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diff --git a/old/60893-0.txt b/old/60893-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ed326dd..0000000 --- a/old/60893-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10264 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Thinking and learning to think, by Nathan C. Schaeffer - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Thinking and learning to think - -Author: Nathan C. Schaeffer - -Editor: Martin G. Brumbaugh - -Release Date: December 10, 2019 [EBook #60893] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THINKING AND LEARNING TO THINK *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - - LIPPINCOTT’S - EDUCATIONAL SERIES - - EDITED BY - MARTIN G. BRUMBAUGH, PH.D. LL.D. - PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, AND COMMISSIONER - OF EDUCATION FOR PUERTO RICO - - [Illustration] - - VOLUME I - - - - -Lippincott Educational Series - -EDITED BY DR. M. G. BRUMBAUGH - -Professor of Pedagogy, University of Pennsylvania - -VOLUME I - -Thinking and Learning to Think - -By NATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, Ph.D., LL.D., Superintendent of Public -Instruction for the State of Pennsylvania. 351 pages. Cloth, $1.25. - -VOLUME II - -Two Centuries of Pennsylvania History - -By ISAAC SHARPLESS, President of Haverford College. 385 pages. -Illustrated. Cloth, $1.25. - -VOLUME III - -Kemp’s History of Education - -By DR. E. L. KEMP, Principal of East Stroudsburg Normal School. 385 -pages. Cloth, $1.25. - -VOLUME IV - -Kant’s Educational Theory - -By EDWARD FRANKLIN BUCKNER, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy and Education -in the University of Alabama. 309 pages. Cloth, $1.25. - - - - - _LIPPINCOTT’S EDUCATIONAL SERIES_ - - THINKING - AND - LEARNING TO THINK - - BY - NATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, PH.D., LL.D. - SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION FOR - THE STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA - - [Illustration] - - PHILADELPHIA - J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY - 1906 - - COPYRIGHT, 1900 - BY - J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY - - ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, - PHILADELPHIA, U.S.A. - - - - - -EDITOR’S PREFACE - - -The progress of educational thought during the closing years of this -century has been marvellous. Professional schools have created a demand -for professional teaching by giving an increasing group of skilled -instructors to our schools. This professional activity has caused our -leading cities to provide training-schools, as integral parts of the city -system of education. Finally, our great universities have established -departments of pedagogy for the higher training in education. As a -result, the leading positions in higher schools and in supervision are -more and more demanding professionally trained leaders. - -In this auspicious awakening for professional leadership there has -come an increasing demand for standard treatises upon the fundamental -problems of education. Treatises upon the history, methods, principles, -and systems of education have appeared with astonishing frequency. -That many of these are commercial treatises—made to sell—is doubtless -true. There is always a great temptation to profit by an active demand. -Well-disposed but not always widely trained and broadly cultured -teachers, who have achieved a local success with a method that owed its -virtue to the personality of its author and not to its intrinsic worth, -have been tempted into authorship. The wiser and nobler minds in the -profession wait. The days of unrest and experimentation, breeding discord -and confusion, have in part passed away, and the time has come when the -products of all this divergent activity may be put to the test of clear -analysis and adequate experience. This is especially true in the domains -of historic and philosophic inquiry. In experimental activity, touching -the problems of psychic life as related to its sensorium, much has been -done in a tentative way. Much must yet be done to produce results of -enduring significance. - -This series of educational treatises is projected to give inquiring -minds the best thought of our present professional life. Fundamental -problems in education will be exhibited in the series from time to time -by thoroughly trained leaders of extended experience. Teachers may -confidently accept these as authoritative discussions of the cardinal -questions of their profession. - -The highest endowment of the human spirit on the intellectual side is the -power to think. Learning to think is an essential process and end in all -school work. Thinking is the intellect’s regal activity. In a vague way, -all teaching appeals to the thought-activity of the pupil; but vagueness -in teaching is as pernicious as it is common. To exhibit the value, -scope, and process of thought is of inestimable service to the teacher. -It gives specific direction to teaching processes, and saves the child -from a thousand fanciful expedients. - -In the craze of the passing decade for novelty in teaching, there -has resulted an undue emphasis upon forms of so-called expressional -activity. It has been, in many quarters, forgotten that education is -noblest when it produces reflective activity. The power to analyze and -synthetize thought-complexes is the most fruitful endowment of the -intellectual life. Expression without adequate reflection is productive -of superficiality. - -We have been living a life of educational expedients. The path of -educational advance is strewn with countless cast-off practices which -once claimed attention largely because of the feeling among too many -that the newest theory is the best. There has come, let us hope, the -more rational resolve to test all new and loudly heralded theories by -fundamental laws of mental activity. To emphasize the significance of -this reaction, and to afford helpful criteria of educational processes, -this volume will be found most stimulating, suggestive, and sensible. - -For the purposes of the teacher thinking may be distinguished as follows: - -(_a_) _Clear thinking_, by which one is to understand thinking the thing, -and not some other thing in its stead. Much thinking is not clear. The -power of recall is not fully developed. The mind acts, but is not able -to assert confidently the accuracy of what it acts upon. Much needless -criticism is heaped upon schools because pupils cannot spell correctly, -solve problems accurately, recite a lesson in history or in geography -properly,—in short, because the pupil’s knowledge is not clear. The first -step in all true teaching is the step that makes clear to the pupil the -thing he is to think. - -(_b_) _Distinct thinking_, by which one is to understand thinking the -thing in its relations. This phase of thinking is sometimes called -apperception. It is the second, and not the first step in thinking. -There is no value in teaching relations until the things to be related -are first clearly apprehended. Perception must precede apperception. The -pupil in the elementary school has been well taught if he has been taught -to think clearly and distinctly. - -(_c_) _Adequate thinking_, by which one is to understand thinking the -thing in its essential parts. This is the analytic form of thought. The -child at first cannot think adequately. His mind thinks things as wholes. -He has not the power to think the whole and its parts, as parts of the -whole, simultaneously. He must rise to adequate thinking only after clear -and distinct thinking have become habits of mind. The fuller phase of -this activity, by which these analyzed parts are synthetically wrought -into an organic unity, is the process of concept-making,—the essential -prerequisite of all high orders of thought. This power every teacher -should possess. It is his surplus of knowledge, the possession of which -makes him easily master in the teaching process. - -(_d_) _Exhaustive thinking_, by which one is to understand thinking the -thing in its causes. This is the highest form of thinking the thing. It -gives perspective to thought-processes, and eliminates all accidental -and misleading elements from the categories of thought. To achieve this, -one must specialize. The teaching of the future must be more and more -intensive in scope. The day of the encyclopædist is gone. The teacher of -to-morrow must be a teacher who knows one order of truth exhaustively, -and who possesses the skill to incite in others a permanent enthusiasm -for that order of truth. Scientific progress is conditioned by such -teaching. - -The author has brought to this discussion the matured convictions of -broad training in American and European systems of schools, and a wide -and successful experience in teaching pupils and directing systems of -education. The discussion takes on the modest but stimulating style of -the public speaker. The author has for many years been among our foremost -lecturers upon education. The temper of the discussion is moderate and -constructive. There will be found here no wild excess, no straining after -fanciful effect, no advocacy of sensational and ephemeral methods; nor -is there a trace of pessimistic and destructive criticism of the earnest -teachers who are conscious of limitations and are reaching hopefully for -help. On the contrary, the discussion is full of real sympathy, founded -upon personal experience with teaching in all its phases, and abounds in -stimulating suggestion. - - M. G. B. - -October 1, 1900. - - - - -PREFACE - - -For a number of years it has been the author’s duty as well as privilege -to lecture at county institutes on the difficult art of teaching pupils -to think. This led to the request that the lectures be thrown into -permanent form for publication. The lecturer who never publishes has -no pet theories to defend; he can change his views as often as he sees -fit; yet, in spite of this advantage, he cannot always escape or ignore -the art of printing. One who gives his thoughts to the public without -the use of manuscript and under the limitations of extemporaneous -speech, made necessary by the large audiences which gather at teachers’ -institutes, especially in Pennsylvania, runs the risk of being misquoted -and misunderstood; he pays the penalty of being reported in fragmentary -if not distorted forms. This ultimately drives him, in justice to himself -and others, to write out his theories on education and to give them to -his coworkers in print. - -Portions of these lectures were delivered at the annual meeting of the -superintendents of New England, before the State teachers’ associations -of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Florida, before the Connecticut -Council of Education, before the summer schools held under the auspices -of the Ohio State University and the University of Wisconsin, and at -several of the meetings of the National Educational Association. The -favorable hearing accorded on these occasions induces the hope that -the lectures will be kindly received by many who teach outside of -Pennsylvania, and by some who give instruction in our higher institutions -of learning. - -Although no one can hope, on so difficult a theme, to say much that will -be entirely satisfactory to leading educators, surely no apology is -needed from any one who, after spending his best years in educational -work, attempts to contribute his mite towards the solution of any of the -problems which confront the teacher. - -It is assumed that there is a body of educational doctrine well -established in the minds of teachers, and that on many school questions -we have advanced beyond the border line of first discovery. Those who -assert that our educational practice is radically wrong and in need -of thorough reformation should hasten to clarify their own views and -ideas, to substitute constructive for destructive criticism, and to -give definite shape to their reforms; otherwise a whole generation will -grow to maturity and the reformers themselves will pass away before -any of their reforms will have been accomplished. To give teachers the -feeling that what they are doing is all wrong, and to leave them without -anything better in place of what is condemned, robs them of joy in their -work, makes them victims of worry and neurasthenia, and unfits them for -the care of children. It is hoped that these lectures will be found to -suggest a better way whenever criticism is bestowed upon existing methods -of instruction. - -No attempt is made to ridicule the arm-chair psychologists, or the -advocates of child study, or those patient and painstaking workers who -are honestly seeking to establish the facts of mind through experiments -in the laboratory. He who has carefully reflected upon the art of making -pupils think will not hesitate to admit that thus far he has received -more light from the standard psychology than from the labors of those -who claim to be the exponents of the new psychology. The latter can -hardly write or talk without using the terms coined by the older -students of mind; this shows their indebtedness to those who taught and -speculated before laboratories of psychology were established. Sometimes -the experiments have only served to test and give a reason for what was -already accepted. Often they have brought to our knowledge facts of mind -which could never have been discovered by the method of introspection. In -either case the experiments have resulted in clear gain. Let the facts of -brain and mind, of nervous and mental action, of human growth, maturity, -and decay be gathered, questioned, tested, and classified; let their -bearing upon educational practice be set forth in the clearest possible -light: every resulting step of progress and reform will be hailed with -delight by all who have no pet theories to defend. - -The lecturer is limited by time, by the kind of audience which he -addresses, and by circumstances largely beyond his control. These -limitations drop out when he reduces his thoughts to writing, and a -rearrangement at many points becomes possible as well as desirable. The -expedients for relieving the strain of attention and winning back the -listless can be omitted; and omissions that become necessary through the -exigencies of the programme must be supplied for the sake of logical -sequence. Moreover, the aims which those who engage the lecturer set -before him frequently require a modification of the line of discussion, -so that a course of lectures on a specific theme cannot always follow the -same order of treatment, although substantially the same in content and -scope. Hence the division into chapters has been adopted as preferable -to the original sequence of lectures. Nevertheless, the style of the -rostrum has not been altogether eliminated, because when oral discourse -is thrown into new forms, and the phraseology is changed for the sake of -publication, the loss in vividness, directness, and simplicity is greater -than the gain in diction and fulness of statement. - -Lecturing, as well as book-making, has its peculiar temptations. The -lecturer must interest his hearers in order to hold them; he is tempted -to play to the galleries, and to omit what is beyond the comprehension -of the average audience. The book-maker, on the other hand, is tempted -to display his learning, to make a show of depth and erudition. The -student of pedagogy is supposed to be in search of profound wisdom. -Those who write for him often dive so deep that their style becomes -muddy. Unfortunately, some of the best treatises on education have been -written in the style of the philosopher and wrought out on the plane of -the university professor, although intended for undergraduates at normal -schools, and for teachers whose meagre salaries do not enable them to -pursue courses of study at institutions of higher learning. The lucid -style of Spencer’s treatise on “Education” has done much to counteract -this tendency. Yet many of the authors of our treatises on pedagogy seem -to be haunted by a feeling similar to that of the German professor, who, -on reading the opening chapters of a new book, and finding them to be -intelligible to his colleagues, exclaimed, “Then I must rewrite these -chapters; otherwise nobody will read my book through.” - -Huxley has well described the penalty which must be paid by those who -speak or write for the purpose of being understood. These are his words: - -“At the same time it must be admitted that the popularization of -science, whether by lecture or essay, has its drawbacks. Success in this -department has its perils for those who succeed. The ‘people who fail’ -take their revenge, as we have recently had occasion to observe, by -ignoring all the rest of a man’s work and glibly labelling him a mere -popularizer. If the falsehood were not too glaring, they would say the -same of Faraday and Helmholtz and Kelvin.” - -One who can never hope to rival the style of Spencer and Huxley and those -to whom the latter refers, will nevertheless do well to emulate their -skill in making difficult things plain to people who are not specialists -or experts. He who writes for the teachers in our public schools should -put aside his ambition to be considered erudite or profound, and endeavor -above all things to be understood. Vague theories are apt to beget a bad -conscience in those who teach and to destroy the joy which every one has -a right to feel while doing honest and faithful work. Hence the writer -offers no apology for heaping illustration upon illustration in the -effort to make his meaning plain to those whom he aims to help. - -There is at present great need for clear thinking and luminous -presentation of facts on the part of all who write on education for -the people or for teachers in our public schools. By a process similar -to that by which the mediæval imagination swelled the murder of the -innocents at Bethlehem into a slaughter of thousands of children (there -cannot have been many male children two years old and under in a small -Judean village), the harm which some pupils suffer is magnified into -a national crime at the feet of American parents; the evils which -result from “Bob White” societies, from children’s parties, from church -sociables for young boys and girls, are all ascribed to the school -curriculum; and reforms in home study are proposed which never fail to -provoke a smile on the face of a healthy boy. - -The hygienic conditions of the average school are quite equal to those -of the average home. The health of many children improves during their -attendance at school. The pupils who are born with a sound mind in a -sound body, who get healthful diet, enough sleep, and treatment from -their elders which is not calculated to make them nervous or unhappy, -show none of the illness from overwork, the dulness of brain from -fatigue, and the exhaustion of nervous energy which are made to furnish -the narrow basis of fact for vague and broad generalizations. The haze -in which those who must furnish the printer a given amount of copy in a -given time are apt to envelop whatever they write has an effect like that -of misty air upon the size of visible objects. Travellers who have come -into a cloud while ascending a mountain report that a small wood-pile -then looks like a barn, a cow seems larger than an elephant, men appear -as giants, and the surrounding heights assume threatening proportions. -As soon as sunlight clears the atmosphere, objects are again seen in -their true dimensions. The moment the light of common sense penetrates -the haze and mist and fog and cloud which are used to heighten the -effect of essays upon school work, the need of radical reform seems -far less urgent; and teachers, instead of wasting their time in worry -and uncertainty, begin with cheerful heart to impart that which modern -civilization requires every child to know as a condition of bread-winning -and complete living. - -There is, of course, a worse fault than obscurity of style,—namely, -dearth of ideas. The danger to which the lecturer is always exposed, that -of losing his hearers and failing to be recalled (their minds may leave -while they are bodily present), spurs to effort in two directions. Either -he will try to say something worth listening to, or he will strive to -entertain by amusing stories and incidents. If he be conscious of a lack -of talent for humor, he will try to stuff his lectures full of sense. If -the lectures here published lack in this respect, the writer is willing -to acknowledge failure. - -In preparing a course of lectures it is proper to bear in mind the -difference between the lecturer, the orator, the poet, and the -philosopher. The philosopher investigates ideas and truths, explores -their essence and relations, and unfolds them in their deepest unity and -in their greatest possible compass. When this has been done throughout -the whole domain of thought, his mission is accomplished. The poet seeks -to clothe his ideas in beautiful forms. When the idea is perfectly suited -to the form and the form to the idea, his mission is accomplished. The -orator aims to move the will; he quotes authorities, uses ideas, appeals -to the feelings, and subordinates everything to the one end of gaining a -verdict, winning a vote, or getting a response in the conduct of those -whom he addresses. The lecturer seeks to impart information. He aims -to get a response in the thinking of those whom he addresses. He tries -to reach the intellect rather than the will. Beautiful language and -exhaustive treatment are not essential parts of his mission. It is his -province to elucidate the theme under consideration, to guide the efforts -and inquiries of those who come to him for instruction, to direct them -to the sources of information, and to furnish such incentives as he can -towards independent study and investigation. - -Since the data for pedagogy are derived mainly from kindred fields of -investigation, the lecturer on the science and art of education has -frequent occasion to cite authorities and to utilize the labors and -conclusions of the men eminent in the sciences which throw light upon -the growth of the child, more especially upon the development of mind -and character. The most original writers quote very little, and those -who are anxious to establish a reputation for originality refrain from -quoting others. It is the business of the lecturer to lead the hearer to -the sources of information. When anything has been so well said that he -cannot improve upon the form of statement it is proper that he should -quote the language, carefully giving the source whence it is derived. -Without doubt, when the genius appears who will do for pedagogy what -Aristotle did for logic and Euclid for geometry, he will so polish every -gem he gets from others and give it a setting so unique and appropriate -that the world will recognize the touch of the master and acknowledge the -contribution as peculiarly his own handiwork. In painting and sculpture -we look to the past for the greatest works of art. In music the century -now closing has rivalled, if not surpassed, its predecessors. In the -science and art of education the greatest achievements belong to the -future. It is currently reported and sometimes believed that when the -president of a celebrated university was asked why he had transferred a -certain professor from the department of geology to that of pedagogy, he -replied, “I thought the fellow would do less harm in that department.” If -the story is not a myth, he probably meant less harm to the reputation -of the university. When in our day a course in geology or logic or -geometry is announced, one can foretell the ground that will be covered. -No such prediction can be made with reference to a course of lectures -on teaching. The prophet is yet to come who will fix the scope of the -science of education and give it something like definite and abiding -shape. - -This volume is not designed to supplant systematic treatises on -psychology and logic. Its aim is to throw light upon one important phase -of the art of teaching. If it contributes but two mites to the treasury -of information on the science and art of education, the labor bestowed -upon it has not been in vain. Should any critic hint that two mites are -all one has to give, it may be said in reply that it is better to give -something than to give nothing at all, and that according to Holy Writ -the smallest contributions are not to be despised if made in the right -spirit. And it may add to the critic’s stock of ideas to be informed -that a small English weight, called mite, outweighs very many of the -current criticisms upon modern education, that of this small weight it -takes twenty to make a grain, and that to a faithful teacher a tenth of a -grain of helpful suggestion is worth more than many tons of destructive -criticism. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I.—MAKE THE PUPILS THINK 21 - - II.—THINKING IN THINGS AND IN SYMBOLS 35 - - III.—THE MATERIALS OF THOUGHT 47 - - IV.—BASAL CONCEPTS AS THOUGHT-MATERIAL 63 - - V.—THE INSTRUMENTS OF THOUGHT 85 - - VI.—TECHNICAL TERMS AS INSTRUMENTS OF THOUGHT 99 - - VII.—THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE 111 - - VIII.—THE STIMULUS TO THINKING 123 - - IX.—THE RIGHT USE OF BOOKS 137 - - X.—OBSERVATION AND THINKING 155 - - XI.—THE MEMORY AND THINKING 167 - - XII.—IMAGING AND THINKING 191 - - XIII.—THE STREAM OF THOUGHT 209 - - XIV.—THE STREAM OF THOUGHT IN LISTENING AND READING 223 - - XV.—THE STREAM OF THOUGHT IN WRITING, SPEAKING, AND ORAL - READING 239 - - XVI.—KINDS OF THINKING 255 - - XVII.—THINKING AND KNOWING 269 - - XVIII.—THINKING AND FEELING 289 - - XIX.—THINKING AND WILLING 303 - - XX.—THINKING AND DOING 317 - - XXI.—THINKING IN THE ARTS 331 - - XXII.—THINKING AND THE HIGHER LIFE 341 - - - - -I - -MAKE THE PUPILS THINK - - The value of a thought cannot be told. - - BAILEY. - - He who will not reason is a bigot; he who cannot is a fool; he - who dares not is a slave. - - BYRON. - - Reason is the glory of human nature, and one of the chief - eminences whereby we are raised above the beasts in this lower - world. - - WATTS. - - Man is not the prince of creatures, - But in reason. Fail that, he is worse - Than horse, or dog, or beast of wilderness. - - FIELD. - - Man is a thinking being, whether he will or no. All he can do - is to turn his thoughts the best way. - - SIR W. TEMPLE. - - -I - -MAKE THE PUPILS THINK - -[Sidenote: A test of teaching.] - -For the purpose of testing the quality of gold alloy jewellers formerly -used a fine-grained dark stone, called the touchstone. In the eyes of an -educator good instruction is more precious than pure gold. The touchstone -by which he tests the quality of instruction, so as to distinguish -genuine teaching from its counterfeit, rote teaching, is thinking. The -schoolmaster who teaches by rote is satisfied if the pupils repeat his -words or those of the book; the true teacher sees to it that the pupils -think the thoughts which the words convey. - -[Sidenote: Thring’s practice.] - -Thring, who, next to Arnold, was perhaps the greatest teacher England -ever had, laid much stress upon thinking. Sometimes he would startle a -dull lad, in the midst of an exercise, by asking, “What have you got -sticking up between your shoulders?” “My head,” was the reply. “How does -it differ from a turnip?” And by questioning he would elicit the answer, -“The head thinks; the turnip does not.” - -[Sidenote: Views of others.] - -So important is thinking in all teaching that at the World’s Educational -Congress, in 1893, one educator after another rose in his place to -emphasize the maxim, “Make the pupils think.” One of the most advanced of -the reformers shouted in almost frantic tones, “Yes, make even the very -babies think.” After the wise men had returned to their homes, a Chicago -periodical raised the query, “How can you stop a pupil from thinking?” -And the conclusion it announced was that neither the teacher behind -the desk nor the tyrant upon his throne can stop a pupil from thinking. -Evidently, if that which sticks up between a boy’s shoulders is a head -and not a turnip, if the pupil is rational and not an imbecile or an -idiot, he does some thinking for himself; and the maxim, “Make the pupils -think,” requires further analysis before it can be helpful in the art of -teaching. - -[Sidenote: Thinking for one’s self. Relying on others.] - -We who teach are very apt to overestimate thinking in our own line -of work and to undervalue thinking outside of the school. There is, -perhaps, as much good thought in a lady’s bonnet as in the solution of -a quadratic equation. A sewing-machine embodies as much genuine thought -as the demonstration of a geometrical theorem. The construction of a -locomotive or a railway bridge displays as much effective thinking as -Hegel’s “Philosophy of History,” or Kant’s “Critique of the Pure Reason.” -Most men think very well in doing their own kind of work; in many other -spheres of activity they must let other people think for them. When the -professor of astronomy discusses a problem connected with his science, he -thinks for himself; but when he buys a piece of land, he gets a lawyer to -think for him in the examination of the title and the preparation of the -deed. The lawyer thinks for himself in the court-house; but when he goes -home to dine, he expects his wife, or the cook, to have done the thinking -for him in the preparation of the dinner. Grover Cleveland had the -reputation of thinking for himself: many a politician found out that this -reputation was founded on fact; but when the ex-President is sick, or has -the toothache, he is willing to let a physician or a dentist think for -him. In like manner, a pupil may think very well upon the play-ground; -but if the teacher, whose very name indicates the function of guiding, -fails to guide the pupil aright, the latter may become a mere parrot in -the class-room. What, then, is involved in making a pupil think? - -[Sidenote: Thinking defined.] - -The difficulty in answering this question is increased by the diversity -of meanings of the word _thinking_. The teacher who is not clear in his -use of the term may employ exercises calculated to develop one kind of -mental activity, and then accuse the pupils of dulness because they do -not show facility in some other intellectual process. When a text-book on -mental science defines the intellect as the power by which we think, the -term _thinking_ is used to designate every form of intellectual activity. -The Century Dictionary defines thinking as an exercise of the cognitive -faculties in any way not involving outward observation, or the passive -reception of ideas from other minds. The logician defines thinking as the -process of comparing two ideas through their relation to a third. Many -exercises of the school are supposed to cultivate thinking in the last -sense of the word, when in reality they cultivate thinking only in the -widest acceptation of the term. - -[Sidenote: A faulty exercise.] - -The writer saw a normal school principal conduct an exercise in thinking, -as the latter called it. Turning to one of the pupils, he said, “Charley, -will you please think of something?” As soon as the boy raised his hand -the principal asked, “Does it belong to the animal, the vegetable, or -the mineral kingdom?” Then turning to the other members of the class, -he said, “Who of you can think of the vegetable in Charley’s mind?” The -names of at least forty different vegetables were given and spelled and -written upon the black-board. At last a pupil succeeded in naming what -was in Charley’s mind. Then there was a look of triumph upon the faces -of the principal and the class, as much as to say, “Isn’t that splendid -thinking?” At least one person felt like burying his face in his hands -for very shame; for here was resurrected from the dead an old exercise -of philanthropinism which was buried more than a hundred years ago. What -should one call that kind of mental activity? _Guessing._ That is all it -is. The exercise tended to beget a habit very difficult to break up after -it has been formed. - -[Sidenote: A better plan.] - -Far better was an exercise which the writer witnessed in a graded school. -The teacher had called the class in the second reader. As soon as all -the pupils were seated she said, “You may read the first paragraph.” -Instead of reading orally, the class became so quiet that one might have -heard a pin drop. After most of the hands were raised she called upon -one pupil to tell what the paragraph said. The second paragraph was read -and the substance of it stated in the pupil’s own words. An omission was -supplied by another pupil; an incorrect phrase was modified by giving -the correct words for conveying the thought. In the course of the lesson -it became necessary to clarify the ideas of some. This was accomplished -by a few pertinent questions which made the pupils think for themselves. -After the entire lesson had been read in this way she dismissed the -class without assigning a lesson. Every member of the class went to -his seat, took out his slate, and began to write out the lesson in his -own language. The interest and pleasure depicted on their faces showed -that it was not a task but a joy to express thought by the pencil. The -teacher had given them something to think about; she had taught them to -express their thoughts in spoken and written language; her questions had -stimulated their thinking, and when, later in the day, the lesson in oral -reading was given, the vocal utterance showed that every pupil understood -what he was reading. There was no parrot-like utterance of vocables, -but an expression of thought based upon a thorough understanding and -appreciation of what was read. The silent reading was an exercise in -thought-getting and thought-begetting, the language lesson upon the slate -was an exercise in active thinking through written words, and the oral -expression furnished a test by which the teacher could ascertain what she -had accomplished in getting her pupils to think. - -[Sidenote: A suggestive reply.] - -The first thing necessary in making the pupil think is best shown by -relating another incident. The catalogue of a well-known school announced -that the teachers were aiming to get their pupils to read Latin at -sight and to think in more tongues than one. A captious superintendent -wrote to the principal, saying, “I envy you. How do you do it? We would -be satisfied if we could make pupils think in English.” The reply was -equally sharp and suggestive: “You ask how we make pupils think. I -answer, By giving them something to think about. If you ask how we -make them think in more tongues than one, I answer, By giving them, in -addition to the materials of thought, the instruments of thought as found -in two or more languages.” - -[Sidenote: The first essential.] - -The first step in training a pupil to think is to furnish him proper -materials of thought, to develop in his mind the concepts which lie at -the basis of a branch of study, and which must be analyzed, compared, -and combined in new forms during the prosecution of that study. Just as -little as a boy can draw fish from an empty pond, so little can he draw -ideas, thoughts, and conclusions from an empty head. If the fundamental -ideas are not carefully developed when the study of a new science is -begun, all subsequent thinking on the part of the pupil is necessarily -hazy, uncertain, unsatisfactory. How can a pupil compare two ideas or -concepts and join them in a correct judgment if there is nothing in his -mind except the technical terms by which the scientist denotes these -ideas? The idea of number lies at the basis of arithmetic. How often are -beginners expected to think in figures without having a clear idea of -what figures denote! What teacher has not seen children wrestling with -fractions who had no idea of a fraction save that of two figures, one -above the other, with a line between them! How many of our arithmetics -are full of problems involving business transactions of which the pupil -cannot possibly have an adequate idea! Not having clear ideas of the -things to be compared, how can the learner form clear and accurate -judgments and conclusions? - -[Sidenote: Proper thought-material.] - -So essential to correct thinking is the development of the concepts and -ideas which lie at the basis of each science, that we may designate the -giving to the pupil of something to think about as the first and most -important step in the solution of the educational problem before us. In -other words, the furnishing of the proper materials of thought is the -first step in teaching others to think. The force and the validity of -this proposition are easily seen if we reflect upon the essential oneness -of the manifold diversities of thinking as they appear at school and in -subsequent years. - -[Sidenote: Thinking in the professions.] - -It is universally conceded that education should be a preparation for -life. The thinking at school should be an adumbration of the thinking -beyond the school. The possession of enough data, or thought-materials, -for reaching trustworthy conclusions, which is the indispensable -requisite of successful thinking at school, is likewise a necessary -requisite of successful thinking in practical life. It behooves us to -inquire into the nature and foundation of the thinking of men in the -professions, and in other vocations, for the purpose of gaining further -light upon the problem before us. Let us, then, inquire into the nature -and foundation of the thinking of men eminent in a profession or -prominent in some other vocation. The professional man may have less -native ability, less general knowledge, less culture and education, less -mental power than the client whom he advises or the patient for whom he -prescribes; and yet his inferences and conclusions are accepted as more -trustworthy than those of men outside of the given profession, because -he has a knowledge of facts and data which they do not possess. If he be -a physician, special training and professional experience have taught -him how to observe the symptoms of different diseases; how to eliminate -sources of doubt and error; how to reach a correct diagnosis of difficult -cases, and how to apply the proper remedies. If he be a lawyer, he has -been taught how to examine court records; how to detect and guard against -flaws in legal documents; how to find and interpret the law in specific -cases; how to protect the life and property of his client. The judge on -the bench is learned in the law, though he may be ignorant of science, -literature, agriculture, commerce, and manufactures. He is aided in -arriving at correct conclusions by thought-materials which are not in the -possession of laymen. - -[Sidenote: The thinking of experts.] - -[Sidenote: Teaching not a trade.] - -How does the thinking of an expert differ from that of other men? Not so -much in the processes of thought as in the data upon which he reasons. -An ordinary witness may testify as to matters of fact; the expert is -supposed to possess extensive knowledge and superior discrimination in a -particular branch of learning or practice; hence he may be a witness in -matters as to which ordinary observers cannot form just conclusions, and -he is held liable for negligence in case he injures another from want of -proper qualifications or proper use of the thought-materials necessary -to form trustworthy conclusions. From this point of view we can see new -force and beauty in the remark of Fitch that teaching is the noblest of -the professions, but the sorriest of trades. The aim of a trade is to -make something that will sell; its ultimate aim is money, a livelihood. -Teaching and the other professions, although they cannot be sundered from -money-making, have a nobler aim. This arises out of the thought-materials -with which they deal. If a teacher’s mind does not busy itself with -these, he sinks to the level of a tradesman. A very keen observer said of -the head of a large boarding-school, that he had learned his trade from -the principal of a large normal school under whom he had been trained. -The remark, if true, was severe, but significant. It was an intimation -that the substance of the thinking of these two men was business rather -than education; that their conversation about the quality of the beef and -mutton served, about the loaves of bread, the pounds of butter, and the -bushels of potatoes consumed each week, indicated that they were thinking -more of the stomach and the purse than of the things of the mind; that -their aim was a large attendance and a large cash-balance at the end -of the year rather than the mental growth and professional preparation -of their students. Their thinking was efficient and trustworthy in -the domain in which it was exercised. It partook of the nature of -trade-thinking, and lacked professional quality because it did not -concern itself with problems of mental growth and moral training, with -the proper sequence of studies, with the educational value of different -kinds of knowledge, and with the best methods of economizing the time and -effort of their students. - -[Sidenote: Mysteries.] - -In several aspects teaching is like a trade. Every art has its mysteries, -with which those who practise it must be familiar if they would succeed. -Teaching is no exception; and if the annual institute or the school of -pedagogy fails to clarify these mysteries by putting the teachers in -possession of materials for thought and of methods of applying knowledge -to beget thinking which are not within the ken of the average parent -and the general public, then failure must be written over the outcome. -A mystery is a lesson to be learned. A scrutiny of the mysteries which -characterize every trade and every art will serve not merely to emphasize -the necessity for furnishing proper thought-materials, but will be -helpful also in paving the way for the consideration of another essential -in training pupils to think. Let us view them in the concrete. - -[Sidenote: Examples.] - -A machinist, who was also a skilled mechanic, was compelled by -circumstances to quit his trade and to accept a position as janitor. -One day the pipe leading from the sink to the sewer was clogged. The -teacher, in conjunction with a carpenter, worked a long time to fix it, -but in vain. The janitor was called, who in a few moments overcame the -difficulty by the application of a principle in natural philosophy on -which the teacher could have talked learnedly, although he knew not how -to apply it in the given case. The janitor related how the foreman in a -foundry was baffled in the effort to bore a hole through a piece of iron -until a workman, trained under a foreign master, suggested the purchase -of two things at a drug-store by means of which the hole was easily -bored. When the druggist asked about the use that was to be made of these -chemicals, he was told that the use was one of the mysteries of the -machinist’s trade. - -Next, the carpenter fixed the mortise lock of a door which needed -attention, and the others lauded the skill with which he handled his -tools and applied his knowledge. Before the three separated, the -janitor’s son came with a word which he could not find in his lexicon. -With the aid of chalk and black-board and grammar, the teacher showed -how to dig out the roots of a Greek verb and what beautiful changes occur -in its conjugation. The turn had come for the tradesmen to admire the -mysterious skill and power of the teacher. - -In applying the principle of natural philosophy, the janitor made skilful -use of one or two tools which the teacher and the carpenter had never -seen. He could express thought through the tools of his own handicraft, -in ways that they could not. Each one of the three men knew the tools -and the mysteries of his own vocation. During the entire scene there was -not a logical flaw in the thinking of any one of them. Probably there -was little difference in their native ability; certainly none in the -fundamental nature of their thought-processes. The practical difference -resulted from the data at their command and from the tools they were -using to express the thoughts peculiar to their several vocations. - -[Sidenote: Man, the tool-user.] - -[Sidenote: Instruments of thought the second essential.] - -The power to use tools, instruments, and machinery lifts man above the -brute creation. There is labor-saving machinery in thinking as well -as in manual labor. The more perfect the tools with which we work the -greater the results we can achieve without waste of effort. In thinking -as well as in working we must use the best tools in order to attain the -greatest facility and efficiency. Yonder are two wheat-fields. In one -of them a giant is wielding the sickle of our forefathers; in the other -a youth, not yet out of his teens, is at work. At the close of the day -the work of the giant will not bear comparison with that of the lad, -because the latter was sitting upon a self-binder. They had the same -material to work upon, yet, in spite of his superior strength, the giant -could not cope with his weaker though better-equipped competitor. In -like manner, the youth who has mastered the algebraic equation, or the -symbols and formulas of chemistry, is in many respects the superior of a -much brighter man who is not in possession of these tools or instruments -of thought. A boy of average capacity who goes through a good high -school thereby acquires certain fundamental ideas and the accompanying -instruments of thought by which he is enabled to solve problems entirely -beyond the power of a much brighter boy who never studies beyond the -grammar grade. - -[Sidenote: Confusion in thought and practice.] - -The instruments of thought are generally spoken of as symbols, whilst -the materials of thought are the things for which the symbols stand. In -thinking, the mind may employ the ideas which correspond to the things -in the external world; or it may employ the symbols by which science -indicates things that have been definitely fixed or quantified. Failure -to distinguish the sign from the thing signified, the symbol from its -reality, leads to confusion in thought and to the most disastrous results -in mental development. Loss of appetite for knowledge must inevitably -result from methods of teaching by which the pupil is expected to learn -the sounds of the letters from their names, or musical sounds from the -notation on the staff, or the ideas of number from the arabic notation, -or a knowledge of flowers from the technical terms of a text-book, or -a knowledge of chemical elements and substances from the definitions, -descriptions, and formulas of a scientific treatise. The symbol is -indispensable in advanced thinking; but to expect the learner to get the -fundamental ideas of a science from words, symbols, and definitions is -evidence that the teacher does not understand the nature of thinking. It -may, therefore, be helpful to set forth clearly the important distinction -between thinking in things and thinking in symbols; to point out their -relative value in mental development; and to fix their place in a -rational system of education. - - - - -II - -THINKING IN THINGS AND IN SYMBOLS - - The rote system, like other systems of its age, made more of - forms and symbols than of the things symbolized. To repeat - the words correctly was everything, to understand the meaning - nothing; and thus the spirit was sacrificed to the letter. - - HERBERT SPENCER. - - Words are men’s daughters, but God’s sons are things. - - JOHNSON. - - For words are wise men’s counters,—they do but reckon by - them,—but they are the money of fools. - - HOBBES. - - It is only by the help of language (or some other equivalent - set of signs) that we can think in the strict sense of the - word; that is to say, consider things under their general or - common aspects. - - SULLY. - - -II - -THINKING IN THINGS AND IN SYMBOLS - -[Sidenote: Lesson in geography.] - -[Sidenote: Two kinds of thinking.] - -Within half a mile of the Susquehanna River a teacher was asking the -class, “Of what is the earth’s surface composed?” “Of land and water,” -was the reply. In answer to a question by the superintendent concerning -the earth’s surface, one boy declared that he had never seen the earth. -He had been acquiring words without the corresponding ideas. Turning to -another boy, this official said, “Will you please show me water?” With -a gleam of satisfaction on his face, the lad raised his atlas, pointed -to the blue coloring around the map of North America, and said, “That -is water.” “Will you please drink it?” The expression on the faces of -teacher and pupils indicated that all felt as if some one had committed -a blunder. Where did the blunder lie? Had the teacher taught what should -not be learned? Surely, every child should learn how water is indicated -on a map. Did the boy use language wrong in idiom? By no means; for, as -every student who has handled a lexicon well knows, many words have both -a literal and a tropical, or figurative, meaning. If, pointing to an -object, the teacher says, “This is a desk,” he uses the word is in its -literal sense. On the other hand, if he points to a division on the map -of the United States, and says, “This is Pennsylvania,” he does not mean -that the colored surface to which he is pointing is the real State of -Pennsylvania (if it were, a political boss could pocket it, and carry it -the rest of his days without further trouble). What is meant is, that -a given space on the map indicates or represents Pennsylvania, the word -_is_ being used, in the latter instance, in a figurative sense. Whether -the word _is_, in the expression, “This is my body,” should be understood -in a literal or in a figurative sense has been discussed for ages in the -Christian church. In the answer of the boy we strike a distinction in -thought that lies at the basis of good teaching in all grades of schools, -from the kindergarten to the university,—namely, the distinction between -thinking in things and thinking in symbols. In one sense of the word, all -thinking is symbolic; for the percepts, concepts, and images of external -objects which the mind employs in the thinking process are symbolic of -the things for which they stand. But in advanced thinking, and especially -in scientific investigations, objective symbols, such as words, signs, -letters, equations, formulas, technical terms and expressions, are -utilized to facilitate the thinking process. Take the age questions in -mental arithmetic that have been prematurely inflicted upon so many -pupils in the public schools. So long as the mind consciously carries -A’s age and the wife’s age, using the clumsy instruments of arithmetical -analysis, the thinking is difficult indeed. As soon as _x_ is made -the symbol of A’s age, and _y_ the symbol of the wife’s age, so that -the conditions of the problem can be thrown into algebraic equations, -the difficulty vanishes. In the algebraic solution the mind drops all -thought of A’s age and the wife’s age while manipulating the signs and -symbols of the equation, and restores the meaning of the symbols only -when their value in figures has been found. The algebraic solution is a -genuine specimen of thinking in symbols, and illustrates the labor-saving -machinery which the human mind employs, more or less, in all the most -difficult scientific investigations. - -[Sidenote: Symbol defined.] - -What is a symbol? It is a mark, sign, or visible representation of -an idea. The mathematician uses the symbol to represent quantities, -operations, and relations. The chemist uses the symbol to indicate -elements and their groupings or combinations. The theologian applies the -term symbol to creeds and abstract statements of doctrine. The grips, -countersigns, and passwords of a secret society may be spoken of as -symbols of the ideas, aims, and principles of the organization. Often -the symbol is chosen on account of some supposed resemblance between -it and that for which it stands, as when black is made the symbol -of mourning, white of purity, the oak of strength, and the sword of -slaughter. “A symbol,” says Kate Douglass Wiggin, “may be considered to -be a sensuous object which suggests an idea, or it may be defined as the -sign or representation of something moral or intellectual by the images -or properties of natural things, as we commonly say, for instance, that -the lion is the symbol of courage, the dove the symbol of gentleness. -It need not be an object any more than an action or an event, for the -emerging of the butterfly from the chrysalis may be a symbol of the -resurrection of the body, or the silver lining of the cloud typify the -joy that shines through adversity.” Frequently the symbol is chosen -arbitrarily, or because it is the first letter of the word which denotes -the quality, substance, thing, or idea for which the symbol stands. -Generally the symbol is a visible representation, but it may also address -the other senses, notably the ear and the sense of touch. The Standard -Dictionary excludes the portrait from the extent or scope of the symbol, -and confines it to the representation of that which is not capable of -portraiture, as an idea, state, quality, or action. It is well to bear -this limitation in mind during the present discussion. - -[Sidenote: Examples.] - -A few illustrations will serve to fix the sense of the word symbol. In -some parts of America the tramps have a system of symbols of their own, a -given mark on the front gate indicating a good place to ask for a meal, -another indicating a cross dog in the rear yard. That which the tramp -fears or likes is not the mark which he sees, but a very real thing which -that mark suggests to his mind. A number of the apostles were fishermen -by trade. The fish became a very significant symbol in the days of early -Christianity. The letters in the Greek name for fish are the initial -letters of the expression, Jesus Christ, God’s Son, Saviour. It is one of -many instances showing how the human mind delights in heaping symbol upon -symbol to conceal precious meanings from the uninitiated. - -[Sidenote: Symbols for water.] - -What was the mental condition of the lad spoken of at the beginning of -this chapter? The boy knew the real thing long before he knew the first -symbol for water. Without doubt he had tasted it, played in it against -his mother’s will, been washed in it against his own will, for months -before he learned the first symbol for water used in common by him and -others, which was probably the spoken word. Up to that time he thought -of water in some mental picture or image which had been formed upon the -eye and then upon mind somewhat as the picture is formed through the art -of the photographer. Up to the time that he learned the spoken word for -water this liquid suggested mental pictures which constituted a thinking -in things[1] rather than in symbols, using the latter term according to -the limitation set by the Standard Dictionary. On entering school he -was taught to read; he added to the ear-symbol the eye-symbol,—that is, -the written or printed word, which he may have associated at first with -the real thing, or with the spoken word; of course, very soon with both, -if correct methods of teaching were followed. Next, he was taught the -map-symbol. The blunder which the teacher on the banks of the Susquehanna -had committed consisted not in teaching how water is indicated on a map, -but in not pointing to the majestic river near the school-house, and -associating the water in its channel with the representations of water -on a map. If the boy studied Latin or Greek, he was taught new symbols -for water in the corresponding words of these languages. If he studied -chemistry, he early learned the composition of water, and was thenceforth -taught to write it H₂O, a symbol enshrining a new truth and lifting him -to higher planes of thought by giving him a new instrument as well as new -materials of thought. - -[Sidenote: Sources of error.] - -[Sidenote: Elementary instruction.] - -Half the errors in teaching arise from the fact that the teacher does not -constantly bear in mind the distinction between the symbol and the thing -for which the symbol stands, thus giving rise to confusion in the mind -of the learner. A class was bounding the different States of the Union. -At the close of the recitation the superintendent suggested that the -class bound the school-house. It was bounded on the north by the roof, -on the south by the cellar, on the east and west by walls. The geography -classes of an entire city were caught in that way. Either the pupils had -not been taught, or else they had forgotten the difference between the -real directions and the ordinary representation of them on the surface -of a wall map. Sometimes the confusion exists in the mind of the teacher -as well as in the minds of the pupils. Then he expects them to learn one -thing while he teaches them another. By the methods formerly in vogue -the pupil was expected to learn the sounds of the letters from their -names; the pronunciation of the word from the names of the letters which -compose it; the names, forms, and sounds of letters from the word taught -as a whole; the musical sounds from the notation on a musical staff; the -ideas of number, of fractions, from the corresponding symbols; the units -of denominate numbers and of the metric system from the names used in -the tables of weights and measures; the flowers of the field from the -nomenclature of the botany; the substances and experiments in chemistry -from the descriptions and pictures of a text-book. Such teaching has -given rise to endless lectures, editorials, and discussions upon the use -of the concrete in teaching, upon the value of thinking in things, upon -the importance of object-lessons, laboratory methods, and the like. - -[Sidenote: More advanced instruction.] - -But there is another side to the question. There comes a time in the -development of the pupil when he must rise above the sticks and shoe-pegs -and blocks of the elementary arithmetic, and learn to think in the -symbols of the Arabic notation. Later he must learn to think in the more -comprehensive symbols of the algebraic notation. He must learn to think -the abstract and general concepts of science, and, in thinking these, to -use the devices, technical terms, and other symbols which the scientists -have invented to facilitate their thinking. - -[Sidenote: A parable.] - -Hear a parable. A teacher sat down to dinner. The waiter handed him the -bill of fare. The proprietor followed the waiter to the kitchen, directed -him to cut out the names of the eatables which had been ordered, and to -carry these names on plates to the dining-room. “It is not these words,” -exclaimed the guest, “that I desire to eat, but the things in the -kitchen for which these words stand.” “Isn’t that what you pedagogues -are doing all the time, expecting children to make an intellectual meal -on words such as are found in the columns of the spelling-book and -attached on maps to the black dots which you call cities? My boy gravely -informs me that every State capital has its ring, because on his map -there is always a ring around the dot called the capital of a country.” -The teacher was forced to admit that there is, alas! too much truth -in the allegation. In the afternoon he took revenge. Knowing that the -proprietor had a thousand-dollar draft to be cashed, he arranged with -the banker to have it paid in silver coin. When the landlord saw the -growing heap of coin, he exclaimed, “If I must be paid in silver, can -you not give me silver certificates?” “Did you not intimate to me,” said -the teacher, tapping him on the shoulder, “that it is the real things we -want, and not words and symbols which stand for realities?” The landlord -was obliged to admit that in the larger transactions of the mercantile -world it saves time and is far more convenient to use checks, drafts, -and other symbols for money than it would be to use the actual cash. In -elementary transactions, like the purchase of a necktie, it is better -to use the cash, to think and deal in real money, but when it comes to -the distribution of five and one-half million dollars among the school -districts of Pennsylvania, it is better to draw warrants upon the State -Treasurer, to use checks and drafts, and to think in figures, than it -would be to count so much coin, and send the appropriation in that form -all over a great commonwealth. - -[Sidenote: Its interpretation.] - -The parable hardly needs an interpretation. Its lesson points in two -directions. On the one hand, it shows in the true light every species of -rote teaching, of parrot-like repetition of definitions, statements, -and lists of words which give a show of knowledge without the substance. -It puts the seal of condemnation on most forms of pure memory work. It -sounds the note of warning to all teachers who are trying to improve the -memory by concert recitations. The boy whose class was taught to define -a point as position without length, breadth, or thickness, and who, when -asked to recite alone, gave the definition, “A point has a physician -without strength, health, or sickness,” is but one of many specimens of -class-teaching condemned by the parable. It says in unmistakable terms -that all elementary instruction must start in the concrete, taking up -the objects or things to be known, and resolutely refusing to begin with -statements and definitions which to the children are a mere jargon of -words. - -[Sidenote: Making blockheads.] - -On the other hand, the parable indicates how too long-continued use of -the concrete may arrest development, and hinder the learner from reaching -the stages of advanced thinking. It hints that the too constant use of -blocks, however valuable at first, ultimately begets blockheads, instead -of intelligences capable of the higher life of thought and reflection. A -rational system of pedagogy involves proper attention to the materials of -thought and proper care in furnishing the instruments by which advanced -thinking is made easy and effective. In one respect the parable does -not set forth the whole truth. It makes no account of differences in -thinking due to heredity and mental training. The differences in native -ability are, however, not as great as is generally supposed (unless the -feeble-minded enter into the comparison); the differences due to correct -training, or the neglect of it, are far more striking. The work expected -of the pupil should, of course, tally with his capacity; otherwise it -will force him to resort to pernicious helps, beget in him wrong habits -of study, rob him of the sense of mastery and the joy of intellectual -achievement, and destroy his self-reliance, his power of initiative, and -his ability to grapple with difficult problems and perplexing questions. -The power to think grows by judicious exercise. Here better than anywhere -else in the whole domain of school work can we distinguish the genuine -coin from its counterfeit, and discriminate between true skill and -quackery, between the artist and the artisan. It is at this point that -most help can be given to young teachers by a good course of lectures -on learning to think and on the difficult art of stimulating others to -think. - - - - -III - -THE MATERIALS OF THOUGHT - - A vast abundance of objects must lie before us ere we can think - upon them. - - GOETHE. - - The young have a strong appetite for reality, and the teacher - who does not make use of that appetite is not wise. - - J. S. BLACKIE. - - The child’s restless observation, instead of being ignored - or checked, should be diligently ministered to, and made as - accurate as possible. - - HERBERT SPENCER. - - What do you read, my lord? - Words, words, words. - - HAMLET. - - You have an exchequer of words, and I think no other treasure. - - TWO GENTLEMEN OF VERONA. - - -III - -THE MATERIALS OF THOUGHT - -[Sidenote: Words without thoughts.] - -The hotel man was right in his criticism of teachers who expect their -pupils to make an intellectual meal on mere words. For three hundred -years educational reformers have been hurling their epithets against -this abuse. Has it been banished from the schools? By no means. It -crops out anew with every generation of teachers and in every grade of -instruction from the kindergarten to the university. During the years in -which a child acquires several languages without difficulty, if it hears -them spoken, the mind is eager for words and often appropriates them -regardless of their meaning. The child learns rhymes and phrases for the -sake of the jingle that is in them, and cares very little for clearly -defined ideas and thoughts. So strong and retentive is the memory for -words that the child finds it easier to learn by heart entire sentences -than to think the thoughts therein expressed. Like a willing and obedient -slave, the verbal memory can be made to do the work of the other mental -powers. The merest glimpse at a picture may recall all the sentences on -the same page, so that the pupil can repeat them with the book closed or -the back turned towards the reading chart. The recollection of what the -ear has heard may thus relieve the eye of its function in seeing words, -degrade the child to the level of a parrot, and thereby greatly hinder -progress in learning to read. Very frequently the memory is required to -perform work belonging to the reflective powers, because the learner -is thereby saved the trouble of comprehending the lesson and expressing -its substance in his own language. Moreover, the accurate statement -of a truth is apt to be accepted as evidence of knowledge and correct -thinking. The average examination tests very little more than the memory. -If the answers are given in the language of the text-book or the teacher, -the examiner seldom supplements the written work by an oral examination. -Thus there is a constant tendency on the part of teachers and pupils to -rest satisfied with correct forms of statement; and the pernicious custom -of feeding the mind on mere words is encouraged and perpetuated. Exposed -in plain terms, this abuse of words is condemned by everybody; yet it -is as easy at this point to slide into the wrong practice as it is to -fall into the sins forbidden by the decalogue. Like Proteus, this abuse -assumes diverse and unexpected forms; instance after instance is needed -to put young teachers on their guard and to expose its pernicious effect -upon methods of instruction and habits of study. To cry “words, words, -nothing but words,” will not suffice to correct the evil, for words must -be used in the best kind of instruction. Line upon line, precept upon -precept, example after example is needed to expose the folly of learning -words without corresponding ideas, of teaching symbols apart from the -things for which they stand. No apology is needed for citing laughable -and flagrant instances in point; ridicule sometimes avails where good -counsel fails. - -[Sidenote: Spelling.] - -A superintendent who advocates spelling-bees and magnifies correct -orthography out of all proportion to its real value startled a class -in the high school by asking for the spelling of a word of five -syllables. Not receiving an immediate answer, he referred to the Greek. -This made the spelling easy for at least one pupil. A year later he -accosted this pupil, saying, “You are the only person that ever spelled -psychopannychism for me.” “What does it mean?” was the question flashed -back at him in return for his compliment. He could not tell, because -he did not know. For years he had worried teachers and pupils with the -spelling of a word whose meaning he had failed to fix accurately in his -own mind.