sir John, 425 - Vigarni di Borgoña, 401 - Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da, 348, 368, 369 - Viollet-Le-Duc, E. M., 444 - Visconti, Louis, 444 - Waterhouse, Alfred, 452 - Wilkins, William, 438 - Wren, Sir Christopher, 401, 419-423 - -Architect and Engineer, 477 - -Architecture, defined, 5 (Gloss.): - Influence of Monks on, 237 - Need of public appreciation, 455 - Opportunity at Chicago’s World Fair, 465 - Relation to life, 7, 9, 25, 456-9, 472, 478 - -Architrave (Gloss.), Asymmetries in, 137 - Byzantine impost, 204 - Corinthian entablature, in, 165 - Doric entablature, in, 126, 135 - Ionic entablature, in, 129 and 130 - Roman use of, 164 - Windows, 359-360 - -Archivolt (Gloss.), 203 - -Argolis, 88, 98 - -Ariosto, 329, 341 - -Aristotle, 439 - -Armada, Spanish, 336 - -Arris (Gloss.), 124 - -Artaxerxes II, III, 76 - tomb of, 82 - -Aryan race, the, 74 - -Assyria, Architecture, 65-73 - Astronomy and Astrology of, 64 - Asurbanipal, 61 - Civilisation of, 56, et seq. - Conquest of Judea, 60 - Conquest by Nabopolassar, 61 - Culture, 63 - Growth of power, 59 - Junction with Babylonia, 59 - Records of, 57 - Tiglath-Pileser, 59 - -Astragal (Gloss.), 129 - -Astylar (Gloss.), 361, 439 - -Asymmetries (Gloss.), in Egyptian architecture, 43 - Gothic, 278-80 - Hellenic, 136, 137, 207 - Mason’s errors, not, 129 - Pisa, at, 247-9 - -Athena Polias, 141 - -Atrium (Gloss.), in S. Ambrogio, Milan, 250 - S. Paul-without-the-wall, 196 - S. Peter’s, 194 - S. Sophia, 209 - -Attic (Gloss.), 179 - Louvre, in, 384-5 - S. Peter’s, in, 372 - -Attica, Architectural remains in, 89 - -Augustine foundations including Cathedrals, 288 - -Avebury, _see_ Abury - -Aztecs, structures of the, 19 - - -B - -Babylonia, Architecture, 65 _et. seq._ - Babylon described, 61 - Civilisation, 56 _et seq._ - Conquered by Assyrians, 59 - Empire joined to Assyrian, 61, 65 - Gardens, 62 - God Marduk, 59 - Records of, 57 - Sculpture, 63 - -Balconies, on Minarets, 222, 223 - Muhammedan use of, 218 - Netherlandish Gothic, 367 - Palaces of the Capitol, 365 - Vendramini Palaces, 361 - -Baldachino (Gloss.), in Early Christian churches, 194 - S. Peter’s, Rome, 371 - -Ball and Cross, Dome of Escoriál, 404 - S. Paul’s on, 422 - -Balustrade (Gloss.), 364 - Burgos, Golden Staircase, of, 400 - Château de Blois, in, 380 - English Renaissance, 414, 427 - -Bank of England, 438 - -Baptistries, of Florence, 197, 311 - Pisa, 247, 248 - Ravenna, 201 - S. John Lateran, 198 - -Baroque style (Gloss.), 338, 350-1, 355 - -Barrows (Gloss.), 13, 14, 16 - -Bar Tracery (Gloss.), 275, 354, 355 - -Base (Gloss.), of columns, 123 - Corinthian, 131 - Ionic, 128 - Minarets of, 222 - Parthenon, in, 442 - Roman use, 164 - -Basilicas (Gloss.), origin of, 159, 177 - Æmilia, of, 160, 177 - Amiens, at, 281 - Augustus’s, Palace, in, 179 - Byzantine, 205 - Cluny, in Benedictine Abbey of, 253 - Constantine, of, (or Maxentius), 177, 371, 372 - Early Christian churches, 193 - Florence, in, 343 - Fulvia, of, 177 - Italy, in Southern, 246 - Julia, of, 160, 177 - Mediæval, 352 - Monks develop plan to cruciform, 237-40 - Nôtre Dame, Paris, 281 - Porcia, of, 177 - S. Peter’s, Rome, 371 - Sicily, in, 249 - Ulpia, of, 177-8-9 - -Baths, of Agrippa, 176 - Brunelleschi, studied by, 342 - Caracalla, of, 176 - Commodus, of, 176 - Constantine, of, 176 - Diocletian, of, 176 - Domitian, of, 176 - Minoan, 93, 96-7-8, 101 - Nero, of, 176 - Roman, 176, 439 - Titus, of, 176 - Zeus, in temple of, 111 - -Batter (Gloss.), Assyria, in, 66, 68 - Egypt, 41, 47 - Giralda, in, 225 - Renaissance, in, 378, 414 - Sargon’s Castle, 68 - -Bays (Gloss.), in vaulting, 167, 178, 242, 250 - Front of buildings, 303, 372 - Windows, 417, 418 - -Bead and Spool ornament (Gloss.), 130, 132, 134 - -Beams, Cross, 296 - English Renaissance ceilings, in, 417 - German Renaissance, use in, 393 - Hammer, 297 - Tie, 221 - -Beautiful Arts, the, 3 - -Beauty (Gloss.), feeling for, 37, 95, 469 - Campanile in Florence, in, 313 - Chicago World’s Fair, 465, 466 - Difference between German and Italian, 328 - Domestic Architecture, in, 469 - Gallic, 333 - Hellenic, 112, 113 - Moorish and Saracenic, 226 - Renaissance, 373 - Roman, 113 - -Beaux Arts, École de, 379, 461-3-464, 465 - -Bee-hive construction, Tombs, 15, 89, 99 - Dwellings, 46 - -Bel étage (Gloss.), 383-4 - -Belfries (Gloss.), 254 - Netherlands, in, 307 - -Belgium, _see_ Netherlands - -Bema (Gloss.), _see_ Sanctuary - -Benedictine Foundations including Cathedrals, 288 - -Billets, Norman, decoration, in, 255 - -Bingham, Professor Hiram, ruins discovered by, 19 - -Black Stone, the, 214, 221 - -Boccaccio, 325, 331, 341, 376 - -Books of Design, in English Renaissance, 413, 414, 417 - “Antiquities of Rome,” Palladio, 427 - “Cathedral Antiquities,” John Britton and Thomas Rickman, 450 - “Chief Grounds of Architecture,” John Shute, 413 - “De Re Ædificatoria,” Alberti, 345 - “Designs for Chinese Architecture,” William Chambers, 427 - “Five orders of Architecture,” Vignola, 349 - “Five Orders of Architecture,” Sammichele, 355 - “Four Books of Architecture,” Palladio, 351 - “Gothic Quest, The,” Ralph Adams Cram, 300, 453 - “History of Art,” Winckelmann, 436 - “History of Art,” Stuart and Revett, 436 - James Gibbs’ Designs, 423, 430 - “Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian,” Adam, 428 - “Treatise on Civil Architecture,” William Chambers, 427 - -Brackets, _see_ Modillions - -Boston, Decoration in Library, 98 - Trinity Church, 462 - -Botta, Paul Émile, discoveries of, 67 - -Brick, use of: - Byzantine, 202, 209 - Chaldean, 65-66 - Colonial, 430, 431 - Domes, in, 167, 222, 343, 422 - Egyptian, 39, 47, 55 - English and Flemish bond, 424 - English Renaissance, 412 - German Gothic, 305 - German Renaissance, 393 - Hellenic, 117 - Holland Renaissance, 409 - Italian Gothic, 313, 352 - Mesopotamia, in, 65 - Persian, 85 - Queen Anne Style, 424, 458 - Roman, 172, 175 - S. Sophia, in, 209 - Steel Construction, in, 473 - Stretchers and Binders, 424 - Tiryns, in, 102 - -British Museum, Colossal Bulls, in, 69 - Cuneiform script, in, 61 - Rosetta Stone, 27 - Temple of Artemis, 128 - Tomb of Atreus, 99, 124 - -Brittany, primitive structures in, 17 - -Bronze Age, 19 - -Byzantine Architecture (Gloss.), 190, 193-5, 211 - Armenia, in, 211 - Basilicas, 193-6 - Brick, use of, 202 - Columns, 195, 202-4 - Decoration, 203 - Development of, 202 - Domes, 167, 204-7 - Domestic Architecture, 210-11 - Floors, 203 - Greece, in, 210 - Hagia Sophia, 207-9 - Influence on Mediæval architecture, 197, 200 - Romanesque, 212, 245, 248-9 - Mosaics, 203 - Russia, in, 210 - Venice, in, 252-3 - S. Mark’s, 209-10 - -Byzantium: site of, selected by Constantine as capital, 157, 190 - Link between Eastern and Western civilisation, 191 - - -C - -Cairn (Gloss ), 13 - -Calderon, Spanish dramatist, 330 - -Calvin, 332 - -Cambridge, 299 - Caius College, 412 - Emmanuel College, 412 - Gate of Honour, 412 - King’s College, 290 - King’s College Chapel, 295 - -Campaniles (Gloss.), Italian Gothic, 312 - Romanesque, 244, 247, 251 - -Canopies (Gloss.), Gothic, 247, 275, 276, 283, 307, 309 - Renaissance, 380 - Stained Glass, in, 309 - -Capilla Mayor (Gloss.), _see_ Sanctuary - -Capitals (Gloss.), treatment of, 134 - Byzantine, 204 - Corinthian, 131, 132, 171 - Doric, 118, 123-4 - Egyptian, 51-2, 131, 164 - Etruscan, 155, 163 - Gothic, 275, 276, 279 - Gothic, asymmetries in, 279 - Gothic, English, 291 - Gothic, Italian, 314, 316 - Hellenic, 118 - Ionic, 129 - Muhammedan, 221, 224, 226 - Name of Crœsus inscribed on, 128 - Norman, 255 - Persian, 83, 86, 87 - Renaissance, French, 385 - Renaissance, Italian, 345, 367 - Renaissance, Netherlands, 406 - Roccoco, 366 - Roman, 164 - Romanesque, 245, 249 - -Capitoline Hill, 158, 159, 350, 363-364 - -Cardinal Mendoza, 399 - -Cardinal Wolsey, 411 - -Cardinal Ximenes, 400 - -Carillons, (Gloss.), 408, 409 - -Cartouche, 36 - -Caryatides (Gloss.), Erechtheion, in, 141, 436 - Louvre, in, 385 - -Castles: - Albrechtsberg, 305 - Bolsover, 412 - Feudal type, 377 - Fifteenth Century, 299 - German, 305 - Gothic, 286 - Heidelburg, 394 - Heilsberg, 305 - Howard, 425 - Longford, 412, 414 - Marienburg, 305 - -Cathedrals, Place of, in Mediæval life, 236 - Aix-la-Chapelle, 192, 207, 258 - Amiens, 280, 281-4, 302, 308, 314 - Angoulême, 252-3 - Auxerre, 284 - Barcelona, 308 - Beauvais, 284 - Birmingham, 289 - Borah, 200 - Bourges, 281, 285, 309 - Bristol, 257, 288 - Bruges, 307, 308 - Burgos, 308, 401 - Canterbury, 257, 275, 288 - Carlisle, 288 - Chartres, 275, 284 - Chester, 288 - Chichester, 288 - Cologne, 302-4 - Del Pilar, 401 - Dordrecht, 308 - Durham, 256, 288, 297 - Ely, 257, 288, 295, 420 - Exeter, 288 - Ghent, 308 - Gloucester, 288, 294 - Gothic, described, 277-8 - Granada, 401 - Haarlem, 308 - Hereford, 288 - Jaen, 401 - Laon, 284 - La Seo, 401 - Leon, 308 - Lichfield, 288, 298 - Liverpool, 289 - Llandaff, 288 - Malaga, 401 - Malines, 408 - Manchester, 289 - Mayence, 259 - Milan, 302, 313, 371 - Monreale, 249 - Montefiascone, 355 - Newcastle, 289 - Norwich, 256, 288 - Nôtre Dame, Paris, 281-4, 308 - Orvieto, 311 - Oxford, 257, 288, 295 - Peterborough, 256, 288, 294 - Piacenza, 251 - Pisa, 247 - Pistoia, 249 - Ratisbon, 302 - Rheims, 279, 283, 286 - Rochester, 288 - Rouen, 280, 284, 286 - S. Albans, 289 - S. Asaph, 288 - S. David, 288 - S. Gudule, Brussels, 307 - S. Mark, Venice, 209-10, 248, 315 - S. Patrick, New York, 453 - S. Paul, London, 288, 371, 388, 420-2 - S. Peter, Rome, 346-7, 349, 350, 370-4, 404, 421 - Salamanca, 260, 401 - Salisbury, 288, 294, 296, 298 - Santiago de Compostello, 259 - Seville, 302, 309, 371 - Siena, 311 - Southwark, 289 - Southwell, 257, 289 - Spires, 259 - Strasburg, 302 - Syracuse, Sicily, 193 - Toledo, 308-9 - Tournai, 306-7 - Tours, 286 - Trêves, 259 - Truro, 289, 452 - Utrecht, 308 - Valladolid, 401 - Wakefield, 289 - Wells, 288, 294, 296, 298 - Westminster Abbey, 294, 296, 309 - Winchester, 257, 288, 295 - Worcester, 257, 288 - Worms, 258 - York, 288, 291, 296, 298 - Ypres, 308 - Zamora, 260 - -Cavea, 174 - -Cavetto (Gloss.), 47, 134 - -Carnac, Menhirs in, 17 - -Ceiling: - Coffered, 178, 181, 196, 422 - Gothic, English, 293, 256 - Gothic, Italian, 348, 367 - Muhammedan, 225 - Musée Plantin-Moretus, 408 - Odeion of Herodes Atticus, 145 - Painted, in Escoriál, 404 - Renaissance, English, 417 - Renaissance, Netherlands, 408 - Sheldonian Theatre, 419-20 - -Cella (Gloss.), 53 - Hellenic Temples, in, 117, 118, 120-22 - Persian Tombs, 81 - Roman Temples, 169 - -Cellars, 426 - -Celtic, churches, 255 - Monuments, 16, 17 - Ornament, 18 - -Cervantes, 329 - -Chaldean, civilisation, 56 _et seq._ _See_ Assyrian - -Chamfer (Gloss.), 126 - -Chancel (Gloss.), Anglo-Saxon, 255 - Early Christian, 195 - Mediæval, 257 - Renaissance, 355-6 - Romanesque, 341 - -Chapel, Ante, 253 - Arena, Padua, 311 - Capilla Mayor, Escoriál, 404 - English Cathedrals, 289 - Galilee, Durham, 256 - Henry VII, Westminster, 295, 450 - Hôtel des Invalides, 388 - King’s College, Cambridge, 290, 295 - Marienburg, 305 - Marquand, Princeton, 462 - New College, Oxford, 293 - New Kings, of the, 400 - Norman Cathedrals, in, 255 - Palace Charles V, 403 - Romanesque, 253 - Sainte Chapelle, 253, 296 - S. Croce, Florence, 311, 343 - S. George, Windsor, 299 - S. Isadore, 210 - S. John, Tower of London, 255 - S. Maria Maggiore, 197 - S. Paul’s, 420 - Sistine, 374 - -Chapter-Houses (Gloss.): - English Gothic, 295 - Marienburg, 305 - Old Foundation Cathedrals, 288 - Worcester, 257 - -Charlemagne, 207, 238, 239, 258, 263, 266, 323 - -Châteaux, 377 - Amboise, 382 - Azay-le-Rideau, 382 - Blois, de, 379, 380, 383 - Bury, 382 - Chambord, de, 380-1 - Chenonceaux, 382 - Gaillon, 379 - Maisons, de, 387 - -Chevêt (Gloss.), 241-2, 253 - Amiens, 281 - Cologne, 303 - Le Mans, 285 - Norwich, 257 - Tournai, 307 - -Chimneys: - Château de Chambord, 381 - Gothic, 299, 307 - Renaissance, 378, 415 - -Chimney pieces: - Colonial, 432 - Gothic, 299 - Musée Plantin-Moretus, 408 - -Chivalry, age of, 238-9 - -Choir (Gloss.): - Amiens, 281 - Asymmetries, in, 281 - Canterbury, 257 - Early Christian, 195, 196 - Escoriál, 404 - Gothic, 289, 295, 303, 309 - Renaissance, 346 - Romanesque, 244, 246, 249, 256 - S. Paul’s, 420-1 - -Choir Screens, _see_ Screens - -Choir stalls, 299 - -Chryselephantine (Gloss.), 140 - -Church: form derived from basilica, 177 - Age of Church building, 193 - Authority questioned, 328 - Influence of, 263, 320 - Spanish loyalty to, 329 - -Churches: - Abbey Church, Laach, 259 - Abbey of Fontevrault, 253 - Aix-la-Chapelle, 207, 258 - All Saints, London, 452 - Apostles, Cologne, 259 - Babbacombe, Devonshire, 452 - Benedictine Abbey, Cluny, 253 - Christ Church, Philadelphia, 430 - Collegiate Church, S. Quentin, 285 - Collegiate Church, Toro, 260 - Escoriál, 403-5 - Grace Church, New York, 453 - “Hall” Church, 304 - Holy Apostles, Constantinople, 209 - Hôtel des Invalides, 388 - Iffley Church, Oxfordshire, 257 - Il Gesu, Rome, 349, 368 - Il Redentore, Venice, 352 - Kalb Lauzeh, Syria, 200 - La Trinité, Paris, 452 - Nôtre Dame, Avignon, 252 - Old South Church, Boston, 430 - Sacré-Cœur, Paris, 452 - S. Ambrogio, Milan, 249, 251 - S. Andrea, Mantua, 345, 367 - S. Apollinare in Classe, 201 - S. Apollinare Nuovo, 201 - S. Certosa, Pavia, 313 - S. Clemente, Rome, 195, 196, 197 - S. Clotilde, Paris, 452 - S. Constanza, Rome, 198 - S. Cristo de la Luz, Toledo, 225 - S. Croce, Florence, 311 - S. Cunibert, Cologne, 259 - S. Domingo, Salamanca, 401 - S. Elizabeth, Marburg, 304 - S. Engracia, Saragossa, 401 - S. Francis, Assisi, 311 - S. Francisco, Rimini, 345 - S. Front, Perigeux, 252 - S. Genéviève, (Panthéon), 388, 442 - S. George, Esrah, 200 - S. Giorgio del Greci, Venice, 354 - S. Giorgio Maggiore, Venice, 352, 355, 368 - S. Jacque, Dieppe, 286 - S. John Lateran, Rome, 194, 198 - S. Lambert, Hildesheim, 304 - S. Lorenzo in Miranda, Rome, 347 - S. Maclou, Rouen, 286 - S. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice, 353 - S. Maria della Grazia, Milan, 346 - S. Maria della Salute, Venice, 356 - S. Maria di Loreto, Rome, 348 - S. Maria in Capitol, Rome, 259 - S. Maria la Bianca, Toledo, 225 - S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, 196-7 - S. Martin, Cologne, 259 - S. Martino, Lucca, 249 - S. Mary-le-bow, London, 423 - S. Michele, Lucca, 249 - S. Michele, Pavia, 251 - S. Millan, Sagovia, 260 - S. Miniato, Florence, 246 - S. Ouen, Rouen, 279, 286, 314 - S. Quentin, Mainz, 304 - S. Sergius and S. Bacchus, Constantinople, 206 - S. Sergius, Constantinople, 200, 207-9 - S. Sernin, Toulouse, 259 - S. Simon Stylites, Kalat Seman, 200 - S. Sophia, Constantinople, 207, 228 - S. Spirito, Florence, 343, 367 - S. Stefano Rotondo, Rome, 198 - S. Stephen, Vienna, 304 - S. Stephen, Walbrook, 422 - S. Sulpice, Paris, 389 - S. Urban, Troyes, 285 - S. Vitale, Ravenna, 200, 202, 207-8 - S. Wulfrand, Abbeville, 286 - S. Zaccaria, Venice, 353 - Tewkesbury Abbey, 295 - Trinity Church, Boston, 462 - Trinity Church, New York, 452 - Turmanin, Syria, 200 - Val-de-Grâce, Paris, 387 - Vézélay, 253 - -Chaldæa, civilisation, 56 _et seq._ - Architecture, _see_ Assyrian - -China, 13, 427 - -Churrigueresque, style, 405 - -Cinquecento (Gloss.), 338 - -Cinquefoil (Gloss.), 291 - -Circular plan Buildings, 197-8 - Campanile, 247 - Chapter Houses, 257, 295 - -Circus Maxentius, 173 - Maximus, 173 - Nero, 194 - -City Planning, in America, 445 - London, Christopher Wren, 419 - Paris, by Baron Haussmann, 444 - Washington, Major Pierre Charles L’Enfant, 445 - -Civic Architecture: - Casa Lonja, 401 - City Halls, Antwerp, 406 - Bremen, 395 - Cologne, 395 - Haarlem, 409 - Hague, The, 409 - Leyden, 409 - New York, 448 - County Buildings, Pittsburg, 462 - Doge’s Palace, 315 - Palais de Justice, Bruges, 406 - Palais de Justice, Liège, 406 - Palais de Justice, Rouen, 286 - Palais de Justice, Paris, 444 - Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, 315, 358-9 - Town Halls, Breslau, 305 - Brunswick, 305 - Brussels, 307 - Halberstadt, 305 - Hildesheim, 305 - Louvain, 307 - Lübeck, 305 - Manchester, 452 - Mechlin, 307 - Munster, 305 - Ratisbon, 305 - -Classic Architecture, 8 - Compared to Gothic, 276-7 - Hellenic, 116, - _see_ Roman, 163 - Classic and classical, 113 - Influence on Byzantine, 203 - on Gothic, 310 - on Renaissance, 319, 320, 328, 338, 340, 342 - -Classic Literature, 325, 335, 341, 344 - France, 383 - -Classical Revival, 390, 401-5, 435, 439 - Books of Design of, 413 - Free-Classic, 460 - French Imperial, 443 - Neo-Greek, 444 - -Cleopatra’s Needles, 43 - -Clerestory, the (Gloss.): - Asymmetries in, 279 - Egypt, use in, 49, 86, 122 - Gothic, use in, 272, 299, 304, 314, 367 - Norman use of, 256 - Romanesque, 242, 246, 250, 253 - S. Paul’s Cathedral, 420-1 - -Cloisonné (Gloss.), 291 - -Cloisters (Gloss.), 288 - Old Foundation Cathedrals, in, 288 - San Marco, Fiesole, 344 - Spanish arcades turned into, 343 - Spanish Gothic, 308 - Spanish Romanesque, 260 - -Close (Gloss.), The, 297 - -Cnossus, Architectural remains in, 89, 93 - Palace, 96 _et seq._ - -Coffers (Gloss.), 168, 196, 368 - -Colleges: - Caius, Cambridge, 412 - Clare, Cambridge, 412 - Divinity College, Princeton, 462 - Divinity Schools, Oxford, 295, 299 - Emmanuel, Cambridge, 412 - Escoriál, of the, 404 - Girard, Philadelphia, 448 - Gresham, 419 - Jesus, Oxford, 412 - Keble, Oxford, 452 - King’s, Cambridge, 290, 295 - Merton, Oxford, 412 - Nevill Court, Cambridge, 412 - Pembroke, Oxford, 412 - S. Cruz, Valladolid, 399 - S. John, Cambridge, 412 - Scroll and Keys Hall, Yale, 462 - Sidney Sussex, 412 - Trinity, Cambridge, 412 - Wadham, Oxford, 412 - -Cologne, 259, 302-4, 395 - -Colonnades (Gloss.): - Colonial, 432 - Early Christian Churches, 194 - Egyptian, 50 - English Classical, 438 - French Châteaux, 377, 380, 386 - Hellenic, 116, 120, 122, 141 - Minoan, 100, 101 - Muhammedan, 221 - Persian, 81 - Roman, 170, 180, 181 - S. George’s Hall, Liverpool, in, 438 - S. Peter’s, Rome, in, 371 - Spanish, 400, 403 - Treasury Building, Washington, 446 - Zeus, Temple of, 111 - -Colosseum, the, 159, 174-5, 342, 362 - -Colour as a motive: - Byzantine, in, 203 - Egyptian, 33 - Muhammedan, 227 - -Column, a basis of sky-scraper design, 474 - -Columns (Gloss.): - Anglo-Palladian, 424 - Anglo-Saxon, 254 - Assyrian, 70 - Baluster columns, 406 - Basilicas, in, 352 - Bracket columns, 400 - Byzantine, 202, 204, 208 - Colonial, 430, 431, 432 - Colosseum, in the, 174, 342 - Colour in, 136 - Doric, 118, 122, 123, 124, 125, 163 - Early Christian Churches, in, 195-6, 197, 198, 199, 200 - Egyptian, 42, 43, 44, 51, 52, 53 - Erechtheion, in, 141, 165, 436 - Gothic, 275-6, 295, 299, 314, 316, 343 - Hellenic, 116, 117, 118, 119, 124, 125, 126, 137, 140, 141, 144 - Ionic, 128 - Median, 80 - Minoan, 99, 101 - Monumental, 158, 179, 348 - Muhammedan, 221, 224, 226, 231 - Norman, 255, 272 - Pantheon, in, 442-3 - Persian, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87 - Renaissance, English, 365, 367, 368, 369 - French, 380, 386, 388 - Italian, 354, 365, 367, 368, 369 - Spanish, 400 - Rococo, 366 - Roman, 135, 158, 169, 170, 179, 180 - Romanesque, 241, 245, 249 - Rudimentary, 15 - S. Peter’s, Rome, in, 373 - -Composite Orders (Gloss.), 165 - -Concrete, use of: - Byzantine, 202 - Reinforced, 473 - Romans, by, 153, 154, 166, 172, 173, 175, 183 - -Constantine, 188, 189, 193, 209 - -Constantinople, 190 - Ahmed, Mosque of, 228 - Fountains, 228 - Hagia-Sophia, 207-8 - Holy Apostles, Church of, 209 - Latin Kingdom, of, 264 - Mediæval centre of learning, 266-7 - Minarets in, 222 - Muhammedan occupation, 215, 220 - Suleiman, Mosque of, 228 - S. Sergius’ Church, 200 - SS. Sergius and Bacchus, 206 - S. Sophia, 209 - Turkish occupation, 325 - -Consoles (Gloss.), 345, 360, 423 - -Copernicus, 322 - -Corbels (Gloss.), 174, 205 - Minarets, of, 222 - Muhammedan domes, of, 222 - Renaissance, in, 359, 378, 388, 392, 395, 396 - Romanesque, 250, 258 - -Corinthian Order (Gloss.), 131 - Byzantine use of, 204 - Gothic use, 275-6, 310 - Maison Carrée, 169, 175 - Roman use of, 132, 158, 164-5 - Romanesque use, 245 - -Cornices (Gloss.), 42 - Asymmetries in, 68 - Assyrian use, 68 - Byzantine use, 202 - Cavetto cornice, 47, 49 - Colonial use, 430-1-2 - Corinthian, 165 - Doric, 126-7 - Gothic use, 312 - Minoan use, 99 - Persian use, 84 - Queen Anne, style, 424 - Renaissance, 361, 363, 364, 370, 395 - Roman use, 164 - Romanesque use, 250, 257 - -Coro, 405 - -Corona, 127, 130 - -Corridors (Gloss.), 414, 416, 425, 426 - -Cortiles, _see_ Court (Gloss.) - -Costa Rica, ruins in, 20 - -Courts: - Alhambra, of, 226-7 - Amru, Mosque of, 223 - Casa Lonja, 401 - Chambord, Château de, 381 - Cnossus, 96 - Egyptian, 51, 55 - Escoriál, Patio of, 404 - Fountain Court, Hampton Court, 423 - Ispahan, Great Mosque of, 229 - Italian and French compared, 376 - Louvre, of the, 383, 385 - Miranda, Patio in House of, 400 - Mosques, of, 217 - Muhammedan Houses, of, 218 - Palace of Caprarola, 348 - Charles V, 402-3 - Farnese, 363 - Infantado, 400 - Luxembourg, 386 - Palazzo Vecchio, 358-60 - Riccardi, 358-60 - Whitehall, 418 - Place du Carrousel, 383 - Palais de Justice, Liège, 406 - Roman Thermai, 176 - S. John’s College, 412 - S. Simon Stylites, 200 - Sidney Sussex College, 412 - Spanish Renaissance, 399 - Suleiman, Mosque of, 228 - Tiryns, at, 101-2 - Zaporta, 400 - -Coves, 417 - -Craftwork, 7, 89, 91 - Arts and Crafts Movement, 450, 458-9 - Corinthian, 110 - Etruscan, 155 - Gilds of, 233, 235, 338 - Muhammedan excellence in, 216, 217, 219 - Renaissance, 357, 411 - -Cram, Ralph Adams, 453 - -Cresting, 414 - -Cromlechs (Gloss.), 13, 16 - -Cross and Ball on domes, 404, 422 - -Crusades, 264-6 - -Crypt (Gloss.), 246 - Escoriál, in, 404 - S. Miniato, Florence, 246 - Worcester Cathedral, 257 - -Cuneiform, writing, 57, 61 - -Cupolas (Gloss.), of Château de Chambord, 381 - Hôtel des Invalides, 388 - S. Paul’s, 421 - S. Peter’s, 349, 421 - -Curb, _see_ Hip. - -Curvilinear Gothic, _see_ Decorated - -Cusps (Gloss.), 290 - -Custodia, _see_ Tabernacles - -Cuzco, Inca ruins in, 19 - -Cyma Recta-Reversa (Gloss.), 133 - -Cymatium (Gloss.), 127, 130 - -Cyprus, ruins in, 89. - Kingdom of, 264 - - -D - -Dado (Gloss.), 72 - -Damascus, 219 - -Dante, 324 - -Decastyle (Gloss.), 121 - -Decorated Style, 271, 275, 287, 290 - -Decorative Motives (Gloss.): - Acanthus, 132, 164-5, 275, 310 - Anthemion, 132, 165, 203 - Arabesques, 216, 227, 363, 380, 399 - Armorial Bearings, as, 401 - Ball Flower, 291 - Bands and straps, 393, 413, 415 - Bead and Spool, 130, 132 - Caulicolæ, 165 - Celtic, 18 - Chevrons, 99, 124-125 - Diaper, 291 - Dog Tooth, 290 - Egg and Dart, 132 - Fleur de Lys, 291 - Four Leaf Flower, 211 - Grotesques, 165, 251, 406 - Guilloche, 69, 129 - Heart Leaf, 133 - Lotus, 84, 87, 131 - Mexican grotesque, 21 - Monograms, as, 380 - Portcullis, 291 - Rosettes, 72, 102, 131, 155, 363 - Scroll work, 415 - Spirals, 165, 179 - Stiff leaf-foliage, 291 - Tudor Rose, 291 - Volutes, 87, 129, 130, 131, 164 - -Delos, Arch at, 15 - -Dentils (Gloss.), 42, 130, 164 - -Department of Fine Arts, 442, 465 - -De Re Ædificatoria, 345 - -Dining rooms, 416, 426 - -Dionysos, 142-3; - Festival of, 107 - -Dionysos Theatre of, 143 - -Dipteral (Gloss.), 120 - -Dolmen (Gloss.), 13, 14, 17 - -Domes (Gloss.), 15 - Alhambra, 227 - Anglo-Classical, 425-7 - Angoulême, Cathedral, 253 - Assyrian, 70 - Byzantine, 202 - Capitol, Washington, 446-7 - Escoriál, 404 - Granada, Cathedral, 401 - Hôtel des Invalides, 388, 420, 422 - Indian, 220, 231 - Madeleine, The, 443 - Muhammedan, 217, 221 - Palace of Charles V, 403 - Panthéon, Paris, 388, 422, 442 - Pantheon, Rome, 167, 171, 172, 207, 371, 372 - Pazzi Chapel, S. Croce, 343 - Pendentive, 204-6 - Persian, 229 - Pineapple, 222 - Pisa, at, 247 - Ravenna, at, 201 - Renaissance, 197 - Roman, 201 - Romanesque, 244 - Rudimentary, 15, 89 - S. Andrea, Mantua, 367 - S. Constanza, 198 - S. George, Esrah, 200 - S. Maria dei Miracoli, 353 - S. Maria della Salute, 346 - S. Mark’s, 209 - S. Paul’s, 420-2 - S. Peter’s, 343, 371-3, 421 - S. Pietro in Montano, 346 - S. Sophia, 207 - S. Spirito, Florence, 343, 367 - S. Stephen, Walbrook, 422 - S. Vitale, 207 - S. S. Sergius and Bacchus, 207 - Salamanca Cathedral, 260 - Semi-circular, 208 - Toro Collegiate Church, 260 - Turkish Mosques, 228 - Villa Rotonda, 352 - -Domestic Architecture: - Apartment Houses, 471 - Aston Hall, 412 - Beehive Huts, 15, 46 - Bickling Hall, 412 - Biltmore, 462 - Bramshill, 412 - Breakers, The, 462 - Burghley House, 412 - Ca D’Oro, 315 - Chevening House, 416-7, 419 - Coleshill, 419 - Craigie House, Cambridge, 431 - Devonshire House, 426 - Doge’s Palace, 315-6 - Duke of Leinster’s House, 446 - English Renaissance, 411-15 - Haddon Hall, 412 - Ham House, 412 - Holkam Hall, 426 - Holland House, 412, 414 - Gothic, French, 286 - German, 305-6 - Italian, 315 - Jacques Cœur, House of, 286 - Keddleston Hall, 428 - Kirby Hall, 412, 414, 415 - Knoll House, 412 - Layer Marney, Essex, 411 - Longford, 412, 414 - Longleat House, 411 - Marble House, 462 - Marlborough House, 423 - Minoan Houses, 93 - Mount Vernon, 432 - Muhammedan Houses, 217 - Musée Plantin-Moretus, 408 - Old Charlecote House, 412 - Pellershaus, 395-6 - Penshurst, 412 - Primitive Houses, 15 - Raynham Hall, 419 - Renaissance, 392 - Roman, 180, 182, 472 - Sherburn House, 431 - Stoke Park, 419 - Vanderbilt House, 462 - Villa Madama, 347 - White House, 446 - Wilton House, 419 - Wollaton House, 412 - York House, 419 - -Doorways: - Anglo-Saxon, 254-5 - Baptistry, Florence, 319 - Ca d’Oro, 360 - Colonial, 432 - Doge’s Palace, 353 - Gothic, 269, 275, 276 - English, 290 - French, 298 - Italian, 311 - Janus, 159 - Muhammedan, 229 - Norman, 255, 257 - Palazzo Riccardi, 359 - Vecchio, 359 - Vendramini, 360 - Palladian designs for, 370 - Queen Anne, 424 - Roman, 167 - Romanesque, 245 - Puerta de la Coroneria, 401 - Renaissance, German, 393, 395 - Spanish, 399, 400, 401 - Taj Mahal, 231 - Tiryns, at, 102 - S. Andrea, Mantua, 368 - S. Sophia, 210 - S. Peter’s, 372 - -Dorians, The, 91, 105, 118 - -Doric Order (Gloss.), 87, 99, 118, 123-124 - Corinth, temples at, 118 - Etruscan use of, 155 - Parthenon, in, 119 - Phœbus Apollo, Temple of, 118 - Propylæa, in, 141 - Renaissance use of, 346, 349, 352, 389, 403-4 - Roman use of, 164 - Syracuse, Cathedral of, 193 - Trajan’s Column, 179 - -Dormers (Gloss.) : - Antwerp, City hall, 406 - Gothic, German, 306 - Netherlandish, 307 - Renaissance, French, 378, 381, 384 - German, 392, 394, 396 - Worms, Cathedral at, 258-9 - -Dörpfeld, discoveries by, 89, 100 - -Drama, Greek, 142-5, 175 - -Mediæval, 237-8 - -Renaissance, 330 - -Roman, 175 - -Drawbridge, 379 - -Drum of Dome (Gloss.), 206 - Angoulême, at, 252 - Florence, at, 342 - Hôtel des Invalides, 388 - Panthéon, Paris, 442 - S. Andrea, 368 - S. Maria della Salute, 356 - S. Paul’s, 422 - S. Peter’s, 371, 373 - -Dryden, 435 - - -E - -Early Christian Architecture, 193 - Basilicas, 193-4, 197 - Circular Plans, 197 - Columns, 195 - Influence in Arabia, 214 - on Byzantine Architecture, 202 - on Gothic, 276 - S. Peter’s, 194 - Syrian examples, 199, 200 - -Early Christian Civilisation, 187 - Byzantium becomes capital, 157, 190 - Carolingian Kings, 192 - Constantine accepts Faith, 189 - Council of Milan, 188 - Power of the Patriarchs, 157, 188 - Ravenna, 201 - Rise of the Frankish tribes, 191 - -Early English (Gloss.), 257, 271, 290 - -Eaves (Gloss.), 424 - -Eclecticism (Gloss.), 466 - -École des Beaux Arts, _see_ Beaux Arts - -Echinus (Gloss.), 125, 129, 164 - -Egyptian civilisation, 25 _et seq._ - Agriculture, 31 - Clothing, 32 - Conquest by Assyria, 60 - Construction of the Pyramids, 35 - Decline, 37 - Dynasties, 26 - Geography, of, 28 - Hebrew Exodus, 36 - Hyksos Invasion, 35, 91 - Recreations, 31 - Religion, 32, 33 - Schools, 32 - Skill in engineering, 30 - Theban Monarchy, 35, 91 - -Egyptian Architecture: - Abydos, Tomb at, 42, 53 - Columns, Treatment of, 52-3 - Deir-el-Bahri Temple-tomb, 44 - Domestic architecture, 54-5 - Elephantine, Temple at, 53 - Isis, Temples of, 54 - Karnak, Temple at, 44, 50 - Luxor, 51, 53 - Mastabas, 40-1, 42 - Middle Empire, architecture, 42-3 - Mycenæan remains in, 39 - New Empire, 44 - Obelisks, 43-4 - Palaces, 54 - Ptolemaic remains, 53 - Pyramids, 34, 39, 40 - Rosetta Stone, 27 - Sphinx, the Great, 38-9 - Avenues of, 48 - Temples, 41 - Temples, 8, 33-45, 46-54 - Tombs, 33, 34, 41, 42, 45, 83 - Towns, 54 - -Elevation, plans, 11, 255 - -Elgin, Lord, 436 - -Embankment, Thames, 418 - -Enamels (gloss.), 86, 218, 222 - -Encaustic (gloss.), 136 - -Engineering problems, 477 - -England, Architecture in: - Anglo-Classical, 410, 424-5 - Anglo-Italian, 417 - Anglo-Saxon, 254-5 - Asymmetries, 279 - Cathedrals, 288 - Celtic Churches, 255 - Classical revival, 435-9 - Elizabethan architecture, 412 - Exteriors, Gothic, 297-8 - Free-classical movement, 460 - Gothic, 271-287 - Gothic Revival, 448 - Inigo Jones, 418 - Interiors, 415 - Jacobean architecture, 413 - Mansions, 412 - Morris, William, influence of, 458 - Orders, use of, 415 - Ornament, 290 - Queen Anne Style, 424 - Roofs, 296, 414 - S. Paul’s, 420-3 - Stained Glass, 291-3 - Stonehenge, 16 - Vaulting, 293 - Vistas, in Gothic, 273-4 - Whitehall, 418 - Wren, Christopher, 419 - -Entablature (Gloss.), 8 - Basilicas, in, 178 - Broken, 179, 180 - Corinthian, 131 - Doric, 126 - Early Christian, 195-7 - Gothic, contrasted, with, 277 - Hellenic, 116 - Ionic, 130 - Michelangelo, use by, 364 - Renaissance, 367, 370 - Renaissance, French, 381 - German, 394-6 - Netherlands, 407 - Spain, 402 - Roman, 164, 170, 198 - Rudimentary, 15 - S. Paul’s, in, 420 - Whitehall, in, 418 - -Entasis, (Gloss.), 43 - Caryatid in Erechtheion, 141 - Hellenic columns, in, 124-5 - Ionic use, 129 - Overlooked, 138 - -Epinaos, _see_ vestibule (Gloss.) - -Erechtheion the, 121, 129, 141, 165 - -Escoriál, the 82, 180, 403-5 - -Etruscans, 154 - Arch, use of, 156 - Arts and civilisation, 155 - Burial urns, 155 - Dwellings, 155 - Temples, 156 - -Evans, Dr. A. J., discoveries by, 89, 90 - -Exhedras (Gloss.), 176 - - -F - -Façades (Gloss.), 11 - Bank of England, 438 - Caprarola Palace, 348 - Certosa, 313 - City Hall, Antwerp, 407 - Bremen, 395 - Haarlem, 409 - Darius Tomb, 83 - Doge’s Palace, 315 - Escoriál, the, 403 - French Châteaux, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 383-4 - Garden Façade, Hampton Court, 423 - Gothic Cathedrals, 277, 282, 286, 297, 298, 307-8 - Gothic, Italian, 311 - Greek, on modern buildings, 436 - Greenwich Hospital, 419 - Lombard, 258 - Louvre, of the, 383-6 - Museum, British, 438 - Palace of Charles V, 402 - Panthéon, Paris, 442 - Pesaro Palace, 366 - Pisa, Cathedral, 247 - Renaissance, English, 414, 415 - German, 392-4 - Netherlands, 406-9 - Spanish, 399, 400, 402 - S. Andrea, Mantua, 368 - S. Jacopo Sansovino, 354-5, 365 - S. Lorenzo, in Miranda, 347 - S. Maria Novella, 345 - S. Paul’s, 421 - S. Peter’s, 371-2 - Sky-scrapers, 474-5 - Steel construction, in, 472 - Taj Mahal, 231 - Versailles, 387 - Washington, Capitol at, 446 - Wren’s Churches, 423 - -Faience, 96 - -Fascia (Gloss.), 130 - -Ferrero, Dr., quoted, 152 - -Fetiches, 13, 92, 96, 98, 214 - -Feudal System, 233-4 - England, in, 410 - France, in, 331 - Germany, in, 302 - Overthrown, 322 - -Fillet (Gloss.): - Doric entablature, in, 126 - Ionic entablature, in, 129, 130 - Roman use, 164 - -Fine Arts, The, 3, 337, 346 - -Finials, _see_ pinnacles (Gloss.) - -Fireplaces, English Renaissance, 416 - French Châteaux, 382 - Mediæval Castles, 299, 416 - -First Pointed, _see_ Early English - -Fitness, considerations of (Gloss.), 12, 87, 128 - -Flagstaffs, 176 - -Flamboyant (Gloss.), 271, 275, 282, 285, 287, 290 - -Fletcher, Professor Banister, 170, 367 - -Floors, Byzantine, 203 - Chaldæan, 72 - Early Mediæval, 196 - Roman, 181, 182 - -Florence, Architecture of the Renaissance, 342-345 - Baptistry, 197, 319 - Campanile, 312 - Cathedral, 311, 342-3 - Laurentian Library, 349 - Library of S. Giorgio, 344 - Loggia dei Lanzi, 315 - S. Paolo, 344 - New Sacristry, 346 - Ospedale degli Innocente, 344 - Palazzo Guardagni, 345 - Riccardi, 344, 358-61 - Strozzi, 345 - Vecchio, 315, 342, 358-60 - Pazzi Chapel, 343 - S. Croce, Church of, 311 - S. Lorenzo, Church of, 343 - S. Miniato, Church of, 246 - S. Spirito, Church of, 343, 367-8 - University, 325 - -Fluting (Gloss.), on Hellenic columns, 135 - Norman, 256 - Roman, 164 - -Fontainebleau, 332 - -Fortifications, 348, 355, 359, 379 - -Forum (pl. Fora), 157, 170 - -Fountains: - Hildesheim, 397 - Mainz, 397 - Mosques, in, 217 - Nuremburg, 397 - Persian, 86 - Renaissance, 327 - German, 396 - Rothenburg, 397 - Taj Mahal, 231 - Temple of Diana, Nîmes, 170 - Tubingen, 396 - Ulm, 397 - Versailles, 387 - -Free Masonry, 235 - -French Civilisation after Charlemagne, 232 - Francis I, 375 - Louis XIV, 389 - Napoleon, 442 - Renaissance, 327 - Revolution, 441 - Second Empire, 444 - -French Architecture: - Châteaux, 377-382 - Classic Period, 440-4 - Gallic Spirit, 332-3 - Gothic, 273, 281-9 - Asymmetries in, 278 - Influence on other countries, 306, 308, 310, 313 - Sculpture, 276 - Gothic Revival, 451 - Influence on modern architecture, 461-5 - Louvre, The, 382-6 - Renaissance, 331, 349, 375, _et seq._ - Renaissance influence on other countries, 413, 445 - Rib Vaulting, 243 - Rococo, 338, 375 - Romanesque, 170, 232, 240, 252-4 - Roman remains, in, 132, 169, 241 - School of Tours, 376-7 - Theatre of Orange, 176 - Versailles, 387 - -Frescoes (_see_ Gloss.) - Cnossus, at, 123 - Cretan Palace, in, 96 - Gothic, German, 306 - Gothic, Italian, 311 - Sistine Chapel, 374 - Villa Farnesina, 347, 374 - -Frieze (Gloss.), Asymmetries in, 137 - Corinthian, 165 - Doric entablature, of, 126 - Ionic entablature, of, 130 - Library of S. Mark’s, 365 - Maison Carrée, Nîmes, 170 - Parthenon, of the, 137 - Roman use of, 164 - Tiryns, at, 102 - Xerxes Palace, of, 86 - -Furniture, Adam, 429, 432 - Chippendale, 428 - Empire, 442 - English Renaissance, in, 413, 415, 417 - Imitative influence in, 467-8 - Sheraton, 432 - - -G - -Gables (Gloss.) - Colonial, 431 - Doric Temples, 121, 127, _see_ Pediments - Early Christian architecture, 196 - Egypt, in, 40 - Gothic, 275 - German, 306 - Italian, 307, 312 - Minoan, 99, 130 - Persian, 81 - Primitive, 20 - Queen Anne, 424 - Renaissance, English, 415 - German, 392, 394, 395, 396 - Netherlands, 407, 408, 409 - Romanesque, 251, 257, 258 - Stepped Gables, 306 - -Gaines (Gloss.), 392, 394, 396 - -Galgal (Gloss.), 13, 14 - -Galilee (Gloss.), 256 - -Galleries: - Byzantine, 208 - Fontainebleau, 382 - Glyptothek, 440 - Louvre, 383 - Mediæval, 237 - National, The, 438 - Palazzo Vecchio, 259 - Pinacothek, 440 - Renaissance, English, 416-7 - Romanesque, 244 - Whispering, 420 - -Gallic spirit, 332, 379, 384-5, 389 - -Gambrel (Gloss.), 431 - -Gardens, with architecture: - Blenheim Palace, 424 - Castle Howard, 425 - Hanging, 20, 62 - Kew, 428 - Luxembourg, 386-7 - Renaissance, English, 412, 415 - French, 378 - Italian, 374 - Taj Mahal, 231 - Tampu Tocco, 19 - Thames Embankment, 418-9 - Versailles, 387 - Villa of Hadrian, 180 - Washington, 445-6 - -Gateways: - Ahmedabad, 229 - Akbar, 230 - Blenheim, 426 - Brandenburg Gate, Berlin, 440 - Caius College, Gate of Honour, 412 - Châteaux, 377-8 - Darius’s Palace, 85 - Diocletian’s Palace, 180 - Etruscan, at Volterra, 156 - Janus, of, 159 - Lion Gateway, Mycenæ, 88, 98 - Mecca, Mosque, of, 220 - Propylæa, 121, 131, 141 - Propylæa, Munich, 440 - Renaissance, English, 414 - Sargon’s Castle, 68 - Schools, Oxford, gateway of, 412 - Tiryns, at, 101 - Water Gate, 418 - -Genoa, palaces: - Balbi, 356 - Brignole, 356 - Doria-Tursi, 356 - Durazzo, 356 - Pallavacini, 356 - -German Architecture: - Brick, use of, 305 - Classical Revival, 439 - Gables, 306 - Gothic, 301-306 - Cathedrals, 302-305 - Secular Buildings, 305-6 - Handicrafts, skill in, 304 - Influence on Belgium Gothic, 306 - Italian Gothic, 310, 313 - Spanish, 308 - Ornament, 251 - Renaissance, 391-7 - City Halls, 395 - Domestic, 395 - Romanesque, 232, 245, 301 - Roofs, 305-6 - Universities, 328 - Winckelmann’s influence, 436, 439 - -German Civilisation, 188, 232, 239 - After Charlemagne, 239 - Renaissance, 327 - Rise of the cities, 235, 301 - Struggle of Protestants, 391 - -Gesso work (Gloss.), 97 - -Gildhouses, 306 - Antwerp, 408 - Brussels, 408 - Ghent, 307 - Louvain, 307 - Malines, 406 - Mechlin, 307 - Ypres, 307 - -Gilds, trades, 233, 235, 278, 342, 406 - -Giotto, 319 - Bas-reliefs, by, 312 - Campanile designed by, 312 - Frescoes by, 311 - Paintings by, 340 - -Giovannoni, Professor, Asymmetries discovered by, 139 - -Gizeh, Sphinx at, 38 - Temple at, 41 - Wall paintings at, 48 - -Goethe, 439 - -Goodyear, Professor William H., Discoveries of asymmetries, 131, 137, 139, 247-8, 278-9 - “Grammar of the Lotus,” 131 - -Gothic Architecture (Gloss.), 49, 263, _et seq._ - Arches, 272, 290, 312 - Asymmetries in, 139, 278-80 - Buttresses, use of, 166, 272-3 - Cathedrals, 269, 