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diff --git a/old/60898-0.txt b/old/60898-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6922df5..0000000 --- a/old/60898-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5081 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sculpture in Spain, by Albert F. Calvert - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Sculpture in Spain - -Author: Albert F. Calvert - -Release Date: December 12, 2019 [EBook #60898] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCULPTURE IN SPAIN *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - THE SPANISH SERIES - - SCULPTURE IN SPAIN - - - - - THE SPANISH SERIES - - _EDITED BY ALBERT F. CALVERT_ - - - TOLEDO - MADRID - SEVILLE - MURILLO - CORDOVA - EL GRECO - VELAZQUEZ - THE PRADO - THE ESCORIAL - SCULPTURE IN SPAIN - VALENCIA AND MURCIA - ROYAL PALACES OF SPAIN - SPANISH ARMS AND ARMOUR - LEON, BURGOS AND SALAMANCA - CATALONIA AND BALEARIC ISLANDS - VALLADOLID, OVIEDO, SEGOVIA, - ZAMORA, AVILA AND ZARAGOZA - - - - - SCULPTURE - IN SPAIN - - :: BY ALBERT F. CALVERT :: - :: WITH 162 ILLUSTRATIONS :: - - - LONDON: JOHN LANE, THE BODLEY HEAD - NEW YORK: JOHN LANE COMPANY. MCMXII - - - Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. - At the Ballantyne Press, Edinburgh - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - -INTRODUCTION 1 - -EARLY SCULPTURE BELONGING TO THE NATIVE -IBERIAN, LATIN, BYZANTINE, AND VISIGOTHIC -PERIODS 14 - -THE CHURCHES OF THE ROMANESQUE AND -EARLY GOTHIC PERIODS 25 - -THE SCULPTURED PIECES AND TOMBS OF THE -ROMANESQUE AND EARLY GOTHIC PERIODS 37 - -THE ALTAR-SCREENS OR RETABLOS OF THE -ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC PERIODS 50 - -THE RENAISSANCE, AND THE INFLUENCE OF -MICHAEL ANGELO ON THE SPANISH -SCULPTORS 70 - -THE RENAISSANCE, AND THE INFLUENCE OF -MICHAEL ANGELO (_continued_)--THE SCHOOLS -OF VALLADOLID AND MADRID 97 - -THE SCHOOL OF ANDALUSIA--JUAN MARTINEZ -MONTAÑÉS--SEVILLE AND ITS SCULPTORS 117 - -THE DISCIPLES OF MONTAÑÉS IN SEVILLE 142 - -THE SCHOOL OF GRANADA AND ALONSO CANO--THE -DECLINE OF SCULPTURE--FRANCISCO -ZARCELLO 151 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - TITLE PLATE - -Visigoth Crowns found near Toledo 1 - -Byzantine Crucifix and the Virgin in the Gothic Style. -Provincial Museum of San Marcos, Leon 2 - -Wooden Crucifix with which the Troops of the Cid -were harangued. The smaller Crucifix the Cid -carried beneath his Armour. Salamanca Cathedral 3 - -Byzantine Chest. Toledo Cathedral 4 - -Roman Statue found in the Ruins of Salonica. Provincial -Museum, Burgos 5 - -El Santo Cristo, Burgos Cathedral 6 - -Façade of the Cathedral, Santiago de Compostella 7 - -Portico of La Gloria, Santiago de Compostella -Cathedral 8 - -Detail of Carvings of the Portico of La Gloria, Santiago -de Compostella 9 - -Colegiata de San Isidoro, Leon 10 - -Spandril of Gate of Pardon in the College of San -Isidoro, Leon 11 - -Two Statues in the Archæological Museum, Leon 12 - -San Vicente, Avila 13 - -Basilica of San Vicente, Avila, Principal West -Entrance 14 - -Zamora Cathedral 15 - -Cloisters of San Pablo del Campo, Barcelona 16 - -Cloisters of the Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos 17 - -Tarragona Cathedral 18 - -Portal, Tarragona Cathedral 19 - -Burgos Cathedral 20 - -Toledo Cathedral 21 - -Leon Cathedral 22 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls, Leon Cathedral 23 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls, Leon Cathedral 24 - -St. Mary Magdalene and Santo Domingo (Choir -Stalls), Leon Cathedral 25 - -San Celedonio and San Esteban (Choir Stalls), Leon -Cathedral 26 - -Noah, and Adam and Eve (Choir Stalls), Leon -Cathedral 27 - -Samson (Choir Stalls), Leon Cathedral 28 - -Esau (Choir Stalls), Leon Cathedral 29 - -Detail of Portico, Santiago de Compostella 30 - -San Francisco. San Marcos Museum, Leon 31 - -Various Statues from the Cross Aisle, Leon Cathedral 32 - -Our Lady del Foro and the Offerings of the Kings, -Cloisters, Leon Cathedral 33 - -A Sepulchre in the Convent of Las Huelgas, Burgos 34 - -Sepulchres in the Old Cathedral, Salamanca 35 - -Statues of the Portico, Tarragona Cathedral 36 - -Puerta Alta de la Coroneria, Burgos Cathedral 37 - -The Cloister Gate, Burgos Cathedral 38 - -The Cloisters, Burgos Cathedral 39 - -Detail of the Cloisters, Burgos Cathedral 40 - -Detail of the Cloisters, Burgos Cathedral 41 - -A Sepulchre, Las Huelgas, Burgos 42 - -Sepulchre of Archbishop Maurice, the Founder of the -Cathedral, Burgos 43 - -Sepulchre of Archbishop Maurice, the Founder of the -Cathedral, Burgos 44 - -Sepulchre of the Infanta Doña Berenguela, Daughter -of San Fernando, Monastery of Las Huelgas, -Burgos 45 - -Tomb of Jaime de Aragon, Tarragona Cathedral 46 - -Sepulchre of Martin, First Bishop of Leon, Leon -Cathedral 47 - -Sepulchre of Don Ordoño II., Leon Cathedral 48 - -Sepulchre of the Martyrs, Basilica de San Vicente, -Avila 49 - -Sepulchre of Archbishop Lopez de Luna, in the -Church of La Seo, Zaragoza 50 - -Our Lady la Mayor, Statue of Silver, Burgos Cathedral 51 - -Statue of Our Lady de la Vega, Salamanca 52 - -Statue of Our Lady de la Blanca, in the Principal -Porch, Leon Cathedral 53 - -St. Michael Slaying the Devil. Silver Statue by Juan -de Arfé. Provincial Museum, Salamanca 54 - -Diptych in the Camarin of Santa Teresa, Escorial 55 - -Detail of the Altar-screen of the Capilla de Santiago, -Toledo Cathedral 56 - -Altar-screen in the Capilla de Santiago, Toledo -Cathedral 57 - -Chapel of Santiago, containing the Sepulchres of Don -Alvaro de Luna and that of his Wife, Doña -Juana, Toledo Cathedral 58 - -Detail of the Altar-piece in the Capilla de la Trinidad, -Toledo 59 - -Altar-piece Carved in Wood, end of Fifteenth Century. -Valladolid Museum 60 - -Centre of a Wooden Altar-piece, end of Fifteenth -Century. Valladolid Museum 61 - -Chapel of St. Anne, Burgos Cathedral 62 - -Details of the Altar-Piece in the Chapel of St. Anne, -Burgos Cathedral 63 - -Sepulchre of Don Juan II. and Doña Isabel, La -Cartuja, Burgos 64 - -Sepulchre of Don Juan II. and Doña Isabel, La -Cartuja, Burgos 65 - -Detail of the Sepulchre of Don Juan II. and Doña -Isabel, La Cartuja, Burgos 66 - -Sepulchre of Infante Don Alonso, son of Isabella I., -La Cartuja, Burgos 67 - -Sepulchre of Don Juan de Padella. Provincial -Museum, Burgos 68 - -High Altar, La Cartuja, Burgos 69 - -Detail of the High Altar, La Cartuja, Burgos 70 - -Detail of the High Altar, La Cartuja, Burgos 71 - -Choir Stalls, La Cartuja, Burgos 72 - -High Altar, Santa Gadea del Cid, Burgos 73 - -High Altar of the Church of Our Lady del Pilar, -Zaragoza 74 - -Bas-relief in the Altar-piece, Chapel Royal, Granada 75 - -Detail of the Sepulchre of the Catholic Sovereigns, -Royal Chapel, Granada 76 - -Sepulchre of the Infante Juan, only Son of Ferdinand -and Isabella, Church of Santo Tomás, Avila 77 - -Carvings of the Principal Chapel, by Borgoña, Burgos -Cathedral 78 - -Back Part of the High Altar, Burgos Cathedral 79 - -Tras-Sagrario, by Felipe de Borgoña, Burgos -Cathedral 80 - -Tras-Sagrario, by Felipe de Borgoña, Burgos -Cathedral 81 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, Carved by Berruguete -and Borgoña, Toledo Cathedral 82 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, Carved by Berruguete -and Borgoña, Toledo Cathedral 83 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, Carved by Berruguete -and Borgoña, Toledo Cathedral 84 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, Carved by Berruguete -and Borgoña, Toledo Cathedral 85 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, Carved by Berruguete -and Borgoña, Toledo Cathedral 86 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, Carved by Berruguete -and Borgoña, Toledo Cathedral 87 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, Carved by Berruguete -and Borgoña, Toledo Cathedral 88 - -Details of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by -Ferdinand and Isabella, Toledo Cathedral 89 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by -Ferdinand and Isabella, Toledo Cathedral 90 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by -Ferdinand and Isabella, Toledo Cathedral 91 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by -Ferdinand and Isabella, Toledo Cathedral 92 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by -Ferdinand and Isabella, Toledo Cathedral 93 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by -Ferdinand and Isabella, Toledo Cathedral 94 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by -Ferdinand and Isabella, Toledo Cathedral 95 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by -Ferdinand and Isabella, Toledo Cathedral 96 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by -Ferdinand and Isabella, Toledo Cathedral 97 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by -Ferdinand and Isabella, Toledo Cathedral 98 - -Detail of the High Altar, Chapel of the “Condestable,” -Burgos Cathedral 99 - -Altar-piece, by F. de Borgoña, in the Royal Chapel, -Granada 100 - -Detail of Altar-screen, Granada: King Ferdinand the -Catholic 101 - -Detail of Altar-screen, Granada: Queen Isabel the -Catholic 102 - -Boabdil giving up the Keys of Granada to the Catholic -Sovereigns. Fragment of the Altar-piece in the -Royal Chapel, Granada 103 - -Choir Stalls of San Benito, Valladolid 104 - -Back of a Choir Stall. Valladolid Museum 105 - -Fragments of Choir Stalls. Valladolid Museum 106 - -Several Fragments of Choir Stalls. Valladolid Museum 107 - -Fragments of Choir Stalls, by Andrés de Najera. -Valladolid Museum 108 - -Stalls of San Benito, by Andrés de Najera, Valladolid 109 - -Stalls of San Benito, by Andrés de Najera, Valladolid 110 - -Stalls of San Benito, by Andrés de Najera, Valladolid 111 - -Wooden Panels, Murcia Cathedral 112 - -Abraham’s Sacrifice and St. Sebastian, by Berruguete. -Valladolid Museum 113 - -Sepulchre of Archbishop Tavera, by Alonso Berruguete, -Hospital de Afuera, Toledo 114 - -Sepulchre, by Berruguete, San Jeronimo, Granada 115 - -Statue of St. Secundus, by Berruguete, Church of San -Secundo, Avila 116 - -San Benito. Valladolid Museum 117 - -The Transept, Cathedral of La Seo, Zaragoza 118 - -Sepulchre of the Marques de Villena and Retablo in -the Monastery del Parral, Segovia 119 - -Custodia, by Juan Arfé, Avila Cathedral 120 - -Statue of Don Cristobal de Rojas y Sandoval, Church -of San Pedro de Lerma, Burgos 121 - -Detail of the Statue 122 - -St. Jerome, by Caspar de Becerra, Burgos Cathedral 123 - -Altar-screen, by Juan de Juni, Segovia Cathedral 124 - -Christ in the Tomb, by Juan de Juni. Valladolid -Museum 125 - -Pietà, by Hernandez. Valladolid Museum 126 - -The Baptism of Our Lord, by Hernandez. Valladolid -Museum 127 - -St. Francis, by Hernandez. Valladolid Museum 128 - -The Crucifixion, by Gregorio Hernandez, Chapel of -the ex-monastic Church of “Conjo,” Santiago 129 - -Our Lady of Sorrows, Church of “Conjo,” Santiago 130 - -La Dolorosa, by Salvador Carmona, Salamanca -Cathedral 131 - -Flagellation of Christ, by Salvador Carmona, Salamanca -Cathedral 132 - -Head of St. Paul. Valladolid Museum 133 - -High Altar, Seville Cathedral 134 - -Oratory and Screen of Isabella la Catolica, Seville 135 - -Puerta del Perdon, Seville Cathedral 136 - -Virgin and Child, by P. Torrigiano. Seville Museum 137 - -St. Jerome, by Torrigiano. Seville Museum 138 - -Statue of Faith, Top of Giralda Tower, Seville 139 - -St. Ignatius Loyola, by Montañés. University Chapel, -Seville 140 - -St. Francis Xavier, by Montañés. University Chapel, -Seville 141 - -Our Lord Crucified, by Montañés. The Sacristy, -Seville Cathedral 142 - -The Immaculate Conception, by Montañés. University -Chapel, Seville 143 - -The Immaculate Conception, by Montañés, Seville -Cathedral 144 - -St. Bruno, by J. Montañés. Seville Museum 145 - -Our Lady de las Cuevas and Child, by Montañés. -Seville Museum 146 - -St. Bruno, by Montañés, Cadiz Cathedral 147 - -Justice, by Solis. Seville Museum 148 - -The Conception of the Virgin, by Martinez, Seville -Cathedral 149 - -The Crucifixion, at Triana, Seville 150 - -Our Lord, Sculpture in Wood, Hospital de la Caridad, -Seville 151 - -High Altar in the Chapel, Hospital de la Caridad, -Seville 152 - -Our Lady of Sorrows, by Luisa Roldan, Cadiz -Cathedral 153 - -Head of John the Baptist, Granada 154 - -Head of John the Baptist, Granada 155 - -Head of John the Baptist 156 - -Statue of St. Bruno, in the Chartreuse de Miraflores, -Burgos 157 - -St. Bruno, by Alonso Cano, in the Cartuja, Granada 158 - -Statue of the Magdalene, formerly in the Cartuja, -Granada 159 - -St. Francis, by Pedro de Mena, Toledo Cathedral 160 - -The Last Supper, by Zarcello, Ermita de Jesus, -Murcia 161 - -St. Veronica, by Salcillo, Ermita de Jesus, Murcia 162 - - - - -SCULPTURE IN SPAIN - - - - -CHAPTER I - -INTRODUCTION - - -The Spanish character has expressed itself in sculpture more forcibly -than in painting. In no other country, perhaps, do we find a people -whose native taste for carving in wood and stone is so deep-rooted, so -essentially an outgrowth of the strong life of the race. To understand -the art of Spain you must know her sculpture. - -As far back as the prehistoric Iberian period we find traces of a -vigorous school of sculpture in Spain, which, though based on Greek and -Asiatic sources, yet attained a striking individuality of its own. -Professor Pierre Paris of Bordeaux says of these prehistoric carvings -that “the figures are simple and virile, while the women are -distinguished by dignity of attitude and nobility of face, expressive of -deep religious gravity.” The finest example--a supreme type of -primitive Iberian sculpture, very fascinating in its curious -originality--is the Lady of Elche, the bust in the Louvre, which Pierre -Paris, in agreement with Reinach, dates about 440 B.C. Of this wonderful -work Pierre Paris writes: “In her enigmatic face, ideal and yet real, in -her living eyes, on her voluptuous lips, on her passive and severe -forehead, are summed up all the nobility and austerity, the promises and -the reticences, the charm and the mystery of woman.... She is above all -Spanish, not only by the mitre and the great wheels that frame her -delicate face, but by the disturbing strangeness of her beauty. She is -indeed more than Spanish: she is Spain itself, Iberia arising still -radiant with youth from the tomb in which she has been buried for more -than twenty centuries.”[A] - -This is true. - -Sculpture has always been the most genuinely Spanish of the arts. The -Visigoths were attracted to sculpture; and though many of the credited -examples they were supposed to have left cannot be accepted, there are a -few Visigothic carvings, which bear witness to this predominant -expression of character. - -Belonging to a later date we find a surprising wealth of carving in wood -and stone scattered throughout Spain in the cathedrals, churches, -cloisters, and palaces. There is no town in Spain which does not possess -some sculptured works. - -Spain has given to the world few great sculptors; none of her carvers -stand on quite the high level of her most famous painters. Yet, if we -except the great names of El Greco, Ribera, Velazquez, and Goya, her -sculptors are at least equal in merit with her painters. Damian Forment, -Berruguete, Gregorio Hernandez, Juan de Juni, Pedro Millan, Montañés, -Alonso Cano, Roldan, Mena, as well as others, are worthy to take a high -place in the temple of Spanish art. And a fact of even greater -importance: they have impressed upon their work the national character -in a far stronger degree than any of the contemporary painters. It is -interesting to note that many of these sculptors were also painters; -and, in all cases, their carvings are more distinctly Spanish than their -paintings. Almost entirely sculpture escaped from the slough of -neo-Italian imitation, which did so much to ruin painting in the late -fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Spanish sculpture is finely realistic -and imaginative. Sometimes fantastic to extravagance in its -naturalness, it is always vigorous, romantic, and religious in the -highest degree. - -How is it, then, that sculpture is the branch of the national art least -known beyond the bounds of the country? Rare indeed are the writers who -have made a study of Spanish sculpture. A few good articles on the -subject have appeared in France and in Germany; in England none. Even in -Spain a quite inadequate attention has been given to this most important -branch of the national art. There are, it is true, several excellent -monographs, such as the works of D. José Gestoso y Perez on Pedro -Millan, and that of D. Manuel Serrano y Ortega on Montañés. Then there -is the very interesting study by D. José Marti y Monso on the artists of -Valladolid. But these writings were limited to one artist, or to the -works of one province. Until recently there was no work treating of -Spanish sculpture as a whole, except the _Diccionario_ of Cean Bermudez, -a book very excellent, but not free from error, and for the most part -unimportant in its critical estimates. Like most Spanish writers, -Bermudez praises work because it belongs to his own country, rather than -because of its true artistic worth. It is well that this indifference is -at an end. A critical study of Spanish carvings, entitled _La Statuaire -Polychrome en Espagne_, finely illustrated with beautiful examples of -the best carvings in the Peninsula, has now been written by M. Marcel -Dieulafoy. The book was published in Paris in 1908. We would take this -opportunity of gratefully acknowledging the help we have gained from -this excellent work. - -But the question remains unanswered why the carvings of Spain have been -treated with such a want of interest. To find the answer it will be -necessary to consider briefly the circumstances which determined the -special character of Spanish sculpture. - -Almost without exception statuary was executed for the religious uses of -the Catholic Church. Images were needed to increase the pious fervour of -the populace; they were used as altar decorations in the churches; often -they were carried in the religious processions; and many of them were -credited with miracle-working powers. The one thing necessary for a -Spanish statue was that it should be an exact imitation of life; the -more realistic the illusion the greater was the power of the statue to -fulfil the requirements of the Church. - -It will readily be seen that marble--the substance most fitting for the -artistic rendering of form--would not comply with these demands. Thus -in Spain the classic marble was discarded, while wood and plaster were -employed in its place. These substances could be readily coloured, or -even covered with canvas resembling stone, and then painted to -counterfeit life. Thus out of the religious requirements--which in -Spain, so much more than in any other country, decided the expression of -art--was developed a natural employment of multi-colouring, whose -principle was the diversity of the various materials and the use of the -two arts of painting and sculpture in the same work. - -This almost universal use of colour--a relic of very ancient art--has -really decided the fate of Spanish sculpture. For some centuries public -taste was firmly decided in condemning statue colourisation as “an -offence against good taste.” It is held that the true purpose of -sculpture is to depict form, and that painting an image in relief is -barbarous and shows a want of culture, because the sculptor, attentive -alone to the beauties of form, should observe the limits set by the -material in which he has to work, and should resist the seductions of -colour which belong to the painter. Coloured statues have even been -compared with the wax figures displayed in shows. - -There is much to be said on both sides of the question. We shall not -here try to answer it, for to do so would be to anticipate all that we -hope to establish of the beauty of the polychrome statuary of Spain. -Rather we would ask the reader to look now at the illustrations at the -end of this volume. Great works are the only answer that can silence -criticism. - -Those who have condemned polychrome sculpture have, almost without -exception, instanced its worst examples. This is absurd; it is like -giving a judgment of painting by the pictures exhibited each year in the -Royal Academy of London. - -It must be remembered that polychrome statuary is a very ancient art; -moreover, it is a perfectly natural and spontaneous development, growing -out of the need for intensified expression. It was not an arbitrary -practice adopted as “a trick of the trade.” This is important. Those who -deny the use of colour to the sculptor have tried to prove that among -the Greeks sculpture was anterior to painting, and that in the case of -certain statues which we find coloured the painting was an injury added -at a later date. This is entirely erroneous, as M. Marcel Dieulafoy -proves by referring to the recent excavations made in Greece and Italy. -The most ancient of the statues carved by the Greeks were those on -which pigments were used. Carved out of wood, which lent itself readily -to encrustations of bronze, ivory, and precious stones, as well as of -colour, the figures were enriched in this way to give them a closer -relation to life. Such was the bas-relief at Olympia in the Treasury of -the Megarians, which represents a combat between Herakles and Acheloss, -where the figures are carved out of cedar-wood richly embellished with -gold; or the group of the Dioscuri, attributed by Pausanias to Dépoinos -and Skyllis, where again the figures were enriched with films of ebony -and of ivory placed upon the wood. - -When wood gave way to marble and bronze, sculptors still continued the -use of encrustation; especially a paste of glass was used to form the -eyes of the figures. Often we find a gilded or silver necklace added. -Bronzers tinted their statues, and in this way bronze had the aspect of -colour. Silver was largely used. A very interesting example is furnished -by Silamin of Athens, who, wishing to represent Jocasta in her last -hour, silvered the face so skilfully as to give it the pallor of death. - -Of even greater interest is a small bas-relief in the St. Angelo -Collection in the Museum of Naples. It represents a maiden dressed in a -double robe, the under one pale green, the outer one rose-coloured. She -wears besides an upper garment of a darker colour and a white fichu -bordered with red. - -We find this custom of multi-colouring in the work of the greatest -masters. We know that Phidias made use of gems and gold to heighten the -beauty of his statues. Strabo wrote of his incomparable work in the -Temple of Zeus at Olympia: “What adds greatly to its success is that his -cousin the painter Panæus lent his talent in covering certain parts of -the statue with brilliant colours, notably the draperies.” How -significant is this statement to those who condemn the colouring of -statuary! - -It is purely arbitrary to maintain that relief and colour may not be -united in art. Rather we may agree with M. Homobles when he declares -that “the Greeks harmonised colour and form so perfectly that for them -in the sixth century painting was a flattened bas-relief, and bas-relief -a painting with the paste laid on very thick.” It is the opinion of M. -Marcel Dieulafoy, founded, as he tells us, on researches pursued during -more than half a century, that “no matter what the material--wood, -stone, bronze, marble, terra-cotta--nor the epoch of production, the -Hellenes accentuated with coatings and sometimes with coloured enamels -the figures in bas-reliefs and alto-reliefs, unless in the case of -juxtaposition with other materials of different colour.” Thus we are -brought to the conclusion that those who condemn as barbarous the use of -colour in statuary must condemn also the statuary of Greece. - -Nor was multi-colourisation confined to the Greek sculptors. It was a -natural development in the art of carving in every country, arising, as -we have seen, out of the desire of the artist to bring his work into a -closer relation with life. The Egyptians and the Chaldeans never limited -themselves to the use of form in their statues and in their -architecture, but sought for ways of rendering colour. The great Asiatic -races used enamel as the basis of their decoration. Here we find the -origin of the multi-coloured sculpture of Babylon, Assyria, and Susa, -and, at a later date, that of Medea and Persia. This art reached -Byzantium--a country which gained the highest skill in glass mosaic--and -also Rome. Persian artists, following in the train of the conquering -Arabs, brought the secrets and methods of their art to many European -countries, and among them to Spain and Portugal. The influence spread -also from Byzantium, and, in a lesser degree, from Rome, and soon -multi-colourisation was universally adopted, and all statues, whether of -wood, stone, or copper, were covered with colour. - -Centuries passed before a reaction set in. It became a creed of artistic -faith that the use of colour to accentuate works in relief was -barbarous. The reason of the change is very simple. Many of the ancient -coloured statues had lost their colour by lapse of time, and those who -saw them were deceived, believing that as they were then, so they had -been created. Then pictures came to be painted more frequently, and -colour was allowed to them, while form alone was accorded to statuary. - -But the tradition of polychrome statuary yet persisted, and at the -opening of the Renaissance still fought for life. Italy possessed some -great statue colourists in the fifteenth century. We know of coloured -statues and bas-reliefs by Donatello, by Mino of Fiesole, by Pisáno of -Luca, by della Robbia, and others. Even much later we find examples of -the continued use of colour. Such, for instance, are the equestrian -statues of the ducal family of Sabbroneta and the groups in the chapels -of the Sacromonte at Varullo. It is important to remember that the great -masters deplored the abandonment of statue colouring, and, among -others, Michael Angelo wrote an instructive and precious letter upon the -subject. - -Coloured statuary was more persistent in the south than in the north. -Flanders, Germany, and afterwards France were converted from the custom. -Yet Jan van Eyck collaborated with the sculptor, as did also André -Beaunevau. The life-size statues which decorate the Château of Madrid -built for Francis I., and those in the Toulouse Museum, taken from the -Basilica of St. Sermin, prove that coloured statuary still persisted in -the sixteenth century. These last figures are of special interest from -their analogy with Spanish polychrome statuary. - -It was in Spain that the art of polychrome lived and developed. The -finest of her coloured statues were wrought in the sixteenth, -seventeenth, and also in the beginning of the eighteenth centuries, a -period when the practice was dead in almost all other countries. For -this reason, even if for no other, Spanish carvings claim the attention -of the student of art. They are the crown of what has been achieved by -earlier civilisations. - -What was it that kept Spain alone faithful to the old method of using -colour as well as form to give life to her statues? First, a respect -for tradition which has marked all things in this strong and stubborn -race. Then the Spanish carvers were in very close connection with -Mudéjar architecture, which was closely allied with the art of Persia, -in which colour ruled with such supreme insistence, and whose whole -strength lay in ornamentation. But deeper even than these outer reasons -was the Spanish character, which expressed itself in their altar -carvings and in their statues. The one thing the Spanish artist sought -for first was the reality of life; and this life was religious life, for -in Spain the divine life was not separate--a thing detached--but a real -living part of the human daily life of the people. The painted statues -were at once more life-like and spoke a more real language to the -people, than figures chiselled in white stone. The statuary of Spain was -not wrought, in the first place, to fulfil claims of art, but to satisfy -the needs of the people. It is still in the convents and churches of -Spain--not in the museums, if we except the museums of Valladolid and -Seville--that the masterpieces of polychrome statuary remain. It is -there that we must seek them.