[2] What more effective method could be devised for destroying -correct habits of thinking? - -[Sidenote: Eyesight.] - -There is a time in the life of the child when it is hungry for new words. -The habit of seeing words accurately and learning their spelling at first -sight is then easily acquired, provided there is no defect in the pupil’s -eyes. In cases of defective eyesight the first step towards the solution -of the spelling problem, as well as the first condition in teaching the -pupil to think accurately, is to send him to a skilled oculist (not to a -so-called graduate optician or doctor of refraction, who must make his -living out of the spectacles he sells, and whose limited training does -not enable him to make a correct diagnosis in critical cases). Correct -vision will assist the pupil not merely in learning the exact form of the -words which he uses in writing, but also in forming correct ideas of the -things with which the mind deals in the thought-processes. Although great -stress should be laid upon the orthography of such words in common use as -are frequently misspelled,—daily drill upon lists of these should not be -omitted at school while the child’s word-hunger lasts,—yet it is vastly -more important to acquire an adequate knowledge of the ideas, concepts, -and relations for which the words stand. To spend time upon the spelling -of words which only the specialist uses, and which are easily learned -in connection with the specialty by a student possessing correct mental -habits, is a form of waste that cannot be too severely condemned. It is -far better to spend time in building concepts of things met with in real -life. - -The meaning of very many words is, of course, learned from the connection -in which they occur. This, however, is not true of sesquipedalian words -like the one mentioned above, nor of the technical terms by which science -designates the things that have been accurately defined or quantified. - -[Sidenote: Fundamental ideas.] - -Technical terms are used to denote the ideas which lie at the basis of -science. These fundamental ideas are appropriately called basal concepts. -Since basal concepts cannot be transferred from the teacher’s mind to -the pupils’ minds by merely teaching the corresponding technical terms, -they must be developed by appropriate lessons. If this be neglected, -there may be juggling with words and a show of knowledge; but close, -accurate thinking is impossible. This seems to be so self-evident that -one would hardly expect to meet violations of such a simple rule in the -art of teaching. And yet it is related of the professor of physics in -one of our largest universities that he began his course of lectures in -this wise: “A rearrangement of the courses of study deprived you of the -usual instruction in elementary physics. That is your misfortune, and -not my fault.” Thereupon, he began his lectures on advanced physics as -if the preparation of his class to think the concepts at the foundation -of his science could be ignored without detriment to the progress of -the student, as if confused minds and unsatisfactory thinking were not -the inevitable outcome of juggling with technical terms apart from the -concepts which they denote. A master in the art of teaching would have -started on the plane occupied by the students. By development lessons he -would have lifted them to the plane of thought on which he intended to -move. He would have considered their mental progress of more consequence -than the course of lectures which he was in the habit of delivering. -The student, and not the study, should have held the chief place in his -professional horizon. - -[Sidenote: Abuse of text-books.] - -In another State university the professor of physics applied to an -influential member of the board of trustees for an appropriation for -apparatus. “Teach what is in the text-book; then you will not need -apparatus,” was the reply. It seems almost incredible that a trustee of a -modern university should fail to see the difference between an experiment -actually performed and a description of the experiment in a text-book. -More incredible still does it seem when we hear of professors who see no -difference between an experiment made in the presence of a student and an -experiment made by the student himself. - -[Sidenote: Apparatus and experiments.] - -[Sidenote: Agassiz.] - -Pictures of apparatus and descriptions of experiments should, of course, -not be despised or neglected. They are helpful in forming concepts of -that which cannot be brought before a class. When made by the learner -himself, as a result of his own work, they serve to clarify his thinking, -and furnish a sure test of the pupil’s progress and of the teacher’s -skill as a guide and instructor. A drawing, or even a statement in the -pupil’s own words, is often an astonishing revelation of the crude -notions which pictures give. The city lad who said that a cow was no -bigger than a finger-nail because he had often measured its size in the -First Reader is a typical example. The ability to interpret pictures -and descriptions comes from actual knowledge of things similar to what -is depicted or described. The noted teacher, Agassiz, made a difference -in his directions to beginners and advanced students. To the former he -would give specimens, with directions to study them without referring -to a book. Having taught them how to use their eyes, he would gradually -lead them to the method of interpreting and verifying the statements of -an author. And when the advanced student was set to work at original -investigations, he was told to study certain books, as it would save -much valuable time. One of his pupils writes, “I shall never forget a -forceful lesson given me by the great Agassiz, when I studied with him -in the Museum of Cambridge. I worked near a young man from Cleveland, -Ohio, who has since achieved distinction as a teacher of biology. I -was comparatively a beginner, however, while he was well advanced in -his studies. On a certain day Agassiz came sauntering by, and stopped -long enough to tell me not to use the library so much, but to confine -myself to observations of the specimens on hand and the writing of my -observations and comments. Passing on a little farther, he spoke to my -friend and said, ‘Albert, when you go home, this summer, to Cleveland, I -wish you would make a special study of a certain kind of fish found in -the harbor there. It is not found plentifully anywhere else in the world. -Take a row-boat and go three hundred yards northeast of the point of the -breakwater, and you will find them in abundance. Before going home, get -the only three books ever written on this fish from the library here and -read them. It will save your time to read them before beginning to study -the fish itself.’”[3] Agassiz was as anxious to teach the right use of -books as is the professor of literature; but he adapted his directions -to the degree of advancement which his students had attained, and did -not neglect the formation of the basal concepts and the habits of study -needful in the sciences he taught. - -[Sidenote: Botany.] - -How little the exhortations of our educational reformers have been -taken to heart by some teachers is evident from the recent experiences -of a normal school principal, who had great difficulty in finding a -satisfactory teacher of botany. The students could invariably answer -the questions of the State Board of Examiners by filling pages of -manuscript with technical terms. In the field they could not distinguish -one plant from another. In despair, the principal said to his teacher -of psychology, “Why can we not apply common sense to the teaching of -botany? Can we not plant seeds, watch their growth, and study the growing -specimens instead of the pictures in a text-book?” “If you will give me -the class in botany, I will try it,” was the reply. Before the next class -took up botany, every chalk-box was emptied and every flower-pot utilized -in the planting of seeds. In no long time there appeared on the fences -of neighboring farms sign-boards with the inscription, “Trespassing on -these fields is forbidden, under penalty of the law.” The members of the -class were traversing the country, studying the real flowers, the growing -plants, instead of the technical terms of a text-book. At the next final -examination, the herbarium which each one had prepared, together with the -accompanying analysis and drawings of parts which could not be described, -including colorings in imitation of the actual colors of the flowers, -gave evidence of real knowledge, and served to satisfy the examiners, -although the array of technical terms was far less formidable. - -If violations of the fundamental laws of teaching occur in our higher -institutions of learning, what may we not expect in the lower schools -where the teaching is intrusted to young people of limited education? -Nevertheless, it is a notorious fact that the worst forms of teaching -are found in our higher institutions of learning, where many of the -professors seem to know as little of the science of education as the -motorman knows of the science of electricity; otherwise they would make -impossible the use of “ponies, coaches, and keys,” by means of which the -student taxes the memory rather than the understanding, and ultimately -loses all power of independent thought and investigation. Such helps -arrest mental development, destroy the power of original thinking, and -do more harm than the practice of feeding the mind with mere verbal -statements which in course of time may acquire content and meaning. The -study of the sciences which classify minerals, plants, insects, birds, -fishes, and other animals may degenerate into a mere study of words, -even when the student acquires some familiarity with the specimens to -be classified. The scientific name is the one thing about a flower with -which the Creator has had nothing to do, and if the recognition of the -scientific name is the chief or sole aim of the student of botany, it is -a genuine case of feeding the mind on words. - -[Sidenote: Words as material for thought.] - -[Sidenote: Geometry as thought-material.] - -By those who are fond of scientific pursuits the dead languages are -sometimes despised as though the study of them were learned playing with -mere words. Among people who begin their education somewhat late in life -there is a strong temptation to estimate linguistic studies very far -below their true value as a means for disciplining the reasoning faculty. -When pursued in the right way, the study of the classical languages -furnishes as much good material for thought as the natural sciences. -Huxley may charm an audience by a lecture on a piece of chalk; the -philologist can excite equal interest by a lecture on the word chalk. -Words grow and undergo changes according to well-defined laws which -furnish as much food for thought as the laws governing the union of atoms -or the motions of the heavenly bodies. The words of a lexicon contain -as much of precious interest in the sight of man as the manufactured -gases or the plucked leaves and dissected flowers of the laboratory. -Greek and Latin roots have more vitality in them than the collections of -stones, stuffed birds, and transfixed bugs in the museum. The endings -of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs furnish ample opportunity for -observation, comparison, and reflection; their functions in the syntax -of the sentence furnish splendid exercises in formal and qualitative -thinking. If, however, the time of the pupil is entirely consumed in -mastering the hundreds of exceptions to the rules of gender and case, -of declensions and conjugations, of syntax and prosody, it is another -sad instance of feeding the mind on mere words. The pupil who begins the -study of any foreign language before he has reached his teens should -acquire the power to read the language at sight; otherwise there has been -something faulty in the methods of teaching or of study, or in both. A -man is as many times a man as he knows languages; and the comparison of -the idioms of two or more languages furnishes most excellent material -for careful and accurate thinking. In translating an author like Plato -the student must think the thoughts of a master mind, weigh words so as -to detect the finer shades of meaning, and arrange them in sentences -that shall adequately express the meaning of the original. The value -of pure mathematics, especially the Euclidian geometry, as a means for -the cultivation of thinking, lies in the limited number of fundamental -concepts which must be clearly fixed and in the nature of the reasoning -by which the truth of the theorems is established. The axioms are few -in number and easily grasped; the quantities to be defined can, without -difficulty, be set in a clear light before the understanding; the chain -of proof compels the mind to join ideas by their logical nexus, and if -the learner persists in memorizing the demonstration, he is at once -detected. And yet when, as sometimes happens, he goes over several books -of geometry without clearly perceiving the difference between an angle -and a triangle, it must be a genuine specimen of acquiring words without -the corresponding ideas. - -[Sidenote: S. S. Greene’s views.] - -The words of S. S. Greene deserve the attention of every teacher anxious -to prevent the formation of vicious habits of thought by the pupils -in our schools and colleges. Years ago he wrote as follows: “While an -external object may be viewed by thousands in common, the idea or image -of it addresses itself only to the individual consciousness. My idea or -image is mine alone,—the reward of careless observation, if imperfect; -of attentive, careful, and varied observation, if correct. Between mine -and yours a great gulf is fixed. No man can pass from mine to yours, or -from yours to mine. Neither, in any proper sense of the word, can mine -be conveyed to you. Words do not convey thoughts; they are not vehicles -of thought in any true sense of that term. A word is simply a common -symbol which each associates with his own idea or image. Neither can -I compare mine with yours, except through the mediation of external -objects. And, then, how do I know that they are alike; that a measure -called a foot, for instance, seems as long to you as to me? My idea of -a new object, which you and I observe together, may be very imperfect. -By it I attribute to the object what does not belong to it, take from -it what does, distort its form, and otherwise pervert it. Suppose, now, -at the time of observation we agree upon a word as a sign or symbol -of the object or the idea of it. The object is withdrawn; the idea -only remains,—imperfect in my case, complete and vivid in yours. The -sign is employed. Does it bring back the original object? By no means. -Does it convey my idea to your mind? Nothing of the kind; you would be -disgusted with the shapeless image. Does it convey yours to me? No; I -should be delighted at the sight. What does it effect? It becomes the -occasion for each to call up his own image. Does each now contemplate -the same thing? What multitudes of dissimilar images instantly spring -up at the announcement of the same symbol!—dissimilar not because of -anything in the one source whence they are derived, but because of -either an inattentive and imperfect observation of that source, or some -constitutional or habitual defect in the use of the perceptive faculty.” - -[Sidenote: J. P. Gordy’s statement.] - -[Sidenote: Pestalozzi’s reform.] - -Dr. J. P. Gordy, to whom credit is due for the preceding quotation, -further says, “Words are like paper money; their value depends on -what they stand for. As you would be none the richer for possessing -Confederate money to the amount of a million dollars, so your pupils -would be none the wiser for being able to repeat book after book by -heart, unless the words were the signs of ideas in their minds. Words -without ideas are an irredeemable paper currency. It is the practical -recognition of this truth that has revolutionized the best schools in -the last quarter of a century.... In what did the reform inaugurated -by Pestalozzi consist? In the substitution of the intelligent for the -blind use of words. He reversed the educational engine. Before his time -teachers expected their pupils to go from words to ideas; he taught -them to go from ideas to words. He brought out the fact upon which I -have been insisting,—that words are utterly powerless to create ideas; -that all they can do is to help the pupil to recall and recombine ideas -already formed. With Pestalozzi, therefore, and with those who have been -imbued with his theories, the important matter is the forming of clear -and definite ideas.”[4] - -[Sidenote: Sight and insight.] - -It was a remark of Goethe that genius begins in the senses. With equal -truth we may say that thinking begins in the senses. Like unto the -genius, the thoughtful man perceives and interprets what has escaped -the notice of other people. To sight he adds insight. That which he -sees is subsumed under the proper class or category, and is viewed from -different sides until its significance is discovered, and a place is -assigned to it in the intellectual horizon and in the external world. -Every fact thus seen in its relation to other facts serves as a basis for -further observation, reflection, and comparison. Not merely the genius, -but every other person whose thinking is above the average in vigor and -accuracy, has the power to perceive things which escape the eyes and -ears of other people. Through habits of careful and correct observation -he fills his mind with images, ideas, concepts of the objects of thought -and of the relations which exist between these objects, and thereby -acquires the materials for the comparisons which constitute the essence -of good thinking. If the strength of a student is exhausted in gathering -and storing the materials for thought, his mind becomes a wilderness of -facts; if he reasons without the facts, his conclusions are more unreal -than the figments of the imagination. - -[Sidenote: Truth the proper thought-material.] - -Truth is the best thought-material for the mind to act upon. The -possession of truth is the aim and the goal of all correct thinking. -Knowledge of the truth implies the conformity of thinking with being. The -world within should be made to correspond with the world outside of us. - -[Sidenote: The laboratory and the library.] - -[Sidenote: Aristotle.] - -Fortunately, the self-activity of children is towards the objective world -of things which they can see, hear, smell, taste, and handle. From inner -impulse their thinking is directed towards the cognition of objects. -One of the functions of nature study is to beget habits of careful and -accurate observation. This is a characteristic feature of the laboratory -method as distinguished from the library method. A training in both is -essential to a complete education. The library stores the treasures of -knowledge which the human race has gathered and makes them accessible to -the learner. The laboratory shows him by what methods truth is discovered -and tested and verified. The German professor who declined to visit a -menagerie, asserting that he could evolve the idea of the elephant from -his inner consciousness, may have spent much time in reading books and -in speculation; but he certainly never worked in a laboratory; nor had -he taken to heart the lessons which he might have learned from the sages -of antiquity. Aristotle knew the importance of asking nature for facts, -and he induced his royal pupil, Alexander the Great, to employ two -thousand persons in Europe, Asia, and Africa for the purpose of gathering -information concerning beasts, birds, and reptiles, whereby he was -enabled to write fifty volumes upon animated nature. After teachers had -forgotten his methods they still turned to his books for the treasures -which he had gathered. In the ages in which men hardly dared to ask -nature for her secrets, fearing that they might be accused of witchcraft, -they turned to Aristotle as if he were an infallible guide—so much so -that when Galileo announced the discovery of sun-spots a monk declared -that he had read Aristotle through from beginning to end, and inasmuch -as Aristotle said nothing about spots on the sun, therefore there are -none. This book-method of studying science has not entirely disappeared -from the seats of learning. Books like Tyndall’s “Water and the Forms -of Water,” Faraday’s “Chemistry of a Candle,” and Newcomb’s “Popular -Astronomy” may, indeed, be read or studied as literature, and thus prove -a means of culture; but to accept the facts and statements of a text-book -without verification is the lazy man’s method of studying science; and as -a method it fails to lay the foundation upon which a solid superstructure -can be built. The correct method starts with observation of the things -to be known, develops the basal concepts which lie at the foundation of -the science under consideration, ends by teaching the pupil how to make -independent investigations, how to utilize the treasures which have been -preserved in our libraries, thereby furnishing an adequate supply of -proper materials for thought. - -[Sidenote: Productive minds.] - -The habits of men who have surprised the world by their intellectual and -professional achievements are very suggestive. Spurgeon kept his mind -filled by constant reading. Goethe was fond of travel and utilized what -he learned from others. Emerson visited the markets regularly, conversed -with the men and women from whom he bought, and sought to learn their -views on current events. Study the greatest thinkers the world has -known, and you will find their memories to have been a storehouse of -thought-materials which they analyzed, sifted, compared, and formulated -into systems that win the admiration of all who love to think. - - - - -IV - -BASAL CONCEPTS AS THOUGHT-MATERIAL - - Thought proper, as distinguished from other facts of - consciousness, may be adequately described as the act of - knowing or judging of things by means of concepts. - - MANSEL. - - We cannot learn all words through other words. There is a - large and rapidly increasing part of all modern vocabularies - which can be comprehended only by the observation of nature, - scientific experiment,—in short, by the study of things. - - MARSH. - - The question we ask of each thing (and of the whole experience) - is, What _are_ you? You have qualities which I find everywhere - else; your color I find in other things; your texture and - hardness and odor and form I find in other things; but they - are combined in you in such a way as to make you a thing by - yourself, and not anything else. And I want to know what you - truly _are_,—in short, what is your essence, which is also your - idea, and the purpose or τέλος of your existence. - - LAURIE. - - -IV - -BASAL CONCEPTS AS THOUGHT-MATERIAL - -[Sidenote: Building concepts.] - -The head may be likened unto a walled city, with comparatively few -building materials on the inside, and with a limited number of gate-ways -through which all other materials for building purposes must pass. -The walls are not made of brick or stone, but of bone; the gate-ways -are the different senses through which knowledge enters the mind. The -building materials on the inside are intuitive ideas which take shape in -conjunction with the entrance of materials from without. The structures -which are built up out of the ideas within and the sense-impressions -from without are individual and general concepts. Take an orange. Its -shape, color, parts, are known through the eye. Its flavor, as sweet -or sour, is ascertained through taste; its odor through smell; its -temperature, shape, and some other qualities through touch. These -various sense-impressions, giving the mind a knowledge of essential -and accidental qualities and attributes, are combined in the idea of -a particular orange. If the object were a bell, its sound, parts, -uses, and qualities would make impressions through different gate-ways -of knowledge; the builder inside would combine them into the more or -less complete idea of the object presented to the senses. From each -sense-impression the mind may get a percept; the synthesis of these -percepts produces the individual concept or notion. - -It is helpful at this point clearly to distinguish between essential -and accidental attributes. The orange may have been kept in the open -air when the temperature is low. To the hand it feels cold, and this -quality enters into the idea of the first orange which the child has. As -other oranges which have been in a warmer atmosphere are brought to the -child, the attribute cold is seen to be accidental,—that is, it is not a -necessary quality of oranges in general. On the other hand, the qualities -which are found in every orange—many of them hard to describe in -words—become fixed in the mind as essential attributes of the orange. In -course of time many objects of the same kind are presented to the senses, -cognized by comparison so as to retain the essential attributes and to -omit the accidentals. By this process the general notion or concept is -formed. - -[Sidenote: Gate-ways of knowledge.] - -It is self-evident that the mind’s comparisons and conclusions are -unreliable in so far as the gate-ways of knowledge are defective. Few -persons have perfect ears; many can never become expert tuners of pianos -or reliable critics of musical performances. The man who is color-blind -is not accepted in the railway service or as an officer in the navy. The -man who is totally blind is never selected as a guide in daylight. On the -other hand, the blind girl spoken of by Bulwer could find her way better -in the darkness of the last days of Pompeii than other people, because -she was accustomed to rely upon the data furnished by the other senses in -making her way through the city, and had improved these as gate-ways of -knowledge beyond the needs of those gifted with sight. - -[Sidenote: From things to symbols.] - -[Sidenote: From sign to thing or idea.] - -[Sidenote: The sense to be addressed.] - -In building concepts of objects in nature it would be a great mistake to -begin with the word instead of the thing. Just as little as a blind man -can conceive the qualities color, light, darkness, through mere words, -so little can children conceive classes of objects which have never -addressed the senses. Hence great stress has been laid by educational -reformers upon the cultivation of habits of observation, upon the supreme -necessity of teaching by the use of objects, or so-called object-lessons. -First, things, then words, or signs for things, was at one time a -favorite maxim in treatises on teaching. Consistent application of -the maxim would have banished the dictionary from the school-room, or -at least its use as a means for ascertaining the meaning of words. In -consulting the dictionary for the meaning of a word, we pass not from the -thing to its sign, but in the opposite direction,—that is, from the sign -to the thing signified, from the symbol to the idea for which the symbol -stands. The main essential in good instruction is that the words be made -significant. In primary instruction this is best accomplished by passing -from the idea to the word; but in advanced instruction it is of less -importance whether we pass from the word to the idea or from the idea to -the word. The meaning of very many words is acquired from the connection -in which they are used. For the meaning of the larger number of words -in our vocabulary we never consult a dictionary. The finer shades of -meaning we get not from definitions, but from quotations taken from -standard authors. This fact should never tempt the teacher to trust to -words, definitions, and descriptions in the formation of basal concepts. -He should seek to give unto himself a clear and full account of the -things or ideas which cannot spring from mere words, however skilfully -arranged in sentences. The music-teacher who complained of the public -schools because a seven-year-old child did not grasp his meaning when -he spoke of half-notes, quarter-notes, eighth-notes, sixteenth-notes, -should have known that many children of that age have never been taught -fractions, and that the idea of a fraction is obtained not from sounds -(who distinguishes between half a noise and a whole noise?), but from -objects which address the eye. Instead of complaining about the school -which the pupil attended, a teacher acquainted with the mysteries of his -art would have started with the comparison of things visible; and after -having developed the idea of halves, quarters, eighths, sixteenths, by -the division of visible objects into equal parts, he would have applied -the idea to musical sounds. - -[Sidenote: Different gate-ways for different ideas.] - -[Sidenote: Integers.] - -In seeking to build in the mind of the learner the concepts which lie -at the basis of a new branch of study, it is a legitimate question to -ask by which of the gate-ways of knowledge the materials or elements -for the new idea can best be made to enter the mind. At the basis of -arithmetic lies the idea of number,—an idea that is evoked by the -question of how many applied to a collection of two or more units. Taste -and smell must be ruled out from the list of senses which can be utilized -to advantage. Three taps on the desk are as easily recognized as three -marks or strokes on the black-board. The sense of touch is helpful in -passing from concrete to abstract numbers. To think a number when the -corresponding collection of objects is not visible, but is suggested by -tactile impressions, helps to emancipate the thinking process from the -domination of the eye; in other words, it helps to sunder the thinking of -number from a specific sense, and thus aids in the evolution of the idea -of number apart from concrete objects. - -[Sidenote: Fractions.] - -As already indicated, there are some basal concepts, like that of a -fraction, in the development of which only one sense can be utilized to -advantage. Whilst imparting the idea of a whole number, the appeal may -be to the eye, the ear, and the sense of touch; the instruction designed -to impart the idea of fractions to the normal child is limited to visible -objects. In the instruction of the blind the other senses are addressed -from necessity. The extent to which touch can supply the function of -sight is full of hints to teachers in charge of pupils possessing all the -gate-ways of knowledge. - -[Sidenote: Teaching decimals.] - -Moreover, not all units are equally adapted for imparting the first ideas -of a fraction. Half of a stick is still a stick to the child, just as -half of a stone is still called a stone in common parlance. The half -should be radically different from the unit; hence an object resembling -a sphere or a circle is best adapted for the first lessons in fractions. -In teaching decimals the square or rectangle is better than the circle. -It is difficult to divide a circumference into ten equal parts. On the -contrary, the square is easily divided into tenths by vertical lines, -and then into hundredths by horizontal lines, thus furnishing also a -convenient device for the first lessons in percentage. - -[Sidenote: Basal concepts.] - -[Sidenote: John Fiske on symbolic conceptions.] - -It is one of the aims of the training-class and the normal school to -point out the best methods of developing the different basal concepts -which lie at the foundation of the branches to be taught. Many of -these are complex, and require great skill on the part of the teacher. -The difficulty is well stated in John Fiske’s discussion of Symbolic -Conceptions. He says, “Of any simple object which can be grasped in a -single act of perception, such as a knife or a book, an egg or an orange, -a circle or a triangle, you can frame a conception which almost, or -quite exactly, _represents_ the object. The picture, or visual image, -in your mind when the orange is present to the senses is almost exactly -reproduced when it is absent. The distinction between the two lies -chiefly in the relative faintness of the latter. But as the objects of -thought increase in size and in complexity of detail, the case soon comes -to be very different. You cannot frame a truly representative conception -of the town in which you live, however familiar you may be with its -streets and houses, its parks and trees, and the looks and demeanor of -the townsmen; it is impossible to embrace so many details in a single -mental picture. The mind must range to and fro among the phenomena, in -order to represent the town in a series of conceptions. But practically, -what you have in mind when you speak of the town is a fragmentary -conception in which some portion of the object is represented, while you -are well aware that with sufficient pains a series of mental pictures -could be formed which would approximately correspond to the object. To -some extent the conception is representative, but to a great degree it -is symbolic. With a further increase in the size and complexity of the -objects of thought, our conceptions gradually lose their representative -character, and at length become purely symbolic. No one can form a mental -picture that answers even approximately to the earth. Even a homogeneous -ball eight thousand miles in diameter is too vast an object to be -conceived otherwise than symbolically, and much more is this true of the -ball upon which we live, with all its endless multiformity of detail. We -imagine a globe, and clothe it with a few terrestrial attributes, and in -our minds this fragmentary notion does duty as a symbol of the earth. - -“The case becomes still more striking when we have to deal with -conceptions of the universe, of cosmic forces such as light and heat, -or of the stupendous secular changes which modern science calls us to -contemplate. Here our conceptions cannot even pretend to represent -the objects; they are as purely symbolic as the algebraic equations -whereby the geometer expresses the shapes of curves. Yet so long as -there are means of verification at our command we can reason as safely -with these symbolic conceptions as if they were truly representative. -The geometer can at any moment translate his equation into an actual -curve, and thereby test the results of his reasoning; and the case is -similar with the undulatory theory of light, the chemist’s conception of -atomicity, and other vast stretches of thought which in recent times have -revolutionized our knowledge of nature. The danger in the use of symbolic -conceptions is the danger of framing illegitimate symbols that answer to -nothing in heaven or earth, as has happened first and last with so many -short-lived theories in science and in metaphysics.” - -The word conception as used in this quotation is synonymous with concept, -but elsewhere it is also used in two other senses,—namely, to signify -the mind’s _power_ to conceive objects, their relations and classes, and -to name the activity by which the concept is produced. Hence the term -concept is preferred in this discussion. - -[Sidenote: Concepts of distance.] - -[Sidenote: Large cities.] - -To give a full account of the development of the basal concepts in the -different branches of study would require a treatise on the methods of -teaching these branches. All that can be attempted is to draw attention -to some of the typical methods and devices adopted by eminent teachers -in the development of the concepts which Mr. Fiske calls symbolic -conceptions. Distance is one of the concepts at the basis of geography -and astronomy. To say that the circumference of the earth is twenty-five -thousand miles, that the distance of the moon from the earth is two -hundred and forty thousand miles, and that the distance of the sun is -ninety-two and one-half millions of miles may mean very little to the -human mind, especially to the mind of a child. Supposing, however, that -a boy finds a mile by actual measurement, and that he finds he can walk -four miles an hour, he can gradually rise to the thought of walking forty -miles in a day of ten hours, or two hundred and forty miles in the six -working days of a week. In one hundred and four weeks, or two years, he -could walk around the globe. To walk to the moon would require a thousand -weeks, or about twenty years. It is by the method of gradual approach -that concepts of great distance, of immense magnitudes, of the infinitely -large and the infinitely small, must be developed. To this category -belong large cities like New York and London, quantities denoting the -size of the earth and its distance from the sun and the fixed stars, the -fraction of a second in which a snap-shot is taken, or an electric flash -is photographed; such quantities are apt to remain as mere figures or -symbols in the mind of the learner unless the method of gradual approach -is adopted. Starting with a town or a ward with which the pupil is -familiar, several may be joined in idea until the concept of a city of -fifty or sixty thousand population is reached. It takes about twenty of -these to make a city like Philadelphia, and five cities like Philadelphia -to make a city like London. A lesson on how London is fed will add much -to the formation of an adequate idea of such a large city.[5] - -[Sidenote: Shape of the earth.] - -An adequate idea of the shape of the earth can be formed only by gradual -development. The three kinds of roundness (dollar, pillar, ball) must -be taught; then the various easily intelligible reasons for believing -it to be round like a ball may follow in the elementary grade. As the -pupil advances he may be told of the dispute between Newton and the -French, the former affirming it to be round like an orange,—that is, -flattened at the poles,—the latter asserting that it resembled a lemon -with the polar axis longer than the equatorial diameter; and how, by -measuring degrees of latitude and finding that their length increases -as we approach the poles, the French mathematicians, in spite of their -wishes to the contrary, proved Newton’s view to be correct. The same -lesson might be taught by starting with the rotation of the earth, -showing by experiment the tendency of revolving bodies to bulge out at -the equator, and then drawing the inference that the degrees of latitude -are shortest where the curvature is greatest, and that they are longest -where the curvature is least. Either method is strictly logical; but the -method which follows the order of discovery, whenever it is feasible, is -calculated to arouse the greater interest in minds of average capacity. -The teacher who is a master of his art will supplement the historical -lesson by a lesson passing from cause to consequence, so as to fix and -clarify the concept formed by passing from the ground of knowledge to the -necessary inference. Finally, by drawing attention to the fact that the -equatorial diameters are not all of the same length, he will build up in -the pupil’s mind a concept of the real shape of the earth,—a shape unlike -any mathematical figure treated of in the text-books on geometry. The -attempt to give a complete idea of the shape of the earth in the first -lessons on geography would have ended in confusion of thought; the wise -teacher develops complex concepts gradually and not more rapidly than -the learner is able to advance. This process may be called enriching the -concept. The successive concepts, although only partial representations -of what is to be known, are adequate for the thinking required at a given -stage of development; the number of complete or exhaustive concepts in -any department of knowledge is small indeed. - -[Sidenote: The order of discovery and of instruction.] - -Instructive as it often is to follow the order of discovery, it must not -be inferred that this is invariably the best order of instruction. What -teacher of astronomy would be so foolish as to lead a student through the -nineteen imaginary paths which Kepler tried before he discovered that an -elliptical orbit fitted the recorded observations of Tycho Brahe![6] - -Much may be learned from the methods pursued by eminent teachers. It -will abundantly pay any teacher of science to study Faraday’s lectures -on the chemistry of a candle,—a series which for models of developing -the fundamental concepts of chemistry is unsurpassed. The devices used -by such teachers are often very suggestive. For instance, in teaching -the concept of the new geography that the earth revolves not like a body -with a liquid interior, but like a body with an interior as rigid as -glass, Lord Kelvin suggests a comparison of the spinning of a hard-boiled -egg and of an egg not boiled at all,—an experiment easily made in every -school-room. - -[Sidenote: Ideas of great distances.] - -A few quotations from the astronomer Young will show how concepts of -great distances can be developed so as to be more than a numeral with a -row of ciphers annexed: - - “If one were to try to walk such a distance, supposing that he - could walk four miles an hour, and keep it up for ten hours - every day, it would take sixty-eight and one-half years to make - a single million of miles, and more than sixty-three hundred - years to traverse the whole. If some celestial railway could - be imagined, the journey to the sun, even if our trains ran - sixty miles an hour, day and night, without a stop, would - require over one hundred and seventy-five years. To borrow - the curious illustration of Professor Mendenhall, if we could - imagine an infant’s arm long enough to enable him to touch - the sun and burn himself, he would die of old age before the - pain could reach him, since, according to the experiments of - Helmholtz and others, a nervous shock is communicated only - at the rate of one hundred feet per second, or one thousand - six hundred and thirty-seven miles a day, and would need more - than one hundred and fifty years to make the journey. Sound - would do it in about fourteen years if it could be transmitted - through celestial space, and a cannon-ball in about nine, if - it were to move uniformly with the same speed as when it left - the muzzle of the gun. If the earth could be suddenly stopped - in her orbit, and allowed to fall unobstructed towards the sun - under the accelerating influence of his attraction, she would - reach the centre in about two months. I have said if she could - be stopped, but such is the compass of her orbit that to make - its circuit in a year she has to move nearly nineteen miles - a second, or more than fifty times faster than the swiftest - rifle-ball; and in moving twenty miles her path deviates from - perfect straightness by less than one-eighth of an inch.”[7] - -Professor Young uses a very suggestive device in his astronomy for -showing the comparative sizes and distances of heavenly bodies: - - “Representing the sun by a globe two feet in diameter, the - earth would be twenty-two-hundredths of an inch in diameter—the - size of a very small pea or a ‘twenty-two caliber round - pellet.’ Its distance from the sun on that scale would be just - two hundred and twenty feet, and _the nearest star_ (still on - the same scale) _would be eight thousand miles away at the - antipodes_.”[8] - -Sometimes the employment of a new unit aids in realizing the idea of -very great distances. The ordinary astronomical unit is the distance -of the sun from the earth; it is not large enough to be convenient in -expressing the distances of fixed stars. Hence astronomers have found -it more satisfactory to take as a unit the distance light travels in a -year, which is about sixty-three thousand times the distance of the sun -from the earth. The tables of fixed stars give distances in terms of this -unit from 3.5 upward. A glance at these figures fills the mind with an -idea of the infinite grandeur of the universe and with feelings of awe -and sublimity akin to those which must fill the soul on approaching the -throne of Almighty God. - -[Sidenote: Time of snap-shot.] - -Scientists assert that the infinitely great is more easily conceived -than the infinitely small; that quantities represented by billions and -trillions are more easily grasped than fractions of a unit with a million -in the denominator; that ages of time are more easily comprehended than -fractions of a second. In a lecture delivered at the International -Electrical Exhibition, Professor Charles F. Himes employed a very -ingenious device for giving an idea of how a “snap-shot” may be made, -or a photographic impression taken of an electric spark, or a flash of -lightning. He exhibited a photograph of the sparks of a Holtz machine, -which are of shorter duration than any instantaneous drop or slide could -be made to give. “They impressed themselves upon an ordinary collodion -plate as they passed. Suppose we assume one-twenty-thousandth of a second -as the time, and we will be within bounds. That is a fraction difficult -to comprehend. Our mental dividing engine fails as we work towards -zero. The twenty-thousandth of a second is so small that it eludes -our mental grasp.... Looking at it from another point of view, let us -regard the effect as a space-effect instead of a time-effect. Light has -a velocity, in round numbers, of one hundred and ninety thousand miles -per second. That would be one hundred and ninety miles in one-thousandth -of a second, nineteen in one-ten-thousandth, or, say, ten miles in our -one-twenty-thousandth of a second. Ten miles of light drive in upon our -plate in that time; or, if we held the corpuscular theory of Newton, -a chain of these little pellets ten miles long would have delivered -themselves upon the sensitive surfaces. Ten miles is comprehensible, -one mile is, so that we could easily conceive of an effect in one-tenth -of the time allowed to our electric sparks. But let us take another -look at it. Light is not corpuscles, but undulations, tiny wavelets, -ripplets of ether, eight hundred million million in a second for violet, -a number we can easily understand, as Sir William Thomson[9] has told -us. That would make eight hundred thousand million in one-thousandth, -eight thousand million in one-ten-thousandth, or forty thousand million -impulses striking our sensitive molecules in our one-twenty-thousandth -of a second. Surely that number should produce an effect. We can readily -conceive that one thousand million wavelets would produce an appreciable -effect. They would represent one-eight-hundred-thousandth of a second, -say one-millionth of a second. That would seem, then, to be ample time to -produce a photographic effect.”[10] - -[Sidenote: Idea of total depravity.] - -Many teachers of science spend all their spare time in reading scientific -literature and in posting themselves upon the latest achievements in -their specialty. It might be to them a less delightful occupation if they -traversed fields of investigation already well explored for the purpose -of seeing how the student can be led over these most expeditiously and -with minimum expenditure of time and effort. Thought bestowed upon -the best way of imparting the elements of science would have a most -beneficial effect upon their methods of instruction, and would greatly -increase their skill in teaching. Many of the most abstruse and complex -ideas can be resolved by analysis into their elements, and thereby be -made intelligible to people of ordinary training. An eminent teacher of -theology felt called upon to impart to a promiscuous audience an idea -of the doctrine of total depravity as taught by the Church. He started -by referring first to the popular mistake that the doctrine teaches the -utter depravity of the human race, then to the ancient heresy that the -depravity of human nature resides in the body, and not in the soul, and, -finally, to the meaning of total as signifying not that man is as bad -as he can become, but that he is depraved, or has a tendency towards -sin not merely in his physical body, but in the totality of his being. -Analysis prepared them to see that by total depravity is not meant -that men are as bad as they can be, nor that they do not have in their -natural condition certain amiable qualities or certain laudable virtues; -that the doctrine means that depravity, or the sinful condition of man, -infects the whole man,—intellect, feeling, heart, and will,—and that in -each unrenewed person some lower affection, and not the love of God, -is supreme. Such analysis of a complex concept into its elements, the -explicit setting forth what it is and what it is not, followed by the -synthesis of the parts into a thought-unit, is the plan pursued by the -best teachers in teaching difficult subjects. By analysis we resolve -complex concepts into their elements, which may be simple percepts or -their relations. Things are separated in thought which go together in -time, space, motion, force, or substance. Every essential attribute or -constituent can then be viewed by itself until the mind has gone around -it with the bounding line of thought, grasped its nature and essence, -and explored it in its different aspects and relations. In this way the -most abstruse subjects are shorn of their difficulties, the most complex -problems are solved and elucidated. - -[Sidenote: Value of analysis.] - -The bearing of all this upon the art of teaching is easily shown. A -teacher of geometry, whose mind was quite logical, failed, through -lack of power, to make things plain. If the class did not grasp the -demonstration of a theorem, he invariably started at the beginning, -tried to throw light upon every link in the chain of proof, and by the -time he reached the point of difficulty the members of the class were -thinking of something else. A younger colleague pursued a different plan. -Starting some pupil upon the demonstration, he detected the difficulty, -and by a few words of explanation, or by a well-framed question, he -focussed attention upon the simple elements, into which he resolved the -difficulty, and frequently surprised the class by showing the simplicity -of what had puzzled their minds. Under the clarifying light of analysis -half the difficulties and half the sophistries of human thinking vanish -like dew and mist before the morning sun. - -[Sidenote: The moral nature.] - -For the purpose of making an impression upon the moral nature -word-painting is sometimes very helpful. All the text-books on physiology -and hygiene intended for use in the public schools seek to teach the -evils of strong drink by showing the effect of alcoholic stimulants upon -different parts of the human system. Yet the most exhaustive lessons on -how whiskey is made, and what are its exhilarating and its pernicious -effects, cannot equal the effects of the word painting of Robert -Ingersoll and the paraphrase by Dr. Buckley. In making a gift to a friend -the former penned the following eulogy on whiskey: - - “I send you some of the most wonderful whiskey that ever drove - the skeleton from the feast or painted landscapes in the brain - of man. It is the mingled souls of wheat and corn. In it you - will find the sunshine and the shadow that chased each other - over the billowy fields, the breath of June, the carol of the - lark, the dew of night, the wealth of summer, and autumn’s rich - content, all golden with imprisoned light. Drink it, and you - will hear the voice of men and maidens singing the ‘Harvest - Home,’ mingled with the laughter of children. Drink it, and - you will feel within your blood the starlit dawns, the dreamy, - tawny dusks of perfect days. For forty years this liquid joy - has been within the staves of oak, longing to touch the lips of - man.” - -This was Dr. Buckley’s statement of the other side: - - “I send you some of the most wonderful whiskey that ever - brought a skeleton into the closet, or painted scenes of lust - and bloodshed in the brain of man. It is the ghosts of wheat - and corn, crazed by the loss of their natural bodies. In it - you will find a transient sunshine chased by a shadow as cold - as an Arctic midnight, in which the breath of June grows icy - and the carol of the lark gives place to the foreboding cry - of the raven. Drink it, and you shall have ‘woe,’ ‘sorrow,’ - ‘babbling,’ and ‘wounds without cause.’ Your eyes shall - behold strange women, and ‘your heart shall utter perverse - things.’ Drink it deep, and you shall hear the voices of demons - shrieking, women wailing, and worse than orphaned children - mourning the loss of a father who yet lives. Drink it deep and - long, and serpents will hiss in your ears, coil themselves - about your neck, and seize you with their fangs; for at the - last it biteth like a serpent and stingeth like an adder. For - forty years this liquid death has been within staves of oak, - harmless there as purest water. I send it to you that you may - put an enemy in your mouth to steal away your brains, and yet I - call myself your friend.” - -[Sidenote: The languages.] - -There comes a stage of development of the learner at which the word -itself becomes the object of thought. Words are then classified as -parts of speech, and their function in sentences is studied. Their -properties and endings must be learned and compared. There is abundant -room for thought in the eleven hundred variations of the Greek verb. -The variations of words by declension and conjugation can be made the -material for thought, and as these are always at hand in the text-book, -no excursions to the field being needed to secure specimens, and no -preparation of difficult experiments being required on the part of -the teacher, the ancient languages have held their own in the schools -with most wonderful tenacity. The study of language has not merely the -advantage of supplying material for thought in the words, grammatical -forms, and sentences which are always at hand in the text, but through -the classics it brings the learner into intellectual contact with the -best thoughts of the best men in ancient and modern times. To translate -an author like Virgil or Demosthenes is to think the thoughts of a -master mind, to weigh words as in a most nicely adjusted balance, and -finally to arrange them in sentences that shall adequately convey the -meaning of the original text. - -[Sidenote: Science.] - -Science is, of course, a product of the human mind, quite as much as -the so-called humanities, and answers the same purpose when studied -as literature; but then it ceases to have the value of training the -intellect in the rigid methods of original research and scientific -investigation. Whilst it is the function of the laboratory to initiate -the student into the mysteries of the methods by which new discoveries -are made and verified, and thus to enable him to avail himself of the -labors of others through their publications, it does not bring the -student into living contact with human hopes, emotions, and aspirations -as do the poems of Goethe, Schiller, and Shakespeare. - -[Sidenote: History.] - -History deals with what man has achieved. The materials for thought which -it furnishes are mostly in the shape of the testimony of eye-witnesses -and other original sources of information. The incidents, the -achievements, the struggles, the victories and the defeats, the thoughts, -feelings, and experiences of historic personages, are an inexhaustible -supply of material from which authors, editors, and orators draw -illustrations, figures of speech, and other matter for their thinking. -Here is a field which must not be neglected by those who would influence -their fellows or figure as leaders of men. - -[Sidenote: Vigorous thinking.] - -Some minds are slow at gathering materials; yet they think vigorously. -They look at facts and ideas from every possible point of view, explore -their nature and relations, their content and extent, and point out -their bearing upon other things by the conclusions they reach. Sometimes -they go astray because they do not have sufficient data to warrant a -conclusion. Their condition resembles that of the King of Siam, who did -not believe that water could become solid because he had been in the nine -points of his kingdom and had not seen ice. - -[Sidenote: Intellectual gluttony.] - -Other men are intellectual gluttons. They keep pouring into themselves -knowledge from every quarter, carry it in their minds as the overloaded -stomach carries food, and end in mental dyspepsia. Better the man with -few ideas, who can apply these in practical life, than the man of -erudition who cannot apply his knowledge. - -Too little food produces inanition and starvation; too much food brings -on dyspepsia and a host of other ills and distempers. The haphazard -selection of studies by inexperienced youth from the large list of -electives offered by a great university is apt to result either in mental -overfeeding or in intellectual starvation. The mind can be rightly formed -only when it is rightly informed. To expect satisfactory thought-products -when the mind lacks proper materials to act upon would be as irrational -as to expect good grist from a flour-mill whose supply of grain is -deficient in quality and quantity. In the process of making flour very -much depends upon the instruments employed. The rude implements of -antiquity, the buhr-stones of our fathers, and the improved machinery of -the roller process make a difference in the product, even though the same -quality of grain is used. In the elaboration of the thought-material the -well-educated man uses instruments which may be likened to our modern -inventions for saving labor in the domain of the mechanic arts. These -instruments of thought will next claim our attention. - - - - -V - -THE INSTRUMENTS OF THOUGHT - - But words are things; and a small drop of ink - Falling, like dew, upon thought, produces - That which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think. - - BYRON. - - Constant thought will overflow in words unconsciously. - - BYRON. - - The great Lagrange specifies among the many advantages of - algebraic notation that it expresses truths more general than - those which were at first contemplated, so that by availing - ourselves of such extensions we may develop a multitude of - new truths from formulæ founded on limited truths. A glance - at the history of science will show this. For example, when - Kepler conceived the happy idea of infinitely great and - infinitely small quantities (an idea at which common sense - must have shaken its head pityingly), he devised an instrument - which in expert hands may be made to reach conclusions for - an infinite series of approximations without the infinite - labor of going successively through these. Again, when Napier - invented logarithms, even he had no suspicion of the value of - this instrument. He calculated the tables merely to facilitate - arithmetical computation, little dreaming that he was at the - same time constructing a scale whereon to measure the density - of the strata of the atmosphere, the height of the mountains, - the areas of innumerable curves, and the relation of stimuli to - sensations. - - LEWES’S PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND. - - -V - -THE INSTRUMENTS OF THOUGHT - -[Sidenote: Labor-saving in thinking.] - -[Sidenote: Squaring the circle.] - -Of the people who, though inheriting a rich vernacular like the English, -spend their lives in the routine of a farm, a trade, or a store, very -few have an adequate conception of the labor-saving instruments and -appliances which modern civilization places at the disposal of the -thinker. The machinery by which one man does as much as a thousand hands -formerly did is not a whit more wonderful than the modern appliances -for reaching results in the domain of thought. Reference might be made -to the machines for adding used in counting-houses, to the tables of -interest used by bankers, to the tables of logarithms by which it is as -easy to find the one-hundredth power as the square of a number. The last -named have, so to speak, multiplied the lives of astronomers by enabling -them to make in a short time calculations that formerly occupied months, -and even years. It is not necessary to discuss these; their value is -apparent at a glance. But the value of a rich vocabulary, the function -of the symbols and formulas of chemistry, physics, mathematics, and -other sciences, and the advantages derived from the use of the technical -terms peculiar to every domain of thought are not so easily seen. The -teacher who fails at the right time to put the pupils in possession -of these instruments of thought cripples their thinking, wastes their -time and effort, and seriously mars their progress. Hence it is worth -while to devote a chapter or two to the consideration of instruments -of thought, for the purpose of showing how, by means of them, thinking -is made easier and more effective. Let some one write the amounts in a -ledger column by the Roman notation, then endeavor to add them without -using any figures of the Arabic notation, either in his mind or in any -other way, and he will soon realize what a labor-saving device our ten -digits are. Then let him face the problem of squaring the circle as it -confronted Archimedes, using the obvious truth that the perimeter of -an inscribed polygon is less, while the perimeter of the circumscribed -polygon is greater than the circumference of the circle, and long -before his calculations reach the regular polygon of ninety-six sides -(which is as far as Archimedes carried it), he will realize how the -great Syracusan was hampered by the lack of the arithmetical notation -now in use. Next, supposing himself in possession of the Arabic method -of notation, let him conceive the labor of Rudolph von Ceulen, who, -before logarithms were known, computed the ratio of the circumference to -the diameter to thirty-five decimal places,—an achievement considered -so great that the result was inscribed upon his tombstone,—and then, -turning to the calculus, let him examine the formulas by which Clausen -and Dase, of Germany, computing independently of each other, carried out -the value to two hundred decimal places, their results agreeing to the -last figure; this will give him a conception of the superior instruments -of thought invented by those who developed the calculus. His idea of -the labor-saving devices introduced by the calculus will be heightened -still more on learning that Mr. Shanks, of Durham, England, carried the -calculation to six hundred and seven decimal places,—a result so nearly -accurate that if it were correctly used in calculating the circumference -of the visible universe, the possible error would be inappreciable in -the most powerful microscope. On further learning that in 1882 Lindeman, -of Königsberg, rigorously proved this ratio, commonly represented by the -symbol π, to be incapable of representation as the root of any algebraic -equation whatever with rational coefficients, he will not only refrain -from joining the common herd of squarers of the circle, but no further -argument will be needed to show the nature and value of the labor-saving -devices introduced into the domain of thought by modern mathematics. - -Since it is unreasonable to expect that every reader shall be familiar -with higher mathematics, the duty of using simpler illustrations cannot -be evaded. Fortunately for the purpose in hand, the book of experience -furnishes these with an abundance that is almost bewildering. - -[Sidenote: Chemistry.] - -A professor of chemistry was lecturing to an audience of teachers on -agriculture. When he began to write upon the black-board they smiled -at his spelling. Iron he wrote Fe. Water he spelled H₂O. They soon saw -that he was using the instruments of thought furnished by a science -with which, unfortunately, few of them were familiar. He had found that -the use of these chemical symbols made his thinking as much superior to -that of the ordinary man as the work of the youth upon a self-binder is -superior to that of the giant working with no better instrument than the -sickle of our forefathers. - -[Sidenote: Arabic notation.] - -The school furnishes numerous examples to illustrate this point. When -the teachers of a well-known city began the use of objects to impart the -ideas of number and of the fundamental rules in arithmetic, the interest -of the pupils and their facility in calculation grew wonderfully. The -teaching was in accordance with the laws of mental growth. For fear the -pupils would manipulate the Arabic figures without corresponding ideas, -collections and equal parts of objects were drawn upon the slate to -illustrate addition and subtraction of integers and fractions. The plan -was followed for years and carried upward through the grades. Finally -the pupils were examined for admission into the high school. A problem -involving the four fundamental rules in combinations which could not be -illustrated by pictures of objects, or the objects themselves, was set -for solution. Out of fifty-nine applicants, only ten succeeded in giving -the correct answer. The same kind of problem was given three times by -three different persons, and with practically the same outcome. The -teachers realized that they had kept up for too long a time the thinking -in things, instead of drilling the pupils upon the process of thinking in -the symbols of the Arabic notation. It is, of course, possible to think -number without using the Arabic digits. The Romans did so by means of -their counting-boards, and the Chinese do so by devices of their own. -The characters which were brought into Western Europe through Arabic -influences are derived, according to Max Mueller, from the first letters -of the Sanskrit words for the first ten numerals. Their use facilitated -calculation to such an extent that arithmetic gradually ceased to be -the prerogative of slaves and ecclesiastics; its operations began to -be understood by freemen and by the nobility. If children are denied -the use of objects in their early lessons in number, they resort to -counting on their fingers. If they are not led from this thinking on -their fingers to thinking in figures, they will never become expert in -arithmetic. Sometimes the fingers no longer move, but the mind conceives -pictures of the hand, and the mind’s eye runs along the fingers of -hands not visible to the corporeal eye. It is equally bad if the pupils -never think number except by mental pictures of blocks, sticks, balls, -and the like. When the pupil sees 7 × 9, he should not conceive seven -heaps of nine shoe-pegs each, and then a rearrangement into six groups -of ten shoe-pegs, and three stray ones alongside of these groups; but -instantaneously the symbols 7 × 9 should suggest, with unerring accuracy, -the result,—63. - -[Sidenote: Fractions.] - -In the schools of another district the principal proposed concrete -work in fractions. The teachers and pupils began to divide things into -halves, and thirds, and fourths, and sixths. They added and subtracted -by subdividing these into fractions that denoted equal parts of a unit. -Whilst the charm of novelty still clung to the process, a stranger who -visited the schools asked one of the teachers how the pupils and parents -liked the change. “Everybody is delighted,” was the exclamation. A year -later the same teacher was asked by the visitor, “How are you succeeding -with your concrete work in fractions?” With a dejected air she replied, -“We are disappointed with the results.” “Just as I expected,” exclaimed -the visitor; “for you were making the children think on the level of -barbarism, instead of teaching them to use the tools and labor-saving -machinery of modern civilization.” - -[Sidenote: Reckoning interest.] - -Still another incident, taken from actual life, will serve to throw -light upon the subject under discussion. In the booming days of the iron -industry a laborer had saved and put out at interest twelve hundred -dollars. The rate was six per cent., and no interest had been paid for -one year and four months. Unable to reckon interest with figures, the -toiler asked the principal of the schools to tell him the amount of -interest due. Next day he greeted the principal by asking, “Did you not -make a mistake in your calculation?” The reply was, “In my hurry to -avoid being late at school I may have made a mistake.” He found that -the man was right, and curiosity led him to ask how the error had been -detected. “I reckoned it,” said the man. This aroused still greater -curiosity; for the principal knew that, beyond the ability to count, the -man had no knowledge of arithmetic. By agreement they met on Saturday -afternoon, so that the man might show his method of reckoning interest. -At the appointed hour the man laid six pennies on the floor to denote a -year’s interest on one dollar, and then laid two pennies alongside of -these as the additional interest on a dollar for four months. The supply -of pennies being exhausted, he made strokes with chalk, and proceeded to -do this twelve hundred times, and then to count them for the purpose of -ascertaining the interest. It was thinking in things with a vengeance. -And yet the making of strokes with chalk was a step in symbolic -representation, and shows the innate tendency of the human mind to use -symbols in thinking. - -[Sidenote: Words.] - -[Sidenote: Dialects.] - -Even the words used in counting are symbols. In fact, every word that -signifies anything is a symbol used by the mind to indicate an idea more -or less complex, as well as the thing or things or relation of things in -the external world which corresponds to the idea. In advanced thinking -the words denote ideas more and more complex as the problems grow in -difficulty or involve more of the abstract and general concepts under -which the mind classifies the objects of which it takes cognizance. This -is more largely true of the words in a developed language than it is of a -dialect with little or no literature. A reference to the writer’s early -home will be pardoned in this connection. His father, a plain farmer in -Eastern Pennsylvania, sent four sons through college and gave each of -them a professional or university education. When they gather under the -parental roof they use the dialect of their early days in discussing life -on the farm and in rehearsing the funny experiences of their boyhood; -but when they discuss a question in science or mathematics, in law, -medicine, or theology, they drop the dialect of their boyhood and use the -instruments of thought furnished by languages having a literature. Some -one has facetiously said of one town in the Lehigh Valley that the people -pray in seven languages and swear in eight. It is a witty statement of an -actual fact. The Welshman can pray as well as swear in his native tongue. -The Pennsylvania German can vent his feelings fully in his own dialect -when he grows profane. As soon as he says his prayers he reverts to the -language of the pulpit and of Luther’s Bible because he there finds the -words which express the deepest wants and emotions of the human soul. - -[Sidenote: Melanchthon.] - -[Sidenote: Growth of the German language.] - -[Sidenote: Value of a rich vocabulary.] - -When Melanchthon prepared the Saxony school plan he insisted that pupils -should read Latin, write Latin, and speak Latin to the exclusion of the -mother tongue. If an educator of to-day should advocate this policy in -the fatherland, he would be banished. Melanchthon, surnamed preceptor -Germaniæ, knew what he was about. He taught at a time when teachers of -the humanities lamented that children were born in the homes of parents -speaking German. He lectured at a time when Luther and his colleagues -were visiting market-places to talk with the peasants for the purpose -of gathering words and phrases by which the New Testament might be -adequately rendered in the vernacular of the common people. A development -extending over one hundred and fifty years was required before the -lecturers at the universities found in it enough words and phrases to -serve as instruments of thought for purposes of advanced investigation -and ratiocination. So rich and flexible has the German become that Voss -succeeded in translating Homer into German, using the same metre, the -same number of lines, without adding to or subtracting from the ideas of -the original. Schlegel’s translation of Shakespeare is equally famous -and equally successful. Both of these masterpieces show how essential -a rich vocabulary is in rendering or in reproducing the best thoughts -of the best minds; they show the importance of linguistic development -and linguistic teaching. For purposes of thought and culture a rich -mother tongue is of untold advantage. It is a great blessing to be born -and raised in a home presided over by a well-educated mother. It is an -invaluable help to be trained in schools whose teachers speak and write -the languages which have felt the touch of the genius of Shakespeare and -of Goethe. Next to furnishing ideas or something to think about, the -thing of most importance in teaching a pupil to think is to enrich his -vocabulary, to train him in language. Dr. Whewell has well remarked that -“language is the atmosphere in which thought lives, for there is hardly -a subject we can think about without the aid of language. Consequently, -without knowledge of the language of a science all thinking with regard -to that science is impossible; for although we conceive the world by -means of our senses, we comprehend it only in and through the form of -language.” In this connection one cannot do better than listen to the -conclusions of men who have attained eminence as scholars, thinkers, and -writers. Speaking from experience, they can throw light upon the art of -correct and efficient thinking. - -[Sidenote: Dr. Morrell.] - -“Language, we must remember,” says Dr. Morrell, “is not constructed -afresh by every individual mind which uses it. It is a world already -created for us,—one into which we have simply to be introduced, and in -which the process of human development, up to any given period, is more -or less perfectly preserved and registered. Recollection, accordingly, -by enabling us to appropriate to ourselves a whole system of signs, -with the ideas attached to them, initiates us insensibly into the -intellectual world of the present, puts us upon the vantage-ground of -the latest degree of civilization, and enables us to grasp the ideas of -the age without the labor of thinking them out consecutively by our own -individual effort.”