277, 279, 281-2, 284-5, 288, 289 - Compared with Classic, 276 - Cnossus, 96 - Hellenic, 118 - Persian, 85 - Renaissance, 328, 364 - Decay of, 364 - Decorated Period, 271, 287, 291 - Early English Period, 271 - Flamboyant Period, 271 - France, in, 281-287 - Periods in, 285 - Secular buildings, 286 - Germany, in, 301 - Use of brick in, 305 - Great Britain, 287-301 - Exteriors in, 297 - Interiors in, 298 - Ornament in, 290 - Periods, 287 - Italy, in, 310-316 - Motives in architecture, 277 - Netherlands, in, 306-7 - Periods, 270-1, 285, 287 - Perpendicular, or Tudor, 275, 287, 295, 410, 450 - Rayonnant, 271, 282, 285-7 - Revival of, 439, 452-3 - Sculpture, 276 - Spanish, 308, 398 - Thrusts and counter-thrusts, 272-3 - Transition period, 310, 346, 358 - Vaulting, 284-5, 293-6, 310 - West Fronts, 282 - Windows, 274-5 - Wooden roofs, 296 - -“Gothic Quest,” R. A. Cram, 366, 453 - -Government Buildings: - Capitol, Washington, 445-6 - Custom House Boston, 448 - Custom House, N. Y. C., 448 - Doge’s Palace, 315 - Horse Guards, London, 426 - Houses of Parliament, 450 - Law Courts, Manchester, 452 - Mint, Philadelphia, 448 - New Law Courts, London, 451 - Pantheon, Paris, 388 - Parliament House, Budapesth, 451 - Parliament House, Vienna, 440 - State Capitol, Conn., 452 - Sub-Treasury, 448 - Treasury, Washington, 446 - White House, the, 445-6 - -Greece, Mycenæan art in, 88, 89. - _See_ Hellenes. - -Greek-Asiatic, 82, 84, 89 - -Griego-Romano, 405 - -Grille (Gloss.), Turkish, 228 - -Grotefind, George Frederick, discoveries by, 57 - -Grotesque: - Mexican primitive, 21 - Ornament, in, 165, 251, 255 - Palais de Justice, Liège, in, 406 - Style, 405 - -Guelphs and Ghibellines, 323 - -Guttae (Gloss.), 127 - - -H - -Hadrian, builder of Pantheon, 171 - Villa of, 180 - -Half-timbered (Gloss.), 412 - -Halls: - Central Hall, Houses of Parliament, 451 - Châteaux, in, 378, 381, 382 - Darius’s Palace, in, 85 - Egyptian Temples, of, 34 - German Knights, Hall of the Order of, 305 - Hall Church, 304 - Hundred Columns, Hall of a, 85 - Hypostyle Hall, 49, 51 - Karnak, at, 51 - Median Palaces, of, 80 - Mediæval Castles, of, 300, 378, 416 - Middle Temple, of, 297 - National Hall of Statuary, Washington, 447 - Renaissance Palaces, in, 416 - S. George’s, Liverpool, 438 - Westminster, 297, 451 - Whitehall, 418 - -Hamlin, Professor, quoted, 206, 282 - -Hanseatic League, 301, 407 - -Harmony, Principle of (Gloss.), 11, 134 - -Haroun-el-Raschid, 215 - -Haussman, Baron, 444 - -Hawkins, Admiral, 336 - -Height, in design, 474 - -Hellenic Architecture, 116-146 - Asymmetries, 136-140 - Beauty, feeling for, 112 - Corinthian order, 131-2 - Dionysian Festival, the, 107 - Doric order, the 118, 126-7 - Entablature, the, 126-7 - Influence on Beaux Arts training, 463-5 - Influence on Etruscans, 155 - Influence on Germany, 439-40 - Ionic Order, the, 128-30 - Olympian Festival, 110 - Orders, the, 116-7, 123, 131 - Ornament, 132-4 - Parthenon, the, 119, 137-8, 140 - Projections, 133 - Propylæa, 141 - Temples, 116-124 - -Hellenic Civilisation, 105 - Conflict with Persians, 76 - Dorian supremacy, 106 - Origin of, 105 - Peloponnesian Wars, 109 - Persian invasion, 108 - Supplant Cretans, 91-2 - The Great Age, 107 - -Hemong, the bell-founder, 408 - -“Heptameron, The,” 375 - -Herodes Atticus, 145 - -Hexastyle (Gloss.), 121 - -Hieroglyphic writings, 27, 90 - -Hip roof (Gloss.), 385, 432 - -“History of Art,” Winckelmann, 436-439 - -Hogarth’s Line of Beauty, 133, 380 - -Holland: - City Halls in, - Alkmaar, 409 - Bolsward, 409 - Delft, 409 - Dordrecht, 409 - Enkhuisen, 409 - Hague, 409 - Hoorn, 409 - Kampen, 409 - Leuwarden, 409 - Leyden, 409 - Waaghuisen, 409 - Zwolle, 409 - Renaissance, 409 - Influence on English Renaissance, 424 - -Homer, 91, 107 - -Hospitals: - Chartres, 286 - Gothic, 286, 299 - Greenwich, 419 - Ospedale degli Innocente, 344 - Santa Cruz, Toledo, 399 - -Humanism, 320, 331, 334 - -Hut construction, 36 - -Hypœthral (Gloss.), 122 - -Hypostyle Halls (Gloss.), 49, 51, 54, 80, 85 - - -I - -Ideograph writing, ideograms, 57 - -Île de France, 271-2, 310 - -Impluvium (Gloss.), 181 - -Impost Block (Gloss.), 201-204 - -In Antis (Gloss.), 82, 83, 120 - -Incas, structures of the, 19 - -India, 229 - Agra, 230 - Ahmedabad, 229 - Akbar, Mosque of, 230 - Mahmud, Tomb of, 230 - -Indians, North American, 18 - -Insula, pl. Insulæ (Gloss.), 180, 182 - -Intercolumniation (Gloss.): - Dorian, 118, 125 - Early Christian use, 195 - Egyptian use, 86 - Gothic use, 298 - Hellenic, 134 - Ionic, 129 - Persian, 86 - -Interior, Designs of, 455 - Houses of Parliament, 451 - Office Buildings, 471 - -Ionic Islands, 89 - Culture, 109 - Luxury, 110, 128 - Migrations, 105 - -Ionic Order (Gloss.), 128-30 - Egypt, in, 128 - Lycia, columns in, 99 - Myra, columns in, 99 - Parthenon, in, 140 - Persian use of, 140 - Renaissance, in, 349, 352, 389, 402-3 - Roman use, 164, 165, 174 - Romanesque, 245 - Washington, 446 - -Iran, _see_ Persian - -Ironwork Gothic in Germany, 305 - -Italian Architecture: - Gesso work in, 97 - Gothic in, 271, 312 - Hellenic remains in, 89 - Influence on England, 335 - Ecclesiastical buildings, 366-74 - Florentine, 342, 345, 358-60 - France, 331, 376, 380 - Germany, 327 - Lombardy, 251, 258 - Netherlands, 333 - Renaissance, in, 323-337, 338-374 - Roman, 346-352, 363-5 - Spain, 329 - Venetian, 352-356, 360-3, 365 - Roman, _see_ Rome. - Romanesque, 241, 313-315 - Central Italy, 246-9 - Northern Italy, 249-52 - Southern Italy, 249 - -Italian Civilisation: - Byzantine, in, 194, 196-7, 209-10 - Classic Influence, 340 - Conflict with German Empire, 239 - Counter Reformation, 329 - Decline of culture, 331 - Etruscan, 154 - Power of the Dukes, 323-4 - Renaissance, 323, 338 - Rise of power of the Church, 189 - Sack of Rome, 327 - The Roman Empire, 147-157 - - -J - -Jambs (Gloss.), 245, 254, 283 - -Jars, clay, 93, 97 - -Jerusalem, 79, 223 - -Julius II, 346, 349, 367 - -Julius III, 348 - - -K - -Ka, 32, 33, 41 - -Kaaba, the (Gloss.), 214, 217, 221 - -Kahun, ruins at, 55 - -Karnak, 44, 50, 85, 86, 281 - -Keep, the Donjon, 378, 381 - -Keystones (Gloss.), 295 - -Khorsabad, 72, 131 - -Kibleh, the, 217 - -King-post, the (Gloss.), 296 - -Kitchens, - Assyrian Palace, 73 - Blenheim, at, 426 - Châteaux, 377 - Colonial, 432 - English Mansions, 416 - -Koyunjik, bas-reliefs at, 71, 204 - library, 61 - mounds, 59 - - -L - -Labyrinth, at Cnossus, 93 - -Lake Dwellings, 13 - -Lancet windows (Gloss.), 274, 287, 290 - -Landscape design, 466 - -Lanterns (Gloss.): - Burgos, Cathedral, 401 - Certosa, The, 313 - Château de Chambord, in, 381 - Church of the Apostles, Cologne, 259 - Escoriál, The, 404 - Florence Cathedral, 343 - Gothic, Spanish, 309 - Renaissance, French, 378 - Romanesque, 258 - S. Mark’s, 210 - S. Paul’s, 422 - S. Peter’s 371-2 - Santiago de Compostello, 260 - Tomb of Galla Placidia, 201 - Worms Cathedral, 258 - -“Laokoon” by Lessing, 439 - -Lassen, Christian, discoveries in cuneiform script, 57 - -Late Pointed Gothic, _see_ Perpendicular - -Later Plantagenet, _see_ Decorated - -Leading, in windows, 275 - -Libraries, of Asurbanipal, 61 - Babylon, at, 62 - Bodleian, 412 - Congressional, the, 447 - École des Beaux Arts, of, 444 - Laurentian, 349 - Lenox, N. Y. C., 462 - Merton, Oxford, 412 - Pembroke, Cambridge, 419 - S. Genéviève, 444 - S. Marco, 354, 365 - Theological, Princeton, 462 - Tiglath Pileser, of, 59 - Varro’s, 151 - -Lighting, of Greek temples, 123 - of Gothic churches, 274 - -Lintels (Gloss.), in Egypt, 48 - Persia, 84 - -Lions: - Cathedral Porch, Piacenza, 251 - Court of, Alhambra, 226 - Decorative motive is, 100 - Gateway of, Mycenæ, 88, 92, 99, 100 - Heads of, in ornament, 130 - -Loggias (Gloss.), of Ca D’Oro, 360 - City Hall, Antwerp, of, 407 - Doge’s Palace, 316 - S. Paolo, 344 - Villa Farnesina, 347 - -Lombardy after Charlemagne, 323 - Merchants of, 235 - Rib vaulting in, 243-4, 310 - Romanesque in, 249, 250 - -London: - Adelphi Terrace, 428 - All Saints Church, 452 - Bank of England, 438 - British Museum, 438 - Chelsea Hospital, 423 - Devonshire House, 426 - Finsbury Circus, 428 - Fitzroy Square, 428 - Greenwich Hospital, 419 - Holland House, 412, 414 - Houses of Parliament, 450 - Law Courts, New, 451 - Marlborough, 423 - Monument, the, 423 - New Zealand Chambers, 460 - Portland Place, 428 - S. Mary-le-Bow, 423 - S. Pancras, 438 - S. Paul’s Cathedral, 288, 371, 388, 420-3 - S. Paul’s Covent Garden, 419 - S. Stephen’s, 422 - Temple Bar, 423 - Thames Embankment, 418 - Westminster Hall, 297, 451 - Whitehall, 418 - York House, 419 - -Lotus, _see_ Decorative Motives - -Louver (Gloss.), 299 - -Louvre, The, 382-6 - Façades, 383-4, 386 - New Louvre, 383 - Old Louvre, 383 - Pavilions, 385 - Roof, 385 - -Lunette (Gloss.), Gothic, 276 - Renaissance, 368 - -Luther, Martin, 328 - -Lycians, the, 83-4 - - -M - -Machicolations (Gloss.), 378, 380 - -Machu Picchu, 19, 20 - -Maison Carrée, Nîmes, 169-170 - -Maksura, 217, 221, 224 - -Manetho, Egyptian historian, 25 - -Mantelpieces, colonial, 432 - effect of in cornices, 475 - -Mantua, 345, 347 - -Marot, Clement, 376 - -Masonry, Ashlar, 254 - Batter, 41, 47 - Buttresses, in, 282 - Cyclopean, 15, 98, 100, 155 - Drafted, 81 - Egyptian, 40 - Gothic, Italian, 312, 358 - Greek and Roman compared, 154 - Leaning Tower, Pisa, in, 247 - Muhammedan domes, in, 222 - Primitive, 14, 20 - Renaissance, in English, 412, 418, 421-2 - French, 378, 382 - German, 393, 395 - Netherlands, 407 - Spanish, 402, 404 - Rib vaulting, in, 243, 272 - Romanesque, 242, 244, 245 - Romans, of, 153 - Rubble, 85, 254 - Rusticated, 292, 294, 348, 392, 407 - Sky scrapers, in, 474, 476 - Syrian, 199 - -Mastabas (Gloss.), 34, 38 - Sakkarah, at, 41 - Thy, of, 41 - -Mausoleum (Gloss.), 347, 404. - _See_ Tombs - -Mecca, 214, 220 - -Medes, 74, 75, 80. _See_ Persians - -Mediæval, Early, Civilisation, 232-240 - Architecture, 241-260, _see_ Romanesque, - Late, civilisation, 263-269 - Architecture, 270, _see_ Gothic - -Medici, The, 344, 346, 358, 359, 386, 468 - -Medinet Abou, 54 - -Mediterranean races, 95 - -Megaron (Gloss.), 97, 98, 100, 102 - -Memnon, the Vocal, 46 - -Memphis, Obelisks, at, 43 - -Menes, ruler of Egypt, 25 - -Menhir (Gloss.), 13, 17, _see_ obelisk - -Merchant families, England, 410 - Netherlands, 406 - Spain, 397 - Venice, 352-3 - -Mesopotamia, 56, _see_ Assyria - -Metal work: in baldachinos, 371 - of Germans, 305 - of Moors, 309 - -Metope (Gloss.), Coloured, 136 - Hellenic, 126 - -Metropolitan Museum, 42, 219 - -Mexico, primitive remains in, 19, 20 - -Mezzanine floors (Gloss.), 384, 403 - -Mihrab, the (Gloss.), 217, 221, 224 - -Milton, John, 435 - -Mimbar, 217 - -Minarets (Gloss.), Great Mosque, Ispahan, 229 - Mosque of Mecca, 220, 221 - Mosque of Sultan Barbouk, 224 - Taj Mahal, 230 - -Miniaturists, the Anglo-Saxon, 257 - -Minnesingers, 302 - -Minoan Architecture, 95 - Lion Gate, 88 - Mycenæan remains, 98, 100 - Palaces 90, 92, 99 - of Cnossus, 91, 96-8 - Ruins in Phrygia, 99 - Tiryns, 100-102 - Wall paintings, 93 - -Minoan Civilisation, 88-94 - Confirmation of Greek legend of Crete, 90 - Early period, 90 - Middle and Late Periods, 91 - Rediscovery of, 88-9 - -Minotaur, Legend of, 93 - -Moat, 17, 379 - -Modillions (Gloss.), 165 - -Mommsen, Professor, quoted, 151 - -Monasteries: - Dissolution of, 287, 411 - Escoriál, in, 403, 404 - Gothic, 286 - Mediæval, 236-7 - Mont Saint Michel, 254 - Mosques equivalent to, 223 - Mount Athos, 211 - Norman, 258 - San Marco, Fiesole, 344 - -Monoliths (Gloss.), 8, 15 - Cyrus’ Palace, 81 - Doorways at Tiryns, 102 - Memphis, at 43 - Sphinx Temples, in, 41 - -Monuments, at Abury, 17 - Choragic, of Lysicrates, 131 - Cleopatra’s Needles, 43 - Milliarium, 158 - Monument, The, London, 423 - Propylæa, 121, 131, 141 - Rostra, 158 - Temple Bar, 423 - Umbilicus, the, 157 - -Moors, influence of on Spanish Gothic, 308, 309 - On Spanish Renaissance, 400, 403 - Skill in metalwork, 398-9 - -Mosaics (Gloss.), Byzantine, 203 - Cathedral of Monreale, 249 - Early Christian, 197, 199 - Great Mosque of Mecca, 225 - Roman, 168, 181 - S. Mark’s, 210 - S. Paul’s, 421 - -Mosques: derivation, description of, name, 217 - Ahmedabad, of, 229 - Ahmedizeh, 228 - Akbar, 230 - Alhambra, of, 226 - Amru, Cairo, 223 - Bagdad, 229 - Cordova, 225 - Damascus, 205 - Dome of the Rock, _see_ Omar - El-Aksah, Syria, 223 - El-Walid, Damascus, 