[B] - - - - -CHAPTER II - -EARLY SCULPTURE BELONGING TO THE NATIVE IBERIAN, LATIN, BYZANTINE, AND -VISIGOTHIC PERIODS - - -The beginnings of sculpture in Spain take us back to the middle years of -the fifth century B.C. It is to this date, about 440 B.C., that the -beautiful sculptured bust of the Lady of Elche belongs. The figure was -discovered in August 1897 at Elche, one of the most ancient and -interesting of the old towns of Spain. Situated in the beautiful ravine -of the Vinalapó, twelve miles distant from Alicante, Elche still retains -almost unaltered its Arab character. It was the Roman Ilice, and -probably the Iberian Helike, where Hamilcar was defeated. The town is -especially fortunate in having possessed this treasure, which speaks so -splendidly of the power and strength of Spain’s ancient art. This is the -earliest and by far the most important of the antique statues of -Spain--the one supreme example of primitive Iberian work. But alas! the -Lady of Elche has been taken out of Spain and is now in the Louvre at -Paris. - -It is a stone bust of a woman of life size. The lips and part of the -hair still retain traces of red colour. The expressive face, delicate -and yet strong, has suffered little. She wears enormous ear pendants of -Oriental style, and two great wheels frame her head. Around her neck -hangs a Greco-Phœnician necklace, such as women wore from the time of -the Peloponnesian War. It is this that fixes the date of the statue. It -would seem to be the work of a native artist who was under the combined -influences of Greece and Phœnicia. Only a Spanish artist could have thus -immortalised the character of Spanish womanhood. Indeed it is this -special Spanish quality which is the most interesting feature of this -remarkable work. Mr. Havelock Ellis has pointed out the resemblance -which the Lady of Elche bears to Velazquez’ “Woman with the Fan.” And -this is no fanciful idea. There is a strange likeness in all Spanish -art--a likeness which is at once its strength and also its weakness, and -which may be traced to the strong and persistent character of this race -that has altered so little in the passing of the centuries. It is this -marked individuality that speaks even more strongly in Spanish sculpture -than in Spanish painting. The Lady of Elche stands for all that is -Spain. - -Apart from the Lady of Elche no important single example of Iberian art -remains to us. Statues have been found, such as the _Cirro de los -Santos_ and the _Llano de la Consolacion_, which certainly were painted. -M. Marcel Dieulafoy believes that this was also the case with the statue -of a bull facing a bearded man, in the Museum of Valencia; that of the -griffin and the anthropoid sarcophagus at Cadiz; and the interesting -heads of bulls in bronze, found at Costig, Majorca, which bear some -resemblance to the Susian bulls and Grecian bronzes, and, like them, -have some parts gilded. Then it will not do to neglect the strange stone -figures of bulls scattered in different places in Spain and Portugal, -one fine example being in the square of Avila. Little is known as to the -origin and purpose of these remarkable examples of Iberian art, but some -still bear traces of vermilion colouring. The existence of these works, -as well as many other notable fragments in different churches in Spain, -prove at least that the native Iberian carver had attained a skill -certainly remarkable at this early date. - -But then followed, as is so often the case, a long night, of which -nothing of special interest is known. The Roman sculptures, which -follow chronologically those of the Iberian epoch, are not remarkable in -any way. They do not reveal any special character. - -There are few sculptures left which can with any certainty be referred -to the Visigothic period. The fragments discovered at San Romano de -Hornija, at Toledo, and at Seville, though they bear vestiges of -Visigothic workmanship, belong in reality to the Christian period. It -would seem that the Visigoths for the most part limited their work to -restoring the Roman buildings and adapting them for Christian uses. The -ornamentation which they often added is usually of Byzantine origin, an -influence reaching Spain through France. Yet the sumptuous character of -their art is shown in the only important works of this period which -remain: the splendid votive crowns of Kings Recceswinth and Swenthila, -found in 1858 at Guarraza, near Toledo (Plate 1), and now in the Royal -Armoury, Madrid, and in the Musée de Cluny in Paris. But these crowns -are not Spanish works. Indeed many centuries separate the genuinely -Spanish carvings of the Iberian artists from any work that again -manifests the characters which belong to the native art. - -It has been said by Professor Carl Justi, in a short but excellent -account of Spanish sculpture which is given in Baedeker’s “Guide to -Spain,” that “the existence of works in stone can hardly be proved -before the eleventh century.” This is a mistake. The early Christian -carvings are in stone; they must be sought in Asturias, the provinces -which first shook off the Moorish rule. - -In 791 Alfonso II., known as the Chaste, made Oviedo the capital of the -then struggling kingdom of Asturias. He was a ruler of ability and -culture, and spent all his time when he was not fighting in building -both churches and palaces. On his return from his campaigns he -consecrated the spoils taken from the enemy to embellish his growing -city. - -The most important of the buildings of Alfonso is the Cámara Santa of -the cathedral, once the Capilla San Miguel, which was part of the -original church of Alfonso, and was built in the eighth century by his -architect Favila. The room itself is small, without ornament, roofed -with low barrel vaulting, and lighted with one small window. But here -are guarded the relics in the Byzantine-Latin style, which are among the -most interesting examples that remain to us of the work of the period. -The Cruz de los Angeles, a work of the eighth century and the gift of -Alfonso II., and the Cruz de la Victoria, supposed to have belonged to -Pelayo, both resemble very closely the crowns of Guarraza; like them, -they are not typically Spanish work. That of the Angeles is of filigree -work of exquisite delicacy, and enriched in the centre with rare -encrusted rubies and other precious stones; while that of the Victory is -made of wood, but Alfonso III. had it overlaid with gold and ornamented -with jewels. A third relic, the cash-box of St. Eulalia, has its chief -interest in the inscription in Arabic and Cufic characters which -surrounds the cover. A special historical interest belongs to the relic -known as the Arca de los Santos. The cover, on which is engraved the -figures of the Apostles, and the Latin inscriptions belong, by the -character of the vestments, which are those described by St. Isidore, -and by the letters used, to the sixth or seventh centuries; while the -Saviour and angels on the box itself, the inscriptions in Cufic -lettering, as well as the general style of reliquary, have the -characters which belong to the Spanish works of the eleventh and early -years of the twelfth centuries. The explanation, of course, is that the -casket was restored and its character altered at a later date, and -probably in the reign of Alfonso VI. This mingling of different styles -and periods in one work of art meets us continually in Spain. It is due -in large measure to the custom by which the Spaniards used and borrowed -the arts of the Moors, even for long after they had conquered them. - -There are a few works in the Madrid Archæological Museum which are in -the Latin-Byzantine style, and should be compared with the treasure of -the Cámara Santa, and to the same period belong other relics now in -different churches in the Peninsula. - -In the reign of Alfonso the Chaste were built the churches of San Tirso -and San Tulliano or Julian, which, though unfortunately much restored, -may still be visited in Oviedo. Belonging to an even earlier date was -the Church of Santa Cruz de Canjas, which was built by the royal -architect Favila, in Alfonso’s reign, and which was the original church -on the Monte Santo, the site where the cathedral of Oviedo now stands. -This church was rebuilt by Alfonso II. in 830, and surrounded by -protecting walls. The ancient Spanish chroniclers expatiate on the -magnificence of these buildings of Alfonso, speaking of their columns of -marble, and wealth of decorations of gold and silver. Doubtless they -exaggerate; to-day there is very little of interest to be seen remaining -in the edifices. - -Much more important are the buildings erected by Alfonso’s successor, -Ramiro I. (843-850), a king of unusual culture, who, in spite of -continual wars with the Moors, found time to carry further the -improvement of the royal city of Oviedo. During this reign, writes M. -Marcel Dieulafoy, “there was a veritable renaissance of the plastic -arts.” Two of these buildings that we owe to Ramiro I. are still in -existence, and though sadly neglected and disfigured by alterations, -they should be visited by all who take an interest in early Spanish -work. They stand together on the summit of the low mountain Naranco, -which is situated one and a quarter miles from Oviedo. The first, the -Church of San Miguel, is a basilica with nave and aisles. We recognise -in the heavy pillars with splayed capitals and massive polygonal bases, -as also in the frequently used cord and twisted fringe, so -characteristic of the period, a marked Byzantine character. Many -sculptured subjects occur among the foliage which decorates both the -bases and capitals of the columns. These heads must be attributed either -to the Roman traditions or, as is more likely, to the early French -schools. The other church is even more interesting. Santa Maria de -Naranco probably formed part of Ramiro’s palace, but the building was -converted into a church about the year 905. It consists of a -cellar-like nave, with waggon vaulting, opening by three arches into a -choir at one end and a presbytery at the other. Below is a crypt. Here -the work shows strong Roman influence, and most precious details of -ornament occur. - -Another church of great interest belonging to this early period is that -of San Pedro in the ancient city of Zamora. True bas-reliefs are here -introduced among the leafy decorations of the capitals: one, still in -excellent preservation, represents the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham. -This is very remarkable--one of those surprises that meet the student so -often in Spanish art--for the Byzantine sculptors did not customarily -use the human figure in such circumstances. - -This bas-relief brings us to the very few Spanish statues of this -period, when all the skill of the artists seems to have been spent in -buildings. There is the small ivory crucifix, formerly painted and -encrusted with gems, in the Museum of Leon (Plate 2), and the crucifix -of the Cid, now at Salamanca (Plate 3). Both are Byzantine in character. -The little-known statue of the Virgin and Child, preserved in the -sanctuary of Ujué, is a work of greater interest. The figure is -ninety-one centimetres in height, and dates, M. Marcel Dieulafoy -thinks, from the eleventh, or even the end of the tenth century. The -colouring, and also the primitive character of the work, has been -spoiled to some extent by added ornaments, and by the silver throne on -which the figure now sits. But there is real strength in the face of the -Virgin, and more individuality than is common in the Byzantine figures; -again we have a hint of Spanish work. - -Figures in stone, dating back to the eleventh century, and earlier, may -be found on the portals, fonts, and tombs of many Spanish churches, -especially in the N.W. and in the district of the Pyrenees. Most of them -are of barbaric workmanship, but many are interesting. A painted -sculpture of the Saviour seated in the act of blessing, in the Byzantine -manner, was discovered in 1895 at Santander. M. Marcel Dieulafoy, who -mentions this work, places it in the tenth or the eleventh century. - -These few statues, then, are all that we have of Latin-Byzantine art in -Spain. Rude as the figures undoubtedly are, falling far below the works -of the native Iberian art which preceded them, it will not do to neglect -them. Christian Spain was convulsed with ceaseless warfares, which gave -little time for the development of the arts. Native talent slept. -Christian monarchs employed Moorish sculptors, architects, decorators, -and goldsmiths. So it happened that there was developed in Spain a sort -of pseudo-Mozarabic style in which, for a time, the characteristic -Spanish work seemed lost. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE CHURCHES OF THE ROMANESQUE AND EARLY GOTHIC PERIODS - - -At the close of the eleventh century a new and more vigorous life sprang -up in the art of Spain. The fresh impulse came from France; it expended -itself chiefly in building. - -It is necessary to remember that the geographical barrier of the -Pyrenees forms no real ethnological separation between that country and -Spain; one and the same Iberian race dwells in Gascony, Navarre, and the -Basque provinces. Hence it is easy to understand that natural relations, -intimate and frequent, grew up between the two countries. Marriage -alliances united the two royal families, and the princes of France -crossed the frontier to fight against the Moors in Spain. With them came -priests and monks, more learned than their neighbours, many of whom -settled in the Peninsula. In this way the influence of the great orders -of Cluny and Citeaux spread and grew powerful. Then followed architects -and sculptors from Aquitaine, Languedoc, Toulouse, Burgundy, and -Normandy, to find work, and impress their separate influences on the -numerous churches that at this time were being built. The Romanesque -cathedrals are indeed the direct outcome of French mediævalism; and the -figure-statues of the numerous tombs and altars are full of -reminiscences, so that it is difficult to distinguish the native art. -Yet in the midst of these imported styles we shall find, do we seek -them, those distinct traits which belong to Spain. - -It is in the province of Asturias that we find the greatest number of -Romanesque churches. These churches were of moderate size. Their style -was that of the basilica, with nave and aisles, a well-marked transept, -a trans-apsidal termination, and a lantern or dome over the crossing. -The roof was at first flat, but afterwards the nave was covered with -barrel vaulting, and the aisles with quadrant or semi-barrel vaulting. - -The most important of the early Romanesque churches is Santiago de -Compostella (Plate 7), which was commenced and finished building during -the twelfth century. It is a somewhat simplified copy of St. Sernin at -Toulouse, and shows in its structure, as well as in its ornaments and -sculptures, very clearly marked, the influences of Cluny. This explains -the great excellence of the carvings (Plates 8 and 9); works that are -surprising at this period when so many figures are still barbaric. The -admirable Puerta de las Gloria, which was completed by the carver -Maestre Mateo in 1188, after twenty years’ work, is held by Mr. Street -to be “one of the greatest glories of Christian art.” It is a vestibule -or porch, divided into three sections, which extend across the entire -width of the nave. The quadri-partite vaulting of the roof is adorned -with elaborate carvings. Still more sumptuous are the carvings of the -doorways; one, the double doorway which opens on the nave, has -exquisitely delicate carvings. On the shaft dividing the doorway into -two is a seated figure of St. James, holding the _burdon_ or pilgrim’s -staff; while the shaft itself has carvings of the Tree of Jesse. The -shafts in the jambs have figures of the Apostles and Major-Prophets. The -main capital above represents the Temptation in the Garden and Angels -ministering to Christ. At the back of the middle pillar is a kneeling -figure, supposed to be the portrait of Maestre Mateo. Then in the -tympanum is a seated figure of Our Lord, with upraised hands; and round -Him are the Evangelists and eight angels with the symbols of the -Passion, while above are a company of the worshipping elect. The -archivolt shows figures of the twenty-four elders of the Apocalypse. The -general idea of the subject of the whole doorway is the Appearance of -Christ at the Last Judgment, but each of the series of small pictures is -in itself an independent work of art. The side doorways which lead into -the aisles are equally ornate. The shafts are adorned with figures of -the Apostles; above are representations of Purgatory and Hell. All the -figures are clearly painted. M. Marcel Dieulafoy does not think, -however, that the tones which now show are the original colours, but -that during the restoration in the seventeenth century some innovations -occurred. - -The Colegiata de San Isidoro at Leon (Plate 10), an early Romanesque -edifice, resembles in many respects Santiago de Compostella. The actual -date of the building is difficult to establish. It was founded by -Ferdinand I. of Castile in 1065 as a royal mausoleum; and the building -is said to contain the tombs of eleven kings and twelve queens. It was -altered and rebuilt by Maestro Pedro Vitambeu, and was not consecrated -until 1149, while even then much of its decoration was probably -incomplete. Some subjects of sculpture and ornamentation are very -analogous to St. Sernin, Toulouse. The main façade is decorated with -quaint old reliefs in stone; above the right portal are the Descent from -the Cross (Plate 11) and the Deposition in the Tomb, with St. Paul on -the right hand and St. Peter on the left. Then in the tympanum of the -left portal is a very interesting Sacrifice of Abraham, placed under a -zodiacal frieze. But perhaps the most interesting parts of the building -are the chapel and cloisters of the eastern aisle, where the groined -vaults are covered with fresco paintings of admirable effect and -preservation. The paintings show strongly the influence of France, -curiously interpreted by the native art. C. Gasquoine Hartley writes, in -“A Record of Spanish Painting”: “In colour and certain peculiarities of -outline they are strongly French, but they are executed with a rugged -and original force which is entirely Spanish.... The Bible narratives -are executed with a direct and almost brutal baldness that at once marks -the frescoes as the work of a Spaniard.” We are, however, chiefly -interested with their colourisation, which is very important where so -much of the colourisation of statuary has disappeared. As M. Marcel -Dieulafoy points out, these frescoes give the range of tones usual to -this epoch in France and in Spain. We find red-brown, indigo, -yellow-ochre, and white; the black seems to have been obtained by a -mixture of three of these colours. It is interesting to note that these -are the colours, and of about the same shade, that we find used by the -Persian artists in their decorations. - -San Vicente of Avila (Plate 13) is another admirable example of the -Romanesque churches. The nave, with its triforium and clerestory, is in -a pure Romanesque style; while the transept, choir, and three -semicircular apses are in the Transition style. Though the building was -begun in the twelfth century it was not finished until three hundred -years later, and for this reason it shows a more advanced art. M. Marcel -Dieulafoy holds it to be “the most beautiful specimen and the purest -example of Burgundian architecture in Spain.” The west portal (Plate 14) -is decorated with admirable statuettes in terra-cotta, unfortunately -much mutilated, whose style recalls that of St. Landre of Avallon. Very -curious are the heads of bulls, decorating the base of the pilaster by -which the tympanum is sustained. Here the analogy with the bicephalous -capitals of the Achemenide is very marked. - -Romanesque churches are found in other provinces of Spain. One of the -most ancient is San Pedro of Huesca, which was begun in the eleventh -century and consecrated in 1241. The church is roofed with barrel -vaulting, and terminates in three semicircular apses. It contains many -sculptures characteristic of this period. - -The cloisters of the Cathedral of Gerona, and those of the Monastery of -Santo Domingo at Silos, and of San Pedro, and the churches of Santa -Maria and Santiago at Corunna, are additional examples of the same -style. - -The Cathedral of Zamora (Plate 15) is a more important edifice. This -ancient city had in succession two French archbishops--Bernard and -Jerome de Perigneaux. It is probable that the church was erected during -the episcopate of Jerome, who died in 1126. It was consecrated in 1174, -as is now known from that date discovered in an old epitaph during the -restoration in the eighteenth century. This makes impossible the old -belief that the church was built by Bernard de Perigneaux. M. Marcel -Dieulafoy believes that it is the work of an Aquitaine architect. Both -the exterior of the building, with its square tower, graceful cupolas, -richly decorated, and the interior are interesting, with a character -very rare in Spain. Of the carvings of this church M. Marcel Dieulafoy -writes: “From the sculptural point of view I would signalise in the -portal, the corinthian columns and niches, which both seem to come down -from a monument of the decadence of the Roman age. One will notably -remark the busts, bezel set in a sort of window, which has been seen in -the monuments of Roman Gaul, on the northern slope of the Pyrenees, and -which became a most common feature in the architecture of the Spanish -renaissance; also the laurelled flying-arch, and the bas-relief of the -spandril which crowns the busts.” - -Two Romanesque churches, one belonging to the same period, the other to -a later date, with a more advanced art, are the church and fine -cloisters of San Pablo del Campo of Barcelona (Plate 16) and the -Cathedral of Sigüenza. This last church, which was begun in 1102 and -consecrated in 1123, was not completed until the thirteenth century. It -is the most important example of the late-Romanesque Transition style. -San Pablo was originally a Benedict convent, erected in 914 by Count -Guitardo, but the building was restored in 1117 by Guiberto Guitardo, -and is an excellent specimen of early Catalan architecture. Like San -Pedro of Huesca, it has three parallel apses. The nave and transept are -covered with barrel vaulting, and above the crossing rises an octagonal -cupola. On the chief portal are carved figures of St. John and St. -Matthew; and especially interesting are the carved capitals of the -columns, both those in the church itself and even more those in the -cloisters, where we find cusped arches in the Saracenic style, coupled -shafts, and richly decorated capitals. - -In all the Romanesque churches the greatest wealth of the carver’s art -is lavished on the capitals of the columns. Here we see Bible scenes and -purely decorative designs, alternating, often very strangely, with -fantastic monsters, fables, and scenes from daily life. Almost all of -these carvings are truly Spanish in their sentiment, though the foreign -influences are always visible. - -The Romanesque period lasted longer in Spain than in France; we do not -find the Pointed or Gothic style before the twelfth century, when the -Cistercian order introduced the severe and noble Burgundian type of -church. But many old churches, though begun in the Romanesque period, -assumed a Gothic character before their completion; we find this at -Tarragona, in the old Cathedral of Salamanca, and in those of Londa and -Tudela, as well as in many other churches. In the Monastery of Las -Huelgas, Burgos, celebrated as the church where Edward I. of England was -knighted by Alonso the Learned, the church, dating from 1279, is in -severe Gothic style; the cloisters, too, are Gothic, but in the earlier -Claustreo (Plate 17) there are fine Romanesque capitals and arches. -Again, the older and less-known Cistercian Abbey at Verula is a -Transition building, while the beautiful cloisters of the fourteenth -century are Gothic. - -This mingling of styles, owing to the difference in time between the -building of different parts of the same church, has a real advantage to -the student of Spanish architecture and sculpture. The Cathedral of -Tarragona (Plate 18) especially furnishes an almost complete series of -examples of all the Spanish art-styles. For the church, built on the -site of a mosque, was begun about the year 1118, and dates mainly from -the end of the twelfth and first half of the thirteenth centuries, but -additions were made from the fourteenth century onwards as late as the -eighteenth century. Thus we have examples of early Christian art in a -sarcophagus of the façade, and that in the ancient window of the Capilla -Mayor with the three Byzantine columns. The main building is a brilliant -example of the developed Romanesque Transition style; the beautiful -cloisters, among the most perfect in Spain, and the earliest of the -side chapels are Gothic; the other chapels, added later, date from the -sixteenth to the eighteenth century, and are in the Renaissance and -baroque styles. Even Moorish art is represented in the _azulejo_ roofing -of the N.W. lateral chapels, and in the small Moorish window, said to be -a prayer niche or _mihrab_, with its Cufic inscription dating from the -year of the Hegira 347--that is, 958 A.D.--in the ancient Capilla de -Santa Maria Magdalena. The splendid doorway, with elaborate carvings, -which gives entrance to the cloisters is the most notable pre-Gothic -work in marble in Spain (Plate 19). But of this work we shall speak in -the next chapter. - -Following these early Gothic buildings we have the developed French -cathedral style of the thirteenth century introduced into Spain. It is -first seen in the great cathedrals of Burgos and Toledo (Plates 20 and -21), and a little later in that of Leon (Plate 22), the most perfect of -the Gothic cathedrals in Spain. Very little of the national Spanish art -is visible in these buildings; built for the most part by French -architects, they recall in turn the cathedrals of Rheims, Beauvais, -Bayonne, and Amiens; some see in Leon a copy of the great cathedral at -Chartres. The truth is that the style of these buildings is eclectic; -they are all distinguished by the romantic magnificence of their -ornamentation. The elaborately carved choir-stalls of Leon Cathedral -(Plates 23-29) furnish a splendid example of the power of carving. They -are the masterpiece of John of Malines and the Dutch artist Copin. It -was from carvings such as these that the native artists drew their -inspiration. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE SCULPTURED PIECES AND TOMBS OF THE ROMANESQUE AND EARLY GOTHIC -PERIODS - - -During the Romanesque and, even more, in the early Gothic periods the -creative forces of art in Spain found its expression, after building, in -carving in stone and wood. A wealth of ornament meets us in every -building, for it must be remembered that the churches are the real -museums of Spain. We have in the last chapter spoken incidentally of -some of these carvings in connection with the churches for which they -were executed. It is now necessary to examine in detail the most -representative of these works. Among them we shall find many beautiful -examples of polychrome statuary. - -All the statues of this time were coloured, for Spain, always tenacious -in her habits, never wavered from the custom of colouring her carvings -to resemble life. However, few pieces retain manifest traces of such -colourisation, the tints having been lost through the action of the -atmosphere, as well as through frequent washings. The statues in the -Gloria of Santiago de Compostella (Plate 30) are among the earliest -works that are clearly painted, and even in these, as we have seen, it -is very doubtful if the present tints represent the original colours -used. - -For this reason a very special interest attaches to the fine font in -enamelled bronze, now in the Museum of Burgos, which came from the -monastery of Santo Domingo at Silos. This remarkable and fine work is -coloured and richly encrusted with gold and jewels, but of these -unfortunately many have disappeared. Seated on a throne, the figure of -God the Father occupies the centre, and ranged on either side are the -twelve Apostles. The figures are set in a kind of frame formed by -columns placed on a base of metal crossed by horizontal bars. Two winged -monsters are in the triangles on either side, and a dove is placed above -the figure of God. Small rectangular enamelled medallions are encrusted -in the frame. Colour is used for the robes of the figures, for the -winged monsters, the dove, and the medallions, the predominant tints -being dark blue or vivid green. The heads, the hands, and the feet, as -well as the architectural motives, are all in gold. Polished stones in -bezel settings alternate in the decoration of the frame with the -coloured medallions, and though many of the stones have disappeared this -rich setting helps the effect of the whole bas-relief, which is one of -great splendour. - -Besides the altar font the old monastery of Silos possessed a rich -collection of religious furniture. Among those which have been saved are -a chalice, used under the Mozarabic ritual for celebrating the -communion, a very beautiful specimen of the _mudéjar_ goldsmith’s work; -an altar-screen of engraved copper with figures of the Apostles; and -several small cofferets or caskets. One of these, composed of an -elephant’s tusk, belonged to Rahman III., Khalif of Cordova, at the -beginning of the tenth century; another, made at Cuenca in 1026, is of -ivory, and represents a Mussulman: it was mounted in enamel at a later -date (about 1150). - -The ancient Convent of San Marcos at Leon is another church which has -retained its ancient treasures; among them are several polychromes. -These do not seem to have been repainted. Unfortunately half of the -precious collection has been stolen: those that remain are now in the -Museum at Leon. The figures are carved in wood, and the head, hands, and -nude parts are coloured. The vestments, made of cloth, hardened by -means of a glaze, are also coloured, the tints used being very -harmonious. There is also a carved triptych in wood of the same date, -but the carving of the figures is not so good and the colours used are -cruder. The statue of San Francisco (Plate 31) belongs to a later date. -It is a most interesting polychrome, with splendid character in the -rendering of the head. In the Cathedral of Leon are various statues -which belong to the same period, while in the cloisters is an -interesting bas-relief, Our Lady del Foro and the Offering of the Kings -(Plate 33). - -Some fine carvings, in the French style, come from the Portenda de San -Miguel, Estella. This style of carving spread over the whole of Spain, -and additional examples may be seen in the Cathedral of Sangüesa, in two -interesting and little-known churches at Olete, in the Cathedral of -Basque Vittoria, and in the old churches of Leon and Valencia. - -Statues on tombs are very numerous, and we find them in almost every -church. At first the figures are rudely carved, the skill of the artist -being expended on the frames, and the cast of the features being largely -a convention. Indeed these early monumental figures cannot be regarded -as portraits. Among the first examples are the figures on the royal -monument at Najera, erected by Sancho III. 1157. Here the figures are -mere puppets. Another early tomb is that in the Convent of Las Huelgas, -Burgos (Plate 34). Even the sarcophagus of St. Eulalia, at Barcelona, of -as late a date as 1327, with its Pisan reminiscences, shows how easily -art was sometimes satisfied at this period. - -But there are some really fine tombs belonging to the Romanesque period. -The Church of the Magdalena--formerly of the Templars--at Zamora -contains two knights’ tombs, one of which M. Marcel Dieulafoy considers -the finest Romanesque tomb in Spain. The figure, just expired and -resting on the death-bed, is placed beneath a portico of twin -balustrades which crown the structure. Fantastic animals are carved on -the spandrils, and the columns and capitals are richly decorated. The -couch stands against a wall, on which are sculptured seraphs, while two -angels bear away to Paradise the materialised soul of the dead man -wrapped in a winding-sheet. This device is common in Spain, where there -are many tombs of the same character, but, writes M. Marcel Dieulafoy, -“I do not know of one where the decorative sculpture is rendered more -boldly or with greater talent.” - -The statues, once funeral monuments, but now set into the wall of the -old Cathedral of Salamanca, are important as being among the most -complete examples of the twelfth-century polychrome (Plate 35). The -sarcophagus, the reclining figures, and the niches containing them are -all painted--red, blue-black, and white being the predominating tints. -There are some traces of yellow, probably due, as M. Marcel Dieulafoy -suggests, to the sizing used in fixing the gilding; there are also some -green tints in the foliage which decorates the arch in one of the tombs. -Fortunately these statues have suffered very little from the hand of the -restorer. The statue of Diego de Anaya on the tomb in the Capilla de San -Bartolomé, to the south of the cloisters, is another work of importance -in the same cathedral. It is quite ideal in its treatment. - -The Cathedral of Tarragona represents the same diversity in its statuary -as we have noted in its architectural styles. Thus the statuary of the -west façade may be divided into three distinct groups. The first, date -about 1278, consists of the beautiful sculptured figures of nine -Apostles, placed on the main portal, which were carved by the Catalan -artist Maestro Bartolomé (Plate 36). The Apostles and Prophets on the -buttresses were executed a century later by Jaime Castayls, another -native Catalan carver. They are clumsy and of ordinary character -compared with the delicate work of Maestro Bartolomé. The group of the -Virgin and Child which is placed above the pillars of the great door is -not native work, but comes certainly from France. The author is unknown. - -The cloisters and portals of the Cathedral of Burgos offer another -example of an admirable museum of sculpture. The earlier carvings--such, -for instance, as the figures on the Apostles’ door (Plate 37), belonging -to the opening years of the thirteenth century--are somewhat stiff and -constrained in style and contrast with the graceful ease of the later -works of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (Plate 38). The special -interest of the cloisters is that its carvings are coloured, and -fortunately up to the present they have not suffered from restoration -(Plates 39-41). The colours are faded, but we can see that the vivid -reds and blues, so much loved by the Moorish artists employed by the -Christians of this period, were used, as well as a preponderance of -gilding. Here, as at Salamanca, the general tone of the colourisation is -in the _mudèjar_ style. - -The cloisters of Pampeluna are in the same style and little inferior to -those of Burgos. The statues and bas-reliefs are in stone; the most -beautiful, and one of the finest examples left to us from the fourteenth -century, is that which represents the Death of the Virgin. Unfortunately -the colouring of this piece and of all the statues at Pampeluna has been -ruined by restoration. - -The Cathedral of Burgos is rich in Gothic tombs. The statues of St. -Ferdinand and Beatrice of Swabia, on the north wall of the cloisters, -are among the finest specimens of portrait sculpture. In the same place -is the late Gothic tomb of Don Gonzalo de Burgos. The monument of -Archbishop Maurice (died 1238), which is in the centre of the choir, is -also a work of special importance, showing, as it does, the skill of the -Spanish artists in enamelled copper (Plate 43). Of the same style is the -tomb of Jaime of Aragon (Plate 46), who died in 1334, in Tarragona -Cathedral, and two monuments in the Cathedral of Leon, that of Martin, -the first bishop of the city (Plate 47), the other of Don Ordoño II., -who died 923 (Plate 48). All three monuments are of excellent -workmanship, and important as fine specimens of portrait sculpture. We -may mention also the sarcophagus of St. Vincent and his sisters, SS. -Sabina and Criseta, in the Church of San Vicente at Avila (Plate 49), -with notable reliefs of the thirteenth century, and surmounted by a -Gothic canopy of a later date--about 1465--resting upon coupled columns. -But indeed it is difficult to make a selection among the numerous -monuments that claim attention. One work stands out as a masterpiece. -The magnificent tomb of Archbishop Lopez de Luna, in the Seo of -Zaragoza, is the most splendid example of the French-Gothic style in -Spain (Plate 50). Even so calm a critic as Professor Carl Justi -pronounces this work “a masterpiece.” Mitre on his head, a cross in his -hand, and dressed in rich pontifical robes, the figure reclines on the -sarcophagus. The face, set in the calm of death, is modelled by a master -hand. Behind, placed in a niche which is cut in the thickness of the -wall, stand a company of monks and nuns, who weep for their benefactor. -Other figures are grouped along the inner face of the tomb; each is -marked with character, and is carved with fine skill. But it is not -possible to convey in words the effect of this splendid and simple work. -In its style it may be compared with the mausoleum of Philippe the Bold, -the masterpiece of Burgundian art. It is of the same date, and M. Marcel -Dieulafoy believes that the Spanish monument must have been executed in -Spain by Aragonese artists who had learnt the art of carving in France. -This opinion of French influence directing the native artists is -supported by the fact that the Tarragona monument is not a solitary -example. This French style of carving spread over the Peninsula; the -cathedrals of Burgos, Leon, and Toledo--to name a few out of many -churches--are rich in similar monuments. It is necessary to remember -this close connection between the arts of France and Spain. The great -ecclesiastical orders of France, and especially that of Cluny, gave -inspiration to the Romanesque and Gothic periods. It was not until the -last third of the fifteenth century, when a new art method came from the -Netherlands, that the French influence weakened. Spanish art was almost -invariably stimulated from without. But it was these imported -art-styles, naturally awakening imitation, which called into existence -the native schools of carving, and showed anew those distinct traits -which can be called Spanish. - -There were at this time, in Castile and Aragon, a number of really -capable native artists; without doubt they learnt their art from the -French sculptors who had settled in Spain. The most skilful native -worker was Juan de la Huarte, of whose exquisite Virgin we shall speak -directly. But besides Juan de la Huarte, we know of Pedro de -Vallfongona, called Father Johan, who has left many fine carvings; and -Jordi Johan, doubtless his brother, commonly known as Maestro Jordi, -maker of images, the author, among other works, of the Sepulchre of -Juana, Countess of Asturias (1386), and of the Archangel Raphael, which -crowns the beautiful doorway of Barcelona Town Hall. Then there was -Pedro Oller, who carved, in 1450, the screen of the grand altar of Vich, -and, in 1442, the tomb of Ferdinand I. of Aragon. There were also -skilled goldsmiths such as Marcos Canzes and Francisco Vilardell; nor -must we forget the unknown author of the incomparable Custodia of Vich -Cathedral, a splendid example of the silver-work of the period. - -Before closing this chapter it is left to notice a few isolated works -that are treasured in the different cities of the Peninsula. And first -must come the perfect statues and statuettes of the Virgin, which, as we -might expect in religious Spain, are to be found in almost all the great -churches. That known as the Virgin of Huarte, which was carved by Juan -de la Huarte, was brought to Pampeluna in 1349. The statue is of white -marble, and the face and vestments still bear traces of colour. Of a -noble simplicity, it is one of the most exquisite productions of art in -the fourteenth century. Of less ideal beauty, but more Spanish in its -sentiment, being without the French influence, is St. Ferdinand’s small -ivory statuette of the Virgen de las Batallas in the Capilla Real of -Seville Cathedral. This is one of the earliest works of the kind in -Spain. The Cathedral of Plasencia has several images of the Virgin. Good -examples--one in silver and richly jewelled--are found at Burgos and -Salamanca (Plates 51 and 52), besides figures carved in wood and -coloured, and also at Toledo, Sigüenza, Gandía, Segunto, and the -churches in many other cities. The Santo Cristo of Burgos Cathedral may -also be mentioned. Madonnas are to be seen over the altars of chapels, -in gateways, or in the great retablos, as for instance at Leon (Plate -53), or again at Tortosa and Palma, where, in the last church, a really -beautiful statue is hidden by a modern altar. Among these Madonnas are -works full of dignity and sweetness, of genuine beauty, and carved -without stiffness or looseness. They give a convincing defiance to those -who decry ancient polychrome. - -Very different in character, but of equal merit, is the small statue, -silver painted, of St. George in the Audiencia Chapel at Barcelona. M. -Marcel Dieulafoy believes that we owe this fine work to a native -artist. The figure, standing fully armed, is carved with youthful -energy; the face, seen under the gilt visor, has lost none of its -freshness, and the original tints of colouring remain. The armour is of -oxidised silver, while the hinges, nails, belt, dragon, and pedestal are -of burnished gilt. Of this statue M. Marcel Dieulafoy writes: “Had -Meissonier painted the figure he could not have done it otherwise.” -Again we have a triumph of polychrome. - -Other statues worthy of special mention are the busts, executed in -enamelled silver, of S. Valerius, S. Vincent, and S. Laurent, in the -Treasury of Zaragoza Cathedral; the figures of Don Gutierre de Cardenas, -Duke of Magueda, and of his wife, Doña Teresa Enriquez, each offering -respectively their son and daughter to the Virgin, and the finer praying -figure of Juan II. of Castile, who ruled from 1406 to 1454, and was the -father of Isabella the Catholic. These statues are in Burgos Cathedral. -Gems among smaller works of art are the plates in silver, showing scenes -in the life of the Virgin, which cover the high altar in the Cathedral -of Gerona. Their date is 1348. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE ALTAR-SCREENS OR RETABLOS OF THE ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC PERIODS - - -The altar-screens, of great size, and known in Spain as retablos, which -meet us in every church may be considered as the most entirely -characteristic expression of the country’s art. Nowhere has the -development of the altar-screen assumed such importance. The huge -retablos of Spain stand alone both in their dimensions and in their -magnificence. In these works were joined the common efforts of the -architect, the sculptor, and the painter. Of a size and with a wealth of -decoration so great that often an examination of their detail is -fatiguing, they represent the most exhaustive examples of the creative -thought and power of representation of the native artists. - -Their evolution is interesting and curious. At first we find them as -screens of pagan and Roman origin, and dating back to the middle of the -twelfth century. But the pagan screens were adapted by Christians, who -gave to them the name diptycha of the Apostles, of the Martyrs, and of -the Saints, and used them as portable altars, and also largely as votive -gifts, their richness being in proportion to the wealth of the giver and -the importance of the subject depicted. We have several examples in the -Camara Santa of Oviedo Cathedral and in the Camarin of Santa Teresa, -Escorial (Plate 55). The Tablas Alfonsinas in the Sacristia Mayor of the -Cathedral of Seville is another and more important example. This -treasure is specially interesting, as it shows the actual use made of -these folding tablets. It was the altar of Alfonso the Learned, and was -presented by him to the cathedral in 1274 after he had used it in -battle; for in Spain these altar-screens were carried by Christian -generals travelling in the campaigns against the Moors. As the -Reconquest progressed their importance increased, and we have triptycha -and pentaptycha as well as diptycha; their number multiplied as they -became richer and grander in ornament. They were connected with the -deepest religious feelings of Christian Spain, being used by the -Paladins to pray to before plunging into battle. Later, from portable -altars they became fixed altars in churches. From this time their size -and magnificence increased, the religious sentiment associated with -them explaining, as we believe, both their frequency and their -importance in the art of the period. - -A selection of the most admirable altar-screens alone would make a long -list. Almost every church and all the great cathedrals furnish examples; -they are especially numerous in the churches of Catalonia and Navarre. - -The altar-screen in the Romanesque church of San Feliú, though less -known than those of Zaragoza, Barcelona, Tarragona, Pampeluna, and -Burgos, is important as a very beautiful and early example of these -retablos. It is in two distinct sections, which stand upon a widely -spreading base. The first or central part is in three storeys, which are -supported by Gothic pillars, and in the nine niches stand statues of the -saints. These, as well as the bas-reliefs and carvings on the pillars, -are of great vigour, and the effect is strengthened by the admirable -painting and gilding. The second part of the screen is composed of two -wings, on which are carved the figures of the prophets, surrounded by -rich foliage. These too are painted and gilded. - -The creative power displayed in these retablos is often surprising. But -it must be admitted that their general effect is less satisfactory than -an examination of the parts in detail would lead us to expect. The -artists would often seem to have been hampered by the huge size they had -to ornament. Continuing the accustomed forms, evolved for use in screens -of more modest dimensions, they have gained the desired amplitude of -ornament by a multiplication of the same forms that is often wearying. -But granting this, it is among these works that many important and -beautiful statues will be found. For this reason they cannot be -overlooked by the student of Spanish polychromes. - -No altar-screen in Spain is more beautiful or more worthy of study than -the one in the Capilla Mayor of Tarragona Cathedral. It illustrates the -life of St. Tecla, the disciple of St. Paul, and the tutelary saint of -Tarragona, who was martyred, according to legend, on this spot. We read -the story in the delightful _Légende Dorée_ of Jaques de Voragine:-- - -“St. Paul was seized and conveyed to prison, whither his disciple Tecla -followed him. The apostle and the maiden were judged together, and -together condemned: he to be beaten with rods and driven from the city, -she to be burned alive. She threw herself joyously on to the pyre, but -immediately a heavy shower of rain fell from the sky and extinguished -the flames; also a great earthquake occurred, in which perished a great -number of pagans. By this means Tecla was enabled to escape. She took -refuge in the house where St. Paul was living, and was overjoyed to meet -the inspirer of her conversion. She wished to cut her hair and travel -with him, disguised as a man. But this the apostle would not permit, for -she had great beauty.” - -In the Tarragona screen charming pinnacles crown a bas-relief -representing the Virgin and her Child, to the right and left of which -stand St. Paul and St. Tecla, figures of heroic size, who regard the -group with pious emotion. Beside them are bas-reliefs, most minutely -executed, representing scenes in the saint’s life. In one we see her as -described by Voragine, with serene face, her body nude, and praying in -the midst of the flames which envelop without burning her. Angels -encourage and sustain her, while below are seen the grinning heads of -the damned. In another scene the saint is surrounded by reptiles and -wild beasts in the cave into which she was thrown; and in yet another -she stands beside a bull, destined to drag and crush her body among the -stones of the road. Between the bas-reliefs are statues of prophets, -apostles, and saints; and on brackets, in the midst of foliage, repose -female saints with smiling faces. All the figures are carved with great -skill, and besides there is a wealth of detail--flowers, foliage, -animals, and insects--all of which are treated with surprising ability. - -The colourisation of the screen, like most marble and alabaster -monuments, has suffered from repeated and careless washings. But the -carvings preserve everywhere vestiges of paint and gilt, so that it is -possible to reconstruct the scheme of colour. This is curious--generally -blue and gold, with only a few touches of red and brown, which M. Marcel -Dieulafoy suggests may be due to the artist’s desire to surround St. -Tecla by the virginal and holy atmosphere which would be suggested by -this manifold and unusual use of blue tones. This realisation of the -spiritual expression of a legend is very characteristic of Spain, whose -artists possessed as their greatest gift the power of rendering a story -just as they felt it had happened. - -We owe the Tarragona altar-screen to a native Catalan artist. It was -begun in 1426 by Pedro Juan de Vallfongona, who executed the bas-reliefs -and statues of the first two stages, while at the same time the artist -Guillermo de la Monta worked on the architecture and ornaments. But in -1436 Pedro Juan, gaining favour from the beauty of his work, was called -to execute an altar for Zaragoza Cathedral, after which he only retained -a sort of inspectorship over the work at Tarragona, which was finished -by Guillermo de la Monta. - -Pedro Juan worked on the Zaragoza altar-screen until his death in 1447, -aided by Pedro Garces, Guillermo Monta, and Pedro Navarro. For some -reason the work was suspended for twenty-six years, when, on account of -the great age of the original collaborators, it was entrusted to Gil -Morlau, with Gabriel Gombao to aid him in the inferior parts. Finally -the screen was completed and gilded and painted in 1480. - -The altar-screen of Zaragoza has some fine bas-reliefs; the most -important is that of the centre, which shows the Adoration of the Magi. -The Virgin, seated, presents her Babe to the Kings, figures of vigorous -life and great dignity, who bend in worship as they offer their gifts; -behind, a group of figures represent a crowd of onlookers. On either -side of this central composition are bas-reliefs representing scenes in -the Transfiguration, lives of the Virgin, and Ascension of Christ: these -are the work of Pedro Juan. - -Another important retablo, which follows in date the work of Pedro Juan, -is that in the Capilla de Santiago (Plate 56) in the Cathedral of -Toledo. It is made of larch wood, and carved, gilded, and painted in the -richest Gothic style. The bas-reliefs represent scenes in the New -Testament; all the figures are life size. We owe this work to the -artists Sancho de Zamora, Juan de Segovia, and Pedro Gumiel, and it was -begun at the end of the fifteenth century. In the same chapel at Toledo -are the six magnificent Gothic tombs of Don Álvaro de Luna, the work of -Pablo Ortiz, one of the most famous carvers in the fifteenth century -(Plate 58). Another interesting altar-screen is that in the Capilla de -la Trinidad (Plate 59). - -In the carvings of these later altar-screens and tombs a new influence -will be traced; for, in the last third of the fifteenth century, what -may truly be termed a revolution in style took place in Spanish -sculpture. A stronger realistic tendency, with a more marked -individuality in the portraits, will be seen. The characteristic -features are more emphasised, the gestures more free and more -individual. Waved lines give place to broken ones, rounded surfaces to -sharp-edged ones. This heightened vitality was due not only to a greater -mastery of the technical part of sculpture by the native artists, but to -a newly imported art inspiration, which now began to mingle with, and -even to replace, the influences of France and Burgundy. - -Up till about 1400 Spain was loyal to France, and kept her artists as -her teachers and advisers. Afterwards Burgundy displaced France, and we -have the far-reaching influence of the great ecclesiastical orders. Now -followed the rule of the Netherlands and of Germany. In the fifteenth -century Spain was brought into close connection with the Low Countries. -The intermarrying of the royal houses of Burgundy and Hapsburg united -the Northern countries first with Portugal, and afterwards with Spain. -The result of this union was a great advancement in Spain’s art. The -first of the Northerners to come to Spain were painters, and we have the -visit of Jan van Eyck, in 1428, with its far-reaching consequences to -Spanish painting; then followed architects and sculptors. A Flemish -painter was adopted by the Count of Aragon about 1440; and the Cartuja -of Miraflores has a small altar-screen of which the wings were painted -by him. The archives of Toledo mention a great number of Flemish artists -of renown, who settled and worked in the city, among whom were Juan and -Bernardino of Brussels, whose names are often mentioned by Cean -Bermudez, and the four brothers Egas from Eycken, one of whom, Anequin, -was appointed architect of the cathedral by the chapter, and directed -the work of the sculptures of the Gate of the Lions, being assisted by -Fernandez de Liena and Juan Givas, also an architect of the cathedral. -Then we know that at Burgos worked the Colonia family, Juan, Simeon, and -Francisco, who carved the woodwork of the cathedral and that of the -Cartuja of Miraflores. There were also Northern artists in Seville. -Mateo and Nicolas were skilful goldsmiths, and Cristobal--all of whom -probably came from Germany--was a painter on glass. Juan Aleman, in -1512, finished the choir-stalls of the cathedral, George Fernandez -Aleman carved the retablo, while another artist of the same name, -Rodrigo Aleman, sculptured the wainscoting of Palencia Cathedral, whose -invention and humour, Professor Carl Justi says, recall the South German -masters. - -These Northern artists, widely distributed over Spain, brought about the -transformation of art of which we have spoken. The native artists -readily absorbed their influence. We now meet a marked change in the -direction of realism. The Christs are long, lean, and emaciated, the -Virgins are older; we have sharply defined outlines, and the religious -scenes and legends are depicted with a stronger and more passionate -understanding. - -The altar-screens were still the most important works that were -executed. An interesting example, which shows very clearly this new -expression of realism, is an altar-screen in the Museum of Valladolid, -which came from the Convent of San Francisco (Plates 60 and 61). It is -carved in walnut wood, and there are traces of painting. The figure of -Christ is strangely emaciated, the Virgin is older, while all the -figures are strongly characterised; there is a very considerable amount -of creative thought and power in the presentment of the scene. The -author of the work is unknown. - -Among many other important examples of this over-accentuated realistic -type may be mentioned an anonymous Pietà from Salamanca, in which we see -the new tendencies expressed at their strongest point of accentuation. -An altar-screen in one of the chapels of Palencia Cathedral, the -bas-reliefs which ornament the spandril of the Puerta de la Piedad, the -south entrance of Barcelona Cathedral, and also the figures which crown -the door of the Hospice of Huesca, are further, though less striking, -examples. The altar of Santa Ana in Burgos Cathedral belongs to the same -period; but in this very charming example we have a work of a different -character. The figures, carved in wood and coloured, especially the -youthful and beautiful Virgin, have a grace and freedom of movement -absent from the more realistic works which were the outcome of the -Northern influences. - -The greatest artist of this period was Gil de Siloe, whose works rank -among the most important sculptures in Spain. He was a native of Burgos, -and was born at the end of the fifteenth century. His masterpiece is the -monument of Don Juan II. and Doña Isabel, known as the Sepulcros de los -Reyes, in the Cartuja of Miraflores, Burgos (Plate 64). It was erected -by Isabella the Catholic, daughter of Juan II., and was begun in the -year 1489, when Gil de Siloe received 1340 _maravedis_ for the design. -It was finished four years later, and a further sum of 442,667 -_maravedis_ for the sculpture and 158,252 for the alabaster were paid. -It is perhaps the finest monument of its kind in Spain, perfect both in -design and execution. - -The monument, which stands in the centre of the church, is of a curious -shape, being octagonal, or rather sixteen-sided, a form very uncommon, -and Oriental in its origin. The recumbent figures of the King and Queen -lie side by side on a sumptuous bed, and between them is a low marble -railing. The King has a ring on the right hand and holds a sceptre, in -the Queen’s hand is a prayer-book and rosary. The sides are ornamented -with statues, placed under delicate canopies, of which some represent -the Cardinal Virtues, and each is a masterpiece of carving. There are -besides sixteen lions bearing escutcheons, and bas-reliefs of scenes -from the New Testament. Then around the top is a double cornice of -foliage--branches of vines and laurels--with birds and animals -splendidly carved (Plates 65 and 66). - -Above the tomb, inlaid upon the wall, is the monument of their son, -Alfonso (Plate 67), whose death in 1470, at the age of sixteen, brought -Isabella the Catholic to the throne. This work is elaborately adorned -with carvings. Placed in a small elliptic arch, the Prince kneels before -a _prie-dieu_. He wears a mantle similar to the King. Above him are the -Virgin and the Angel Gabriel, bearing a vase in which blooms a lily as -the emblem of Purity, while St. Michael with the Dragon, the emblem of -Victory, is placed on the spandril between the flying-arch and the -accolade. Below on the sub-basement a charming group of angels hold the -battle-shield of the young Prince. - -The tomb, now in the Museum of Burgos, of Juan de Padella (Plate 68) is -so similar to the monument of Prince Alfonso, not only in the general -design and style, but in the actual carrying out of the details, that it -seems right to attribute it to Gil de Siloe. Juan de Padella was a royal -page, killed in the siege of Granada; he is known to have been a great -favourite of Queen Isabella, who called him _mi loco_ (my fool), and it -is therefore quite probable that de Siloe, the royal artist, would be -employed to design and execute his tomb. - -The retablo of the high altar at Miraflores (Plates 69-71) is also by -Gil de Siloe, but in this work he was aided by Diego de la Cruz. It was -begun in the year 1490; the date at which it was completed is not known. -It has numerous statues. In the centre is a Crucifixion, with a -realistic Christ. The Virgin and St. John, figures of great merit, wait -beside the Cross, and a band of angels press forward to receive the -drops of the Divine Blood. Above flies the symbolical pelican, feeding -its young with its own blood; below are the kneeling figures of Juan II. -and Isabella his wife, he being guarded by Santiago, Spain’s patron -hero, while she is protected by a saint. At either side of this central -composition are bas-reliefs representing scenes from the life of Christ, -and figures of the Apostles and Evangelists. Perhaps the best of the -carvings is the one of a female saint with a figure asleep at her feet. -The saint’s figure is exquisitely coloured--a perfect example of -polychrome. There are also interesting carvings in the choir-stalls -(Plate 72). With the Miraflores altar-screen we may compare the retablo -of the Church of Santa Gadea del Cid, also at Burgos (Plate 73). The -author of this important carving is unknown. - -Among numerous works which deserve to take rank with the polychromes of -Gil de Siloe a few must be mentioned. One of the best is the funeral -monument of Doña Beatrice de Pacheco, Comtesse of Medellin, in the -monastery church of the Hyeronymites del Parral, near Segovia, which M. -Marcel Dieulafoy suggests is the work of Juan Eqas or his brother. -Unfortunately the barbarous treatment this monument has suffered -prevents its enjoying the reputation it deserves. Then there are the -bas-reliefs of Christ entering Jerusalem and Christ in Hades on the door -which leads from the nave to the cloisters of Burgos Cathedral, fine -specimens of Gothic carving; and other examples may be seen in the -cathedrals of Vittoria, Pampeluna, Avila, Valencia, Leon, and Toledo. - -We have now examined the most important polychromes that were executed -up to the close of the fifteenth century. They present us with works of -great vigour, especially those later pieces, which show the influences -from the North. They were wrought at a time when the vitality of Spain -was at its highest and its growth in the art of carving was in full -development. - -It may be well at this point, and before turning to new influences which -were again to alter the tendencies of the native work, to consider -briefly the technique of polychrome statuary. - -The altar-screens, as we have seen, were the special activity of the -period. M. Marcel Dieulafoy gives an excellent and concise account of -the manner in which these important works were carried out by