[11] - -[Sidenote: Dr. Whewell.] - -“Language,” says Dr. Whewell, “is often called an instrument of thought; -but it is also the nutriment of thought; or, rather, it is the atmosphere -in which thought lives; a medium essential to the activity of our -speculative power, although invisible and imperceptible in its operation; -and an element modifying, by its qualities and changes, the growth and -complexion of the faculties which it feeds. In this way the influence of -preceding discoveries upon subsequent ones, of the past upon the present, -is most penetrating and universal, though most subtle and difficult to -trace. The most familiar words and phrases are connected by imperceptible -ties with the reasonings and discoveries of former men and most distant -times. Their knowledge is an inseparable part of ours; the present -generation inherits and uses the scientific wealth of all the past. And -this is the fortune not only of the great and rich in the intellectual -world, of those who have the key to the ancient storehouses and who have -accumulated treasures of their own, but the humblest inquirer, while he -puts his reasoning into words, benefits by the labors of the greatest -discoverers. When he counts his little wealth, he finds he has in his -hands coins which bear the image and superscription of ancient and -modern intellectual dynasties; and that, in virtue of this possession, -acquisitions are in his power, solid knowledge within his reach, which -none could ever have attained to if it were not that the gold of -truth, once dug out of the mine, circulates more and more widely among -mankind.”[12] - -[Sidenote: Dr. Hinsdale.] - -“The word ‘vernacular,’” says Hinsdale, “is derived from _vernaculus_, -which comes from _verna_, a slave born in his master’s house; and it -means the speech to which one is born and in which he is reared,—the -_patrius sermo_ of the Roman, the _Mutter-sprache_ of the German, -the mother tongue of the Englishman. Command of a noble vernacular -involves the most valuable discipline and culture that a man is capable -of receiving. It conditions all other discipline and culture.... The -greatest mental inheritance to which a German, a Frenchman, or an -Englishman is born is his native tongue, rich in the knowledge and -wisdom, the ideas and thoughts, the wit and fancy, the sentiment and -feeling, of a thousand years. Nay, of more than a thousand years; for -these languages, in their modern forms, were enriched by still earlier -centuries. To come back to the old thought, such a speech as one of these -only flows out from such a life as it expresses, and is in turn essential -to the existence of that life.”[13] - -[Sidenote: English.] - -Parents who wish their children to possess the best instruments of -thought cannot be too careful in the selection of teachers for them. -Children whose mother tongue is a dialect should be trained in one or -more of the languages that have been enriched by centuries of development -and literary culture. The best that the people of Pennsylvania-German -extraction can do for future generations is to make the transition -as speedily as possible from their vernacular—so poverty-stricken in -its vocabulary—to the English, with its abundant vocabulary and its -unsurpassed literary treasures. In the English they will find the -instruments of thought fitted to develop native powers that have been -inherited from an ancestry of sturdy husbandmen, and strengthened through -heredity by centuries of contact with the soil, even as the giant Antæus, -in wrestling with Hercules, is fabled to have gained new strength as -often as he came in contact with mother earth. The same advice will -apply to the other nationalities who have come to live on American soil, -even though they have brought with them a more developed vernacular. -The English dictionary contains one hundred and twenty thousand -words; but besides these words in common use, the dictionaries of the -specialists contain several hundred thousand more, which may be called -technical terms, and which serve as instruments of thought in scientific -discussions and investigations. To these we next turn our attention. - - - - -VI - -TECHNICAL TERMS AS INSTRUMENTS OF THOUGHT - - It is the power of thinking by means of symbols which - demarcates men from animals, and gives one man or nation the - superiority over others. - - LEWES. - - Hardly any original thoughts on mental or social subjects ever - make their way among mankind or assume their proper importance - in the minds even of their inventors until aptly selected words - or phrases have, as it were, nailed them down and held them - fast. - - J. S. MILL. - - Though most readers, probably, entertain, at first, a - persuasion that a writer ought to content himself with the use - of common words in their common sense, and feel a repugnance to - technical terms and arbitrary rules of phraseology, as pedantic - and troublesome, it is soon found by the student of any branch - of science that, without technical terms and fixed rules, there - can be no certain or progressive knowledge. The loose and - infantine grasp of common language cannot hold objects steadily - enough for scientific examination, or lift them from one stage - of generalization to another. They must be secured by the rigid - mechanism of a scientific phraseology. This necessity has been - felt in all the sciences, from the earliest periods of their - progress. - - WHEWELL. - - Ideas and existences are represented by terms and phrases; - and as terms and phrases are representative of thoughts and - things, and are the means which enable us to speak about them, - the definitions, descriptions, and explanations of terms form - a very necessary part of science; and he who would understand - science must learn the meaning of the special terms employed in - it. - - GORE. - - -VI - -TECHNICAL TERMS AS INSTRUMENTS OF THOUGHT - -[Sidenote: Technical terms.] - -[Sidenote: Their value.] - -Some teachers are very much afraid of technical terms. They teach -their pupils to say name-word instead of noun, action-word instead -of verb, and bring over instead of transpose. There is no end to the -phrases they invent for the sake of avoiding technical terms. Acting -on the maxim that a pupil shall never be allowed to use a word without -comprehending its meaning, they prefer to use compound words and phrases -to denote the fundamental ideas of the various branches of study. This -fear of technical terms is a natural result of the reaction against -rote teaching. So much has been said and written against the teaching -of mere words, especially big words, against parrot-like recitations -of definitions, rules, principles, and forms of statement given in the -text-book or wrought out by the teacher, that many people fail to see the -value of technical terms as instruments of thought. A separate chapter -is necessary to point out their function in scientific thinking and -instruction. In common parlance the use of technical terms should be -avoided. Do we say that Nebuchadnezzar had a long noun or a long name? -Noun is a technical term; name is the word in ordinary use. Do we say -that a man broke his femur or his leg? The doctors who set the limb will -probably use the technical term in their conferences. In talking with -the common people they use the common names, unless they wish to awe -the multitudes by a show of learning. Often, indeed, men use big words -to hide their ignorance. In physiology the investigations are carried -as far as possible, and then a term is coined to cover the unknown. -Often high-sounding words are strung together to cover a lack of ideas -or to establish a reputation for erudition. These are tricks to which a -genuine teacher has no occasion to resort. It is his duty to ascertain -the educational value of the technical terms of science, and to use these -terms for the purpose of fixing scientific ideas in the mind and of -causing the pupil to think clearly and exactly. - -[Sidenote: Basal concepts.] - -At the basis of every science, as we have seen, there are certain ideas -which cannot be conveyed to other minds by the use of the corresponding -technical terms. These basal concepts must be built up in the learner’s -mind by skilful teaching, sometimes by the very process by which the -race acquired or discovered them. It may require a trip to the field, to -the museum, or to the mine; or an experiment in the laboratory may be -necessary. Perhaps a development lesson is needed to enable the pupil to -grasp the idea clearly and fully. It is very certain that if the idea is -hazy and ill-defined, the subsequent thinking will be loose, obscure, -and unsatisfactory. The glib use of technical terms may often hide from -the teacher the defects of the pupil’s thinking, and it may require -an examination to reveal the points wherein the teacher has failed. -Questions which require a pupil to look at his knowledge from a new point -of view are helpful; an examination abounding in such questions may be -an intellectual blessing to both teacher and pupil. The examiner should, -of course, avoid puzzling catch-questions, for these are calculated to -embarrass the pupil and confuse his thinking. - -[Sidenote: Popular lectures.] - -A clear thinker can always make his ideas intelligible to those who -have acquired the basal concepts of the things, principles, and laws -with which he deals. Lecturers on popular science avoid the abstruse -questions of advanced science and the technical terms which do not convey -a definite meaning to the average hearer. They select topics which can be -discussed in the language of common life, and often state the results of -scientific research without leading the audience through the successive -steps by which these results are obtained. The popular lecture requires -special gifts that are not in the possession of every scientist. Huxley -was one of the most gifted men of the century; yet he says of himself,— - -[Sidenote: Huxley.] - -“I have not been one of those fortunate persons who are able to regard -a popular lecture as a mere _hors d’œuvre_ unworthy of being ranked -among the serious efforts of a philosopher, and who keep their fame as -scientific hierophants unsullied by attempts—at least of the successful -sort—to be understanded by the people. On the contrary, I have found that -the task of putting the truths learned in the field, the laboratory, -and the museum into language which, without bating a jot of scientific -accuracy, shall be generally intelligible, taxed such scientific and -literary faculty as I possessed to the uttermost; indeed, my experience -has furnished me with no better corrective of the tendency to scholastic -pedantry, which besets all those who are absorbed in pursuits remote from -the common ways of men, and become habituated to think and speak in the -technical dialect of their own little world, as if there were no other.” - -[Sidenote: Exact thinking.] - -There is an error, on the other hand, into which practical men fall when -they object to the technical language of the scientist. There are many -things in science which cannot be made plain to the non-scientific -mind. The difficulty lies not in the terminology employed, but in the -lack of the basal concepts necessary for the advanced thinking which -must be employed. Says Robert Galloway, “Words when employed in science, -unlike their employment in common use, have a meaning steadily fixed and -precisely determined; this precision in the meaning of scientific terms -necessarily requires on the part of those who can make proper use of them -_accurate habits of thought_; this is an indispensable qualification for -attainment in any science; there is no dispensing with it, consequently -one who does not know the language of a science, and who has not been -taught to think accurately with respect to it, cannot understand properly -what may be told or shown him about the facts or principles of that -science.” - -[Sidenote: De Quincey.] - -From this point of view it is easy to see the use which the teacher -should make of technical terms. Circumlocutions and explanatory phrases -may be helpful in developing fundamental ideas, but the corresponding -technical terms should be associated with the ideas as soon as these -assume clear, definite shape. Language is the atmosphere in which -thinking lives; technical language is as necessary to the scientific -thought as the air we breathe is to the physical life. In one of his -letters to a young man whose education had been neglected, De Quincey -renders an important service to the science of teaching. “In assigning -to the complex notion X the name transcendental, Kant was not simply -transferring a word which had previously been used by the school-men to -a more useful office; he was bringing into the service of the intellect -a new birth; that is, drawing into a synthesis, which had not existed -before as a synthesis, parts or elements which exist and come forward -hourly in every man’s mind. I urge this upon your attention, because you -will often hear such challenges thrown out as this (or others involving -the same error): ‘Now, if there be any sense in this Mr. Kant’s writings, -let us have it in good old mother English.’ That is, in other words, -transfer into the unscientific language of life scientific notions which -it is not fitted to express. The challenger proceeds upon the common -error of supposing all ideas fully developed to exist _in esse_ in all -understandings, ergo, his own; and all that are in his own he thinks we -can express in English. Thus the challenger, in his own notions, has -you in a dilemma, at any rate; for, if you do not translate it, then it -confirms his belief that the whole is jargon; if you do (as, doubtless, -with the help of much periphrasis, that will be intelligible to a man -who already understands the philosophy), then where was the use of the -terminology? But the way to deal with this fellow is as follows: My good -sir, I shall do what you ask; but before I do it I beg you will oblige -me by (1) translating this mathematics into the language of chemistry; -(2) translating this chemistry into the language of mathematics; (3) -both into the language of cookery, and, finally, solve me the Cambridge -problem, Given the captain’s name, the year of our Lord, to determine the -longitude of the ship? This is the way to deal with such fellows.” - -[Sidenote: Images.] - -[Sidenote: Higher forms of thinking.] - -Technical terms are very helpful in dealing with that which cannot be -imaged or visualized. When Francis Galton began his inquiries into the -power possessed by different minds to conceive the breakfast table, to -recall vividly the various dishes and the way in which they are placed -upon the table, many men of scientific habits of thought declared that -there is no such human faculty. On the other hand, the educational -reformer whose early training did not make him familiar with the -thought-processes of higher mathematics may honestly declare that he -cannot conceive an abstract number, and, as a matter of course, he can -have no adequate conception of the value of the higher forms of thinking -in symbols. Dr. W. T. Harris has well said that the mind can think ideas -which cannot be pictorially conceived or made to stand before the mind -in thought-images. In thinking this class of ideas, technical terms are -indispensable as instruments of thought. - -[Sidenote: Symbols classified.] - -[Sidenote: Suggestive symbols.] - -The value of technical terms as instruments of thought is seen in a still -clearer light if we try to classify the various uses of the signs and -symbols which are employed as aids in thinking. Many of these have no -office beyond that of _suggesting_ the things or ideas for which they -stand. To this class belong the marks which suggest to the tramp a cross -dog or a good meal. As soon as he has seen them, they could be erased; -the train of thought which they started in his mind can go on without -them. Of a similar character are the devices by which the merchant marks -the buying and the selling prices of goods, the red and blue lights used -on railways and ocean steamers, the secret signs and signals employed by -the signal corps of an army, and the steps, grips, signs, countersigns, -and passwords employed by secret societies as a means of identification. -Very many of the artificial devices used in systems of mnemonics have no -higher function than that of suggesting what otherwise might be forgotten. - -[Sidenote: Symbols as substitutes.] - -Very different are the signs and symbols which mathematics employs as -substitutes for the quantities to be considered. In adding a column -in the ledger or in a statistical table the mind thinks the figures -without reference to the concrete objects which they denote. In the -solution of a problem in algebra the unknown quantities are represented -by symbols like _x_ and _y_, the known quantities by the first letters -of the alphabet or by numerical expressions; the relations between -the quantities are indicated by equations; there is no thought of the -quantities themselves while the mind is engaged in manipulating the -symbols according to well-defined rules of operation, and only when the -result is to be interpreted do the quantities reappear in the field of -consciousness. The substitute symbol is a device for temporarily dropping -an idea until it is needed for interpretation; the suggestive symbol is -a means of bringing an idea or thought into the domain of consciousness. -The latter furnishes or recalls material for the mind to act upon; the -former lightens the burden which the mind would otherwise have to carry. -The arithmetical solution of an age question in which the mind constantly -carries the thought of A’s age and his wife’s age as compared with the -algebraic solution of the same question in which A and his wife, as -well as their ages, sink temporarily out of sight, shows the value of -substitute signs and symbols in mathematical thinking, and explains why -algebraic methods are so far superior to the clumsy and involved methods -of arithmetical analysis. - -[Sidenote: Expressive symbols.] - -Different from either of these is the class of symbols used in expressing -ideas. This class includes not only the words of written and spoken -language, but also the natural signs of gesture language and the -conventional signs of manual language taught to deaf mutes. The language -is full of faded metaphors indicating the office of common words. They -are said to express meaning, to convey thought, to embody ideas, to -enshrine content. They may be likened to window-panes through which one -sees what is back of them. Sometimes the window-panes, like spectacles -when first worn, attract more attention from the person looking than the -objects seen through them,—a parallel to what occurs when the articulate -speech, or its rhetorical adornment, attracts more attention than the -thought expressed. But if that which is seen through the window-pane -is on the order of a Santa Claus loaded with toys and Christmas-gifts, -then no notice is taken of the medium through which the object is seen. -Hence the very best teaching—that which rivets attention upon the thought -conveyed—always fails to teach the spelling of words incidentally. -Furthermore, the instruction which frequently stops to draw attention to -the grammar of the sentences, the spelling of the words or their mode of -utterance, interferes with the formation of logical habits of thinking -and divests the words of their function as expressive signs. When the -word itself becomes an object of thought the mind is not thinking by -means of that word. It has been well said that we may fail to apprehend -the meaning of what a person is saying because the tone of his voice -arrests our attention through its resemblance to that of some one else -in whom we feel an interest; that so far as signs thus attract notice -on their own account, they fail to fulfil their function as a means of -attending to something other than themselves. For this very pertinent -observation credit is due to Mr. G. F. Stout, who (“Mind,” lxii. page 18) -has very clearly drawn the distinction between the three classes of signs -or symbols used as helps in thinking. He says,— - -[Sidenote: G. F. Stout.] - -“Suggestive signs serve only to bring something to mind; they are not -a means of minding it when once recalled. An expressive sign, on the -contrary, is a means of attending to its signification.... Expressive -signs differ from substitutes in a manner exactly the inverse of that -in which they differ from suggestive signs. A suggestive sign has -fulfilled its purpose and becomes of no further avail so soon as it has -suggested its meaning. A substitute sign is a counter which takes the -place of its meaning; so long as it fulfils its representative function -it renders useless all reference to that which it represents. The -counters are manipulated according to certain rules of operation until a -certain result is reached, which is then interpreted. The operator may -be actually unable to interpret the intermediate steps. Algebraical and -arithmetical symbols are to a great extent used as mere substitute signs. -The same is true of the symbols employed in formal logic. It is possible -to use signs of this kind whenever fixed and definite rules of operation -can be derived from the nature of the things symbolized, so as to be -applied in manipulating the signs without further reference to their -signification. A word is an instrument for thinking about the meaning -which it expresses; a substitute sign is a means of not thinking about -the meaning which it symbolizes.” - -[Sidenote: Fixing concepts.] - -In addition to these three purposes the technical term may serve still -another important end. It helps to fix the new concept or notion after -it has been developed by skilful instruction. Its association therewith -makes it a suggestive sign whenever occasion requires the recurrence -of the concept or thought for which it stands. The train of thought is -facilitated and made possible by the use of technical terms as expressive -signs. And if the idea denoted by it can be accurately defined, so -that the definition becomes a triumph of intellect, or if it can be -quantified, so as to become a unit of measure like the volts, ohms, -ampères, and watts in applied electricity, the technical term may even -serve a purpose analogous to the substitute signs in sciences like formal -logic and mathematics. - -[Sidenote: Proper use of technical terms.] - -The foregoing analysis indicates the proper method of teaching technical -terms. First, the basal concept should be carefully developed and -clearly presented; it should then be fixed in the mind by association -with the corresponding technical term; finally, the union should be -made permanent by frequently causing the two to appear together in -the domain of thought, by treating them as welcome guests when they -appear together in the citadel of mind. Divorce of one from the other -should be as impossible as in the case of the two parties to a suitable -marriage. On the _fête_ days of science they should appear together, -each suggesting the presence of the other, the technical term serving -as a helpmeet to the idea, and as its representative when, in the -charmed circle of scientific investigation, the presence of the idea -is not absolutely required. Circumlocutions, like name-word for noun, -quality-word for adjective, and relation-word for preposition, may be -helpful in presenting the idea or in introducing the technical term; they -may be tolerated, like a third party in the making of a match; but when -the match has been made, and the wedding has been solemnized, they should -drop out of sight as of no further use. The figure of speech could easily -be pressed too far; for many objects known to science have a common as -well as a technical designation. Each has its proper place in the realm -of thought,—the common name in ordinary conversation, the technical term -when scientific precision is required. - - - - -VII - -THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE - - It seems to me quite certain that we can and do think things - without thinking of any sound or words. Language seems to me - to be necessary to the progress of thought, but not at all - necessary to the mere act of thinking. It is a product of - thought: a vehicle for the communication of it, a channel for - the conveyance of it, and an embodiment which is essential - to its growth and continuity. But it seems to be altogether - erroneous to represent it as an inseparable part of cogitation. - Donkeys and dogs are without true thought, not because they - are speechless, but they are speechless because they have - no abstract ideas, and no true reasoning powers. In parrots - the power of mere articulation exists sometimes in wonderful - perfection. But parrots are not so clever as many other birds - which have no such power. - - Man’s vocal organs are correlated with his brain. Both are - equally mysterious, because they are co-operative, and yet - separable, parts of “one plan.” - - ARGYLL. - - That the language may be fitted for its purpose, not only - should every word perfectly express its meaning, but there - should be no important meaning without its word. Whatever we - have occasion to think of often, and for scientific purposes, - ought to have a name appropriated to it. - - J. S. MILL. - - -VII - -THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE - -[Sidenote: Three possible contingencies.] - -In the development of intellectual life three contingencies are possible. - -1. The growth of the vocabulary may be more rapid than the acquisition of -ideas. - -2. The accumulation and development of ideas may exceed the ability to -express them in language. - -3. The acquisition of ideas and words, of thought and language, may be -simultaneous. - -Without doubt, these possibilities in mental growth exist for wise and -beneficent purposes. - -[Sidenote: Words without ideas.] - -The tendency to acquire words without the corresponding ideas is, in -at least one direction, a source of gain rather than loss. The pert -phrases, profane words, and other objectionable language which the child -accidentally hears from the lips of older persons, and at times uses to -the unspeakable annoyance of parents and teachers, would be an occasion -for far more serious alarm if the meaning were fully understood. Were it -a law of our mental life that the hearing and learning of a profane or -obscene word necessarily carried with it a clear grasp of the meaning, -the resulting harm to the inner life of the soul would be immeasurably -greater, and the stain upon the character would be vastly more difficult -to remove. The objectionable language may mirror the habits of thought -and speech into which those in charge of the child have fallen, awaken -in them a new sense of their responsibility, and cause them to be more -careful of what they say; or it may prove an index to the kind of company -into which the child is drifting, and thus serve as a danger-signal to -parent and teacher. When the mind has not learned to think the thought -expressed, a simple warning against the use of such ugly words generally -suffices to eradicate them from the child’s vocabulary; and in such -instances it is a blessing in disguise that the learning of the words -was not accompanied by the acquisition of their meaning. The loss to the -intellectual life is more than balanced by the gain in moral training. - -[Sidenote: Thinking without words.] - -Is thinking possible without language? If by language is meant oral -speech and written words, the sign-language of deaf mutes is sufficient -to compel an affirmative answer to the question. Moreover, there are -modes of thinking and of expressing thought other than by the use of -words. Of the means of expressing thought without words, symbols like the -ten digits and the sigma of the new psychology are well-known examples. -The player in a game of chess, croquet, or billiards thinks movements -in advance of making them, and generally without describing the same in -words. The drawings and plans by means of which the architect designs a -new building, the mental images of mechanical contrivances which precede -the invention and construction of machines, the mental pictures used in -designing, engineering, and sketching, in original geological thought, -prove beyond the shadow of a doubt that thinking may go forward without -words and sentences, and may find expression in ways better adapted to -the needs of the artisan. The graphic method of presenting to the eye -the results of an investigation is less cumbersome than any description -in words. Some men depend so much upon mental pictures in their thinking -that they assert they cannot think at all without them. In some kinds -of gymnastic drill the movement is described in words, then conceived by -the mind, and finally executed. This exercise has a different educational -value from the exercise in which the student simply imitates the -movements of the teacher, the latter being an instance of thinking and -expressing thought without the help of words. The speed with which many -movements must be executed, as in fencing, legerdemain, athletic sports, -the manipulation of the lever in the hands of the engineer, requires -thinking without the intermediate agency of words and sentences. The time -it takes for an idea to pass into words, and through them into actions, -is measurably greater than the time required for the direct translation -of thought into action. Although the difference in specific instances is -measured by the fraction of a second, it would involve serious loss of -time as well as energy in the handicrafts if thoughts could only pass -into action through speech or written language. - -[Sidenote: Superfluity of words.] - -[Sidenote: Thought and action.] - -[Sidenote: Francis Galton.] - -Some persons run to mouth; others lack in this respect. To the former -class belong those whose lips move in study; those who talk to -themselves; and many whose paucity of ideas does not justify their -superfluity of words. Let such a man be elected as a delegate to a synod -or a convention, and the sessions will be prolonged beyond the usual -time. As a rule, the energy of such men is exhausted in speech; they -are not noted for getting things done. On the other hand, the men of -great executive ability are oftentimes men of few words; their thought -is translated into doing rather than talking. The man of deeds is always -estimated above the man of words, the general above the orator, Cæsar -the commander above Cæsar the orator. Sometimes the men of original -turn of mind find that their thinking outstrips their power to express -thought. Francis Galton says of himself, “It is a serious drawback to -me in writing that I do not so easily think in words as otherwise. -It often happens that after being hard at work and having arrived at -results that are perfectly clear and satisfactory to myself, when I try -to express them in language I feel that I must begin by putting myself -on quite a different intellectual plane; I have to translate my thoughts -into a language that does not run evenly with them. I therefore waste a -great deal of time in seeking for appropriate words and phrases, and am -conscious, when required to speak on a sudden, of being often obscure -through mere verbal maladroitness, and not through want of clearness -of perception. This is one of the small annoyances of my life. I may -add that often while engaged in thinking out something I hatch an -accompaniment of nonsense-words, just as notes of a song might accompany -the thought. Also, that after I have made a mental step, the appropriate -word frequently follows as an echo; as a rule, it does not accompany it.” - -[Sidenote: Knowing and telling.] - -This throws a new light upon one phase of school work. The boy who has -a notion of the content of a lesson sometimes stops in the midst of a -recitation and, without premeditation, exclaims, “I know it, but cannot -say it.” The teacher retorts, “You do not know what you cannot express.” -Both are right and both are wrong. There is, probably, a measure of -truth in what each claims. If the pupil had mastered the text, he -would not only have a clear idea of the lesson, but he would also have -acquired from the book or from the teacher the words to express the idea. -Nevertheless, if there is reason for thinking that the pupil has devoted -reasonable time to the lesson, his linguistic powers should be developed -by questions and other appropriate help. The good sense and native -instincts of most teachers lead them to give this help. The teacher whose -captious disposition issues in remarks calculated to repress a backward -pupil’s powers of expression should find employment outside of the -school-room. - -[Sidenote: Foreign-born children.] - -The child of foreigners may outstrip native children and astonish the -school by unprecedented progress because, being already familiar with -the ideas of the lesson, it is compelled simply to acquire the language -by which the ideas are expressed. By reason of their inability at first -to tell what they know, such children are often classified with those -less mature, and the mastery of the new language in their case is not as -difficult as the mastery of new ideas for which brain-growth may be the -essential condition. To ignore the fact that such children often know -more than they can tell is pedagogic folly in the highest degree. - -[Sidenote: Language clarifies thought.] - -[Sidenote: Literary societies.] - -Courses of study are sometimes mapped out so as to cause inequality in -the pace with which ideas are accumulated and language is developed. -Undue stress on grammar, rhetoric, and belles-lettres may cause abnormal -development in the direction of flowery language, a verbose style, an -ornate diction. It is a fault difficult to correct. To insist that such a -student shall have something to say, to force him into studies that will -bring him face to face with great questions as yet unsettled, to beget -in him a state of mind in which he is troubled with ideas, to compel him -to work over and over what he writes until his sentences are as clear -as crystals, seems necessary to counteract the one-sided development -of such students. The curriculum of study may err on the other side. -The graduates in the various courses of engineering (civil, electrical, -mechanical, and mining) sometimes develop technical, to the neglect of -linguistic, skill. In the presence of a body of capitalists they are -made deeply conscious of the difference between the ability to think and -the ability to express thought.[14] In one large school of technology the -graduates established prizes in English composition and endowed chairs -of the English language and literature, so that future students might -acquire the power to state in clear and intelligible language the results -of their work as specialists. In no long time it was discovered that -for this purpose they also needed training in an art similar to that of -the teacher,—namely, the art of developing the ideas and thoughts which -underlie and condition the engineering project under consideration. For -him who would be a leader among men, the ability to express thought is -quite as important as the ability to think. Moreover, there is a vast -difference between ability to express thought on one’s feet in the -presence of an audience and ability to express it on paper in the privacy -of the home. J. J. Rousseau and Washington Irving could write well, but -neither of them could make a speech. Patrick Henry’s eloquence before an -audience was unsurpassed; he never could write a satisfactory report. -Power in both directions may be acquired in a college course through the -exercises of a good debating society. The student who, during four years, -carefully writes out his thoughts, then discards his manuscript while -speaking, and studies how he can best convince his hearers and how he can -prune himself of the defects pointed out by the merciless criticism of -his fellows, can feel sure of ultimate success. President Barnard says -of one of our largest institutions that half its glory departed when -its literary societies were killed through the influence of the Greek -letter fraternities. A public speaker who is a slave to his manuscript is -deserving of pity. College authorities may well exercise their ingenuity -in finding a substitute for the drill and practice which the literary -societies of by-gone days afforded in learning to think and to express -thought in the face of opposition, criticism, and other unfavorable -conditions. - -[Sidenote: Influence of language upon thinking.] - -[Sidenote: Teaching English.] - -Thought and language exercise a reciprocal influence. Thought is -stimulated and clarified by the effort to express it. Often it is shaped -by the limitations of one’s vocabulary and the range of the words with -which one’s hearers or readers are familiar. The faded metaphors of -language betray us into fallacies. Phrases like the witness of the -spirit, total depravity, have led to extravagant expectations and -unwarranted conclusions. People sometimes have a religious phraseology -without a corresponding religious experience, and hence deceive -themselves and others. Everywhere we see instances that go to show how -important it is that the development of the power to think should keep -pace with the growth of the power to express thought. Very much is said -in these days about the use of good English. As Adam threw the blame -upon Eve, and Eve cast it upon the Serpent, so every one blames some -one else for the poor English used at school and college. In the end -the teachers are usually made to bear most of the blame: the college -professor blames the teachers in the high school; these, in turn, blame -the teachers in the lower grades; and when the matter is cast up to the -primary teacher, she throws the blame upon the street and the home. A -professor in the college department of a university gave many ludicrous -specimens of English in the work handed to him by students. He was asked -of what college class he had charge, and when he replied the sophomore, a -high-school teacher suggested that the specimens reflected quite as much -upon the teachers of the freshman class as upon the schools below the -university. - -[Sidenote: The committee.] - -A women’s society in one of our large cities sent a committee to the -superintendent to complain of the poor English used by the children in -the schools. He agreed that strenuous efforts should be made to provide -a remedy. He added, “If you will take care of the English in the homes -and on the streets, I will get the teachers to look after the English in -the schools.” Instead of throwing blame upon others, it were far more -sensible for each educated person to ask wherein he is to blame for -setting others a bad example and wherein he can help the teachers of -English to accomplish the desired result. - -[Sidenote: Aim.] - -The aim in teaching English is twofold,—first, to get the student to -appreciate good English and good literature; secondly, to get him to use -it in speaking and writing. The latter end cannot be reached by mere -practice in essay-writing. Ability to think is a condition of ability -to express thought. Too many of the subjects assigned lay stress upon -the forms of speech and not upon the content of language. When pupils -think in words and disconnected phrases rather than sentences, when -they violate the rules for capitals, punctuation, and paragraphs, the -teachers of English may be solely to blame; but, in so far as the use -of good English depends upon good thinking, the blame for the use of -faulty language rests upon all who teach. If the ability to think is not -developed in proportion to the use of language, the school will produce -stylists who exalt the forms of speech above their content, slaves of -beautiful and flowery language who resemble the fops and dudes of social -life. To emancipate from such slavery requires more than an emancipation -proclamation from the president of a college association. - -[Sidenote: Linguistic studies.] - -[Sidenote: Language tributary to thinking.] - -The labors of the brothers Grim, Max Müller, and others have reduced -the knowledge of language to a science. Linguistic studies have become -as interesting as any branch of natural science. They shed new light -upon the history of mankind. In furnishing material for thought, as well -as mental discipline, they are not inferior to any other study in the -curriculum. It would, however, be a mistake to suppose that philological -studies are superior to other disciplines as means for developing power -to think and power to express thought. The professor of any language -is apt to regard that language as an end, and not as means to an end. -Primarily, language is a medium of communication. It distinguishes man -from the brute creation, and furnishes him the instruments of thought by -which he carries forward processes of reasoning beyond the reach of the -lower animals. At the university language in general, or any particular -language, may be studied as a specialty, and can thus be made an end in -itself as appropriately as any other subject which is studied for its -own sake. In the lower schools language should always be made tributary -to the art of thinking. It should be employed to embody thought, and -to convey thought, without intruding itself upon our attention as the -thing of chief value. Any phase of linguistic study may be lifted by -an enthusiastic teacher into the chief place in the course of study. -Orthography has sometimes been taught as if it were the chief end of man -to spell correctly. Grammar has been taught as if a faulty sentence -were one of the sins forbidden by the Decalogue, and as if the fate -of the republic depended upon parsing, analysis, and diagramming. The -pronunciation of words may be emphasized until the lips of teacher and -pupil smack of an overdose of dictionary, until the overdoing of obscure -vowels draws attention away from the thought to the manner of utterance. -A sensible man articulates his words in such a manner as readily to be -understood, but never in such a way as to excite remark or draw the mind -of the listener from the subject-matter of the discourse. - -In educational practice, the manner of expressing the thought should -not supplant the more important art of making the pupil think. Getting -and begetting thought are of more consequence than the expression of -thought; in fact, they condition the correct use of language. All talk -about English, or German, or Spanish, or Latin, or Greek, as if any -one of these languages were an end in itself for the average pupil, -is wide of the mark. Correct sentences, beautiful expressions, and -rhetorical phrases can never make a nation great or perpetuate its free -institutions. Flowery language can never save a dying sinner or console -the widow who is following the bier of a son, her only child and support. -Fine words never win a battle by land or by sea. The most eloquent -orations against Philip of Macedon did not keep him from destroying the -liberties of Greece. - -Correct and forceful language is a gift to be coveted, a prize worth -striving for; but it should never be made the all-absorbing aim of -education. The teacher of any phase of language must for a time make his -instruction the object of chief concern; but he should never ignore the -fact that language is and ever should be an aid to thought, a stimulus to -thinking, an embodiment of ideas, a medium of communication, a means to -an end. - - - - -VIII - -THE STIMULUS TO THINKING - - Good methods of teaching are important, but they cannot supply - the want of ability in the teacher. The Socratic method is - good; but a Socrates behind the teacher’s desk to ask questions - is better. - - THOMAS M. BALLIET. - - Of all forms of friendship in youth, by far the most effective - as a means of education is that species of enthusiastic - veneration which young men of loyal and well-conditioned minds - are apt to contract for men of intellectual eminence in their - own circles. The educating effect of such an attachment is - prodigious; and happy the youth who forms one. We all know - the advice given to young men to “think for themselves;” and - there is sense and soundness in the advice; but if I were - to select what I account perhaps the most fortunate thing - that can befall a young man during the early period of his - life,—the most fortunate, too, in the end, for his intellectual - independence,—it would be his being voluntarily subjected for a - time to some powerful intellectual slavery. - - DAVID MASSON. - - -VIII - -THE STIMULUS TO THINKING - -[Sidenote: Thought stimulus.] - -Whilst the distinction between thinking in things and thinking in -symbols should never be ignored or lost sight of by the teacher, it need -not be brought to the attention of the learner,—at least not in the -elementary stages of instruction. It is more profitable for the learner -to be absorbed in gathering the materials of thought and in learning -by practice how the educated man uses the instruments of thought for -drawing correct conclusions by the most effective methods. If the eye of -consciousness is turned inward upon the mental processes too early, the -flow of thought is interrupted and turned away from its logical trend. -The teacher, on the other hand, is expected to watch the growth of the -mind, to awaken its powers, and to rouse these into vigorous activity. -It is essential not merely that he furnish the pupils with the proper -materials and the best instruments of thought, but it is necessary also -to stimulate and direct their thinking; otherwise that which is given -them may overload the memory, lie undigested in the mind, exhaust the -energy of the intellect in the effort at retention, and ultimately cause -mental dyspepsia. - -[Sidenote: Competition.] - -[Sidenote: Socratic question.] - -Men engaged in the struggle for existence or preferment usually find -ample stimulus to their thinking faculties in the competition which real -life affords. If the merchant does not think accurately and effectively, -the consequences make themselves visible in his bank-account. The desire -for gain is the stimulus to thought in the commercial world. An appeal -to the same motive is often made through the offer of prizes and -fellowships. The competition of maturer years finds an adumbration in -the competition for class-standing and for superiority in field sports. -The teacher who employs no higher stimulus to thought must be a stranger -to the mysteries of the art which he professes to practise. The best -device for stimulating thought has come down to us hallowed by the ages. -It bears the name of the greatest teacher of ancient Athens. It is the -question as employed in the Socratic method. Not every question is the -Socratic question. A man who has lost his way may ask a question, but it -is for the sake of getting information. The teacher may be striving to -fix in the memory the salient points of the lesson: he asks questions, -the answers to which the pupils are expected to have at their tongue’s -or fingers’ end. A question thus used for purposes of drill is often -called a categorical question. It is not the Socratic question. Yonder -sits a boy who for half an hour has been wrestling with a problem. Unable -to find a clue to the solution, he asks the teacher for help. Instead -of telling him directly what he wishes to know, the Socrates behind the -teacher’s desk asks a question which causes the pupil to put side by side -in his mind two ideas never before linked together in his thought. Upon -the learner’s face is seen an expression as if light had broken in from -on high. He goes back to his seat, and ere five minutes have elapsed -he is rejoicing in the glory of a triumph. The teacher did not do the -pupil’s thinking; he simply asked the Socratic question, which aims to -make the pupil think for himself. - -[Sidenote: Substitute teachers.] - -This stimulus to thought is employed by every master in the art of -teaching. The question may be used to badger and confuse a pupil, -especially if the teacher is not fully acquainted with the ideas and -thoughts already in the learner’s mind. To cause each pupil to place -side by side in his mind ideas and concepts whose relation he had not -before perceived, it is necessary that the teacher be familiar with the -intellectual storehouse of every member of the class. At this point the -substitutes who occasionally supply the places of regular teachers are -at a serious disadvantage. Not knowing what the pupils have mastered, -they must often waste time in finding out where the new should be linked -to the old, and where it is necessary to clarify and develop ideas with -which the members of the class are only partially familiar. Often these -lose interest in the recitation while the new teacher quizzes them on -things that have grown stale by repetition. - -[Sidenote: The living teacher.] - -[Sidenote: The dead line.] - -[Sidenote: Knowledge and teaching power.] - -[Sidenote: The course of study.] - -[Sidenote: Difficulties.] - -Back of the Socratic method must be a Socrates to ask the questions. -Education results not from highly differentiated methods, but primarily -from the play of mind upon mind, heart upon heart, will upon will. In -the difficult art of making others think the most important factor is -the teacher himself. Thinking begets thinking. In this connection one -cannot forbear contrasting the living teacher with other educational -forces. Treatises on education are in the habit of printing nature with -a capital letter, whilst words like teacher, humanity, unless they -stand at the beginning of the sentence, begin with a small letter. Are -lifeless rocks, dead leaves, stuffed birds, and transfixed bugs more -potent in begetting thought than the teacher himself? If nature were -such a wonderful teacher, then the savage, who is in daily contact with -nature, and who knows little or nothing of the artificial life of our -great cities and great seats of learning, should be the best thinker. A -teacher whose power to stimulate thought is not superior to dead leaves -and bugs and butterflies must have reached the dead line. Teachers may be -divided into two classes,—those who have ceased to grow and those who -are still alive and growing. Under the tuition of the former the boy soon -loses interest in study, and seldom acquires the power to think. From -a dead tree you cannot propagate life. Ingraft a lifeless teacher upon -the school; the most skilful devices of school management and recitation -serve only to intensify the dull routine, the mechanical iteration and -repetition which Bishop Spalding declares to be the most radical defect -in our systems of education. It takes life to beget life. A growing mind -is required to beget growth in other minds. A good thinker begets habits -of close and careful thinking in those whom he moulds. Some minds are -more gifted in this respect than others. Without doubt the reader can -recall the difference between knowledge and teaching power which he felt -while under several instructors at the same time. From those gifted with -stimulating power he came away with a mind full of interrogation points, -and with the attention riveted upon problems calling for investigation. -Under their tuition the commonest things acquired new interest and -became food for thought. The thinking seemed to spring out of that upon -which the mind was feeding. Without the stimulating influence which -comes from a live teacher, contact with nature, access to libraries and -laboratories, may amount to very little. The chief trouble in our schools -is not that the courses of study are too crowded, but the teachers are -too empty. There is not enough fuel in their minds to keep alive the -glow of thought. A course of study in the hands of a skilful instructor -is like a good bill of fare under the direction of a skilful caterer. -The latter does not expect every guest to eat his way through the entire -bill of fare; he so manages the succession of dishes as to stimulate -the appetite to the end of the feast; he sends the guests away without -the feeling of satiety,—in fact, anxious for the next banquet. The wise -teacher does not expect the pupils to assimilate everything in the course -of study; he aims so to feed and stimulate their minds that they find -genuine pleasure in thinking, and go away from him with a desire not -only for more knowledge, but also for things that give suitable exercise -to the reflective powers. Watch a boy at work upon a puzzle, and you -will be convinced that he finds genuine delight in thinking that which -is difficult. The most popular teachers are not they who smooth away -every difficulty in the pathway of the student, but they who stimulate -his thinking and help him to a sense of mastery over intellectual -difficulties. The quickening, stimulative influence of the Socratic -question lies in its content rather than its form; and both form and -content derive their vivifying power from the personality of the teacher. - -[Sidenote: Conscious and unconscious influences.] - -The stimulating influences which go forth from a live teacher are -partly conscious and partly unconscious. The latter are the more -effective. Minds gifted with quickening power create about themselves -an intellectual atmosphere that is like the invigorating atmosphere of -the mountains or the tonic breezes which blow from the sea. The woman -who touched the hem of the Saviour’s garment felt at once the vivifying -influences which were all the time going forth from the Great Teacher. -Here we stand face to face with the greatest mystery of the teacher’s art. - -[Sidenote: The heart.] - -Some light is shed upon the mystery by the intimate relation which exists -between the conscious and the subconscious life of the soul. The ideas -upon any subject which the individual cherishes during his conscious -moments, the train of logical thinking which he pursues when the will -gives direction to reflection, the creative effort which he seeks to -put forth in a given direction,—these shape the activities which go -forward in the depths of the soul when perhaps the attention is directed -to the discharge of routine duties. “Out of the heart are the issues of -life.” “Out of the fulness of the heart the mouth speaketh.” From the -treasure-house of the heart come welling up thoughts, ideas, sentiments, -and purposes which largely determine the influence exerted upon others -when the individual is not aware of it. The teacher must make himself -what he wishes his pupil to be. If foot-ball and base-ball and boating -form the staple of his thinking, the centre of his affections, these -athletic sports, in ways that are marvellous and often past finding out, -become the objects of thought in which his students will delight. If -the truths and principles of science absorb his interest and engage the -best thought of his conscious hours, these will determine the moulding -influence which he will unconsciously exert upon others. If he delights -in germ-ideas, in seed-thoughts, these will emanate from him whenever he -is thrown into contact with inquiring minds. Much, of course, is due to -native ability, to inherited qualities. The circle of minds which one -teacher can reach is further limited by the breadth or narrowness of his -views, by the points which he has in common with others, by the amount of -sympathetic interest which he manifests in their progress and welfare, -by the sum total of the characteristics of generic humanity which he has -taken up into himself. In other words, his stimulating power depends upon -the extent to which his inner life is representative of the best thought -and the best traits of the age in which he lives and of the people to -whom he belongs. - -[Sidenote: Exhaustive treatment.] - -[Sidenote: Hope.] - -A teacher may destroy his power to awaken and stimulate thought by -developing every subject in all its bearings to its logical or final -conclusion. He should send his classes away from the daily lecture or -recitation to the library or the laboratory, to the study, the shop, or -the field, with the sense of something to be achieved, with the feeling -that there are fields of research for them to explore, fields that will -amply repay careful study, investigation, and reflection. There is -nothing that tires a boy so soon as the feeling that there is nothing for -him to do, nothing that he can master, achieve, or conquer on his own -account. The normal child is so constituted that it loves activity, looks -into the future, and regards itself as an important factor in the world’s -life. The advance from childhood to youth is marked by a transition into -the period that is brimful of hope and ambition. The pampered son of a -rich man may feel no longing of this sort; his opportunities for early -travel and premature indulgence in every whim may have brought him to -the point where the whole world seems like a sucked orange for which -one has no further use. Unless the rich father and mother possess an -extraordinary amount of good sense, their children do not have an even -chance with the children of the middle classes whose outlook upon life -supplies abundant motives for study and exertion. - -[Sidenote: The field of vision.] - -If a boy has not made a mistake in selecting his parents, if the -atmosphere of the home in which his first six years are spent is normal, -he comes to school with a sense of something to be achieved. Should -this feeling be lacking, the true teacher will aim to beget it by the -instruction he gives and by appeals to the innate desire for knowledge. -As the intelligence dawns, the interrogation points on the boy’s face -multiply; his appetite for knowledge grows by what it feeds on. If the -branches of study do not become more interesting than any occupation by -which the boy can earn coppers, there is something wrong either with the -boy or his teacher, or with both. In the ascent of the hill of science -every step upward widens the horizon, increases the field of vision, and -stimulates to new effort. Every field explored beckons to new fields of -investigation. It is the prerogative of the teacher to point out what is -in store for the aspiring youth. Take, for instance, the domain of pure -mathematics. A pupil had learned in his geometry that parallel lines -never meet. The teacher told him that his geometrical studies would after -a while acquaint him with lines that are not parallel and yet never -meet. No sooner had he met lines of this kind, situated in different -planes, than his teacher told him of lines that continually approach but -never meet. The appeal to his curiosity helped to stimulate the desire -for knowledge and kept him thinking earnestly and seriously until he -met the asymptote and its curve. The study of asymptotes soon grew more -interesting than chess or any sports upon the athletic field. - -[Sidenote: Master minds.] - -The aim of the teacher should be to make himself useless. In other words, -the school should aim to lift the pupil to the plane of an independent -thinker, capable of giving conscious direction to his intellectual -life and of concentrating all his powers upon anything that is to be -mastered. It is to be reckoned a piece of good fortune for a bright -and talented youth to fall under the dominating influence of a master -mind. In endeavoring to walk in the footsteps of an intellectual giant, -to comprehend his theories and speculations, and to carry the burden -of his thoughts, unexpected strength and power are developed, and when -the day of emancipation comes—as it always does come in the case of -gifted youth—the learner will find that he has entered a higher sphere -of intellectual activity, and will henceforth rank among the world’s -productive thinkers. - -[Sidenote: False stimulants.] - -[Sidenote: Mental lethargy.] - -As was said at the beginning of the chapter, the competition of men -in mature life is usually sufficient to stimulate their thinking. The -men whose duties make a constant drain upon their productivity need -other forms of thought-stimulation. Reference is not here made to the -narcotics, alcoholic stimulants, and other drugs which brain-workers use -in periods of reaction and fatigue: these stimulate only for a short -time, and leave the nervous system and the brain weaker than before; they -shorten life by burning the candle at both ends; they cannot supply the -need of sleep, rest, and recreation. To take rational exercise, to eat -proper food, and to obey all the laws of health is the sacred duty of -every person who teaches by word of mouth or pen. Every effort should be -made to keep vitality at its maximum. Often the mind resembles the soil -which yields a richer harvest if permitted to lie fallow for a time. If -at the close of a period of rest or a summer vacation the mind refuses -to work, what shall then be done to stimulate mental activity? Different -men derive stimulus from different sources. One finds help from taking a -pen in hand, another by facing a sea of upturned faces. A clergyman of -considerable repute uses an Indian story to start his mental machinery. -Henry Ward Beecher declared that the greatest kindness which could be -shown him was to oppose his public utterances. Opposition roused all his -powers and helped him to think vigorously and to the best advantage. -Schiller is said to have kept rotten apples in his desk, because he -believed that the odor stimulated his mind. Some men find help in -solitude, from the singing of birds, from the sound of rustling leaves -and falling waters, from the noise of ocean waves, or from the glimpse of -distant waters or far-off mountains. An eminent theologian is stimulated -by the playing of a piano in the next room. The stimulus from books is -reserved for discussion in a separate chapter on the Right Use of Books. - -[Sidenote: Hinderances.] - -As there are helps, so there are hinderances to good thinking. Petty -cares, executive duties, noises in the same room, or in the next room, -or upon the street, are well-known examples. Their name is legion, and -their cost is enormous if they come from manufacturing establishments -near the school. A word about the extra-mural music which emanates from -vile machinery on the streets is not out of place in this connection. An -English writer asserts that the organ-grinders of London have done more -in the last twenty years to detract from the quality and quantity of the -higher mental work of the nation than any two or three colleges at Oxford -have effected to increase it. A mathematician estimates the cost of the -increased mental labor these street-musicians have imposed upon him and -his clerks at several thousand pounds’ worth of first-class work, for -which the government actually paid in added length of the time needed for -his calculations. - -[Sidenote: Our fellow-men.] - -In matters of this kind every man must be a law unto himself. Since no -two human beings are exactly alike, but each is a new creation fresh from -the hands of the Creator, it follows that each person must study his -own peculiarities, form his own habits of work, and acquire the power -to think in the midst of the circumstances in which he is placed. By -resolute effort the mind can ignore many a hinderance and distraction. -The best stimulus from without comes from our fellow-men. “Our minds need -the stimulus of other minds, as our lungs need oxygen to perform their -functions.” At school the stimulus comes from classmates, from those in -the higher and lower classes, but above all else, from the best books -and the best teachers. In the life beyond the school the stimulus comes -from the daily contact and competition with others, from conversation and -discussions with those who think, from communion with the best books, -with nature, and with nature’s God. - -[Sidenote: Sources of stimulus.] - -After the powers of the mind have been awakened and disciplined, -stimulus and inspiration may come from ten thousand sources. Silence -and solitude, city and country, business and pleasure, observation and -travel, observatories and laboratories, libraries and museums, nature and -art, poetry and prose, fiction and history, may each in turn serve as a -spur to creative, inventive, and productive thinking, as an incentive -to original research, fruitful investigation, and profitable reasoning. -Among all the sources of stimulation, the good teacher and the good book -take superlative rank. - - - - -IX - -THE RIGHT USE OF BOOKS - - Even the very greatest of authors are indebted to miscellaneous - reading, often in several different languages, for the - suggestion of their most original works, and for the light - which has kindled many a shining thought of their own. - - HAMERTON. - - He reads a book most wisely who thinks everything into a book - that it is capable of holding, and it is the stamp and token of - a great book so to incorporate itself with our own being, so - to quicken our insight and stimulate our thought, as to make - us feel as if we helped to create it while we read. Whatever - we can find in a book that aids us in the conduct of life, or - to a truer interpretation of it, or to a franker reconcilement - with it, we may with a good conscience believe is not there by - accident, but that the author meant we should find it there. - - LOWELL. - - Much as a man gains from actual conflict with living minds, - he may gain much even of the same kind of knowledge, though - different in detail, from the accumulated thinking of the - past. No living generation can outweigh all the past. If - books without experience in real life cannot develop a man - all round, neither can life without books do it. There is a - certain dignity of culture which lives only in the atmosphere - of libraries. There is a breadth and a genuineness of - self-knowledge which one gets from the silent friendship of - great authors without which the best work that is in a man - cannot come out of him in large professional successes. - - PHELPS. - - The great secret of reading consists in this,—that it does - not matter so much what we read or how we read it as what we - think and how we think it. Reading is only the fuel; and, the - mind once on fire, any and all material will feed the flame, - provided only it have any combustible matter in it. And we - cannot tell from what quarter the next material will come. The - thought we need, the facts we are in search of, may make their - appearance in the corner of the newspaper, or in some forgotten - volume long ago consigned to dust and oblivion. Hawthorne in - the parlor of a country inn on a rainy day could find mental - nutriment in an old directory. That accomplished philologist, - the late Lord Strangford, could find ample amusement for an - hour’s delay at a railway station in tracing out the etymology - of the names in Bradshaw. The mind that is not awake and alive - will find a library a barren wilderness. - - CHARLES F. RICHARDSON. - - -IX - -THE RIGHT USE OF BOOKS - -[Sidenote: A novel.] - -A clergyman who found the reaction from his pulpit efforts so great that -often he could not bring himself to think vigorously and consecutively -before the middle of the following week was advised by his physician to -try the effect of an Indian tale or an exciting story, and found that -a good novel works like a charm in bringing the mind back to normal -action. After the interest in the story or novel begins to grow there is -danger of reading too long, of reading until another spell of fatigue and -reaction comes. The book should be laid aside as soon as the first glow -of mental action is felt. - -[Sidenote: Books.] - -Most thinkers need the stimulating influence of other minds. These can -be found at their best upon the shelves of a well-selected library. They -are ready to help us whenever we feel ready to give them our attention. -Men put the best part of themselves into their books. The process of -writing for print intensifies mental activity, spurs the intellect to the -keenest, most vigorous effort, and arouses the highest energy of thought -and feeling. Authors that exert a quickening influence upon our thinking -should be kept for use whenever we need a stimulus to rouse the mind from -its lethargy. - -Leibnitz got his best ideas while reading books. He had acquired the -habits of a librarian to whom favorite volumes are always accessible. - -[Sidenote: As stimulus.] - -A scientist of repute says he gets the necessary stimulus from Jevons’s -treatise on the inductive sciences. Professor Phelps has collected an -instructive list of authors whose writings have been helpful to other -authors of note. He says,— - -[Sidenote: Examples.] - -“Voltaire used to read Massillon as a stimulus to production. Bossuet -read Homer for the same purpose. Gray read Spenser’s ‘Faerie Queene’ as -the preliminary to the use of his pen. The favorites of Milton were Homer -and Euripides. Fénelon resorted to the ancient classics promiscuously. -Pope read Dryden as his habitual aid to composing. Corneille read Tacitus -and Livy. Clarendon did the same. Sir William Jones, on his passage to -India, planned five different volumes, and assigned to each the author he -resolved to read as a guide and awakener to his own mind for its work. -Buffon made the same use of the works of Sir Isaac Newton. With great -variety of tastes successful authors have generally agreed in availing -themselves of this natural and facile method of educating their minds to -the work of original creation.”[15] - -[Sidenote: Great thinkers.] - -The most valuable function of standard authors lies in their quickening -influence upon the intellectual life. The effort to appropriate their -ideas and to master their thoughts is the best possible exercise for the -understanding. In thinking their thoughts, weighing their arguments, and -following their train of reasoning the mind gains vigor, strength, and -the capacity for sustained effort. The invigorating atmosphere which -a great thinker creates has a most remarkable tonic effect upon all -who dwell in it. By unconscious absorption they acquire his spirit of -inquiry, his methods of research, his habits of investigation, his way -of attacking and mastering difficulties. While trying to walk in his -footsteps they learn to take giant strides. His idioms, his choice of -words, his favorite phrases and expressions are at their service when -they enter new fields of truth. Both in power and aspiration they become -like him through the mysterious process of mind acting upon mind, of -heart evoking heart, and of will transfusing itself into will. A great -thinker gets his place in the galaxy of shining intellects through the -truths which he communicates; and as truth is the best food for the soul, -so the quest of truth is the best exercise for all its faculties. - -[Sidenote: The literature of knowledge and the literature of power.] - -De Quincey, in his essay on Alexander Pope, draws an important and -oft-quoted distinction between the literature of knowledge and the -literature of power. He says the function of the one is to teach, of -the other to move. The former he likens to a rudder, the latter to -an oar or a sail. To illustrate the difference he asks, “What do you -learn from ‘Paradise Lost’? Nothing at all. What do you learn from a -cookery-book? Something new, something that you did not know before, in -every paragraph. But would you, therefore, put the wretched cookery-book -on a higher level of estimation than the divine poem? What you owe to -Milton is not any knowledge, of which a million separate items are still -but a million of advancing steps on the same earthly level; what you owe -is _power_,—that is, exercise and expansion to your own latent capacity -of sympathy with the infinite, where every pulse and each separate influx -is a step upward, a step ascending, as upon Jacob’s ladder, from earth to -mysterious altitudes above the earth. All the steps of knowledge, from -first to last, carry you farther on the same plane, but could never raise -you one foot above your ancient level of earth; whereas, the very first -step in power is a flight, is an ascending into another element where -earth is forgotten.” - -[Sidenote: Lowell.] - -The value of the literature of power as a means of imparting power to -every soul that lives under its influence is easily seen and generally -acknowledged. But the literature of knowledge serves the double purpose -of furnishing us material for thought and of acting as a stimulus to -thought. On this point we have the testimony of the wisest who have -ventured to give advice upon the use of books. Lowell says, “It is -certainly true that the material of thought reacts upon the thought -itself. Shakespeare himself would have been commonplace had he been -padlocked in a thinly shaven vocabulary, and Phidias, had he worked in -wax, only a more inspired Mrs. Jarley.” - -The advice which Lowell gives concerning a course of reading and the ends -of scholarship to be kept in mind by those who read with a purpose is too -valuable to be omitted in this connection: - -[Sidenote: His advice.] - -“One is sometimes asked by young people to recommend a course of reading. -My advice would be that they should confine themselves to the supreme -books in whatever literature, or, still better, to choose some one great -author and make themselves thoroughly familiar with him. For, as all -roads lead to Rome, so do they likewise lead away from it, and you will -find that in order to understand perfectly and to weigh exactly any vital -piece of literature you will be gradually and pleasantly persuaded to -excursions and explorations of which you little dreamed when you began, -and will find yourselves scholars before you are aware. For, remember, -there is nothing less profitable than scholarship for the mere sake of -scholarship, nor anything more wearisome in the attainment. But the -moment you have a definite aim, attention is quickened, the mother of -memory, and all that you acquire groups and arranges itself in an order -that is lucid, because everywhere and always it is in intelligent -relation to a central object of constant and growing interest. This -method also forces upon us the necessity of thinking, which is, after -all, the highest result of all education. For what we want is not -learning, but knowledge; that is, the power to make learning answer its -true end as a quickener of intelligence and a widener of our intellectual -sympathies. I do not mean to say that every one is fitted by nature or -inclination for a definite course of study, or, indeed, for serious study -in any sense. I am quite willing that these should ‘browse in a library,’ -as Dr. Johnson called it, to their heart’s content. It is perhaps the -only way in which time may be profitably wasted. But desultory reading -will not make a ‘full man,’ as Bacon understood it, of one who has -not Johnson’s memory, his power of assimilation, and, above all, his -comprehensive view of the relations of things. ‘Read not,’ says Lord -Bacon, in his ‘Essay of Studies,’ ‘to contradict and confute; not to -believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to -weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, -and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be -read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously (carefully), and -some few to be read wholly and with diligence and attention. _Some books, -also, may be read by deputy._’ - -“This is weighty and well said, and I would call your attention -especially to the wise words with which the passage closes. The best -books are not always those which lend themselves to discussions and -comment, but those (like Montaigne’s ‘Essays’) which discuss and comment -ourselves.”[16] - -Professor Phelps, in his lectures to divinity students, gives golden -advice to the class of professional men whose life-work compels them -to draw upon their productive intellect more than any other class of -professional men. - -[Sidenote: Phelps.] - -“There is an influence exerted by books upon the mind which resembles -that of diet upon the body. A studious mind becomes, by a law of its -being, like the object which it studies with enthusiasm. If your favorite -authors are superficial, gaudy, short-lived, you become yourself such -in your culture and your influence. If your favorite authors are of the -grand, profound, enduring order, you become yourself such to the extent -of your innate capacity for such growth. Their thoughts become yours not -by transfer, but by transfusion. Their methods of combining thoughts -become yours; so that on different subjects from theirs you will compose -as they would have done if they had handled those subjects. Their choice -of words, their idioms, their constructions, their illustrative materials -become yours; so that their style and yours will belong to the same class -in expression, and yet your style will never be merely imitative of -theirs. - -“It is the prerogative of great authors thus to throw back a charm over -subsequent generations which is often more plastic than the influence of -a parent over a child. Do we not feel the fascination of it from certain -favorite characters in history? Are there not already certain solar minds -in the firmament of your scholarly life whose rays you feel shooting down -into the depths of your being, and quickening there a vitality which you -feel in every original product of your own mind? Such minds are teaching -you the true ends of an intellectual life. They are unsealing the -springs of intellectual activity. They are attracting your intellectual -aspirations. They are like voices calling to you from the sky. - -“Respecting this process of assimilation, it deserves to be remarked -that it is essential to any broad range of originality. Never, if it -is genuine, does it create copyists or mannerists. Imitation is the -work of undeveloped mind. Childish mind imitates. Mind unawakened to -the consciousness of its own powers copies. Stagnant mind falls into -mannerism. On the contrary, a mind enkindled into aspiration by high -ideals is never content with imitated excellence. Any mind thus awakened -must, above all things else, be itself. It must act itself out, think its -own thoughts, speak its own vernacular, grow to its own completeness. -You can no more become servile under such a discipline than you can -unconsciously copy another man’s gait in your walk or mask your own -countenance with his.”[17] - -“Give to yourself a hearty, affectionate acquaintance with a group of -the ablest minds in Christian literature, and if there is anything in -you kindred to such minds, they will bring it up to the surface of your -own consciousness. You will have a cheering sense of discovery. Quarries -of thought original to you will be opened. Suddenly, it may be in some -choice hour of research, veins will glisten with a lustre richer than -that of silver. You will feel a new strength for your life’s work, -because you will be sensible of new resources.”[18] - -[Sidenote: Two ways of reading.] - -There are two ways of reading books,—one a help to thinking, the other -destructive of ability to think. If the reader allows the ideas of a -book to pass through his mind as a landscape passes before the eye of -a traveller, ever seeking the excitement of something new and never -stopping to reflect upon the contents of the book so as to weigh its -arguments, to notice its beauties, and to appropriate its truths, the -book will leave him less able to think than before. Passive reading is -permissible when the aim is merely recreation, but he who would read -to gain mental strength must read actively, read books that he can -understand only as the result of effort. President Porter gives this -advice: - -[Sidenote: President Porter.] - -“The person, particularly the student, who has never wrestled manfully -and perseveringly with a difficult book will be good for little in this -world of wrestling and strife. But when you are convinced that a book is -above your attainments, capacity, or age, it is of little use for you, -and it is wiser to let it alone. It is both vexing and unprofitable to -stand upon one’s toes and strain one’s self for hours in efforts to reach -the fruit which you are not tall enough to gather. It is better to leave -it till it can be reached more easily. When the grapes are both ripe -and within easy reach for you, it is safe to conclude that they are not -sour.”[19] - -[Sidenote: Reading as a source of material.] - -There are many phases of the library problem which do not call for -consideration in this connection, but in addition to their value as -a stimulus to thinking, the function of books in furnishing proper -material for thought and suitable instruments of thought deserves special -consideration on the part of those charged with the duty of teaching -others to think. There was a time when libraries were managed as if it -were the mission of the librarian to keep the books from being used. -The modern librarian seeks to make the accumulated wisdom of the past -accessible to all. He regards the library as a storehouse of knowledge, -from which any one able to read can get what he needs. Cyclopædias and -dictionaries of reference, card catalogues, and helps like Poole’s -“Index to Periodical Literature” make the best thought of the best minds -in these and other days accessible to the student. He who wishes to gain -a hearing on any theme must know what others have said upon it. Disraeli -has well said that those who do not read largely will not themselves -deserve to be read. The prize debates between different colleges are -teaching students how to utilize books in getting material for public -discussions. Theses for graduation develop the ability to use books in -the right way. And yet, valuable as books are for furnishing fuel to the -mind, they may be used to destroy what little ability to think a pupil -has otherwise developed. To assign topics for composition which require -a culling of facts from books, and to allow the essays to be written -outside of school hours, expose the pupil to unnecessary temptations. In -the public schools there should be set apart each week several periods of -suitable length, during which the pupil, under the eye of the teacher, -writes out his thoughts. In such exercises the attention should not be -riveted upon capitals, spelling, punctuation, grammatical construction, -and rhetorical devices; the mind should be occupied solely and intensely -with the expression of the thought. Mistakes should be corrected when the -pupil reviews and rewrites his composition. Books can be used to furnish -material for thought; the elaboration can be helped by oral discussions; -the interest thereby aroused will make each member of the class anxious -to express his thoughts; hesitation in composing and distraction from -dread of mistakes can be overcome by making the class write against time. - -[Sidenote: Enriching one’s vocabulary.] - -Books are helpful in enriching one’s vocabulary. Treatises on rhetoric -teach what words should be avoided. The student finds more difficulty in -getting enough words to express his thoughts. The study of a good series -of readers is more valuable as a means of acquiring a good vocabulary -than all the rules on purity, propriety, and so forth, which are found in -the text-books on rhetoric. A good series of school readers employs from -five to six thousand words. With these the average teacher is familiar -to the extent of knowing their meaning when he sees them in sentences. -He does not have a sufficient command of a third of them to use them in -writing or speaking. The selections of a Fifth Reader contain more words -than are found in the vocabulary of any living author. The step from -knowing a word when used by another to the ability to use that word in -expressing our own thoughts has not been taken in the case of the larger -proportion of the words with which we are familiar on the printed page. -Most persons use more words in writing than in oral speech, more words in -public speaking than in ordinary conversation. We unconsciously absorb -many words which we hear others use, but we pick up a far larger number -from those we see in print simply because the printed page contains a -larger variety of words than spoken language. In this respect there is a -vast difference between the oral discourse and the written manuscript of -the same person. The style is different; the sentences in oral discourse -are less involved; the diction is less complicated; the vocabulary is -less copious. Hence the advantage of the boy who has access to standard -authors over the youth who has access to few books, and these not well -selected. Without any effort, the former gains possession of a vocabulary -which makes thinking easier and richer. - -[Sidenote: School readers.] - -The lack of a library of standard authors can be supplied, to some -extent, by a judicious use of the school readers. If the mastery of the -words and the getting of the thought precede the oral reading of the -lesson, and if the vocal utterance is followed by oral and written -reproduction of the thought, correct habits of study will be formed, and -the working vocabulary of teacher and pupil will be vastly increased. -The habit of eying every stranger on the printed page will be fixed, and -the appropriation of new words will rise above the subconscious stage. -Only one other exercise is comparable,—namely, the comparison of words -in a lexicon for the purpose of selecting the right one in making a -translation from some ancient or modern language. Such translations, if -honestly made, enrich the vocabulary and furnish exercise in the study of -the finer shades of meaning which words have, as well as in the use of -the words for the purpose of expressing thought. - -[Sidenote: Franklin’s plan.] - -[Sidenote: Correcting papers.] - -Most persons, when they face an audience or feel at all embarrassed, -think in phrases, in broken sentences. Hence exercises designed to -cultivate the habit of thinking in sentences are very valuable. -Franklin’s plan of rewriting the thought of a book like “The Spectator,” -and then comparing his own sentences with those of a master-mind, can be -followed with great advantage, because it lifts the burden of correction -from the teacher’s shoulders and throws it upon the pupil, giving the -latter the full benefit of the exercise. Moreover, it cultivates in the -pupil the habit of watching how thought is expressed by standard authors. -The teacher’s interest in the thought side of language often makes him -forget that the correct use of capitals, punctuation marks, sentences, -and paragraphs is a matter of thinking quite as much as invention and the -arrangement of materials. These externals of the process of composing -must at some time be made the object of chief regard. The reason so -many pupils do not learn their use is found in the fact that teachers -hate the drudgery of correcting papers, and they expect the pupils to -acquire this knowledge incidentally. The right use of books obviates the -necessity for much of this drudgery, and secures the desired end with a -minimum expenditure of time and effort. Skill in the use of capitals and -punctuation marks is best acquired when the attention is not absorbed -by the elaboration of ideas or by the labor of composing. The externals -involved in putting sentences upon paper can claim the chief attention in -the dictation of standard selections from a school reader. This exercise -enables the pupil to make his own corrections, and is worth a dozen in -which the teacher makes the corrections, only to be cast aside after a -momentary glance by the pupil. The exercise may be varied by copying a -selection from a standard author upon the black-board, covering it with -a screen or shade (on rollers) during the dictation, and exposing it to -view only while the corrections are made. If each one of the punctuation -marks is made an object of special attention in a particular grade, there -are enough grades to cover them all before the pupil reaches the high -school. - -[Sidenote: Dictation.] - -A superintendent revolutionized the language-work of an entire county by -dictating to the applicants at the annual examination for provisional -certificates a selection from a First Reader for the purpose of testing -their knowledge of capitals and punctuation and the other details of -written speech. Every one saw the value of the test, and it led to a -study of the school reader from a new point of view. - -[Sidenote: Books for all.] - -[Sidenote: Right use of books.] - -It is not easy to overestimate the value of books, not merely for those -who aspire to become thinkers, but even for all classes of men in -civilized life. Books treasure the wisdom of the ages and transmit it to -future generations. They kindle thought, enliven the emotions, and lift -the soul into the domain of the true, the beautiful, and the good. They -furnish recreation and instruction, comfort and consolation, stimulation -and inspiration. They confirm or correct the opinions already formed, and -give tone to the entire intellectual life. They enlarge the vocabulary, -exemplify the best methods of embodying thought in language, and show -how master-minds throw their materials into connected discourse, how -they organize facts, truths, inferences, and theories into systems of -science or speculation. One can subscribe to all that is said in favor -of object-teaching and laboratory methods, and still be consistent in -maintaining that it should be one of the chief aims of the school to -teach the right use of books, that the college and university fail in -their mission if they neglect to put the student into the way of using -a library to the best advantage. If the policy of many schools were -adopted in other fields of human activity, the folly would be too glaring -to escape notice. Suppose, by months of effort, a botanist could create -in his son a liking for the plants of the nightshade family, some of -which, like the potato and the tomato, are good for food and others are -poisonous. Having created the appetite, the father makes no effort to -gratify it. The son, failing to distinguish between the good and the bad, -the esculent and the poisonous, and finding the latter within easy reach, -begins to gratify his appetite by eating without discrimination. The -deadly effects are more easily imagined than described. - -[Sidenote: Good literature.] - -A parallel folly has been committed in hundreds of communities which have -taxed themselves to banish illiteracy and to make ignorance impossible -among the young people. Reading is carefully taught; the ability to -read is followed by an appetite for reading; a strong desire for the -mental food derived from the printed page is created. Yet nothing is -done to supply the right kind of books for the purpose of gratifying -this appetite. The average youth is allowed to get what he can from the -book-stalls, which contain much that is as deleterious to the soul as -some plants of the nightshade family are to the body. It is as much a -duty to supply proper literature as it is to impart the ability to read. -When, in the twentieth century, some historian shall give an account -of the educational development of Pennsylvania, he will record it as a -fact passing strange and well-nigh incapable of explanation that for -more than three decades there stood upon the statute-books of a great -commonwealth a law preventing boards of directors from appropriating any -school funds to the purchase of books for a school library except such -works of a strictly professional character as were necessary for the -improvement of the teachers. Within the last decade a new era has dawned -in library legislation and in the purchase of books. Directors are now -empowered to levy a tax for library purposes, and free libraries are -springing into existence not only in the large centres of population, but -even in the rural schools. The movement has come not a whit too soon; -for habits of reading are sadly needed to supplement life in the factory -and on the farm. To make from day to day nothing except the head of a -pin, or the sixtieth part of a shoe, may develop marvellous skill and -speed in workmanship, but such division of labor leaves little room for -intellectual activity or for anything above the merest mechanical routine. - -[Sidenote: The factory.] - -It should not occasion surprise that operatives in factories seek the -mental excitement which human nature always craves after hours of -monotony. Far better that they should find recreation in a good book than -in a game of cards, in a free library than in a drinking-saloon. That the -workman may taste the joys of the higher life of thought, it is essential -that he have access to the best literature in prose and poetry, to books -of travel, biography, history, science, and sociology. If he lack these, -his mind will lose itself in local gossip, in discontent over his lot, -in envy of those who have more to eat and drink, better clothes to wear, -and better houses to live in. Of the pleasures of the higher life he can -have as many as, if not more than, others have; for at the close of the -day his mind is not exhausted by professional thinking, and he can enjoy -a good book far more than the men whose daily occupation obliges them to -seek recreation in physical exercise. - -[Sidenote: The farm.] - -[Sidenote: Twentieth century.] - -The same remarks apply to life on the farm. The incessant drudgery -of monotonous toil day after day from early dawn till late at night -has sent farmers and their wives to untimely graves, sometimes to the -insane asylum. They need the intellectual stimulus which comes from -good books, the health-giving recreation which comes with the change -from the fatiguing toil of the day to the perusal of good literature in -the evening. Under the more rational policy of providing a supply of -good books along with the creation of a taste for reading, the working -people of the next generation will be as well read, as well informed, -and as capable of sustained thought as those who think money all day, or -spend their strength in vocations which act upon the mind very much as a -grindstone acts upon a knife,—narrowing the blade while sharpening the -edge. Let it be hoped that early in the twentieth century the laboring -classes will have shorter hours of work, more leisure for reading, and an -appreciation of good books equal to that of Charles Lamb, who asserted -that there was more reason for saying grace before a new book than -before a dinner. Under the beneficent influence of free text-books and -free libraries it should be possible to create in the rising generation -a spirit like that of Macaulay, who declared that if any one should -offer to make him the greatest king that ever lived, with palaces and -gardens, and fine dinners and wines, and coaches and beautiful clothes, -and hundreds of servants, on condition that he should not read books, he -would decline the offer, preferring to be a poor man in a garret with -plenty of books rather than a king who did not love reading. - - - - -X - -OBSERVATION AND THINKING - - The degree of vision that dwells in a man is the correct - measure of a man. - - THOMAS CARLYLE. - - When general observations are drawn from so many particulars - as to become certain and indubitable, these are the jewels of - knowledge. - - DR. I. WATTS. - - To behold is not necessarily to observe, and the power of - comparing and combining is only to be obtained by education. It - is much to be regretted that habits of exact observation are - not cultivated in our schools; to this deficiency may be traced - much of the fallacious reasoning, the false philosophy which - prevails. - - HUMBOLDT. - - You should not only have attention to everything, but quickness - of attention, so as to observe at once all the people in the - room, their motions, their looks, and their words, yet without - staring at them or seeming to be an observer. This quick and - unobserved observation is of infinite advantage in life, and is - to be acquired with care; and, on the contrary, what is called - absence, which is a thoughtlessness and want of attention about - what is doing, makes a man so like either a fool or a madman, - that, for my part, I see no real difference. A fool never has - thought, a madman has lost it, and an absent man is for the - time without it. - - LORD CHESTERFIELD. - - -X - -OBSERVATION AND THINKING - -[Sidenote: Inventors.] - -Very few thinkers have let us into the secret of their thinking. Probably -most of them could not if they would. They are too much absorbed in that -which engrosses their attention to pay any heed to the processes of the -inner life. Occasionally an inventor or discoverer gives us a glimpse -of the state of his mind when the new idea flashed into consciousness. -Such glimpse always reveals his indebtedness to habits of careful -observation. His thinking was stimulated by some felt want or puzzling -phenomenon, and perhaps by contact with others engaged in similar lines -of study. Oftentimes a number of persons are thinking of ways, means, and -contrivances by which a widely felt want may be supplied or a perplexing -fact explained. After prolonged effort and meditation, during which -the mind is concentrated upon one thing to the neglect of everything -else having no bearing upon the problem in hand, the happy thought is -suggested by the observation of some neglected fact or the perception -of some unsuspected relation. Probably half the inventions are made in -that way. What seems accidental or a piece of good luck is in reality the -result of long musing and reflection, during which many comparisons are -made, until at length the right combination gives the desired result. -Wants keenly felt by mankind in general or by some gifted individual in -particular serve as a powerful stimulus to thought, and quicken the eye -and the ear to perceive what was before unnoticed, thereby laying the -foundation for invention, discovery, or progress in new fields of thought. - -[Sidenote: Writers.] - -Great writers are equally indebted to their powers of observation. Of the -men of genius whom the world delights to honor, probably no one watched -his inner development more closely than Goethe. He gives us the following -account of how his works were produced: - -[Sidenote: Goethe.] - -“To each one of my writings a thousand persons, a thousand things have -contributed. The learned and the ignorant, the wise and the foolish, -childhood and age have all a share therein. They all, without suspecting -it, have brought me the gifts of their faculties, their thought and -experience. Often they have sown, and I have reaped. My works are a -combination of elements which have been taken from all nature and which -bear the name—Goethe.” - -[Sidenote: Human nature.] - -Human nature furnishes as much room for observation as all the rest -of nature. The hopes and fears, the joys and sorrows, the trials and -struggles, the thoughts and beliefs, the aspirations and achievements, -the motives and deeds of the men and women whom we meet in our daily life -and on the pages of history and fiction (such as is true to life) offer -a field for observation as vast, as interesting, and as important as all -the rocks and soils, the bugs and beetles, the insects, birds, beasts, -and fishes that dwell beneath or above or on the surface of the earth. -The larger proportion of the books taken from free libraries are works of -fiction,—a fact which shows that the interest of most of those who read -is centred upon the things of the human heart and in the observation of -human life. - -Goethe’s views of originality are these: - -[Sidenote: Originality.] - -“We are always talking about originality, but what do we mean? As soon -as we are born the world begins to work upon us, and this goes on to the -end. After all, what can we call our own except our energy, strength, and -will? If I could give an account of all that I owe to great predecessors -and contemporaries, there would be little left of my own.” - -[Sidenote: Observation.] - -Observation lies at the basis of the thinking which leads to invention in -the arts, to discovery in the domain of science, to productivity in the -fields of literature, journalism, and oratory. It lies at the foundation -of success in the professions and in the ordinary walks of life. The -medical school, for instance, seeks to develop the power of noting facts -and making careful observations. It encourages the student to put his -observations on paper while the patient is before him, to compare the -diseased or injured part with the corresponding healthy part, and to -watch symptoms as a basis for a correct diagnosis of the case to be -treated. - -[Sidenote: Books.] - -[Sidenote: Daily life.] - -The use of the encyclopædia, if pursued without any attempt to verify its -statements, may destroy the habits of observation which are so essential -to correct thinking. Mere reliance on books cannot beget trustworthy -habits of thought, for books contain the errors, as well as the wisdom, -of the ages. Errors of judgment may be corrected by thinking; errors of -fact must be corrected by observation. Many a book is made useless by new -observations and discoveries. “Send to the cellar as useless every book -on surgery that is eight years old,” said the professor to the librarian -of a great university. The order is an indication of the rapid advances -which science is making under the influence of observation, experiment, -hypothesis, and verification. Observation is needed not merely to extend -our scientific knowledge, but far more imperatively to acquaint us with -our environment. We cannot learn from books the multitudinous details -of business, or of our daily life. Books cannot make us acquainted -with the circle of friends in which we move, the pupils whom we teach, -the things in dress, toilet, and behavior upon which our standing and -reputation very largely depend. No thinker has a right to neglect these. -Many a famous professor has diminished his usefulness by carelessness in -the observation of such details. The worst failures in the class-room -are due to failure in observing either the difficulties or the conduct -of the pupils. If conduct is to be regulated, it must be observed; if -difficulties are to be explained, the teacher must perceive when and -where they occur. - -Men noted for their absent-mindedness nevertheless owe much of their fame -and success to their ability to make accurate observations in favorite -lines of study. Notwithstanding the many ludicrous tales about Newton’s -failure to see ordinary conditions and circumstances, he showed himself -indefatigable in watching the effect of a glass prism upon the ray of -light admitted into a dark room. The falling of an apple started in -his mind a train of thought which led to the discovery of the law of -gravitation. - -[Sidenote: Experiment.] - -[Sidenote: Daguerre.] - -Our best thinking is based upon experience, and our two main sources of -experience are observation and experiment. How does experiment differ -from simple observation? In the latter we watch conditions, phenomena, -and sequences as they follow one another in the ordinary course of -nature. In an experiment we change or control the course of nature by -varying the conditions and causes for the sake of seeing the effects -produced. In experiment the relation of causes and effects is studied by -adding or excluding one factor after another. Take the discovery which -made Daguerre famous. Up to his time men had tried in vain to fix the -impression of the image formed in the camera obscura. No alchemist ever -went to work at a more unpromising task than the one Daguerre set before -himself. “As years rolled on, the passion only took deeper hold upon him. -In spite of utter failures and discouragement of all kinds, for years in -loneliness and secrecy, suspected of mental weakness even by his wife, -he kept on in the same line of experiment.” Finally an accident gave him -a clue to discovery. The plates with which he experimented were stowed -away in a rubbish closet. One day he found, to his surprise, upon one -of these plates the very image which had fallen upon it in the camera. -Something in the closet must have produced the effect. He removed one -thing after another, getting the same effect, until nothing remained -except some mercury which had been spilled upon the closet floor. This -was inferred to be the agent which developed the image, and thus was laid -the foundation of the modern art of photography.[20] - -[Sidenote: Accidental observations.] - -The observation of a fact often stimulates thought in new directions. In -fact, new sciences have arisen from accidental observations. “Erasmus -Bartholinus thus first discovered double refraction in Iceland spar; -Galvini noticed the twitching of a frog’s leg; Oken was struck by the -form of a vertebra; Malus accidentally examined light reflected from -a distant window with a double refracting substance; and Sir John -Herschel’s attention was drawn to the peculiar appearance of a solution -of quinine sulphate. In earlier times there must have been some one who -first noticed the strange behavior of a loadstone, or the unaccountable -motions produced by amber. As a general rule we shall not know in what -direction to look for a great body of phenomena widely different from -those familiar to us. Chance, then, must give us the starting-point; but -one accidental observation well used may lead us to make thousands of -observations in an intentional and organized manner, and thus a science -may be gradually worked from the smallest opening.”[21] - -[Sidenote: Factories.] - -In recent years experimental research has become a regular occupation in -connection with large manufacturing establishments. In some factories -along the Rhine upward of sixty men are employed in chemical experiments -for the purpose of finding what use can be made of waste products. In -this way over two hundred useful products from petroleum have been -discovered, and a large increase in profits has been the result. The -great electrical works spend time and money upon experiments, and -jealously censor every article written by their employees for scientific -journals lest their valuable secrets should be given away. A company -engaged in the manufacture of cash registers offers a yearly premium for -the most helpful suggestion from the men and women in its employ. In one -year the firm received over eleven hundred suggestions, of which at least -eight hundred were utilized in improvements of various kinds. - -[Sidenote: Universities.] - -[Sidenote: Where observation is needed.] - -[Sidenote: The weather.] - -These instances are only samples of many that could be cited to show -how systematic observation and experiment lend a helping hand to our -national prosperity. Manufacturers carry them on for the sake of gain, -the universities for the sake of widening the field of knowledge. To aid -in such research large endowments have been established, and many of -the common people willingly pay tax in support of State universities. -Treatises on inductive logic and on the physical sciences have been -prepared by Herschel, J. S. Mill, Jevons, and others for the purpose -of showing the correct methods of research by the use of instruments -of precision, of standards of measurement, and of other apparatus; for -the laws of thought must be obeyed in the interpretation of natural -phenomena. Although as a matter of discipline the teacher in our public -schools may well study these advanced treatises, yet the habits of -observation which the elementary school should aim to beget and to foster -are simpler in detail, more easily acquired, and, it may be added, -of inestimable value in the subsequent life of the pupils. Habits of -observation are needed not only by authors, inventors, and scientists, -but also by all other people for the interpretation of the books they may -read and for the discharge of the daily duties devolving upon them. The -engineer, the fireman, the conductor, the tradesman, the mechanic, the -detective, the scout, the warrior, must be able to see things as they are -or face partial failure. Too many of them have eyes and see not; they -have ears and hear not. The study of nature is valuable as a preparation -for life either in the country or in the city. Our rural population -have not learned to see and appreciate the marvels in nature which are -transpiring on every side. The way in which the almanac is consulted -for signs to guide in sowing and planting, for prognostications of the -weather, show how little the average man can make observations. The -printers have found it necessary to retain these absolutely unreliable -weather predictions in their almanacs; the attempted omission has been -an experiment involving the loss of thousands of dollars. The success of -the quack is largely due to limited observation. One cure is made much of -while multitudes of failures are always forgotten. - -[Sidenote: Country and city.] - -Our rural population would be far more contented if the boys and girls -were taught at school how to observe and appreciate their surroundings. -They have many advantages over city folks which they never realize as -sources of enjoyment. The senses themselves, which have been styled -the gate-ways of knowledge, may be improved by judicious exercise; and -the power of the mind to interpret sense-impressions may be developed -to a marvellous degree. The savages of our North American forests had -developed keen eyes and ears; the more civilized backwoodsmen were soon -more than a match for the wily Indian. To-day, when the latter watches -the trained sharp-shooters hitting with unerring accuracy a mark more -than half a mile distant, he shakes his head and walks away in silence. - -[Sidenote: The child.] - -It has been asserted that a child gains more knowledge in the first -seven years of its life than in all its subsequent days. If the domain -of abstract and scientific knowledge be excluded from the comparison, -this is probably true. At any rate, if the thinking which is based upon -the knowledge of facts thus gained is to be correct, the facts must be -correctly observed. - -[Sidenote: Observation a source of thought-material.] - -Observation is thus of prime importance, not merely as furnishing a -stimulus to thought, but also as supplying abundant materials of thought. -Travel, experience, experiment, as well as the ordinary course of natural -phenomena, furnish abundant opportunity for the formation of correct -habits of observation. The observations thus made should be recorded in -the memory, if not on manuscript. From the storehouse of the memory, thus -filled with materials for thought, the mind derives many of the best -data for reaching conclusions. Observation, experience, and reading, as -sources of thought-material, presuppose an accurate and retentive memory -in those who think well and act well. The relation of memory to thinking -deserves treatment in a separate chapter. - -[Sidenote: Nature-study.] - -There is a limit to the number of observations which the mind can carry -and use. Nature-study may be overdone. Mere seeing is not thinking. What -the eye beholds must be sorted and assigned to its appropriate class; -otherwise the treasure-house of memory will soon resemble a wilderness -of meaningless facts. Than this only one thing can be worse,—namely, a -wilderness of meaningless words. - -[Sidenote: Reading and observation.] - -[Sidenote: Teaching a child to read.] - -[Sidenote: First test.] - -[Sidenote: Second test.] - -Reading is a species of observation. An exercise in oral reading, during -which each pupil is called down as soon as he miscalls a word, is often -an astonishing revelation, showing how few of the advanced pupils can -accurately see and correctly name every word in a stanza or paragraph. -Methods of teaching a beginner to read are correct in seeking to -develop the ability to pronounce words without help from others. Faulty -application of a method that is right in this respect may seriously -retard, and even destroy, the power of thinking what is on the printed -page. What on earth is a first-year pupil to do with the many hundred -words which he is sometimes taught to pronounce? Often words are arranged -in sentences which come dangerously near the slang of the slums, and -which no child ever hears in a cultured home. Furthermore, some sentences -in primers and first readers are well-nigh void of meaning, the aim being -to teach the words for the sake of the combinations of letters which -they contain. The first test to apply to a method of teaching a beginner -to read is the question, How quickly does it teach that which must be -known as a condition of pronouncing new words,—namely, the shape and the -sound or sounds of each of the letters of the alphabet? As compared with -the sound and the shape, the name of the letter is of relatively little -importance. Students of Hebrew may read that language fluently without -being able to repeat the Hebrew alphabet, the names of the letters being -a mere matter of convenience in talking about them. The second great -test to be applied to the method of teaching a beginner to read is the -question, Does it form the habit of getting thought from the printed -page? Grown men have admitted that they passed through several readers -before they discovered that there was a meaning or connected story in the -words which they were pronouncing. They saw and gave names to words very -much as people see and give names to objects round about them without -recognizing the significance of what is seen, or thinking the thoughts -which the Author of the Universe has spread out before them in the great -book of nature. - -[Sidenote: Third test.] - -The third test to be applied to the method of teaching reading is -the question, Does it save the pupil from the unnatural tones of the -school-room by training him to use his voice in the right way? To this -test reference will be made later. - -[Sidenote: Observation should lead to thinking.] - -If observation is to have abiding value, it must lead to thinking. This -is as true of the observation of words and sentences on the printed or -written page as it is of the observation of earth and sky and sea, of -the starry heavens above and the moral law within (which filled the soul -of the philosopher Kant with never-ceasing awe). How the things obtained -from books and from the world outside are appropriated in thought and -made our own will appear more fully when we discuss the relation of -memory to thinking. - - - - -XI - -THE MEMORY AND THINKING - - Overburden not thy memory to make so faithful a servant a - slave. Remember Atlas was weary. Have as much reason as a - camel, to rise when thou hast thy full load. Memory, like a - purse, if it be overfull that it cannot shut, all will drop - out of it: take heed of a gluttonous curiosity to feed on many - things, lest the greediness of the appetite of thy memory spoil - the digestion thereof. - - THOMAS FULLER. - - To impose on a child to get by heart a long scroll of phrases - without any ideas is a practice fitter for a jackdaw than for - anything that wears the shape of man. - - DR. I. WATTS. - - The habit of laying up in the memory what has not been digested - by the understanding is at once the cause and the effect of - mental weakness. - - SIR W. HAMILTON. - - There is no one department of educational work in which - the difference between skilled and unskilled teaching is - so manifest as in the view which is taken of the faculty - of memory, the mode of training it, and the uses to which - different teachers seek to put it. - - FITCH. - - -XI - -THE MEMORY AND THINKING - -[Sidenote: Memory and judgment.] - -Many people freely admit that they have a poor memory. Their -misstatements, breaches of etiquette, and failure to keep engagements -they excuse by claiming a poor memory for dates, names, faces, facts, -and the like. Accuse them of possessing poor judgment, and they are very -much offended. They fail to see the close relation between a good memory -and good judgment, between an accurate memory and sound common sense, -which is but another name for good judgment in matters that all men have -in common. Judgment affirms the agreement or disagreement between two -objects of thought. It involves comparison. How can the comparison be -accurate if the memory is not accurate in the ideas it recalls of the -things to be compared? - -[Sidenote: Comparison.] - -At one time it was a mooted question whether the mind can think of more -than one thing at a time. As a matter of doubt this question is no longer -discussed. For, since all thinking involves comparison, if two objects -are to be compared, they must be held before the mind at one and the same -time. A good memory is, therefore, a very important aid to reflection. - -[Sidenote: Memorizing.] - -[Sidenote: Two forms of memory.] - -And yet Thucydides and Lord Bolingbroke are said to have complained of a -memory so retentive of details that it seriously interfered with their -processes of thought. It is commonly believed that much memory work -interferes with the growth and development of a pupil’s ability to think. -“Much memorizing deadens the power of thought,” says W. T. Harris, who -is recognized at home and abroad as one of the profoundest thinkers that -America has produced. Innumerable anecdotes are told of great thinkers -to show their forgetfulness in the commonest details of every-day life. -These anecdotes are handed down from one generation of students to the -next; their mirth-provoking character gives them vitality; they grow -more ludicrous the oftener they are told; they do harm because they -lead pupils to undervalue the importance of a good memory to those who -are ambitious to shine as thinkers. Often, after it is too late, the -student finds how he has crippled his whole intellectual life by neglect -and abuse of the memory. A correct conception of the nature of memory -and its function in every department of thought and research is of -immense importance to those who teach, as well as to those who have gone -far enough in their studies to give conscious direction to their own -intellectual life. Most writers on education have treated, directly or -indirectly, of the use and abuse of the memory; every examiner appeals -to it more or less in the questions he puts; and every teacher shows -the nature and extent of his skill in the kind of demands he makes -upon the retentive power of his pupils. Take, for instance, the lesson -in geometry. There are two ways of learning and giving the proof of a -theorem: the language of the text-book may be committed to memory, and -accepted in the class-room; or the pupil may fix in his mind the line -of argument and give in his own language the successive steps of the -demonstration. The former method is a sure sign of bad teaching and of -defective habits of study. Whenever a skilful teacher finds his pupils -giving the exact words of the text-book on geometry, he changes the -lettering of the figure, and sometimes even the figure itself. He is not -satisfied until he feels sure that the pupil is thinking the thoughts -of the geometry and recalling the ideas by the inner nexus which binds -them into a line of argument. He insists on it that the learner shall -cultivate a memory for ideas rather than words. - -[Sidenote: Verbal memory.] - -Does it follow that the verbal memory is to be neglected and despised? -This is the feeling of the learner who has tasted the joys of thinking; -he hates the drudgery of learning by heart, because he has reached the -age when logical memory begins to assert itself at the expense of the -verbal memory. No less a psychologist than Professor James of Harvard -has recently put in a plea for the verbal memory which, by reason of the -abuses to which it was formerly subjected, has fallen into such disuse -that pupils on reaching the high school are often unable to quote a -single stanza of poetry. In his “Talks on Psychology to Teachers” he -says,— - -“The older pedagogic method of learning things by rote, and reciting them -parrot-like in the school-room, rested on the truth that a thing merely -read or heard, and never verbally reproduced, contracts the weakest -possible adhesion to the mind. Verbal recitation or reproduction is thus -a highly important kind of reactive behavior on our impressions; and -it is to be feared, in the reaction against the old parrot recitations -as the beginning and end of instruction, the extreme value of verbal -recitation as an element of complete training may nowadays be too much -forgotten.”[22] - -[Sidenote: Association.] - -Psychologists have shown that, in remembering and recollecting, the -mind works according to certain laws of association. Of two words or -ideas which have been before the mind at the same time, or in immediate -sequence, the one naturally tends to suggest the other. If the attention -is directed to the words as they follow each other in a line of poetry, -the memory will recall these in the order in which they occur. If the -mind’s eye is fixed on the ideas which the words express, the memory may -carry these by reason of the logical connection which exists between -them. Often the connection between the two things which are to be -remembered is purely arbitrary. Then the link which binds them together -must be forged by some mechanical process like frequent oral repetition, -or by constant gazing at them upon the printed page, or by writing them -out so that the impression made upon the mind through the eye and the ear -is further strengthened through the muscular sense. The latter species of -memory is usually called the mechanical memory, in distinction from the -memory for ideas, which has been aptly styled the logical memory. - -[Sidenote: Mechanical memory.] - -The verbal memory is but one form of the mechanical memory. There is no -necessary connection between persons and their names, between events -and dates, between things and their symbols; these must be learned by -bringing them together before the mind until by the law of association, -called contiguity in time and place, the link that binds them is forged; -or, to change the figure, until they occupy places side by side on the -tablets of the mechanical memory. It is sometimes supposed that there is -a necessary connection between the two factors and their result in the -multiplication table. But the moment we construct an arithmetical scale -based on the dozen instead of ten, 7 × 8 = 48 instead of 56 (the former -combination of figures signifying four twelves and eight ones), and the -arbitrary character of the combinations in the Arabic notation becomes -apparent at a glance. Sometimes a peculiarity in a rule like that for the -middle and the opposite parts in the right-angled spherical triangle may -assist the memory; but in most cases the formulas which are in constant -use in the higher mathematics must be fixed by the methods of drill -appropriate for the mechanical memory. - -[Sidenote: Pestalozzi’s mistake.] - -It is a mistake in teaching as well as in practical life to neglect the -mechanical memory. In many directions it takes care of itself through -the conditions and requirements of a person’s daily occupation. The -salesman in a large store, the conductor on a railway, the politician -on the hustings remembers many things in this way, and not because they -are bound together by a logical nexus like that which binds together the -thoughts of a geometrical proof. Many things which the pupil must carry -from the school into practical life must be retained through drill and -repetition. Pestalozzi imagined that if he taught pupils how to construct -the multiplication table it would not be necessary for them to commit it -to memory. The Swiss teachers long ago found out the insufficiency of his -method; found out that, whilst it pays to let a pupil construct the table -for himself, because it increases his interest in the combinations, and -thus lightens the burden of the mechanical memory, the drill must be kept -up until the sight of two factors suggests their product with infallible -accuracy. Valuable time can be saved if the teacher will make a list of -things that must be fixed in the mechanical memory for the purpose of -facilitating the thought-processes in more advanced stages of instruction -and in the discharge of the duties of practical life. The following are -typical examples of what should be lodged in the mechanical memory: - -1. A reasonable vocabulary of words in the mother tongue. - -2. A working vocabulary of words in the foreign languages which the -circumstances or occupation of a student will compel him to use. - -3. The combinations of addition up to one hundred, the multiplication -table, and the tables of weights and measures. - -4. Algebraic and other formulas which constantly recur in the higher -mathematics. - -5. The fundamental formulas in chemistry, physics, and other sciences. - -6. Declensions, conjugations, comparison, and genders of words in such -foreign languages as the pupil expects to read, write, and speak. - -7. The most necessary fact-lore of history and geography. - -8. Choice selections from the best literature and such definitions as -mark a triumph of intellect in the history of human thought. - -This enumeration may indicate the range and kind of knowledge which -should be fixed in the mechanical memory so that the mind may be in -possession of the best instruments of thought evolved by ages of -civilization. Many of the things above named must be learned by an -effort of retention, pure and simple, like that of the boy who is sent -to a store to buy half a dozen sheets of paper, two yards of ribbon, -five dozen eggs, and specified quantities of salt, flour, and other -provisions. He may write these on paper and thus ease the memory burden, -but in solving mathematical problems and in reading, writing, or speaking -a foreign language it is impossible always to carry for use written or -printed tables, vocabularies, and lexicons. To use these in thinking, -one must have them on his tongue and at his fingers’ end. Of course it -makes a difference whether one wishes simply to read a language, like -Latin or Greek, or to use it, like French and German, in conversation and -correspondence. In the former instance it is sufficient to learn the -language symbols through the eye; in the latter they must be acquired -through the ear, the tongue, and the pen. - -[Sidenote: Time for learning languages.] - -It is a wise provision of nature that the perceptive powers and the -mechanical memory are most active in childhood and youth. The normal -child is hungry for words and facts, and gathers information from every -conceivable quarter. The judgment and the reason develop after the mind -has been stored with the materials upon which these may act. Parents -and teachers who are ignorant of this order of development often force -the reasons for arithmetical processes upon the pupil when these are -difficult and when he could learn the eleven hundred variations of the -Greek verb without difficulty, whilst the study of the classical and -foreign languages is postponed to an age when the acquisition of a -new language becomes a difficult task because the logical memory has -driven the mechanical into the background, and the growth of judgment -and reason makes the pupil crave the intellectual food furnished by -the thought-studies. It is a species of cruelty to force upon children -the consideration of the why’s and the wherefore’s of mathematical -operations, when learning how to go through the motions would be quite -enough of a tax upon their mental strength. Some of the demonstrations -in arithmetic are logically more difficult than many of the proofs in -geometry; hence no pupil should be asked to pass his final examination in -arithmetic before he has mastered the elements of geometry. The proper -sequence of subjects is of immense importance in leading the child -from the lower to the higher forms of intellectual activity. With the -proper study of geometry the logical memory steps to the front, and the -thought-studies should then supplant those which largely appeal to the -mechanical memory. - -Nevertheless, it is a distinct loss if the verbal or mechanical memory is -ever allowed to drop into desuetude. On this point the practice, as well -as the testimony, of Dr. W. T. Harris is worthy of the attention of every -person charged with the training of himself or others. - -[Sidenote: Harris on the memory.] - -“If a person finds himself forgetful of names, it is a health-giving -process to take a certain portion of time in committing to memory -words. If this is done by committing new masterpieces of poetry and -prose, or in committing to memory the words of a new language, there -is profit or gain to the thinking powers, as well as to the memory. -Doubtless the cultivation of verbal memory, building up, as it does, -a certain convolution in the brain, has a tendency to prevent atrophy -in that organ. This contains a hint in the direction of keeping up in -the later part of life the faculties which are usually so active in -youth. The tendency is to neglect childish faculties and allow them to -become torpid. But if this is liable to weaken certain portions of the -brain in such a way as to induce hemorrhage, ending in softening of the -brain, certainly the memory should be cultivated, if only for the health -of the brain, and the memory for mechanical items of detail should be -cultivated on grounds of health as well as on grounds of culture. The -extreme advocates of the rational method of teaching are perhaps wrong in -repudiating entirely all mechanical memory of dates and names or items. -Certainly they are right in opposing the extremes of the old pedagogy, -which obliged the pupils to memorize, page after page, the contents of -a grammar _verbatim et literatim et punctuatim_ (as, for instance, the -graduates of the Boston Latin School tell us was the custom early in -this century). But is there not a middle ground? Is there not a minimum -list of details, of dates and names which must and should be memorized, -both on account of the health of the nervous system and on account of -the intrinsic usefulness of the data themselves? And must not the person -in later life continue to exercise these classes of memory which deal -with details for the sake of physical health? This is a question for the -educational pathologist.”[23] - -[Sidenote: Vocabularies.] - -A teacher of Hebrew spent one-fourth of his time in drill on Hebrew roots -and their meaning. His students groaned under the drudgery imposed. At -the end of the first six chapters of Genesis, he surprised his class by -the announcement, “Now you know half the words in the Hebrew Bible.” -He had selected words used five hundred times, then words used three -hundred times, and drilled on these in various ways until he had fixed -all the words in most frequent use in the Hebrew text. It was a great -saving of time in the end, and a great step towards reading at sight the -Old Testament in the original. By the modern short-cuts to knowledge -the pupils are hurried from one classic author to another, and hence -they never master the vocabulary to the extent of reading Latin or Greek -at sight. A little less haste at the start, and a little more drill -for the purpose of fixing new words as they come up, thus avoiding the -everlasting turning to the lexicon for more than half the words in a -lesson, would facilitate progress and enable the student to find some -pleasure in the study of foreign languages. - -[Sidenote: Teaching languages.] - -An old teacher of Latin, who had discovered this secret in the -acquisition of a foreign tongue, agreed to take a small class in Livy -on condition that the students write in a special blank-book and review -every day all the words whose meaning they were required to hunt in the -lexicon. At the end of ten weeks half the class read two pages without -looking up more than two words. Their study of Latin not only gave them -a sense of pleasure, but, in thinking the thoughts of the author through -the medium of the eye-symbols and then putting them into good English, -they acquired excellent thought-material, an extensive vocabulary, and -superior skill in syntactical construction. It proved a most valuable -exercise in thinking and in the expression of thought. - -[Sidenote: Logical memory.] - -Valuable as the mechanical memory is for the purpose of furnishing the -thought-instruments, it sinks into comparative insignificance alongside -of the logical memory. The latter is the memory for ideas, binding them -by associations based on cause and effect, reason and consequence, -similarity and contrast, the general and the particular. It is the kind -of memory by which the mind carries a knowledge of the laws of science, -the principles of art, the salient points of a discourse, the train of -ideas in a book, the leading thoughts in a system of philosophy. It -converts history and geography from a dry collection of facts, dates, -and names into a living organism whose parts are internally related by a -plastic principle, and combined into a whole that has order and system -in every detail. How much better that a pupil’s knowledge of history -and geography should be thus systematized than that it should resemble -a wilderness of facts! As a means for furnishing thought-material, the -logical memory is far more valuable than the memory which holds words and -things by the accidental ties of sound, sight, and fanciful relations. - -[Sidenote: Latham’s classification.] - -A classification of the forms of memory into portative, analytical, and -assimilative, given in Latham’s book on the “Action of Examinations,” is -helpful in determining the relation of memory to thinking. - -[Sidenote: Portative memory.] - -The portative memory simply conveys matter. “Its only aim, like that -of a carrier, is to deliver the parcel as it was received.” It is the -form of memory that enables some people to carry the contents of entire -volumes in their minds, sometimes in the very words, oftener in ideas -only. The rhapsodists in ancient Greece who could repeat entire books of -Homer are examples in point. Some men of superior talent have possessed -this power in an eminent degree. Macaulay, on a voyage across the Irish -Channel, rehearsed from memory an entire book of Virgil’s “Æneid.” It is -the kind of memory that shines at examinations and excites the envy of -persons less gifted with powers of retention. It may easily be degraded -into a slave, doing work which should be performed by higher mental -powers. Hence it has been appropriately styled the Cinderella faculty -of the mind. Like the girl in the story, it may be abused dreadfully by -having all sorts of useless drudgery heaped upon it. To require a child -to learn the five thousand isolated facts formerly scattered through -treatises on geography was an exercise as useless as the picking of the -lentils which were poured into the ashes to give Cinderella something to -do, and, unfortunately, there is no bird from fairyland to assist in the -accomplishment of the task. - -Much as we may admire the power of Thomas Fuller, who could repeat five -hundred unrelated words in foreign languages after hearing them twice, it -is an accomplishment not worth acquiring. As an accomplishment it recalls -the king to whom a man exhibited his skill in throwing a pea so that it -would stick on the end of a pin,—a feat acquired after years of patient -practice. The man hoped to get a valuable present for his exhibition of -skill. The king ordered a bag of pease to be given him, saying that it -was all his accomplishment was worth. - -There is no end of warnings as to the possible evil effects of a good -memory upon the power to think,—warnings that a teacher may take to heart -with advantage to himself and others. - -[Sidenote: Memory and the understanding.] - -Dr. Carpenter asserts that when the form of memory by which children -learn a piece of poetry whose meaning they do not comprehend exists in -unusual strength, it seems to impede rather than aid the formation of the -nexus of associations which makes acquired knowledge a part of the mind -itself. In illustration, he cites the suggestive case of Dr. Leyden, “who -was distinguished for his extraordinary gift of learning languages, and -who could repeat long acts of Parliament, or any similar document, after -having once read it. Being congratulated by a friend on his remarkable -gift, he replied that, instead of being an advantage to him, it was often -a source of great inconvenience, because, when he wished to recollect -anything in a document he had read, he could only do it by repeating -the whole from the commencement till he reached the point he wished to -recall.” - -Latham has well said, “The ready mechanical memory of a youth, besides -enabling him to mislead unpractised examiners, makes him deceive himself. -Teachers find that a very ready memory is a bad educator; it stunts the -growth of other mental powers by doing their work for them. A youth who -can recollect without trouble will, as it were, mask the difficulty in -his classical author or his mathematics by learning by rote what stands -in his translation or text-book, and march forward without more ado. Thus -a quick memory involves a temptation which may enervate its possessor -by suffering him to evade a difficulty instead of bracing himself to -encounter it in front.”[24] - -Maudsley writes in the same strain: “This kind of memory, in which -the person seems to read a photographic copy of former impressions -with his mind’s eye, is not, indeed, commonly associated with high -intellectual power; for what reason I know not, unless it be that the -mind, to which it belongs, is prevented, by the very excellence of its -power of apprehending and recalling separate facts, from rising to -that discernment of their relations which is involved in reasoning and -judgment, and so stays in a function which should be the foundation of -further development, or that, being by some natural defect prevented from -rising to the higher sphere of a comprehension of relations, it applies -all its energies to a comprehension of details. Certainly one runs the -risk, by overloading the memory of a child with details, of arresting the -development of the mental powers of the child; stereotyping details on -the brain, we prevent that further development of it which consists in -rising from concrete conceptions to the conception of relations.”[25] - -Here is another warning from the pen of Archbishop Whately: - -“Some people have been intellectually damaged by having what is called -a good memory. An unskilful teacher is content to put before children -all they ought to learn, and to take care that they remember it; and so, -though the memory is retentive, the mind is left in a passive state, and -men wonder that he who was so quick at learning and remembering should -not be an able man, which is as reasonable as to wonder that a cistern if -filled should not be a perpetual fountain. Many men are saved by their -deficiency of memory from being spoiled by an education; for those who -have no extraordinary memory are driven to supply its place by thinking. -If they do not remember a mathematical demonstration, they are driven to -devise one. If they do not remember what Aristotle or Bacon said, they -are driven to consider what they are likely to have said or ought to have -said.”[26] - -In his letter to a student who lamented his defective memory, P. C. -Hamerton says that, so far from writing, as might be expected, a letter -of condolence on a miserable memory, he felt disposed to write a letter -of congratulation. “It is possible that you may be blessed with a -selecting memory which is not only useful for what it retains, but also -for what it rejects. In the immense mass of facts which come before you -in literature and in life it is well that you should suffer as little -bewilderment as possible. The nature of your memory saves you from this -by unconsciously selecting what has interested you and letting the rest -go by.”[27] - -[Sidenote: Analytical memory.] - -In the last quotation we get a hint of the form of memory which Latham -styles the analytical. “The analytical memory is exercised when the -mind furnishes a view of its own and thereby holds together a set of -impressions selected out of a mass. Thus a barrister strings together the -material facts of his case, and a lecturer those of his science by their -bearing on what he wants to establish.” - -Many thinkers sift everything they read, hear, and see. That which they -do not need is rejected and forgotten. That which has a bearing upon -their investigations is selected, retained, and utilized. As an aid in -thinking a form of retention called the index memory is very helpful. -The lawyer should know where to find such law as he does not carry in -his head. Having found the required statute or judicial interpretation, -he applies it to the case in hand. No sooner is a case finally decided -or settled than he drops its details from his mind and directs his -intellectual strength to the interests of the next client. - -In this ability to sift, select, and reject, as the occasion demands, -lies the secret of the success of many a public lecturer, of many a -magazine writer. The men in the pulpit or upon the platform who lack -this gift soon wear out; the public speedily detects when they have -nothing more to give. The preparation of debates, speeches, essays, and -theses trains these forms of memory. After the analytical habit has been -formed, the student unconsciously, yet constantly, gathers, classifies, -and stores materials for thought. The public are frequently surprised by -the array of striking facts, interesting data, apt illustrations, and -pleasing anecdotes with which he enlivens every topic of discussion and -elucidates every subject of investigation. - -[Sidenote: Assimilative memory.] - -Higher than the analytical is the assimilative form of memory which -“absorbs matter into the system so that the knowledge assimilated -becomes a part of the person’s own self, like that of his name or of a -familiar language.” The assimilation of knowledge has a parallel in the -assimilation of food. The phrase that knowledge is the food of the mind -has almost become classical in treatises on education. The figure of -speech throws light upon the relative functions of memory and thinking -in the acquisition and elaboration of knowledge. Before the food is set -before the child it should be cooked and put into the most palatable -form,—a parallel to the preparation of the lesson by the teacher so that -he may put it before the learner in its most attractive form. - -Before the food is swallowed it should be masticated, broken into -parts,—a parallel to the act of analysis by which the chunks of knowledge -are resolved into their elements and each set before the mind in the -simplest form, in the form in which it can be grasped most easily. - -[Sidenote: Transformation of knowledge.] - -If the food remains in the stomach unchanged, it produces dyspepsia and a -long train of bodily ills. If the knowledge which the mind appropriates -is retained unchanged, it produces mental dyspepsia, and there is -no real assimilation. From this point of view we can easily see why -Montaigne said that to know by heart is not to know at all. Just as the -food which is taken into the body must be transformed into chyme and -chyle and blood before it can be assimilated, so the knowledge which is -taken up by the mind must be transformed if it is to be assimilated. -The best illustration of the transformation of knowledge is that given -by an anecdote of Gough, which has now become classic. In a Pullman -car a crying child was disturbing the slumbers of every passenger. At -last a gruff miner, whose patience was exhausted, stuck his head out -of his berth and exclaimed, “I should like to know where that child’s -mother is?” “In the baggage car in a coffin,” was the reply of the -person in charge of the child. The knowledge imparted by that phrase -was immediately transformed into new thought and sentiment and purpose. -There was not another word of complaint throughout the entire journey; -every passenger was thinking of the unfortunate child in the light of an -orphan. Their hearts were stirred with feelings of sympathy, which, in -the case of the old miner, issued into will and purpose, for he got up, -began to carry the little one, and did his best to make it feel contented -in the new surroundings. If the lessons in civil government and history -of the United States remain in the memory a mere tissue of dates, names, -and events, the teacher has failed, no matter how brilliant the answers -in class or at the examination. If these lessons do not issue in new -thoughts, sentiments, and purposes, if they do not enlarge the mental -vision of the pupils, beget in them the sentiment of patriotism and cause -them to resolve that they will support the government by paying a just -share of its taxes and by insisting on a pure ballot,—in a word, if these -lessons do not make the pupil say that he will live for his country and -even die in its defence,—then the teacher has failed because there has -been no adequate assimilation of knowledge. - -Another figure of speech is sometimes used to describe the transformation -of knowledge. “Except a grain of wheat fall into the earth and die, it -abideth by itself alone; but if it die, it beareth much fruit.”[28] If -the knowledge which enters the mind remains unchanged, it abideth by -itself alone. But if it perish in its original form, if it is changed -through the process of growth so as to enter into new relations, it -brings forth a harvest of thought and sentiment and purpose. The last two -should be the concomitants of the crop of new thoughts which spring from -seed-thoughts implanted in the soul. - -That the ancients understood the use and abuse of the memory is evident -from their method of teaching law. - -[Sidenote: Teaching the law.] - -The Roman school-boy learned by heart the Twelve Tables of the Law. -His teachers were not satisfied with a mere knowledge of the words; -they insisted that he should understand the meaning of the law, and -apply it in regulating his own conduct and in passing judgment upon the -conduct of others. Is it any wonder that the Roman people became the -exponents of law and order throughout the civilized world, and that Roman -jurisprudence still exerts a moulding influence upon the legislation of -the Latin races, if not of the entire civilized world? - -There is still another nation of antiquity whose youth were instructed -in the law with the most scrupulous care. The Ten Commandments of the -Mosaic Law were committed to memory. In Chapter VI., 6-9, of Deuteronomy, -we read: “And these words, which I command thee this day, shall be in -thine heart: and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, -and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou -walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up. -And thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thine hand, and they shall be -as frontlets between thine eyes.” Verse 18 of Chapter XI. is still more -explicit: “Therefore shall ye lay up these my words in your heart and in -your soul, and bind them for a sign upon your hand, that they may be as -frontlets between your eyes.” - -The exact words of the law were to be fixed in the memory, and kept both -before the bodily and mental eye until they passed into the deeds and -conduct of every-day life. In John vii. 49 we find the same thought: -“This people who knoweth not the law are cursed.” This was the universal -conviction of the Jewish people after the Babylonian exile, if not -before. The reading of the Talmud has been likened unto travelling -through endless galleries of lumber, where the air is darkened and the -lungs are well-nigh asphyxiated with the rising dust. On one point, -however, the Jewish Rabbis speak with the authority and earnestness of -those who know whereof they affirm. “To the Law!” is the exhortation -sounded abroad in every key. “Let your house,” says one, “be a house of -assembly for those wise in the law; let yourself be dusted by the dust -of their feet, and drink eagerly their teaching.” “Make the study of the -law thy special business,” says another. “The more teaching of the law,” -says a third, “the more life; the more school, the more wisdom; the more -counsel, the more reasonable action. He who gains a knowledge of the law -gains life in the world to come.” - -Maxims like the following show the stress that was laid upon exercises -designed to bring out the full force and import of the law: “When two -sit together and do not converse about the law, they are an assembly of -scorners, of which it is said, ‘Sit not in the seat of the scorners.’ -When, however, two sit together and converse about the law, the Shechinah -(the Divine Presence) is present among them.” “When three eat together at -one table, and do not converse about the law, it is as though they ate of -the offerings of the dead. But when three eat together at one table and -converse about the law, it is as though they ate at the table of God.” -“The following are things whose interest is enjoyed in this world, while -the capital remains for the world to come; Reverence for fathers and -mothers, benevolence, peacemaking among neighbors, and the study of the -law above them all.” - -It is very apparent that the chosen people were not satisfied with -mere memorizing of the law. Their teachers sought to make it a living, -regulative force in all the relations of man. Their practice emphasized -a phase of memory work which should be borne in mind whenever pupils are -requested to learn by heart any form of words or selection of literature. -Words have no value so long as they remain mere words. When words convey -the intended meaning, the more perfect the form in which they are joined -together the deeper and more lasting is the impression made upon the -mind of the learner. The thoughts which have been transmitted in forms -fixed for ages may not produce a harvest of new thought and linguistic -expression, but may issue in feeling and will, in lofty emotions and -noble purposes, in heroic deeds and unselfish devotion, in righteousness -and right conduct far more valuable than mediocre effusions of prose and -poetry, or many of the speculations of scientists and philosophers. - -[Sidenote: Seed-thoughts.] - -Thoughts that are to regulate conduct and life may be remembered in the -form in which a nation has treasured them for ages. If thoughts are to -become seed-thoughts, their form must be changed through the process of -growth; otherwise no crop of new thoughts can mature. The expression, -seed-thoughts, is a figure of speech based upon vegetable life. The -mind may be likened unto soil that has become fertile through the labor -and skill of the husbandman. The mind grows fertile and productive by -cultivation. Like the sower going forth to sow, the good teacher deposits -in the youthful mind ideas which germinate and bring forth a harvest -of thought, sentiment, and purpose. If the grain of wheat be cut in -pieces, and then put into the soil, there can be no growth, because the -life has been destroyed. The ideas which the teacher instils into the -minds of the pupils should be living ideas. Their vitality should not be -destroyed by dissection into fragments from which all life has departed. -Sunshine and moisture are conditions of growth. Lack of sympathy is -lack of sunshine. Cold natures have an Arctic effect in stunting and -preventing growth. Again, instruction may be so dry that nothing can -thrive under its influence. Like a drought, it may speedily evaporate -the child’s love of school and interest in study. Weeds may choke the -growing crop. These the husbandman removes and destroys, so that the -good seed may have a chance to ripen. With equal solicitude the faithful -teacher watches the development of the seed-thoughts which are sprouting -in the mind. For a time the seed is hid in the earth. Seed-thoughts -disappear in the unconscious depths of the soul. They are not lost. By -processes which we cannot explain, they sprout and grow and ripen. That -such mysterious processes are going forward in the hidden depths of the -soul cannot be doubted. A process of growth may be unseen; its visible -results are evidence that it exists and is going forward. If the soil be -barren or the conditions of growth be wanting, no harvest is possible. -Unfortunately, the unskilful husbandman always blames the soil and the -weather when he himself is at fault. Unfortunate is the pupil whose -teacher is a fossil, devoid of life and the power to infuse life. Under -such a teacher the pupil always gets the blame. - - - - -XII - -IMAGING AND THINKING - - Things more excellent than any image are expressed through - images. - - JAMBLICHUS. - - An unimaginative person can neither be reverent nor kind. - - RUSKIN. - - Few men have imagination enough for the truth of reality. - - GOETHE. - - Science does not know its debt to the imagination. - - EMERSON. - - The human race is governed by its imagination. - - NAPOLEON. - - -XII - -IMAGING AND THINKING - -Every human being divides the world into two parts, the self and the -not-self. It would not be right to say that he divides the world into two -hemispheres, because self may occupy more space and engross more thought -than all else in the universe. - -[Sidenote: Self.] - -The idea of self is complex. It includes our thoughts, emotions, and -purposes. Kindred and friends, home and country, creed and occupation, -dress and personal appearance, possessions and the work one has done,—in -fact, all one has and is and does enters into the idea of self. When -we lose a child, a manuscript, an investment, a position, we are apt -to feel as if a part of ourselves had been lost. So closely are the -things of self identified with the inner self, the self in the narrowest -signification of the term, that the latter is oftentimes lost in the -former; and the end of existence is sought in wealth, fame, honor, social -position, erudition, and the thousand other things which intensify the -feeling of self by giving it form and content. - -[Sidenote: Image of self.] - -An important element in the thought of self is the image of self that -every man carries in his own mind. This image of self is derived from -looking-glasses and photographs, from the sight of hands and feet and -the other impressions of the physical organism which reach the mind -through the senses. In the minds of many persons the image of self is -ever present, it matters not whether they are eating or drinking, walking -or talking, singing or thinking, posing or working. The perpetual -presence of the image of self gives rise to vanity and pride, to avarice, -ambition, and other detestable forms of selfishness. - -It is the province of education to bring self and the things of self into -proper relation with the not-self, with God and the universe. That this -may be accomplished the images of sense and the idea of self must be made -to take their proper place in the domain of thought and volition. - -[Sidenote: Education defined.] - -Not many years ago it was customary in certain quarters to define -education as the process of unsensing the mind and unselfing the will. -The definition never became popular. It contains a truth and an error, -both deserving of careful consideration. The maxim may signify that by -the process of education the soul is to be emancipated from the tyranny -of the senses and from the domination of selfish desires. The mind may -be hindered in its growth because it is under the thraldom of desire and -appetite. Excess in eating and drinking, in sight-seeing, and in other -pleasures which so easily ripen into dissipation may check the normal -development of the higher faculties. The delight which some gifted -natures find in beautiful colors and good music may prevent them from -acquiring the power of abstract and abstruse thinking. The things of the -mind may be sacrificed to the things of sense, the higher life of the -soul may be stifled through the exaltation of self and the domination of -selfish desires. - -[Sidenote: Unsensing the mind.] - -What is meant by unsensing the mind? It may mean, for instance, that -the student of arithmetic is to be freed from the necessity of counting -strokes or fingers in finding the sum or the product of two numbers; that -the learner is to get away from the cats and dogs of the First Reader as -soon as possible; that he is to be lifted by education to the plane on -which he can think in abstract and general terms. In this sense it is -correct to say that it is the purpose of education to unsense the mind. -The phrase may also be interpreted to imply that the habit of thinking -by means of visual images is to be got rid of. In this sense it is a -dangerous maxim. - -[Sidenote: Arrested development.] - -The first thinking of children is carried on in mental pictures. It is -one of the aims of the school to lift the learner above this necessity -of thinking in things by enabling him to think in symbols. These symbols -are in their turn visualized; and we may have specimens of arrested -development in the use of figures as well as in the use of fingers, -blocks, or other objects employed in teaching the fundamental operations -of integers and fractions. The principal of a well-known ward school -aimed at great speed in arithmetical calculations. The results which -his teachers obtained excited surprise and admiration. The test of -progress was the number of digits that a pupil could add, or subtract, or -multiply, or divide in a minute. The danger of this instruction became -apparent when it was found that of five or six hundred children drilled -in that way only one ever reached the high school, and she was only a -third-rate student, who never acquired skill or proficiency in thinking -in abstract and general terms. Mental energy was exhausted in the attempt -to develop lightning calculators. There was no growth in the direction of -thinking the laws and truths which make knowledge scientific. - -[Sidenote: The thinking of savages.] - -The untutored savage is guided by sense impressions; he thinks in mental -pictures; he is incapable of a chain of reasoning like the demonstration -of a theorem in geometry. Tribes have been found who could not count -beyond three; any number in excess of two was called many or a multitude. -Whilst their powers of observation were developed to a remarkable degree, -they lacked the power of abstruse thought. Their descendants, who are -now at school, make rapid progress in knowledge which appeals to the -senses; they find more than the usual difficulty in studies requiring -demonstrative reasoning or sustained effort in scientific thought. Music -is their delight; they can be taught to sing like birds in the air; -their bands give sighs to brass itself. As in the eighteenth century the -Iroquois, who would not submit to the doctrines of Christianity, were -overcome by concerts, so, in the nineteenth, the missionaries of British -Columbia appeal to the red man’s ear for music in winning him for the -Christian religion. - -[Sidenote: Popular audiences.] - -Language is full of faded metaphors which show how the things of the mind -are conceived in images formed through the senses. Those who address -popular audiences clothe their thoughts in figures of speech based upon -the mental pictures in which the common people carry on their thinking. -The ability to think in the language of science and philosophy is a later -development, and those who by disuse or neglect impair their power to -think in sense-images pay a penalty in losing, or never acquiring, the -power to move the multitudes. - -[Sidenote: Mental pictures.] - -The power to think in mental pictures, or through the sense-impressions -which memory recalls, varies in different persons. Occasionally the sense -of touch is very active; the child in such cases manifests a desire to -handle everything within reach, and undoubtedly gains impressions of -peculiar strength answering its desire to know. A limited number of -children in every school get their best impressions through the ear, -and hence are said to be ear-minded; but the far larger proportion are -eye-minded to the extent of connecting their most accurate knowledge -with images obtained through vision. Similar peculiarities exist among -older persons. A friend claims that he hears the voices of speakers while -reading the proof-sheets of their speeches. Another friend claims that -he cannot bring up a mental picture of the faces of his children and his -friends, but he writes out strains of music which he thinks and hears -while seated on railway cars. The power of bringing up a vivid picture of -the breakfast-table, or of some scene of special interest, is possessed -by many persons. They live over again in memory the delights of travel, -and enjoy scenery through the vivid mental pictures stored away in the -treasure-house of memory. The ability to appreciate the best literature -in prose and poetry depends largely upon the power of visualizing the -realities at the basis of the descriptions and figures of speech. Francis -Galton thinks that the perspicuous style of French literature and the -wonderful manual skill of the French people is due to their power of -thinking in visual images. He says,— - -[Sidenote: The French.] - -“The French appear to possess the visualizing faculty in a high degree. -The peculiar ability they show in prearranging ceremonials and fêtes of -all kinds and their undoubted genius for tactics and strategy show that -they are able to foresee effects with unusual clearness. Their ingenuity -in all technical contrivances is an additional testimony in the same -direction, and so is their singular clearness of expression. Their phrase -‘figurez-vous,’ or ‘picture to yourself,’ seems to express their dominant -mode of perception. Our equivalent of ‘imagine’ is ambiguous.”[29] - -[Sidenote: Galton’s investigations.] - -The profession of teaching owes Mr. Galton a special debt of gratitude -for the light which his investigations throw upon the process of -thinking. These investigations were published in a volume entitled -“Inquiries into Human Faculty.” When he began to inquire among -his friends as to their power to call up mental pictures of the -breakfast-table, those engaged in scientific pursuits were inclined -to consider him fanciful and fantastic in supposing that the words -_mental imagery_ really expressed what he thought everybody supposed -them to mean. He says they had no more notion of its true nature than a -color-blind man who has not discerned his defect has of the nature of -color. When he spoke to persons in general society, he got very different -replies. Among other curious things which he discovered, he found that -the power of thinking in sense-images, or mental pictures, may be partly -inherited, partly developed by practice, and that it may be impaired -by disuse or by the habit of hard thinking peculiar to men engaged in -scientific pursuits. Scientific men, as a class, have feeble powers of -visual representation. He reached the conclusion that “an over-ready -perception of sharp mental pictures is antagonistic to the acquirement -of highly generalized and abstract thought, especially when the steps of -reasoning are carried on by words as symbols, and that if the faculty of -seeing the pictures was ever possessed by men who think hard, it is very -apt to be lost by disuse.” - -[Sidenote: Wrong methods.] - -He further claims that the visualizing faculty can be developed by -education. This is very significant. It shows how unwise methods may harm -our children in two directions. The wrong method may keep the mind at -work in the concrete when the science under consideration demands more -advanced and very different methods of thought. In the other direction -the mind may be tied to words, descriptions, book methods, and symbolic -representations, whereas the thinking which one’s future duties demand -points in the direction of drawing, mechanics, and handicrafts, in which -success turns upon the power of thinking in visual images and mental -pictures. One cannot forbear quoting his language in so far as it bears -upon the thinking developed by schools for manual training in distinction -from the thinking developed by the university which aims to fit its -students for the professions and for scientific thought and experimental -research. - -[Sidenote: Thinking in images.] - -“There can, however, be no doubt as to the utility of the visualizing -faculty when it is duly subordinated to the higher intellectual -operations. A visual image is the most perfect form of mental -representation wherever the shape, position, and relations of objects -in space are concerned. It is of importance in every handicraft and -profession where design is required. The best workmen are those who -visualize the whole of what they propose to do before they take a tool in -their hands. The village smith and the carpenter who are employed on odd -jobs employ it no less for their work than the mechanician, the engineer, -and the architect. The lady’s maid who arranges a new dress requires it -for the same reason as the decorator employed on a palace, or the agent -who lays out great estates. Strategists, artists of all denominations, -physicists who contrive new experiments, and, in short, all who do not -follow routine, have need of it. The pleasure its use can afford is -immense. I have many correspondents who say that the delight of recalling -beautiful scenery and great works of art is the highest that they know; -they carry whole picture-galleries in their minds. Our bookish and wordy -education tends to repress this valuable gift of nature. A faculty -that is of importance in all technical and artistic occupations, that -gives accuracy to our perceptions, and justness to our generalizations -is starved by lazy disuse instead of being cultivated judiciously in -such a way as will, on the whole, bring the best return. I believe -that a serious study of the best method of developing and utilizing -this faculty, without prejudice to the practice of abstract thought in -symbols, is one of the many pressing desiderata in the yet unformed -science of education.”[30] - -What is meant by the process of unselfing the will? If the maxim is -interpreted to mean that education must eliminate the selfishness of -the individual, and teach him to will and act for the good of humanity, -especially of all with whom he comes in contact, the maxim points out an -important end of education. If, on the other hand, the maxim is made to -mean that the self, with its peculiarities, is to be sacrificed in the -educative process, it carries a contradiction on its face. The lower self -may have to be sacrificed in order that the higher self may be conserved. -He that loseth his life shall save it; he that saveth his life shall lose -it, is the teaching of Holy Writ. - -Open a dictionary and search for words indicating how the belief in the -necessity of emancipating life from the dominion of self has been woven -into the very texture of the English language. Egotism, which originally -meant the excessive use of the pronoun I, has come to signify all kinds -of self-praise, self-exaltation, and to include all manner of parading -one’s virtues and excellencies; egoism denotes a state of mind in which -the feelings are concentrated on self. Vanity and self-conceit are two -words closely allied to the natural selfishness of the human heart. The -former indicates the feeling which springs from the thought that we are -highly esteemed by others; the latter is an overweening opinion of one’s -talents, capacities, and importance. There is another list of compound -words, like self-denial, self-sacrifice, self-abnegation, which point to -the importance of eliminating self and thoughts of self from the soul’s -activities in thinking and willing. Virtues like humility, love, service, -sacrifice, are lauded in every Christian land. They are the Christian -virtues exemplified by Jesus of Nazareth, who lived to do good to others, -and who died that the sinning, sorrowing millions on earth might find -peace and consolation for their troubled souls. - -[Sidenote: Selfishness.] - -The unselfing of the will depends as much upon right thinking as does the -unsensing of the mind. The untrained mind deals too much with things near -at hand in the objective world; the uneducated will deals too much with -the thing nearest to every man in the subjective world,—the individual -self. The thought of self may enter so thoroughly into the feelings and -activities of the soul that the rights of others are never thought of -in the gratification of self and in the efforts at self-aggrandizement -and self-glorification. Selfish desire and selfish ambition may dominate -the soul and cause the individual to trample upon the dearest rights -of others. The millions which some men heap up are squeezed from the -productive toil of thousands, perhaps millions, of human hands. Colossal -fortunes can seldom be made without reducing a considerable number of -human beings to a condition of living from hand to mouth, to a state of -chronic poverty. That the inordinate ambition of a masterful politician -may be gratified, the hopes of other aspirants must be frustrated and -their rights must be trampled upon. Hence in the end there is little -happiness among office-holders and office-seekers. The selfishness of -great conquerors is still more inexcusable. In the effort to gratify an -unholy ambition the lives of thousands are sacrificed, their blood is -spilt upon the battle-field, and their health is undermined by suffering -and disease. If the men who send the soldier to the front were themselves -compelled to sleep in ditches, or to expose themselves to the fire of -machine-guns upon the open field, wars would not be declared, or, if -declared, would soon cease. - -[Sidenote: Self-sacrifice.] - -The higher life demands that the lower self be subordinated, regulated -and sublimated in the education of man. The individual may be taught to -find happiness in self-sacrifice for the sake of others, in deeds of -love, charity, and benevolence. That this may result from the educative -process, there should occur a change of heart, resulting in a change of -view and in a transformation of the habits of thought so that self is -seen in its true relation to mankind and to God, so that the things of -time and sense shall stand in true relation to the verities of eternity -and the interests of the higher life. - -[Sidenote: Self-development.] - -On the other hand, if the maxim is interpreted to mean that any gifts -_or_ powers of the self are to be sacrificed in preparation for a given -calling, say for the army or navy, it becomes a dangerous heresy. The -true end of education is found in the harmonious development of all our -faculties. Every man is in one sense the product of countless ages and -generations, and from another point of view he is a new creation fresh -from the hand of his Maker, and a distinct setting forth of the creative -power of Him who said, “Let us make man in our own image, after our -likeness.” As such he has a claim upon immortality, as well as upon all -the help which earth can give him towards a full realization of self. -Every person feels that there are possibilities of his being which are -never realized in this world; that it will require the ceaseless ages -of eternity to unfold and mature his God-given powers and traits. Any -unselfing of the will in the sense of sacrificing or checking the growth -and fruition of the best of which the self is capable, is a violation of -Spencer’s famous definition that education is a preparation for complete -living. - -[Sidenote: Justice to others.] - -What, then, is the relation of the imaging power to the proper unselfing -of the will and the full realization of the self? “A great deal of the -selfishness of the world comes not from bad hearts, but from languid -imaginations.”[31] To do justice to others, we must put ourselves in -their place. This we cannot do except through the exercise of the -imagination. The imagination is the creative power of the mind. By means -of it we can create for our thinking the world in which our neighbor -lives, and learn to understand his motives, aims, hopes, needs, and -temptations. This will keep us from many a mistake in judging his conduct -and estimating his character. Moreover, this thinking of ourselves -into the life and surroundings of our fellow-men is a condition of -success in dealing with them. It helps the merchant to sell his wares -and the teacher to govern his pupils. It helps the orator to reach the -hearts of the audience whom he is addressing, and the journalist to -write editorials that will modify the views and mould the thinking of -the reading public. Every profession and every occupation requires the -constant exercise of the imagination so that we may see life from our -neighbor’s point of view, and, in sympathizing with him or helping him, -outgrow our innate selfishness. A hard, cruel, unforgiving man makes a -failure of life even though he win riches, fame, and public position. - -[Sidenote: Ideals.] - -By means of the imagination we paint ideals of life and conduct, which -hover before the mind in the hour of struggle and trial, luring us onward -and upward, spurring us to greater effort, and giving to life added -charms and glories. Without the power to imagine what is beyond the -real, the workman sinks to the level of drudgery, and never rises to the -plane of artistic production. - -[Sidenote: The child’s imagination.] - -[Sidenote: Geography.] - -The imagination is very active in children. Watch their plays if you -would see how they convert a stick into a horse, the play-house into a -home, and mimic the drama of life in their games and contests. Their life -is largely make-believe and thinking in images. This tendency to think in -images can be utilized in the lessons in arithmetic, geometry, geography, -and history. Without the combination of images into new forms and -products, the pupil cannot think the thoughts peculiar to these branches. -For instance, the lesson in geography starts with what the child has seen -or can see at home, and proceeds to that which is away from home, using -pictures, drawings, lantern-slides, and vivid descriptions to aid the -imagination in picturing scenery, cities, countries, and forms of life in -other parts of the globe. It may be a question what the mind should think -in connection with the symbols and truths of that science. The form of -a continent is without doubt best conceived as given on a map. For many -practical purposes, cities may be thought as mere starting-points and -halting-places in a journey. Many a river is for mature minds a winding -black line on colored surfaces called maps. Nevertheless, if geography -means for a pupil no more than this, it will be dry and uninteresting -indeed. Out of the images of things observed the mind should be led to -construct images of what it has not seen. These images are never an -adequate picture of the foreign city or country, even after they have -been supplemented or modified by visits to museums, conservatories, and -zoological gardens, by excursions to the field, the forest, and the -factory, or even by travel at home and abroad. The thoughts of a country -that one has journeyed through, or lived in for a time, consist partly -of images and partly of symbolic representations. Since thinking in -images is easier for beginners than thinking in symbols, the instruction -in geography should begin with child-life at home, with the things on the -breakfast-table, with the garments worn and the means of transportation -used, and proceed from these to the life, the home, the dress, and the -sports of children living in other lands and other climes. The lessons in -geography make constant appeals to the imagination, and call for thinking -in images or mental-pictures in connection with map-symbols and the -discussions of causes and laws. - -[Sidenote: History.] - -Not less valuable is the power of imaging in the study of history. Many -details are worthless and meaningless until the imagination weaves them -into a fabric in which their relations and significance become apparent. -So far as the trend of history is concerned, it would have mattered -very little if the name of the ship in which the Pilgrim fathers sailed -had been Aprilshower instead of Mayflower, if the number of passengers -had been one hundred and one instead of exactly one hundred, if they -had landed at some place other than Plymouth Rock. Their coming, their -compact, their religious life and purposes were of chief importance. -Details help to fill out the mental picture of their voyage, landing, -and settlement. They throw a halo of interest around the central event, -or germinal idea. Or, to change the figure, they furnish the scaffolding -by means of which the teacher gradually raises the edifice of historical -knowledge. After the edifice has been completed the scaffolding may be -removed. After the essential or central idea has been grasped and fixed, -details like the name of the ship, the number of emigrants, and the exact -day of their arrival may be forgotten. The mind can often unload the -luggage that is not absolutely needed, and move with more ease and speed -into new fields of thought and investigation. - -[Sidenote: Geometry.] - -[Sidenote: Arithmetic.] - -Geometry has been aptly styled eine Augenwissenschaft, “a science of the -eye” (the last word being used not as the object with which the science -deals, but as the means by which its ideas are acquired). The line drawn -upon the black-board has breadth, and is not at all a mathematical -line. Through the eye it serves to suggest the line which has length -without breadth or thickness. Progress in solid geometry is impossible -if the mind does not image or conceive the volumes of three dimensions -indicated by the drawings on a surface which has but two dimensions. In -arithmetic many of the business transactions upon which the problems -are based have not come into the experience of the child, but must be -evolved by appeals to the imagination if the solutions are to be brought -within easy reach of the understanding. The power of combining images -into new forms aids greatly in the construction of apparatus and in the -making of experiments. It helps the scientist to evolve his theories and -hypotheses. It is the faculty by which man becomes a creator in science, -art, literature, and philosophy. - -[Sidenote: Creative imagination.] - -[Sidenote: Productive thinking.] - -[Sidenote: Knowledge uncommunicated.] - -Few suggestions for the exercise of the creative imagination can be -given. Here rules are more of a hinderance than a help. The imagination -is not creative in the sense of evolving something out of nothing,—this -notion has misled many in their estimate of genius,—but in the sense -of producing that which never existed, at least for the individual -himself. Its activity has been denominated plastic from the fact that -it moulds and fashions the materials or images into the forms which the -new product is to assume. The influence of judgment is needed to keep -the imagination from violating the laws and principles inherent in the -things from which its materials are drawn. The understanding aids and -is aided by this creative, plastic function of the imagination. The -two should have free play in productive thinking. Let the student of -science or art saturate himself with the theme on which he is working; -let him keep health and energy of body and mind at their highest point; -let him concentrate his best powers on what is to be accomplished, -keeping clearly in mind the end to be reached and the materials to be -used; the product for which he is working will spring into being in -ways that he cannot explain. Like an unfathomable well which has been -gathering its waters through hidden channels from mysterious sources, -the stream of thought comes welling up from the depth of the soul into -the conscious life of the thinker, giving him the living waters by -which he can satisfy the thirst for knowledge felt by other souls. In -expressing, formulating, and communicating the thoughts which thus come -to him he cannot help feeling the “joy of creating.” “The history of -literature,” says Shedd, “furnishes many examples of men whose knowledge -only increased their sorrow, because it never found an efflux from their -own minds into the world. Knowledge uncommunicated is something like -remorse unconfessed. The mind, not being allowed to go out of itself, and -to direct its energies towards an object and end greater and worthier -than itself, turns back upon itself, and becomes morbidly self-reflecting -and self-conscious. A studious and reflecting man of this class is -characterized by excessive fastidiousness, which makes him dissatisfied -with all that he does himself or sees done by others; which represses -and finally suppresses all the buoyant and spirited activity of the -intellect, leaving it sluggish as ‘the dull weed that rots by Lethe’s -wharf.’” - -[Sidenote: Forms of creative effort.] - -No teacher and no system of training can furnish both brains and culture. -It is not the mission of any person to create in every line of effort. -Some find their joy in evolving and expressing thought with tongue or -pen, others through the brush or the chisel, and still others through -machinery and the handicrafts. In every occupation man may experience -the joy of creating if his powers of imaging are allowed to play and -interplay with other activities of thought. Each in normal conditions -helps the others, and the activity of all combined is essential to -complete living. - - - - -XIII - -THE STREAM OF THOUGHT - - At Learning’s fountain it is sweet to drink, - But ’tis a nobler privilege to think; - And oft, from books apart, the thirsting mind - May make the nectar which it cannot find. - ’Tis well to borrow from the good and great; - ’Tis wise to learn; ’tis godlike to create! - - J. G. SAXE. - - Madame Swetchine says that to have ideas is to gather flowers: - to think is to weave them into garlands. There could be no - happier synonym for thinking than the word weaving,—a putting - together of the best products of observation, reading, - experience, and travel so as to represent a patterned whole, - receiving its design from the weaver’s own mind. We have plenty - of flowers; we want more garlands. We have libraries, books, - and newspapers; we want more thinkers. - - T. SHARPER KNOWLSON. - - -XIII - -THE STREAM OF THOUGHT - -In speaking of our inner life we employ language that abounds in -metaphors drawn from the external world. Some are faded metaphors; others -are still fresh and new enough to suggest what was in the minds of those -first using them. Many of these metaphorical expressions draw attention -to one side or phase of the truth. If pressed with the design of making -them embody the whole truth, they become untruths. - -[Sidenote: The flow of thought.] - -One fact of our waking consciousness is that thought goes on without -stopping so long as we remain awake. Indeed, some philosophers have drawn -the inference that the soul always thinks, that during the hours of deep -sleep the brain-centres may be at rest, but that thought nevertheless -flows on in the unconscious depths of our being. Locke combats this idea -at length and with more than usual warmth. During sleep on a railway -train we sometimes seem to be awake, the ends of our conscious thinking -apparently fitting into each other without gaps; and yet the calling -out of the stations convinces us that we must have been wrapped in -unconscious slumber when we passed certain stations without noticing that -the train stopped and the stations were announced. On the other hand, it -is the experience of earnest students that the striking of a clock may -escape notice because the mind has been deeply absorbed in a difficult -problem. - -[Sidenote: Teacher’s duty.] - -The question need not concern us beyond the fact that the thinking of -our most wakeful moments perpetually plays into our subconscious life. -In order that the flow of thought welling up from the deepest depths of -the soul may be clear, copious, and full, it is the duty of the teacher -to keep himself and his pupils wide awake during the hours of study and -recitation. He should not worry them by excessive tasks or unreasonable -examinations so that the hours of sleep are disturbed by dreams, followed -during the day by weariness and fatigue. The folly of burning the -midnight oil and of spending too many hours each day in mental toil is -fraught with evil consequences in the domain of thought. In the main -Harbaugh was right when he undertook to change Franklin’s maxim about -early rising into the following form: “Go to bed early, and get up late; -but then keep awake all day.” - -[Sidenote: Thought like a stream.] - -So far as we are aware, thought is going forward continuously while we -are awake. This phase of consciousness has been likened to a stream, and -has given rise to the expression, _The stream of thought_. The metaphor -can be pressed very far without conveying untruths. A stream does not -always flow with the same velocity. It is at times deep, at other times -shallow, now moving forward like a swollen torrent, now flowing placidly -with scarcely a wave or a ripple perceptible on its surface. Here its -smooth course is disturbed by wind and storm and rain; there its even -flow is influenced by rocks and irregularities in the bed of the stream. -Again and again its current is modified by affluents which empty their -waters into the main stream, perhaps changing the appearance from clear -to cloudy or muddy, or, it may be, exerting the opposite effect. To all -these peculiarities in the flow of the stream there are likenesses in -the stream of thought. At times it is deep and at other times shallow, -now violent and disturbed, now calm and placid, sometimes clear to the -bottom, sometimes cloudy, yea, muddy, always modified more or less by -influences from without, which are taken up into the main current of -thought and alter the stream like the tributaries of a great river. - -[Sidenote: Early life.] - -[Sidenote: Other metaphors.] - -On reaching the level country a river may spread out into a lake, -resulting in a clearing up of the water and resembling the periods -of calm meditation during which the soul clarifies its thinking. The -lifelike behavior of rivers and the carving of land forms from their -youth through maturity to old age have furnished many a figure of speech -for our poetic literature. The change from the active upper waters to the -sedate lower current may typify the change in the stream of thought as we -pass from youth to age. While the volume of the stream is small and the -channel lacks depth, it is easy to change the direction of the current, -as sometimes happens when a straight channel is dug to take the place of -its windings. In early life the stream of thought is apt to wander in -meandering courses; the teacher may very frequently find it necessary to -keep the mind from wandering, to direct the stream of thought towards the -destined goal, and to make it groove for itself channels in harmony with -logical habits. In teaching pupils to think it is quite as essential to -give direction to thought as it is to furnish either thought-stimulus -or thought-material. In one respect the metaphor, stream of thought, -fails utterly to express the truth. The constituents of thought are not -related to each other like the molecules of a liquid which move freely -among themselves. Thoughts have a connection with those that precede and -those that follow. An inner nexus binds the successive portions of a -demonstration. Hence other figures of speech have been employed to denote -the connection between the successive elements of a logical proof, such -as the train of thought, the line of argument, the chain of reasoning. - -[Sidenote: Cognitive function.] - -It will be readily admitted that often our thinking is so loose and -disjointed that its component parts resemble the liquid more than the -chain, whereas our best thinking—namely, that which leads to a goal in -the shape of a trustworthy conclusion—resembles a train of cars in which -motive power is derived not from steam, but from a conscious expenditure -of will-power. The teacher may perform the triple function of fireman, -engineer, and switch-tender, supplying the fuel for the process, -regulating the speed, and directing it along the lines of track which -lead to the desired goal. It is as natural for a pupil to think as it -is for a stream to flow towards the ocean. The stream may run shallow -if no supply of water is received from the outside. It is the mission -of the teacher to keep up the supply, to remove as far as possible the -obstructions which are likely to throw the current of thought into -unexpected channels. It is a peculiarity of this current of thinking that -it is cognitive, or possesses the function of knowing. Human thought -resembles the stream in seemingly taking up and carrying what was not a -part of itself. Just as the stream of water carries minerals in solution -as well as silt, sand, pebbles, and even heavier objects, so the stream -of thought appears to lay hold of objects and to carry them as part of -itself. Here, however, the strings of the analogy break. The stream of -thought is in the mind; the objects with which it deals are outside of -the mind. Mental pictures of these objects float in the stream of thought -as objects on the bank of a river are mirrored in its waters; yet the -parallel is not complete, because the mind may turn the eye upon itself -and make what is thus seen the object of thought. This turning upon -itself may be likened to eddies in the stream. But even when the mind -thus turns back upon itself and views its own states and activities, -these are regarded as objective, as related to the thinking process very -much like the objects of knowledge in the external world. - -Another important phase of thinking finds no likeness in any of the -figures of speech above referred to. The mind meets certain objects of -thought on which it seems to tarry or fasten itself. This has led some -writers to deny that the stream of thought is a continuous current. -This view causes undue stress to be laid upon the material of thought, -and leads the teacher to undervalue his function as directing guide in -teaching pupils to think. Even Professor Bain claims that,— - -[Sidenote: Bain’s view.] - -“The stream of thought is not a continuous current, but a series of -distinct ideas, more or less rapid in their succession, the rapidity -being measurable by the number that pass through the mind in a given -time. Mental excitement is constantly judged of by this test; and if we -choose to count and time the thoughts as they succeed one another, we -could give so much more precision to the estimate.”[32] - -[Sidenote: Transitions.] - -[Sidenote: Two phases.] - -These transitions should not be confounded with the relations between -objects of thought or between objects in the external world. The -relations may be part of the thought of that which is perceived or known, -or they may be made distinct ideas or thoughts. The important phase -under consideration is the passage of the mind from one idea or thought -to another. Such transitions are quite as important and quite as much a -part of the current of thought as the premises and conclusions on which -the mind seems to rest. These two phases of the thought-process may be -likened to the perching and the flight of a bird. This figure of speech -is used by Professor James, among whose services to the profession -of teaching it is not the least that he has called attention to the -importance of these transitions in the stream of consciousness. His -account is so lucid and satisfactory that one cannot forbear to quote his -words at some length. Referring to the stream of thought, he says,— - -[Sidenote: View of Professor James.] - -“Like a bird’s life, it seems to be made up of an alternation of flights -and perchings. The rhythm of language expresses this, where every thought -is expressed in a sentence and every sentence closed by a period. The -resting-places are usually occupied by sensorial imaginations of some -sort, whose peculiarity is that they can be held before the mind for an -indefinite time and contemplated without changing; the places of flight -are filled with thoughts of relations, static or dynamic, that for the -most part obtain between the matters contemplated in the periods of -comparative rest. _Let us call the halting-places_ the ‘substantive’ -parts and the places of flight the ‘transitive’ parts of the stream of -thought. It then appears that the main need of our thinking is at all -times the attainment of some other substantive part than the one from -which we have just been dislodged. And we may say that the main use of -the transitive parts is to lead us from one substantive conclusion to -another. Now it is very difficult, introspectively, to see the transitive -parts for what they really are. If they are but flights to a conclusion, -stopping them to look at them before a conclusion is reached is really -annihilating them. Whilst if we wait until the conclusion be reached, -it so exceeds them in vigor and stability that it quite eclipses and -swallows them up in its glare. Let any one try to cut a thought in the -middle and get a look at its section, and he will see how difficult -the introspective observation of the transitive tract is. The rush of -the thought is so headlong that it almost always brings us up at the -conclusion before we can arrest it. Or if our purpose is nimble enough -and we do arrest it, it ceases forthwith to be itself. As a snow-flake -crystal caught in the warm hand is no longer a crystal, but a drop, -so, instead of catching the feeling of relation moving to its term, we -find we have caught some substantive thing, usually the last word we -were pronouncing, statistically taken, and with its function, tendency, -and particular meaning in the sentence quite evaporated. The attempt -at introspective analysis in these cases is, in fact, like seizing a -spinning top to catch its motion, or trying to turn up the gas quickly -enough to see the darkness. And the challenge to _produce_ these -psychoses, which is sure to be thrown by doubting psychologists at any -one who contends for their existence, is as unfair as Zeno’s treatment -of the advocates of motion, when, asking them to point out in what place -an arrow _is_ when it moves, he argues the falsity of their thesis from -their inability to make to so preposterous a question an immediate -reply.”[33] - -[Sidenote: Nouns, verbs, etc.] - -[Sidenote: Connectives.] - -The science of logic deals almost altogether with the halting-places, -with the substantive parts, with the ideas, notions, concepts that -are to be compared, and with the resulting judgments, inferences, and -conclusions. Whether the teacher has studied the science of logic or not, -it is to these he devotes his chief attention; they can be analyzed, -defined, and clearly fixed as thought-products or knowledge. Defects in -the thinking-process are apt to show themselves here; at least, they -furnish tangible data for criticism, corrections, and reviews. These -thought-products on which the mind loves to linger are denoted by nouns, -verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,—the parts of speech which constitute the -bulk of the vocabulary of every language. The movements of the mind from -one object of thought to another are indicated by conjunctions and other -connectives. Thinkers are often known by their favorite connective words -and phrases. Pupils catch these from the phraseology of their teachers, -or pick them up unconsciously from the books they read. Some languages -are richer in such connective words and phrases than others; the mind -carries away some influence in the way of making these transitions in -thought from every language which it studies; its thinking is moulded -by the language which it masters. Logic has very little to say about -these transitions for which one language sometimes supplies words and -expressions altogether wanting in another. Frequently we grow conscious -of them through the feeling of a gap to be filled, or of a chasm to be -leaped over, or of an obstacle to be cleared away, or of something that -obstructs our thinking and hinders it from reaching the goal. Here again -one cannot refrain from quoting Professor James, although his words do -not indicate that he fully realizes the value for elementary instruction -of what he has written. Here are his words: - -“The truth is that large tracts of human speech are nothing but _signs -of direction_ in thought, of which direction we, nevertheless, have an -acutely discriminative sense, though no definite sensorial image plays -any part in it whatsoever. Sensorial images are stable psychic facts; -we can hold them still, and look at them as long as we like. These bare -images of logical movements, on the contrary, are psychic transitions, -always on the wing, so to speak, and not to be glimpsed except in -flight. Their function is to lead from one set of images to another. As -they pass, we feel both the waxing and the waning images in a way quite -different from the way of their full presence. If we try to hold fast -the feeling of direction, the full presence comes, and the feeling of -direction is lost. The blank verbal scheme of logical movement gives us -the fleeting sense of the movement as we read it, quite as well as does a -rational sentence awakening definite imaginations by its words.”[34] - -[Sidenote: Directing the youthful mind.] - -Right here the teacher who is an artist finds the opportunity for the -display of his highest skill. It is his privilege to direct the flights -and the perchings of the youthful mind. He can shape the thoughts and -their sequence. He can cause the intellect to move from the reason to -its consequence, or in the reverse direction if that be more natural or -more appropriate. He can guide the thought from cause to effect, from -the whole to the parts, from the general to the particular, from the -end to the means, from the design to its execution; or a movement the -other way is possible in each of these categories. While thus choosing -the direction which thought shall take, he can select the objects upon -which it shall tarry. This directing influence he will often exert when -he is not aware of it. His own habits of mind will be reflected in the -mental life of his pupils. There was profound philosophy in the reply of -a gifted author who, when asked by his daughter what she should study, -said, “I am more concerned about the teachers under whom you study than -about the branches of study which you may select.” Habits of thought -depend far more upon the teacher than upon the text-book, upon the -quality of the instruction than upon its general content. There is, of -course, a difference in the culture value of different branches of study; -but a study as valuable as geometry may be pursued in a loose way, whilst -branches of much inferior value for developing power to think may be -taught and studied by the methods of rigid and exact thought. - -[Sidenote: The artist-teacher.] - -[Sidenote: Forms of speech.] - -In shaping the activity of thought, the artist-teacher makes the mind -tarry long enough for clear apprehension, sometimes for thorough -comprehension, upon the ideas, judgments, and conclusions which are the -framework of a system of thought, but he does not neglect the transitions -from one to the other, as if these were of little account or necessarily -took care of themselves. The transitions in thought are aided by set -phrases and forms of solution. As soon as these are mastered, there -develops the tendency to think them as algebraic symbols, which do -substitute duty in the absence of that for which they stand. For fear -of this, the teacher sometimes fails to drill on them long enough to -fix them in the mind,—certainly a radical mistake. Drill is a condition -of the highest discipline in the school as well as in the army. The -drill-master seeks to habituate the soldier to the word of command, -so that he will obey in the face of danger without thinking of the -consequences. The drill-master at school seeks to make it second nature -for a pupil to go through the logical motions, but not without conscious -thought of the process or the consequences. Whenever the learner uses -forms of parsing, analysis, or solution, his mind should go through the -movements of thought expressed by the language. Ask any ordinary class -to give you a noun of the first person; they are almost sure to give -you either a noun of the third person or a pronoun of the first person. -Dictate a sentence with a noun in the first person, and ask the pupils to -parse it in the customary way; in nearly all cases they will parse it as -a noun of the third person. Ask them to tell why a personal pronoun is so -called; frequently they say because it indicates a person,—a statement -quite applicable to other kinds of pronouns. If the logical or customary -forms of speech are employed, the stream of thought moves on, the mind -often failing to perceive the new truth, or error, or nonsense inherent -in the language employed. School-boys have tricks of their own which turn -upon this peculiarity in the movement of thought. “Who killed Cain?” is -suddenly asked. “Abel,” is the reply generally elicited by the question. -Should you say, Nine times seven _is_ or _are_ forty-two? The boy who -decides in favor of _is_ or _are_ gets a shock of surprise on being told -that the product of nine times seven is not forty-two. - -[Sidenote: A strange reply.] - -One day a teacher was lecturing upon education in the dark ages. To show -how the energies of the common people were exhausted in the struggle -for existence, the resolution of a synod in the south of France was -cited. The resolution enjoined upon the bishops the duty of seeing to -it that during a period of scarcity of food the peasants were at least -provided with bread made of acorns. A few minutes later a reference was -made to the autobiography of Thomas Platter, in which certain things are -described as happening about the time of the Diet of Worms. On being -asked in what period of history that was, a pupil promptly replied, “When -the common people were fed on worms.” - -[Sidenote: Biblical phraseology.] - -[Sidenote: Huxley’s story.] - -Very much of the sermonizing of our day gives rise to the same kind of -thinking. The mind is borne along by the customary flow of words. The -phrases used have an orthodox sound; perhaps they are biblical in the -sense that they occur in the Bible. It is impossible to tell whether any -clear idea or real religious experience is suggested to the hearer’s -mind by the words used. The ideas excited in the hearer should be those -for which the words stand in the mind of the speaker. If the ideas of -the speaker are not clear, how can his words suggest anything definite -to the audience? Huxley relates an amusing story of an after-dinner -orator who was endowed with a voice of rare flexibility and power, and -with a fine flow of words, and who was called upon to speak without much -preparation. The applause was terrific. When Huxley asked a neighbor who -was especially enthusiastic what the orator had said, the latter could -not tell. Nothing was lacking in the post-prandial speech save sense and -occasionally grammar.[35] - -The fuller consideration of the stream of thought in listening and -lecturing, in reading, speaking, and composing, is deserving of separate -chapters. The mental attitude in listening resembles that in getting -thought from the printed page. Silent reading is for the reader’s own -benefit; it comprises by far the larger proportion of our reading. In -oral reading, the stream of thought is somewhat different, the aim being -similar to that of public speaking,—namely, to suggest or convey to the -hearer thoughts from some other mind. In the act of composing, the aim -is to evolve thought from the mind’s own resources and activities. The -thought process is very much the same, no matter whether we dictate to -a stenographer, or speak to an audience, or use the pen in giving to it -form and abiding shape. It will be most convenient to treat together the -stream of thought in listening and in silent reading, and to reserve for -separate consideration the activity of the mind in writing, speaking, and -oral reading. - - - - -XIV - -THE STREAM OF THOUGHT IN LISTENING AND READING - - Reading is thinking along a prescribed line that lies goldenly - beneath the flow of words. - - BRUMBAUGH. - - Whittier uses words as stepping-stones upon which with a light - and joyous bound he crosses and recrosses at will the rapid and - rushing stream of thought. - - LONGFELLOW. - - To listen well is to think well,—the hearing ear must be - attended by the alert mind, eager to seize upon incoming - sensations and weave them into a garland of thought. - - M. G. B. - - Words, however well constructed originally, are always tending, - like coins, to have their inscription worn off by passing - from hand to hand; and the only possible mode of reviving it - is to be ever stamping it afresh by living in the habitual - contemplation of the phenomena themselves, and not resting in - our familiarity with the words that express them. - - J. S. MILL. - - -XIV - -THE STREAM OF THOUGHT IN LISTENING AND READING - -[Sidenote: A suggestive dialogue.] - -Two men engaged in speculative pursuits met after one had published a -book. Let us speak of them as A and B. - -A: I have just read your new book. Many things in it please me very much, -but in it you say so and so, with which I do not find myself in full -accord. - -B: I say nothing of the kind in that book. - -A: I surely read your book. - -B: You never read a book in your life. You read some sentences or -paragraphs; your mind begins to react upon what you have read; and ere -long you imagine that your inferences are the conclusions of the author. - -A: I have a notion to write a psychology, and to set forth my views in -full. - -B: Don’t you do it. You know no psychology. You have been of great -service in stimulating others to think; you are a most delightful -lecturer; but you have never mastered psychology. - -[Sidenote: Feeling.] - -[Sidenote: Interest.] - -If a third party could have listened to the conversation, what stream -of consciousness would have started in his mind? Possibly surprise at -the frankness of B and the composure of A, mingled with thoughts of -what they were discussing. In other words, a strong tinge of feeling -would be perceptible in the stream of thought. In the minds of the two -engaged in the dialogue, feeling must have greatly modified the current -of thought. The greatest kindness that can be shown to some men is to -oppose or criticise their views. Opposition and criticism stimulate their -thinking, and rouse their mental powers to the highest possible tension -and activity. In men of the opposite temperament, feeling beclouds their -thinking, and makes the stream of thought more sluggish. The common -prejudice against appeals to feeling are due to the abuse of the right -which every orator has of addressing the feelings through the intellect, -and of thereby moving the will. To move the will is the essence and aim -of all eloquence. In listening or lecturing, in reading or composing, -some form of emotion always accompanies the stream of thought. The -orator may move the hearer to tears or to laughter; he is not untrue to -his mission if he can thereby win a vote, secure a verdict, or move the -hearer to action. A lecture is addressed primarily to the understanding. -It is greatly improved if the stream of thought which it starts and -supplies is accompanied by feelings of interest and the pleasurable -emotions attendant upon novelty, curiosity, or admiring approval. The -consciousness that we understand a lecture is accompanied by pleasurable -emotions which help to sustain the attention. - -[Sidenote: Spurgeon.] - -The writer once paid a shilling to hear Spurgeon. It was his purpose to -get a good seat, so that he might study this famous preacher’s gestures -and delivery, the quality of his voice, and the secret of his eloquence. -The text was hardly announced before every one in the audience, including -the writer, forgot all about Spurgeon, and thought only of his message to -the thousands before him. The secret of his oratory lay in his ability to -make the audience forget everything except the gospel he was preaching. -If people, after hearing a speaker, talk of his fine delivery, his -flowery language and beautiful figures of speech, or his peculiarities -of pronunciation and other eccentricities, it is proof positive that he -has failed. Instead of holding the attention to what he was saying, the -audience was thinking of his manner and delivery. A well-printed book -has the advantage of keeping the author’s personal characteristics from -interfering with the stream of thought. It has the disadvantage of losing -all the helps to listening and thinking which come from the tones of the -voice and eloquent delivery. - -The accusation of B against A, referred to at the beginning of this -chapter, is applicable to many readers. For several sentences the mind is -riveted upon the author’s meaning. Presently a train of thought starts; -the eye runs along the sentences to the bottom of the page. On turning -the page, the reader wakes up to the consciousness that his mind does not -retain, perhaps never had the slightest notion of the contents of said -page. Often the train of thought leads to no goal; the thinking resembles -the process of wool-gathering, the tufts of wool on bushes and hedges -necessitating much wandering to little purpose. - -[Sidenote: The works of great thinkers.] - -For the sake of cultivating ability to think, students are advised to -read the works of great thinkers, like Kant, Schleiermacher, and Hegel. -Such reading is often a sham and a delusion. No one has done more to -shape the critical thinking of the world than Kant; and yet how many -young men waste time upon his pages because they are not prepared to -think his thoughts. Schleiermacher stimulated and modified the thinking -of theologians in every department of their science except Old Testament -exegesis; and yet the celebrated Dr. Kahnis, of the University of -Leipsic, used to say of Schleiermacher, “Er ist rein nicht zum studiren.” -Nevertheless, students for the ministry have been known to waste hours in -trying to read his writings, which they were not prepared to understand. -Of the obscurer passages in Hegel an eminent authority says, “It is a -fair question whether the rationality included in them be anything more -than the fact that the words all belong to a common vocabulary, and are -strung together on a scheme of predication and relation,—immediacy, -self-relation, and what not,—which has habitually recurred. Yet there -seems no reason to doubt that the subjective feeling of the rationality -of these sentences was strong in the writer as he penned them, or even -that some readers by straining may have reproduced it in themselves.”[36] - -It may be worth an honest effort for students and teachers to try to -grasp the meaning of such writers; but if after a fair trial the mind -is left empty of meaning, it is wise to follow the advice of Locke with -regard to obscure ancient authors: - -“In reading of them, if they do not use their words with a due clearness -and perspicuity, we may lay them aside, and, without any injury done -them, resolve thus with ourselves: - -“Si non vis intelligi, debes negligi.”[37] - -Several months or years of study may be required to prepare the mind for -grasping the ideas or phraseology of new departments of investigation. -No one can comprehend the treatises on physiological psychology without -devoting several weeks to the anatomy of the brain. - -[Sidenote: Reading.] - -[Sidenote: Lewes’s view.] - -The words, phrases, and sentences of the printed or written page should -call up in the mind of the reader that for which they stand in the mind -of the author. What the stream of thought should be in reading a book is -well worthy of careful consideration. G. H. Lewes, in “Problems of Life -and Mind,” claims that “our thought is a constant interchange of ideas -and images, some trains of thought being carried on mainly by images -more or less vivid, others mainly by ideas with only a faint escort of -images.” It should be said, by way of explanation, that he does not use -the word “ideas” in the Platonic sense of patterns fixed in nature, of -which the individual objects in any given class are but imperfect copies, -and by participation in which they have their being; nor in the sense of -a mental image or picture, which (in opposition to Sir William Hamilton), -the Century Dictionary claims, has been the more common meaning of the -term in English literature since the sixteenth century. In Lewes’s pages -ideas never stand for images, nor for copies of sensations. Sully says -that the term idea is used to include both images and concepts, marking -off the whole region of the representative from the presentative, but -that, like the term notion, it now tends to be confined to concepts. -With Lewes all ideas are thoughts, but not all thoughts are ideas. He -does not reject the popular usage of the word in phrases like the idea -of Shakespeare’s Othello, of Bismarck’s policy. Take the following -sentence from Justin McCarthy’s “History of Our Own Times:” “Unluckily, -Lord Palmerston became possessed with the idea that the French minister -in Greece was secretly setting the Greek government on to resist our -claims.” In thinking the thought of this sentence the mind is not filled -with any images of Greece or mental pictures of any other kind. Possibly -the adjective Greek may bring to the minds of some persons the map symbol -of Greece or even scenery and cities in Greece, especially if they have -travelled or resided there; but such mental pictures really interfere -with the current of thought in reading. In planning a route from New -York to San Francisco one is apt to think it in the lines and dots of -railway maps. That in the mind for which words stand may be styled their -meaning, and Lewes claims that much of our reading does not translate -the words into their full signification, but proceeds by a process of -logical symbolism. He asserts that “the greater proportion of all men’s -thinking goes forward with confident reliance on the correctness of the -logical operations, and with only an occasional translation of symbols -into images. The translation—verification—does, indeed, from time to time -take place, and always in proportion to the novelty of the connections; -but how easily and how fatally the mind glides along the path of logical -operation without pausing to interpret more than the relation of the -symbols is humorously illustrated in the common story of a physicist, -whose claim to omniscience was the joke of his friends. Being asked -earnestly whether he had ‘read Biot’s paper on the malleability of -light?’ ‘No,’ he replied; ‘he sent it me, but I have not yet had time to -read it.’” - -[Sidenote: An example.] - -Lewes’s meaning is made somewhat clearer by two examples which he uses. -“Suppose you inform me that the blood rushed violently from the man’s -heart, quickening his pulse, at the sight of his enemy. Of the many -latent images in this phrase, how many were salient in your mind and -in mine? Probably two,—the man and his enemy,—and these images were -faint. Images of blood, heart, violent rushing, pulse, quickening, and -sight were either not revived at all or were passing shadows. Had any -such images arisen, they would have hampered thought, retarding the -logical process of judgment by irrelevant connections. The symbols had -substituted _relations_ for these _values_,—the logical relations of -inclusion and exclusion which constitute judgment. You were not anxious -to inform me respecting the qualities of blood, heart, pulse, etc., but -only of a certain effect produced on one man by sight of another; and -this effect you expressed in the physiological terms which came first -to hand; you might have expressed it equally well in very different -psychological terms,—‘fierce anger seized the man’s soul, rousing all -his energies at the sight of his enemy,’ when assuredly there would not -have been present images of ‘anger,’ ‘seizing,’ ‘soul,’ ‘rousing,’ and -‘energies.’ These terms are symbols which stand for clusters of images, -and can at will be translated into images, just as algebraic letters -stand for values which can be assigned. But for purposes of thought -and calculation such translation is unnecessary, is hampering; all -that is necessary is that the terms should occupy their proper logical -position.”[38] - -[Sidenote: Another example.] - -The other example is still more striking. “Suppose I read the phrase, -‘The ship which carried Nelson was appropriately named the Victory;’ -unless the ship itself is the prominent interest, I have probably no -image at all, or at least only a faint and fleeting shadow of some vague -outline. I do not picture a man-of-war, I do not see the hull, masts, -cordage, and cannon, though these, with the figure-head, fluttering -flags, and pennons, may successfully emerge if I dwell on the ship. I -perhaps do not see Nelson, or, at any rate, do not see his pale face, one -eye, and one arm, but only some faint suggestion of a human form. The -purpose of the phrase was not to raise images, but to communicate a fact -respecting the name of the ship; and my intelligence has been occupied -with this purpose. I must, it is true, have understood each word, or, -at any rate, each clause of the sentence; but for this understanding -it is not necessary that I should translate, nor even that I should be -capable of translating, each word into an image or cluster of images; -it is enough if I apprehend a series of logical relations. We all use -occasional words with intelligent and intelligible propriety, the meaning -of which as isolated terms we cannot translate. We read Shakespeare and -Goethe without a suspicion of the many words which for us have no images. -But if one of these words occurs in an unfamiliar connection we are at -once arrested, as we are if any familiar word is placed in an unfamiliar -position. Suppose we come upon the sentence, ‘The ship which carried -Nelson was named _Victory_; the ship which carried Napoleon across the -desert was named _Akbar_,’—we are at once arrested; the connection of -ship and desert is unusual, and is seen, on reflection, to be contrary to -experience; but when we learn that the camel is called the ‘ship of the -desert,’ we recognize the new value assigned to the term, and the logical -correctness of the phrase is thereby recognized.”[39] - -These examples, and others like them which Lewes gives, bring us face -to face with the proposition that “much of our thinking is carried on -by means of symbols without any images, which is the same thing as -thinking being carried on by words without any meanings and with only the -accompanying intuition of their logical relations.” Thus, after a century -of exhortation against the blind use of words we are brought face to face -with the question of using words in thinking without realizing the full -meaning, an abuse of words for which reformers have shot their arrows at -rote teaching from every possible point of view. What truth is there in -the statement of Mr. Lewes? What can be his meaning? - -[Sidenote: Literature.] - -[Sidenote: Imaging in poetry.] - -[Sidenote: The correct plan.] - -It must be admitted that men in mature life skim newspapers, magazines, -and books, especially books of fiction and books of reference, without -realizing in their minds the import of all the words upon which the eye -falls. The aim may be to get the plot of the story or a fact for some -specific use, or a hurried view of the news and current events of the -last twenty-four hours. But this is not the kind of thinking which the -teacher aims to beget in the minds of his pupils. Nor does it ever lead -to a just appreciation of literature. All literature which appeals to the -imagination cannot be read and enjoyed in that way. No one can rightly -read a choice selection without thinking what was in the author’s mind, -reconstructing the images and scenes which were before his mental eye and -following the movements depicted by his language. Movement is more easily -conceived than scenery, and abounds in the stories which are most popular -among children. Judicious exercises will soon enable the pupil to call up -all kinds of imagery. In the Standard Fifth Reader it is suggested that -the pupils sit with closed eyes and close attention while the teacher -or one of the pupils reads a paragraph or stanza. For illustration, Kate -Putnam Osgood’s poem, entitled “Driving Home the Cows,” is selected. - - Out of the clover and blue-eyed grass - He turned them into the river lane; - One after another he let them pass, - Then fastened the meadow bars again. - - Under the willows and over the hill - He patiently followed their sober pace; - The merry whistle for once was still, - And something shadowed the sunny face. - - Only a boy! and his father had said - He never could let his youngest go; - Two already were lying dead - Under the feet of the trampling foe. - - But after the evening’s work was done, - And the frogs were loud in the meadow-swamp, - Over his shoulder he slung his gun, - And stealthily followed the foot-path damp; - - Across the clover and through the wheat, - With resolute heart and purpose grim; - Though the dew was on his hurrying feet - And the blind bat’s flitting startled him. - - Thrice since then had the lanes been white, - And the orchard sweet with apple-bloom; - And now, when the cows came back at night, - The feeble father drove them home. - - For news had come to the lonely farm - That three were lying where two had lain; - And the old man’s tremulous, palsied arm - Could never lean on a son’s again. - - The summer days grew cool and late: - He went for the cows when the work was done; - But down the lane as he opened the gate - He saw them coming, one by one: - - Brindle, Ebony, Speckle, and Bess, - Shaking their horns in the evening wind; - Cropping the buttercups out of the grass; - But who was it following close behind? - - Loosely swung in the idle air - An empty sleeve of army blue; - And worn and pale, from the crisping hair, - Looked out a face that the father knew. - - The great tears sprang to their meeting eyes - For the heart must speak when the lips are dumb; - And under the silent evening skies - Together they followed the cattle home. - -[Sidenote: Some thoughts are not images.] - -Who can fully appreciate these stanzas without picturing the landscape of -clover, blue-eyed grass, meadow bars, river lane, cows moving homeward, -and especially the boy with the shadow on his face, the two older -brothers lying dead under the feet of the trampling foe? The subsequent -parts of the poem lend themselves to the activity of the imagination, -to a play of sympathy for the father seemingly bereft of all his sons, -until on a summer day cool and late he sees fluttering in the wind an -empty sleeve of army blue, beneath a face that he knew,—a scene which, -if constructed by the imagination, cannot help stirring the emotional -life of the reader and giving him proper tones and inflections in oral -reading while more fully realizing the price paid in war for the saving -of the nation. Very much of our thinking does not turn on images or -mental pictures. We do not primarily think justice, law, kindness, mercy -under the form of images, though by a secondary process we can throw -these ideas into concrete examples and image them as occurring in life. -Very many ideas cannot be made concrete in that way, as, for example, -the ideas of infinity, eternity. Sometimes an indistinct or faded image -does duty for the idea of horses in general, but in such cases the image -is representative of the idea, and should not be confounded with the -idea. Both are thoughts, but not all thoughts are ideas or images. Many -thoughts are propositions and cannot be imaged at all. - -[Sidenote: Putting content into words.] - -The images which go with words grow in fulness as one’s experience -enlarges. Take the word fire. The first idea was formed from fire in -the stove and in the smithy. A fuller idea resulted from the sight of a -distant mountain on fire. Then a distant conflagration resulting in the -loss of a block of town property gave the word still fuller content. -Finally, the destruction of the State Capitol, in which part of the -manuscript of a book, other valuable papers and records were destroyed, -and in which one or two friends almost lost their lives, gave a meaning -to the word fire which it never had before. Without doubt it hampers the -mind and impedes the logical processes of thought if the word invariably -calls up the idea of these fires with the accompanying emotions. - -[Sidenote: Books on mathematics and other sciences.] - -We saw the value of the labor-saving devices introduced by the symbols -and formulas of mathematics and other sciences. Analysts carry forward -long trains of thought by means of symbols whose meaning can be, but -is not always, called up with the successive links of the chain of -reasoning. In adding a column of figures, in solving an algebraic -equation, in reading a work on higher mathematics or logic, in thinking -the formulas of chemistry, physics, astronomy, etc., and in dealing -with objects, forces, and relations which have been accurately and -definitely quantified, the thinking may be carried forward by the use -of symbols which can be interpreted and applied whenever the occasion -requires, but whose meaning is not always present to the mind. In reading -of things which have not been quantified, the stream of thought often -flows on without images, or mental pictures, or copies of sensations. -Nevertheless, the examination of any school reader or book of selections -from the best literature will show how our best writers and orators -appeal to the imagination, and to what a large field the method of -thinking in images or mental pictures is applicable for the purpose of -securing due appreciation of good literature and proper expression in -oral reading. - -The simplest thinking is the comparison of objects when these are present -to the senses. It prevails largely in the handicrafts and in the ordinary -duties of life. More difficult is the comparison of images or mental -pictures of things when these are not present to the senses, but must be -recalled by the memory. This thinking is essential to the appreciation of -poetry, to the vivid presentation of thought, and should not be neglected -by those who wish to move the multitudes with tongue or pen. “Imaging,” -says Dryden, “is in itself the very height and life of poetry, which, -by a kind of enthusiasm or extraordinary emotion of the soul, makes it -seem to us that we behold those things which the poet paints.” Higher, -from the scientist’s point of view, is the thinking in substitute symbols -which stand for ideas definitely fixed or quantified. Higher still is -the comparison of abstract and general ideas through expressive symbols, -including their application to the problems of life; for this is the kind -of thinking that characterizes the scientist and the philosopher, the -engineer and the surgeon, the editor and the orator, and, in fact, all -whose vocation has risen to the rank of a profession. But highest of all -is the thinking which creates and invents, begetting progress in science -and art, in literature and history, in government and civilization. - - - - -XV - -THE STREAM OF THOUGHT IN WRITING, SPEAKING, AND ORAL READING - - The highest joy is the freedom of the mind in the living play - of all its powers. - - SCHILLER. - - The historian Niebuhr, speaking of the historian’s vocation, - remarks that he who calls past ages into being enjoys a bliss - analogous to that of creating. With still more truth may we - say of that mind which is able, in the conscious awakening of - all its powers, to give full and satisfactory utterance to its - thick-coming thoughts, that it enjoys the joy of a creator. If - there is one bright particular hour in the life of the educated - man, in the career of the scholar, it is that hour for which - all other hours of student-life were made,—that hour in which - he gives original and full expression to what has been slowly - gendering within him. - - SHEDD. - - Unless a man can link his written thoughts with the everlasting - wants of men so that they shall draw from them as from wells, - there is no more immortality to the thoughts and feelings of - the soul than to the muscles and bones. - - BEECHER. - - -XV - -THE STREAM OF THOUGHT IN WRITING, SPEAKING, AND ORAL READING - -[Sidenote: The first speech.] - -Eventful in his career is the day on which a young person speaks in -public for the first time. His hands and arms are in his way; his lower -limbs quake; his lips and throat feel dry and parched; the vocal organs -refuse to obey his bidding; he experiences other discomforts which he -cannot explain and which are due to embarrassment and nervousness. What -is worst of all, he cannot tell what has gone wrong in his mind. If his -speech was committed, the memory fails to recall some word or sentence -that seems absolutely essential to the sequence of thought. If he speaks -extemporaneously, the stream of thought stops flowing, or turns back -in eddies, or perhaps spreads out over all the land instead of moving -towards the proper goal. In fact, all these annoyances have their fontal -source in the mind, in a play of emotions in which stage-fright is the -principal element. To this young man some trusted friend should whisper, -“Take courage;” for if ever in his life a young man needs encouragement -it is when he makes his first speech or preaches his first sermon. - -[Sidenote: Public speakers are made, not born.] - -Public speakers are made, not born. Native talent is helpful, but not all -sufficient. Most of the obstacles to success disappear as soon as one has -learned to think on his feet; that is, to control the stream of thought -when facing an audience. - -[Sidenote: Dangers of fluency.] - -There are, of course, exceptions to all rules. Some young men possess -an amount of self-confidence which is proof against embarrassment. Such -youth are sometimes gifted with a flow of words that is fatal to ultimate -success. It enables them to fill time without previous preparation. -Bautain describes a “fatal facility a thousand times worse than -hesitation or than silence, which drowns thought in floods of words, or -in a torrent of copiousness, sweeping away good earth and leaving behind -sand and stones alone. Heaven keep us from these interminable talkers, -such as are often to be found in southern countries, who deluge you, -relatively to anything and to nothing, with a shower of dissertation and -a down-pouring of their eloquence. During nine-tenths of the time there -is not one rational thought in the whole of this twaddle, carrying along -in its course every kind of rubbish and platitude. The class of persons -who produce a speech so easily and who are ready at the shortest moment -to extemporize a speech, a dissertation, or a homily, know not how to -compose a tolerable sentence; and I repeat that, with such exceptions as -defy all rule, he who has not learned how to write will never know how to -speak.”[40] - -No one stands in greater need of the discipline derived from the use of -the pen than those who overflow with words and sentences. Their dearth -of ideas can be remedied in no other way. The sentence which escapes -from the lips is fleeting and soon forgotten. The sentence in black -and white, which stares you in the face from the written page, can be -read and re-read until its lack of sense and its wealth of nonsense and -absurdity grow too glaring to be endured. Paragraph after paragraph can -thus be tested, condensed, and stuffed full of meaning. This discipline -ultimately enables a fluent talker to speak with force and to the point, -because it gradually transforms his habits of thinking, deepening the -stream of thought and enabling it to carry craft too weighty to be borne -by a shallow stream. - -[Sidenote: Hesitating speakers.] - -The person who is afflicted with hesitation and embarrassment also -stands in sore need of the discipline of writing. In the solitude of the -home one can take time to find and fix the right word, to weave it into -sentences that stand the test of grammar, logic, and rhetoric, and to -arrange a line of thought from which everything irrelevant is excluded. -Embarrassment vanishes with the advent of the feeling that one has -something to say. The growth of language, which invariably accompanies -the evolution and clarification of thought, corrects hesitation. Soon -the hands drop to the side or obey the will in gesture, and the feeling -of ease begins to color the delivery. Nothing more beneficial can happen -to a young preacher than the call to preach the same discourse a number -of times in succession, each time to a different audience. Repetition -will make him a master of the train of ideas, improving his phraseology, -and deeping the stream of thought. Who has not watched with delight the -improvement in the presentation of a lecture heard from the same lips -half a dozen times in succession? The change for the better was due to -the deepening, straightening, and improvement of the channel in which the -stream of thought seems to flow. - -[Sidenote: Writing.] - -If a student several times each month during a college course writes out -and fixes a line of argument for a debate, he can acquire the power to -fix and retain the thoughts as fast as he writes. The habit of memorizing -the words is, of course, pernicious, because it is apt to make him the -slave of his manuscript, to destroy his freedom in meeting the blows of -an antagonist, and to divest him of the glow of feeling and animation -which gives force to the delivery while the mind is engaged in the -elaboration of the argument. The sequence of ideas rather than of words -should be fixed in the mind, very much as the student of Euclid fixes -in his mind, not the words, but the ideas which constitute the chain of -proof. This kind of practice gives a young speaker the sense of security -without destroying his freedom in modifying the line of thought while -standing upon his feet. - -[Sidenote: Criticism.] - -From this point of view the folly of much criticism in teaching is -very apparent. The current of thought is frequently interrupted by -drawing attention at the wrong time to mistakes in grammar and errors of -pronunciation. The proper time for such criticism is after the movement -of thought has reached the goal; and even then the critic should not call -attention to too many defects at one time; otherwise the effect will be -to discourage and bewilder the pupil. - -[Sidenote: The thought.] - -The stream of thought is the most essential thing in writing, speaking, -and oral reading. The management of face and hands and feet, the -postures of the body, and the vocal utterance should, of course, not -be neglected. The intelligent counsel of a good friend is needed to -point out mannerisms and eccentricities. The practice prescribed by a -wise teacher is helpful in pruning the delivery of defects and harmful -habits which are sure to grow where attention to the thought sinks the -delivery into the subconscious realm. Nevertheless, the main thing in -writing and speaking is the stream of thought. A profound truth was -stated by the Kentucky backwoodsman, who said that he would have it in -him to become as great an orator as Henry Clay, were it not that he found -himself lacking in two things: Whenever a favorable opportunity for a -great speech presented itself he never knew _what to say_ nor _how to -say it_. The how is more easily acquired than the _what_. Both should -receive attention, from the kindergarten to the university. The getting -of something to say is invention. It is the one thing in which special -teachers and special courses give least help. The power of invention is -acquired by years of effort and discipline. Tributaries from many sources -must pour into the stream of thought before it becomes full, copious, and -capable of carrying great thoughts, or of supplying the motive power for -great undertakings. - -[Sidenote: Hinderances.] - -In writing nothing should be allowed to interfere with the stream of -thought. Some can write in the midst of noise. Others must seek silence -and solitude. Gifted men like Horace Greeley can write in the cars, upon -the knee, anywhere. Habit has much to do with the art of composing. In -any event, the stream of thought must be kept flowing. In so far as -the rules of grammar, logic, rhetoric have become unconscious guiding -principles, they do not interfere with the evolution of thought. In so -far as they absorb the attention and hinder the flow of thought, they -should be cast to the winds during the first glow of writing. Better -think of these during the process of rewriting, polishing, and correcting. - -So great a thinker and successful a writer as Charles Darwin makes the -following suggestive statement concerning his own methods of composing: - -[Sidenote: How Darwin composed.] - -“There seems to be a sort of fatality in my mind, leading me to put at -first my statement or proposition in a wrong or awkward form. Formerly -I used to think about my sentences before writing them down; but for -several years I have found that it saves time to scribble in a vile hand -whole pages as quickly as I possibly can, contracting half the words; -and then correct deliberately. Sentences thus scribbled down are often -better ones than I could have written deliberately.”[41] - -No one should speak as he writes, nor should any one write as he speaks. -Few men are satisfied with the stenographic report of a speech, exactly -true to the language at the time of delivery. A reporter who cannot make -a speech read better, without changing the line of thought, than if it -were printed exactly as spoken is not a master of the art of reporting. -Written discourse abounds in longer sentences, in more involved -constructions, in forms of diction which please the eye, but are too -cumbersome for the voice and the ear. The public speaker is prone to use -short, simple sentences in which the subject of the sentence does not -pass out of the mind before the predicate is reached. His style abounds -in questions which arrest the attention of the hearer; if necessary, he -indulges in colloquial expressions to which the ears of the hearer are -accustomed, thereby bringing himself nearer the common people. - -[Sidenote: Fox’s opinion.] - -[Sidenote: Written discourse.] - -Upon a speech delivered in the British Parliament high praise was -bestowed in the hearing of Mr. Fox. “Does it read well?” he inquired. -“Yes, grandly,” was the reply. “Then,” said he, “it was not a good -speech.” It may be difficult to point out exactly wherein speaking -differs from writing so far as the stream of thought is concerned; yet -one feels the difference. Austin Phelps shows the difference by using an -extract from an essay on the “End of God in Creation:” - -“What was the final cause of creation? The transition from the -unconditioned to the conditioned is incomprehensible by the human -faculties. What that transition is, and how it could take place, and -how it became an actualized occurrence, it is confessed on all hands -are absolutely incomprehensible enigmas. We cannot reasonably imagine, -then, that, if we are thus ignorant of the nature and mode of this -stupendous fact, we can nevertheless comprehend its primitive ground, -can explore its ultimate reasons, can define its final motive. Nor can -we think to unveil the infinite soul at that moment when, according to -our conceptions, the eternal uniformity was interrupted and a new mode -of being, absolutely unintelligible to us, was first introduced. We -cannot think to grasp all the views which were present to that soul, -extending from the unbeginning past to the unending future, and to fathom -all its purposes, and to analyze all its motives. If anywhere, we must -here repel everything like dogmatic interpretation of the phenomena, and -admit whatever is put forth only as conjectural in its nature, or, at -all events, partial, and belonging far more to the surface than to the -interior of the subject.” - -[Sidenote: Example of spoken discourse.] - -One can easily see how ill adapted to oral delivery these sentences are. -Phelps throws the same leading thoughts and succession of thoughts into a -form adapted for public speaking: - -“Why did God create the universe? Creation is incomprehensible to man. -What is creation? How was it possible? How did it ever come to be? I -cannot answer. Can you? Every man of common sense confesses his ignorance -here. But if we are ignorant of what creation is, and how it is, can we -imagine that we understand why it is? Shall we think to unveil the mind -of God in the stupendous act? That moment when God said ‘Let there be -light’ was a moment of which we can know nothing but that ‘there was -light.’ Shall we think to see all that God saw? Can we look through the -past without beginning, and the future without end, and fathom all His -purposes and all His motives? Can we, by searching, find out God? If we -must repel assertion anywhere, we must do so here. Whatever we may think, -it is but little more than guess-work. At the best it can be but knowing -in part. The most we can know must be on the surface. It cannot penetrate -to the heart of the matter.”[42] - -[Sidenote: Two kinds of style.] - -The plan of writing down a line of discussion helps to clarify the -thought. Casting aside the manuscript as soon as the sequence of ideas is -fixed in the mind emancipates the speaker from the written page. Several -years of practice develop two kinds of style, one adapted for writing, -the other for speaking. After this stage of development is reached, it -may be no longer necessary to formulate on paper every line of argument. -Nevertheless, the pen cannot be laid aside entirely without detriment to -the quality of the thought and the effectiveness of oral discourse. - -[Sidenote: Dictating.] - -Everything calculated to interfere with the stream of thought should, so -far as possible, be eliminated from the act of composing. Some men find -the pen an irksome drain upon their energy and vitality. Their thought -moves faster than they can write. The employment of a stenographer aids -them in the work of composing. The danger against which they must guard -is a growing dislike to the use of the pen, and a deterioration of their -style resulting in the obliteration of the difference which distinguishes -effective speaking from successful writing. - -[Sidenote: Lectures and orations.] - -There is a radical difference between a lecture and an oration. Public -speaking which partakes of the nature of the lecture, aiming primarily -at instruction or the communication of knowledge, may be assisted by -experiments, by maps, charts, and pictures upon the screen, by specimens -and models designed to throw light upon the theme under discussion. -Public speaking which partakes of the nature of oratory, its aim being to -move the will to action, is generally limited in the appliances it can -utilize, and in the way it must appeal to the hearer. It must not exhaust -the attention of the hearer by consuming his time in the establishment of -principles, and in showing, by lengthy details, how results are obtained. -Far better is it to cite authorities, to quote their language if -necessary, and to make the application to the case in hand. In referring -to recognized standards, like a dictionary, a treatise on law, or the -Sacred Scriptures, it is always best to quote the exact words. This is -also more appropriate on the written page than a reproduction of the -thought in inferior forms of statement. In public speaking, however, the -original statement may be too involved, and a breaking up into shorter, -simpler sentences may aid the forward movement of the stream of thought. -The first aim of the speaker is to be understood. If he fails to reach -the understanding, he can neither persuade nor convince, nor spur the -will to action. - -[Sidenote: Starting in too high a key.] - -There is another limitation to the kind of public speaking which partakes -of the nature of oratory. The idea which the speaker seeks to have -realized in the vote, or verdict, or conduct of others, must be carried -back to the necessary ideas of the hearer. The full discussion of this -peculiarity in the stream of thought belongs to treatises on rhetoric. -Such a discussion can be found in Theremin’s Rhetoric, translated by -Shedd. Suffice it to say that the recognition of this principle makes -the speaker a more thoughtful man. It causes him to rely for the effect -he seeks to produce upon solid and sterling qualities rather than showy -rhetoric. It tends to make the stream of thought flow deeper, fuller, -yet clearer and with more power. Any interference with the stream of -thought while the speaker is before the audience may be disastrous. -The crying of a child, or an outburst of feeling in the audience, -or some other mishap may disconcert his mind. Legouvé tells how the -world-renowned advocate, Berryer, lost a very good cause by unconsciously -starting his speech in too high a key. “His temples soon felt the unusual -fatigue of the larynx; from the temples it passed to the brain; the -strain being too great, the brain gave way; the thought became confused, -and the language disarranged and indistinct.” He broke down in open court -because he never thought of descending from the lofty perch on which -his voice started at the beginning of his plea. Legouvé claims, and the -experience of many speakers confirms the claim, that the abuse of the -high notes has not infrequently affected injuriously the orator’s very -flow of thought. - -[Sidenote: The three generals.] - -Three generals made stump speeches on a joint trip during the last -Presidential campaign. One day the name of the candidate of the other -great political party was mentioned, when there was a perfect storm of -applause in the gallery. A second reference elicited similar applause, -and the disconcerted general, who had bravely faced the enemy on the -battle-field, took his seat. The next general, walking on a crutch, -came forward, and requested that all who had been sent to disturb the -meeting should rise. Ho one moved. He exclaimed, “There are some cowards -here.” Then he asked that all who had come to listen and learn should -rise. Everybody rose. He exclaimed, “There are some liars here.” Next -he announced that any one attempting to disturb the meeting would be -pitched out of doors, the general on the crutch declaring he would -lead the attack. Soon a man arose as if to ask a question. Whereupon -a big burly policeman threw the fellow out, and there was no further -outside interference with the stream of thought in the mind of speaker -or listeners. The man on the platform always has the advantage over -disturbers in the audience, provided he is master of his faculties, full -of resources, and quick at repartee. - -[Sidenote: The schools of France.] - -[Sidenote: The reading lesson.] - -The schools of France have been quoted to show the uselessness of -exercises in oral reading. As in other things, so in school matters, -distance lends enchantment to the view. Legouvé, in his lectures on the -“Art of Reading,” mentions with approval that in the great Republic of -North America reading aloud is justly considered one of the very first -elements of a child’s education, whilst in France, reading aloud does not -reach even the sorry dignity of a diverting art, but is regarded as a -curiosity, a luxury, often something hardly better than a pretension.[43] -This was written several decades ago, and may not be just to the French -nation at this time. The value of oral reading depends upon the way -in which it is done. If it amounts to no more than calling words and -parrot-like imitation of the teacher’s manner of reading, the exercise is -a waste of time. The mastery of the new words and of the thought embodied -should precede the attempt to read a lesson aloud. The mastery of the -words involves ability to recognize them at sight, to pronounce them with -fluency and ease, and to spell them by letter and by sound. It implies -both a knowledge of their meaning and ability to use them in a sentence. -An average series of readers has a vocabulary of five thousand words. The -meaning of all these words may be known at sight, but ability to use them -by tongue or pen is quite another thing, the vocabulary of most persons -being not much in excess of a thousand words. The thought can be mastered -by an exercise in silent reading, followed by the oral and written -reproduction of the lesson. The mastery of the thought is a condition of -proper vocal utterance. - -[Sidenote: Acting and reading.] - -[Sidenote: Reading and talking.] - -There is a difference between acting and reading. The actor endeavors -to speak and act after the exact manner of the character whom he -impersonates. The reader aims to suggest the thought instead of imitating -the original actors. An actor will go through the motion of stabbing -or shooting an enemy; the reader simply aims to suggest the thought of -what was done. Exercises in breathing, gesture, tone, pitch, cadence, -voice may be needed for the sake of correcting defects; nevertheless, -everything connected with oral reading should turn on and culminate in -the stream of thought. If anything else is made the object of chief -regard, the main purpose of oral reading is lost. It furnishes an -excellent test by means of which the teacher can determine whether the -pupil understands what he reads or is merely calling words after the -manner of a parrot. To correct the unnatural tones acquired in the -school-room, the pupil is wisely exhorted to read as he would talk. In -the effort to develop a style of reading exactly like talking, some -teachers ruin their natural way of talking and reading. In conversation, -they talk as if they were trying to read. While reading, they seem to be -trying to talk. The human voice is so made that it puts the quotation -marks to selections recited from memory and to sentences read from a -manuscript or book. As a rule, a person can read best what he himself -has written; yet his voice tells whether his sentences and thoughts are -framed and evolved at the moment of delivery, or taken from a manuscript -prepared beforehand. As a matter of fact, no one can read as he talks or -speaks. A blindfolded listener could tell when Spurgeon was reading or -speaking. The same was true of Charles Sumner, and of every other great -speaker America has produced. - -[Sidenote: Abiding thoughts.] - -To think the best thoughts of the best men is the privilege of him who -can read. To plant these thoughts in other minds by reading aloud is a -noble achievement. To give in speech something from our own resources -that others shall treasure is nobler still, because it links our life -with the creative workers of the world. But noblest of all is it to -write what shall be read by our own and future generations, in our own -and other lands, as a source of light and life, of uplift and enjoyment. -The worst punishment that can befall a human being is to be cut off from -participation in the movement of the race towards greater well-being -and perfection. One naturally desires to employ his gifts and powers -for the benefit of mankind. The stream of thought determines what we -shall accomplish. If others are to be benefited by our thinking, they -must think our thoughts. The stream of our thought must carry ideas of -interest and value to them, ideas they will care to get and keep. If -our thinking is busy with things of transient interest, transient will -be our influence over others. If our thought is to abide, it must deal -with verities of eternal moment to humanity, with the works of Him who -made the heavens and the earth, with the truth of Him who is “the same -yesterday, to-day, and forever.” - - - - -XVI - -KINDS OF THINKING - - “What we want is not the example of Democritus, who put out - his eyes that, ceasing to read, he might think the more; or - the example of Pythagoras, who devoted his evenings to solemn - reflections on the events of the day. We want men and women of - all-round activities who will set apart an hour for thought’s - own sake, and thus fulfil the exhortation of a wise man whose - practice it was to ‘sort his thoughts and label them.’” - - T. S. KNOWLSON. - - “People read a great deal more than they used to do,—there - is more to be read,—but they think less. The chief danger of - to-day is that of intellectual apathy. Life is so complex, the - struggle for existence is so keen, and pleasures of various - kinds so cheap and abundant, that men and women seem to live - entirely on the surface of things. What we need is a call to - independent thought.” - - IBID. - - -XVI - -KINDS OF THINKING - -[Sidenote: Equivocal terms.] - -[Sidenote: The term _thinking_.] - -[Sidenote: Kinds of thinking.] - -As was pointed out in the first chapter, the word _thinking_ has several -meanings. One can hardly write or speak on education without using the -word in more senses than one, and it is not always convenient to break -the line of thought or discussion by indicating with a definition the -meaning intended. This is a violation of Pascal’s rule, that no terms -in the least obscure or equivocal shall be used without defining them. -Pascal possessed one of the most remarkable intellects the world has ever -known. His style has been described as a garment of light. Few thinkers -have attained, to an equal degree, clearness of expression and perfect -grasp of the truth. Nowhere are these qualities more essential than in -lectures and treatises on teaching. It is a misfortune that so useful -a word as _thinking_ should ever be ambiguous. The use of equivocal -terms leads to misunderstandings in theory and faults in practice. The -advantage of technical terms lies in the fact that after they have -been clearly defined they can always be used in the same sense. The -disadvantage in the use of technical terms is that they convey no meaning -to minds unfamiliar with the terminology of the specific science to -which they belong. Hence the best thinkers cannot escape the necessity -of employing words in current use to convey their thoughts. As soon as -words pass into common parlance they acquire a variety of meanings and -of shades of meaning. The thought of a people is always more or less -in advance of their vocabulary; the same word must be used in several -meanings, because no other term equally simple and convenient can serve -as a substitute. No one, for instance, can write or speak in the English -language without using the word _is_ in both its figurative and its -literal sense. The connection must show what signification is intended. -The same remark applies to the word _thinking_. The connection must show -whether it is used in the colloquial sense of guessing, or in the logical -sense of a comparison of two ideas through their relation to a third, -or in the broader sense of imaging, reflecting, and reacting upon what -one reads or hears, or in a still broader sense, to designate any form -of mental activity. Since the popular mind employs the word as a general -term to cover the entire intellectual life, it is convenient to specify -kinds of thinking by the use of adjectives like independent, loose, -continuous, organic, technical, scientific, and other qualifying phrases. -Inasmuch as these distinctions are made for the purpose of characterizing -differences observed in the thought-processes of the maturer life for -which our pupils are to be trained, it is helpful to glance at them for -the purpose of seeing the bearing of what we do at school upon habits of -thought beyond the school. - -[Sidenote: The independent thinker.] - -What is meant by an independent thinker? Evidently one who is not -indebted to others for the inferences which he draws or the conclusions -at which he arrives. Many practices at school are subversive of habits -of independent thinking. The assignment of lessons of such length -and difficulty that the weaker pupils must rely upon their stronger -classmates for help, or resort to “coaches, keys, and ponies” for -assistance, makes them helpless instead of self-reliant, and cultivates -the memory at the expense of the understanding. The lessons should be -graded so as to beget the sense of mastery. Every difficulty that is -overcome by a pupil’s own efforts tends to develop in him an ambition to -conquer other difficulties. Few, if any, joys can be compared with the -ecstatic joy of victory. Moreover, it should be the aim of the teacher -to beget in the pupil a love of truth more potent and profound than -reverence for a favorite authority. On the contrary, the feeling of -independence and the desire of distinction by differing from other people -may grow into a passion. This seldom does much harm in the case of an -editor or a professor. If you give either of them leave to criticise and -to print, he is well satisfied. If he is elected to a board of managers -or the national assembly, his critical faculty and his fondness for -finding fault and thinking differently from other people may make him -a hinderance to the leaders, who must get things done, or cause him to -stand apart, like Ewald, in the German Reichstag, as a one-man party, -whose views must be ignored on all questions requiring prompt action or -immediate decision. To counteract this tendency in a youth of strong -personality, it is difficult to devise anything better than the moulding -supremacy of class-spirit, the chastening influence of a contest in the -literary society, and the relentless lessons which a boy gets on the -play-ground when he will not play because the game does not go his way. -Independence of thought in the quest of truth, on the one hand, and -concert of action for the public good, on the other, are two of the most -useful lessons to be learned at school. At this point there is room for a -kind of child-study apart from a syllabus of set questions, and leading -to results which cannot be tabulated in statistics or averages. The -average in such cases is untrue as a guide, and may be utterly subversive -of correct habits of thinking, or the correct method of dealing with the -individual. To give enough optional or specific work for the brightest, -and not too much general or required work for the slowest, is an ideal -hard to realize in the assignment of work, and yet of supreme importance -in the endeavor to develop habits of independent thinking. - -[Sidenote: Independent thinking and popular government.] - -There is great need for independent thinking under a system of popular -government, especially on the part of those who exercise the elective -franchise. In the modern caucus or convention one man often does the -thinking for the rest. “If he is the man whom I follow, I call him my -leader. If he is the man whom you follow, I call him your boss.” When the -leader or boss is not sufficiently sure of his ability to bind the others -by his orders, those who have a following are invited to a conference, at -which a line of action is agreed upon to relieve the multitudes of the -trouble of thinking. A delegate who was giving very vociferous vent to -his feelings was rebuked by a colleague, saying, “Just think where you -are.” He replied with more emphasis than elegance, “I was not brought -here to think, but to shout.” Independent thinking is as hard work as -the average man cares to do. He craves a guide, an authority to relieve -him of the trouble of thinking for himself. Outside of their particular -vocation or profession it is absolutely necessary at times for the -strongest intellects to accept the conclusions of other thinkers. The man -who has been successful at making money, and who finds that his thinking -in financial matters is trustworthy, often makes himself obnoxious by -assuming that his opinions and conclusions should be accorded equal -weight in every other sphere of human activity. There is no better -place to teach the individual his limitations without destroying his -independence as a thinker than the atmosphere of a great university. - -The dependent thinker is aptly described by a writer in _Leisure Hours_ -in the following language: - -[Sidenote: The dependent thinker.] - -“It is sometimes amusing to hear a man of this order coming out strongly -with opinions which he would have you believe are thoroughly independent -and original, but which you can trace directly to the source from which -he got them. You could indicate those sources if it were not uncivil to -do so, very much as a shrewd but not very well-behaved old gentleman -is said to have indicated at church, in a tone sufficiently loud to be -heard by the clergyman and the congregation, too,—which was especially -galling,—the authors to whom the said clergyman had been indebted for -his sermon, ‘That’s Sherlock; that’s Tillotson; that’s Jeremy Taylor.’ -‘I tell you what, fellow, if you don’t hold your tongue, I’ll have you -turned out of church.’ ‘That’s his own.’” - -The men who must depend upon others to do their thinking for them deserve -pity and commiseration. The bureaus which thrive by furnishing essays -and orations for commencements, sermons for special occasions, and even -for the regularly recurring Sunday services, show how often our schools -make their pupils dependent instead of self-reliant. On being cast upon -the sea of life, their minds resemble a craft which has lost its rudder; -they drift with wind and tide, uncertain where they shall land. Their -thinking is not grounded on first principles; hence their minds reflect -transient views on every question. The strong personality in the sunlight -of whose influence they happened last to bask moulds their opinions -and directs their intellectual life until they move into the sphere of -new influences, constantly resembling those whom Randolph of Roanoke -stigmatized as dough-faces because their votes were under the control of -party leaders and were cast regardless of their convictions of right. - -[Sidenote: Continuous thought.] - -The men whom the world reveres as great thinkers have been distinguished -by their ability to give continuous thought to whatever engaged their -serious attention. Newton claimed that he made his discoveries by always -thinking about them. His biographers relate how he would for hours remain -seated upon his bed, half dressed, absorbed in thought, forgetful of his -surroundings. Stories of the absent-mindedness of Socrates, Sydney Smith, -Neander, Edison, and many others who attained eminence as philosophers, -authors, or inventors, are interesting indeed, but they throw no light -upon the way in which these men acquired their marvellous powers; they -merely show a capacity for focussing all the energies of the soul upon -one point to the exclusion of sense impressions from without. It is -very certain that men who excel in any line of work acquire habits of -concentrated and continuous thought in one direction. Very different from -these are the mental habits of the boy and the average man. A writer in -_Cornhill Magazine_ describes their intellectual activity as follows: - -“The normal mental locomotion of even well-educated men and women (save -under the spur of exceptional stimulus) is neither the flight of an -eagle in the sky, nor the trot of a horse upon the road, but may better -be compared to the lounge of a truant school-boy in a shady lane, now -dawdling passively, now taking a hop-skip-jump, now stopping to pick -blackberries, and now turning to right or left to catch a butterfly, -climb a tree, or make dick-duck-drake on a pond; going nowhere in -particular, and only once in a mile or so proceeding six steps in an -orderly and philosophical manner.” - -[Sidenote: Loose thinkers.] - -[Sidenote: Organic thinking.] - -The thoughts of some men resemble mosaic work. Each part is beautiful in -itself, but has no inner connection with those next to it. Men of this -class are called loose thinkers; it is always difficult to retain what -they say. The thinking of a totally opposite class of men resembles the -growth of an organism. They start from a germinal idea, which, like seed -sown into good soil, begins to grow, throwing out parts which have inward -connection and which together constitute an organic unity. In a machine -any part can be replaced by another. In the organism no such substitution -is possible. For each organ bears a life relation to the whole, and if -it is wanting the unity of the organism is destroyed. Organic thinking -gives the hearer the feeling that the several parts and inferences of -a discourse are evolved from his inner consciousness. Having had the -germ-idea in his mind, he feels as if he had held all it involves; the -speaker supplied the conditions of development as the sun supplies warmth -for vegetable growth. The effect of such thinking is irresistible. The -branches of study which thus grow out of a fundamental idea, and show -the inner relation between the subjects not as a mere sequence, but as -a living organic relation, have an educative value which cannot be too -highly prized. The organic thinker, if he makes himself understood, has -the audience on his side; and his cogency can seldom be refuted except by -showing either that his germinal idea is wrong or that his conclusions -have no connection with his premises. - -[Sidenote: Harris on stages of thinking.] - -Dr. Harris has drawn attention to three stages of thinking. He claims -that in the first stage things are regarded as the essential elements -of all being, that in the second the mind discovers relations,—truly -essential relations,—and that in the third stage the mind thinks the -self-related. “Self-relation is the category of the reason, just as -relativity is the category of the understanding, or non-relativity -(atomism) the category of sense-perception.” Theoretically this -distinction is important as giving us a rational basis for the knowledge -of God as revealed to man. Practically, every child thinks the idea of -God. Where the study of science or philosophy leads to atheism, the wish -is always father to the thought. - -[Sidenote: Technical and scientific thinking.] - -Clifford has made a distinction between technical and scientific -thinking. The former enables one to do with skill and accuracy what has -been done heretofore. The latter partakes of the nature of prophecy or -prediction. He claims that scientific as well as merely technical thought -make use of experience to direct human action, but that while technical -thought or skill enables a man to deal with the same circumstances he has -met before, scientific thought enables him to deal with circumstances -different from any he has met before. In his opinion, scientific thought -is human progress itself. An example or two can best be given in his own -language. - -“If you make a dot on a piece of paper, and then hold a piece of Iceland -spar over it, you will see not one dot, but two. A mineralogist, -by measuring the angles of a crystal, can tell you whether or not -it possesses this property without looking through it. He requires -no scientific thought to do that. But Sir Rowan Hamilton, the late -Astronomer Royal of Ireland, knowing these facts, and also the -explanation of them which Fresnel had given, thought about the subject, -and predicted that by looking through certain crystals in a particular -direction we should see not two dots, but a continuous circle. Mr. -Lloyd made the experiment and saw the circle, a result which had never -been even suspected. This has always been considered one of the most -signal instances of scientific thought in the domain of physics. It -is most distinctly an application of experience gained under certain -circumstances to entirely different circumstances.”[44] - -Clifford compares two well-known achievements in the domain of astronomy -which help to set the distinction between technical and scientific -thought in a still clearer light: - -“Ancient astronomers observed that the relative motions of the sun and -moon recurred all over again in the same order every nineteen years. They -were thus enabled to predict the time at which eclipses would take place. -A calculator at one of our great observatories can do a great deal more -than this. Like them, he makes use of past experience to predict the -future; but he knows of a great number of other cycles besides the one of -nineteen years, and takes account of all of them; and he can tell about -the solar eclipse of six years hence, exactly when it will be visible, -and how much of the sun’s surface will be covered at each place, and to -a second at what time of the day it will begin and finish there. This -prediction involves technical skill of the highest order, but it does -not involve scientific thought, as any astronomer will tell you. By such -calculations the place of the planet Uranus at different times of the -year had been predicted and set down. The predictions were not fulfilled. -Then arose Adams, and from the errors in the prediction he calculated -the place of an entirely new planet that had never yet been suspected; -and you all know how the new planet was actually found in that place. -Now this prediction does involve scientific thought, as any one who has -studied it will tell you. Here, then, are two cases of thought about the -same subject, both predicting events by the application of previous -experience, yet we say one is technical and the other scientific.”[45] - -[Sidenote: Science as knowledge of things in their causes and relations.] - -The foregoing distinction may be valuable in the training of university -students whose career is to be that of original research and discovery, -but it has very little value for teachers in schools of lower grade. For -ordinary purposes, science is the knowledge of things in their causes and -relations. If the teacher begets the habit of asking why, and makes the -pupils dissatisfied with simply knowing the how and the what, he has gone -far towards making them thinkers in the scientific sense of the word. - -How shall the knowledge of things in their causes and relations be -attained? The mind first thinks things as isolated units apart from and -without reference to other things. Under the impulse to know it resolves -the thing into its elements or constituent parts, and then puts them -together in a more complete idea of each thing as a whole. The boy whose -curiosity impels him to take apart a watch or clock is following the bent -of the mind to proceed analytically. If he does not try to put the pieces -together, so that the reconstructed whole will keep time as before, he -needs stimulus in the direction of synthetic thinking. Soon his interest -in time-pieces leads him to detect similarities between American watches -and those made in Switzerland, and he learns to classify time-pieces, -to see a multitude of details and peculiarities at a glance, one -characteristic or peculiarity bringing to his mind the distinctive parts -and construction of every watch in a given class. From the way in which -a given watch keeps time, he draws inferences in regard to the entire -class. This is inductive thinking. From the conclusions he has framed, he -makes up his mind as to the new watch which the jeweller offers him for -sale. He is now thinking deductively. - -[Sidenote: Distinction between laws and causes.] - -From thinking things as units, the mind passes to thinking the relations -of things. The adaptation of means to ends in play, in ministering to -bodily wants, occupies the mind in very early stages of thinking. The -gifts of the kindergarten appeal to this tendency in the mind, and help -to develop it into habit and faculty. Design and its execution, means and -end, the tool and its use, the raw material and the purpose for which -it is to be used, thought-material and the essay in which it is to be -formulated,—these are so many ways of thinking things or ideas in their -relations. Not only may a relation become a distinct object of thought, -but relations between relations, classes of relations,—for instance, in -simple and compound proportion,—can thus be made to stand apart before -the mind as distinct objects of thought. The most important of all these -relations is that of cause and effect. How things come to be, their -origin and development, the forces that make them what they are, are -the questions of profound and abiding interest to the scientific mind. -Laws are often spoken of as if they were causes. A law is a generalized -statement of an invariable sequence of things or motions of things. We -sometimes personify these sequences, and speak of them as if they were -forces in nature. The laws are personified, as if they were conscious -beings demanding obedience, and inflicting punishment for disobedience. -The consciousness of the personification is lost, and then along with -spelling nature with a capital letter, we fall into the mistake of -making laws stand for the Maker and Creator of all things. Furthermore, -it is very important to distinguish the ground of knowledge from causes -that are operative in the world outside of mind. The rain of last night -caused the streets to be muddy; but the condition of the streets, an -effect of rainfall, may be the ground of our knowledge that it must have -rained last night. The fact that the earth is flattened at the poles, -or, in other words, that its curvature is less at the poles than at the -equator, explains the fact that degrees of latitude get longer as we -approach the poles. The former is the cause, the latter is an effect. -But the mind drew the former as an inference from the determination -of degrees of latitude by actual measurement. The effect became the -ground of knowledge. Frequently the cause is known or inferred from its -effect. That which is causal in the world of mind is effect in the world -outside of mind; and that which is effect in nature becomes the ground of -knowledge in the processes of thought. From this point as vantage-ground, -we spy the land in which thinking becomes knowing. - - - - -XVII - -THINKING AND KNOWING - - When a man’s knowledge is not in order, the more of it he has - the greater will be his confusion of thought. When the facts - are not organized into faculty, the greater the mass of them - the more will the mind stagger along under its burden, hampered - instead of helped by its acquisitions. - - H. SPENCER. - - That knowledge cannot be gained without more or less of correct - and prolonged thinking is a practical maxim which no one would - be found to dispute. But that there is much knowledge which - does not come by _mere_ thinking is a maxim scarcely more to - be held in doubt. Thinking is, then, universally recognized - as an important and even necessary part of knowing; but it is - not the whole of knowing. Or, in other words, one must make - use of one’s faculties of thought as an indispensable means - to cognition; but there are other means which must also be - employed, since it is not by thought alone that the human mind - attains cognition. - - LADD’S “PHILOSOPHY OF KNOWLEDGE,” page 130. - - -XVII - -THINKING AND KNOWING - -One morning a teacher was awakened by a noise, the like of which he had -never heard and hopes never to hear again. It was unlike anything in his -former experience. Soon he began to distinguish the hissing of steam and -the moaning of men, but the cause was still a mystery. Later, he learned -that the blast furnace in the neighborhood had exploded, and that several -men were killed and others had been seriously injured by the explosion. - -[Sidenote: Interpretation of sense-impressions.] - -The cause of the noise could not be inferred, because there was nothing -in his former experience with which it could be compared. The escaping -steam and the voices of the suffering workmen were recognized because -they could be interpreted in the light of what he had seen and heard -before. In order that any one may derive definite knowledge from -sense-impressions, there must be something in past experience to give -meaning to the new experience. - -Observation that issues in knowing is coupled with a process of thought -in which the new perception is linked to the ideas which the mind brings -to the perception. In other words, observation always involves the -element of thinking; without thinking, sense-impressions cannot give us -knowledge. - -Knowing is impossible without thinking, and yet not all thinking gives -ripe to knowing. What is the relation between the two? - -[Sidenote: What is knowledge?] - -Knowledge has been defined as firm belief in what is true on sufficient -ground. The explanation of this definition which Locke gives is well -known to every student of philosophy. “If any one is in _doubt_ -respecting one of Euclid’s demonstrations, he cannot be said to _know_ -the proposition proved by it; if again he is fully _convinced_ of -anything that is not true, he is mistaken in supposing himself to know -it; lastly, if two persons are each _fully confident_, one that the moon -is inhabited, and the other that it is not (though one of these opinions -must be true), neither of them could properly be said to _know_ the -truth, since he cannot have sufficient _proof_ of it.”[46] - -[Sidenote: Belief.] - -The foregoing definition consists of three parts,—1, firm belief; 2, -in what is true; 3, on sufficient ground. In common parlance, belief -is distinguished from knowledge, the latter implying a higher degree -of assurance than the former. In some treatises on psychology belief -denotes all forms of assent, including the highest possible certainty and -conviction. The expression _firm belief_ excludes the element of doubt -from knowledge. - -[Sidenote: Truth.] - -Truth, according to the etymology of the word, signifies that which the -mind trows or believes to be fact or reality. It has its source in God, -whilst knowledge proceeds from man. To be true, a proposition must be -in exact accordance with what is or has been or shall be. Truth exists -apart from the cognitions of the human mind. It would continue to exist -if the mind of man were blotted out of existence, and there was truth -long before the intelligence of man was called into being. The aim of -thinking is to find out and lay hold of the truth. Thinking in which -truth and error are mixed may have value as partial knowledge and as a -stepping-stone to fuller knowledge. Knowledge becomes full and complete -only in so far as it contains the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but -the truth. - -[Sidenote: The ground of knowledge.] - -Full knowledge implies a basis upon which it may rest. There may be -sufficient ground for the firm belief which constitutes the essence of -knowledge even when the truth cognized is incapable of full and complete -demonstration. - -[Sidenote: The reason why.] - -It is natural for a child to believe. The statements of others are -accepted as true without question, so long as the child has not been -deceived by others. Hence many teachers have assumed that their chief -function is to ask the reason _why_, so that belief in what is true may -be based upon sufficient ground, and that nothing shall be accepted as -true until it is proved. This was one of the erroneous views under which -Pestalozzi labored. He justified the undue attention paid to mathematics -in his school on the ground that he wished his pupils to believe nothing -which cannot be demonstrated as clearly as two and two make four. -Whereupon Père Girard replied, “In that case, if I had thirty sons I -would not intrust one of them to you; for it would be impossible for you -to demonstrate to him, as you can that two and two make four, that I am -his father and that I have a right to his obedience.”[47] - -[Sidenote: Exhaustive study.] - -[Sidenote: The question how.] - -The progress of a pupil may be hindered by too much emphasis upon the -ground of knowledge. The human mind cannot make an exhaustive study of -very many things. Exhaustion is a term applied by logicians to a method -of proof in which “all the arguments tending to an opposite conclusion -are brought forward, discussed, and proved untenable or absurd, thus -leaving the original proposition established by the exclusion of every -alternate.” Speaking positively, we may say that exhaustive study of -a subject explores it in all its bearings and relations as well as -in its nature and essence. In every subject the known is bounded by -the unknown; new methods of preparation and investigation constantly -reveal novelties in whole classes of objects which it was supposed had -been studied exhaustively. The specialist seeks to know all that has -been brought to light in his field of research, and to push out the -limits of knowledge beyond the goal reached by his predecessors. The -thoroughness of the specialist is not required in elementary instruction. -The writer knows of a teacher who for an entire term kept a class of -boys at work upon highest common factor and least common multiple on the -plea that they did not thoroughly understand these subjects. No better -plan of disgusting boys with arithmetic and algebra could have been -devised. Thorough knowledge of these two subjects involves reasoning and -demonstrations more difficult to grasp than half the theorems in Euclid. -Instead of aiming at exhaustive treatment, the true teacher is satisfied -with knowledge adequate for the subsequent work of the course. If the -pupil has reached the stage where he can appreciate the reason why, it -may be (though it is not always) wise to raise this question, and to -insist on a comprehension of the proof. Very often the mind has enough -to do in trying to see _how_; the question _why_ then interferes with -the mastery of the mechanical operations. Let any adult take up a system -of arithmetic with which he is unfamiliar, say the arithmetic based on -counting by fives, or by twelves, or by thirties (each of the last two, -mathematically speaking, better than the arithmetic based on tens), he -will soon find it is work enough at first for his intellect to perform -the operations of adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing without -reference to the philosophic explanations which exhaustive study would -require at every step in the operations. - -[Sidenote: When knowledge is clear, when distinct.] - -Descartes applied several of the technical terms of optics to the science -of mind, and in this he has been followed by Locke, Leibnitz, and others. -An object seen at a great distance or in insufficient light looks -obscure; as the eye approaches, or as the dawn increases, the object, as -a whole, becomes clear enough to be distinguished from other objects, -although its constituent parts are still confused. Increasing light or a -nearer approach finally enables us to discern the parts, and the vision -of the object grows distinct. Clear vision occurs where the object, as a -whole, can be recognized; distinct vision occurs when the parts of the -object seen can be recognized. In like manner ideas are said to be clear -as distinguished from obscure, when they are discerned in outline; they -are distinct (opposed to indistinct or confused) when they are discerned -in their elements or constituent parts. Distinct mental vision requires -analytic and synthetic thinking. - -Of many objects the mind needs only clear knowledge for ordinary -purposes. One may distinguish two brothers by the total impression of -each which he carries in his mind, and yet be totally unable to tell any -specific marks by which he knows the one from the other. The painter, -on the other hand, cannot be satisfied with this total impression; he -studies the individual features until he has a distinct impression of -their likenesses and differences. - -Of the map of one’s own country it pays to know the States and -Territorial divisions. Of one’s State, a knowledge of the counties, -and of one’s county, a knowledge of the townships may be helpful. -For specific vocations more minute knowledge may be desirable. Each -individual mind can well afford to stop with a measure of geographical -knowledge that is adequate for the duties of his vocation and the -purposes of his reading of books and newspapers. - -Very little of our knowledge of geography is based upon experience; most -of it rests upon testimony. The eye at a glance may take in the outlines -of an island of the Susquehanna river. The fact that Great Britain is an -island rests upon the testimony of maps; our belief is based upon what we -have always heard and read, and is further strengthened by the absence of -testimony to the contrary. If the fact had ever been questioned, the mind -might hold its judgment in suspense until sufficient ground was found to -warrant a conclusion. - -[Sidenote: Value of questions.] - -When the knowledge which a pupil has is to be deepened or made more -distinct a series of well-chosen questions may beget the required -thinking. For instance, let us take the case of a pupil who has -reached the stage where his knowledge of the properties of the parts -of speech should be made more complete. Let the teacher ask for the -difference between a pencil and a part of speech, between a noun and a -name, between gender and sex, between number in grammar and number in -arithmetic, between person in grammar and a person like the President -of the United States, between case in grammar and a case in division -of fractions, between tense and time, between mode and manner, between -action and a verb, between the object of an action and the object of a -verb. Comparison will soon show the inaccuracy of the statement that the -direct object of an action is in the accusative case; and the learner -will see that case is a property of nouns, not of objects, and cannot be -predicated of the object of an action, but of the _word_ which _denotes_ -the object of the action, which word may be either in the nominative -or the accusative case as the verb is either in the passive or active -voice. Comparison will lead the pupil to see clearly that gender is -a property of nouns, whereas sex or the absence of sex is predicated -of that for which nouns stand. Comparison will serve to bring out the -distinction between number in grammar as a property of nouns indicating -one or more than one, and numbers in arithmetic, of which there are as -many as there are units or collections of units in the universe. Thinking -by comparison will lead to the detection of similarities and differences, -to discrimination, combination, and generalization, and through these to -more distinct and more adequate knowledge. - -Questions which draw attention to likenesses and differences, to causal -relations and logical sequences, stimulate analysis and comparison; the -resulting judgments clarify the stream of thought and push the boundary -of knowledge into the regions of the hitherto unknown. - -[Sidenote: Theory, true and false.] - -The greatest minds when working under the influence of a false theory -fail to arrive at truth. Socrates rejected the view of Anaxagoras that -the sun is a fire, because we can look at a fire, but not at the sun, -because plants grow by sunshine and are killed by fire, and because a -stone heated in fire is not luminous, but soon cools, whereas the sun -always remains equally hot and luminous. Newton did more than all other -thinkers combined to make astronomy a science; his discoveries in physics -and mathematics rank him among the greatest investigators the world has -thus far known; yet he spent many nights trying to find the method by -which the baser metals could be transmuted into silver and gold; his -researches as an alchemist led to nothing, because he was working under -the spell of a false theory.[48] - -[Sidenote: Scientists.] - -Faraday acknowledged that he was often compelled to give up his -preconceived notions, and in some cases his failures are almost as -instructive as his discoveries. It was characteristic of him to hold -to his theories until he proved them either true or false, and he was -ever ready to reject any hypothesis as soon as he found it inconsistent -with the laws of nature. Newton was willing to suspend judgment for -years upon his theory of gravitation, until more accurate measurements -of the earth’s size and the moon’s distance showed his theory and -calculations to be right. Socrates advised his followers to quit the -study of astronomy, probably because he felt that in his time the data -were not sufficient to warrant definite conclusions. Hosts of instances -can be cited showing that the thinking of the strongest intellects does -not issue in knowing when it is based upon or biassed by a wrong working -hypothesis. And yet it must be confessed that wrong hypotheses may lead -to valuable negative results, as in the case of Kepler’s investigations, -each exploded theory making room for the construction of a theory more -in accordance with the facts. The superiority of men of genius lies in -their love of truth and fidelity to fact; in the facility with which -they construct theories to account for observed phenomena; in the -patience with which they test theory by fact, and in the readiness with -which they reject every hypothesis as soon as it is found to be in -irreconcilable conflict with well-established facts. The average life of -a theory in science is said to be only ten years. The average would be -lower still if all rejected theories had been put into books. The men -possessed of a truly scientific spirit differ from ordinary men not only -in the painstaking accuracy of their observations and in the surprising -fertility with which they frame theories, but also in the habit of -verifying every hypothesis until there is sufficient ground to establish -its truth and to receive it as an addition to the sum total of human -knowledge. - -[Sidenote: The common people.] - -The common people are quite as ready to frame theories as the scientists -and philosophers. It would be well if they were equally patient in -testing their theories and in verifying their suppositions. The human -mind cannot help generalizing. The moment a child uses a common noun it -begins to classify. Its tendency to pull things to pieces and to put them -together again are exhibitions of the mind’s tendency to treat everything -by analysis and synthesis. Purpose and design, cause and effect early -show themselves in the thinking of children. The teacher need but guide -these activities and give the mind the proper material to work upon; the -result cannot be doubtful if the mind which plays upon the learner’s mind -has been trained to operate according to the laws of thought and the -principles which must guide in the discovery of the truth. - -[Sidenote: Doubt.] - -Doubt is sometimes the prerequisite of knowledge. To raise a doubt in -the mind of a growing youth may cause him to think. It may cause him to -explore the grounds of his knowledge, to ascertain the rational basis -upon which his beliefs rest, and to reject such as were of the nature -of prejudice or of tradition with no sufficient warrant for acceptance. -Rational belief is far superior to blind faith. - -When the doubt is raised in regard to the verities of one’s religious -faith there is grave danger of landing in scepticism or infidelity. What -is truth? may be asked in the spirit of Pilate, who turned away from the -Great Teacher with a despairing sneer and without waiting for a reply. -Pilate had trifled with his own conscience until he could no longer -discern truth and righteousness. Some men need better hearts in order -that they may think and know the highest truth. The hope can be held out -that whenever the truth is earnestly sought by the human heart the soul -will ultimately be guided into a knowledge of the truth. To disturb the -grounds upon which rest the principles of morality and religion is a -dangerous experiment, especially in the case of immature minds. The flood -of doubt may sweep away the solid foundations of a pupil’s moral nature -and leave him a wreck upon the quicksands of vice or upon the rock of -scepticism. - -It is the nature of the child to believe, to cherish faith in what others -tell him and in what the world presents to his vision. To disturb the -fervor and strength of this trust before the understanding is ripe for -fuller knowledge may result in life-long injury. The child’s faith in -fairyland, in Santa-Claus, should, of course, be kept from becoming a -source of terror. The stories of ghosts, spooks, and hobgoblins sometimes -employed in the nursery to influence conduct may cause fears, terrors, -and horrors from which it is well to emancipate the child as speedily as -possible through the light of clearer knowledge. - -[Sidenote: The desire to know.] - -Better than doubt as a stimulus to thought is the desire to know. St. -Augustine was on _fire to know_. The teacher who kindles and keeps -burning this fire in the soul of the pupil has supplied the most powerful -incentive to thought; for without thinking knowledge is impossible of -attainment. - -[Sidenote: Full cognition.] - -As we may start our wood flaming by coals hot from another’s fire, so we -may kindle a burning desire for knowledge by bringing the mind in contact -with minds that are all aglow with the desire to know. A burning fire may -soon exhaust its fuel if left to itself. The teacher supplies the fuel, -fans the flame, directs its activity for well-defined purposes. Here the -analogy breaks. Instead of smoke and ashes we want living products as -the result of knowing. As thinking leads to knowing, so knowing should -give rise to further thinking. Nowhere is the teacher’s function of -guiding more indispensably necessary than in the interplay of these two -activities. While the learner is engrossed in the pursuit of knowledge, -the teacher is watching the process and the results. He is not satisfied -unless the activity of thinking and knowing ends in full cognition. It -has been well said that a dog knows his master, but does not cognize -him; that to cognize means to refer a perception to an object by means -of a conception. The objects of thought must be sorted and arranged in -groups; the particular notion must take its place in the general concept; -the materials upon which the mind acts must be assimilated and organized -into a unity, showing how each has its origin and how it stands in living -relation to every other part of the organic whole; otherwise thinking -cannot lead to complete cognition. - -[Sidenote: The limit of instruction.] - -The incident at the beginning of this chapter shows that some preparation -is necessary to interpret sense-impressions and organize the materials -of thought for the purpose of cognition. The degree of preparation -determines how far the instruction at a given time shall aim to go. To -get a clearer idea of the thing to be known may exhaust the learner’s -strength. If so, the presentation should stop at that point. But as soon -as his power and interest are equal to the task he should be led to -analyze the object of thought so as to cognize the constituent elements, -the essential attributes, a process whereby he will arrive at distinct -knowledge. It may be advisable before dropping the inquiry to institute -comparisons between objects of the same class, for the purpose of calling -attention to differences and likenesses and evolving general concepts or -universal propositions. For many thinkers these are the goal of thinking. -If they can resolve the universe to a few simple generalizations, -their minds are satisfied. Nothing more barren can well be imagined or -conceived. - -[Sidenote: Application of knowledge.] - -Cognition is not complete until the knowledge has been or can be applied. -At times there may be a division of labor and glory in the discovery and -application of truth. The discoveries of Professor Henry which made the -electric telegraph possible involved thinking quite as valuable as the -invention of Professor Morse. The achievement of Cyrus W. Field in laying -the Atlantic cable involved thinking quite as important as the researches -and experiments of Lord Kelvin which made the cable successful. -Interesting examples of such division of labor in thinking cannot justify -neglect of the applications after a general truth has been evolved and -stated. - -The instruction may sometimes begin with a statement of applications, -in order to prepare the mind for the thinking that issues in knowing. -The applications of color in the railway service, in navigation, and in -the arts will create an interest in the study of color without which the -presentation of the fundamental ideas may be in vain. Several lecturers -have admitted that they failed, in the presentation of color lessons, -to hold the attention of their pupil-teachers until they excited an -interest in color by indicating important applications. This statement of -applications by way of preparation must, however, not be confounded with -the applications which should follow the framing of general propositions -and the cognition of general truths. - -The hypotheses of the scientist correspond to the general truths and -principles which instruction always aims to reach. In all except the most -advanced investigations, the pupil should work under the guidance of -principles that have risen above the hypothetical stage. He should think -under the inspiration of well-established truths. He should master the -known in his chosen field before he seeks to enlarge the boundaries of -human knowledge by invasions into the realm of the unknown. Sad is the -spectacle of a talented mind wasting its strength in fruitless efforts to -rediscover what is already well established. - -[Sidenote: The formulation of truths.] - -[Sidenote: Similarity in diversity.] - -The formulation of truths in mathematical studies is sometimes carried to -extremes. The pupil may at times be allowed to work under the guidance -of principles which he knows by implication, and which he has never had -occasion to formulate in explicit statements. The formulation of the -principles of algebra can be carried into the statement of hundreds of -general propositions. If the pupil is asked to fix all these in the -crystallized or specific form given in the text-book, it may result in a -prodigious waste of time. Furthermore, the effort to follow invariably -any formal steps in the order of instruction is apt to make the -instruction unduly formal and lifeless. No thinker can afford to think -in the set forms of the syllogism while evolving a train of thought. -Conscious conformity to these hinders progress in the spontaneous -evolution of germinal ideas. In like manner, although the student of -pedagogy may find a guide in the rules and principles of his science -while preparing the subject-matter of a lesson, yet, in giving the -instruction, the truth must be the object of chief regard, the centre of -attention in consciousness. Constant thought of prescribed steps makes -the teaching stiff and formal, and dissipates the joyous interest which -accompanies free and spontaneous thinking. Formal rules are very often -like hobbles on the feet of the horse. They impede his speed, rob him of -half his power and energy, and spoil his enjoyment of the open field. -Bearing this in mind, the young teacher will perhaps not be harmed by -the advice that in his teaching he should ever seek to lead the learner -to clear and distinct perception of likenesses and differences in the -subject-matter of each and every lesson. The newer methods of teaching a -beginner to read, wisely draw attention to the points of similarity and -difference in the shapes and sounds of the letters of the alphabet. They -even go to the extreme of comparing sounds with the noises of animals, -with which the child in the larger cities is totally unfamiliar. This -error is not half so bad as the opposite extreme. Very much of the bad -teaching by which the schools are afflicted arises from the assumption -that the learner sees the points of agreement and difference which are -so very obvious to the mature mind of the teacher. The consequence is -mental confusion and loss of the joy of definite thinking. The detection -of likeness in objects having many points of diversity gives the mind an -agreeable surprise. This emotion is an element in the pleasure afforded -by the various forms of wit, metaphor, and allegory. Professor Bain -has shown how greatly progress in science and art is indebted to the -discovery of similarity in the midst of great diversity.[49] Much of the -child’s progress in knowledge must be ascribed to the same principle. -Children notice points of similarity that often escape older persons. On -seeing the picture of a tiger, they call it a cat. A mother who showed -her little daughter, just beginning to talk, the caricature of a man -prominent in the public eye, was surprised to hear the child exclaim, -“Papa.” It was the child’s word for man, as she afterwards discovered. -Where she saw contrast, the child only noticed the points of similarity -between one man and another. As the power of discrimination advances, -the mind pays more attention to points of difference than to points -of likeness. Indistinguishableness gives way to clear and distinct -knowledge. With the further growth of intelligence the mind seeks the -hidden resemblances in objects far removed from one another in space -and time, or by surface appearances. At first sight the bat seems like -a bird, because it can fly. Scientific discrimination assigns it to the -class of mammals. The identification of the lightning in the clouds with -the sparks of the electric machine gave Franklin world-wide reputation -as a philosopher. The identification of the force which causes bodies -to fall to the earth with the force which holds the moon in its orbit, -and with the kind of force by which the sun attracts the bodies of the -solar system, has been justly called the greatest example of the power -to detect likeness in the midst of diversity. The power of detecting -similarity in diversity should be appealed to whenever it is helpful -either for purposes of illustration or discovery. Algebra is shorn -of half its difficulty as soon as the learner is led to see that the -operations in multiplication, division, involution and evolution of -monomials turn on signs, coefficients, and exponents. Let him grasp the -thought that the words add, subtract, multiply, and divide respectively -express the law of exponents in the four operations above named; and he -will not only escape the perplexities of the average student in the more -difficult operations of ordinary algebra, but he will also see at a -glance the beautiful truth which underlies the manipulation of logarithms. - -[Sidenote: The thinking that ripens into knowing.] - -Thinking that ripens in knowing involves comparison, discrimination, and -formation of judgments. Through the detection of likeness and unlikeness -in objects and their relations, judgments are formed, inferences are -made, and conclusions are drawn, which mark the transition from thinking -to knowing. Discrimination, identification, judgment, reasoning, -definition, division, and classification mark the stages through which -the mind passes in thinking things, their relations, more especially -their causes, effects, laws, and ends. Analysis and synthesis, induction -and deduction, are the processes by which the intellect explores the -content and extent of concepts, and passes to general principles and -truths, and to their applications in thought and action. As processes of -mental activity, these are discussed in detail by the psychologist. The -laws of thought to which they must conform in order to be correct are set -forth in treatises on logic. It would be a mistake to underestimate the -value of a knowledge of logic and psychology; but neither of them can -supply the place and function of the living teacher. He who would learn -to think in some special line of research should go to a master of that -specialty, learn of him what is well established in the chosen field of -study, imbibe his methods of work, think his thoughts, catch his spirit, -and follow his advice until the hour for independent investigation comes. -Great is the tonic effect of a university atmosphere; but greater still -is the bracing influence of the atmosphere created by a specialist who is -both a master in his department and a master in the art of teaching. The -choice of a teacher is of more account than the choice of a university, -either at home or abroad. - -[Sidenote: Knowing involves more than mere thinking.] - -Thinking is not the whole of knowing. Feeling and willing play an -important part in thinking and knowing. Words like heretic, sceptic, -and sophist have a history which shows the distrust of mankind in pure -intellectual effort. It would be hard to find a better commentary on the -effect of a perverse heart upon the operations of the intellect than the -following paragraph from Max Müller, although it was penned for a purpose -entirely different from the use here made of it. - -“No title could have been more honorable at first than was that of -Sophistes. It was applied to the greatest thinkers, such as Socrates and -Plato; nay, it was not considered irreverent to apply it to the Creator -of the Universe. Afterwards it sank in value because applied to one who -cared neither for truth nor for wisdom, but only for victory, till to be -called a sophist became almost an insult. Again, what name could have -been more creditable in its original acceptation than that of sceptic? -It meant thoughtful, reflective, and was a name given to philosophers -who carefully looked at all the bearings of a case before they ventured -to pronounce a positive opinion. And now a sceptic is almost a term -of reproach, very much like heretic,—a word which likewise began by -conveying what was most honorable, a power to choose between right and -wrong, till it was stamped with the meaning of choosing from sheer -perversity what the majority holds to be wrong.”[50] - -There are realms in which thought cannot beget knowledge of the truth -until there is a radical change in the wishes and desires of the heart, -in the choice and alms of the will, in the movings of the inmost depths -of the soul. - - - - -XVIII - -THINKING AND FEELING - - There is much contention among men whether thought or feeling - is the better; but feeling is the bow and thought the arrow; - and every good archer must have both. Alone, one is as helpless - as the other. The head gives artillery; the heart, powder. The - one aims, and the other fires. - - BEECHER. - - It may be noted that medical men, who are a scientific - class, and, therefore, more than commonly aware of the great - importance of disinterestedness in intellectual action, never - trust their own judgment when they feel the approach of - disease. They know that it is difficult for a man, however - learned in medicine, to arrive at accurate conclusions about - the state of a human body that concerns him so nearly as his - own, even though the person who suffers has the advantage of - actually experiencing the morbid sensations. - - HAMERTON. - - When pupils are encouraged to make for themselves fresh - combinations of things already known, additional progress is - certain. Variety of exercise in this way is as attractive to - children as many of their games. If, when such exercises are - given, the rivalry involved in taking places were discontinued, - and all extraneous excitement avoided, the play of intelligence - would bring an ample reward. I plead for discontinuance of - rivalry in such exercises, because, while it stimulates - some, in other cases it hinders and even stops the action - of intelligence. If any teacher doubts this, he may subject - a class to experiment by watching the faces of the pupils, - and next by asking from the child who has been corrected an - explanation of the reason for the correction. Hurry in such - things is an injury, and so is all commingling of antagonistic - motives. All fear hinders intellectual action, and the fear - of wounded ambition offers no exception to the rule. The fear - of being punished is more seriously detrimental than any - other form of fear which can be stirred. It is essentially - antagonistic to the action of intelligence. Let mind have free - play. - - CALDERWOOD. - - -XVIII - -THINKING AND FEELING - -[Sidenote: Bodily conditions.] - -In all our thinking it is very important to get a clear and full vision -of the thing to be known. This is not always as easy as it seems. Like -Nelson in the battle of Copenhagen, we may consciously turn the blind eye -towards what we do not like and exclaim, “I do not see it.” The lenses -through which we gaze may be green, or smoked, or ill-adjusted, and thus -without suspecting it we may see things in false colors or distorted -shapes. Our bodily condition may color everything we see and think. In -health and high animal spirits every thought is rose-colored. In periods -of disease and depression everything we think seems to pass, “like a -great bruise, through yellow, green, blue, purple, to black. A liver -complaint causes the universe to be shrouded in gray; and the gout covers -it with inky pall, and makes us think our best friends little better than -fiends in disguise.” - -[Sidenote: Prejudice.] - -One of the greatest hinderances to correct thinking is prejudice. Hence -all who have presumed to give advice on the conduct of the understanding -have had something to say concerning prejudice. Bacon has a chapter -on the idols of the mind, and Locke contends that we should never be -in love with any opinion. In a charming little volume on the “Art of -Thinking,” Knowlson has a chapter in which he enumerates and discusses -the prejudices arising from birth, nationality, temperament, theory, and -unintelligent conservatism. The list might easily be enlarged. Close -analysis must convince any one that feeling strengthens all forms of -prejudice, and there are very few, if any, fields of thought in which -it is not essential for the attainment of truth to divest ourselves -of preconceived notions and the resultant feelings, and to weigh the -arguments on both sides of a question before reaching a conclusion. - -[Sidenote: The wishes of the heart and the conclusions of the intellect.] - -A student may take up geometry with a feeling of prejudice for or against -the study, based upon what he has heard from others concerning its -difficulties or the teacher who gives the instruction; but after he has -mastered the demonstration of a theorem he does not lie awake at night -wishing the opposite were true. In the realms of mathematics the wishes -of the heart are not in conflict with the conclusions of the intellect. -In the domain of ethical, social, historical, or religious truth the head -often says one thing and the heart another. “We see plainly enough what -we ought to think or do, but we feel an irresistible inclination to think -or do something else.” In most of the instances in which the study of -science has led to agnosticism the wish was father to the thought. When -two men argue the same question, weighing the same arguments and reaching -opposite conclusions, as did Stonewall Jackson and his father-in-law at -the outbreak of the Civil War, the inclinations and wishes of the heart -must have influenced their thinking. - -[Sidenote: Feeling an element in all mental activity.] - -Feeling is an element in all forms of mental activity. The intellect -never acts without stirring the emotions. The teacher who reproved a -pupil for showing signs of pleasure and delight over the reasoning of -Euclid, saying, “Euclid knows no emotion,” must have been a novice in the -art of introspection. Who cannot recall the thrill of delight with which -he first finished the proof of the Pythagorean proposition? Mathematics -is considered difficult; the emotions connected with victory and mastery -sustain the student as he advances from conquest to conquest. The effort -which some thinkers make to reduce the phenomena of the universe to a -few universal principles is, without doubt, sustained and stimulated by -a feeling that there must be unity in the midst of the most manifold -diversity. - -[Sidenote: Descartes.] - -Scientists and philosophers are prone to imagine themselves free from -the prejudices which warp the thinking of the common mind. Descartes -started to divest himself of all preconceived notions; yet he could not -divest himself of the notion that he was immensely superior to other men. -“This French philosopher regarded himself as almost infallible, and had -a scorn of all his contemporaries. He praised Harvey, but says he only -learned a single point from him; Galileo was only good in music, and here -he attributed to him the elder Galileo’s work; Pascal and Campanella are -pooh-poohed. Here is an instance of how pride in one’s own work may beget -a cheap cynicism with regard to the work of others; and how as a feeling -it blinds the mind to excellences outside those we have agreed to call -our own.” Of men in general Jevons, in his treatise on the “Physical -Sciences,”[51] says,— - -“It is difficult to find persons who can with perfect fairness register -facts for and against their own peculiar views. Among uncultivated -observers, the tendency to remark favorable and to forget unfavorable -events is so great that no reliance can be placed upon their supposed -observations. Thus arises the enduring fallacy that the changes of the -weather coincide in some way with the changes of the moon, although exact -and impartial registers give no countenance to the fact. The whole race -of prophets and quacks live on the overwhelming effect of one success -compared with hundreds of failures which are unmentioned or forgotten. -As Bacon says, ‘Men mark when they hit, and never mark when they miss.’ -And we should do well to bear in mind the ancient story, quoted by Bacon, -of one who in Pagan times was shown a temple with a picture of all the -persons who had been saved from shipwreck after paying their vows. When -asked whether he did not now acknowledge the power of the gods, ‘Ay,’ -he answered; ‘but where are they painted that were drowned after their -vows?’” - -Sometimes the feeling that a given way of looking at things is -undoubtedly correct prevents the mind from thinking at all. A lady -claimed that she had been taught to accept the statements of the Bible -in their literal sense, and that in this belief she was going to live -and die. She was asked to read the twenty-third Psalm. At the end of -the first verse she was asked whether she could be anything else than a -sheep if the Lord was literally her Shepherd. When, a little farther on, -she was asked in what green pastures she had been lying down, she burst -into tears. Her condition, and that of hundreds of thousands of others, -is correctly given in the opening pages of J. S. Mill’s “Subjection of -Women.”[52] - -[Sidenote: J. S. Mill on the influence of feeling upon thinking.] - -“So long as an opinion is strongly rooted in the feelings, it gains -rather than loses in stability by having a preponderating weight -of argument against it. For if it were accepted as the result of -argument, the refutation of the argument might shake the solidity of -the conviction; but when it rests solely on feeling, the worse it fares -in argumentative contest the more persuaded its adherents are that -their feeling must have some deeper ground which the arguments do not -reach; and while the feeling remains, it is always throwing up fresh -intrenchments of argument to fill any breach made in the old.” - -[Sidenote: Regard for truth.] - -When a man’s opinions are, as he thinks, grounded in first principles, -it is but natural that he should be unwilling to abandon them without -a struggle to intrench himself behind impregnable arguments. If he has -reached his conclusions as the result of long and careful inquiry, he has -a right to hold on to them with more than ordinary tenacity. The same -regard for truth which led him to form an opinion should, however, make -him willing to change whenever he finds himself in the wrong. He should -avoid the frame of mind of the Scotch lady who, when it was charged that -she was not open to conviction, exclaimed, “Not open to conviction! I -scorn the imputation. But,” added she, after a moment’s pause, “show me -the man who can convince me.” The secret of this tenacity of opinion is -not love of truth, but love of self,—in one word, pride. - -[Sidenote: Emotions are helpful.] - -[Sidenote: Dr. Brumbaugh on the emotions.] - -In view of the hinderances which certain kinds or degrees of feeling -throw into the way of thinking, it might be inferred that the thinker -must suppress the element of feeling in his inner life. No greater -mistake could be made. If the Creator endowed man with the power to -think, to feel, and to will, these several activities of the mind are -not designed to be in conflict, and so long as any one of them is -not perverted or allowed to run to excess, it necessarily aids and -strengthens the others in their normal functions. Whilst it is a duty to -overcome prejudice, fear, embarrassment, anxiety, and other emotions or -degrees of emotion which interfere with our ability to think correctly, -especially when face to face with an audience or with our peers and -superiors, it is equally a duty to cultivate the emotions which -stimulate thinking and strengthen the will. Without the ability to feel -strongly, it is impossible to stir the hearts of an audience. A strong -character is impossible without strong emotion. Jesus could weep and -denounce. He showed the strongest emotion in his public discourses and -at all the great turning-points of his life. The men and women who have -done most for the race showed the element of strong feeling in their -thinking and in their efforts at philanthropy and reform. It is the -feeling of patriotism that sustains the soldier on the field of battle -and the statesman in the midst of public criticism and personal abuse. -According to Plato, the feeling with which education begins is wonder. -“The elementary school,” says Dr. Brumbaugh, “does its best work when it -creates a desire to learn, not when it satisfies the learner.” Teachers -everywhere are beginning to see that it is the mission of the elementary -school to beget a desire for knowledge that will carry the pupil onward -and upward, and not to make him feel satisfied with a mere knowledge of -the rudiments, so that he will leave the school at the first opportunity -to earn a penny. - -Dr. Brumbaugh further says,— - -“We must recognize the emotional life as the basis of appeal for all high -acting and high thinking. We can never make men by ignoring an essential -element in manliness. To live well, we must know clearly, feel keenly, -and act nobly; and, indeed, we shall have noble action only as we have -gladsome action,—action inspired of feeling, not of thought. The church -made men of great power because it made men of great feeling.” - -[Sidenote: Playing upon the feelings.] - -The close connection between thinking and feeling cannot be ignored -without serious detriment to the intellectual development of the pupil. -Some teachers play upon the feelings in ways that prevent accurate -and effective thinking. The tones of voice in which they speak, their -manner of putting questions and administering discipline, their lack of -self-control, and their frantic efforts to get and keep order cause the -pupils to feel ill at ease and destroy the calmness of soul, which is -the first condition of logical thinking. The skilful teacher calls into -play feelings like joy, hope, patriotism, that stimulate and invigorate -the whole intellectual life; he is extremely careful not to stir emotions -like fear, anger, and hate, which hinder clear and vigorous thinking. - -[Sidenote: Responsibility for failure at examinations.] - -Feeling plays an important part in the examinations by superintendents -for the promotion of pupils, or by State boards whose function it is -to license persons to teach or preach, to practise law, medicine, or -dentistry, or to test the fitness of applicants for some branch of civil -or military service. Examiners are often responsible for the failure -of those whom they examine. If the first questions arouse the fear of -failure, causing the mind to picture the disappointment and displeasure -of parents and teachers and friends, and the other evils which result -from a loss of class standing, the resulting emotions hinder effective -thinking and thus prevent the pupil from doing justice to himself and -his teachers. The expert seeks to lift those whom he examines above all -feelings of embarrassment. With a friendly smile, a kind word, and a few -easy questions he puts the mind at ease, dissipates the dread of failure, -and gets results which are an agreeable surprise to all concerned. If he -cannot otherwise make those before him work to the best advantage, he -will even sacrifice his dignity by the use of a good-natured joke which -turns the laugh upon himself or upon some other member of the board of -examiners. Jokes at the expense of any one of those examined are a -species of cruelty which cannot be too severely condemned, to say nothing -of the effect upon the results of the examination. - -[Sidenote: Speculative thinking.] - -[Sidenote: Darwin’s experience.] - -Within certain limits thinking begets feeling, and feeling stimulates -thinking. Beyond these limits each interferes with the other. When -feeling rises to the height of passion it beclouds the judgment and -prevents reflection. Certain kinds of speculative thinking leave the -heart cold and ultimately destroy the better emotions and the warmer -affections. “It is terrible,” said the daughter of a voluminous writer -on theology, “when a man feels a perpetual impulse to write. It makes -him a stranger in his own house, and deprives wife and children of -their husband and father.” Abstract thinking may be indulged in to the -exclusion of the tastes and emotions which help to make life worth -living. The oft-quoted experience of Darwin is a case in point. In -his autobiography he gives his experience, showing the effect of his -exclusive devotion to scientific pursuits upon his ability to enjoy -poetry, music, and pictures. “Up to the age of thirty and beyond it -poetry of many kinds gave me great pleasure, and even as a school-boy I -took intense delight in Shakespeare, especially in the historical plays. -I have also said that pictures formerly gave me considerable and music -very great delight. But now for many years I cannot endure to read a -line of poetry. I have tried lately to read Shakespeare, and found it so -intolerably dull that it nauseated me. I have also almost lost my taste -for pictures or music. Music generally sets me thinking too energetically -on what I have been at work on, instead of giving me pleasure.... My mind -seems to have become a kind of machine for grinding general laws out of -large collections of facts; but why this should have caused the atrophy -of that part of the brain alone, on which the higher tastes depend, I -cannot conceive.... If I had to live my life again, I would have made a -rule to read some poetry and listen to some music at least once a week; -for perhaps the parts of my brain now atrophied would thus have been -kept alive through use. The loss of these tastes is a loss of happiness, -and may possibly be injurious to the intellect, and more probably to the -moral character by enfeebling the emotional part of our nature.”[53] - -[Sidenote: The sight of an audience.] - -Every teacher has both felt and witnessed the effect of embarrassment -upon ability to think. To face an audience of a thousand people was -embarrassing to some excellent thinkers like Melanchthon and Washington. -On the other hand, the sight of a multitude of listening, upturned faces -stimulates natures and temperaments like that of Martin Luther and -Patrick Henry, causing them to think more vigorously and to feel more -deeply. - -[Sidenote: Great thoughts.] - -Great thoughts spring from the heart. This is certainly true of thoughts -which have lifted men to higher planes of effort. And it is true of the -best thoughts and volitions which a pupil puts forth. The desire for -knowledge may develop into the love of truth. The student is half made as -soon as he seeks knowledge for its own sake and values the possession of -truth above all other worldly possessions. - -[Sidenote: Interest.] - -The Herbartians deserve praise for the attention they have given the -doctrine of interest. The older text-books on psychology seldom refer -to interest as an important element in the education of the child. The -greatest boon which can come to a child is happiness, and this was -impossible in the days when fear of the rod held sway in the school-room. -Then children looked forward to the school with feelings of dread; they -went with fear and trembling. From the day that the children became -interested in their lessons the rod was no longer required. Instead of -crying because they must go to school, they now cry because they cannot -go. Through interest the school becomes the place to which children best -like to go. - -[Sidenote: Interest in a clock.] - -A boy who was pronounced incorrigible, and who had been transferred -from school to school because he could not get along with his teachers, -at last met a teacher who discovered that he could take apart and put -together watches and clocks. She allowed him to fix her clock, and thus -won his heart. She asked him to explain to the school the mechanism of -instruments for keeping time. His interest in clocks she connected with -the numbers twelve and sixty, then with the time-table, with denominate -numbers, and finally with the whole subject of arithmetic. Interest -in the exercises of the school converted the incorrigible boy into an -obedient and studious pupil.[54] - -There is no more important element of emotion for teachers to cultivate -than that which enters into the feeling of interest. Interest sustains -the power of thought, diminishes the need of effort in the direction of -voluntary attention, and lies at the basis of all successful teaching, -book-making, and public speaking. The teacher, the writer, the speaker -who wearies us has lost his power over us. The lesson, the book, the -sermon that interests us has found an entrance to our minds; the greater -the interest the more potent and profound the influence upon the inner -life. - -[Sidenote: Interest conditions ability to think.] - -The moment a teacher begins to lose interest in a subject, that moment -he begins to lose his ability to teach that subject. From this point of -view the recent graduate has a manifest advantage over the old pedagogue -whose interest in the subjects of instruction has been dulled by frequent -repetition. The latter can keep himself from reaching the dead-line -by keeping up his studies in the allied departments of knowledge, and -by watching the growth of mind and heart in his pupils,—a growth that -always reveals something new and interesting by reason of the boundless -possibilities that slumber in every human being. The interest in the -growing mind is spontaneously transferred to the branches of knowledge -which stimulate that growth, and, in ways that no one can explain, the -interest which the teacher feels is communicated to the pupils whose -minds are prepared to grasp his instruction. - -[Sidenote: Fiction.] - -By far the larger proportion of books taken from our free libraries are -books of fiction,—books which appeal to our emotional life. It shows -that even those who are habitual readers can be best reached through the -emotions. Of course, the act of reading proves that their feelings are -reached through the intellect; yet it cannot be denied that emotion is -the element of their inner life which sustains the interest in the novel. -Appeals to the intellect which do not touch the heart fail to reach the -deepest depths of our being, and hence fail to stimulate in others the -productive powers of the soul. Only thoughts which come from the heart -can reach the heart. This is true of the child and the adult, of the -reader and the listener, of the scientist and the man of affairs, of the -author and the editor, of the orator and the philosopher, of the teacher, -and, in short, of all whose duty it is to stimulate the thinking and to -influence the conduct of their fellow-men. - - - - -XIX - -THINKING AND WILLING - - Strong reasons make strong actions. - - SHAKESPEARE. - - Bad thoughts quickly ripen into bad actions. - - BISHOP PORTENS. - - The man of thought strikes deepest, and strikes safely. - - SAVAGE. - - Reason is the director of man’s will, discovering in action - what is good; for the laws of well-doing are the dictates of - right reason. - - HOOKER. - - -XIX - -THINKING AND WILLING - -Much thinking is spontaneous, in the sense that there is no conscious -effort of the will to direct and control the activity of the mind. Under -normal conditions the stream of thought flows onward, like the current -of water in the bed of a river. When the onward movement is interrupted, -an act of volition may be needed to bring the mind back to the regular -channel. There are forms of intellectual activity called dreaming, -reverie, and meditation, in which the ideas follow each other without -any effort to regulate them. Often they are fanciful, incoherent, and -illogical; they are suggested by passing objects, by musical sounds, -perhaps by the stimulating influence of a drug or narcotic. Few can -start a train of thought, winding up their minds as they would a clock, -and then letting it run down until the discourse, lecture, or newspaper -article is complete, no conscious effort of the will being required to -keep the mind from wandering. This may be partly a gift of nature, but -mostly it is the result of discipline. - -[Sidenote: Discipline.] - -[Sidenote: Mental discipline.] - -What is discipline? We speak of mental discipline, of military -discipline, of family discipline. What is the element which all these -have in common? An army is under discipline when every soldier and every -officer is subject to the will of his superior, so that the entire -body of men can be moved against the foe at the will of the commanding -general. A family is under discipline when the entire household is under -the control of the head of the house. The school is under discipline when -all the pupils are subject to the will of the teacher, and to the rules -which he has laid down for the regulation of conduct. The mind is under -discipline when its powers are under the control of the will, and its -activities are in accord with the laws of thought. It is important to -ascertain the laws of thought which underlie correct thinking. These are -developed and discussed in treatises on logic,—a science that should be -mastered not only by those who must meet others in the field of argument -and controversy, but by all who seek to regulate the thinking of their -own minds, or to aid others in the formation of correct habits of thought. - -[Sidenote: Habit.] - -Fortunately, the law of habit here comes into play to lighten the -conscious effort of the will. When the intellect, through the guidance of -a conscious will, has acted according to the forms of thought in which -the logician can find no fallacies, it tends to act again in that way, -and the next time a less expenditure of conscious effort is required. The -thinking of the teacher, if correct and logical, tends to beget correct -and logical habits of thought on the part of the pupil. It is a piece -of good fortune to fall under the dominating influence of a towering -intellect. For a time the growing mind that is engaged in thinking -the thoughts, and mastering the speculations, the reflections, the -reasonings, of a master who is such not merely in name, but also in fact, -may be in a subjection very like unto intellectual slavery. Sooner or -later the day of emancipation arrives; and those who were not under the -invigorating tuition of such an intellectual giant are surprised at the -thought-power developed by the youth whose equal they hitherto fancied -themselves to be. - -[Sidenote: Volitional control.] - -Those who expect to spend their days in teaching, lecturing, preaching, -pleading, or writing have great reason to strive after the discipline -which results in placing all the powers of mind and heart under the -control of the will. The feelings which interfere with reflection should -be repressed and expelled by strenuous effort. The emotions which -stimulate thinking should be cherished and fostered. The inner nexus, -which binds ideas in logical trains of thought, should be followed until -the habit becomes second nature. - -Thinking which goes forward according to some established habit -requires less effort than intellectual work that is accompanied with -much volitional effort. This fact serves as a valuable indication to -men who must do intellectual work for the press or the pulpit or the -lecture-room. Perhaps no one is better qualified to speak on this point -than Dr. Carpenter, who studied mental action from the physiological -point of view, and whose publications show the quality, as well as the -quantity, of his intellectual labor. He says,— - -[Sidenote: Dr. Carpenter.] - -“To individuals of ordinary mental activity who have been trained in the -habit of methodical and connected thinking, a very considerable amount -of _work_ is quite natural; and when such persons are in good bodily -health, and the subject of their labor is congenial to them,—especially -if it be one that has been chosen by themselves, as furnishing a -centre of attraction around which their thoughts spontaneously tend to -range themselves,—their intellectual operations require but little of -the controlling or directing power of the will, and may be continued -for long periods together without fatigue. But from the moment when -an indisposition is experienced to keep the attention fixed upon the -subject, and the thoughts wander from it unless coerced by the will, the -mental activity loses its spontaneous or automatic character; and (as in -the act of walking) more effort is required to maintain it volitionally -during a brief period, and more fatigue is subsequently experienced from -such exertion than would be involved in the continuance of an automatic -operation through a period many times as long. Hence he has found it -practically the greatest economy of mental labor to work vigorously when -he feels disposed to do so, and to refrain from exertion, so far as -possible, _when it is felt to be an exertion_. Of course, this rule is by -no means universally applicable; for there are many individuals who would -pass their whole time in listless inactivity if not actually spurred -on by the feeling of necessity. But it holds good for those who are -sufficiently attracted by objects of interest before them, or who have in -their worldly position a sufficiently strong motive to exertion to make -them feel that they _must_ work; the question with them being, _how_ they -can attain their desired results with the least expenditure of mental -effort.”[55] - -[Sidenote: Jokes.] - -There is a danger to which public speakers are exposed, against which -the efforts of a resolute will are not too potent. To capture a crowd -that is more easily moved by jokes than by argument, the speaker resorts -to sallies of wit and humor and turns the laugh upon an opponent. The -temptation to cultivate one’s gifts in this direction is very strong, -and when yielded to, it destroys the powers of logical reflection and -consecutive thought. Wit is illogical, because it introduces into -the current of thought what is foreign to the subject in hand, the -incongruity giving rise to the laughter. Wit and humor serve a useful -purpose in acting as a safety-valve to let off the discontent which -accumulates in the human breast, and may be used for that purpose with -great effect. But they should never be allowed to divert the stream -of thought from its logical channel. The reputation for wit and humor -may dispose people to laugh at everything a man says. It destroys their -respect for his judgment and impairs his power to follow a line of -thought to its legitimate conclusion. The ability to discuss a theme in -all its bearings and details implies the power to investigate a subject -in its essence and relations, to resolve an idea into its elements, and -to present these in the form most easily understood,—an object which -is as far from the purposes of the funny man as the poles are from the -equator. - -[Sidenote: Forms of thought-expression.] - -[Sidenote: Thinking in action.] - -All thinking tends towards the expression of thought. “Every expression -of thought,” says Tracy, “whether it be word, or mark, or gesture, -is the result of an active will, and as such may be classed among -the movements.” Word, mark, and gesture do not exhaust the list of -movements by which the mind expresses thought. Every handicraft is a -form of expressing thought quite as important as writing and speaking -and gesticulating. The fine arts and the useful arts are so many ways -through which the will passes into thinking and issues in the expression -of thought. Movements for reform are the intense expressions of great -thoughts which have their origin in the heart. The men who spend their -lives in the atmosphere of colleges and universities are apt to be -satisfied if they have expressed their thoughts in a lecture or on the -printed page. They live in books, and their thinking terminates in books. -The thinking which issues in getting things done, in deeds, actions, -achievements, is undervalued and too often ignored. University men are -waking up to this defect in their thinking. They are throwing themselves -into movements for reform and giving the world splendid examples of the -translation of thought into vigorous action. The effort to carry theory -into practice reacts powerfully upon the mind, forces the individual to -see things as they are, and saves him from the habit of looking only -for things which the schools have taught him to expect. When thinking -issues in doing, the process promotes intellectual honesty. This remark -is especially applicable to exercises in which the hand makes in wood, -metal, marble, or clay what the mind has conceived. The execution cannot -be accurate unless the thinking has been accurate and satisfactory. -Drawing is a universal language. It imposes upon the mind a degree of -accuracy which is wanting in the fleeting spoken word or even in the more -permanent printed or written sentences. - -[Sidenote: Thinking in business.] - -The movements in manual training are an excellent preparation for the -movements in the handicrafts and the daily occupations by which men gain -the necessaries and the comforts of life. Ten thousand men are active -in supplying our breakfast-table, and many thousand more in providing -clothing, shelter, light, heat, and the manifold necessities and luxuries -of modern society. All these involve thinking quite as useful, as -logical, and as effective as the thinking which ends in talk or printer’s -ink. The relation of thinking to doing and the reflex influence which the -latter exerts upon the former is seen in the solution of problems and in -all exercises involving the application of knowledge. Manual training -is really and primarily a training in thinking, but it is the kind of -thinking most closely related to thinking in things, and its value in -education is so great that it has led to the formulation of the maxim, -We learn to do by doing,—a maxim which deserves separate consideration, -because, as usually applied, it is taken to mean that doing by the hand -necessarily and inevitably leads to thinking and knowing. - -[Sidenote: Growth of the will.] - -Another aspect of the relation of thinking to willing claims our -attention. Thinking is an important element in the growth of the will. -The education of the will is coming to be recognized as a matter -of supreme importance. The development of character is everywhere -emphasized. No teacher in these days regards intellectual training -as the sole or chief aim of the school. The philosopher is no longer -regarded as the highest type of humanity. The age demands that thought -shall pass into volition, and that volition shall manifest itself in -action. The executive is not satisfied with the investigation of a -subject in its essence and relations, with the elaboration of thought -into a system; he must get things done. Mere thinking he despises. The -philosopher he regards as a man troubled with ideas, the poet as a man -troubled with fancies and rhymes; he hates men who let their minds “go -astray into regions not peopled with real things, animate or inanimate, -even idealized, but with personified shadows created by the illusions of -metaphysics or by the mere entanglement of words, and think these shadows -the proper objects of the highest, the most transcendental philosophy.” -And the sympathies of the multitudes are on the side of the executive in -his exaltation of the will as the chief element of utility and success. - -The acts of the will should be guided by intelligence. The will is weak -and vacillating if the ends to be accomplished are not clearly conceived, -if the purposes to be accomplished are not definitely thought out. -Thinking is the guide to willing. Thought gives direction to volition. - -[Sidenote: Self-gratification.] - -[Sidenote: Self-denial.] - -[Sidenote: The right.] - -There are successive stages in the growth of the will as clearly defined -as the activities of memory and imagination. In the first or lowest stage -the aim is some form of happiness. In the second stage the will acts -under the influence of some ethical idea, commonly finding expression -in a maxim like the command, Thou shalt not steal, or in some fixed -occupation like a trade or farm work. In the third the will acts under -the inspiration of the good or its opposite, and from motives grounded -in right or wrong. In all these stages of growth thinking is a most -important factor. Let us go into details for purposes of illustration. -The human will in its process of development starts on a physical rather -than a spiritual basis. On the one hand a want is felt and on the other -an impulse towards the satisfaction of that want. In course of time this -impulse or appetence assumes the form of intelligent or conscious purpose -looking towards the gratification of felt wants, and then the will begins -to show itself in the form of clear, definite volitions and actions. The -strength of the will depends largely upon these impulses or appetences; -and their strength in turn depends upon the health, the temperament, the -organization (physical and psychical) of the individual. If by careful -diet, exercise, or otherwise, we invigorate these, we thereby furnish -capital that will in after years bear compound interest in the form of -strong will-power. If the diet, exercise, play, sleep, and work are not -properly regulated, first by the parent, the nurse, and the teacher, and -later by the individual himself, the appetences develop into appetites -that enslave the will and seriously interfere with its further growth. As -the power to think is developed, the will passes over into a higher stage -of activity. The very longing for happiness leads the child to impose -restrictions upon itself. It feels happy if it can secure the approbation -of those with whom it associates. If we show our displeasure at something -it has done, the little philosopher begins to practise self-denial in -certain directions for the purpose of regaining and retaining our good -will. The second stage is now reached in which self-gratification gives -place to self-denial, the will acting under the influence of one or more -ethical ideas. The child at school is lifted upon this loftier plane -by the circumstances which surround him; it must practise the school -virtues,—punctuality, industry, obedience, and the like; it accepts -certain forms of self-restraint in keeping quiet, in abstaining from -play, in observing the rules of the school. Where the discipline is rigid -and the instruction lacks interest, it may even conceive of the school as -a mere place of self-denial and self-restraint. “Why do you come here?” -asked a director. The little boy replied, “We come here to sit and wait -for school to let out.” The hours at school can be sweetened by exercises -in thinking and expressing thought to such an extent that the school -becomes the place to which children best like to go. Some full-grown men -have not advanced very far beyond this second stage in the growth of -the will. They follow some regular occupation as the boy does in going -to school; they practise certain forms of virtue,—say honesty, so that -you could intrust to them your pocket-book with perfect safety,—but -they break the Sabbath, use God’s name in vain, and commit daily many -other sins and transgressions. Occasionally one finds a school in which -no pupil would dare to be caught telling a lie, and yet the moral tone -is low, there being vices which, like a cankerworm, eat out the moral -life of the school. The teacher should not feel satisfied until he has -raised the pupil to the third stage, where the will is brought under the -inspiration of the good, and right becomes the law of life. - -Upon this highest plane different phases of development can be detected. -The law of right may brandish the avenging rod of conscience and drive -the individual into paths of rectitude. The idea of duty thus operating -alone may reduce him to the subservience of a slave and prevent him from -reaching the high stature of perfect human freedom. This kind of slavery -is apt to be followed by a struggle in which the lower nature seeks to -assert itself against the higher, and if the latter conquers, the person -is apt to be elated with the feeling of victory. Whenever you hear a man -boast of the sacrifices he has made in his devotion to duty, you can -rest assured he has not yet reached that lofty elevation in will-culture -upon which the person does right spontaneously and without effort, and -never dreams of having made a sacrifice in the performance of the hardest -duties. - -[Sidenote: Evil.] - -Of course, the development from the first stage may move in the opposite -direction. If the appetences are gratified beyond the requirements of -self-preservation, or of the well-being of the child, they grow into -uncontrollable desires and passions; the individual sinks deeper and -deeper into selfishness. He may deny himself for the sake of some -ambition, or vice, or wicked end which the soul cherishes; then, unless -lifted up by the grace of God, he will ultimately land in a state -bordering on that of Mephistopheles in Goethe’s Faust, a character who -found pleasure in human suffering, and whose will was constantly under -the direction and inspiration of the principle of evil. He will at last -become like Milton’s Satan, who exclaimed, “Evil, be thou my good.” -College boys who delight in hazing innocent freshmen have gone far -towards this loathsome stage of moral degradation, the lowest which the -will can reach in its downward career. - -[Sidenote: Thought and volition.] - -Now, it is easy to see the relation of thinking to these several stages -of will-development. Volition presupposes something to be done, an end -to be sought and accomplished. If the will is to act steadily in the -endeavor to realize this end, the end must be clearly thought and held -before the soul in definite form. To do the right implies that the right -be known as the result of right thinking. A soul ignorant of right cannot -be expected to practise the virtues which are grounded in the law of -right. On the other hand, many forms of evil are never conceived by young -people unless suggested to them by their superiors. - -Volition issues in doing, and doing is a powerful stimulus to thinking. -Making things out of wood, metal, marble, wax, papier-maché, or even -out of paper is genuine thinking in things. It is a species of doing -which flows from thinking through willing and reacts upon the process -of thinking. To see how a thing is made is better than to be told -how, but to make it by our own effort, skill, and thought is vastly -more educative than seeing and hearing. Manual training tends to make -the pupil intellectually honest. He cannot get away from a thought -expressed in wood or other material as he can from a thought expressed -in language which may suffice to suggest his idea, but not to give it -adequate expression. This influence of doing upon thinking has led to -the formulation of the maxim, We learn to do by doing,—a maxim whose -limitations and legitimate meaning it will be necessary to discuss in a -separate lecture. - - - - -XX - -THINKING AND DOING - - When we turn to modern pedagogics, we see how enormously the - field of reactive conduct has been extended by the introduction - of all those methods of concrete object-teaching which are the - glory of our contemporary schools. Verbal reactions, useful as - they are, are insufficient. The pupil’s words may be right, but - the concepts corresponding to them are often direfully wrong. - In a modern school, therefore, they form only a small part of - what the pupil is required to do. He must keep note-books, - make drawings, plans, and maps, take measurements, enter the - laboratory and perform experiments, consult authorities, and - write essays. He must do, in his fashion, what is often laughed - at by outsiders when it appears in prospectuses under the - title of original work; but what is really the only possible - training for the doing of original work thereafter. The most - colossal improvement which recent years have seen in secondary - education lies in the introduction of manual-training schools; - not because they will give us a people more handy and practical - for domestic life, and better skill in trades, but because they - will give us citizens with an entirely different intellectual - life. Laboratory work and shop work engender a habit of - observation, a knowledge of the difference between accuracy and - vagueness, and an insight into nature’s complexity and into the - inadequacy of all abstract verbal accounts of real phenomena, - which once brought into the mind remain there as life-long - possessions. They confer precision; because, if you are _doing_ - a thing, you must do it definitely right or definitely wrong. - They give honesty; for, when you express yourself by making - things, and not by using words, it becomes impossible to - dissimulate your vagueness or ignorance by ambiguity. They - beget a habit of self-reliance; they keep the interest and - attention always cheerfully engaged, and reduce the teacher’s - disciplinary function to a minimum. - - WILLIAM JAMES. - - -XX - -THINKING AND DOING - -[Sidenote: Saying and doing.] - -The best methods of instruction in the ordinary school aim at the -expression of thought in language. If a thing has been well said, the -teacher and the examiner are apt to make no further inquiries. Although -the expression of thought in written or spoken language is a species -of doing, there is often a wide chasm between getting a thing said and -having it done. Many of the reforms and revolutions thought out by -university professors never get beyond the room in which they lecture or -the page on which they formulate their ideas. The freedom of speech in -the universities never troubles a despotic government until the ideas -of the professors and students show signs of passing into the life of -the nation. The difference between speech and action, between the man -of words and the man of deeds, has long been felt and emphasized. The -favorite method of teaching by lectures, and requiring the pupil to -take notes, fails utterly if it stops with mere telling how a thing -is to be done, and is not followed by actual doing on the part of the -learner. Work in the shop, in the field, and in the factory often proves -more effective in fitting a boy to earn a living than the theoretical -instruction of the schools. The advantage of doing over telling as a -means of learning has led to the formulation of the maxim, “We learn to -do by doing,” and some educational reformers have announced the maxim as -a principle of education universal in its application. Hence it is worth -while to clarify its meaning and to ascertain its limitations. In so -doing, we shall get a glimpse of the true relation between thinking and -doing. - -[Sidenote: The maxim applied to medicine and surgery.] - -A young man possessed of unbounded faith in this maxim came to town for -the purpose of practising medicine and surgery. He announced that if -any persons got sick he proposed to give them medicine in the hope of -learning the physiological and therapeutic effects of the various drugs. -If any limbs were to be amputated, he was willing to try his hand, in the -hope of ultimately learning how to perform surgical operations. He was -too simple to succeed as a quack. He did not get a single patient; the -people wisely gave him no opportunity of learning to do by doing. - -[Sidenote: The maxim in the other professions.] - -Equally foolish were it thus to apply the maxim to any of the other -professions. Would you, with life or property at stake, allow a novice -to plead your cause at court in order that he might learn to plead by -pleading? Who would waste the golden Sabbath hours in listening to one -who was trying to learn to preach by preaching? The civilized world -regards knowledge, which is the product of the act of learning, as the -indispensable guide of those who offer their services at the bar, from -the pulpit, or in the sick-room. When a Yale professor was asked whether -study was required of those divinely called to preach, he replied that -he had read of but one instance in which the Lord condescended to speak -through the mouth of an ass. - -[Sidenote: Comenius.] - -Even an ass may learn to do some things by continually doing them in a -blind way, and that, too, in spite of his proverbial stubbornness; but -such learning by blind practice is unworthy of the school-life of a being -gifted with human intelligence, and capable, it may be, of filling a -profession. Instinct may guide a bee or a beaver: but knowledge should -guide man in the arts and habits which he acquires. This fact is not -ignored in the maxim as originally given by Comenius. “Things to be -done should be learned by doing them. Mechanics understand this well: -they do not give the apprentice a lecture upon their trade, but they -will let him see how they, as masters, do; then they place the tool in -his hands, teach him to use it and imitate them. Doing can be learned -only by doing, writing by writing, painting by painting, and so on.” -There is in this statement a clear recognition, on the one hand, of the -knowledge-getting which precedes and accompanies all intelligent doing, -and, on the other, of the practice which is needful for the attainment -of skill. The master mechanic seeks first to give his apprentice a clear -concept of what is to be done; and the knowledge thus acquired through -the eye, and perhaps partly through hearing directions and explanations, -is afterwards put into practice by the actual manipulation of tools and -materials. If the maxim had been allowed to stand in this, its original -form and meaning, no one could have objected to its use and application. -But when the attempt was made to elevate it into a principle of binding -force for all teaching; when, furthermore, the form was shortened so as -to widen the meaning, and the maxim was then applied to regulate the -acquisition of every form of human activity, both physical and mental, it -is not surprising that protests were heard, and the necessity was felt of -investigating the maxim for the purpose of ascertaining its limitations -and defining its meaning. - -[Sidenote: Value of the maxim.] - -Yet we must not fail to make grateful acknowledgment of the services to -education rendered by those who lifted the maxim into prominence. How -often were pupils expected to learn one thing by doing another. Drawing -was advocated because it would improve the penmanship. Silent reading or -thought-getting was to be learned by oral reading or thought-giving. The -alphabet was taught as if the names of the letters would make the child -familiar with the sounds. The idea of number was to be gotten by naming -the numbers or imitating the Arabic notation. Facility and accuracy in -the use of language were to be acquired from exercises in parsing and -analysis. Familiarity with birds, flowers, minerals, chemicals, etc., was -to be gained from the learned phraseology of the text-books. Sometimes -even the teachers knew very little more than the technical terms. When -the great ornithologist, Wilson, visited Princeton College, the professor -of natural history scarcely knew a sparrow from a woodpecker. A great -change has come over Princeton and all other higher institutions of -learning; and the new influence has been felt in our high schools, and -even in the grades below. - -[Sidenote: Maxims, principles.] - -Whilst cheerfully acknowledging the value of the maxim of Comenius, -we should, nevertheless, insist on the difference between a maxim -which may regulate our conduct in specific cases and a principle -which is an all-controlling guide in operations. Coleridge says, “A -maxim is a conclusion upon observation of matters of fact, and is -speculative; a principle has truth in itself, and is prospective.” It -is always dangerous to generalize upon facts observed in one realm of -investigation, and then to allow others to apply these general statements -to realms as diverse from the original field of observation as mind or -spirit is from matter. The disciples in such cases always manifest the -hidden weaknesses in the system of their master. They rush in where he -would have feared to tread. They push his language to extremes, from -which his deeper insight, broader vision, and larger experience would -have caused him to shrink. Comenius framed the maxim from the observation -of bodily acts; some seek to apply it to every form of human activity. -The original language has been twisted into a statement that sounds -paradoxical. “We learn to do by doing.” What can these words mean? If we -_can_ do a given thing, what need is there of learning to do that thing. -If we cannot do the thing to be learned by the doing of it, how can any -doing on our part issue in learning? Evidently the maxim in its modern -form, if it is at all valid, must partake of the nature of a paradox, -which, though seemingly absurd, is yet true in essence or fact. For -the purpose of testing the validity of a paradoxical statement, there -is no better way than to ascertain its possible meanings, to eliminate -those evidently not intended, and finally to investigate the one or more -senses or interpretations that may legitimately be put upon the language. -The investigation will, in this instance, reveal the relation existing -between doing and the act of learning. - -[Sidenote: Analysis of the maxim.] - -In the first place, the maxim cannot mean that we learn to do by every -kind of doing. The kind of doing by which the young man hoped to learn -medicine and surgery was ridiculed centuries ago; no one in our day would -advocate mere blind doing as a means of learning. The maxim must refer to -doing guided by an intelligent will. The doing must be guided by thinking -that is based upon correct and reliable data or premises. - -Again, the maxim cannot mean that we learn one thing by doing another. -The maxim was emphasized in protest against the absurdity of some of -our methods of teaching. It may happen that the learner accidentally -discovers one thing while seeking to find out some other thing; to expect -that this shall always be the case is to invite disappointment. For -instance, pupils do not learn to spell while studying books if attention -is absorbed in the meaning, and is not drawn, in separate exercises, to -the correct orthography of words that are apt to be misspelled. - -[Sidenote: Fatigue.] - -There is a third limitation to the maxim on the side of attention. How, -for instance, is the art of writing acquired? It is undoubtedly true that -a boy cannot learn to write without himself writing; it is equally true -that he is not always learning or improving in penmanship while he is -practising with his pen upon paper. From the teacher or the copy he gets -a concept of the letters to be made. The first efforts at imitation are -fraught with defects. The pupil must clearly recognize wherein he failed, -and earnestly strive to remedy the defects, if the next attempt is to -be an improvement. The maxim, if here applied, must mean that the pupil -learns to do by continually doing, as nearly as he can, the thing to be -done. With each step of progress, his concept of the form of the letters -and how to make them becomes more accurate; or, in other words, his power -and skill keep pace with his knowledge. Finally, after much practice, -the nerves and muscles which control the act of writing are properly -co-ordinated; the habit of writing with ease is acquired; the process -becomes largely subconscious, if not altogether automatic. The learner -has at length reached the stage in which his attention is no longer -concentrated upon the form and beauty of the letters, but rather upon -the thought to be expressed, and it is quite possible that henceforth -his chirography will grow more illegible the more he writes. Of course, -he is now learning the art of composing by composing; but he has ceased -to learn in the direction of his handwriting by writing, because the -attention is riveted upon something else. Even before the subconscious -stage is reached, practice, if too long continued, may exhaust the powers -of attention, and doing can no longer issue in learning by reason of -fatigue. - -On the score of attention there is a limit to the application of the -maxim in another direction. Talking, oral reading, and public speaking -may be spoiled by too much attention. Practice in these, under the -guidance of an injudicious teacher, may serve to make the gestures too -studied, the pronunciation too precise, and the tones of the voice too -artificial, defects by which the hearer’s mind is drawn from the thought -to the delivery. - -[Sidenote: Injudicious criticism.] - -The lack of good elocutionary drill in youth is a serious misfortune, yet -the writer cannot help blaming the elocutionists for ruining one public -speaker among his acquaintances. Under their tuition the gestures and -articulation of this friend have become almost faultless; but there is -such a self-conscious air about his platform utterances that the audience -can think of nothing except the delivery. By his efforts at doing he -has learned most emphatically not to do. The same thing may happen in -elementary instruction, and in the practice-schools connected with our -State normal schools. Injudicious criticism by the teacher may so rivet -the attention upon the utterance that the pupils lose sight of the -thought to be expressed, and the more they practise under his guidance -the worse their reading becomes. The vocal and physical elements, in -the act of oral reading or speaking, should spring spontaneously out of -the thought and sentiment to be conveyed. Any drill which interferes -with this natural connection between the mental and the physical is -indescribably bad, and should never be regarded as a means of learning. -Equally severe must be the sentence of condemnation upon much of the -criticism to which pupil teachers are subjected by their fellow-students -and their critic-teachers at our normal schools, and upon the comments -made by candidates for the ministry and their professors upon the efforts -of the embryo preacher during the so-called homiletical exercises. -Injudicious fault-finding leads to a kind of doing which cannot issue in -learning. - -[Sidenote: Application.] - -[Sidenote: The arm and hand.] - -Within these limitations we find a wide field for the application of the -maxim to our efforts at learning to think and to express thought. The -hand performs a very important function in aiding the mind to perfect -its concepts. The metric system remains a dark, confused mass of names -so long as the pupil does not actually handle and use the metric units -of weights and measures. A few days of manual training, during which -the learner is compelled to measure accurately, are of immense account -in developing accurate ideas and accurate thinking. Of all the ways of -expressing thought, those by the hand and the tongue are more perfect -than those by the eye, the face, the gesture, the bodily movement. The -latter are well adapted to express feeling; the former, to express -thought. Few have ever thought of the marvellous mechanism given to a -human being in the arm and hand. A glimpse from the mathematician’s point -of view is here very interesting. A pencil fastened to the end of a ruler -revolving around a fixed point will describe a circle. If the pencil be -fastened to the end of a second ruler revolving around the end of the -first, while the first revolves around the original centre, the pencil -will describe a very complicated curve. If three radii, revolving in this -way, be joined together, the pencil at the end of the third can be made -to describe the cycles and epicycles by which the ancient astronomers -explained the movements of the planets. The modern mathematician has -shown that, by annexing a fourth, a fifth, and a sixth radius, each -revolving around the preceding, while the first is moving around the -original centre, all curves of the fifth and sixth orders can be -described. Let any one examine his right arm, starting from the shoulder -and ending with the fingers, and he will find that since infancy he has -had this mechanism for executing curves and movements, has been using -this wonderful system of revolving radii to express thought, and that -it has been to him a source of skill in thinking and doing. When viewed -in their anatomical and physiological aspects, human arms and hands are -seen to be a still more wonderful mechanism, rivalled only by the tongue -in capability for describing any curve and uttering any kind of thought. -Whilst the tongue may speak many oral languages, the hand writes them -all, and supplies additional methods for expressing thought in drawing, -painting, sculpture, instrumental music, in the various handicrafts, and -in the machines which act like man’s hand made bigger, more powerful, -more tireless. - -[Sidenote: Apprentices.] - -[Sidenote: Manual training.] - -From this point of view one can see a wide field for the intelligent -application of the maxim to our efforts at learning to write, to talk, -to walk, to play on a musical instrument, or to handle the tools of some -handicraft. If questioned with reference to these and kindred activities, -the physiologist would answer that the repeated action of the nerves -and muscles in specific functions fits them the better to act in the -same functions, and that the effect of the exercise of any function may -be stored up so as to increase the facility of the nervous structure -to exercise again every similar function. The psychologist would say -that any normal act performed under the guidance of an intelligent -will leaves, as its enduring result, an increased power to act and a -tendency to act again in like manner. Common parlance, which is apt to -enshrine its wisdom in proverbs, simply says, Practice makes perfect. -Doing, when it engrosses the attention, exerts a reflex influence upon -thinking; after it sinks to the subconscious level it ceases to exert -a helpful influence. The methods adopted in our manual-training schools -are, in this respect, much superior to those pursued under the old -apprentice system. The master mechanic found it to his interest to keep -the apprentice upon one kind of work until a high degree of skill was -attained. He used the apprentice as a means to an end,—the end being the -production of things that would sell and thus reimburse the master for -the time and trouble of teaching his trade to another. The mysteries -of the trade were kept to the last for fear the apprentice would quit -before the expiration of the time for which he was indentured. No better -plan for crushing the intellectual life could have been conceived. The -manual-training school, on the other hand, makes the boy, and not the -product, the end of its training, the object of chief concern. It seeks -not merely to make the man a better workman, but the workman a better -man. No pupil is asked to go through the same movement, to do the same -piece of work, for the purpose of developing skill, until every trace of -interest is gone. Nothing is made for the purpose of selling; everything -prescribed is for the purpose of developing the pupil’s powers, to enable -him to express thought by the use of working-tools and instruments. The -working-drawing and the model are the symbols which come nearest to a -full representation of the thing to be made. The word, the clay, the -stone, the metal, the leather, the cloth, are the materials in which -thought finds its final expression. Nothing is carried so far as to -deaden the boy’s interest in what he is doing; the charm of novelty is -kept up from day to day. If the first product is defective, a new problem -is set, involving the same fundamental operations, or the use of the same -tools and instruments. The manual-training school and the trade school, -if properly conducted, thus become a most valuable means for developing -the power to think in things. It aims to create the power to think, as -well as the power to do; the two are made commensurate and mutually -helpful. The thinking is made to issue in doing, and the doing is kept -from sinking into the subconscious stage, where it tends to degrade the -individual to the mere level of a machine. Within these limitations we -can endorse Professor Wilson’s tribute to the hand, and subscribe to his -demand that, as in the days of Israel’s glory, it shall be trained in -some useful handicraft, not merely as a means of livelihood, but more -especially as a means of making the pupil a better thinker, a completer -man. - -[Sidenote: Handicrafts.] - -“When I think of all that man’s and woman’s hand has wrought,” says he, -“from the day that Eve put forth her erring hand to pluck the fruit -of the forbidden tree to that dark hour when the pierced hands of the -Saviour were nailed to the predicted tree of shame, and of all that -human hands have wrought of good and evil since, I lift up my hand and -gaze upon it with wonder and awe. What an instrument for good it is! -What an instrument for evil! And all day long it never is idle. There -is no implement which it cannot wield, and it should never in working -hours be without one. We unwisely restrict the term handicrafts-man or -hand-worker to the more laborious callings; but it belongs to all honest, -earnest men and women, and is a title which each should covet. For the -queen’s hand there is the sceptre, and for the soldier’s hand the sword; -for the carpenter’s hand the saw, and for the smith’s hand the hammer; -for the farmer’s hand the plough; for the miner’s hand the spade; for -the sailor’s hand the oar; for the painter’s hand the brush; for the -sculptor’s hand the chisel; for the poet’s hand the pen; and for woman’s -hand the needle. And if none of these, or the like, will fit us, the -felon’s chain should be round our wrist, and our hand on the prisoner’s -crank. But for each willing man or woman there is a tool they may learn -to handle; for all there is the command, ‘Whatsoever thy hand findeth to -do, do it with thy might.’” - - - - -XXI - -THINKING IN THE ARTS - - A meagre soul can never be made fat, nor a narrow soul large, - by studying rules of thinking. - - PROFESSOR BLACKIE. - - Have your thinking first, and plenty to think about, and then - ask the logician to teach you to scrutinize with a nice eye the - process by which you have arrived at your conclusions. - - PROFESSOR BLACKIE. - - Invention, though it can be cultivated, cannot be reduced to - rule; there is no science which will enable a man to bethink - himself of that which will suit his purpose. But when he has - thought of something, science can tell him whether that which - he has thought of will suit his purpose or not. The inquirer - or arguer must be guided by his own knowledge and sagacity in - his choice of the inductions out of which he will construct his - argument. But the validity of the argument when constructed - depends upon principles, and must be tried by tests which are - the same for all descriptions of inquiries, whether the result - be to give A an estate, or to enrich science with a new general - truth. - - J. S. MILL. - - -XXI - -THINKING IN THE ARTS - -For centuries men have been disposed to look with disdain upon the -occupations in which the hands and the body are more concerned than the -mind. The arts in which thought predominates were honored above the -handicrafts; and it is only in recent years that educators have begun to -recognize the educative value of thinking through the hand as we find it -exemplified in schools for manual training. A comparison of the various -arts will serve to dignify this kind of training and to set it in a -clearer light before teachers and boards of education. - -Mediæval thinkers divided the arts into two classes, which they called -the mechanic and the liberal arts, and enumerated seven arts in each -class. - -[Sidenote: Mechanic arts.] - -The seven mechanic arts were Agriculture, Propagation of Trees, -Manufacture of Arms, Carpenter’s Work, Medicine, Weaving, and -Ship-building. The primary operations were mechanical, as the name -implies, and hence involved a genuine thinking in things. Their number -has been greatly multiplied; the operations have grown wonderfully -complex; thought upon the activities which they necessitate has led to -the discovery of guiding principles, and some have risen to the rank of -regular professions. The growth and the care of trees have given rise to -forestry. Ship-building and the manufacture of arms involve science of -the highest order. The practice of medicine and surgery requires skill -based upon kinds of knowledge and thinking that are rigidly scientific. -The thoughts which have been crystallized in modern inventions deserve -equal rank with the thoughts which philosophers have woven into systems. -The various trades of civilized society necessitate the expression of -thought through the hand. Manufactures and commerce involve transactions, -operations, and competition requiring the highest intelligence, the most -accurate thinking, the most vigorous effort. Any youth whose training has -fitted him to excel in these is sure of work and fair compensation. - -[Sidenote: The useful occupations.] - -Far too often the school has taught the pupil to undervalue and even to -despise useful occupations. Scientific research, philosophic speculation, -and literary productivity have been lauded as more honorable vocations. -Any honest occupation that furnishes adequate exercise for man’s -marvellous faculties is honorable in the sight of God. If two angels -should be sent from heaven, one to rule a kingdom, the other to break -stones upon the highway, each of them would be happy in the thought that -he was fulfilling his divinely appointed mission, and each would receive, -upon the completion of his task, the “well done” which will finally be -spoken to every good and faithful servant. - -[Sidenote: Woman in the arts.] - -In 1840 Harriet Martineau visited the United States and reported only -seven occupations open to women,—teaching, needlework, keeping boarders, -working in cotton factories, typesetting, bookbinding, and household -service. The school has been blamed for causing the rising generation to -underestimate the last named in comparison with the other occupations -open to women. When anything goes wrong in American life the school is -not only blamed, but also expected to supply the remedy. It must be -admitted that there is much false thinking on the subject of household -service in so-called polite society. A woman may cook for herself and -her own household without losing caste. As soon as she becomes the cook -in another woman’s kitchen she is banished from the parlor of fashionable -society. She can stand in a store or work in a factory without losing her -place in the social scale; but if she works for hire in the kitchen, she -is thenceforth treated as belonging to a lower caste. Is thinking in the -culinary art less valuable or less difficult than the thinking involved -in selling ribbons and laces? Does the preparation of a palatable meal -require less brains and less skill than the setting of type or the making -of yarn? Does good cooking add less to the welfare of the race than -playing on the piano or painting in oil- or water-colors? The teaching of -domestic science is calculated to change public opinion and to add to the -sum of human happiness by emancipating the home from the tyranny and the -caprices of the servant girl and by securing to deserving help a juster -appreciation of efficient thinking in household service. - -[Sidenote: America the paradise of woman.] - -America has been aptly named the paradise of woman. The American woman is -not expected to break stones upon the highway, to carry market-baskets on -the top of her head, to pull the milk-cart alongside of the dog, to do -all kinds of rough manual labor, whilst strong-armed and able-bodied men -have charge of the elementary schools. Fully two-thirds of the teachers -in America are women. Her sphere of activity has been greatly enlarged in -other directions. She may be the inferior of the stronger sex in original -and creative work,—time will settle that question,—but in ability to -carry college work and to do practical thinking she has shown herself -the equal of her brother and in every respect deserving of the exalted -position assigned to her in the New World. She has attained her standing -in America through her ability to think and to apply thought in the -useful arts. - -[Sidenote: The liberal arts.] - -The liberal arts were subdivided into the trivium and the quadrivium. The -trivium, consisting of grammar, logic, and rhetoric, sought to teach the -art of thinking correctly, of expressing thought in correct language, and -of presenting it in forceful, persuasive discourse. - -[Sidenote: Quadrivium.] - -[Sidenote: Discovery.] - -The quadrivium, consisting of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music, -was composed of thought-studies, and furnished material for the thinking -of generations of the best men. The enlargement of the boundaries of -human knowledge has increased the number of studies to such an extent -that no student need weep like Alexander because there are no more worlds -to conquer. Moreover, in many directions the human race is simply on the -border-land of discovery. At the beginning of this century a professor -lamented that the age of discovery had passed. The professor who quoted -him in the middle of the century could point to the steam-engine, the -electric telegraph, and the use of anæsthetics. In the closing year -of the century we can point to a record of inventions and discoveries -unsurpassed in the thought-achievements of the race. Man has learned -to put thought into machines that do work with a speed and accuracy -impossible of attainment by the human hand. His thought is changing the -face of the earth and developing a civilization based upon a degree of -physical well-being and comfort of which the man of the last century had -not the faintest conception. To follow in thought the achievements of a -single year in the improvement of machinery and the resulting additions -to our material wealth is to fill the soul with wonder at the marvellous -powers of the race. All is due primarily to the exercise of the power -of thought, and secondarily to the manifold ways of expressing and -realizing thought. Never were there such magnificent opportunities for -those who have learned to combine thought and action, intelligence and -skill, brains and the handicrafts. The tradesman deserves honor and -recognition with those who earn their bread by their wits. Both can live -the higher life of thought and culture. - -[Sidenote: Trivium.] - -The relation of the trivium to the art of thinking is often misconceived. -Grammar, logic, and rhetoric furnish valuable food for thought, excellent -discipline for the mind, especially for the understanding; but they -do not beget the power of thinking in new fields of investigation. -Their function is corrective, not creative. Those who hope to learn -the art of composition by the study of English grammar are sure to be -disappointed. Grammar furnishes the tests and rules by which one may -determine the correctness of sentences. It may furnish discipline for -the understanding, and thus prove valuable as a means of culture. It -utterly fails to produce thinkers beyond the thinking required in the -interpretation of language. Parsing, analysis, and diagramming often -become a mechanical iteration of set phrases, resulting in mental apathy. -Questions in unexpected forms may then be needed to rouse the slumbering -powers of the intellect. - -Homer and Plato wrote good Greek, although neither of them had any -knowledge of grammar as a science. Men used correct sentences long before -there was a scientific treatment of the sentence. - -The same remarks are applicable to the other studies of the trivium. -Men’s minds obeyed the laws of thought and drew correct inferences -long before the science of logic was formulated. He who studies logic -in the hope that it will make him an original thinker is doomed to -disappointment. Logic has a critical as well as a disciplinary value. -Its influence upon the intellectual life is like that of mathematics. -It furnishes a test for one’s own thinking and provides the means for -detecting fallacies in the reasoning of others. Logic can be taught with -advantage to those who have learned to think; it fails to make creative -spirits who have the power of gathering thoughts, weaving them into a -system, and reaching trustworthy conclusions. - -Rhetoric possesses great disciplinary value for the understanding. It -deserves careful study on the part of those who express their thoughts in -public discourse. The moment it becomes an end, instead of means to an -end, it defeats its own purpose. To draw the attention to the figures of -speech and other rhetorical devices of an oration is to divert the mind -from the line of thought and to defeat the purpose for which rhetoric -is taught. The studies of the trivium are like the handicrafts in that -they serve as means to an end. From one point of view they deserve to -be classed with the useful arts; from another it is apparent that they -furnish material for thinking quite as valuable as the multitudinous -branches of study into which the quadrivium has been expanded. - -[Sidenote: Fine arts.] - -The arts are sometimes divided upon the basis of use and beauty. From one -point of view, as already indicated, the liberal arts may be regarded as -belonging to the category of the useful, and thus as forming part of a -class distinct from the fine arts. Yet the idea of beauty enters into all -that man does. Sooner or later he seeks to adorn his home, his language, -everything that he employs in giving expression to his inner life. - -The thinking which lies at the basis of the fine arts has distinguishing -qualities and characteristics. The mind may be so completely absorbed -in poetry, music, painting, sculpture, and in the other things which -make life beautiful that it ceases to be a fit instrument for useful -living or for engaging in more advanced thinking. The element of feeling -predominates in the appreciation of the beautiful. The two factors which -enter into the beautiful are the idea and the form. By casting into the -alembic of the imagination the materials which the mind gathers from -the external world, there is evolved the ideal; as soon as this ideal -is found embodied in any form of nature or art the object is called -beautiful. The power to see the idea in the form, the ideal in the work -of art, is a function of thinking, and deserves attention from those who -are teaching others to think. - -[Sidenote: Æsthetic and scientific studies differ.] - -Vast is the difference between the æsthetic and the scientific -appreciation of nature. The scientist pulls the flower to pieces, -analyzes its parts, imposes hard names, and destroys that about the -flower which is most attractive to the child and the poet. The student of -beauty admires it as it is in its original surroundings. He cultivates it -to adorn the garden, the yard, the home, the school-room. - -Very much, therefore, depends upon the way in which nature is studied. -The study may be pursued to beget habits of observation or to cultivate -a sense of the beautiful. It may be studied for the sake of ascertaining -the laws which govern the growth of plants, the changes of the seasons, -the movements of the heavenly bodies, the forces which give us light, -heat, and all else we need for body and mind. When it is studied for the -sake of truth and beauty, the effort lifts us into the domain of the -higher life. - -[Sidenote: The higher life.] - -Why should any portion of our life, as compared with another, be -styled the higher life? Because a man’s life may abound in some of the -activities which are essential to his existence and still fail to realize -the end of his existence. Take life on the farm with all its splendid -opportunities for the study of nature and of all that is attractive in -God’s universe. Which should be of most account in the education of the -farmer’s sons and daughters,—mind or money, light or lucre, the soul or -the soil, character or capacity for getting riches? The curse of wealth, -fame, office, and the like is that, if they become the chief object of -one’s ambition, they drag the soul into the dust of dishonor, if not the -dust of the street. - -[Sidenote: The farmer boy.] - -“If the farmer boy has only been taught how to raise better stock, what -will he do when that better stock ranges his farm? Will he be a happier -father and a nobler citizen? Will his home life be any less coarse and -dull? Will the possession of blooded stock make him any more honest -than common stock? If that is all you have taught him, will he not -still be a brute among his brutes? Indeed, just so far as you increase -his money-making without increasing his true culture and manliness, -you increase the probability that he will die a drunkard, his son a -spendthrift, and his grandson a pauper. The supreme need is character to -guide these resources.”[56] - -[Sidenote: The things of the mind.] - -Whilst it is worth while to dignify labor in all the handicrafts by -showing the need for intelligent thought on the part of those who follow -them, it is of vastly more importance to emphasize the things of the -mind, and to show how the ability to think conditions the activities of -the higher life and is essential to the full realization of man’s being. -The relation of thinking to the higher life will claim our attention in -the concluding chapter. - - - - -XXII - -THINKING AND THE HIGHER LIFE - - How vastly disproportionate are the pleasures of the eating - and of the thinking man! indeed, as different as the silence - of an Archimedes in the study of a problem, and the stillness - of a sow at her wash. Nothing is comparable to the pleasure of - an active and prevailing thought,—a thought prevailing over - the difficulty and obscurity of the object, and refreshing the - soul with new discoveries and images of things, and thereby - extending the bounds of apprehension, and enlarging the - territories of reason. - - DR. SOUTH. - - What is more pleasant than to read of strong-hearted youths, - who, in the midst of want and hardships of many kinds, have - clung to books, feeding, like bees to flowers? By the light - of pine-logs, in dim-lit garrets, in the fields following the - plough, in early dawns when others are asleep, they ply their - blessed task, seeking nourishment for the mind, athirst for - truth, yearning for full sight of the high worlds of which they - have caught faint glimpses; happier now, lacking everything - save faith and a great purpose, than in after-years when - success shall shower on them applause and gold. - - BISHOP SPALDING. - - -XXII - -THINKING AND THE HIGHER LIFE - -[Sidenote: The Book of books.] - -The preceding chapter pointed out the function of thinking in the arts, -and the reciprocal influence of these upon the power of thought. It -remains to point out the relation of thinking to the higher life. The -best point of departure for such a discussion is the book which has done -more to foster the higher life of the soul than all other books combined. -From some points of view the best book on teaching ever made is the -Book of books. In it we find not only practical examples and marvellous -illustrations of the art of the teacher, but also the most significant -maxims and statements bearing upon the development of the inner life. In -the account of the Temptation in the Wilderness, we have an utterance -from the lips of the Great Teacher, directing our attention towards the -higher life. “Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that -proceedeth out of the mouth of God.” (Matt. iv. 4.) - -[Sidenote: Bread-studies.] - -[Sidenote: The Great Teacher.] - -In the universities one hears a great deal about bread-studies. Knowledge -for its own sake, culture for culture’s sake, education, not for the -sake of its money-value, but for the mind’s sake, are the ideals held -up before the minds of the students. A world-famous professor of -mathematics demonstrated a new theorem, and closed the demonstration -with the exclamation, “Now, that is true, and, thank God, nobody can use -it!” Does knowledge increase in value as its utility diminishes? This -professor was drawing an annual salary of five thousand dollars, and -could well afford to ignore the money-value of an education. Lifted above -the struggle for bread, he had no sympathy with the multitudes in whose -experience the struggle for bread is the all-absorbing problem of life. -The theory of life propounded by the Great Teacher is very different. -He did not despise the arts that make bread and win bread. Twice He -miraculously multiplied the loaves and fishes, in order to feed the -multitudes. For many years He worked at the carpenter’s bench, and after -the death of His father helped to support His mother. When hanging upon -the cross, He intrusted His mother to the care of John, the “disciple -whom Jesus loved.” - -But when Satan came to him and suggested the making of bread by unlawful -means, He repelled the tempter, saying, “Man shall not live by bread -alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God.” Bread -here stands for more than physical food. It is symbolic of the life that -turns upon what we eat and drink, the garments we wear, and the houses we -live in. - -[Sidenote: The French king.] - -[Sidenote: Earning power.] - -The best of French kings cherished it as the ambition of his life to -make every one of his subjects so well off as to be able on Sunday to -have roast fowl for dinner. Had he lived in our day, he would have -included among the objects of his ambition a new bonnet for every woman -at least twice a year. Roast fowl and new bonnets cost money; and money -indicates the plane from which very many people look at every question of -government and education. Money stands for what we eat and drink, for the -garments we wear and the houses we live in, for the thousands of creature -comforts which we deem essential to our well-being and happiness. Perhaps -the school has not done all it is destined to accomplish in fitting the -pupils to win these, but there is abundant evidence to show that a good -school increases the earning power of the individual, and thereby makes -possible the higher life of mind, or of the soul. The untutored red man -eked out a scanty existence in spite of unparalleled advantages in soil -and stream and climate; the intelligence begotten by the modern school -has enabled our people to utilize and develop the material resources of -the New World to such an extent that Carlyle sneeringly said, “America -means roast turkey every day for everybody.” Let us accept the remark -as an acknowledgment that the American people are better fed than those -of England or Continental Europe; and yet Carlyle was right in hinting -that there is a life higher than that which turns upon what we eat and -drink and wear, for this is in accord with the view of life taught by the -greatest Teacher of all the ages. - -[Sidenote: The basis of the higher life.] - -It is worth while to pause a moment for the purpose of pointing out the -relation of the higher life to the side of life symbolized by bread. In -a word, the higher life rests upon the other as a basis. Where the vital -energies of a people are exhausted in the struggle for bread, the very -mention of education is a mockery. The school lays the foundation for the -higher life when it increases the average earning power of the industrial -classes, and thereby makes it easier for them to gain a livelihood. -Here is the first point of contact between the school and the higher -life. There is no language sufficiently strong to condemn the spirit -of the professor who, when he had demonstrated a new theorem in higher -mathematics, thanked God that nobody could use it. - -[Sidenote: What money can and cannot buy.] - -Only professors filling well-endowed chairs at our universities can -afford to speak disparagingly of Brot-studien and to advocate theories -of education which would sunder the school from practical life. An -education that unfits the pupil for bread-winning in case of necessity -cannot be too severely condemned; among other reasons, because it fails -to lay a proper foundation for the higher life. On the other hand, the -school that does not aim at something higher than dollars and cents -deserves equally severe condemnation; for that which makes life worth -living cannot be bought with money. If you are rich, you may buy a fine -house, but you cannot buy a happy home; that must be made,—_made_ by -you and by those who occupy it with you. With money you may rent a pew -in some fashionable church, but you cannot rent a good conscience,—that -depends upon your manner of living and dealing with others. Money will -enable you to buy a fine copy of Shakespeare, but it cannot purchase -for you the ability to appreciate a play of Shakespeare,—that is the -result of education. Wealth will enable you to cover the walls of your -costly mansion with beautiful pictures; and the sewing-girl, if she has -been properly taught in a public school, will get more enjoyment out of -them than can possibly be gotten by the sons and daughters of wealth and -luxury whose proper education has been neglected. - -[Sidenote: Thinking God’s thoughts.] - -[Sidenote: The objection.] - -[Sidenote: True contentment.] - -Plato wrote above the door of the academy, “Let no one enter here who -is destitute of geometry.” Why did he value geometry so highly? Not -merely as an introduction to the study of philosophy, for in one of -his dialogues he says, “God geometrizes.” He had an idea that a youth -in thinking the theorems of geometry is thinking divine thoughts. When -Kepler discovered the laws of planetary motion, he exclaimed, in ecstasy, -“O God, I think thy thoughts after thee!” When a pupil learns to think -the thoughts which the Creator has put into the starry heavens above us -and into all nature about us, he is thinking God’s thoughts and tasting -the enjoyments of the higher life. When he is taught the right use of -books, and given access to a public library, he may acquire the power to -think the best thoughts of the best men at their best moments. In nature -study, in the reading lesson, in the teaching of science and literature, -the school fosters the higher life of the pupil by enabling him to think -God’s thoughts and man’s best thoughts as these are enshrined in creation -and in the humanities. The objection is sometimes heard that the school -makes the working-classes discontented with their lot. “Teach a man to -think,” says the opponent of universal education, “and you make him -dissatisfied with what he has and knows.” If the school fixes the eye -upon wealth, fame, glory, official position, and other things which can -be attained only by a few, and which, when sought as the chief end of -life, resemble the apples of the Dead Sea, turning to ashes on the lips -as soon as they are tasted, then, indeed, the school may doom its pupils -to a life of discontent and disappointment. But if the school fixes the -eye upon the things of the higher life, things which are within the reach -of every boy and girl at school, it lays the foundation for a contentment -far transcending the possibilities of a life that turns upon feasting, -office-holding, and the things that can be bought with money. - -It must be admitted that the exercise of the higher powers carries with -it a certain feeling of discontent, but it is a feeling that conditions -true progress and is not doomed to ultimate disappointment. The true test -of what is preferable is the testimony of those who have knowledge of -both modes of existence. Who that knows both does not value the pleasures -of thinking above those of eating? Who would exchange the joy of doing -right for anything attainable by the man who, for the sake of success, -banishes ethics from his business or his politics? “Few human creatures,” -says Mill, “would consent to be changed into any of the lower animals for -a promise of the fullest allowance of a beast’s pleasures; no intelligent -human being would consent to be a fool, no instructed person would be an -ignoramus, no person of feeling and conscience would be selfish and base, -even though he should be persuaded that the fool, or the dunce, or the -rascal is better satisfied with his lot than they with theirs.” “It is -better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied, better to -be a Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool or the -pig is of a different opinion, it is only because they know only their -own side of the question. The other party to the comparison knows both -sides.” Who would not rather be an intelligent workingman seeking to -better his condition, than an ignoramus contented with little because he -knows nothing of the joys of the higher life? - -[Sidenote: Life’s contradictions.] - -[Sidenote: Tragedy and comedy.] - -[Sidenote: Beauty.] - -Life is full of contradictions and incongruities and disappointments. -Over against these, the school, in its relation to the higher life, -has a duty to perform. For the discontent which springs from life’s -contradictions and incongruities a safety-valve has been given to man -in his ability to laugh. The person who never laughs is as one-sided -and abnormal as the person who never prays. The comic is now recognized -as one form of the beautiful, and the beautiful is closely allied -to the true and the good. Without going into the philosophy of this -matter, attention may be drawn to the fact that beauty has a home in the -domain of art, as well as of nature; that the queen of the fine arts is -poetry; that the greatest poet of all the ages was Shakespeare; that -Shakespeare’s literary genius reached its highest flights in tragedies -and comedies; that whilst tragedy and comedy are two forms of the -beautiful in art, comedy is the highest form of the comic, whilst tragedy -is the highest form of the sublime. In teaching us to appreciate the -plays of Shakespeare, the school not merely teaches us when to laugh -and when to weep, thereby furnishing the safety-valve to let off our -discontent and to reconcile us anew to our lot, but puts us in possession -of that which money cannot buy,—namely, the ability to appreciate the -beautiful in its subtlest and sublimest forms. Who owns the moonlit -skies, the millionaire or the poet? Who owns the hills and the valleys, -the streams and the mountains; he in whose name the deeds and mortgages -are recorded, or he whose soul can appreciate beauty and sublimity? -Beauty has a home in nature and in art. It is the province of the school -to put us in possession of the beautiful, the sublime, and the comic, for -these quite as much as the true and the good belong to the things of the -higher life. - -[Sidenote: Faith, hope, and love.] - -How about life’s disappointments? Higher than the life of thought is the -life of faith and hope and love,—higher, because these are rooted and -grounded in the life of thought, ripen above it as its highest fruitage -and efflorescence. The nineteenth century has been an age of faith. Every -scientific mind has profound faith in nature’s laws, in the universal -efficacy of truth; and, like Agassiz and Gray and Drummond, multitudes of -the best minds have made the step from faith in natural laws to faith in -the laws which govern the spiritual world. - -The common people evince a faith almost bordering on credulity in the -readiness with which they accept the results of scientific research and -investigation. Faith lies at the basis of great achievements. Bismarck -declared that if he did not believe in the divine government of the -world, he would not serve his country another day. “Take away my faith,” -he exclaimed, “and you take away my country, too.” Whilst no religious -test can he applied to those who teach in our public schools, our best -people prefer teachers who have faith in the unseen to teachers who lack -faith in the truths of revelation. In ways that escape observation, the -spirit of faith passes from teacher to pupil, and gives the latter a -sense of something to live for and something to be achieved. - -[Sidenote: Immortality.] - -Faith begets hope. The hope of glory, of rewards in civil and military -life, of immortality on the pages of history, has stimulated to deeds -of heroism and self-sacrifice, and will continue to do so to the end -of time. The higher life knows of higher objects of hope than these. -Immortality on the pages of history is only an immortality in printer’s -ink. The true teacher wishes his pupils to cherish the hope of an -immortality far more real than an immortality in printer’s ink; he seeks -to implant in their hearts the hope of an immortal life in a world where -the soul shall be robed in a body like unto Christ’s risen body, which -Stephen saw in a vision of glory and Paul beheld in a manifestation of -overwhelming splendor. - -[Sidenote: Love makes life worth living.] - -That which makes life worth living is the life of love. In the thirteenth -chapter of First Corinthians, which is a poem, though lacking metre -and rhyme, Paul speaks of faith, hope, and charity, and says that, of -these three, the greatest is charity, or love, as the Revised Version -translates it. Faith shall be changed to sight, and hope to glad -fruition, but love shall abide forever. Throughout the ceaseless ages -of eternity, love of the truth, as it is, in Jesus,—yea, man’s love -for his Maker and his Saviour, and for the whole glorious company of -the redeemed,—will continue to glow and to grow, lifting the soul to -ever loftier heights of ecstasy and bliss. A foretaste of this ecstatic -bliss is possible in this life. Love of home and country, of kindred -and friends, of truth and righteousness, of beauty in all its forms, -of goodness of every kind, up to the highest forms of the good, gives -life on earth a heavenly charm. Even in this world, the love that binds -human hearts, that makes homes and brotherhoods, that issues in deeds of -kindness, friendship, and charity, is bringing more happiness to the race -than all other agencies combined. - - “The night has a thousand eyes, - And the day but one; - Yet the light of the whole world dies - With the setting sun. - - “The mind has a thousand eyes, - And the heart but one; - But the light of a whole life dies - When love is done.” - -[Sidenote: Thinking and living.] - -The school makes possible the higher life when it teaches the pupil to -think. Right thinking puts intelligence into the labor of his hands, -increases his earning-power, lays the foundation for his physical -well-being, and lifts him above an existence that is a mere struggle -for bread. It promotes the higher life by teaching him to think God’s -thoughts, as enshrined in all His works, and the best thoughts of the -best men, as embodied in literature and the humanities. It fits the -pupil for complete living by developing in him the power to appreciate -the beautiful in nature and art, power to think the true and to will the -good, power to live the life of thought, and faith, and hope, and love. - - -THE END. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] For brevity’s sake the phrase, thinking in things, is preferred to -the more accurate but less convenient expression, thinking in the images -of things. - -[2] Psychopannychism denotes the doctrine that the soul falls asleep at -death, not to awaken until the resurrection. - -[3] For this incident the writer is indebted to Superintendent L. H. -Jones, of Cleveland, Ohio. - -[4] “Lessons in Psychology,” pages 260-267. - -[5] See “How London Lives,” Thomas Nelson & Sons, London. - -[6] “Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was at one time in Prague assistant to -the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. Unlike Tycho, Kepler had no talent for -observation and experimentation. But he was a great thinker, and excelled -as a mathematician. He absorbed Copernican ideas, and early grappled with -the problem of determining the real paths of the planets. In his first -attempts he worked on the dreams of the Pythagoreans concerning figure -and number. Intercourse with Tycho led him to reject such mysticism and -to study on the planets recorded by his master. He took the planet Mars, -and found that no combinations of circles would give a path which could -be reconciled with the observations. In one case the difference between -the observed and his computed values was eight minutes, and he knew that -so accurate an observer as Tycho could not make an error so great. He -tried an oval orbit for Mars, and rejected it; he tried an ellipse, and -it fitted. Thus, after more than four years of assiduous computation, and -after trying nineteen imaginary paths, and rejecting each because it was -inconsistent with observation, Kepler in 1618 discovered the truth. An -ellipse! Why did he not think of it before? What a simple matter—after -the puzzle is once solved! He worked out what are known as Kepler’s -laws, which accorded with observation, but conflicted with the Ptolemaic -hypothesis. Thus the old system was logically overthrown. But not until -after a bitter struggle between science and theology did the new system -find general acceptation.”—Cajori’s “History of Physics,” pages 29, 30. - -[7] Young’s “The Sun,” pages 43, 44, second edition. - -[8] Young’s “Astronomy,” page 174. - -[9] Now the well-known Lord Kelvin. - -[10] “Actinism,” by Professor Charles F. Himes, pages 18, 19. - -[11] Dr. Morrell’s “Elements of Psychology,” quoted by Galloway in -“Education, Scientific and Technical,” page 165. - -[12] Quoted by Galloway in “Education, Scientific and Technical,” pages -116, 117. - -[13] Hinsdale’s “The Language Arts,” pages 17, 18. - -[14] Mr. Smiles, “Life of Stephenson,” third edition, page 474, tells -how George Stephenson, arguing one evening on the coal question with -Dr. Buckland, was quite unable to make good his case. The next morning -he talked over the matter with Sir W. Follett, and that illustrious -advocate, from the materials supplied by the practical knowledge of -Stephenson, was able easily to discomfit the learned dean. Quoted by A. -S. Wilkins’s “Cicero de Oratore,” page 105, second edition. - -[15] Phelps’s “Men and Books,” page 303. - -[16] Lowell’s “Books and Libraries,” pages 88-90, vol. vi., _Riverside -Edition_. - -[17] Phelps’s “Men and Books,” pages 105, 106. - -[18] Ibid., page 124. - -[19] N. Porter’s “Books and Reading,” page 57. - -[20] Charles F. Himes’s “Actinism,” pages 5, 6. - -[21] Jevons’s “Principles of Science,” pages 399, 400. - -[22] “Talks on Psychology,” page 34. - -[23] “Psychologic Foundations of Education,” pages 177, 178. - -[24] Latham, “Action of Examinations,” pages 229, 230. - -[25] Maudsley’s “Physiology of the Mind,” page 518. - -[26] Annotations on Bacon’s Essay “Of Studies.” - -[27] Hamerton’s “Intellectual Life,” page 125. - -[28] John xii. 24, Revised Version. - -[29] F. Galton’s “Inquiries into Human Faculty,” pages 100, 101. - -[30] F. Galton’s “Inquiries into Human Faculty,” pages 113, 114. - -[31] James Freeman Clarke’s “Self-Culture,” page 183. - -[32] Bain’s “The Emotion and the Will,” page 29. - -[33] James’s “Psychology,” vol. i., pages 243, 244. - -[34] James’s “Psychology,” vol. i., page 253 - -[35] Huxley’s “Discourses, Biological and Geological Essays,” pages vi, -vii. - -[36] James’s “Psychology,” vol. i., page 264. Of Charles Darwin’s habits -of reading, his son says, “I have often heard him say that he got a kind -of satisfaction in reading articles which (according to himself) he could -not understand. I wish I could reproduce the manner in which he would -laugh at himself for it.” Of his scientific reading, this son writes as -follows: “Much of his scientific reading was in German, and this was -a great labor to him; in reading a book after him, I was often struck -at seeing, from the pencil-marks made each day where he left off, how -little he could read at a time. He used to call German the ‘Verdammte,’ -pronounced as if in English. He was especially indignant with Germans, -because he was convinced that they could write simply if they chose, and -often praised Dr. F. Hildebrand for writing German which was as clear as -French.”—“Life and Letters of Charles Darwin,” vol. i., page 103. - -[37] Locke’s “Human Understanding,” vol. ii., page 85. - -[38] Lewes’s “Problems of Life and Mind,” Fourth Problem, pages 474, 475. - -[39] Lewes’s “Problems of Life and Mind,” Fourth Problem, pages 475-477. - -[40] Bautain’s “Art of Extempore Speaking,” pages 68, 69. - -[41] “Autobiography,” page 80. - -[42] “Men and Books,” pages 221, 222. - -[43] “In the name, then, of a sound condition of mind and body, and -in the confident hope of obtaining both for France, I call on our -people to imitate the people of the United States of North America -by making the art of reading aloud the very corner-stone of public -education.”—Legouvé’s “Art of Reading,” page 145. - -[44] Clifford’s “Essays,” page 88. - -[45] Clifford’s “Essays,” page 87. Thus the movements of Sirius led -astronomers (Peters and Auwers) to infer the existence of a satellite, -which was subsequently discovered by Alvan Clark & Son through the -eighteen-inch glass which they were completing for the Chicago -Observatory. Similarly, Professor Wright, of Oberlin, carefully studied -the Trenton deposits and their relations to the terrace and gravel -deposits to the westward, and predicted that similar paleolithic -implements would be found in Ohio. Two years afterwards Dr. Mertz -found, eight feet below the surface, a true paleolith of black flint at -Madisonville, in the Little Miami Valley. Other instances of scientific -prediction will occur to the reader. - -[46] “Essay on the Human Understanding,” Book IV., Chapter I. - -[47] Compayre’s “History of Pedagogy,” page 437, American translation. - -[48] “There can be no doubt that Newton was an alchemist, and that he -often labored night and day at alchemical experiments. But in trying to -discover the secret by which gross metals might be rendered noble his -lofty powers of deductive investigation were wholly useless. Deprived of -all guiding clues, his experiments were like those of all the alchemists, -purely haphazard and tentative. While his hypothetical and deductive -investigations have given us a true system of the universe, and opened -the way for almost all the great branches of natural philosophy, the -whole results of his tentative experiments are comprehended in a few -happy guesses, given in his celebrated ‘Queries.’”—Jevons’s “Principles -of Science,” pages 505, 506. - -[49] “The Senses and the Intellect,” pages 488-524. - -[50] Max Müller’s “Science of Thought,” page 605. - -[51] Page 402. - -[52] Page 6. - -[53] Darwin’s “Autobiography,” page 81. - -[54] For this incident the writer is indebted to Dr. A. E. Winship. - -[55] “Mental Physiology,” page 389. - -[56] Crooker’s “Student in American Life,” pages 23, 28. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Thinking and learning to think, by -Nathan C. 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