223 - Great Mosque, Mecca, 217, 220 - Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, 207-210, 228, 372 - Ispahan, Great Mosque of, 229 - Kalaoom, Egypt, 224 - Omar, Great Mosque, Jerusalem, 223 - S. Cristo de la Luz, 225 - S. Maria la Bianca, 225 - S. Sophia, _see_ Hagia Sophia - Suleimaniyeh, 228 - Sultan Barbouk, 224 - Sultan Hassan, 224 - Sultan Mahomet II, 209 - Teheran, Great Mosque of, 229 - -Mouldings: - Bead (Gloss.), 134 - Cavetto, 47, 134 - Colonial, 430 - Cyma Recta, Reversa, 133 - Doric, 125 - Etruscan, 155 - Egyptian, 47 - Fillet, of, 134 - Gothic, 272, 290, 299, 305 - Guilloche, 129 - Hellenic treatment of, 135, 165 - Ionic, 128, 129 - Norman, 257 - Ovolo, 133 - Rococo, 366 - Roman, 165 - Romanesque, 244, 245 - Torus, of, 47, 134 - Wreath, 134 - -Muhammed, 214-216 - Learning encouraged by, 216, 218 - -Muhammedan Architecture, 220-231 - Alhambra, of, 218, 226-7 - Arcades, 221 - Ceramics, 218 - Cordova, at, 225 - Domes, 221 - Egypt, in, 223 - India, in, 229-31 - Minarets, 222 - Mosques, 217, 220-2 - Seville, in, 225-6 - Spain, 224-7 - Syria, 223 - Toledo, 225 - -Muhammedan Civilisation, 212 _et seq._ - -Mullions (Gloss.), 290 - Château de Blois, in, 380, 384 - City Hall, Antwerp, 407 - City Hall, Bremen, 395 - English Renaissance, 414 - Heidelberg, 394 - -Mural painting, _see_ Wall painting - -Museums, 339-40 - British, 438 - Fitz-William, Cambridge, 438 - Friedrichsbau, 394 - Metropolitan, New York, 462 - New Museum, Berlin, 440 - Old Museum, Berlin, 440 - Pinacothek, 440 - Plantin-Moretus, 408 - -Mutule (Gloss.), 127, 164 - -Mycenæ, Architecture in, 14, 89-100 - Fortifications, 98 - Palaces, 89-102 - Similarity to Etruscan, 155 - Temples, 92, 101 - - -N - -Naos, _see_ Sanctuary (Gloss.) - -Naples, Kingdom of, 323, 331 - -Narthex (Gloss.): - Early Christian churches, in, 194, 196 - Roman temples, in, 177 - S. Sophia, of, 209 - San Ambrogio, of, 250 - -Nave (Gloss.): - Anglo-Saxon churches, 255, 256 - Asymmetries in, 279 - Early Christian churches, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 200 - Gothic, churches, English, 289, 294 - French, 281 - German, 304 - Netherlands, 308 - Spanish, 309 - Lombard, 251 - Mediæval churches, 237 - Norman, 256, 259 - S. Mark’s, 209 - S. Paul’s, 420 - S. Peter’s, 194, 372, 373 - S. Sophia, 208 - Renaissance churches, 367 - Romanesque, 241, 245, 249 - Temples, Hellenic, 118, 140, 177-8 - -Nebuchadnezzar, 61 - -Netherland Architecture: - Antwerp, in, 406, 408 - Bruges, 406 - Carillons, 408-9 - Ecclesiastical buildings, 307, 308 - Guild Halls, 306-7, 408 - Holland, 334, 409 - Liège, 406 - Malines, 406 - -Netherlands, History, of, 306 - Relations with France, 331 - Renaissance in, 333, 405-9 - -Newel post (Gloss.), 416 - -Niches (_see_ Mihrab): - Gothic, 275, 276 - German, 304 - Italian, 314 - Netherlandish, 307 - Heidelberg, at, 394 - Muhammedan, 207, 222 - Rheims, at, 283 - Romanesque, 250 - S. Paul’s, 422 - -Nile, the, 28, 30, 90 - Inundated Temples of, 54 - Landscapes in paintings at Cnossus, 96 - -Nîmes, Amphitheatre at, 175 - Maison Carrée, 169 - Pont-du-Gard, 183 - Temple of Diana, 170 - -Nineveh, 59, 60, 61 - -Norman Architecture (Gloss.), 254-257 - -Nôtre Dame, Paris, 281-284 - -Nymphæum (Gloss.), 170 - Muhammedan adaptation of, 217 - Pantheon on site of, 171 - Temple of Diana, 170 - Temple of Minerva Medica, 207 - - -O - -Obelisks, 14 - Cleopatra’s Needles, 43 - Memphis, at, 43 - Pellershaus, Nuremburg, 395, 396 - Usertesen I, 43 - -Octastyle (Gloss.), 131 - -Odeion, the, 145 - Pericles, of, 145 - Skias, Sparta, 145 - -Œil-de-Bœuf, 384, 396 - -Office Buildings, 469-477 - Woolworth Building, 471, 476 - -Ogee, _see_ Cyma Reversa - -Ogival (Gloss.), 270 - -Olympic Festival, 110, 112 - -Opisthodomos (Gloss.), 140 - -Opus Sectile, _see_ Mosaics (Gloss.) - -Opus Tessellatum, _see_ Mosaics (Gloss.) - -Orders, the (Gloss.), 116, 117 - Corinthian, 131 - Doric, 118 - Hellenic use of, 123 - Ionic, 128 - One Order Style, 350, 372 - Renaissance, English, 415 - Renaissance, French, 387, 388 - Rococo, 388-9 - Roman use of, 163 - Sansovino’s use of, 356 - Superimposed, 366, 372 - Tuscan, 163 - Wren’s steeples, on, 423 - -Organic growth (Gloss.), 11, 34, 140 - -Orientation (Gloss.): - Christian churches, 194 - Mastabas, 41 - Muhammedan Mosques, 217 - Roman indifference to, 161 - S. Peter’s, 372 - Temples, Egyptian, 54 - Temples, Hellenic, 121 - Tombs at Abydos, 42 - -Ornament: - Assyrian, 69, 72 - Baroque, 351 - Byzantine, 199, 202, 211 - Celtic, 18 - Chaldæan, 72 - Churrigueresque, 393, 405 - Egyptian, 48, 53 - Gothic, 275 - English, 290 - Italian, 312 - Hellenic, 129-133, 171, 203 - Italian Classic, 357, 393 - Minoan, 102 - Muhammedan, 216 - Norman, 255 - Oriental, 202-3 - Perpendicular, 410 - Persian, 84, 86, 87 - Pierced, 415 - Plateresque, 398-9, 400 - Primitive, 18 - in Mexico, 21 - Renaissance English, 410-11-12, 414, 415, 417 - German, 392-3 - Netherlands, 407 - Spanish, 402 - Rococo, 366, 388-9, 393 - Roman, 164-5, 168-9, 171, 203 - Romanesque, 251, 260 - Scandinavian, 251 - -Osirid piers, 53 - -Osiris, 50 - -Oxford, 257, 288, 293, 299, 419 - - -P - -Padan-Aram, 56 - -Pagan Revival, 325-328 - -Pagoda, The, 428 - -Painted Glass, 292 - -Painters: - Aretino, 354 - Burkmair, 391 - Chapman, John Gadsby, 447 - Cimabue, 311 - Claude, 332 - Clouets, The, 332 - Cornelius, Peter von, 440 - David, Jacques Louis, 441-2 - Del Sarto, 332 - Dürer, 328, 391 - Fra Angelico, 344 - Hogarth, 133, 280 - Holbein, 328 - Isabey, Eugène, 379 - Kaulbach, Wilhelm von, 440 - Lebrun, 387 - Leonardo da Vinci, 332, 397 - Mabuse, 406 - Matisse, 459 - Michelangelo, 374, 397, 406 - Niccolo dell’ Abbati, 382 - Poussin, 332 - Powell, William Henry, 447 - Primaticcio, 332, 382 - Puvis de Chavannes, 443 - Raphael, 374, 397, 406 - Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 293 - Richmond, Sir William, 421 - Rosso, Il, 382 - Rubens, 417 - Smibert, 430 - Titian, 354, 417 - Trumbull, John, 447 - Vanderlyn, John, 447 - Van Eycks, 333 - Van Orley, 334, 406 - Velasquez, 330 - Weir, Robert Walter, 447 - -Palaces: - Alcala de Heñares, 400 - Alcazar, the, 225 - Alhambra, the, 218, 226, 403 - Augustus’, Rome, 179 - Babylon, 61 - Balbi, 356 - Barbarano, 352 - Bevilacqua Palace, 355 - Blenheim, 425 - Brignole, 356 - Ca d’Oro, 360-1 - Cancellaria, 346, 362-4 - Canossa, 355 - Capitania, 352 - Capitol Palaces, 350, 363-5 - Caprarola, 348 - Charles V, Alhambra, 402-3 - Cnossus, 91, 96-8, 102 - Conservatore, 363 - Cornaro, 354 - Ctesiphon, 228-9 - Diocletian, Spalato, 180, 195, 428 - Doria-Tursi, 356 - Ducal, Venice, 210 - Durazzo, 356 - Ecbatana, at, 80 - Escoriál, 403-5 - Farnese, 348, 350, 363 - Firuzabad, 228-9 - Fontainebleau, 332, 382 - Giraud, 346 - Guardagni, 345 - Gvimane, 355 - Hagia Triada, 98 - Hampton Court, 411 - Hradschin, 355 - Karnak, 54 - Khorsabad, 60 - Louvre, 382-6, 407, 419, 444 - Luxembourg, 386 - Massimi, 348 - Medinet Abou, 54 - Muhammedan Palaces, 218 - Mycenæ, at, 89, 100 - Nimroud, at, 67 - Nineveh, at, 59 - Palazzo del Te’, 347 - Pallavacini, 356 - Pandolfini, 347 - Pasargadæ, 75, 81, 84 - Persepolis, Darius’ Palace, 76, 82-5 - Pesaro, 356, 366 - Phæstus, 91, 98 - Pitti, 344, 386 - Pompeii, 355 - Rezzonico, 356 - Riccardi, 344, 358-60 - Sargon’s Castle, 67 - Serbistan, 228-9 - Strozzi, 345 - Susa, 80, 86 - Tiryns, 91, 100-2 - Tuilleries, 383, 444 - Vecchio, Palazzo, 342, 358-60 - Vendramini, 354, 360-3 - Versailles, 387-9 - Whitehall, 418 - Xerxes II, 76, 85-7 - Zaporta, Casa de, 400 - Zwinger, Dresden, 393 - -Palatine Hill, 159 - -Paneling, Gothic, English, 291 - Italian, 314 - Renaissance, English, 416 - French, 380 - German, 393 - -Pansa, House of, 181 - -Pantheon, Rome, 171-3 - Burial place of Raphael, 348 - Columns in, 164 - Dome, 167 - Eye of, 172, 208 - Influence on Byzantine, 207 - Roof, 122, 168 - Studied by Brunelleschi, 342 - -Papier-maché ornament (Gloss.), 387-9 - -Parapets (Gloss.), 307 - English Renaissance, in, 414 - Italian Gothic, 314 - -Paris: - Arc de l’Étoile, 443 - Arc de Triomphe, 443 - École des Beaux Arts, 444 - Fontainebleau, 322, 382 - Hôtel des Invalides, 387-8 - La Trinité, 452 - Library of S. Genéviève’s, 444 - Louvre, 382-6, 407, 418, 419, 444 - Luxembourg, 386 - Madeleine, 443 - Nôtre Dame, 281-4, 302 - Opera House, 444 - Palais de Justice, 444 - Panthéon, 388, 442-3 - Place du Carrousel, 383, 443-4 - Place Vendome, 387 - Replanned, 444 - Sacré-Cœur, 452 - Sainte Chapelle, 285, 296 - S. Clothilde, 452 - S. Genéviève, Panthéon, 388, 442-3 - Tuilleries, the, 383, 444 - Val-de-Grâce, 387 - Versailles, 387 - -Parthenon, the, 8, 119 - Asymmetries in, 137-8 - Columns, 124, 141 - Intercolumniation, 125 - Metope, 127 - Parthenon proper, 140-1 - Peristyle, 117 - Preservation of, 193 - Statue of Athene in, 140 - Turks destroy, 138 - -Pasargadæ, 75, 81, 84 - -Patio, _see_ Court (Gloss.) - -Pavilions (Gloss.): - Antwerp City Hall, 406 - de l’Horloge, 385, 407 - English Renaissance in, 414 - Holkam Hall, 426 - Luxembourg, of, 387 - Medinet Abou, of, 54 - Sully, 385 - -Pedestals, 127 - Greek Drama, use in, 142 - Renaissance, 369, 370 - -Pediment (Gloss.): - Asymmetries in, 137 - Balustrade substituted for, 364 - Broken, 370 - Colonial wooden, 430-2 - Doric, 127 - Heidelberg, at, 394 - Louvre, in, 386 - Maison Carrée in, 170 - Minoan architecture, in, 100 - Palazzo Vecchio, in windows, 360 - Pellershaus in, 396 - Persian use of, 81 - Renaissance use of, 368-70, 384 - S. Maria dei Miracole, 353 - S. Paul’s, 421 - Sculpture in, 135 - Segmental Pediment, 384 - Villa Rotonda, in, 352 - -Peloponnesus, architecture in, 89-98 - -Pendentives (Gloss.), 167-8 - Domes, in, 204-6, 209 - Mogul use, 230 - Muhammedan use, 221 - Renaissance use, 343, 368, 420 - Romanesque, 252 - Vaults, in, 259 - -Pennethorne, John, Asymmetries, discovered by, 136 - -Penrose, Francis Cranmer, 136 - -Peripteral (Gloss.), 53, 120, 170 - -Peristyle (Gloss.): - Colosseum, of, 174 - Early Christian tombs, of, 198 - Egyptian, 44, 50 - Hellenic, 117, 120, 122, 177 - Panthéon dome, in, 442 - Parthenon, 117 - Renaissance use, 346, 368 - S. Paul’s, of, 420-22 - S. Peter’s, 373 - Temple at Syracuse, 193 - -Perpendicular Gothic, 271, 275, 287, 290, 295 - -Persepolis, 76, 82-4 - -Persia: - Alliance with Babylon, 75 - Civilisation, 74-9 - Conquered by Greeks, 108, 145 - Darius, 83-5 - Destruction by Alexander, 76, 77 - Zoroaster, 78 - by Muhammedans, 215, 220, 228 - -Persian Architecture, 80 _et seq._ - Minarets, 222 - Muhammedan palaces, 228-9 - Palace of Cyrus, 81 - Darius, 83-5 - Pasargadæ, at, 75, 81, 84 - Xerxes, of, 85-6 - Persepolis, buildings at, 82 - Pottery, 218 - Tombs, 75, 83 - -Peru, primitive ornament in, 18 - Inca remains in, 19 - -Petrarch, 324-5, 331, 341 - -Piano Nobile (Gloss.), 360, 363 - -Piazza, 351, 371 - -Pictures: - English Renaissance Houses, in, 416 - Giralda, of, 225 - Gothic Cathedrals in, 278 - Provincial Museum, in, 226 - “Oath of the Horatii, The,” 441 - -Piers (Gloss.), Anglo-Saxon, 254 - Asymmetries in setting, 279-80 - Campanile, in, 252 - Château de Blois, in, 380 - Egyptian Temples, in, 41, 52-3 - Gothic use, 258, 272, 284-5, 304, 314, 345, 368 - Hagia Sophia, in, 208 - Hôtel des Invalides, in, 388 - Lombard Churches, in, 251 - Norman use, 255, 256, 257 - Provincial use, 252 - Osirid piers, 53 - Romanesque, 241, 242, 244, 245, 250, 273 - Roman use, 166-7, 175 - S. Paul’s, in, 420 - S. Peter’s, in, 371 - Suggestion in sky scrapers, 474 - -Pilasters (Gloss.): - Colonial, 431 - Gothic, 284 - Renaissance, English, 415, 418 - French, 380, 381, 384-6 - German, 392, 394, 396 - Italy, 350, 361, 364, 366, 368, 372 - Netherlandish, 407 - Spanish, 402 - -Pillars, 92 - Cretan palaces, in, 96-8 - Hindu, 230 - S. Simon Stylites, of, 200 - -Pinnacles (Gloss.), 273, 312, 314 - -Pisa, 246-9 - -Plain of Shinar, 56 - -Plans: ground and floor, 10 - Alhambra, of, 226-7 - Anglo-Saxon, 255 - Basilicas, of, 177 - Benedictine Abbey, Cluny, 253 - Casa Lonja, 401-2 - Cathedral of Angoulême, 252-3 - Cologne, 303 - Château, de Blois, 380 - De Chambord, 381 - Circular, 197 - City Hall, Antwerp, 407 - Colosseum, 174 - Curvature of, 137-8 - Cyrus’ Palace, 82 - Darius’ Palace, 83, 85 - Diana, Temple of, 170 - Diocletian’s Palace Spalato, 180 - Egyptian, Palaces, 45-50 - English, 289 - Erechtheion, 141 - Escoriál, 403-4 - French Châteaux, 377 - Gothic, 277 - Hagia Sophia, 208 - Hellenic Theatres, 143-4 - Hôtel des Invalides, 388 - House of Pansa, 181 - Houses of Parliament, 451 - Howard Castle, 425 - Karnak, Temple at, 50 - Khorsabad, Palace, 72 - Louvre, The, 383 - Luxembourg, 386-7 - Maison Carrée, 169 - Mediæval Monasteries, 237 - Mosques, 217; - of Akbar, 230 - Octagonal Plans, 121 - Palazzo, Ca d’Oro, 361 - Caprarola, 348 - Riccardi, 358-60 - Vecchio, 358-60 - Vendramini, 360-3 - Palace of Charles V, 402-3 - Panthéon, Paris, 442 - Polygonal plans, 197 - Propylæa, of, 141 - Renaissance, 414 - Roman forum, 159 - Roman temple, 169 - S. Andrea, Mantua, 368 - S. Francisco, Rimini, 345 - S. Front, 252-3 - S. Maria della Salute, 356 - S. Mark, Venice, 209 - S. Paul, London, 420 - S. Paul-without-the-wall, 196 - S. Peter’s, 370-1 - S. Simeon Stylites, 200 - S. Zaccaria, 353 - Santiago de Compostello, 259 - Sky-scrapers, 472 - Sphinx Temple, 41 - Taj Mahal, 231 - Tiryns, Palace at, 100 - Villa Rotondo, 352 - Whitehall, 418 - Wren’s plan of London, 420 - -Plate tracery, 274, 290 - -Platforms, 65, 66, 67 - Greek Theatre, of, 144 - Muhammedan mosque, of, 217 - Persian, 81, 85 - Roman forum, in, 158 - Stylobate, 122 - Taj Mahal, of, 231 - -Plateresque style, 398-400 - -Plinth (Gloss.), 52, 99, 129, 164, 245 - -Podium (Gloss.), _see_ Stylobate, 156, 169-70 - Colosseum, of, 174-5 - Roman Tombs, of, 198 - -Polished Stone Age, 17, 18, 19, 95 - -Pope, Alexander, quoted, 427, 436 - -Porch, at Abydos, 42 - Bank of England, 438 - Chartres, at, 269 - Cologne, City Hall, 395 - Colonial, 431 - Doric, 121 - English Gothic, 290 - -Portals, _see_ Doorways - -Porticoes: - Anglo-Palladian use, 424-426 - Capitol, Washington, 446 - Colonial use, 431-2 - Darius’ Palace, 83, 85 - Early Christian Churches, 193 - Ecbatana, at, 80 - Greek Theatre, of, 144 - Hellenic use, 116, 120-2, 131, 141 - Panthéon, Paris, 443 - Pasargadæ, 82 - Renaissance, 353, 365 - Spanish, 400-1 - Roman use, 169, 171, 181 - S. George’s Hall, Liverpool, 439 - Tiryns, at, 101 - Treasury Building, Washington, 446 - White House, 446 - Xerxes Palace, in, 86 - -Post and beam or lintel (Gloss.), 8, 14, 16 - -Pot Metal (Gloss.), 292 - -Pottery, 218 - Etruscan, 155 - Mycenæan, 97 - -Presbytery, 289 - -Primitive Ornament, 18 - Structures, 8, 12 - -Printing invented, 322 - -Projections (Gloss.), use of, 133, 179, 312, 365 - -Pro-naos, _see_ Vestibule (Gloss.) - -Proportion (Gloss.), 11, 134 - -Propylæa (Gloss.), 85, 101, 121, 131, 141 - -Proscenium, or proskenion (Gloss.), 144, 145, 176 - -Prostylar (Gloss.), 120 - -Provence, 235, 238, 241, 252, 331 - -Ptolemaic period, 53 - -Pulpits, Muhammedan, 217 - -Puritan influence, 336, 430 - -Pylons (Gloss.), Assyrian, 68 - Byzantine, 208 - Egyptian, 48, 50 - -Pyramidal Dome, 404 - roof, 252, 414 - -Pyramids (Gloss.), 14 - Cheops, 34, 39 - Chephren, 34, 39 - Gizeh, 34, 39, 40 - Medun, 66, 67 - Menkara, 34, 39 - Nebo, 62, 67 - Primitive, 14 - Sakkarah, 34 - Truncated, 48 - - -Q - -Quadriga (Gloss.), 179 - -Quatrefoil (Gloss.), 316 - -Quattrocento (Gloss.), 338, 340 - -Queen post (Gloss.), 296 - -Quoins (Gloss.), 348 - - -R - -Ra, Egyptian deity, 30 - -Rabelais, 329 - -Racine, 439 - -Raleigh, Sir Walter, 336 - -Ramasseum, 46-50 - -Ramp (Gloss.), 66, 68, 85 - -Ravenna, 201 - Baptistry, 201 - Church of S. Apollinare-in-Classe, 201 - S. Apollinare Nuovo, 201 - S. Vitale, 202 - Tomb of Galla Placidia, 201 - -Rawlinson, Henry, translator of cuneiform script, 57 - -Rayonnant Gothic (Gloss.), 271, 282, 285-6, 287 - -Rectangular Gothic, _see_ Perpendicular - -Refinements (Gloss.), 136, 140, _see_ Assymmetries - -Reformation, The, 328, 332, 335, 337 - -Regula (Gloss.), 126 - -Reja, _see_ screen (Gloss.) - -Religious Orders, growth of, 236 - -Renaissance, The (Gloss.): - America, influence of, in, 429 - Anglo-classical style, 425 - Architects, importance of, 339 - Architecture derived from Rome, 183 - Baroque style, 351 - Beaux Arts training founded on, 463 - Bohemia, in, 355 - Châteaux, 377-88 - Churrigueresque style, 393, 405 - Classic influence, 340, 402 - Counter Reformation, 329, 330 - Elizabethan style, 410, 413 - Flamboyant style, 285-6 - Flemish, Renaissance, 405-9 - Florence, architects of, 342-4 - France, Renaissance in, 331 - Germany, in, 327, 391-6 - Giralda, Tower of, 225 - Gothic, compared to, 366 - Gothic despised by, 366 - Great Britain, in, 410-28 - Holland, in, 409 - Incongruities in, 360-70 - Interiors, 415 - Italy, in, 333, 338 - Jacobean style, 410, 412-13, 415 - Paganism of, 326 - Palazzo Vecchio, 315, 358 - Plateresque style, 398 - Point of view of artists, 357-9, 373-4 - Queen Anne style, 424 - Reaction from, 435 - Reformation, the, 328 - Reversion to, 444 - Roman Architecture, basis of, 346, 351 - Sky scrapers of Renaissance design, 473 - Spain in, 329, 397-405 - Tours, School of, 376 - Tuscan Romanesque, compared to, 369 - Venetian architects, 352 - -Retablos (Gloss.), 309 - -Retrochoir (Gloss.), 289, 295, 298 - -Revett and Stuart’s Classic exploration, 436 - -Revolution, French, 333 - -Rhenish Confederation, 331 - -Rhythm in architecture (Gloss.), 11, 134 - -Ribs: - In vaulting (Gloss.), 242 - Diagonal, 250, 272, 294 - Lierne, 294 - Longitudinal, 294 - Louvre, in pavilion of, 385 - Tierceron, 294 - Transverse rib, 294 - S. Peter’s, in dome of, 373 - -Rococo style (Gloss.), 333, 389-90 - French, 375, 389-90 - German, 391, 393 - Venetian, 366 - -Roman Augustine Age, 151 - Attempt to revive Empire, 232 - Barbarian invasions, 157 - Christianity in, 157 - Citizenship, 147-8 - Civilisation, 147-162 - Etruscans, 156 - Exponents of order, 149 - Great era of building, 152, 156 - Holy Roman Empire, 321 - Provinces, 148, 152 - Renaissance, 323-7, 346-352 - Roman Writers, 150 - Sacked by Germans, 347, 354 - -Roman Architecture 163-183 - Amphitheatres, 174 - Aqueducts, 182 - Arch, the, 166 - Arch, Triumphal, 178 - Basilicas, 177 - Baths, 176 - Bridges, 182 - Circuses, 173 - Colosseum, 174 - Columns, 169, 170, 171, 178 - Composite order, use of, 165 - Concrete, use of, 153 - Corinthian order, 164 - Decoration of Walls, 168-9 - Domestic buildings, 180 - Influence on Byzantine, 202 - Persian, 152 - Romanesque, 170, 180, 183 - Maison Carrée, Nîmes, 169 - Masonry of, 153 - Mosaics, 168 - Nymphæum, 170 - Orders, the, 163-166 - Ornament, 169 - Palaces, 179 - Revival of influence, 437 - Rotundas, 170, 171, 198 - Temples, 169-173 - Theatres, 175-6 - Tombs, 198 - Training in, at Écoles des Beaux Arts, 463 - Vaulting, 167, 243 - Villas, 180-1 - -Romanesque Architecture, 241-260 - Arcading, 244-5, 307 - Arch, the, 245 - Chêvet, the, 241-2 - Doors, 245, 254 - England, in, 254 - Exteriors, 245 - France, in, 252 - Influence in French Gothic, 282 - Germany, 301 - Italy, in, 313, 315 - Central, 246-249 - Northern, 249-251 - Southern, 249 - Origin of, 170, 180, 183, 212 - Originates Gothic, 270, 271, 276 - Period of, 232 - Rhenish Provinces, in, 257, 307 - Rib Vaulting, 243 - Roman principles in, 241 - Spain, in, 259-60 - Tuscany, in, 367 - Variations in, 240 - Windows, 245, 251 - -Rome: - Anio Novus Aqueduct, 183 - Aqua Claudia, 183 - Arch of Cæsar Augustus, 160 - Constantine, 159, 178 - Janus, 159 - Septimus Severus, 161, 178 - Titus, 159, 178 - Basilicas, Æmilia, 160, 177 - Fulvia, 177 - Julia, 160, 177 - Maxentius or Constantine, 177 - Porcia, 177 - Ulpia, 177 - Baths, of Agrippa, 176 - Caracalla, 176 - Commodus, 176 - Constantine, 176 - Diocletian, 176 - Domitian, 176 - Nero, 176 - Titus, 176 - Bridges, 182 - Capitoline Hill, 158 - Circus, Maxentius, 173 - Maximus, 173 - Colosseum, 174-5 - Columns of Victory, 178 - Comitium, 158 - Curia, 158 - Etruscan Museum, 348 - Forum Boarium, 170 - Romanum, 157-8, 170 - Il Gesu, 349 - Milliarium, 158 - Nymphæum, 170 - Palaces of Augustus, 179 - Cancellaria, 346 - Capitol, 350, 363-5 - Caprarola, 348 - Farnese, 348 - Massimi, 348 - Pandolfini, 347 - Pantheon, 122, 164, 167, 168, 170, 171, 348, 372 - Rotunda, The, 171 - S. Clemente, 195 - S. John Lateran, 194, 198 - S. Lorenzo in Miranda, 347 - S. Maria della Grazie, 346 - S. Paul-without-the-Walls, 196-7 - S. Peter’s, 194, 346-7, 349-50, 370-4 - S. Pietro in Montorio, 346 - S. Stefano Rotondo, 198 - Tabularium, the, 161 - Temples, 169 - Castor and Pollux, 160 - Circular, 176-7 - Divinities Male and Female, 158 - Mater Matuta, 170, 171 - Minerva Medica, 207 - Saturn, 160, 164 - Tomb of Cæcilia Metella, 173 - Constanza, 198 - Trajan’s Column, 179, 348 - Umbilicus, the, 157 - Villa Farnesina, 347 - Madama, 347 - -Roodloft (Gloss.), 237 - -Roofs, 46, 47, 53 - Arch-braced, 297 - Assyrian treatment of, 71 - Byzantine, 198 - Colonial, 431-2 - Decorative treatment of, 396 - Dome roofs, 71 - Etruscan, 155 - Gothic, in England, 293, 296-7, 299 - German, 304-5 - Italian, 314 - Netherlands, 307 - Hammer-beam, 297 - Hip roof, 385, 432 - Lombard, 252 - Louvre, of the, 384-5 - Luxembourg, of the, 387 - Mansard, 385-6, 431 - Mediæval, 196, 198, 241 - Muhammedan, 228 - Primitive, 14-15, 20 - Queen Anne Style, 424 - Renaissance, English, 414, 428 - German, 392, 395 - Netherlandish, 407, 408 - Spanish, 403 - Stone roof, 199 - Tie-beam, 296 - Trussed-rafter, 296 - Wooden roof, 196, 246, 256, 296 - -Rosetta Stone, 27 - -Rosettes, _see_ Decorative motives - -Rose Windows (Gloss.), 271, 282 - -Rostra, the, 158 - -Rostrum of Julius Cæsar, 160 - -Rough Stone Age, 18 - -Rugs, Persian, 219 - -“Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian,” by Robert Adam, 428 - - -S - -Sanctuary of, Early Christian churches, 194, 196 - Egyptian Temples, 49, 50, 53 - Gothic Churches, 289 - Hellenic Temples, 120, 141 - Spanish Renaissance churches, 401 - -Saracenic, _see_ Muhammedan - -Sardinia, Mycenæan remains in, 89, 90 - -Sargon, Akkadian King, 57, 58 - Assyrian King, 60 - -Sarzac, Professor de, discoveries by, 67 - -Sassanian Empire, 77, 205, 229 - -Schiller, 439 - -Schliemann, Dr., Mycenæan discoveries by, 88, 100 - -Schools, Divinity, Oxford, 295, 299 - École des Beaux Arts, 379, 444, 453 - Grammar, in England, 412 - Scuolo de S. Marco, 354 - -Scotia (Gloss.), 129, 164 - -Screens (Gloss.): - Gothic Choir, 275, 291 - English, 291, 298 - Spanish, 309 - Mediæval Churches, 237 - Muhammedan, 218 - S. Sophia, 208 - Temples of Egypt, 54 - Temple of Hera, 118 - -Screen Walls, 377 - Blenheim, at, 425 - Château de Chambord at, 381 - S. Clemente, Rome, 195 - -Scrolls, _see_ Volutes - -Sculptors: - Bartlett, Paul W., 446 - Berruguete, 402, 405 - Borromini, The, 351 - Cellini, Benvenuto, 332, 382 - Churriguera, 405 - Crawford, Thomas, 446, 447 - Giotto, 312, 319 - Goujon, Jean, 332, 385 - Maderna, Carlo, 351 - Majano, Giovanni, 411 - Michelangelo, 349-51, 405 - Pheidas, 111, 140 - Pilon, 332 - Pisano, Andrea, 312, 319 - Praxiteles, 118 - Robbia, Lucca della, 312 - Rude, François, 443 - Sansovino, Andrea, 354 - Sansovino, Jacopo, 354 - Sarrazin, Jacques, 385 - Torrigiano, 411 - Vigarni de Borgoña, 401 - Vischer, Peter, 391 - Vriendt, Cornelius de, 407 - -Sculpture: - Amenopheum, The, 45 - Assyria, in, 65 - Baroque, 351 - Bulls, Colossal, 69 - Egypt, of, 40, 41, 48, 75 - Gothic, 276, 278 - French, 269, 283 - German, 304 - Italian, 309, 312, 316 - Netherlands, 307 - Lombardy, in, 251 - Osirid, 50 - Pediment of Capitol, Washington, 446 - Phrygian, 99 - Relief, in Assyria, 71, 131 - Bronze, 171 - Byzantine use of, 203 - Chartres, at, 269 - Doric metope, in, 135 - Gothic, 276, 312 - Hellas, in, 127 - Ionic cornices, in, 130 - Medallion of Popes, 196 - Mycenæ, in, 98 - Tiryns, in, 102 - Trajan’s Column, on, 179 - Versailles, at, 387 - -Secondary Style, _see_ Rayonnant - -Semiramis, Hanging gardens of, 62 - -Semitic races, 56, 58, 74 - -Serdab (Gloss.), 41 - -Seville: The Alcazar, 225 - Casa Lonja, 401-2 - Giralda, the, 225 - Plateresque in, 398 - -Sewers, 152. - The Cloaca Maxima, Rome, 156 - -Shaft (Gloss.), of column, 123 - Corinthian treatment of, 131 - Doge’s palace columns, 316 - Fluted, 87, 124 - Greek treatment of, 124, 125 - Ionic treatment, 129 - Proportions of, 134, 135 - Romanesque, 245 - Roman treatment of, 164 - Sky-scraper, suggestions of, in, 474 - -Shakespeare, 330, 336, 410, 439 - -Shalmaneser, King of Assyria, 59, 60, 75 - -Sicily: - Cathedral of, Monreale, Palermo, 249 - Cathedral of Syracuse, 193 - Muhammedan conquest of, 215 - Romanesque, in, 249 - -Sidney, Sir Philip, 336 - -Silversmiths: - Antonio Arphe, 398 - Enrique Arphe, 398 - Juan Arphe, 398 - -Skene, the, 144 - -Sky-scrapers, 472-5 - -Soffit (Gloss.), 127 - -Solar (Gloss.), 416 - -Sole Piece, 297 - -Sophia, Hagia, (S.), 207, 209 - -South Sea Islands, ornament in, 18 - -Spandrel or Spandril (Gloss.): - Cancellaria, of, 363 - Library of S. Mark’s, 365 - S. Peter’s, 373 - -Spain, Architecture in: - Alcala de Heñares, 400 - Alcazar, Seville, 225, - Alhambra, 218, 226-7, 403 - Bridge of Cordova, 182 - Bridge of Toledo, 182 - Burgos, 400-1 - Cordova, 182, 398 - Escoriál, 403-5 - Giralda, the, 225 - Gothic, 271 - Granada, 401 - Influence on Netherlands, 406 - Madrid, 403 - Malaga, 401 - Mosque of Cordova, 224, 225 - Muhammedan, 212, 215, 220, 224-7 - Mycenæan remains in, 89-90 - Plateresque style, 398-9 - Renaissance, 329, 398-405 - Romanesque, 259-60 - Salamanca, 401 - Santiago, 398 - Saragossa, 401 - Seville, 302, 309, 371, 398 - Toledo, 182, 308, 398 - Valladolid, 398, 401 - -Spain, History of, 212, 213, 326-7, 397 - -Sparta, 128 - -“Speculum Universale,” 266-8, 312 - -Spencer, 336 - -Sphinx (Gloss.), Avenue of, 51 - Temple, 41 - The Great, 38 - -Spires (Gloss.): - Antwerp, 308 - Brussels Town Hall, 307 - Colonial, 431 - English, 274 - Gothic decorated, 275 - English, 289, 298 - French, 282 - German, 303 - Houses of Parliament, 451 - Woolworth Building, 476 - Worms, at, 259 - Wren’s Churches, 423 - -Spirals, 165, 179 - -Square, the, 85 - -Squinch (Gloss.), 230, 259 - -Stained Glass, 275-278 - Gothic, English, 291-2 - German, 305 - Methods of using, 291-2 - Musée Plantin-Moretus, 40S - Sainte Chapelle, Paris, 285 - -Stairs: - Capitol, Washington, 446 - Casa Lonja, 402 - Chaldæan, 66 - Château de Blois, 380 - Château de Chambord, 380-1 - Colonial, 432 - Doric Temples, 121 - Egyptian temples, 44 - Golden Staircase, the, 400-1 - Leaning Tower, Pisa, in, 247-8 - Machu Picchu, 20 - Persepolis, at, 85 - Pyramids, in, 39 - Queen Anne entrances, of, 426 - Renaissance, English, 416 - German, 392 - Spanish, 400 - Roman Podium, of, 156 - Sargon’s Castle, 68 - Trajan’s Column, 179 - -Stalactite work, 222, 224, 227 - -Stalls (Gloss.), of chancel, 237 - -Stanze Apartments, 374 - -Statues: - Arches, on, 179 - Athene, in Parthenon, 140 - Baroque, 351 - Cella, in Hellenic, 140 - Chaldæan, 65 - Chartres Cathedral, on, 269 - Cheops, of, 40 - Coloured, 136 - Dome of Capitol, Washington, on, 447 - Giralda, S. Faith, 225 - Gothic Cathedrals, on, 276-8 - German, 304 - Italy, 312, 314 - Netherlands, 307 - Spain, 309 - Hermes of Praxiteles, 118 - Louvre, on, 385 - Marseillaise, La, 443 - Michelangelo, by, 350, 364 - Palace of Rezzonico, in, 356 - Renaissance, English, 411 - German, 392, 396 - S. John, by Michelangelo, 344 - S. Maria della Salute, of, 356 - S. Peter’s in, 372 - Temple of Diana, Nîmes, 170 - Trajan’s Column, on, 179 - Tympanum, in Hellenic, 135 - Zeus, of, 111 - -Steel Construction, 461, 470, 471, 473, 478 - -Steeples (Gloss.), 423 - -Stele (Gloss.), 14, 132 - -Stone, use of: - Arches, single stone, 199 - Crosses, 18 - Cut stone of Persia, 81 - Egyptian use of large, 41 - Italy, in, 154 - Mediæval, in, 241 - Obelisks, 43 - Polished stone, 18, 19 - Primitive use of large, 8, 13, 14, 15, 20 - Pyramids, in, 40 - Rough Stone age, 18 - Sacrificial, 16, 20 - Steel construction, in, 473 - -Stonehenge, 8, 16, 100 - -Stories, division into: - Arcades, in, 229 - Byzantine use, 208, 209 - Casa Lonja, in, 402 - Escoriál, in, 404 - Gothic, German, 306 - Italian, 312 - Netherlands, 307 - Michelangelo’s treatment of, 350 - Renaissance, English, 414, 418 421 - French, 354, 360, 363, 364 - Renaissance use, Netherlands, 407 - Sky scrapers, in, 474 - Temple of Nippur, in, 66 - Wren’s Steeples, in, 423 - -Strains, 15 - Carried by columns, 124 - Gothic, 271-2, 285 - Hellenic recognition of, 135 - Vaulting, in, 166, 270 - -Stretchers and headers (Gloss.), 424 - -String course: - Gothic, Italian, 312, 314 - Netherlands, 306 - Palazzo Vecchio, 360 - Queen Anne style, 424 - Renaissance, Venetian, 361 - -Stuart and Revett, discoveries by 436 - -Stucco, use of (Gloss.): - Doric Temples, in, 121 - Egypt, use in, 55 - Greek use of, 122 - Renaissance, 352 - English, 417 - German, 393 - Venetian, 361 - Rococo use of, 389 - Tiryns, in, 102 - -Styles: - Anglo-Classical, 410, 424 - Chinese, 428 - Churrigueresque, 393, 405 - Colonial, 430 - Elizabethan, 410 - Georgian, 427, 430 - Jacobean, 410 - Palladian, 368, 370, 402, 418, 424 - Plateresque, 398-9, 400 - Portico, 424 - Queen Anne, 424, 427, 430 - Queen Anne Revival, 458 - -Stylobate (Gloss.): - Asymmetries in, 137 - Doric, 122 - Ionic, 128 - Panthéon, Paris, 443 - Parthenon, 138 - S. George’s Hall, Liverpool, 438 - S. Paul’s, 421 - -Stylus, use of, 57 - -Subjective point of view, 4 - -Symonds, John Addington, 329 - -Syria, 199 - Architectural remains in, 199 - Cathedral of Borah, 200 - Churches, Kalb-Lauzeh, 200 - S. George, Esrah, 200 - Turmanin, 200 - S. Simeon Stylites, 200 - Conquered by Muhammedans, 215 - Influence on Byzantine, 202 - Mosques: - Dome of the Rock, or, Mosque of Omar, 223 - El-Aksah, 223 - El-Walid, Damascus, 223 - - -T - -Tabernacles (Gloss.), German Gothic, 305 - Spanish Renaissance, 398 - -Tabernæ, in Rome, 159 - -Taconia, 126 - -Tampa Tocco, ruins at, 19 - -Tel-el-Amarna, Ruins at, 55 - -Temples: - Abydos, at, 53 - Agrigentum, 119 - Ammon, 51 - Aphrodisias, Caria, 193 - Apollo at Bassæ, 123 - at Miletus, 122 - at Naucratis, 128 - Assos, at, 126 - Athene, at Ægina, 119 - Athene Nike, 119, 141-2 - Cæsar, 160 - Castor and Pollux, 160, 164 - Chons, 51 - Concord, of, 161 - Corinth, at, 118 - Costa Rica, ruins at, 20 - Deir-el-Bahri, 44 - Delos, in, 119 - Delphi, at, 119 - Diana, 170 - Diocletian’s Palace, in, 180 - Edfou, at, 54 - Egyptian, plans of, 46-50 - Erechtheion, The, 121, 129, 131, 136, 141, 165, 193, 436, 438 - Etruscan, 155 - Hellenic, plans of, Early, 119 - Later, 121-123 - Hera, of, 111, 117 - Hyperboreans, of the, 17 - Jerusalem, at, 79, 223 - Jupiter, Capitoline, 156, 158 - Karnak, at, 44, 50 - Luxor, at, 51, 53 - Madeleine, The, modelled on, 443 - Maison Carrée, 169 - Mater Matuta, 170, 171 - Medinct Abou, at, 139 - Mexico, in, 20 - Michelangelo’s adaptations of, 364-5 - Minerva Medica, 207 - Minoan, no temples, 92 - Nebo, at, 62, 67 - Nineveh, at, 60 - Nippur, at, 66 - Olympia, of, 119 - Pantheon, Rome, 122, 164, 167-8, 170-1, 348, 372 - Parthenon, the, 8, 119, 125, 127, 137, 138, 140, 436 - Pasargadæ, at, 75 - Philæ, at, 53 - Phœbus Apollo, of, 118 - Poseidon, of, 118, 119, 125 - Rameses II, of, 45 - Saturn, 160, 164 - Seti II, of, 51 - Sippar, at, 57 - Sphinx, The Great, 38, 41 - Tampu Tocco, 19 - Theseum, 119, 193 - Tholos, Epidauros, 121, 131 - Uri, at, 139 - Vesta, Rome, 160, 170 - Vesta, Tivoli, 170, 171 - Zeus, 111, 122 - at Agrigentum, 118, 119 - Olympian, 119, 120, 122 - Selinas, 119 - -Tænia (Gloss.), 126 - -Terraces (Gloss.): - Babylon, Gardens of, 61 - Châteaux, of, 379 - Machu Picchu, of, 20 - Nippur, of, 66 - Pasargadæ, of, 81 - Persepolis, of, 85 - Renaissance examples, 374 - S. George’s Hall, Liverpool, 438 - Sargon’s Castle, of, 68 - Tampu Tocco, 19 - Tenochtitlan, of, 20 - Versailles, of, 387 - Xerxes’ Palace, of, 85 - -Terracotta (Gloss.): - Etruscans, use by, 155 - Renaissance, in, 411 - Romans, use by, 168, 182 - Roof construction, use in, 122 - Steel construction, use in, 473 - -Tertiary Style, _see_ Flamboyant - -Tessera (Gloss.), 168 - -Tetrastyle (Gloss.), 121 - -Thatched roofs, 155 - -Theatres: - Dionysos, of, 143 - Ducal theatre, Weimar, 439 - Epidauros in Argolis, 143 - Federal Street Theatre, Boston, 448 - Hellenic Theatres, 142, 145, 173, 175 - Marcellus, of, 164 - Orange, at, 176 - Roman, 173 - Royal Theatre, Berlin, 440 - Sheldonian, Oxford, 419 - Teatro Olympico, 352 - Vitruvius’ description of, 144 - -Thermæ, _see_ Baths - -Thessaly, remains at, 89 - -Thirteenth Century Gothic, _see_ Gothic, Primary - -Thrust (Gloss.), 15 - Basilicas, in, 178 - Gothic, in, 273 - Mansard roof, in, 385 - Muhammedan arches, 221 - Roman arches, in, 166, 170 - Vaulting, in, 242, 244, 253 - -Tiglath-Pileser, Assyrian kings, 59, 60 - -Tiles (Gloss.): - Alhambra, use in, 227 - Assyria, in, 68, 72, 97 - Chaldæan, 68 - Domes, in, 207 - Doric Temples, in, 121, 122, 123 - Early Christian churches, in, 201 - Greek use, 122 - Muhammedan use of, 222 - Persian use of, 86, 97, 218, 229 - Renaissance, English, 414 - Roman use of, 168 - Temple of Hera, roof of, 118 - Turkish use of, 228 - -Tiryns, Prehistoric civilisation of, 88 - Architecture, 98, 100-2 - Resemblance to Etruscan, 155 - -Tivoli, Temple of Vesta, in, 170-1 - Villa of Hadrian, 180-1 - -Tombs: - Abydos, at, 42 - Agamemnon, of, 100 - Altun Obu, at, 14 - Amenopheum, the, 45 - Artaxerxes, of, 76, 82 - Atreus, of, 124 - Barrows, 13, 14 - Beehive, 15, 99 - Cæcilia Metella, of, 173 - Cassandra, of, 100 - Cathedrals, in, 299 - Constanza, of, 198 - Cyrus, of, 81 - Darius I, of, 82-4 - Darius II, of, 76, 82 - Dolmen, 14 - Egyptian Middle Empire, of, 42 - Escoriál, of the, 403 - Etruscan, 155 - Galla Placidia, Rome, 201 - Henry VII, Westminster, of, 411 - Lycia, in, 99, 130 - Mahmud Bijapur, of, 230 - Mastabas, 41 - Midas, of, 130 - Minoan, 90 - Muhammedan, 217, 222 - Mycenæan, 99 - Myra, at, 99 - Pasargadæ, at, 75, 81 - Persepolis, at, 76, 82 - Phrygia, at, 99 - Primitive, 14 - Queen Hatasu, of, 45 - Rameses III, of, 45 - Ramesseum, The, 45 - S. Sebald, of, 391 - Sheik Omar, of, 222 - Suleiman and Roxelana, of, 228 - Taj Mahal, the, 217, 230 - Theban Empire, of, 42 - Tholos, the, 99 - Wolsey, Cardinal, of, 411 - Wren, Sir Christopher, of, 423 - Xerxes, of, 82 - -Torus (Gloss.), pl. Tori, 47 - Cnossus, in fresco at, 123 - Corinthian, 164 - Doric, 124 - Ionic, 129 - -Tours, School of, 376 - -Towers: - Anglo-Saxon, 254 - Angoulême, at, 253 - Antwerp Cathedral, 308 - Babel, 62 - Babylon, 61 - Cathedral del Pillar, 401 - Châteaux, 378 - de Blois, 380 - de Chambord, 381 - Church of Apostles, Cologne, 259 - Cologne Cathedral, 303 - Diocletian’s Palace, 180 - Durham Cathedral, 256 - Earl’s Barton Church, 255 - Escoriál, the, 404 - Giralda, The, 225 - Gothic, English, 274, 289, 298 - Netherlandish, 307 - Houses of Parliament, 451 - Layer Marney, Essex, 411 - Madison Square Garden, New York, 226 - Malines Cathedral, 408 - Nôtre Dame, Paris, 282 - Palazzo Vecchio, 359 - Renaissance, English, 414 - Renaissance, German, 392 - Rheims Cathedral, 282 - Romanesque, 244 - S. Ouen’s, 286 - S. Paul’s, 421 - Saragossa, La Seo, 401 - Sargon’s Castle, 67-8 - Town Hall, Brussels, 307 - Turmanin Church, 200 - Wind, of the, Athens, 121 - Woolworth Building, 476 - Worms Cathedral, 258 - Wren’s Churches, 423 - -Trabeated (Gloss.), 8 - -Tracery (Gloss.): - Branch, 305 - Double, 304 - Early English, 290, 291 - Gothic, German, 303, 304 - Italian, 310, 312 - Netherlandish, 307 - Milan, in, 314 - Plate, 274-5 - Renaissance, French, 378 - -Transepts (Gloss.): - Cathedrals, English, 289, 298 - Cologne Cathedral, 303 - Cologne, Church of Apostles, 259 - Early Christian Churches, 194 - Milan, S. Maria della Grazie, 346 - Norwich Cathedral, 246 - Nôtre Dame, Paris, 281 - S. Paul’s Cathedral, 420-1 - Pisa, Cathedral, 247 - Romanesque Churches, 241, 244 - Santiago de Compostello, 260 - Tournai, Cathedral, 307 - Worms Cathedral, 258 - -Transoms (Gloss.), 290 - Château de Blois, 380 - English Renaissance, 414 - -Transverse beams (Gloss.), 8 - -Travertine (Gloss.), use of, 154, 175, 362 - -“Treatise on Civil Architecture,” (Sir William Chambers), 427 - -Trefoils, 290, 316 - -Triada, Palace at, 98 - -Triclinium (Gloss.), 181 - -Triforium (Gloss.), 290, 299, 304, 314 - -Triglyphs (Gloss.): - Coloured, 136 - Doric entablature, in, 126 - Roman, 164 - -Triumphant Arches, _see_ Arch - -Troubadours, 238, 331 - -Truss, 296 - -Tudor Gothic, 288 - -Tufa (Gloss.), 154, _see_ concrete - -Tumuli (Gloss.), 13, 17 - -Turkish Architecture, 227 - -Turrets, Gothic, Italian, 312 - Château de Chambord, 381 - Houses of Parliament, 451 - Renaissance, French, 378 - German, 392 - Holland, 409 - Romanesque, Spanish, 260 - S. Sulpice, Church of, 389 - -Tuscan Orders, 155, 174 - -Tympanum (Gloss.), 135, 171 - - -U - -Uffizi, 354 - -United States, The: - Beaux Arts Training, influence, 463, 464 - Capitol, Washington, 446 - Chicago Exposition, influence