different -sets of workmen, for it was rarely that all the processes necessary to -the completion of a polychrome were undertaken by one artist. First and -most important there was the tracer, afterwards called the assembler, -the chief artist, who furnished the design both for the whole work and -its ornaments of statuary and bas-reliefs, and also superintended its -execution. To him the sculptors, ornamenters, master-masons, and -master-carpenters were subordinate, but the painters, damaskers, and -gilders were free from his control. Thus writes M. Marcel Dieulafoy: -“The intervention of four successive brotherhoods of artists was -required--1. _Tracers_, who later became known as _Architectural -Assemblers_; 2. _Imagers_, who were the sculptors and carvers; 3. the -_Eucaruadores_, the body-painters who coloured the flesh of the figures; -4. the _Estofadores_ and _Doradores_, who were respectively the -stuff-painters and the gilders.” Just as the tracer had ascendency over -and directed the work of the imagers--the sculptors and carvers--so the -Eucaruadore, or flesh-artist, was the head of the polychrome workers, -and directed the colourers of the stuff-painters and the gilders. His -position was one of supreme importance, which is proved by the fact that -it was not unusual for him to receive for his work as much as half of -the entire sum paid. This is an interesting proof of the high esteem in -which the art of polychrome was held. The Estofadores had not the same -importance; their work was to paint the stuffs of the garments, -generally on a background of gold, and also foliage and arabesques. The -Doradores or gilders were their collaborators, and their special work, -besides the gilding of the background, was to paint in “full-gilt” -armour, &c., and to enrich with jewels; to their share also fell the art -of damasking. - -Almost all the great painters of Spain were polychromists, and we find -them collaborating with the sculptors. This custom continued far beyond -the period we have been considering. Zurbaran, Murillo, Valdés Leal, and -Pacheco coloured the statues of Gaspar Delgado and Montañés. Pacheco, -the great historian, who was also a painter, especially extols the art -of polychrome in several illuminating passages in his _Arte de la -Pintura_. In one place he writes:-- - - “May it please God in His mercy to exile from the world the vulgar - enamellers, and in the supreme cause of truth, harmony, and - enlightenment to establish for flesh-painting the use of the ‘mat’ - colouring” (this ‘mat’ or dull colouring superseded the burnished - or polished colouring), “which approaches nearer to Nature, lends - itself to numerous retouches, and so permits the production of that - delicacy which to-day we so much admire. It is true that the - moderns--by whom I mean those between the ancient painters and - ourselves--began to employ this style, as we may gather from their - treatises on sculpture and from what we see on the old - altar-screens, but the merit of having revived the art in Spain, - and of giving, thanks to it, a better light and more of life to - good sculpture, I dare to say belongs in truth to me. At the least - I am the only one in Seville who since the year 1600 preached and - practised it. It is well to know that on the 17th of January in - that year I painted in ‘mat’ the Christ, executed by the goldsmith - Juan Bautista Franconio, after the model of the ‘four nails’ - Crucifixion of Michael Angelo, which he brought from Rome. Since - then all artists have imitated me. It would take too long to - enumerate the remarkable works of Gaspar Nuñez Delgado and - Martinez Montañés which this city possesses, and in which I have - collaborated; but it would be unpardonable if I did not specify - some of them, as they are among the best of the number which have - proved the superiority of this invention.” - -He then gives a list of polychromes which he has coloured, works which -we shall notice in a later chapter. Afterwards he continues:-- - - “Whence have they acquired the audacity, those who claim that - painting on flat surfaces dominates the arts, and that if they had - to paint the flesh of a statue they could do it better with their - feet than the specialists with their hands? They are very much - mistaken in that, for if they tried they would bring no grace, nor - lightness, nor freshness to the work. In the same way that when one - imitates Nature in a well-designed head, one renders the colour, - the delicacy of the eyes, of the mouth, the brilliancy and effect - of the hair, so even on good sculpture can admiration be exacted, - as has been proved by the enthusiasm of those who have seen the - works which I have painted in ‘mat.’ The fact is so public that I - need not insist on it.” - -Pacheco, in another passage of equal illumination, also speaks of the -beauty of the art of damasking, giving a careful and full account of the -process:-- - - “Marvellous was the invention made by the old painters for the - ornamentation of figures in relief and the architecture of - altar-screens by gilding in burnished gold and damasking them. The - colours must be the same, and chosen with the same care as those - designed for illumination. They must be ground and prepared in - water with the same limpidity, but in lieu of gum paste one should - use the yolks of fresh eggs diluted in equal volume of water, fresh - and clear, beaten to a froth. This paste must be mixed with the - colours for damasking the burnished gold, taking care to size with - white lead all the parts to be painted, be it either of grotesque - figures or of vestments, of which the gold should serve as a - background for divers colours. It is always well to know that blue - does not require so strong a paste as carmine, vermilion, ochre, - and other colours of little body, and that if the paste be more - than a day old it is necessary to add with the egg a few drops of - vinegar to prevent spoiling.” - -These significant passages may well end this chapter. It must be -accepted that polychrome was an art highly esteemed, that colouring of -statuary, and especially of the great altar-screens, was carried out -with extreme care, and was regarded as work not beneath the dignity of -the greatest artists. In Spain the sculptor and the painter were as -one. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE RENAISSANCE, AND THE INFLUENCE OF MICHAEL ANGELO ON THE SPANISH -SCULPTORS - - -The Northern influences of Flanders and Germany, though far-reaching in -their effects on Spanish sculpture, were not long-lived, and in the last -decade of the fifteenth century they gave way to a new influence from -Italy. Always responsive to newly imported art methods, her -architecture, sculpture, and painting were invaded by the forms of the -Italian Renaissance, and thanks to the flourishing condition of -architecture and sculpture, and to a taste refined by the busy practice -of these arts, the new influence found not only a willing, but an -intelligent following. The Renaissance influences were not harmful to -architecture and sculpture as they were to the sister art of painting. -For one reason, both architecture and sculpture were much more advanced -at this period than was painting. Then the new elements of taste made -their way slowly, and the old influences remained active side by side -with the new. - -But it must be remembered that in Spain the Renaissance was never a -movement from within; rather its causes were external and political. In -1504 Naples had been conquered by Spain, and at the same time the -Sicilies had become an appanage of the House of Aragon. Many Spaniards -of position were attracted to Italy to take part in the wars, and with -them travelled native artists. At the same time Italian artists came to -Spain. Another influence was the close relation which at this time -existed between Spain and Rome. Then a thriving trade communication -arose between the cities of the two countries, and especially was this -so between the prosperous harbours of Barcelona and Genoa. The impulse -of art is curiously interbound with economic causes; interchange of -trade inevitably results in interchange of culture. - -The charm of the new style arose from its novelty; it inspired imitation -and suggested new theories of art. It found an expression chiefly in the -direction of decoration, where the old sumptuousness was united with -elegance and delicacy of execution. Thus the Renaissance entered Spain -by numerous channels. We find many Spanish nobles employing Italian -workmen to decorate their palaces; for instance, Rodrigo de Mendoza -entrusted the ornamentation of the castle of Calahorra to Genoese -workmen in 1510. Italian marble-cutters were occupied in the production -of sumptuous monumental tombs, of which some were carved at Genoa, while -a still greater number were executed in Spain by Lombard and Florentine -artists summoned thither for the purpose. The mural monument of -Archbishop Mendoza in Seville Cathedral was executed by Miguel of -Florence about 1509, and by him too is the terra-cotta relief over the -Puerta del Perdon, representing the Expulsion of the Money-changers from -the Temple and the Annunciation, between the large figures of St. Peter -and St. Paul. The monument of P. González de Mendoza in the Capilla -Mayor of Toledo Cathedral, with the Madonna in the lunette, is -absolutely Florentine, and is perhaps the work of Andrea Sansovino. The -Marquis de Tarifa, while on a journey to Palestine in 1520, ordered at -Genoa the tomb-monuments of his parents, Enriquez and Catalina de -Ribera, the richest examples of Renaissance sculpture, which are in the -University Church of Seville. The altar of the Capilla de Exalas, in the -cathedral of the same city, which was erected by del Río in 1539, is -also of Genoese workmanship. The new style was adopted in decorative -sculptures applied to doorways, façades, windows, &c.; there are -numerous examples, and especially is this so in the Cathedral of Toledo, -which furnishes a museum of Renaissance work. - -The Italian teaching was further assisted by the settlement in Spain of -a family of Italian artists, Leone Leoni, Pompeo his son, and Michael -the grandson, who for three generations were employed by Charles V. and -Philip II. They carved for the Escorial statues of the Emperor, of -Philip II., and members of the royal family, as well as the bas-reliefs -of the retablo of the high altar, which Herrera had designed, and two -groups in gilt-bronze placed under the tribunes to the right and left of -the altar. In addition these artists executed many statues in bronze and -in marble for the churches and royal palace. These works, by reason of -their purity of line and beauty, exercised a beneficial and widespread -influence on the native sculptors. Cean Bermudez, in Spain, unites with -Vasari, in Italy, in praising the Leoni family. - -One of the first Spanish artists to frequent the schools of Italy, where -he is wrongly stated to have been a pupil of Donatello, was Damian -Forment, a native of Valencia, who lived and worked in the fifteenth and -first third of the sixteenth centuries. Donatello died in 1466, and as -Forment returned to Spain in 1509, when still young, he could not have -been the pupil of the great Italian. But whoever was his master, he was -a great artist, the most famous of the Aragonese sculptors, and his -works are the purest examples of the new Italian taste. That he esteemed -himself we know, for he calls himself “the rival of Phidias and -Praxiteles”; while the fact that he was allowed the unusual privilege of -inserting life-size medallions of himself and his wife at the base of -his great altar-screens at Zaragoza and Huesca shows how high a place he -held in the popular estimation. - -There are four altar-screens which are known certainly to be the work of -Damian Forment, but of these only two are important. The first in date -is the retablo of the Virgen del Pilar at Zaragoza (Plate 74), which was -begun in 1509, the year in which Forment returned from Italy, and was -finished eleven years later, in 1520. It has three large bas-reliefs, -surrounded by a framing, and placed under a series of pinnacles and -divided by pilasters, while above is a predilla containing seven small -groups. In the centre of the three large groups is an exquisitely fine -Annunciation of the Virgin, and on either side are the Birth and the -Purification. Injudicious washings have ruined the polychrome, and no -traces of colour remain except on two figures placed on the right and -left of the altar. From these we can judge how fine the polychrome must -once have been. It is interesting to note that while the bas-reliefs and -statues, with their beautiful forms and great delicacy, so different -from the realistic emaciated types of the late Gothic artists, show very -clearly the influence Forment had experienced from his study of the -Italian masters; in the architectural decorations he remained faithful -to Gothic traditions. This mingling of styles is what we must expect in -Spain; it is at once the interest and the weakness of her art. Nor was -Forment alone in thus clinging to the old forms, while at the same time -using the new. We find the same crossing of influences in the work of -all the native artists, and in this way the Spanish Renaissance retained -in sculpture a certain native style of its own. - -Damian Forment’s second important retablo, which was executed for the -celebrated Abbey of Mount Aragon, and is now in the parish church of -Huesca, is entirely Italian in sentiment and in execution. It has a -sensuous charm, such as is seen in scarcely any other work of Spanish -art. - -Forment began the screen in 1520, worked at it for thirteen years, and -died, so tradition tells us, almost at once after its completion. Like -the Zaragoza altar-screen, it is of alabaster. It is in three registers, -and is adorned with bas-reliefs of the Bearing of the Cross, the -Crucifixion, and the Descent from the Cross. Between these bas-reliefs -and on the pilasters, crowned with elegant pinnacles, are figures of -women of incomparable beauty and grace. Some of the figures show traces -of colour, but here also the polychrome has been destroyed by washings. -The medallions of Forment and his wife are on the base of the altar. - -The two remaining altar-screens of Forment are less important. San Pablo -at Zaragoza has a retablo carved in wood, which, though designed by -Forment, was probably carried out by his pupils. It was executed about -the years 1516-1520. The second altar-screen is in the parish church of -Velula de Ebro. - -Besides these works, the retablo in the Cathedral of Santo Domingo de la -Calzada, a small town twelve miles west of Najara, has been attributed -to Forment. But this is a mistake. Not only the style of the carvings -but the records of the date of the work prove that it cannot be by -Damian Forment. The confusion has arisen from its author having the name -of Forment; he seems to have been an important _imagerio_, or -image-maker. We owe the clearing up of this error to M. Marcel -Dieulafoy, to whose admirable work we once more gratefully acknowledge -our debt. - -The same learned authority thinks that the admirable tomb of the Marquis -Vasquez de Arco, which is in an annexe of the Sigüenza Cathedral, may, -in spite of certain difficulties about dates, be the work of Damian -Forment. For there seems no other artist working at this time who could -have executed it. Forment left a considerable fortune, which would point -to there having been many anonymous works of his; his four altar-screens -not being sufficient to account for the amassing of this wealth. The -Sigüenza tomb is one of the earliest monuments to show the decisive -influences of the Renaissance. The figure is represented reclining, the -attitude is new and free, the expression of the face is charming, and -all the details are carried out with great perfection. The only colour -that to-day remains is the crimson cross of Santiago. Behind the tomb an -inscription on a slab of marble inlaid into the wall gives the history -of the young hero, who was killed during one of the many sieges which -preceded the conquest of Granada. - -There are some very curious and very interesting bas-reliefs in the -lower section of the retablo of the Royal Chapel of Granada (Plate 75) -belonging to this period, which show markedly the Italian Renaissance -forms. They depict the Surrender of the City and the Baptism of the -Moors. Unfortunately the author of these works is unknown. - -In 1520, the same year in which Forment began the altar-screen of -Huesca, a Catalan artist, Bartolomé Ordóñez, went to Geneva to chisel -from Carrara marble the tomb of Cardinal Ximénez, which is now in the -Cathedral of Alcalá de Henares, but was formerly in the University -Chapel of the city. The tomb had been already designed by the Florentine -Domenico Alexandro, but on his death in 1520 Ordóñez was chosen to -complete it. With him worked two Genoese artists, Thomas Forne and Adam -Wibaldo, and Ordóñez assimilated so completely the Italian style that on -his return to Spain he became one of the chief channels for introducing -the new forms. - -This explains how it is that the Spaniard’s chief works have been -ascribed to his Florentine master, Domenico Alexandro. These are the -funeral monuments of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic sovereigns, -in the Royal Chapel of Granada (Plate 76), and that of Don Juan, their -only son, which is in the Church of St. Thomas at Avila (Plate 77). This -last monument is of great purity and beauty of style. Domenico Alexandro -died in 1520, two years before the Granada tombs were executed. A recent -discovery noted by M. Marcel Dieulafoy of three names of those who -presided at the mounting of the monuments, all of whom belonged to the -studio of Ordóñez, gives further proof that we owe these splendid -funeral monuments to him. There is confusion about all the works of this -great sculptor. It is probable that he was the author of the tombs of -Philip the Handsome and Juana la Loca, which are also in Granada’s Royal -Chapel; while many anonymous sculptures of this date, as well as others -that have been assigned to the early Renaissance artists, may well be -his work. But the question of attributions, always difficult, is -especially so in the case of an artist who, like Bartolomé Ordóñez, -assumes a style typical of his period. - -The most famous of the early Renaissance artists was Philip Vigarni, -better known by his surname Borgoña. He was of Burgundian origin, but a -native of Burgos, and he spent his life in the country of his birth. We -hear of him first in the year 1500, gaining a competition to execute the -great retablo of the Tras-Sagrario in the Cathedral of Burgos. - -The Tras-Sagrario altar-screen is the largest retablo in Spain, probably -in the world (Plates 78-80). It is made entirely of larch wood, and is -in five storeys, each having four compartments, which are decorated with -elaborately carved bas-reliefs of the Passion and scenes from the life -of the Virgin. Above is a colossal crucifix. The numerous niches and -pinnacles contain a veritable crowd of prophets and saints. The style is -flamboyant Gothic, for, like Forment, Philip Borgoña did not use -Renaissance forms until later in his career. He had as his collaborators -Alfonso Sanchez, and his fellow-competitors Sebastian Almonacid, Peti -Juan, Diego Copin of Holland, and seventeen other sculptors of renown. -Enrique Egas, master architect of the cathedral, and Pietro Gumiel, -architect of the archbishopric, directed and looked after the -construction. The polychrome was entrusted to Juan de Borgoña, the -Toledan painter, and brother of Philip, and he was assisted by Francesco -di Amberos, Fernando del Rincon, and others. With the aid of these -numerous collaborators the altar-screen was completed in four years, -and was inaugurated in 1505. In spite of the merit of its carvings, its -great architectural merits, and the profusion and beauty of its colour -and gilding, the general effect of the retablo is disappointing. It is -too large. Standing near to it, the eye cannot embrace its multitude of -detail, while at a distance the parts become confused and lost. It is a -splendid and surprising monument, and it is very Spanish, but it is -unsatisfying as a work of art. - -The real talent of Philip de Borgoña is seen best in the admirable -bas-reliefs in the Tras-Sagrario at the back of the Grand Altar. In the -first, Jesus goes out of Jerusalem to Calvary, accompanied by St. -Veronica, who dries his face, wet with drops of blood and sweat, and by -St. Simon, who helps to carry the Cross; the second depicts the -Crucifixion; the third is in two compartments, which show the Descent -from the Cross and the Resurrection (Plate 81). Two bas-reliefs on -either side are of a later date, belonging to the seventeenth century; -they are the work of Alonso de Rios. - -It was after the execution of these works at Burgos that Philip de -Borgoña underwent his artistic evolution and embraced Italian forms. -Whence the influence came we do not know; perhaps it was from Alonso -Berruguete, for Philip de Borgoña would seem never to have left Spain. - -The great work of his late years was carving the thirty-five stalls on -the Epistle side of the choir of Toledo Cathedral, the stalls on the -Gospel side being by Alonso Berruguete (Plates 82-98). The carvings of -Borgoña are more delicate and more finished, while those of Berruguete -show more creative talent and are more Spanish in their sentiment. Of -these truly marvellous choir-stalls Théophile Gautier says: “L’art -Gothique, sur les confins de la Renaissance, n’a rien produit de plus -parfait ni de mieux dessiné.” In his _Toledo Pintoresca_, Amardor thus -begins his description of the stalls: “Portent of Spanish art, in which -two great geniuses of our golden century competed, the victory to our -own times remains undecided, and astounded the judges who have -endeavoured to give their opinion on this matter.” The bas-reliefs -represent scenes from the Old and New Testament, and the single statues -are of prophets, apostles, and saints. They are carved of walnut wood, -separated by jasper and alabaster pillars. - -M. Marcel Dieulafoy has pointed out the singular resemblance between the -figures in these choir-stalls and those in the altar-screen in the -Capilla del Condestable of Burgos Cathedral. It seems probable that we -owe this fine work to Philip de Borgoña, or at least that it was -produced in his studio. It is adorned with numerous reliefs and statues. -The scene of the central panel, with life-size figures, depicts the -Presentation in the Temple, and is charming by reason of its naïve -realism and the beauty of the heads. This altar-screen gains a further -importance from the richness of its polychromes. - -Philip de Borgoña’s last work was the large retablo of the Capilla Real -at Granada, with the statuettes of Ferdinand and Isabella kneeling. The -reliefs, carved in wood in two sections, are of great historical -interest (Plate 103). To the left is Boabdil surrendering the keys of -the Alhambra, while that to the right represents the Baptism of the -Moors by Spanish monks. Philip de Borgoña died in 1543. - -The Italian Renaissance became more universal and more strongly marked -in the works of the sculptors that followed. This was due to the -influence of Michael Angelo, which in the sixteenth century, in Spain, -attained a power elsewhere unknown outside of Italy. There was a special -reason for this. The great Italian’s work appealed to the Spanish -seriousness, to their strong dramatic instinct, and to the deeply -emotional character which has always marked their art. - -Alonso Berruguete, sculptor, painter, and architect, stands as the -representative of this Michael-Angelesque influence, and his work is -typical of the manner of his period, especially of the grotesque style -which grew out of the Italian, and must be associated with his name. -Berruguete was born at Paredes de Nava about the year 1480. He was the -son of Pedro Berruguete, the king’s painter, from whom he received his -first lessons in art. On his father’s death he went to Italy, where he -at once became the pupil of Michael Angelo. Proof of his ability is -given by the fact that the Italian master confided to him the copying of -the celebrated Pisan cartoon which he had designed for the city. Later -Berruguete accompanied Michael Angelo to Rome. He made such progress -that Bramanti, following the advice of Raphael, chose him out of many -competitors to make a copy of the Laocoön to be cast in bronze. He also -completed a St. Jerome by Filippino Lippi. - -This is all we know of Berruguete’s sojourn in Rome. In 1520 he returned -to Spain, when Charles V. appointed him royal sculptor and painter. This -position gave him great power. He worked for the emperor at Valladolid -and Madrid, and all the great towns of Spain--Toledo, Zaragoza, -Salamanca, Granada--competed for his services. In this way his influence -was widespread, and all that he had learnt in Italy became known to the -native artists. From Michael Angelo Berruguete acquired the power and -vigour that distinguishes all his best work, but at the same time he -retained his own personality and was faithful to national traditions. It -was his Spanish temperament, with its tendency to over-emphasis, and not -his imitation of Michael Angelo, which caused the violent attitudes and -exaggerated gestures which characterise many of his works. - -Among the numerous altar-screens which Berruguete carved, either -entirely or in part, the most important was that of San Benito el Real -at Valladolid, some fragments of which remain in the museum of the city. -The choir-stalls of the monastery, also in the museum, which are often -mistakenly attributed to Berruguete, were carved by Andres de Najera in -1520, a contemporary sculptor, too little known, if we may judge by the -power and beauty of these choir-stalls (Plates 104-111). Carved in wood, -they do not appear ever to have been painted. Najera has also left -excellent carvings in the Cathedrals of Calahorra and of Santo Domingo -de la Calzada. - -The contracts for the altar-screen of San Benito, signed in 1526, show -that Berruguete undertook “to carve and finish with his own hands the -heads and feet of the statues.” This gives special importance to these -works, for the execution of many of Berruguete’s carvings was left to -his pupils. The most beautiful of the figures is that of St. Sebastian -(Plate 113). It is one of the finest possible examples of polychrome. -The flesh-tints are subdued, the face somewhat warmer in colour than the -body, with skilful touches of carmine on the lips, nostrils, ears, and -eyelids. The eyebrows are light, the hair red-brown. Some drops of blood -show upon the wounds. The general effect is powerful and true to life. - -There are some fine bas-reliefs; among them we may mention the Sacrifice -of Abraham and the Adoration of the Magi (Plate 113); the heads of the -Virgin and the Child Christ in the second panel are splendid examples of -Berruguete’s art. Two more panels show the Birth of Christ and the -Flight into Egypt, and in these again Berruguete’s special personality -makes strong appeal; and hardly less powerful are the panels, with gold -backgrounds, of the two Evangelists, St. Mark and St. Matthew. All -these bas-reliefs are coloured. - -Berruguete has left many noteworthy tombs. The monument of Archbishop -Tavera, in the Afuera Hospital at Toledo, is generally accounted his -masterpiece (Plate 114). But this tomb, carved in his old age--it was -Berruguete’s last work--is not really finer than many of his other -monuments. The bas-reliefs on the sarcophagus are mannered, and suggest -an over-excited imagination. It seems probable that the Toledo tomb owes -its fame rather to its being better known than to the superiority of its -execution. A finer example of Berruguete’s works in marble, according to -M. Marcel Dieulafoy, are the tombs of Don Juan de Rojas and his wife the -Marquesa de Poza, in the Church of San Pablo at Palencia. The kneeling -figures of the Marquis and his wife, with the fine heads of strongly -marked character, prove Berruguete an accomplished carver of portraits -in marble. The bas-reliefs, and the numerous figures of saints, -evangelists, and angels, are vigorously carved; especially fine is the -form of God the Father, which dominates the whole. The monumental tomb -of San Jeronimo at Granada, which has been attributed to the Italian -Pedro Torrigiano, and also to Berruguete’s successor, Gaspar Becerra, -is almost certainly the work of Berruguete (Plate 115). This is the -opinion of M. Marcel Dieulafoy. It furnishes a different expression of -Berruguete’s powers, and is one of the most characteristically Spanish -of his works. Of a similar character to the Palencia tombs, and worthy -of notice, are the excellent portrait-bust of the engineer Juanelo -Turriano, in the Convent of San Juan de los Reyes at Toledo, the -statue-tomb of St. Secundus, Bishop of Avila, in the Church of San -Secundo in that city (Plate 116), and the busts of the archbishops which -adorn the retablo of the Colegio del Arzobispo at Salamanca. The student -of Berruguete should visit his native town Paredes de Nava, where -numerous carvings are preserved in the Church of Santa Eulalia, for in -these early works we see how carefully he studied the antique. In the -wooden panels in the sacristy of Mercia Cathedral we notice again the -over-excited imagination which was the defect of Berruguete’s work. Much -finer is the retablo of Santa Barbara in the sacristy of the Cathedral -of Avila. It is carved in alabaster and coloured; the finest of the -reliefs represents the Scourging of Christ, a subject specially suitable -to Berruguete’s power. - -The influence of Berruguete was decisive and widespread, and a number -of native carvers and sculptors arose who were either his pupils or -imitated his style. - -Gaspar de Tordesillas, born at the end of the fifteenth century, is -reputed to have been a pupil of Berruguete, and the vigour of his style, -shown chiefly in the attitudes and movements of his figures, and in the -folds of his draperies, supports this pupilship. He was first an -_entallador_, or carver in wood, and afterwards _escultor_--sculptor--an -artist of higher rank. He carved in wood a small retablo for the parish -church of Simancas, a small town near to Valladolid, which Antonio -Vasquez, another native artist, coloured in oils. As an escultor -Tordesillas executed many important works, among them the fine statue of -San Benito (Plate 117), now in the Museum of Valladolid, and also two -altar-screens for the old monastery of San Benito. - -Many of the works of Tordesillas have been attributed to his -better-known contemporary Juan de Juni, the extravagant follower of -Berruguete’s style. The altar-screens in the Church of Santiago and the -Church of San Francisco at Valladolid--the first representing the -Adoration of the Magi and the other the Entombment of Christ--are all -the work of Tordesillas. M. Marcel Dieulafoy’s verdict of this little -known carver is that he was “a great artist.” - -Francisco Giralte, a sculptor of Palencia, who, like so many of the -Spanish artists of this period, studied in Italy, was the principal -collaborator with Berruguete in carving the celebrated choir-stalls of -Toledo Cathedral. The last of the works which he executed alone is the -altar-screen, formerly in the chapel of the Obispo, Palencia Cathedral, -but now at Madrid. This screen is described and highly praised by Ponz -in his _Viage de España_. The polychrome was carried out by Juan de -Villodo, under the direction of Francisco de Vilalpando, an able -architect of Palencia. Giralte carved many other retablos, and was -assisted by Juan Manzano and other carvers. The most important of his -works are the altar-screen of Cardinal Ximénez, that of the Monastery of -Valbuena, the great altar at Espinar, another for the parish church of -Pozeido, and finally the retablo of the Corral’s chapel in the Church of -the Magdalena, Valladolid, remarkable for its bas-reliefs, but -unsatisfying in its whole effect on account of the poverty of -composition. Giralte died in 1576. - -Esteban Jordan was the contemporary of Giralte. He was born at the -beginning of the sixteenth century and died in 1598 or 1599. We read -that Berruguete was the godfather of his son, which seems to suggest an -intimate relationship, if not pupilship, between the two artists. But -Jordan has very little of the vigorous style of Berruguete. Like -Giralte, he was a carver of second-rate merit, who attained fame in his -lifetime, but was afterwards forgotten. His best works are the retablo -of Santa Maria Magdalena at Valladolid and the tomb of Archbishop Don -Pedro Gasco in the same church. - -Another Spaniard who learnt his art in Italy was Tudelilla, a native of -Tarragona. He was born at the end of the fifteenth century, and after -studying in Italy, in 1527 returned to Spain, in which year we find him -charged with the construction and decoration of the choir enclosure of -Zaragoza Cathedral (Plate 118). The style in which it is carried out is -known in Spain as Plateresque, a name derived from _plateros_, or -silver-work, and applied to this form of carving from its elegance and -delicacy of execution. The choir is composed of twelve highly ornamented -columns, which have a frieze and pediments of delicate workmanship. In -the centre is placed a Crucifixion, while between the columns and on -either side are statues of saints and four bas-reliefs representing -scenes in the lives of St. Vincent and St. Valere, the patrons of the -church. In Spain it is held in great estimation, but it must be admitted -that the decoration is mannered and of a professional stamp. Tudelilla -was largely employed by the nobility of Zaragoza in the decoration of -their palaces. We read in contemporary writers of the splendour of these -buildings, but almost without exception they have been destroyed. It was -the common custom at this period of artistic wealth to lavish large sums -on the decoration with statues and sculpture of both the outside and the -interior of private dwellings. Wherever these palaces remain they should -be studied, as they contain many fine examples of Spanish carving. - -Among other carvers who were the contemporaries of Berruguete we may -mention Diego Morlanes, who completed the portal of the convent church -of Santa Engracia at Zaragoza, which was begun by his father Juan in -1505, while a further example of his sumptuous style is the chapel of -St. Bernard in the cathedral, with the monument of Archbishop Fernando -of Aragon and his mother. Juan de Talavere and Etienne Veray executed -the sumptuous portal of the Church of the Virgin at Calatayud; Diego de -Riaño and Martin Gainoza worked at Seville, and their carvings in the -Sacristia Mayor and in the Capilla Real of the cathedral illustrate the -elaborate and fantastic forms in which the native workers now took -increasing delight. Of greater importance are Juan Rodriguez and -Gerónimo Pellicier, who executed the retablo of the Monastery del Parral -at Segovia (Plate 119). - -All these sculptors and carvers were in greater or less degree imitators -of Berruguete. We have in addition numerous anonymous works, some of -splendid merit. The enumeration of these carvings would fill a separate -volume. Burgos, Seville, and many churches are veritable museums of -polychrome sculpture; while many churches, such, for instance, as the -Convent of Poblet, now robbed and left bare, were formerly -treasure-houses of sculptures. The limit of space makes it impossible to -do justice to this multitude of work. The epoch was marked by a wealth -of production which shows the enthusiasm that then prevailed for the -plastic arts. - -The history of Spanish sculpture would be incomplete did we omit to -mention the Custodias which almost no large church in Spain is without. -These idealistic tower-like structures, always wrought in silver and -finely carved, are the great architectural achievements of the -metal-workers. The first examples belong to the Gothic period. The -Custodia of the Cathedral of Gerona, richly adorned with enamels and -precious stones, is one of the most beautiful, while another of almost -equal merit is that of Barcelona. The sixteenth century was the great -period for the production of these silver works, and this was due mainly -to the talented Arfes, a Spanish family of German origin, who produced -Custodias for most of the important cathedrals. To Enrique de Arfe -(1470-1550), the first of the family, we owe the Custodias of Cordova -and Toledo; these works are in the late Gothic style. But the most -celebrated member of the family was Juan Arfes, the grandson of Enrique, -who was born about the middle and died at the close of the sixteenth -century. He was the creator of the celebrated Custodia of Avila (Plate -120). He also executed two Custodias for the city of Valladolid--one for -the Convent of Carmel and the other for the cathedral. This work bears -an inscription, “Juan de Arfe y Villafañe, f. MDXC.,” and the price paid -for it was 1,518,092 _maravedis_. At about the same time he made another -Custodia for the Cathedral of Burgos, and yet another for that of -Seville. Besides excelling as a silversmith, Juan was an excellent -carver of statues, though he always used the title _escultor de plata y -oro_ (sculptor of gold and silver). His skill as a sculptor is proved by -the group of Adam and Eve, which was executed to occupy the centre of -the first stage of the Valladolid Custodia, but is now on the pedestal. -His greatest sculptured piece was the kneeling statue of Cristobal de -Royas y Sandoval, Archbishop of Seville, in the Church of San Pedro de -Lerma at Burgos (Plates 121 and 122). Juan died before the completion of -the work, which was finished by Fernandez del Moral, under the direction -of Pompeo Leoni; and for this reason this splendid monument for long has -been wrongly attributed to Leoni. - -With the silversmiths we may class the _orfrays_, or embroiderers, who -at this time attained a position of great importance. Cean Bermudez -praises especially Marcos Covarrubias, the master embroiderer of Toledo -Cathedral, who in 1514 carried out the beautiful decorations of Cardinal -Cisneros’ monument. Other celebrated “embroiderers” were Gabriel -Carvajal of Seville Cathedral, and a French Hieronimite monk named -Monserrate, who settled in Spain in the sixteenth century and worked for -the monastery of the Escorial. He was a master of the delicate art of -“needlework in stone.” Nor must we forget the Spanish metal-workers, who -wrought the exquisite railings in the cathedrals of Burgos, Seville, -Salamanca, Toledo, Pampeluna, and elsewhere, which are masterpieces of -art. These works, besides flowers, foliage, and decorations, contain -medallions of men’s and women’s heads, sometimes oxidised, but often -gilded and polychromed. For this reason, if for nothing else, these -church railings must be studied by those who wish to know the Spanish -polychromes. These small medallions are carried out with exquisite -delicacy and beauty. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - - THE RENAISSANCE, AND THE INFLUENCE OF MICHAEL ANGELO - (_continued_)--THE SCHOOLS OF VALLADOLID AND MADRID - - -After the middle of the sixteenth century a change came, or rather, a -further step was taken in the use of Italian forms, and a style was -evolved which may be said with sufficient accuracy to correspond to the -developed Renaissance of Italy. - -Gaspar Becerra was now the most prominent sculptor in Spain. Like -Berruguete, whose rival and true successor he was, he received his -artistic training in Italy; like him, too, he was a painter and -architect as well as sculptor. It is said that Becerra worked in the -studio of Michael Angelo, but Vasari, whose pupil he was, does not count -him among the disciples of the great Florentine. He was born at Baeza, a -small town in the kingdom of Jaen, in 1520. He was still quite young -when he went to Italy. In Rome he gained a position of importance -working under the leadership of his master, Vasari, and under Daniele da -Volterra in the Trinita de Monti, decorating in the Cancelleria. His -skill in drawing, especially the human figure, was great, and he -furnished the plates for Valverde’s “Anatomy,” printed in Rome in 1554. -We know also that he was married in Rome in 1556. Five years later he -returned to Spain, and like his predecessor he became painter and -sculptor to Philip II. Becerra worked at the decoration of the Pardo -palace, and painted frescoes in the Alcazar of Madrid, which were -destroyed in the fire of 1734; in addition he designed, sculptured, and -painted the altar-screen of the Convent of Dèscalzas Reales in the same -city, working for the Infanta Doña Maria, while for the Queen, Doña -Isabel de la Paz, he sculptured the statue of Nuestra Señora de la -Solitude, which is worshipped in the chapel of the Minime fathers. This -position as Court artist caused Becerra’s services to be eagerly sought, -and carvings and paintings of his will be found at Zamora, Valladolid, -Zaragoza, Burgos, Salamanca, and elsewhere. His masterpiece, and his -last work, is the retablo in the Church of Astorga, on which he worked -from 1550 to 1569. He died at Madrid in 1571, when still young and in -the height of his activity and power. - -The merit of Becerra’s work is a feeling for ideal beauty, unusual in -Spain, united with dignity and, to some degree, with strength. All his -sculptures are in the style of Michael Angelo; and this has led to a -confusion between his carvings and those of Berruguete. But this is a -mistake. Berruguete, though a follower of Michael Angelo, was Spanish -with a strong national accent, while Becerra was an Italian, completely -renouncing the national traditions in favour of Renaissance forms. For -this reason his work is far less important than that of his predecessor; -it also opened the road for the degeneration of native sculpture. -Becerra made the study of Michael Angelo and the antique the substitute -for a study of nature, and possessing a happy knack of pleasing the eye, -he was content to be an imitator, and therefore added nothing to Spanish -sculpture. - -A good example of Becerra’s art, and his best single carving, is the -small polychrome bas-relief of St Jerome in the Desert (Plate 123) in -the side altar of the Capilla del Condestable at Burgos. There are -several copies of this statue, for, like many imitators, Becerra -repeated his works; one, in white marble, is in the Church of San Pedro -at Huesca. On account of its likeness to the St. Jerome, M. Marcel -Dieulafoy attributes to Becerra the statue of the prophet Elias in Santo -Tomás at Toledo, the church that contains the masterpiece of El Greco. -The retablo at Astorga, Becerra’s most important work, is an imposing -erection, much praised in Spain. The effect is pleasing, but a closer -examination leaves the spectator unsatisfied; the statues and carvings -are all modelled on Renaissance types, and are without individuality. -Still this retablo must not be neglected; it is a good example of -_estofado_ sculpture. - -Contemporary with Berruguete worked Juan de Juni, who carried the -Michael Angelo following to its furthest and most exaggerated -development. Little is known about this artist; even his nationality is -uncertain, some accounting him a Spaniard, others an Italian, or even a -Fleming. Bermudez thinks he was an Italian. But though a pupil and close -imitator of Michael Angelo, Juni, if not born in Spain, became a -Spaniard by temperament and adoption, as the style of his work proves. -In his carvings we find that search for expression at any cost, leading -to exaggerated gestures and an over-accentuation of detail, as for -example in depicting the sorrows of the Christ by gaping wounds and the -presence of blood--by which the Spanish artists sought to give dramatic -reality to their religious representation. It is this that has caused -Juni to be so highly estimated in Spain. - -The details of Juni’s life are fragmentary and contradictory. For long -he was said to have been born during the second half of the sixteenth -century, and to have died at the beginning of the seventeenth century. -In reality he lived earlier, and was born in 1507, while he died at -Valladolid in April 1577. We hear of him first about the middle of the -sixteenth century, when the Archbishop of Portugal summoned him from -Rome to superintend the building and decoration of the Episcopal palace -at Oporto. This he did, as well as constructing other buildings in the -city. Afterwards he went to Osuna, then to Santoyo, and finally to -Valladolid, where he settled, and remained until his death. - -Juni has left a great amount of work, and his statues and bas-reliefs, -always easily recognised, will be found in the churches and convents of -Osuna, Segovia, Valladolid, Santoyo, Aranda de Douro, and Salamanca. His -best-known altar-screen is the Descent from the Cross in Segovia -Cathedral (Plate 124). In this surprising work we have well displayed -both the qualities and defects of Juni’s talents. Instead of the -decoration being carried out in compartments, the carvings are in -isolated groups, a change in construction which was the greatest service -that Juni rendered to Spanish sculpture. The figures are all life-size; -the finest is that of the Christ, which has real dignity, and is without -exaggeration. The agitation and grief of the Virgin and the holy women -is too much emphasised, while the attitudes of the fantastically attired -soldiers placed on either side are so accentuated that one is left with -a consciousness of insincerity. The dramatic power becomes theatrical -and unreal. Contrast this Descent from the Cross with Berruguete’s -rendering of the same scene in San Geronimo at Granada, and this becomes -abundantly evident. The restraint in the latter work is strength, while -Juni’s scene, with its over-acclamation, ends in weakness. But in Spain -the Segovia screen is highly treasured. It is brilliantly coloured. We -have no proof that Juni himself polychromed his statues, but we know -that he was a painter of great talent, and the harmony which exists -between his models and the colouring seems to prove that he must have -superintended the polychrome. Documentary evidence shows that in some -cases, at any rate, the colourisation was done in his studio, under his -direction, and that he himself painted the faces, the hands, and the -feet of his figures. - -The same model of the Segovia Christ can be recognised in another work -of Juni’s, the Burial of Christ, executed for the Convent of San -Francesco at Valladolid, and now in the city museum (Plate 125). Here we -have an even stronger example of Juni’s art, in which the conception of -woe is depicted with greater extravagance, and with what appears to us -as futile exaggeration of the details of sorrow. Death is shown with -startling reality in the body of the Christ, which is rigid with the -muscles already contracted, and the reality is carried further by the -colouring; the limbs and the face are mottled with livid stains. Blood -flows from the wounds, which are laid open. The body is horrible with -the sense of human corruption. The figures of the Virgin, St. John, and -the Magdalen all express passionate and over-emphatic sorrow. But the -work is perfectly sincere; to doubt this is to misunderstand the nature -of Spanish art. It is the quality that meets us so often; a too -dramatic, too emphatic effort to realise a scene exactly as it happened. - -Another carving in the same style, with the same faults and the same -qualities, is the Virgin of the Swords in the monastery Capilla de -Nuestra Señora de las Agustinas, also at Valladolid. It must be -remembered that these works can be appreciated only by the student who -understands Spanish art. Certainly Juni is more Spanish than Italian. - -Juan de Juni opened the way for his successor Gregorio Hernandez, the -sculptor who may be said to have inherited, and afterwards personally -expressed, all that his predecessors had accomplished. For the great -difference between Juni, Becerra, and even Berruguete and the great -master of Galicia is that they, in greater or less degree, were content -with imitation, while he, warned possibly by their extravagances, -studied nature with patient care, and said what he had to say for -himself, and in this way he purged the plastic art of scholastic -mannerisms. This is why Gregorio Hernandez occupies the most important -position in the history of Northern Spanish sculpture. - -Gregorio Hernandez did not study in Italy, indeed it has been said that -he never went from Valladolid. But this is a mistake. He studied and -worked in that city, but we know that he was married in Madrid, and that -in 1604 he was in Vittoria, executing the altar-screen for the Church of -San Miguel. No actual mention is made of Hernandez’ residence in -Valladolid before the year 1605, when in certain contracts we find that -he acted as assistant sculptor to the Italian artist Millan Vilmercati. -M. Marcel Dieulafoy places the date of his first coming to Valladolid -about 1601, the year in which a number of famous artists were summoned -to the royal city by Philip II. and the Duke of Lerma. - -Of the life of Hernandez we know few details. He was born in Galicia in -1570, a date furnished by the inscription on his portrait, now in the -Museum of Valladolid. He died in 1636 at the age of sixty-six, as is -shown by the register in the archives of the Church of San Ildefonso. It -would seem that he never left Spain. His first known work undertaken as -a sculptor was the altar-screen of San Miguel at Vittoria, but he must -have executed earlier carvings, as is proved by the payments made for -this work--4208 reals for the sculpture, and over 604 reals for the -statues in relief--and also by the importance of the position he -occupied. Hernandez directed the whole work, choosing as his assistants -the master-carpenter Cristobal Velazquez, and the painters Francesco -Martinez and Pedro de Salazar. - -The activity of Hernandez was very great. From the date of this -altar-screen we have a vast number of carvings executed, or supposed to -have been executed by him. His studio became the centre of the artistic -activities of his day, for the amount of his work necessitated the -employment of assistants. This has led to confusion, and there are many -carvings attributed to Hernandez which cannot be accepted as the work of -his own hand. It is fortunate that the distinctive qualities of his work -make it possible to recognise at once those carvings and statues that -have been fathered on his name. Hernandez placed special importance on -the colourisation of his statues. In an interesting contract made with -his habitual polychromist, Diego Valentin Diaz, we find the most minute -details laid down, enforcing the care with which the work is to be -carried out. The colours chosen “are to be those which are permanent”; -“the flesh must be _mate_,” as, it will be remembered, was enforced by -Pacheco, and “in each case the colouring must be suitable to the model -painted,” as, for example, “Jesus the tint of an infant, the Virgin that -of a young woman, St. Joseph that of a man,” while “the hair and eyes -must also be in harmony.” Also, “gilded stuffs and damasked are to be -avoided,” and “gold is to be used sparingly on laces and fringes only.” -The effect to be aimed at is harmony and truth to nature. It is by this -restriction to a sombre and quiet scheme of colour, so different from -the startling and tumultuous effects, glittering with gold, of Juni, for -instance, that the polychromes of Hernandez may be recognised. His -colours, always quiet, give an effect of having been worked on silver or -ivory. The polychromes that do not manifest these tones are not by -Hernandez; when they bear his name they must have been executed by his -pupils apart from his direction. Examples of such spurious works are the -immense and highly coloured Sta. Teresa in the Valladolid Museum, and -also the _Pasos_, or groups from the Passion, highly praised by the -Spanish writers and used in the religious processions of Valladolid, -which have been attributed, certainly erroneously, to Hernandez. - -Authentic works of Hernandez may be seen, first in the churches, -convents, and museum of Valladolid, and also at Madrid, Palencia, -Vittoria, Salamanca, Zamora, Pontevedra, Medina del Campo, and other -towns. But in no case must the attribution to Hernandez be accepted -without an examination of the works themselves. Those which do not -display his qualities, especially in their colourisation, must be -accounted as the work of his pupils. - -Hernandez continued the practice of Juni in carving his statues as -separate figures or in isolated groups. Almost without exception he used -wood as his material. - -The Museum of Valladolid contains at least three authentic statues by -Hernandez. The most important is the Pietà, executed for one of the -dispersed convents of the city, a beautiful example of polychrome (Plate -126). The Virgin, whose sorrow is genuinely expressed, with dignity and -without exaggeration, supports the dead Christ, a pallid figure finely -suggesting death. She wears a red-brown robe partly covered by a blue -mantle. The winding-sheet and her veil are white, and also the band -attached to the Cross, and are coloured so skilfully that the texture of -the stuffs is clearly discernible. M. Marcel Dieulafoy justly says: “The -grace and freedom of the modelling is only equalled by the variety and -discreet harmony of the painting.” The bas-relief of the Baptism of -Christ (Plate 127), though very different, is a work of equal merit, but -it has suffered greatly from the damage of time, which has especially -injured the beauty of the polychrome. The St. John is a splendid figure -of energy and savage strength, and in strong contrast with the Christ, -and the contrast is emphasised by the skilful colouring, the complexion -of the prophet being browned by exposure to the sun, while that of the -Christ is of delicate harmony. The third statue represents St. Francis -(Plate 128), a fine and harmonious work. It is coloured in sombre -shades, almost monochrome, which speaks for Hernandez’ authorship. - -To Hernandez also is attributed the reliquary bust of St. Elizabeth in -the museum. It is a work of supreme merit, but the polychrome is too -brilliant to make it easy to accept it as the work of Hernandez. The -vivid orange-brown of the cape with the blue lining, the violet-purple -of the turban, the gleaming white of the veil, and the gold tracery of -the breast ornament are not the accustomed tones of the Galician master. -But though the statue is probably not by Hernandez--and this is the -opinion of M. Marcel Dieulafoy--it is a splendid example of polychrome. - -The most famed work of Hernandez is the Mater Dolorosa, preserved and -most carefully guarded in the Capilla de la Cruz at Valladolid. The -representation is very Spanish in its frank and detailed statement of -sorrow. Probably no one who is not Spanish can wholly appreciate the -statue. The tears, made of glass set in wood, the reflected stains of -blood on the yellow robe and on the sleeves, the pallid face and -colourless lips, the deep-set eyes made tragic with bistre rings, the -emphasised attitude especially of the hands, do not appeal to those to -whom the divine tragedy represented is not a living reality--a part of -human life, not an incident of belief. It is necessary to take notice of -these things in judging the most Spanish of Spanish sculptures. In this -Virgin Hernandez is nearer to Juan de Juni, but his representation of -the Mother of Sorrows is much simpler, much nearer to nature--Spanish -nature, not our nature, let it be remembered--and therefore his work -leaves a deeper and more lasting impression. The Christ at the Column in -the Convent of the Carmelites at Avila is another statue of a similar -character which is attributed to Hernandez. - -The influence of Gregorio Hernandez was far-reaching, and the native -sculptors of the seventeenth century, not only in Valladolid but also in -the newly-founded school of Madrid, followed in his traditions. -Certainly it was his work, with its strong national accent, its -sincerity and close following of nature, which in the Northern schools -saved Spanish sculpture in large measure from the degradation which, at -the close of the seventeenth century, fell upon the sister art of -painting. - -Gregorio Hernandez had many pupils. We have mentioned Cristobal -Velazquez, the master-carpenter who worked with him on the altar-screen -of Vittoria. It is probable that he became the pupil of the Galician -master. To Cristobal Velazquez must be attributed the beautiful -altar-screen of the Church of Las Agustinas at Valladolid, which has -been falsely ascribed to Berruguete and to Pompeo Leoni. The references -made to Cristobal Velazquez in the contracts for the work, and the fact -that he was charged with the “looking over and passing” of the screen -after it had been set up, prove his authorship. No mention either of -Berruguete or Pompeo Leoni is given, an omission unaccountable if these -great artists had participated in the work, when the painters and -sculptors are all carefully named. This altar-piece proves that -Cristobal Velazquez was a great artist. In the central bas-relief of the -Annunciation the Virgin kneels, while the Angel Gabriel, a figure of -supreme beauty and nobility, stands upon her right side. Above is a fine -Pietà, and to the right and left are the figures of St. Augustin and St. -Laurent; while beneath are statuettes of the Evangelists, with two -small panels on either side, one of St. Joseph and the Child Jesus, the -other of St. Ursula. The architecture, the ornaments, and figures are -all finely executed, and the work is one of great beauty and harmony. -Unfortunately the colouring, which was carried out by the painter Prado, -an artist of great local celebrity who had already decorated the Chapel -of Las Huelgas, Burgos, has become so blackened with age that it is -difficult to judge its primitive merit. - -Two sculptors intimately associated with Gregorio Hernandez were Luis de -Llamosa, who completed many of his master’s unfinished works, and Juan -Francisco de Hibarne, his favourite pupil, to whom he gave his daughter -Damiana in marriage. Carvings by these artists will be found in several -of the churches of Valladolid. - -But of greater fame was the Portuguese sculptor Manuel Pereyra, who, -though reported to have studied in Italy, must certainly have been the -pupil of Hernandez, if we may judge from the testimony of his works. -They show no trace of Italian influence, and are inspired by the -earnestness of Spanish devotion. We first hear of Pereyra in May 1646, -when he carved in stone the statue of San Felipe for the convent of the -saint at Valladolid. His reputation grew rapidly, and his statue of St. -Bruno, executed for the Hostel of the Chartreuse del Paula, set the seal -to his fame. The statue was so greatly admired that it is said that King -Philip IV. ordered his coachman, on passing the door, to slacken the -pace so that he might admire it at leisure. There is a fine replica of -the St. Bruno in the Chartreuse of Miraflores. Like Hernandez, Pereyra -used quiet colours, without gilding or damask effects. In his last years -Pereyra became blind, but this calamity does not seem to have interfered -with his carving. He died in 1667. - -It would seem to be by the aid of Manuel Pereyra that the influence of -Gregorio Hernandez was carried to Madrid. But in this work he was -supported by Alonso de los Rios, a carver of intelligence, taste, and -skill, who was born in Valladolid about 1650, and who early went to -Madrid. In his studio worked Juan de Villanueva and his two sons Juan -and Alfonso Rios, who directed the art of carving in the capital during -the first years of the eighteenth century. Afterwards in the studio of -Rios worked Luis Salvador Carmona, whose talent was so marked that on -the death of his master he became its director. Under his guidance the -Madrid school became so famous that Ferdinand VI. in 1752 transformed it -into the Royal Academy of San Fernando. The greater number of Carmona’s -carvings are at Madrid. They are single statues and bas-reliefs. He does -not appear to have carved an altar-screen. For altar-screens, that had -been required by the churches, had now fallen in the popular esteem, due -to a weakening of the strong religious impulses that for so long had -directed the expression of art. Carmona also executed forty-two small -statues for the parish of Seguro in Biscay. But his finest works are his -two statues at Salamanca. Both are in the cathedral--one, a Pietà, known -as La Dolorosa, in the Capilla de San José (Plate 131); the other, a -Flagellation of the Christ (Plate 132), is in the sacristy. These -realistic and emotional groups are the works by which Carmona must be -judged. They witness that he had through his masters inherited the -traditions of Gregorio Hernandez, though his work is less sincere and -without the Galician master’s fine truth to nature. In Spain Carmona is -accounted a master, but this praise is too high. This much may be -granted to him: his works have great, even surprising, merit when we -take into consideration the period at which they were executed. - -If the influence of Gregorio Hernandez speaks in the artists we have -just considered, it is to the influence of the impassioned and dramatic -Juan de Juni we must turn to account for those tragic representations of -severed heads of martyrs, depicted with such strange delight in all the -details of horror and putrefaction, of which we find many examples -belonging to the late seventeenth century. Such heads, representing most -frequently St. John the Baptist, St. Paul, or St. Anastasius, may be -seen in many places--Nuestra Señora del Pilar at Zaragoza, the cathedral -and hospital church at Granada, and the Monastery of Santa Clara at -Seville are a few examples. The Museum of Valladolid possesses two heads -of St. Paul. The finer one, taken from the Convent of St. Paul, is the -work of Alonso Villabrille, a sculptor of Madrid who lived at the end of -the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries. It is perhaps -the best example of these astonishing heads (Plate 133). The polychrome -is carried out with great care, and the horror of the dissevered head is -lessened by the beard which shields the severed neck. - -The influence of Gregorio Hernandez did much to stay the deterioration -which now, at the end of the seventeenth century, threatened the plastic -arts of Northern Spain. The baroque style was introduced with -disastrous results, and we find the ugly, overloaded, exaggerated -decoration known as Churriguera. Perhaps the greatest evil was the -destruction of many of the old Gothic and classic altar-screens, with -their beautiful polychrome statues. Images were carved with apparatus -for moving the head and eyes, and the mouth. These figures were really -wooden dolls, with real hair and real dresses, in which only the head -and hands were carved: they mark the lowest level of the plastic arts. A -notorious example is the Transparente in the Cathedral of Toledo, -executed by Narciso Tomé in 1752. - -It is remarkable that side by side with these degraded works we find a -number of bas-reliefs and statues in which the earnestness of the -Spanish religious spirit has inspired the baroque form. We may mention -as especially worthy of study, a Conception in Palencia Cathedral, and a -superb monument let into the wall on the right of the great altar; a -beautiful Virgin in the Chapel of Ayuntamiento, Pampeluna; the Madonna -over the high altar of Cuenca; the kneeling figure of an archbishop in -San Andrés at Avila; and the magnificent tomb of Cardinal Valdés in the -Church of the Sala, Oviedo. This last work is a masterpiece. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE SCHOOL OF ANDALUSIA--JUAN MARTINEZ MONTAÑÉS--SEVILLE AND ITS -SCULPTORS - - -The Andalusian school of sculpture was an offshoot from the school of -Castile and Aragon, though in some respects its history was different. -The reason of its late development is not difficult to find. In Southern -Spain the Moorish influence was stronger and more enduring than in the -North; and for all their secular buildings the Spaniards adopted Moorish -designs and Moorish methods of decoration. The Alcázar of Seville, in -its original state before alterations, and the Casa de Pilatos, are very -pure _mudéjar_ monuments. There was no abrupt transition between the -Persian architecture and the classic style of the Renaissance. It was in -the churches alone that opportunity arose for the development of -Christian architecture. We find Roman or Gothic structures according to -the epochs of their building. But even the churches retained the minaret -in the form of clock-towers, and other Moorish features, as, for -instance, the Puerta del Perdon of the Cathedral of Seville. - -It was the erection of these Christian edifices that brought the -opportunity for the opening of studios of sculpture. Native carvers -arose, who at first drew their inspiration from the more advanced art of -the North. Then the fifteenth century opened with the building of the -great Cathedral of Seville, an event which drew foreign artists to the -Southern capital from Flanders and also from Italy. These foreigners -trained worthy native pupils, and from this time we may date the rise -and importance of the Sevillian school. - -One of the first foreigners to arrive was Lorenzo de Mercadante, a -Breton, whose power speaks in the monument of Cardinal Cervantes, in the -cathedral, the earliest perfect portrait-statue in Southern Spain. In -the cathedral, which is a veritable museum of polychrome art, we find -graceful and charming statues, which show the influence of Mercadante. -We may mention the beautiful Virgen de Madroñe (Virgin of the arbutus -flower) and the Virgen del Reposo; both statues are polychromed, but the -latter work has been to a large extent ruined by injudicious -restoration. These Virgins are fine examples of the ideal treatment, -expressing genuine beauty with dignity and sweetness, which the native -artists achieved in representing the Mother of God. Spain is the land of -the Blessed Virgin. - -To the teaching of Lorenzo Mercadante we owe the native artists Nufro -Sánchez and Maestro Dancart, the earliest of the Sevillian carvers, who -were appointed master sculptors to the cathedral at an annual salary of -10,000 _maravedis_. Their first work was the choir-stalls, which were -begun in 1475 by Sánchez, and finished by Dancart in 1479. Of this work -Professor Carl Justi says “its vein of invention and humour recalls the -South German masters.” - -Four years later Dancart was entrusted with the important work of -erecting the grand altar of the cathedral (Plate 134). He executed the -design, but the work was carried out by his pupils Marco and Bernardo de -Ortega. The latter artist worked at the screen until his death in 1505, -when the completion of the work was left to his son Francesco and to his -grandson Bernardino. Gomez Oroco, George and Alexis Fernando Aleman, and -Andres de Covarrubias also worked at different parts of the screen. In -1519, when the work was completed, the canons, for some reason not -known, employed a pupil of Fernando Aleman named Moya to modify the -design. He was three years over the work, which he finished in the -autumn of 1564. Some years later two wings were added, and the screen -was finally completed in 1564. This mixed authorship was a mistake, and -has resulted in a want of continuity in the design which has marred to -some extent the beauty and harmony of the work. - -Of more importance are the carvings of Pedro Millan, a pupil of Nufro -Sánchez, who takes rank as the first really important master of the -Sevillian school. The date of his birth is unknown. We hear of him first -in the year 1505, when he executed the statues for the cimborium of the -cathedral, which unfortunately were destroyed when the copula fell on -December 28, 1512. Pedro worked in the style of the Burgundian masters, -and his carvings show a genuinely creative talent, united with a true -study of nature. To him we owe the statues in terra-cotta known as the -Baptismo and the Nacimiento, which are outside two of the cathedral -doors. The heads and hands are most beautifully modelled and the -draperies are skilfully handled to display the figures. The bas-relief -inserted in the pointed spandrel between the first ribs of the -flying-arch, which represents the Adoration of the Magi, is also the -work of Pedro Millan. But his best-known statue is the noble Virgen del -Pilar, in the Capilla de Nuestra Señora del Pilar. M. Marcel Dieulafoy -believes that this is an earlier work than the terra-cotta bas-reliefs. -Its importance is great on account of the polychrome, the original -colours having been most carefully preserved. The flesh-tints are -beautiful, delicate rose-shades on the cheeks, lips, and ends of the -fingers. The robe shows reflections of pale gold, and the mantle, of the -same tint, has arabesques of brown, while the veil is in full gilt. -Besides these works in the cathedral, there are two statues of Pedro’s -in private collections in Seville, and one is a masterpiece. This is the -small polychromed statuette of St. Michael in the possession of Don Jose -Gestoso y Perez. Like most of this artist’s works, it is executed in -terra-cotta. It bears the signature of Pedro Millan in Gothic -characters. The other statue group is a Pietà, in which the Virgin, Mary -Magdalen, and St. John mourn over the body of Christ. It is in the -gallery of Don Lopéz Cepero, y 7, Plaza de Alfaro. Unfortunately it has -been painted a horrible stone colour and quite disfigured. Pedro Millan -also furnished the models for the small terra-cotta figures on the -beautiful portal of Santa Paula, which were executed by Niculoso of -Pisa, the author of the curious altar in terra-cotta in the Alcázar. - -It was about this period that the Italian influences of the Renaissance -began to be felt in Andalusia. Artists were attracted to Seville by the -growing opulence of the city. Besides this, Italian works of art were -brought to decorate the palaces of the nobles. Vasari, for instance, -tells us Luca del Robbia sent several of his works to the Spanish king -for his Southern capital, and he speaks also of a large bronze -bas-relief, representing a fight between nude men, the work of Antonio -Pallando, which had the same destination. But the old Flemish traditions -were very deeply rooted, and remained longer active here than in the -Northern schools of Castile and Aragon. Thus a style arose that united -the two sources of inspiration. - -The oratory and screen of Isabella la Catolica in the Alcázar are -interesting examples of the expression of this double influence (Plate -135). They are the work of Francisco Niculoso Pisano, an Italian artist -who settled in Seville, and whose work was of importance in directing -the art of the sixteenth century; the altar bears his inscription, -“Francisco Niculoso me fecit,” with the date 1503. The principal parts -of the altar and also the screen are in very pure Italian style, but -the panel above the altar, as well as some details of the decoration, -show clearly the old Spanish traditions founded on the Flemish methods. -This may be explained as M. Marcel Dieulafoy suggests, if we accept the -theory that the Italian master employed his colleague Pedro Millan to -assist him in the execution of the work. - -Another foreigner who helped in the introduction of Italian art to the -native workers of Seville was Miguel, known as “the Florentine,” who -worked with the wood-carvers in the cathedral. Afterwards, in the last -years of the fifteenth century, Miguel executed the tomb of Mendoza, -Archbishop of Seville. After the completion of this work, which gained -much admiration, Miguel was constantly employed by the chapter, and he -remained working in Seville until his death in the middle years of the -century, when his position was taken by his son Micer Antonio -Florentine, an artist of even greater talent than his father. Among -Miguel’s works are the statues of St. Paul and St. John at either side -of the Puerta del Perdon, and the bas-relief above representing Christ -turning the Money-changers out of the Temple (Plate 136), and also the -life-size terra-cotta statues on the enclosure of the Capilla Mayor. - -But the most famous of the Italian sculptors of Seville is Pietro -Torrigiano, the disciple and rival of Michael Angelo. Torrigiano was -born at Florence in the year 1470, and his work early proclaimed him a -master. It is recorded that in a fit of rage he broke his rival’s nose -with his fist, and as a result of this act of jealousy he had to flee -from Italy. For a time he adopted the calling of a soldier, but, angered -at not gaining promotion, he again took up his chisel. We hear of him -next in England, where he gained fame and wealth by his chapel of Henry -VII. in Westminster Abbey. But Torrigiano’s roving disposition again -sent him wandering, and he went to Spain, first to Granada, where he -competed for the order to execute the tombs of Ferdinand and Isabella, -but, being unsuccessful, he came to Seville, in which city he finally -settled. He died in 1522 in a dungeon of the Inquisition, which Vasari -says was due to his smashing in a fit of rage a statue of the Virgin, -ordered by the Duke of Arcos, because he considered the payment -insufficient. But Cean Bermudez, though he does not deny the story, -states that Torrigiano was charged with heresy. - -The influence exercised in Seville by this great Italian was -far-reaching, and his statues, though few in number, were the models -from which the native workers drew their inspiration. In style -Torrigiano closely resembled Michael Angelo. We owe to him the statue of -the Madonna (Plate 137) and that of St. Jerome (Plate 138), which were -executed for the Convent of San Jerónimo, but are now in the museum. The -figures are in terra-cotta, and are splendidly modelled, and both are -polychromed. The tints used are simple, and harmonious to the model. The -face and hands of St. Jerome are a brownish tone, as we should expect in -one exposed to the action of the sun; the draperies are of a light red -brown. The flesh tints of the Madonna and her child are charming; she -wears a rose-coloured robe with a mantle of light blue, grey lined, and -with a gold border. To Torrigiano we owe also the fine medallion in -marble on the front of the Church of La Caridad, and another on that of -the Jesuits. M. Marcel Dieulafoy ascribes to Torrigiano the statue of -St. Jerome, now at Granada, in the Church of Santa Ana. It is a fine -piece of sculpture, but the polychrome has been destroyed through want -of care. - -After the death of Pedro Millan and Torrigiano we find in Seville a band -of capable artists, though none are equal in merit to Gregorio -Hernandez, who at the same time was working in Valladolid. At their -head stands Micer Antonio Florentine, who, on the death of his father -Miguel, took charge of his studio, and continued to direct the -activities of the Sevillian sculptors. The best known of his own works -was the Good Friday monument for the cathedral which he designed, -modelling its statues with his own hands. His contemporary, Bartoloméo -Morel, was the author of the statue of Faith Triumphant which crowns the -Giralda Tower (Plate 139), and also of the celebrated Tenebrario of the -cathedral of which Cean Bermudez says “that it is of its kind the finest -piece of sculpture in Spain.” In this work collaborated Pedro Delgado, a -capable artist, and the favourite pupil of Antonio Florentine. Pedro -Delgado himself had many pupils. Among them were Juan Bautista Vasquez, -one of the many artists who worked on the altar-screen of Toledo -Cathedral, and Juan Giralte, a Flemish carver, who seems to have -executed much work, but whose history is unknown. - -Jerónimo Hernandez was an artist of higher merit. Though he was a pupil -of Pedro Delgado, he drew his inspiration from Torrigiano. This explains -the attribution of the St. Jerome of the cathedral to the Italian -master. But this fine sculpture is undoubtedly the work of Jerónimo -Hernandez. He was also the author of the beautiful Jesus, and a -Resurrection in the possession of the Dulce Nombre Brotherhood; of a -lost work, a group of the Virgen del Rosario with the Infant Jesus in -her arms and St. Domenico and St. Catherine kneeling at her feet; and of -the altar-screen of the Convent of San Leandro. These statues prove that -Jerónimo Hernandez was a carver of distinguished merit. In the -altar-screen of San Leandro he was assisted by Juan de Sancedo and Vasco -de Pereyra, a celebrated Portuguese painter, who carried out the -painting and gilding of the statues. - -A pupil of Jerónimo Hernandez was Gaspar Nicolas Delgado, who also -studied with his uncle Pedro Delgado. He gained a higher reputation than -his masters, and in Seville is accounted as one of the greatest -sculptors. This estimate is misleading. His chief work, the St. John the -Baptist in the Desert, which is in the chapel of the Nuns of St. -Clemente though a bas-relief of real merit, the landscape especially -being well represented, does not justify his position as a master. The -merit of the work has gained from the fine polychrome, which was -carried out by the artist Pacheco. - -A third artist who worked at this period, and a carver of more personal -talent, was Capitan Cepeda, a native of Cordova, who, like Torrigiano -was in turn a soldier and artist. He served in Italy and afterwards came -to Seville, being summoned there by the goldsmiths of the city for the -special work of arousing a devotion for the Crucified Christ. With this -object Cepeda modelled the Cristo de la Expiracion which now stands on -the altar of the small chapel of the museum. It is a work of Spanish -realism, finely executed, with every detail of sorrow expressed and -accentuated by the violent attitude and gesture. Again we would -emphasise the fact that such a work can only be estimated truly by -remembering the Spanish religious spirit. Cepeda represents in Seville -the style which Juan Juni made popular in the Northern schools. Like -that artist, his interest rests in the individuality of his work, which -is national and wholly Spanish, while his contemporaries, Jerónimo -Hernandez and Gaspar Nicolas Delgado, followed the newer influences from -Italy. - -The Sevillian school had not yet produced a master. But the time was now -ripe. In the closing years of the century there came to Seville the man -who raised polychrome sculpture to its highest rank, and who was the -greatest carver of Spain. His name was Juan Martinez Montañés. - -Of the early life of this great artist we know almost nothing beyond the -fact that he was the pupil of Pablo Rojas, a sculptor of Cordova. We -first have definite information about him in the year 1582, when he with -his wife came to the Monastery of Dulce Nombre de Jesus at Seville, -where we learn they were granted free residence for life in recognition -of an Image of the Virgin executed for the brotherhood. Two years later, -in 1590, Montañés was at work for the Carmelite nuns. Nothing further of -the artist’s life is known until the year 1607, when he completed a -Jesus for the Santísimo Brotherhood of the cathedral. The record of this -work proves that Montañés was then living in the Arquillo de Roelas with -Catalina Salcedo y Sandobal. Thus he must have lost his first wife and -again been married. He was at this time fifty years old. Such is the -scant record of the first half of this great artist’s life. In truth he -came late to the fruition of his genius, for it was after these fifty -years of living, when the work of most men is already accomplished, -that Montañés created the greatest of those works which are the glory -of Spain. - -It is fitting to say a few words about his art. Montañés occupies the -same position in the Southern school that Gregorio Hernandez held in the -North. Like that master, he drew his inspiration directly from Nature. -He had the same respect for truth, the same simplicity, and, stronger -even than these qualities, the same Spanish religious sentiment and -noble idealism. It is true that he used and made his own the methods of -the Italian Renaissance, which were dominating the Sevillian artists, -and which he would seem to have imbibed from a study of the classical -models in the Casa de Pilatos of the Duke of Alcala; but with this -outside influence he retained a powerful personality. Thus his work is -entirely removed from the Italian style, as it expressed itself in the -Peninsula with its fantastic mingling of Christianity and paganism. In -nobility of form and religious sentiment the statues of Montañés surpass -all other works of their class. Once again, and more emphatically than -the carvings of any other artist, unless indeed we except Gregorio -Hernandez, they give an answer to those who would discredit the beauty -of polychrome statuary. - -From the year 1607 onwards, up to his death in 1649, Montañés carried -out numerous orders for the churches, convents, and religious -brotherhoods of Seville; the greater number of these works still remain -in the city. But of some it must be said that, though doubtless executed -in the master’s studio and bearing his name, they were the work of his -pupils. Fortunately it is not difficult to distinguish these spurious -pieces which have been fathered upon Montañés. We have in the archives -of the churches an exact record, usually with dates, of most of his -works. Thus we are able to follow chronologically the evolution of his -talent. - -The earliest undertakings of Montañés after the execution of the infant -Jesus for the Santísimo Brotherhood were two portrait-statues of St. -Ignatius Loyola and St. Francis Xavier (Plates 140 and 141) which were -commissioned in the year 1610 on the occasion of the beatification of -the former saint, and which are now in the University Chapel. Of these -idealised portraits Professor Justi writes that they are “marked by -noble severity of character and pathos of expression.” - -The period between 1610 and 1612 was occupied with an important work, -the designing and carving of the altar-screen and statues for the old -monastery of San Isidoro at Santiponce, in the suburb of Seville. -Montañés is noteworthy as a carver of altar-screens, and in this he -returned to the methods of earlier artists. Seville owes to him three -great retablos; those of Santa Clara and San Lorenzo in the city itself, -and the one at Santiponce, which of the three is perhaps the most -beautiful. It is in two registers with an attic. In the centre of the -first portion stands the magnificent statue of St. Jerome, one of the -finest figures of Montañés; placed on the right and left are St. John -the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist, and two bas-reliefs of the -Adoration of the Magi and of the Shepherds. The last group is especially -beautiful. San Isidoro, Archbishop of Seville and patron of the church, -occupies the centre of the second register, while the bas-reliefs on -either side represent the Resurrection and Ascension of Christ. In the -attic are figures of the Cardinal Virtues and an Assumption of the -Virgin, which surmount a Crucifix and two kneeling angels. - -In this great work it seems certain that Montañés must have been aided -by his pupils. The St. Jerome, however, was carved entirely by himself. -It was coloured by Pacheco, who was for many years the collaborator of -the Sevillian master. The work is perfectly executed, indeed it is -impossible to say more of this magnificent polychrome than that it -merits the praise which has been lavished upon it. - -There are also in the Church of Santiponce the tombs of Don Alonso Perez -de Guzmán el Bueno and his wife Doña Maria Coronel, who founded the -monastery. They are carved in marble and polychromed. Cean Bermudez -attributes to Montañés the figure of the hero of Tarifa. This is an -error; both monuments are clearly by the same hand, and the style is not -that of Montañés. But they are fine works, harmonious and simple, and -the polychrome is very good indeed. It is unfortunate that their author -is unknown. - -The masterpiece of Montañés, and the work by which he is most widely -known, belongs to the year 1614: it is the Crucifix now in the sacristy -of the cathedral (Plate 142), but originally executed for the -Carthusians of Santa Maria de las Cuevas, and given to the monastery -with the stipulation that the figure was never to be removed. This -statue, once seen, can never be forgotten. What impresses us is the -dignity of the nude figures, wonderfully carved, without any violent -attitudes, and the colouring, perfectly harmonious; it is the -incomparable refinement, the sobriety with which the divine drama is -represented, that moves us so profoundly. Montañés expresses perfectly -the deep religious feeling which animated Spain in the seventeenth -century. A passage in the _Arte de la Pintura_ tells us that the -polychrome was done by Pacheco in the “_mat tone_” which he used with -such splendid effect. - -Five years later, in 1619, Montañés executed the first of his Christs of -the Passion for the Cofradia de Cristo del Grand Poder Santísimo y Madre -de Dios Trespaso, an order founded in Seville by the Dukes of Medina -Sidonia in the middle of the fifteenth century. The statue bears the -name _El Señor del Gran Poder_ (The Being of Great Power). A good -replica of this work belongs to the parish church of San Ildefonso. The -original statue is now in the Church of San Lorenzo. It is placed in a -dark side-chapel, where it is difficult to see it in the unequal light -of the candles. The Christ bears the Cross in an unusual attitude, the -upper part resting upon His shoulders. The face has splendid dignity. -But the statue has been disfigured by the barbarous custom of dressing -the figure in elaborate robes entirely out of harmony with the subject. -Nobody sees the figure as it originally was, vigorously carved, and -wearing nothing but a loin-cloth. These representations of Christ with -the Cross appealed strongly to the Spaniards, and were greatly -venerated. Montañés cared much for them, and we read that a replica of -_El Señor del Gran Poder_, known as _El Señor de la Pasion_, which he -carved for the Convent of La Merced Calzada, was more esteemed by him -than any of his works. It is even reported that when in Holy Week the -Christ was carried in procession, he would wait to watch it pass, -overcome with joy and surprise at what his hand had been able to create. -This Christ is now in the parochial church of San Salvador, where is -also a group of St. Anne and the Virgin attributed to Montañés. - -As well as interpreting the story of Christ’s Passion, Montañés created -statues of the Virgin, whose dignity, beauty, and feeling won for him -the popular admiration of his contemporaries. The worship of the Mother -of God had always made deep appeal to the religious heart of Spain; -then, in the year 1617, a papal edict was issued, at the earnest -instigation of Philip IV., declaring the immaculate nature of Mary. No -dogma had ever been accepted so readily, or believed in so fervently, in -Spain. The worship of the people in Montañés’ life was, in point of -fact, practically centred in adoration of the Virgin Mary; the many -different religious orders, while venerating their respective founders -and saints, were all united in their devotion to the Virgin. Art, still -the servant of religion, was summoned to give expression to this -passionate worship. Every artist was engaged in depicting the Virgin -Mother. In the North, the artists, working under the inspiration of the -Flemish masters, had delighted in representing those Virgins of Anguish -where the Mother mourns at the foot of the Cross for her Son. But now -Mary took a new form; she symbolises grace and beauty instead of the -severity and asceticism of the older ideal. This was especially the case -in Seville, the joyous city of the South. Here in exquisite images and -paintings we see her young and happy, the sinless Virgin-Mother of the -Lord. Montañés in sculpture and Murillo in painting were the great -masters of this new ideal. They interpreted the favoured subject with -that combination of naturalism and mysticism which found its way direct -to the heart of the Andalusian religionists. They share together the -claim of being the creators of the Spanish Virgins. - -Seville contains several Conceptions by Montañés. There is one in the -cathedral, another of equal merit is in the Segrario Chapel of San -Julian. The Conceptions of Santa Clara and San Clemente are also fine -examples; they have greater merit than the better-known and much-praised -Virgin of the University (Plate 143). It will suffice if we describe one -of these Conceptions. - -Montañés was already old when in 1630 he executed the statue, which was -the earliest of his Immaculate Conceptions, now in the cathedral (Plate -144). Her type is Andalusian, and she is shown in the full bloom of her -beauty. She appears to be meditating on the Immaculate Birth, and what -we note especially is the dignity and grace of her attitude and the -serene expression. The folds of the robe and mantle follow, but do not -accentuate, the beautiful figure. Angels hover around her feet, which -are hidden by her robe, as is commanded by the Church. The polychrome of -the statue has been renewed, owing to damage having been done to the -original painting by the removal of the vestments, with which, up to the -year 1779, the figure was barbarously clothed. But the work has been -carefully done, with due regard to the design of the primitive -polychromists. The flesh tints are warm and glowing, and the hair is -black with brown reflections. The robe is white over a red dress, of -which only the sleeves appear, and is covered with a pattern of gold -inset around with a brown fillet. This black mantle is also enriched -with a design of golden palm-leaves. We do not know who was the original -painter of this work. It was not Pacheco, for before 1630, the date of -the Conception, the father-in-law of Velazquez had, after the lawsuit in -1622, severed his connection with Montañés, who wished to exercise a -closer superintendence in the carrying out of the polychrome of his -statues than Pacheco would submit to. Montañés does not seem to have -undertaken the polychrome himself; his works were too numerous to permit -this. An interesting contract dated 1641, and relating to the colouring -of the altar-screen of San Miguel at Xeres, names Jacinto Soto as the -polychromist, and besides furnishes strict injunctions that he must -accept and follow in the work the directions of Montañés. From this -document we may assume that Jacinto Soto succeeded Pacheco. - -The consideration of these Christs of the Passion and the Conceptions -has carried us away from the chronological order of Montañés’ work. The -years 1615 to 1622 were occupied with the execution of the screen of the -high altar and four altars in the nave of the Church of Santa Clara, of -which the statues and the sculptures are the work of Montañés. The -carvings are of great merit, but unfortunately the screen of the high -altar was redecorated after the death of the master and almost ruined. -It has fine statues of Santa Clara, of the Christ and God the Father, as -well as a Conception, which formerly was on one of the side altars, four -bas-reliefs and a number of statuettes, among which special attention -should be given to the very beautiful group of angels, who carry the -lamps of the Holy Sacrament. On the side altars are the figures of St. -Francis, St. John the Baptist, and St. John the Evangelist. - -The third important altar of Montañés is that of the Church of San -Lorenzo. It belongs to a later period of his art, having been undertaken -about the year 1639. The statue of St. Lawrence and the four -bas-reliefs, though probably not entirely the work of the master, are -carvings of excellent taste and distinction. - -The carvings attributed to Montañés are very numerous, and, as we have -stated already, it is necessary to make a distinction between his own -work and that of his pupils. The statues of St. Bruno, the Virgin, and -St. John the Baptist (Plates 145 and 146), which were executed for the -Carthusians of Santa Maria during the period between 1617 and 1620, and -which are now in the Museum of Seville, are examples of carvings which, -though executed in the studio of Montañés, must not be accounted his -personal work. Probably their author was his favourite pupil Solis, who -for many years was the devoted collaborator of the master. This is also -the opinion of M. Marcel Dieulafoy. The Virgin is a very beautiful -polychrome, which speaks of the high skill of the carver. The original -colouring has been well cared for, and there is great delicacy in the -rose-coloured robe and blue mantle, which is covered with flowers and a -network design in gold. The child Jesus wears a robe of pale blue -relieved with delicate gold damasking. - -In the museum is also the celebrated statue of Santo Domingo, which was -brought from the high altar of the Church of Santo Domingo de -Portacelci. It belongs to the year 1627. It is a fine work, but though -much prized in Seville, its merit is not so great as the St. Jerome of -Santiponce, the statue with which it should be compared. - -In the year 1635, when Montañés was at least seventy-five years old, an -age when the activity of most men is over, he was called to Madrid by -the Grand Duke of Tuscany, to execute an equestrian statue of Philip IV. -He modelled a masterpiece, but the mould being sent to Italy to be -cast, was by some mischance lost. However, the master’s design served as -a model for the sculptor Pietro Tacca, whose work now stands in the -Plaza del Oriente, at Madrid. - -It was during this two years’ sojourn in Madrid that Montañés renewed -his friendship with Velazquez, and sat for that incomparable portrait -which is one of the masterpieces of the great painter. - -The last work of Montañés was an altar-screen for the Church of San -Miguel at Cadiz. The commission for the work had been given as early as -1609, but Montañés had been occupied with the altar-screens of -Santiponce and other commissions in Seville, and the work had been -postponed. There was a second commission signed in 1613, but the work -was not undertaken until much later, and was not finally achieved until -1640, after the visit to Madrid. The statue of St. Bruno which dominates -the altar is very fine; the figure is seated, an unusual position for -Montañés. The polychrome was executed by Jacinto Soto. - -Montañés died in 1649. He left a number of able pupils, and though none -inherited his genius, they carried on his work with merit, and sustained -the high renown of the school of Seville. It will be well to consider -their works in a separate chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE DISCIPLES OF MONTAÑÉS IN SEVILLE - - -It is the fate of the followers of a great master that their talent is -almost always expressed in imitation, rather than in original work. -Occupied with the glory that has been achieved, they forget that -personality is the only living quality in art; that, however capably -they may follow, they cannot reach the height that has already been -gained. Thus the result of imitation must always be decay. - -But the renown of the Sevillian school was for a time maintained by a -band of really capable sculptors, who, had they lived earlier, before -Montañés instead of after, might have been masters and not merely -followers. We must now consider their work. - -The sculptors most immediately connected with Montañés were Solis, of -whom we have spoken already; the Abbot Juan Gomez, one of his earliest -pupils; Alonso Martinez, an architect and master carpenter of Seville -Cathedral; Luis Ortiz, a sculptor of Malaga; and Alonso de Mena, who -came from Granada. These five men all worked as pupils in the studio of -Montañés, and to a greater or less extent adapted their talent to -copying the qualities of their master. Indeed Solis and the Abbot Juan -Gomez appropriated so well his style that considerable confusion as to -the authorship of their works has arisen. - -Born in Jaen, Solis came to Seville in the year 1617, and assisted -Montañés in the execution of the statues of St. Bruno, the Virgin, and -St. John the Baptist for the Carthusians of Santa Maria de las Cuevas, -which are now in the Museum of Seville. It is probable, as we stated in -the last chapter, that the statues were carved by Solis from the wax -models of Montañés. La Justicia (Plate 148) and the Four Cardinal -Virtues, executed for the same monastery, and now also in the museum, -were the personal work of Solis: in this work he shows that, apart from -his power of imitation, he possessed talent of his own which entitles -him to recognition. It is a polychrome of real merit, well conceived and -well executed. - -Even greater confusion has arisen with regard to the authorship of the -works of the Abbot Juan Gomez, of which Seville has numerous examples. -Even Cean Bermudez places among the original works of Montañés a Jesus -of Nazareth of the Convent of San Agustine, which to-day is in the -Priory Church, although the archives prove the Abbot Gomez to be its -author. This work is proof of the capability of the pupil. He does even -greater credit to his master in his life-size Crucifixion, executed in -1616 for the town of La Campaña. M. Marcel Dieulafoy says of this work: -“It is a faithful copy of those of Montañés, and like them extremely -beautiful.” Unfortunately the carving has suffered greatly from bad -restoration. - -Alonso Martinez carved, with Francisco de Ribas, the altar-screen of the -Chapel of San Pablo in the cathedral, and it is to his hand we owe a -very beautiful polychromed figure of the Virgin (Plate 149). Alonso de -Mena, a sculptor whose fame has been overshadowed by his son Pedro, the -disciple of Alonso Cano, carved many works for the churches of -Alpujaras; in addition he executed for the Chapel of the Kings two large -buffets of which the folding doors are ornamented with eight excellent -medallions of the Queens and Kings of Spain. - -To Luis Ortiz we owe the earliest of the cathedral stalls at Malaga, -which were carved by him in 1630 in collaboration with Josef Micael. He -was also the author of the altar-screen of the royal chapel of Nuestra -Señora de los Reyes. The two brothers Francisco Ruiz and Juan Antonio -Gixon were taught their art by Alfonso Martinez. Antonio Gixon was -professor, and later director, of the Academy of Seville, founded by -Murillo. Francisco Ruiz remodelled, after Montañés, the dying Christ -(Plate 150) which is in the church at Triana, a suburb of Seville. It is -a very beautiful carving, which bears comparison with the master’s -Crucifixion in the cathedral. The polychrome also is harmonious, equal -to the finest work of the masters of that art. Indeed the merit of this -unknown statue is surprising when the late period at which it was -undertaken is remembered. - -But the art of sculpture still had strong life in Seville, and the -school was to produce another master to continue the traditions of -Montañés. Pedro Roldan was born in Seville in 1624, and he learnt his -art in the studio of Montañés, working afterwards in the Academy of -Seville. He is the pupil who did the master the greatest credit: he may -even be said to have surpassed him in the art of composition. No one -else among the Southern sculptors had his power of grouping a number of -figures. His two masterpieces--one in the parish church of the -cathedral, the other in the Hospital de la Caridad--are veritable -pictures in relief. They are the finest altar-screens in Seville, and -must be compared with the works of Gregorio Hernandez and Juni, the -masters of the Northern schools. - -The cathedral altar-screen is a bas-relief representing the Descent from -the Cross. The Virgin supports the body of the Christ, and around them -are grouped St. John and several disciples, the Magdalen, and the holy -women. The figures are larger than life-size. In the background are the -two thieves outlined against the Temple, which is seen in the distance. -Around this central composition are beautiful angel figures carrying the -instruments of the Passion. Then on the base of the altar is outlined -the triumphal entry of Jesus into Jerusalem. - -In the execution of this work Roldan was aided by Francisco de Ribas, a -master carpenter, who was the son of Gaspar de Ribas, the first -collaborator with Alonso Cano. Francisco Ribas began the altar in 1669, -when he contracted for the price of 88,000 reals, with the condition -that all the figures were to be carved by the hand of Roldan. We do not -know how much Roldan received for his work. He was always indifferent -as to the payments made to him. - -The altar-screen of the chapel of La Caridad is even finer than that of -the cathedral. The subject (Plate 152) is the Burial of Christ. The -figures placed around the Divine Body, which is being lowered into the -tomb, are splendidly grouped, and there is great unity in the -composition of the scene. The polychrome was carried out by Juan de -Valdés Leal, while Murillo aided that painter with his counsel and -possibly with his brush. The architect Bernardo de Puieda contracted for -the work, receiving for it 12,500 ducats. Of this sum 11,000 ducats went -to Valdés Leal, but we have no knowledge as to the amount appointed to -Roldan, though a contemporary writer remarks that “it was very little.” -This is what we should expect, for we read of Roldan as being entirely -engrossed in his art. He lived in a country house outside Seville, where -he enjoyed the beauties of nature, only going to the city when -compelled. Then he rode on a small donkey, and occupied his time while -journeying in making small models in clay or wax, which he always -carried with him. - -Besides his large altar-screens Roldan executed many small bas-reliefs, -which give further proof of his talent. The best examples are in the -Cathedral of Jaen. These bas-reliefs are carved in marble, and, like his -larger works, are remarkable for the beauty of their composition. The -subjects are the Flight into Egypt, the Marriage at Cana, and Christ’s -Argument with the Doctors, which are in the interior of the church set -over the principal doorway. Then on the exterior of the building are -statues of St. Ferdinand, the Doctors, and the Evangelists. - -Some of Roldan’s sculptured statues in Seville have been attributed to -Montañés. This has been the case with the striking Ecce Homo of the -Hospital de la Caridad. To complete Roldan’s work we must mention his -groups of the “Pasos,” which he carved for the Holy Week procession. In -these he appealed most forcibly to the people of Seville. Christ’s Agony -in the Garden is the best known; it is as fine as any of the “Pasos” of -Montañés. - -Roldan left a daughter, Doña Luisa, known as Roldana, who has the honour -of being the one renowned woman sculptor of Spain. She was born in the -year 1556, and was trained by her father, assisting him in his work. She -inherited his talent, with less strength but more grace. Legend states -that a statue of St. Ferdinand carved by Roldan was refused acceptance. -The daughter retouched the work, and gave it more life, when it was -received by the purchaser without knowing it was the same statue. -Probably the story is untrue, but it proves the estimation in which -Roldana was held by her contemporaries. Roldana married a king’s -chamberlain, and went to reside in Madrid, where her works and also her -person gained admiration. In 1695 she was appointed sculptor to the -Chamber. But she died in 1704, when still young, only four years after -her father. - -Roldana’s best work is the Virgin, known as Nuestra Señora de las -Augustias, which is at Cadiz (Plate 153), where it is greatly esteemed. -This praise is deserved. The group is cleverly composed, and is -remarkable for the originality displayed in the placing of the figures; -the body of the dead Christ rests between the knees of the Virgin -instead of across them. The Christ is excellent, the Virgin is less -good; but the angels who hold up the arms of the Divine Sufferer are -very beautiful. The way in which they are grouped is masterly. The -Escorial has one work by Roldana, a statue of St. Michael, who is shown -dancing, and is dressed in the armour and Roman costume of the century -of Louis XIV. This statue is less noteworthy. - -Roldan had, besides his daughter, one pupil who deserves mention, Pedro -Duque Cornejo. He was the last sculptor of the Sevillian school. Among -his contemporaries he gained great success, and for twenty-five years he -was sculptor to the Queen’s Chamber--a success which his works certainly -do not merit. All his carvings suffer from exaggeration and an -overloading of ornament and gilding--the faults of the decadent period -in which he lived. He executed many commissions for the Cartuja del -Paula at Seville. He carved in mahogany the stalls of Cordova Cathedral, -and also the fine Silleria, which was brought from the Cartuja of -Seville to the Coro of Cadiz Cathedral. Cornejo died in 1757, and was -buried with princely state in Cordova Cathedral. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE SCHOOL OF GRANADA AND ALONSO CANO--THE DECLINE OF -SCULPTURE--FRANCISCO ZARCELLO - - -The school of Granada was an offshoot from the school of Seville, and it -owes its glory chiefly to one man, who must be considered as the pupil -of Montañés. - -Alonso Cano was born at Granada, on the 17th of March 1601, and was -baptized in the parish church of San Ildefonso, where the register of -his baptism may still be seen. His father, Miguel Cano, was a carver of -retablos, and it was with him that the young Cano learnt the rudiments -of his art. Before long his talent gained the notice of the painter Juan -del Castillo, who recommended the removal of the Cano family to Seville -for the sake of better instruction. Cano entered for eight months the -studio of Francisco Pacho, where he learnt painting, having for his -fellow-student Velazquez. Afterwards he became the assistant of Juan del -Castillo. In sculpture he was the pupil of Montañés, and for several -years he worked under his guidance. There seems to have been a great -friendship between the master and pupil. Cano’s debt to Montañés was -very great, and his early works in Seville, executed under the direction -of the master, are proof of how completely he assimilated his style. - -Cano’s earliest sculptured works were three retablos, designed, carved, -and painted, one for the College of San Alberto, and two for the -Conventual Church of Santa Paula. Zurbaran and Pacheco were employed -with Cano in executing the altar-screen of San Alberto, and Cean -Bermudez tells us that his work surpassed theirs in merit. In the -execution of the two altar-screens for Santa Paula he was helped by -Gaspar de Ribas, who worked with him under the direction of Montañés. -These screens remain in the Church of Santa Paula--one over the altar of -St. John the Baptist, the other over that of St. John the Evangelist. -They are pieces of harmonious work, altogether praiseworthy, which show -Cano’s combined power as architect, sculptor, painter, and damask -worker. The finer is the altar of St. John the Baptist. The statue of -the prophet and a bas-relief representing the Baptism of Christ are at -either side, and between a beautiful representation of figures carrying -the head of St. John on a charger; then to right and left, between the -columns, are placed statues of the Saints, and these surmount figures of -the Virtues and Cherubim. The hand of a master is seen everywhere. - -Besides the altar-screens of Santa Paula, there are a few good carvings -that belong to this period of Cano’s youth. There is a Conception in the -nunnery of Santa Paula, placed over the doorway, and a second, and -perhaps finer, Conception is in the parish church of San Andrés, and -there is also in the same church a very beautiful Child Jesus, -unfortunately dressed in a satin robe which quite hides the body. These -statues are all good, and indeed might be ascribed to Montañés except -for a weakness in the modelling of the nude portions, a fault which Cano -afterwards overcame. The few other carvings in Seville that are ascribed -to Cano are less certainly by him, and are works of little interest. - -An important undertaking belongs to the year 1628. Miguel Cano had been -employed to erect a new high altar for the church at Lebrija, a small -town situated forty-five miles from Seville on the way to Jeréz. The -altar was already designed, but the actual carving was not started, when -Miguel Cano died. It fell to his son to complete the work. Four pieces -of sculpture were executed; a Crucifixion to be placed above the altar, -colossal statues of St. Paul and St. Peter for its second storey, and a -small and exquisite image of the Virgin enshrined within a curtained -niche above the slab of the altar. This last is perhaps the most -pleasing sculpture of this early period; it is one of those really -beautiful pieces which cause us to forgive much of Cano’s commonplace -work. - -It was soon after this that Cano left Seville. He could not bear any -superior in his art except his master to be near him, and he challenged -a fellow-painter, Sebastian de Llano y Valdés, whose success had enraged -him. He stabbed and wounded him, and, to escape the action of the -ecclesiastical authorities, he fled to Madrid. Here he renewed his -friendship with Velazquez, and through his influence gained an -appointment to work in the royal palaces, besides having the honour of -being professor to Prince Baltasar Carlos. - -During this period, and in the years that followed, Cano did more -painting than modelling, and we have many pictures from his hand, some -of which may be seen in the Prado Museum. In 1643 we find Cano at Toledo -soliciting work in the cathedral. He did not obtain it, and returned to -Madrid, where, soon afterwards, he was accused of murdering his wife. -This was the beginning of a period of turmoil and wandering. Cano fled -to the city of Valencia and afterwards took refuge in the Cartuja of -Portacali. But later on, returning to Madrid, he fell under the tribunal -of the Inquisition. After suffering the torture, he was adjudged -innocent of the crime with which he was charged, and appointed Majordomo -of the Brotherhood of Nuestra Señora de los Dolores. This was a source -of fresh trouble, and Cano was fined a sum of a hundred ducats for -refusing to assist in the procession in Holy Week beside the _alguazils_ -of the court--a characteristic incident, for Cano was a man who never -crossed his own wishes. Cano again left Madrid, and we find him in -Toledo, employed by the chapter to inspect the works in the octagon -chapel. Afterwards he must have gone to Valencia and Malaga, then he -appears again at Madrid. But he seems to have sought an opportunity to -leave the royal city, and a canonry being vacant in the Cathedral of -Granada, he petitioned the post from Philip IV., which was granted by a -royal decree, dated September 11, 1651, under conditions that he should -take orders within a year. But the year passed and Cano was not -ordained, and his prebendaryship was declared vacant. Whereupon Cano, -who was still governed by self-will, took his grievance to the courts. A -chaplaincy was conferred on him by the Bishop of Salamanca, and the -artist was ordained a sub-deacon. Then the king ordered, by a decree -dated April 14, 1658, that the Granada prebendaryship should be restored -to him, with the condition that he adopted ecclesiastical dress, which -hitherto he had refused to wear. At last, in 1659, Cano returned to -Granada, and took possession of his prebendaryship, which he occupied in -peace for the remaining eight years of his life. - -This was the period of Cano’s greatest activity. The only sculptured -works achieved during these turbulent years were the design for the Holy -Week monument of the Church of St. Gines, Madrid, and also the design -and the superintending of the building of the triumphal arch erected at -the Guadalajara gate for the entry of Queen Mariana on her marriage with -Philip IV. But now the restless artist had found a fixed home in the -city of his birth, with unhindered opportunity for the exercise of his -facile gifts. - -Granada, and especially the cathedral--in the bell tower of which -building his studio was--owe much to these years of Cano’s residence. -His activity seems to have been unwearying. But, indeed, it must be -granted that the city possesses more works than Cano could possibly have -accomplished in a period of eight years. It has been usual to attribute -to him every good piece of polychrome statuary in Granada. This is not -surprising, for it is often impossible to distinguish with certainty -between his work and that of his pupils Josef de Mora and Pedro de Mena, -who imitated his style and made copies of many of his works. And the -confusion is increased by the habit which Cano had of himself working on -the carvings of his assistants; were they in difficulty, he would finish -their work with his own hand. Thus it is impossible to pronounce with -certainty as to the authorship of many of the reputed Canos in Granada. - -Among the statues in the cathedral that are ascribed to Cano, and are -certainly his work, we may place first the Purissima, which is kept in -the sacristy. It is a small and very beautiful statuette which has the -qualities that belong to Cano’s paintings. Even more interesting is the -group of the Virgin and Child, with Santa Ana, also in the cathedral, -where it is hidden in the gloom of a dark side-chapel. Quite unknown, -this beautiful statue is almost certainly Cano’s work; it has all the -qualities that belong to his art. The Virgin, who is seated on the knee -of Santa Ana, holds the Child Jesus. The figures are half life-size; the -three faces and the hands are of exquisite delicacy. The Virgin -resembles the Purissima in her sweetness. What a dainty fairness is -here; with what exquisite taste the veil and the robe are arranged! The -polychrome, too, is very beautiful, and fortunately it has not been -restored. The Virgin wears a white tulle turban, which is black striped -and gold fringed; her robe is light red, damasked in gold, and partly -covered by a drapery of indigo blue, which is fastened with gold clasps -at the shoulders and waist. Santa Ana’s robe is black, gold embroidered, -while her cloak is a deeper shade of the same red-brown as the Virgin’s -tunic. - -In these two statues we see Cano’s power in expressing tender human -emotions. It is the quality that marks his works--both his painting and -his carvings--among the Spanish masters. His art never touches the -passionate Conceptions of Ribera or Zurbaran in painting, or of -Hernandez in sculpture: it is on a lower level than the ecstatic emotion -of Murillo or the beautiful carvings of Montañés. Cano is mild and -touching; he neither excites nor thrills us. His Virgin is the happy -earthly Mother who takes sweet pleasure in her Child, not the Mater -Dolorosa, suffering for the sorrows of her Divine Son. She has the -fairness which he gives to all women. It was this understanding, so -uncommon in Spanish art, whose object was “to persuade men to piety and -to incline them to God,” of the joy of life with its human -relationships, that was Cano’s special gift. He changed the dramatically -serious religious compositions common to his country into scenes that -speak charmingly of tender joyousness born of earthly love. To him -alone, it would seem, it was given to find joy, and not sorrow, in the -divine drama from which the Spanish artists drew their inspiration. - -Other carvings in the cathedral that are ascribed to Cano, though his -authorship in some of the pieces is disputed, are the colossal busts of -Adam and Eve placed very high to the right and left of the entrance to -the Capilla Mayor, and the heads of St. Paul and St. John the Baptist, -which are hidden in the darkness of the Chapel of Nuestra Señora del -Carmel. These carvings, and especially the bleeding heads of the saints, -are subjects that do not properly belong to Cano’s art, but were -undertaken by him to meet the popular taste of his day, and for this -reason they are of less interest. Yet their importance is great on -account of the excellence of the polychrome. The Adam and Eve, larger -than life-size, are carved in oak, and harmoniously coloured with -excellent care. Unfortunately the height at which they are placed makes -it very difficult to see them. The head of St. Paul and that of the -Baptist--if this is Cano’s work, and the skill of the craftsmanship -points to its being so--must be classed with the similar head of St. -John the Baptist in the Church of Santa Paula, which is also ascribed to -Cano. This last piece seems to have been copied from the head of the -Prophet sculptured by Montañés for the Church of Santa Clara. There is -also a most excellent Head of St. John the Baptist in the Camarin of the -Chapel of San Juan de Dios, which must certainly be Cano’s work (Plates -154-156). None but a master could have carved this head; it is the -finest example in Spain of a polychrome of this subject. The livid face, -which shows the death-marks, is surrounded with tumbled locks of black -hair and a beard of the same colour. Both it and the bleeding neck are -faithfully and splendidly rendered: there is beauty in the horror. The -charger on which the head is placed is of gold, and forms a sort of -aureole around it. At the top an eagle has seized it in its beak to -carry the relic to heaven; the bird is painted a deep warm black with -beautiful reflections. - -The cathedral has other works which it owes to the years of Cano’s -residence. The beautiful frescoes of the Capilla Mayor, illustrating -scenes from the life of the Virgin, were his work. The lower stage of -the west façade we owe largely to him. He designed and superintended the -execution of two silver lamps for the principal chapel; he carved the -elaborate lectern of the choir, formed of fine woods, bronze, and -precious stones; and executed new portals for the sacristy. Two -medallions on copper of great delicacy were wrought for the Chapel of -the Trinity. Here the figures recall the Virgin in the group of Santa -Ana and Virgin and Child. In addition several important pictures were -painted for the dome of the Capilla Mayor, and others as altar-pieces -for the chapels. Some of these canvases disappeared when Granada was -stripped of so many of its treasures by the French. But a few fine -pictures remain. The Trinity in the chapel of that name, the Way of the -Cross in Nazareno Chapel, and the Virgen de la Soledad, which hangs over -the altar of San Miguel, are the most important. - -This last-named painting is especially interesting to us, for there are -two pieces of sculpture certainly copied from it, one in the parish -church of Santa Ana, the other in the Church of Santa Paula. Both are -excellent. The Virgin has the delicacy and beauty that we expect from -Cano. The polychrome is subdued; the flesh of the face and the beautiful -folded hands are a dull pallor, befitting grief; the eyes and the tears -are formed by crystals, after the custom used by Gregorio Hernandez and -Juan de Juni. The dress, which is white, and the mantle, of bluish -black, are perfectly harmonious. These colours are a repetition of the -cathedral picture. And the question arises, are the sculptures also by -Cano? That of Santa Paula has always been ascribed to Josef de Mora. If -we accept this, we must account the Soledad of Santa Ana as the work of -Cano, and the Santa Paula as a splendid copy. But both statues are so -equally good, especially in the colouring, that the pupil’s work must -have been touched by the hand of the master. It is impossible to believe -that Josef de Mora could have achieved this masterpiece unaided. - -The same difficulty of authorship between the master and the pupil -confronts us in the two statues of St. Bruno, both in the Cartuja -(Plate 158). One, life-size, is in the sacristy, and this work is -reported to have been ordered from Josef de Mora; the other, a -statuette, which is placed over the high altar, may with little question -be ascribed to Cano. At least, if it is not his work, then it is a copy -of a lost original. Josef de Mora could not by himself have designed so -exquisite a work. The statuette exceeds the statue in beauty. Both the -carving and colouring are equally fine; the latter is a triumph of -polychrome. The monk’s pale face and hands, his white robe, and his -scapular of the same colour, are perfectly transcribed, a richness being -given to the white of the dress, in contrast to the pale flesh, by the -device of the old damask workers of painting over a gold ground. This -small work is another masterpiece which Cano achieved. It takes rank -with the St. Anthony in San Nicolas of Murcia, a better known work, -which belongs to an earlier period of Cano’s art. The Cartuja formerly -contained a fine statue of the Magdalen, which is ascribed to Cano -(Plate 159). It was taken away, with many works of art, during the -invasion of the French. - -There is almost hopeless uncertainty with regard to the remaining -commissions carried out by Cano for the religious orders of Granada. -Cean Bermudez catalogues many paintings and sculptures that have -disappeared. For the Convent of the Angel we read that Cano carved in -marble a figure of the Guardian Angel to be placed over the portal, and -designed an elaborate altar-screen, which was carved by Pedro de Mena, -though Cano chiselled several of the statues with his own hand. He also -painted a picture of our Lord parting from the Virgin in the Via -Dolorosa. Other pictures were painted for the Convent of San Diego, and -a series of half-length figures of the Apostles were designed and -executed for the Dominican Monastery of Sta. Catalina. Then Cano worked -for private patrons. Palomino tells of a statue of St. Anthony of Padua, -carved for the Auditor of the Chancery, which Cano, becoming enraged -with his client about the payment of the work, dashed to pieces: a -characteristic incident, which recalls the action of Torrigiano. -Unfortunately the disappearance of many of these churches and -monasteries with all their contents, and the change of the names of -others, makes it impossible to estimate these works or to hazard an -opinion as to their present whereabouts. - -Cano closed his activity with a series of works for Malaga Cathedral. He -designed the Capilla Mayor, and undertook to carve new stalls for the -choir, but a dispute arising about the payment, he threw up the work -with his usual impetuosity and returned to Granada. A group of important -pictures were also painted in these last years. - -Cano died in his house in the Albaicin quarter on the 5th October 1667; -he was then sixty-six years old. His body rests in the Pantheon of the -Canons beneath the choir of the cathedral. - -It is worth noting that Cano died in poverty. His disposition was -generous, and the old Spanish writers tell us that his gains, as soon as -he won them, were divided among his friends and among the poor. We find -numerous anecdotes of his life, and one story of his death is too good -not to be recorded; moreover it helps to complete our knowledge of the -man. The priest summoned to offer extreme unction to the dying Cano was -accustomed to labour among penitent Jews, towards whom the artist had -always displayed a curiously passionate antipathy. The sick man -recognised the priest. “Go, Señor Licenciado,” he cried, “go with God -and do not trouble to call again: the priest who administers the -Sacraments to Jews shall not administer them to me.” A fresh priest was -summoned. The new-comer placed an old-fashioned crucifix in the hands -that had carved so many beautiful pieces. Impatiently Cano pushed it -aside. “My son,” gently remonstrated the priest, “what dost thou mean? -This is the Lord who redeemed thee and must save thee!” “I know that all -very well,” was Cano’s answer, “but do you want to provoke me with this -wretched ill-wrought thing in order to give me over to the devil?” - -Cano was a gallant soul storming through life, who in spite of his -violence and restlessness was loving and charitable, displaying -boundless graciousness towards his friends and his pupils. No master -ever took greater interest in his pupils; he gave freely to them of his -knowledge and his work. These contradictions in Cano’s temperament -explain his art. - -Among Cano’s pupils special mention must be made of Josef de Mora and -Pedro de Mena; both imitated their master so closely that, as we have -seen, their works have been confused with his. This is perhaps the best -praise that can be accorded to the pupils. Joseph de Mora was born at -Majorca in 1638, where he passed his youth learning his art from his -father. The fame of Cano brought him to Granada, and he at once became a -pupil in the studio of the master. He acquired considerable skill as a -carver, and a few years later he went to Madrid, where he was appointed -sculptor to the king. But the climate of the capital being unsuited to -his health, he returned to Granada. From this time Mora became wholly -the imitator of Cano. He had a curious habit that is worth recording; no -one ever saw him at work, for when in his studio with his model the door -was always kept bolted. This explains perhaps why he was able to copy so -successfully the carvings of Cano. We have pointed out the various -statues in which confusion has arisen between the authorship of the -master and that of the pupil. The St. Bruno of the Cartuja and the -Virgen de la Soledad of Santa Ana cannot be given to Mora as wholly his -own work; a Conception in the Cartuja, if it is by his hand, must also -be considered as a copy of Cano. Fortunately for Mora’s personal -reputation there is in the Church of Santa Ana a statue by him of St. -Pantaleon, which reveals some individual characteristics. The figure of -the young martyred saint was modelled from a woman, and the spiritual -effect gained by this means is increased by the unusual device of -placing the statue in a glass case. The figure is very graceful and -delicate, which contrasts with the severity of the face. But there is a -weakness in the modelling of the legs and feet, and also in the folds -of the vestments, which the artist has striven to hide by the -polychrome. This is good, in the style commended by Pacheco, made in -subdued tones and with no gilding. The personal qualities of this statue -make us regret the practice of imitation of his master in which Mora -lost his own talent, which must have been considerable. - -This is even more true of Pedro de Mena, Cano’s second pupil, who had -much greater originality and talent. A native of Alpujaras, where, in -collaboration with his father Alonso de Mena, he had established a -considerable local reputation, like Mora he came to Granada, attracted -by the renown of Cano. It is reported that when he saw the master’s -works in the cathedral his enthusiasm was so great that he determined to -do no more carving until he had become a pupil of Cano. He brought his -family to Granada and at once entered the studio of the master. Cano -recognised his talent, and passed over to him all the work which he did -not wish personally to execute. Under these conditions Mena gained the -commission, refused by Cano, to carve forty statues of the saints for -the choir of Malaga Cathedral. The work occupied four years, 1658-1662, -and for it Mena received payment of 40,000 reals. These statues prove -the great talent of Mena. The figures are carved in cedar-wood and are -not coloured. What is remarkable is the individuality which Mena has -succeeded in giving to the different saints; each is a living character. -Professor C. Justi says of these statuettes: “They are among the most -singular and startling products of Spanish art, if not of all modern -sculpture.” Mena had the Spanish gift of impressive rendering of -character, and it is for this quality he claims recognition. - -In 1667 Mena was appointed sculptor to the Chapter of Toledo. Probably -it was at this time that he carved the statuette of St. Francis (Plate -160), now in the Cathedral Treasury, which has erroneously been ascribed -to Cano. This ascetic figure, so Spanish in its conception, could never -have been carved by Cano. The popularity of Mena increased, and on the -death of Cano he took his place, fulfilling many commissions for the -different religious orders. The city still contains several of his -works. The equestrian statue of St. James and the praying statues of the -Catholic Kings in the cathedral are the best known. But these works are -of much less merit than the saints in the choir of Malaga. Certainly -they have some individuality, but Mena here relies too much on what he -had learnt from Cano; or perhaps popularity had made him careless. - -But Mena’s fame spread, and he was called by Prince John of Austria to -Madrid to execute a Virgen del Pilar with St. James at her feet. The -success of this work gained a second commission, and Prince Doria -ordered a Crucifixion which was sent to Italy, where it gained much -praise--a rare honour for a Spanish sculptor. - -Mena did not remain in Madrid, and after a period of residence in -Cordova, Malaga, and Salamanca, where he carved a statuette of St. -Francis which is still in the city, he returned to Granada, where he -died in 1693. - - * * * * * - -The last years of the seventeenth century saw the death of the great -sculptors of Spain, and with the opening of the eighteenth century we -may say that the art of sculpture itself was dead. A corruption in taste -had become general; it was evident in painting and in architecture as -well as in sculpture. Churriguera was the great offender, but his -contemporaries, following his lead, had sought by bad taste, displayed -in excessive decoration and vivid colour, “to correct” the simplicity of -art. The decline of sculpture in the South was more rapid and perhaps -greater than in the Northern schools. Many of the old altar-screens -were replaced by modern works of the new false art. A popular desire -arose for works of the coarsest materialisation. The custom grew of -dressing the statues in real garments. Then eyes of glass and real hair -were in many instances added, and apparatus was invented for moving the -head, mouth, eyes, and limbs of the statues. Many pieces of fine -sculpture were actually destroyed to meet this degraded demand. The -Virgins, and notably the las Doloras, were subjected to this treatment. -One example of these “dressed images” is a Virgin in Seville Cathedral. -The limbs of this carved doll move at the joints, while a contrivance in -the body enables the head to turn to the right or the left. The body is -covered with rose-coloured taffeta which is glued to the wood, the hair -is of silk plaited with gold threads, and shoes of white kid encase the -feet. Sometimes the figure sits, and sometimes stands, and the Child -Jesus is placed in the arms or upon the knees according to the position -of the mother. - -There is little more to add. A dying tradition of art with no master to -reanimate its life--that is the record of the eighteenth century. - -One artist alone claims remembrance. Francisco Zarcello was the son of -an unimportant Neapolitan artist, who had settled in Murcia at the close -of the seventeenth century. It was from his father that Francisco -Zarcello gained what training in art he had. It is said that he purposed -going to Italy to study, but the project was not carried out. Probably -Zarcello gained from thus pursuing his art alone, as he was saved from -the error of imitation, especially baneful in this period of decadence. -And though the renown he gained must be admitted to be in excess of the -merit that his works claim, he did possess a considerable talent, with -real feeling and something of the old Spanish religious sincerity. Had -he lived in a different epoch, with conditions more favourable to art, -he might have been a great artist. - -Zarcello executed numerous works: indeed a greater number of statues and -statuettes--no less than eighteen hundred--than several men’s lives -could have sufficed to have produced are catalogued to his name. Many of -these present really admirable qualities. He was especially successful -in the grouping of his figures, many of which, though showing -exaggerated attitudes, are true works of art. His retablos in the -churches of Murcia, and the realistic groups of the “Pasos,” guarded in -the Ermita de Jesus (Plate 161), are remarkable examples of his power. -We are able to forget the materialistic devices used--such, for -instance, as the embroidered velvet robes which the Christ wears--by -reason of the truth and religious passion which has inspired the artist. -But all Zarcello’s figures display his faults, excited gestures, -confused drapery, and a want of care in the modelling of the -extremities. - -Among his single statues we may mention the St. Jerome in the Cathedral -of Murcia, of which there is a replica in the convent of the saint, -three miles from the city. This statue is said by Antonio Alix, the -latest historian of Zarcello, to be equal to Torrigiani’s St. Jerome, an -estimate of praise which is surely excessive. Then there are the two -busts of St. John the Baptist in the Church of San Juan, a St. -Anthony--copied from Cano’s statue--a St. Francis, a Conception, and a -Purissima, as well as numerous representations of the saints. Every -church in Murcia contains some work of Zarcello. The statue of St. -Veronica (Plate 162) in Ermita de Jesus is the best single figure that -he achieved. - -Zarcello stood alone. He was assisted in his studio work by the members -of his family, but no one of them inherited his talent. He seems to have -had no outside pupils. With his death, which occurred in the year 1748, -the history of ancient Spanish sculpture closes. - -[Illustration: PLATE 1 - -Visigoth Crowns found near Toledo] - -[Illustration: PLATE 2 - -Byzantine Crucifix and the Virgin in the Gothic Style. Provincial Museum -of San Marcos, Leon] - -[Illustration: PLATE 3 - -Wooden Crucifix with which the Troops of the Cid were harangued. The -smaller Crucifix the Cid carried beneath his Armour. Salamanca -Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 4 - -Byzantine Chest, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 5 - -Roman Statue found in the Ruins of Salonica. Provincial Museum, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 6 - -El Santo Cristo, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 7 - -Façade of the Cathedral, Santiago de Compostella] - -[Illustration: PLATE 8 - -Portico of La Gloria, Santiago de Compostella Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 9 - -Detail of Carvings of the Portico of La Gloria, Santiago de -Compostella] - -[Illustration: PLATE 10 - -Colegiata de San Isidoro, Leon] - -[Illustration: PLATE 11 - -Spandril of Gate of Pardon in the College of San Isidoro, Leon] - -[Illustration: PLATE 12 - -Two Statues in the Archælogical Museum, Leon] - -[Illustration: PLATE 13 - -San Vicente, Avila] - -[Illustration: PLATE 14 - -Basilica of San Vicente, Avila, Principal West Entrance] - -[Illustration: PLATE 15 - -Zamora Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 16 - -Cloisters of San Pablo del Campo, Barcelona] - -[Illustration: PLATE 17 - -Cloisters of the Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 18 - -Tarragona Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 19 - -Portal, Tarragona Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 20 - -Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 21 - -Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 22 - -Leon Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 23 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls, Leon Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 24 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls, Leon Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 25 - -St. Mary Magdalene and Santo Domingo (Choir Stalls), Leon Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 26 - -San Celedonio and San Esteban (Choir Stalls), Leon Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 27 - -Noah, and Adam and Eve (Choir Stalls), Leon Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 28 - -Samson (Choir Stalls), Leon Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 29 - -Esau (Choir Stalls), Leon Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 30 - -Detail of Portico, Santiago de Compostella] - -[Illustration: PLATE 31 - -San Francisco. San Marcos Museum, Leon] - -[Illustration: PLATE 32 - -Various Statues from the Cross Aisle, Leon Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 33 - -Our Lady del Foro and the Offerings of the Kings, Cloisters, Leon -Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 34 - -A Sepulchre in the Convent of Las Huelgas, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 35 - -Sepulchres in the Old Cathedral, Salamanca] - -[Illustration: PLATE 36 - -Statues of the Portico, Tarragona Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 37 - -Puerta Alta de la Coroneria, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 38 - -The Cloister Gate, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 39 - -The Cloisters, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 40 - -Detail of the Cloisters, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 41 - -Detail of the Cloisters, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 42 - -A Sepulchre, Las Huelgas, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 43 - -Sepulchre of Archbishop Maurice, the Founder of the Cathedral, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 44 - -Sepulchre of Archbishop Maurice, Founder of the Cathedral, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 45 - -Sepulchre of the Infanta Doña Berenguela, daughter of San Fernando, -Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 46 - -Tomb of Jaime de Aragon, Tarragona Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 47 - -Sepulchre of Martin, First Bishop of Leon, Leon Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 48 - -Sepulchre of Don Ordoño II., Leon Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 49 - -Sepulchre of the Martyrs, Basilica de San Vicente, Avila] - -[Illustration: PLATE 50 - -Sepulchre of Archbishop Lopez de Luna in the Church of La Seo, -Zaragoza] - -[Illustration: PLATE 51 - -Our Lady la Mayor, Statue of Silver, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 52 - -Statue of Our Lady de la Vega, Salamanca] - -[Illustration: PLATE 53 - -Statue of Our Lady de la Blanca, in the Principal Porch, Leon -Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 54 - -St. Michael slaying the Devil, Silver Statue by Juan de Arfé. Provincial -Museum, Salamanca] - -[Illustration: PLATE 55 - -Diptych in the Camarin of Santa Teresa, Escorial] - -[Illustration: PLATE 56 - -Detail of the Altar-screen of the Capilla de Santiago, Toledo -Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 57 - -Altar-screen in the Capilla de Santiago, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 58 - -Chapel of Santiago, containing the Sepulchres of Don Alvaro de Luna and -that of his wife Doña Juana, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 59 - -Detail of the Altar-piece in the Capilla de la Trinidad, Toledo] - -[Illustration: PLATE 60 - -Altar-piece carved in Wood, end of XVth Century. Valladolid Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 61 - -Centre of a Wooden Altar-piece, end of XVth Century. Valladolid Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 62 - -Chapel of St. Anne, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 63 - -Details of the Altar-piece in the Chapel of St. Anne, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 64 - -Sepulchre of Don Juan II. and Doña Isabel, La Cartuja, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 65 - -Sepulchre of Don Juan II. and Doña Isabel, La Cartuja, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 66 - -Detail of the Sepulchre of Don Juan II. and Doña Isabel, La Cartuja, -Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 67 - -Sepulchre of Infante Don Alonso, son of Isabella I., La Cartuja, -Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 68 - -Sepulchre of Don Juan de Padella. Provincial Museum, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 69 - -High Altar, La Cartuja, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 70 - -Detail of the High Altar, La Cartuja, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 71 - -Detail of the High Altar, La Cartuja, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 72 - -Choir Stalls, La Cartuja, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 73 - -High Altar, Santa Gadea del Cid, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 74 - -High Altar of the Church of Our Lady del Pilar, Zaragoza] - -[Illustration: PLATE 75 - -Bas-relief in the Altar-piece, Chapel Royal, Granada] - -[Illustration: PLATE 76 - -Detail of the Sepulchre of the Catholic Sovereigns, Royal Chapel, -Granada] - -[Illustration: PLATE 77 - -Sepulchre of the Infante Juan, only son of Ferdinand and Isabella, -Church of Santo Tomás, Avila] - -[Illustration: PLATE 78 - -Carvings of the Principal Chapel, by Borgoña, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 79 - -Back Part of the High Altar, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 80 - -Tras-Sagrario, by Felipe de Borgoña, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 81 - -Tras-Sagrario, by Felipe de Borgoña, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 82 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berriguete and Borgoña, Toledo -Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 83 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berruguete and Borgoña, Toledo -Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 84 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berruguete and Borgoña, Toledo -Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 85 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berruguete and Borgoña, Toledo -Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 86 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berruguete and Borgoña, Toledo -Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 87 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berruguete and Borgoña, Toledo -Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 88 - -Upper Part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berruguete and Borgoña Toledo -Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 89 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by Ferdinand and -Isabella, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 90 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by Ferdinand and -Isabella, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 91 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by Ferdinand and -Isabella, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 92 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by Ferdinand and -Isabella, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 93 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by Ferdinand and -Isabella, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 94 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by Ferdinand and -Isabella, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 95 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by Ferdinand and -Isabella, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 96 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by Ferdinand and -Isabella, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 97 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by Ferdinand and -Isabella, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 98 - -Detail of the Choir Stalls: Reconquest of Granada by Ferdinand and -Isabella, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 99 - -Detail of the High Altar, Chapel of the “Condestable,” Burgos -Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 100 - -Altar-piece, by F. de Borgoña, in the Royal Chapel, Granada] - -[Illustration: PLATE 101 - -Detail of Altar-screen, Granada: King Ferdinand the Catholic] - -[Illustration: PLATE 102 - -Detail of Altar-screen, Granada: Queen Isabel the Catholic] - -[Illustration: PLATE 103 - -Boabdil giving up the Keys of Granada to the Catholic Sovereigns. -Fragment of the Altar-piece in the Royal Chapel, Granada] - -[Illustration: PLATE 104 - -Choir Stalls at San Benito, Valladolid.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 105 - -Back of a Choir Stall. Valladolid Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 106 - -Fragments of Choir Stalls. Valladolid Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 107 - -Several Fragments of Choir Stalls. Valladolid Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 108 - -Fragments of Choir Stalls, by Andrés de Najera. Valladolid Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 109 - -Stalls of San Benito, by Andrés de Najera, Valladolid] - -[Illustration: PLATE 110 - -Stalls of San Benito, by Andrés de Najera, Valladolid] - -[Illustration: PLATE 111 - -Stalls of San Benito, by Andrés de Najera, Valladolid] - -[Illustration: PLATE 112 - -Wooden Panels, Murcia Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 113 - -Abraham’s Sacrifice and St. Sebastian, by Berruguete. Valladolid -Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 114 - -Sepulchre of Archbishop Tavera, by Alonso Berruguete, Hospital de -Afuera, Toledo] - -[Illustration: PLATE 115 - -Sepulchre, by Berruguete, in San Jeronimo, Granada] - -[Illustration: PLATE 116 - -Statue of St. Secundus, by Berruguete, Church of San Secundo, Avila] - -[Illustration: PLATE 117 - -San Benito. Valladolid Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 118 - -The Transept, Cathedral of La Seo, Zaragoza] - -[Illustration: PLATE 119 - -Sepulchre of the Marques de Villena and Retablo in the Monastery del -Parral, Segovia] - -[Illustration: PLATE 120 - -Custodia by Juan Arfé, Avila Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 121 - -Statue of Don Cristobal de Rojas y Sandoval, Church of San Pedro de -Lerma, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 122 - -Detail of the Statue] - -[Illustration: PLATE 123 - -St. Jerome, by Gaspar de Becerra, Burgos Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 124 - -Altar-screen, by Juan de Juni, Segovia Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 125 - -Christ in the Tomb, by Juan de Juni. Valladolid Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 126 - -Pieta, by Hernandez. Valladolid Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 127 - -The Baptism of Our Lord, by Hernandez. Valladolid Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 128 - -St. Francis, by Hernandez. Valladolid Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 129 - -The Crucifixion, by Gregorio Hernandez, Chapel of the ex-monastic Church -of “Conjo,” Santiago] - -[Illustration: PLATE 130 - -Our Lady of Sorrows, Church of “Conjo,” Santiago] - -[Illustration: PLATE 131 - -La Dolorosa, by Salvador Carmona, Salamanca Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 132 - -Flagellation of Christ, by Salvador Carmona, Salamanca Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 133 - -Head of St. Paul. Valladolid Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 134 - -High Altar, Seville Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 135 - -Oratory and Screen of Isabella la Catolica, Seville] - -[Illustration: PLATE 136 - -Puerta del Perdon, Seville Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 137 - -Virgin and Child, by P. Torrigiano. Seville Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 138 - -St. Jerome, by Torrigiano. Seville Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 139 - -Statue of Faith, Top of Giralda Tower, Seville] - -[Illustration: PLATE 140 - -St. Ignatius Loyola, by Montañes. University Chapel, Seville] - -[Illustration: PLATE 141 - -St. Frances Xavier, by Montañes. University Chapel, Seville] - -[Illustration: PLATE 142 - -Our Lord Crucified, by Montañes, The Sacristy, Seville Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 143 - -The Immaculate Conception, by Montañes. University Chapel, Seville] - -[Illustration: PLATE 144 - -The Immaculate Conception, by Montañes, Seville Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 145 - -St. Bruno, by Montañes. Seville Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 146 - -Our Lady de las Cuevas and Child, by Montañes. Seville Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 147 - -St. Bruno, by Montañes, Cadiz Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 148 - -Justice, by Solis. Seville Museum] - -[Illustration: PLATE 149 - -The Conception of the Virgin, by Martinez, Seville Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 150 - -The Crucifixion, at Triana, Seville] - -[Illustration: PLATE 151 - -Our Lord, Sculpture in Wood, Hospital de la Caridad, Seville] - -[Illustration: PLATE 152 - -High Altar in the Chapel, Hospital de la Caridad, Seville] - -[Illustration: PLATE 153 - -Our Lady of Sorrows, by Luisa Roldan, Cadiz Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 154 - -Head of John the Baptist, Granada] - -[Illustration: PLATE 155 - -Head of John the Baptist, Granada] - -[Illustration: PLATE 156 - -Head of John the Baptist, Granada] - -[Illustration: PLATE 157 - -Statue of St. Bruno, in the Chartreuse de Miraflores, Burgos] - -[Illustration: PLATE 158 - -St. Bruno, by Alonso Cano, in the Cartuja, Granada] - -[Illustration: PLATE 159 - -Statue of the Magdalene, formerly in the Cartuja, Granada] - -[Illustration: PLATE 160 - -St. Francis, by Pedro de Mena, Toledo Cathedral] - -[Illustration: PLATE 161 - -The Last Supper, by Zarcello, Ermita de Jesus, Murcia] - -[Illustration: PLATE 162 - -St. Veronica, by Salcillo, Ermita de Jesus, Murcia] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[A] Pierre Paris, _Essai sur l’Art et l’industrie de l’Espagne -Primitive_, 1830-4, vol. ii. p. 308. Mr. Havelock Ellis has chosen -the Lady of Elche, on account of this symbolic character, as the -frontispiece of his illuminating book, “The Soul of Spain.” - -[B] For a fuller account of the history of polychrome sculpture we -refer the reader to M. Marcel Dieulafoy’s _La Statuaire Polychrome en -Espagne_, from which many of the facts in this chapter have been taken. - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sculpture in Spain, by Albert F. 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