of, 465 - Christ Church, Philadelphia, 430 - Classical revival, 445 - Colonial architecture, 423, 429, 431 - Craigie House, 431 - Domestic Architecture, 468-9 - Engineering problems, 477 - English influence, 430 - French influence, 441, 445 - Gothic Revival, 452-3 - Imitative tendency, 466-8 - Office Buildings, 469, 475 - Old South Church, 430 - S. Paul’s, New York, 430 - Sherburn House, 431 - Steel Construction, 461, 470-7 - Trinity Church, New York, 452 - White House, The, 446 - Woolworth Building, 471, 476 - -Unity of design (Gloss.), 11, 174, 209, 245 - -“Universal Mirror,” _see_ “Speculum Universale” - -Universities: - Augsburg, 328 - Basel, 328 - Cambridge, 290, 295, 299 - Constantinople, 266 - Leyden, 334 - London, 438 - Nuremburg, 328 - Oxford, 257, 288, 293, 295, 299 - Salamanca, 399 - Strasburg, 328 - Virginia, 448 - -Urbino, 346 - -Urn, Burial, 155 - -Usertesen, Obelisk of, 43 - - -V - -Vases, Minoan, 90, 91, 97 - -Mycenæan, 89 - -Vatican: - Borgia Apartments, 97 - Museum, 198 - Sistine Chapel, 374 - Stanze Apartments, 374 - -Vault (Gloss.), Vaulting: - Amiens, at, 281, 284 - Asymmetries in, 69, 70 - Barrel vaults, 42, 70-1, 209, 242, 253, 260, 373 - Basilicas, in, 177 - Byzantine use of, 204, 208 - Certosa, The, in, 313 - Chaldæan, 71 - Cross Groined, 167, 178, 242, 250, 253, 271-2 - Decorated, 168 - Dome or semidome, 167 - Egyptian use of, 53 - Escoriál, in, 404 - Fan Vaults, 295 - Gothic, 270 - English, 287, 293, 298 - French, 252 - German, 304 - Italian, 314 - Lombard, 310 - Spanish, 309 - Groin, 178, 242, 250, 253 - Hindu use of, 230 - Liernes, 294 - Madeleine, in the, 443 - Muhammedan use of, 222, 229 - Norman use of, 256 - Nôtre Dame, 281 - Palais de Justice, Liège, 406 - Pendentive Vaults, 295 - Persian use of, 229 - Pointed Groin Vault, 253 - Renaissance, Spanish, 401 - Rib and panel, 294 - Rib Vault, 243, 249, 272 - Romanesque, 241-2 - Rhenish, 259 - Spanish, 260 - Roman use of, 166-7, 173, 175 - Rudimentary, 15 - S. Andrea, Mantua, 345, 368 - S. Lorenzo, Florence, 343 - S. Mark’s, Venice, 209 - S. Spirito, Florence, 367 - Sainte Chapelle, in, 285 - Semicylindrical, vaulting, 167 - Sexpartite, 254 - Skew Vault, 254 - Stellar vaulting, 294 - Temple of Diana, Nîmes, 170 - Tiercerons, 294 - -Vaults: - Foundations of Adelphi Terrace, 428 - S. Francisco, Rimini, in, 345 - -Vega, Lope de, 330 - -Velarium, 174, 176 - -Veneer: - Byzantine use of, 203 - Italian Gothic exterior, in, 311 - Muhammedan use of, 222 - Roman use of, 168 - S. Stefano Rotondo, in, 199 - Sphinx Temple, in, 41 - Turkish Mosques, in, 228 - -Venice: - Byzantine Influence in, 352 - Ca d’Oro, 360 - Cornaro Palace, 354 - Doge’s Palace, 210, 315 - Gothic architecture, 315-16 - Gvimane Palace, 355 - Il Redentore, Church of, 352 - Library of San Giorgio, 344 - Library of San Marco, 354, 365 - Lido, Fortifications at, 355 - Renaissance in, 352-6 - S. Giorgio dei Greci, 354 - S. Giorgio Maggiore, 352 - S. Maria della Salute, 356 - S. Maria dei Miracoli, 353 - S. Mark’s, 209, 210, 248, 252 - S. Zaccaria, 353 - Scuolo di S. Marco, 354 - Trade centre, a, 265, 353 - Vendramini Palace, 354, 360 - Zecca, The, 354 - -Verandah, 432 - -Verona: - Bevilacqua Palace, 355 - Canossa Palace, 355 - Pompeii Palace, 355 - -Vesta, Temple of, 160 - -Vestibules (Gloss.), 101, 102, 120 - -Vicenza, 351 - Mediæval Basilica, 352 - Palazzo Barbarano, 352 - Palazzo Capitania, 352 - -Villa Rotonda, 352 - -Villas: - Chiswick on Thames, 352, 426 - Farnesina, the, 347 - House of Pansa, 181 - Pompeii, at, 181 - Pope Julius III, of, 348 - Roman Villas, 181, 400 - Villa Capra, 426 - Villa Madama, 347 - Villa of Hadrian, Tivoli, 180 - Villa Rotonda, 352 - -Vincent of Beauvais, writings of, 266, 312 - -Virgil, 436 - -Vitruvius, descriptions of, 122, 144, 155, 182, 351, 352 - -Vogüé, Marquis of, Explorations in Syria, 199 - -Volutes (Gloss.), 131 - Assyrian ornament, in, 131 - Ionic ornament, in, 130 - Persian ornament, in, 87 - Roman ornament, in, 164 - -Voussoirs (Gloss.): - Cloaca Maxima, in, 156 - Concrete construction compared, 166 - Dome of Cathedral, Florence, in, 343 - Mosque of Kait Bey, in, 224 - -Vriendt, Cornelius de, book of ornament, 393 - - -W - -Wainscots (Gloss.): - Alhambra, in, 227 - Colonial use, 432 - English Renaissance, in, 417 - Musée Plantin-Moretus, 408 - -Wall Decoration in marble: - Chaldæan, 71-2 - Early Christian churches, 196 - Egyptian, 41, 48 - Florence, S. Maria Novella, 345 - Italian Gothic, 311, 316 - Renaissance use, 354, 393 - Romanesque use, 246, 249 - Roman use, 168, 172 - Turkish, 228 - Venetian use, 354 - -Wall Painting: - Assyrian use of, 72 - Capitol, Washington, 447 - Cnossus, at, 93, 96, 97, 102, 123 - Egyptian use of, 45, 48 - English-Norman, 257 - Etruscan, 155 - Hellenic, 136 - Italian-Gothic, 311 - Minoan, 91 - Odeion of Herodes Atticus, 146 - Panthéon, Paris, 443 - Pyramid of Onas, 40 - Raphael’s Stanze, Vatican, 194,374 - Renaissance, in, 339 - Romans, use by, 168, 181 - S. Paul’s-without-the-walls, 197 - S. Stefano Rotondo, in, 199 - Tiryns, in, 102 - -Walter, Thomas Ustic, 447 - -Water, use of: - Assyrian, 56 - Early Christian Churches, 194 - Egyptian, 30 - Minoan, 93, 97, 98, 101 - Muhammedan, 217, 218 - Persian, 86 - Roman, 176, 181, 182-3 - -Weighing Houses of Holland, 409 - -Winckelmann’s critical studies, 436 - -Windows: - Alhambra, of, 226-7 - Anglo-Saxon, 254 - Angoulême, Cathedral of, 253 - Arcade type, 362 - Assyria, 70 - Blenheim Castle, of, 426 - Ca d’Oro, 360 - Campanile, of, 252 - Cancellaria, of, 363 - Casa Lonja, 402 - Château de Blois, 380 - Château de Chambord, 381 - Clerestory, 49 - Colonial, 431-2 - Crete, in, 93 - Cyrus’s Palace, 83 - Doge’s Palace, 316 - Doric Temple, 122, 126 - Egyptian use, 47, 50, 55 - Escoriál, the, 404 - Giralda, of the, 225 - Gothic, 274-276 - English, 290, 291 - German, 304, 316 - Italian, 310, 312 - Netherlandish, 307 - Hôtel des Invalides, of, 388 - Iffley Church, of, 257 - Lantern of Galla Placidia, 201 - Louvre, of the, 383, 384, 385 - Milan Cathedral, in, 313 - Modern necessity for, 438 - Muhammedan, 222 - Norman, 255 - Order type, 362 - Oriel, 414 - Palace of Charles V, in, 403 - Palace of Diocletian, in, 196 - Palazzo Riccardi, in, 359-60 - Vecchio, 359-60 - Vendramini, 360 - Palladian design, 370 - Perpendicular style, 271 - Primitive, 20 - Queen Anne Style, 424 - Renaissance, English, 414, 417 - French, 378 - German, 392-3, 395-6 - Spanish, 399, 400 - Romanesque treatment of, 242, 244, 245 - Spanish, 260 - Roman treatment of, 172, 178 - Rose or wheel, 251, 271 - S. Peter’s, of, 372 - S. Sophia’s, of, 208 - Sainte Chapelle, of, 285 - Sky-scrapers, of, 475 - Tampu Tocco, at, 19 - Tiryns, at, 101 - Venetian Renaissance, of, 362 - Whitehall Palace, of, 418 - Worms, Cathedral, of, 258 - Xerxes, Palace, of, 86 - York Minster, of, 298 - -Wings: - Capitol, Washington, in, 446-7 - English Renaissance houses, in, 414 - Friedrichsbau, in, 394 - Heinrichsbau, in, 394 - Louvre, of the, 383, 444 - Luxembourg, of the, 387 - Whitehall, of, 418 - -Wyatt, 335 - -Wycliffe, 335 - - -X - -Xerxes I, of Persia, 76 - Invades Hellenic States, 108 - Palace, 85 _et seq._ - Tent, in Odeion of Pericles, 145 - - -Z - -Zecca (the mint), Venice, 354 - -Zeus, 101, 128 - Temple of, 111, 122 - -Ziggurat (Gloss.), 66-67, 73 - -Zoroaster, 78 - -Zoroastrianism, 78, 81 - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -GENERAL. - - Cummings, Charles A. History of Architecture in Italy. Boston: - Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1901. 2 vols. - - Fergusson, James. History of Modern Architecture. 1873. - - Fletcher, Bannister. A History of Architecture. London. - - Hamlin, A. D. F. Text Book of the History of Architecture. 1898. - Longmans, Green & Co. - - Joseph, Dr. D. Geschichte der Baukunst. Berlin: Bruno Hessling. 4 - v. 1902-09. - - Simpson, F. M. A History of Architectural Development. London: - Longmans, Green & Co. 1905. 3 vols. - - Stratham, H. Heathcote. A Short Critical History of Architecture. - London: B. T. Batsford. 1912. - - Sturgis, Russell. A History of Architecture. New York: Doubleday, - Page Co. 1906-1915. 4 vols. - - Sturgis, Russell. European Architecture. A historical study. New - York: Macmillan & Co. 1896. - - Wallis, Frank E. How to Know Architecture. New York: Harper & Bros. - 1910. - -EGYPTIAN. - - Bell, Edward. The Architecture of Ancient Egypt. London: G. Bell & - Sons. 1915. - - King, L. W. and H. R. Hall. Egypt and Western Asia: in the light of - recent discoveries. London: Soc. for Promoting Christian Knowledge. - 1907. - -BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN. - - Handcock, Percy S. P. Mesopotamian Archæology; an introduction to - the archæology of Babylonia and Assyria. London: Macmillan & Co. - 1912. - - Koldewey, Robert. The excavations at Babylon. Translated by A. S. - Johns. London: Macmillan & Co. 1914. - -MUHAMMEDAN. - - Saladin, H. L’architecture. Paris: A. Picard & Fils. 1907. (Manuel - d’art musulman.) - -GOTHIC. - - Bond, Francis. Gothic Architecture in England. London: B. T. - Batsford. 1905. - - Bumpus, T. Francis. Guide to Gothic Architecture. New York: Dodd - Mead Co. 1914. - - Cram, Ralph A. The Gothic Quest. - - Gonse, Lewis. L’Art Gothique. Paris: Maison Quantin. (1890.) - - Jackson, T. G. Gothic Architecture in France, England and Italy. - Cambridge University Press. 2 v. 1915. - - West, G. H. Gothic Architecture in England and France. London: G. - Bell and Son. 1911. - -RENAISSANCE. - - Anderson, Wm. J. Architecture of the Renaissance in Italy. London: - B. T. Batsford. 1896. - - Gotch, J. Alfred. Early Renaissance Architecture in England. - London: B. T. Batsford. 1914. - - Moore, C. H. Character of Renaissance Architecture. New York: - Macmillan & Co. 1905. - -ORNAMENT. - - Goodyear, William H. The Grammar of the Lotus. Sampson Low. London. - 1891. Architectural Record (articles in), Vol. II, No. 4; Vol. III, - Nos. 2, 3, 4. - - Hamlin, A. D. F. The History of Ornament: Century Co. 1916. - -ASYMMETRIES. - - Goodyear, William H. Greek Refinements. Yale University Press. - 1912. Architectural Record (articles in), Vol. VI, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4; - Vol. VII, Nos. 1, 2, 3; Vol. XVI, Nos. 2, 5, 6; Vol. XVII, No. 1. - American Architect (articles in), 1909, 1910, 1911. American - Journal of Archæology (articles in), Vol. XIV, No. 4; Vol. XV, No. - 3. Yale Quarterly Review, 1912, April. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] An exception occurs in a temple at =Assos=, where the architrave is -decorated. - -[2] It was sometimes used in connection with the Doric order, as in the -case of the =Tholos at Epidauros=, where the internal circle of columns -is of the Corinthian order. - -[3] A corresponding curvature in plan has also been discovered in -Egyptian architecture, for example, in the Second Temple Court at -=Medinct Abou=. - -[4] Erected eighty years after the death of Euripides, whose plays, -like those of Æschylus and Sophocles, were performed in temporary -theatres. - -[5] Note the similarity of this portico to the projection from the back -of an Elizabethan stage. - -[6] The reader may be reminded that longitudinal is in the direction -of the nave from west to east, transverse, across the nave, at right -angles, while the “diagonals” span the bay obliquely. - -[7] The above was written before the revolting desecration of Belgium -by the German invasion. - - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's How to Study Architecture, by Charles H. Caffin - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO STUDY ARCHITECTURE *** - -***** This file should be named 60830-0.txt or 60830-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/8/3/60830/ - -Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at -http://gutenberg.org/license). - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at -http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at -809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email -business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact -information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official -page at http://pglaf.org - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit http://pglaf.org - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |