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diff --git a/old/62227-0.txt b/old/62227-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b7b8023..0000000 --- a/old/62227-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5867 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Bicycling for Ladies, by Maria E. Ward - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: Bicycling for Ladies - The Common Sense of Bicycling; with Hints as to the Art of Wheeling--Advice to Beginners--Dress--Care of the Bicycle--Mechanics--Training--Exercise, etc., etc. - - -Author: Maria E. Ward - - - -Release Date: May 25, 2020 [eBook #62227] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BICYCLING FOR LADIES*** - - -E-text prepared by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -(http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 62227-h.htm or 62227-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/62227/62227-h/62227-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/62227/62227-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/commonsenseofbic00ward - - -Transcriber’s note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Small capitals have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS. - - A deetailed transcriber’s notes is at the end of the text. - - - - - -BICYCLING FOR LADIES - - -[Illustration: WHEELING FROM THE PEG--SHOWING INCLINATION OF WHEEL.] - - -The Common Sense of Bicycling - -BICYCLING FOR LADIES - -With Hints as to the Art of Wheeling--Advice -to Beginners--Dress--Care of -the Bicycle--Mechanics--Training--Exercise, -etc., etc. - -by - -MARIA E. WARD - -Illustrated - - - - - - -New York: -Brentano’S -Chicago Washington Paris - -Copyright, 1896, by -Brentano’s - - - - -BICYCLING FOR LADIES - - - - -PREFACE - - -I have found that in bicycling, as in other sports essayed by them, -women and girls bring upon themselves censure from many sources. I have -also found that this censure, though almost invariably deserved, is -called forth not so much by what they do as the way they do it. - -It is quite natural to suppose, in attempting an unaccustomed exercise, -that you have to do only what you see done and as others about you are -doing. But to attain success in bicycling, as in other things, it is -necessary to study the means as well as to look to the end to be -attained, and to understand what must not be attempted as well as to -know each step that will be an advance on the road to progress. - -A great deal has been said against attempting to study a little of -anything; but when a slight knowledge of several important branches of -science that bear directly upon a subject under consideration, and that -a subject concerning the health and safety of many individuals, will -render one intelligently self-dependent, and able at least to exercise -without endangering one’s own health or the lives of others, the -acquisition of such knowledge should not be neglected. - -There are laws of mechanics and of physiology that directly concern the -cyclist; it has been the author’s aim to point out these laws, showing, -for instance, the possible dangers of exercise, and how they may be -avoided by the application to bicycle exercise of simple and well-known -physiological laws, thus enabling the cyclist to resist fatigue and -avoid over-exertion. The needs of the bicyclist are an intelligent -comprehension of the bicycle as a machine, an appreciative knowledge of -the human machine that propels it, and a realization of the fact that -rider and bicycle should form one combined mechanism. For this, a -knowledge of the laws that determine the limits and possibilities of -both mechanisms is necessary. The cyclist is limited, not only by laws -physiological and laws mechanical, which determine when and for how long -he may travel, but he is restricted by the laws and ordinances of -county, town and village as to how and where he may travel. A knowledge -of these laws is also necessary. - -While not attempting to treat any of these subjects exhaustively, the -author has endeavored to place them comprehensively before her readers, -hoping to prepare the enthusiast to enjoy all the delights of the sport, -to encourage the timid, and to assist the inexperienced to define and -determine existing limitations. The subject of the care of the bicycle -has been carefully treated, some of the means at hand suggested, and -the necessary tools, and their uses explained. Other topics considered -are how the bicycle is propelled, and why it maintains its balance; what -the cyclist should learn, how correct form may be attained and faults -avoided, and what should be the essential features of the clothing worn. - -The author wishes to acknowledge indebtedness to Dr. Legrange, and to -Messrs. D. Appleton & Co. for their permission to quote from “Physiology -of Bodily Exercise.” - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - PAGE. - - _CHAPTER I._ - POSSIBILITIES 1 - - _CHAPTER II._ - WHAT THE BICYCLE DOES 8 - - _CHAPTER III._ - ON WHEELS IN GENERAL AND BICYCLES IN PARTICULAR 14 - - _CHAPTER IV._ - FOR BEGINNERS 22 - - _CHAPTER V._ - HOW TO MAKE PROGRESS 29 - - _CHAPTER VI._ - HELPING AND TEACHING; WHAT TO LEARN 37 - - _CHAPTER VII._ - A FEW THINGS TO REMEMBER 47 - - _CHAPTER VIII._ - THE ART OF WHEELING ON A BICYCLE 56 - - _CHAPTER IX._ - POSITION AND POWER 71 - - _CHAPTER X._ - DIFFICULTIES TO OVERCOME 82 - - _CHAPTER XI._ - DRESS 93 - - _CHAPTER XII._ - WATCH AND CYCLOMETER 100 - - _CHAPTER XIII._ - WOMEN AND TOOLS 112 - - _CHAPTER XIV._ - TOOLS AND HOW TO USE THEM 118 - - _CHAPTER XV._ - SOLVING A PROBLEM 125 - - _CHAPTER XVI._ - WHERE TO KEEP A BICYCLE 138 - - _CHAPTER XVII._ - TIRES 145 - - _CHAPTER XVIII._ - MECHANICS OF BICYCLING 156 - - _CHAPTER XIX._ - ADJUSTMENT 164 - - _CHAPTER XX._ - EXERCISE 170 - - _CHAPTER XXI._ - TRAINING 175 - - _CHAPTER XXII._ - BREATHLESSNESS; THE LIMIT MECHANICAL 189 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - 1. WHEELING FROM THE PEG--SHOWING INCLINATION OF WHEEL _Frontispiece_ - - 2. CORRECT POSITION--LEANING WITH THE WHEEL _Opposite Page_ 22 - - 3. INCORRECT POSITION--LEANING AGAINST THE - INCLINATION „ „ 24 - - 4. PROPER WAY TO STAND A BICYCLE „ „ 30 - - 5. CARRYING THE BICYCLE „ „ 32 - - 6. PICKING UP A BICYCLE „ „ 34 - - 7. LEADING A BICYCLE ABOUT „ „ 38 - - 8. PREPARING TO DISMOUNT „ „ 40 - - 9. DISMOUNTING „ „ 42 - - 10. CORRECT PEDALING „ „ 56 - - 11. FOLLOWING PEDAL „ „ 58 - - 12. LIFTING „ „ 60 - - 13. BACK PEDALING „ „ 62 - - 14. BACK PEDALING--SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF - WEIGHT „ „ 64 - - 15. HILL-CLIMBING--PUSHING CRANK OVER „ „ 66 - - 16. COASTING „ „ 72 - - 17. WHEELING ONE FOOT OVER „ „ 74 - - 18. WHEELING FROM THE PEG--SHOWING DISTRIBUTION - OF WEIGHT „ „ 76 - - 19. PREPARING TO MOUNT--SHOWING INCLINATION „ „ 82 - - 20. INCORRECT MOUNTING POSITION „ „ 84 - - 21. MOUNTING--PREPARATORY POSITION „ „ 86 - - 22. CORRECT MOUNTING POSITION „ „ 88 - - 23. MOUNTING--SECOND POSITION „ „ 90 - - 24. DISMOUNTING OVER THE WHEEL „ „ 92 - - 25. MOUNTING OVER THE WHEEL FROM PEG „ „ 94 - - 26. STARTING A NUT „ „ 112 - - 27. ADJUSTING A WRENCH „ „ 116 - - 28. APPLYING POWER „ „ 118 - - 29. SCREWING UP „ „ 120 - - 30. UNSCREWING „ „ 122 - - 31. PREPARING TO TURN BICYCLE OVER „ „ 126 - - 32. TURNING THE BICYCLE OVER „ „ 128 - - 33. THE BICYCLE TURNED OVER „ „ 130 - - 34. STRAIGHTENING THE HANDLE-BARS „ „ 136 - - - - -BICYCLING FOR LADIES. - - - - -_CHAPTER I._ - -_Possibilities._ - - -Bicycling is a modern sport, offering infinite variety and opportunity. -As an exercise, at present unparalleled, it accomplishes much with -comparatively little expenditure of effort; as a relaxation, it has many -desirable features; and its limitless possibilities, its future of -usefulness, and the effect of its application to modern economic and -social conditions, present a wide field for speculation. - -Bicycling possesses many advantages, and is within the reach of nearly -all. For the athlete and the sportsman, it opens up new worlds; for the -family it solves problems; for the tired and hurried worker, it has many -possibilities. The benefits to be derived from the exercise cannot be -over-estimated and the dangers that result from over-doing are -correspondingly great; for it is easy to over-exert when exhilarated -with exercise and unconscious of fatigue. - -It is but recently that the bicycle has become a perfected mechanism, -adaptable to general usage, simple and scientific. The railroad makes -possible direct and rapid communication between widely separated -localities. The usefulness of the bicycle begins where that of the -railroad ceases, for it connects and opens districts of country that the -railroad has not reached; indeed, it is to the bicycle in connection -with the railroads with which the country is gridironed that we must -look to make possible the enjoyment of much that is beautiful and -valuable, but otherwise inaccessible. To the naturalist, the traveller, -and the intelligent observer, cycling offers advantages which are -limited only by time and opportunity. - -Bicycling has been adapted to serve many purposes; but it is bicycling -as an athletic exercise and sport, with the bicycle propelled by human -power only, that we shall now consider. The history of the bicycle is -modern. The study of its evolution shows the development of a great -industry, constantly introducing and applying improvements; most -important of these was the pneumatic tire, which made bicycling -universally possible. - -Getting under way for even a short cruise awheel has some of the -features familiar to the yachtsman. To the skater, the motion is not -unlike the rapid, swaying movement on the ice, the silence and the rush -of succeeding strokes. To the horseman, the dissimilarity of the two -modes of locomotion, after the settling to work has been accomplished, -is very striking. For the uninitiated and for some others, bicycling -does not possess attractions. The bicycle is a familiar object, not -compelling a second thought. One reason for this is that it is not -really brought to the intelligent notice of the casual passer. The -cyclist, to the stationary observer or the comparatively stationary -pedestrian, is such a fleeting instantaneosity that, unless thrown among -enthusiasts over the sport, few of the unenlightened would be tempted to -try it; for they are as unappreciative of what the wheel means to the -cyclist as is the countryman, who lives near a railway, of the -intricacies of commerce which are indicated by the flying mail. - -To the lover of out-door life the bicycle presents a succession of -wonderful possibilities. Much has been written of canoe-trips and of the -charms of cruising among our inland waters; as charming and as -attractive is land travel on the wheel. Bicycling, moreover, combines -the best features of many other sports with advantages peculiar to it, -for instance, the cyclist must work, and there is much pleasure in -watching progress made with so little effort--the work all his own, the -machine but a means of locomotion--enjoying and appreciating all the -beauties of the country traversed, while yet conscious of the power to -hasten away as soon as the surroundings cease to interest or amuse. By -the scientist and the naturalist, no encouragement is needed; the -bicycle at once compels their attention. The lover of horses may fear -that this new mode of locomotion may interfere with his sport--the same -objection that was advanced against the introduction of the steam -engine. But the bicycle does not displace; it is rather a link in the -chain connecting driving and railroading. Bicycling, furthermore, means -good roads, not as a luxury, but as a necessity, for it is impossible -without them. Rough country may be crossed, but the bicycle must be -pushed or carried across it, and this is not practicable for any -considerable distance. - -The bicycle, though a simple machine, is a complicated mechanism -simplified. The principle that keeps it from falling is a well-known -one--that of the gyroscope, the only known mechanism that overcomes -gravity. - -The bicycle has its limits, determined by the powers of its rider and -the surface ridden over. The motion is unquestionably fascinating after -the control of the machine is acquired; and there is an accompanying -exhilaration that is peculiar to the sport, and always something to -conquer, something to accomplish, besides the direct benefit to be -derived from the exercise. - -There is a great variety of methods of bicycling, whether for exercise, -transportation or travel. In travelling, the country all about soon -becomes, as it were, your own domain. Instead of a few squares, you know -several towns; instead of an acquaintance with the country for a few -miles about, you can claim familiarity with two or three counties; an -all-day expedition is reduced to a matter of a couple of hours; and -unless a break-down occurs, you are at all times independent. This -absolute freedom of the cyclist can be known only to the initiated, and -as proficiency is acquired, it becomes a most attractive feature of the -sport. - -There is bicycling weather, as there is skating weather, yachting -weather, or weather favorable for any out-door sport or exercise. But it -is easy to wait for bicycling weather, and nothing has to make way for -it. The machine is always ready, and that is all that is needed if a -suitable country is accessible. On the road the bicyclist is rendered -independent of assistance, for everything needful is prepared for him, -and parts and repair supplies can be carried and need but little room. -Only inattention or carelessness should cause delay. Still, proper -preparation is essential to enjoy bicycling at its best, and the -bicyclist should be ready to meet any emergency. - -That there is necessarily the element of sociability about cycling is -evident. There are so many stops, and the dusty wheelmen grouped among -their wheels at the roadside have always the bond of a common interest; -from this, transition to individual fads and fancies is easy; there is -constant opportunity for acquiring special knowledge and for using it; -and almost every accomplishment is appreciated in addition to capability -as a bicyclist, and may be utilized in a variety of ways; cheerfulness -is an invariable factor; and there is always novelty and the possibility -of excitement, for it is unusual, on a bicycle trip, that everything -happens as it is expected or has been planned for. - -Too much cannot be said of the benefits to be derived from out-door -exercise; and one of the best features of bicycling is that it brings so -many to enjoy out-door life who would otherwise have little of either -fresh air or exercise. Proper oxidation is necessary to perfect health. -The great danger that these would-be bicyclists must face is -unfamiliarity with exercise, either general or special. Persons -accustomed to athletic exercise know how to prepare for and how to -resist fatigue, know what practice means and how proficiency may be -attained. The bicyclist unaccustomed to athletics has all this to learn, -and more; to him, ultimate success means more time given to study and -less time to practice. The novice, however, has the advantage that he -has nothing to unlearn, and can profit by the experience of others. - -To accomplish the best results, the human machine must not be -overworked; and to stop work at the right moment is one of the hardest -things to learn, and the most important to success. To learn the -construction of a bicycle, the particular duties of all the parts and -their adjustment, is a matter of memory and observation. To understand -the adjustment of the human machine to mechanical environment requires -cultivated perception and special knowledge. But the human machine is so -independently adaptable, so hard to put out of order, that it may be -cared for by intelligent attention to only a few simple laws. Do not -wait for danger signals: know how to avoid them. - -Bicycling opens a delightful future to all who attempt it intelligently. -The inspiration of the enthusiast is invaluable; but it is the practical -theorist who is successful. - -A bright, sunny morning, fresh and cool; good roads and a dry -atmosphere; a beautiful country before you, all your own to see and to -enjoy; a properly adjusted wheel awaiting you,--what more delightful -than to mount and speed away, the whirr of the wheels, the soft grit of -the tire, an occasional chain-clank the only sounds added to the chorus -of the morning, as, the pace attained, the road stretches away before -you! - - - - -_CHAPTER II._ - -_What the Bicycle Does._ - - -The bicycle has been evolved--a mechanism, propelled solely by human -power, capable of quadrupling the distance traversable by the -pedestrian. - -The simple, light, and almost universally accepted machine is -constructed to stand a strain tremendous in proportion to its weight; -for the modern machine weighs only twenty pounds, and it may be lighter, -though for some purposes it should be heavier. The bicyclist is -virtually mounted on a set of casters, which propels the weight with -much greater ease than can be attained in the act of walking. In -walking, advantage is taken of the force of gravity by continually -falling forward, and simultaneously placing the feet, with a regular -motion, one beyond the other, to alternately receive the weight of the -body. On the bicycle, the weight is carried and supported, and the -wheels reduce friction to a minimum. - -The wheel being set in motion, power is applied to overcome inertia, and -speed is increased by multiplying the number of the wheel’s revolutions; -the application of the gyroscope principle assists materially, and the -resistance of gravity is overcome in a degree while the wheels are -rapidly revolving. - -To set a bicycle in motion requires the expenditure of considerable -power. A given rate of speed on the level may be maintained by a minimum -expenditure of power. Bodies or masses set in motion maintain their -velocity undiminished unless other forces intervene. The bicycle in -motion is resisted on the level by air pressure and friction, on the -roadway by friction, and by the incidental obstacles of the road. On an -ascending plane, it must overcome the additional resistance of its own -and its rider’s weight, which must be lifted constantly; on a descending -plane, it must oppose a constantly lessening resistance. All this -resistance and lack of resistance means a proportionate stress laid upon -the bicycle, the wheels of which are all the while kept rapidly -revolving, the large wheels moving much faster than the cranks and -pedals. - -Each separate part of a bicycle must be made capable of withstanding a -certain wear and strain, and must perform its own particular duties and -work in conjunction with all other parts of the machine. To this end, it -has been studied, perfected, tested; its weight and tensile strength -calculated to a nicety; its finish and adjustment made matters of deep -thought and careful investigation. - -Only the best can be made to do in bicycle manufacture; each piece of -metal must be separately tested, and the maximum of strength with the -minimum of weight must be attained. What is known as the safety factor -enters largely into the construction of the modern bicycle; that is, -the machine is made much stronger than is necessary for the strain it is -expected to withstand; this added strength involving of course the added -weight of the material which supplies it. The calculated strength of a -machine is the strength which fits it adequately to perform its work. -When, as in the bicycle, the accurate testing by skilled workmen proves -the existence of this degree of strength, the safety factor meanwhile -being reduced to the lowest possible limit, the product is the perfected -result of the highest degree of skill. Each part is tested for so many -pounds strain or tension or compression, and each strain is accurately -figured for each particular part; each part, moreover, must be able to -stand so much additional strain, more than it is ever likely to have -thrown upon it, though no bicycle is built to withstand the shock of -collision under speed. In case of collision, the older, heavy bicycle -was not smashed into fragments, as is the modern twenty-pounder. -Something would give way, perhaps; it might break in several places. The -light modern wheel holds together or is crushed to pieces, though its -rider is less likely to suffer serious injury, the lighter construction -having less power to do damage than the cumbrous wheel of fifty or sixty -pounds weight. - -The cost of a well-made bicycle, of perfect workmanship and finish, -represents the amount of skilled labor required to construct it rather -than the value of the raw material, although, when it is remembered that -each part must be tough, hard, strong and elastic, it will be apparent -that only the best of material can be used. - -Wheels can be made at a very low cost; but such wheels cannot be -correctly adjusted and tested without the additional cost of skilled -labor. For the production of a perfect bicycle, the machine of tested -strength, simplicity of detail, and beauty of finish, the most accurate -workmanship as well as the best material is necessary. A machine or a -tool should always be the best of its kind, and it pays to take care of -it. A bicycle requires as nice and accurate adjustment as a watch, and -like a watch, with regular attention afterwards, will run steadily and -smoothly. A bicycle, moreover, as much or more than a watch, is -individual property, and each individual wants the best. - -Our physical powers have been tested in certain directions; in walking, -for instance, we know what we can do, how far we can go, how much it is -wise to attempt. The bicycle appeals to us as a means of swift -locomotion attained without other force than our own powers four or five -times multiplied by mechanical processes. The bicycle enables one to do, -to prove one’s powers; it puts one in conceit with one’s self. When one -is not a pedestrian, does not care for equestrian pleasures--and, -indeed, in the majority of cases, there is little to compel attention to -these means of recreation--the bicycle offers the opportunity to find -the limit of one’s powers in a new field. It supplies, too, a new -pleasure--the pleasure of going where one wills, because one wills. The -attention has only to be directed, and the wheel, responsive to touch -or thought, moves in unison with the rider’s will, flitting hither and -thither, that he may enjoy the freshness of nature and the ever-changing -beauty of clouds and sky, of sunshine and shadow, of meadow and sea, -lake and river, mountain and forest. - -Riding the wheel, our own powers are revealed to us, a new sense is -seemingly created. The unobserving are gradually awakened, and the keen -observer is thrilled with quick and rare delight. The system is -invigorated, the spirit is refreshed, the mind, freed from care, swept -of dusty cobwebs, is filled with new and beautiful impressions. You have -conquered a new world, and exultingly you take possession of it. - -Travelling by vehicle or by any public conveyance, the sense of -individual responsibility is reduced to the minimum; it is indeed no -appreciable factor. You pay so much to be taken up and set down, so much -for a reasonable amount of safety, comfort, and convenience. Mounted on -a wheel, you feel at once the keenest sense of responsibility. You are -there to do as you will within reasonable limits; you are continually -being called upon to judge and to determine points that before have not -needed your consideration, and consequently you become alert, active, -quick-sighted, and keenly alive as well to the rights of others as to -what is due yourself. You are responsible to yourself for yourself; you -are responsible to the public for yourself; and you are responsible to -the public for the rights of others. The upholding of laws and -ordinances, the general welfare, public health and safety--problems -never before, perhaps, called to your attention--come up one by one for -consideration. In short, individual duty, recognition of the rights of -others, consideration of means for the proper enforcing of laws, all are -suggested to the awakening mind of the bicyclist. The bicycle is an -educational factor, subtle and far-reaching, creating the desire for -progress, the preference for what is better, the striving for the best, -broadening the intelligence and intensifying love of home and country. -For all that is beautiful is ours--ours to protect and to cherish. - -To the many who earnestly wish to be actively at work in the world, the -opportunity has come; they need but to come face to face with it to -solve this problem of something to conquer, something to achieve. - - - - -_CHAPTER III._ - -_On Wheels in General and Bicycles in Particular._ - - -The form of the wheel is very ancient, its construction modern, even -recent. Its evolution has been gradual. First came the round stick or -roller, placed beneath a weight; then a roller with its central portion -shaped and thinned to lessen friction; then two disk-shaped sections of -a log, connected by a bar upon which they revolved, replaced the clumsy -stick. - -Each wheel or disk then began to receive separate attention. There was -the wear on the edge or rim to be considered, and it was found that if -its surface were protected, the disk would last indefinitely longer. -Then it was noticed that the hole in the centre of the disk wore -unevenly, and it was reinforced, and the hub began to take form. When -the rim was strong and the central portion of the wheel remained intact, -the disk was found to be heavier and stronger than it need to be to -support the outer portion of the wheel. Some of the useless heavy part -was removed, and the disk pierced with holes to make it lighter; then -these holes were shaped between the remaining portions, which took the -form of pillars or spokes. A pillar would break, and be replaced by a -rounded stick; and thus, perhaps, the rude idea took form of -constructing a wheel out of several pieces, for the sake of securing -economy, durability, and lightness. - -A wheel, then, was well constructed, with a large, heavy piece in the -centre to stand friction and bear weight, and with the rim made of -several pieces, each piece supported on a spoke, and all held together -by a band called a tire. In the course of time the hub became heavier, -the spokes thinner, the rim stronger and lighter, and the tire narrower. -The bar connecting two wheels was made very strong, with smooth ends for -the wheels to revolve easily upon. Pins were driven into holes in the -projecting ends of the axle, or bar, and later the pins replaced by -knobs, or nuts. Then the wheels were brought closer together, and found -to run more easily; and the tire, cutting too deep into soft surfaces, -was widened. Attention, moreover, was paid to the roadway, very bad -places being filled and smoothed. - -A wheel is defined as “a circular frame turning on an axle”; an axle as -“a shaft or rod, either solid or hollow, on which a wheel is placed.” -The first bicycle wheels were constructed like carriage wheels, the -limit of that method of construction arrived at. The rim was supported -on the spokes, which rested on the hub. The minimum definite quantity of -material was ascertained, but the wheel was still too heavy and bulky. -If the weight of material was lessened, however, it would fall to -pieces. - -The bicycle wheel of to-day is a compound mechanism constructed on -reverse principles. The wheel is made on the principle of suspension, an -inverted application of weight and thrust. The hub is hung from the -rim, and the axle supported in that way. Each bicycle wheel is really -two wheels, graceful in form, with but one rim, and with two hubs, one -on either end of a short axle, the spokes being drawn to a common rim, -and made stiff enough to carry weight, and elastic enough to withstand -shock. The rim or frame is elastic and durable. To this rim many wire -spokes are fastened, and the hubs for each wheel are centred and hung -from them. The hubs and axle are wider than the rim of the wheel, and -the spokes are fastened alternately to either end, thus giving a tangent -strain which stiffens the wheel and gives it strength. The tire is a -separate construction, possessing several individual features. The only -office of the old tire was to protect the rim of the wheel from wear; -the pneumatic tire protects the rim, presents a good friction surface, -and is enabled by its elasticity to take the shock and jar of the entire -bicycle. - -In order that the wheel may turn, the axle must be lubricated; otherwise -the inside of the hub will become hot, and wear the face of the axle a -little rough. The surfaces then cannot pass, but remain fixed and -immovable, and the wheel cannot turn. The introduction of a third -material of a different consistency between the revolving surfaces -prevents their wearing against each other, and the lubricant is rubbed -and rubbed again; there is so little of the lubricant that it does not -accumulate sufficiently to cause resistance, and the moving surfaces -slip smoothly over each other. - -The axle of a modern bicycle wheel is compound, and although there are -two ends to the axle, there is but one rim to the wheel. The rim carries -all the weight distributed from many points at once; the weights resist -each other, and give strength and stiffness. The axle really carries -double, two wheels with but one rim; and each end of the axle is -supported at so many points that it possesses great weight-carrying -power in proportion to the weight of material used in its construction. -The weight of the frame is supported on the axles of the rear and front -wheels. Of its construction it is sufficient to say that the weight is -taken up on the thrust principle and that wherever a point of support -for the thrust is located, the frame is strengthened to support and -resist the thrust. - -By a mechanical application of power, the power of the pressure of the -foot on the pedal is multiplied, one revolution of the pedal crank -causing the rear wheel to revolve a number of times. In the chain gear -the mechanical means is a large wheel on the axle to which the pedal -cranks are attached, and a smaller wheel on the axle of the rear wheel. -There are teeth on both these wheels, the large wheel having the greater -number. The band or chain passing over the large sprocket-wheel has -links which engage each tooth of the wheel as the chain passes over it, -and as that wheel revolves, it pulls the chain over, link by link. - -The small wheel is also provided with teeth, and every time the large -sprocket-wheel is turned, if only a little way, it pulls the chain link -by link, and the chain link by link pulls the rear wheel tooth by -tooth. The small sprocket-wheel revolves as the chain pulls it, -revolving oftener than the large wheel to keep count with it tooth for -tooth. The number of teeth on the sprocket-wheels determines the -multiplicity of revolutions of the rear wheel. - -The rear wheel revolves very rapidly, in the process becoming virtually -a gyroscope; and a gyroscope will maintain the plane in which it -revolves unless other forces intervene. The front wheel takes its motion -from the friction of the surface over which it is propelled, and after -the bicycle is in motion, the forces that are applied to control and -direct its movement are friction and resistance. After the cyclist is -mounted, there is the added complication of a constantly shifting centre -of gravity, caused by change of balance. The steering is effected by -changing the direction of the front wheel, the rear wheel being enabled -to follow by a slight slipping over the wheeling surface. If the change -of direction is too abrupt, the rear wheel will slip enough to lose its -hold on the surface, and the weight of the rider will be suddenly -shifted from above the point of support (the axle of the rear wheel) to -the top of the rim of the wheel, thus becoming a lever with the weight -on the end of the long arm, and the bicycle falls over. - -As the wheels revolve, there is a constant pull on tire and rim. Just as -the chain is pulled over the sprocket-wheels, the tire is pulled by -friction over the surface ridden on. If this surface affords the tire no -hold, it is impossible for the wheel to advance, as on a muddy surface. -The crank may impart a motion to the wheel, but this motion will not -enable the wheel to maintain its place; or if, in overcoming the cranks -at the dead centre, too much weight is applied to one side of the wheel, -the same thing occurs, and the wheel falls over. There are a number of -mechanical means for conveying the motion of the foot to the wheel of -the bicycle to cause the wheels to revolve. - -There are many ways of constructing a frame, and different designs and -patterns of fittings for different parts; but the main idea of the -bicycle does not change--a fixed wheel to which motion is imparted, and -a movable or guiding wheel, independent of the power wheel, and -revolving only because the machine is pushed or pulled forward. This -second wheel gives stability, and supports the wheel at a movable point. - -We have, therefore, a wheel which supports a frame and the weight it -carries. The frame is supported on two wheels, one end of the frame -taking the weight, and that end supported on one wheel. The second wheel -merely supports one end of the frame. If the frame were attached at one -end directly and rigidly to the second wheel, the weight carrying wheel -would move in the same plane with it. A child’s two-wheeled cart will -illustrate this. While moving forward in a straight line, the child is -safe until one or both of the wheels begin to travel in a rut, when the -rigid handle or tongue of the cart resists the guiding power, and the -child is pulled or thrown over. If the tongue or frame of the wagon is -allowed play, as it is called, say by being held easily in the hand, the -pole may be guided. The supported end of the frame of the bicycle -corresponds to the pole or tongue of the cart. - -Now, the wheel is made to steer in this way: We have the rigid forks, -and a wheel to support them. The forks hold the wheel in the same plane -as themselves, but the top part of each fork, instead of being fastened -immovably to the frame, passes up through a bearing-head prepared for it -in the frame. The wheel is supported, but it can now maintain a separate -plane, and as the post of the forks changes its direction, it pulls the -frame with it as it advances; and so the controlling or steering power -is transferred. - -The weight-bearing wheel is led and directed; part of its power is -transferred by thrust or push to the front wheel, and as the steering -wheel is pushed over the surface, it revolves. As it revolves, part of -its power is diverted by the movable head, and as the head is held and -controlled by the rider, any desired direction may be imparted to the -entire machine. - -A bicycle may have either a diamond frame or a drop frame. The drop -frame is made to facilitate mounting and to permit the adjustment of a -woman’s dress. The diamond frame possesses great strength, and can be -lightened to a wonderful degree without injury to the thrust and -strain-bearing quality of its construction. - -A form of triangle is made use of to carry the greatest weight and bear -the greatest strain. This triangle is supported on the rear wheel, and -has part of the frame attached to it to connect it with the -steering-wheel. The steering-wheel is provided with handles by which it -may be controlled. The weight of the rider is carried over the power -wheel, and the propelling power, a lever movement, is imparted by the -foot. - -From this description an idea may be formed of how and why a bicycle -works; but the details of its mechanism are of endless variety of form -and pattern, material and workmanship. Each small part, its form, its -use, its angles of surface, its every detail indeed, is the product of -the work of many minds for many years. And though the bicycle was looked -for, and hoped for, and worked for, its general acceptance came -suddenly, and came only when it had been built light enough and strong -enough and elastic enough to warrant confidence in its universal usage. - - - - -_CHAPTER IV._ - -_For Beginners._ - - -Mount and away! How easy it seems. To the novice it is not as easy as it -looks, yet everyone, or almost everyone, can learn to ride, though there -are different ways of going about it. Unless the beginner is one of -those fortunate beings who mount, and as it were, wheel at sight, little -need be said about instruction at this stage of proceedings if a bicycle -school is within reach. A few suggestions may be desirable, however, -even with a competent instructor. - -Nothing more quickly exhausts one’s strength than the first few minutes -with a bicycle. This is due to the fact that many unused muscles are -called upon to do unaccustomed work and to work together in new -combinations; and the effort required and the accompanying nervous -excitement produce a sudden and apparently unaccountable fatigue. Normal -conditions can be restored by resting long enough to allow repair of the -wasted tissues. It is well to stop when a little tired, rather than to -persist and finish the lesson, even if extra lessons are necessary to -make up for lost time. No one can really learn anything when tired, and -it is unwise to attempt it. In this matter no one else can judge for -you. - -[Illustration: CORRECT POSITION--LEANING WITH THE WHEEL.] - -What a horrible moment it is when first mounted on a bicycle, a mere -machine, a thing quite beyond your control, and unable even to stand by -itself. But it is impossible to tell without trying whether or not you -can manage a bicycle. Make the experiment, therefore, and find out. Any -competent teacher will guarantee success, and after the first five -minutes on the bicycle can tell how long it will take you to learn. The -time varies with the individual; the period of instruction may last for -five minutes or for six months, without counting extra lessons for fancy -wheeling. - -Don’t try to get the better of your wheel. You cannot teach it anything, -and there is really much for you to learn. - -_What to keep in mind when taking your lesson._--Attend to the bicycle -and to nothing else. Don’t attempt to talk, and look well ahead of the -machine, certainly not less than twenty feet. Remember that the bicycle -will go wherever the attention is directed. - -In sitting upon the wheel, the spinal column should maintain the same -vertical plane that the rear wheel does, and should not bend laterally -to balance in the usual manner. A new balance must be acquired, and -other muscular combinations than those that are familiarly called upon. -To wheel by rule is the better plan until the natural balance of the -bicyclist is developed. Sit erect and sit still. - -The bicycle must be kept from falling by a wiggling movement of the -front wheel, conveyed by means of the handle-bar. When moving, the -rapidly revolving wheels maintain the vertical plane by rotation, with -but little assistance or correction from the handle-bars. - -It is a good plan, while the instructor assists you, to pedal with one -foot at a time, holding the other foot free. This will enable you to -determine the amount of pressure it is necessary to exert to cause the -wheels to revolve. - -When both feet are on the pedals, they oppose each other. The weight -should be lifted from the ascending pedal, or else the descending foot -must push the other foot up until that foot is in position to exert a -downward pressure. This instruction applies to forward pedaling only; -for back pedaling or backing, the movement should be reversed. Practise -pushing first with one foot and then with the other, taking the weight -off the opposite pedal in each case. At each push of the pedal, a little -pull on the handle-bars, pulling with the hand on the same side on which -you are pushing with the foot, will keep the wheel from falling. Look -well ahead. The bicycle covers the ground very rapidly, and the eye does -not at first receive impressions quickly enough to enable you to know -where to look and what to look for. - -As soon as your teacher will allow it, take the wheel for a little walk. -This may seem rather an absurd proceeding, but it will assist you -greatly in learning the feel and tendencies of the machine. Lead the -bicycle about carefully, holding the handles with both hands and -avoiding the revolving pedals. Learn to stand it up, to turn it quickly, -and to back it in a limited space. - -[Illustration: INCORRECT POSITION--LEANING AGAINST THE INCLINATION] - -The machine heretofore has been arranged for you. Now you can begin to -think how you would like to have it adjusted. You will, perhaps, find -fault with the saddle. The saddle is a very important adjunct, and much -depends upon its proper adjustment. A large, soft saddle is usually -preferred by the beginner, and perhaps this is a good kind to learn to -balance on; but it is a very poor kind to wheel on, for many reasons. - -At first, in practising pedaling, the height of the saddle should permit -the hollow of the foot to rest firmly on the pedal when the pedal is -lowest. The ball of the foot only should press on the pedal. The foot -should be made to follow the pedal as early as possible. Point the toe -downward on the last half of the down stroke, and keep pointing it until -the pedal is at its lowest, following the pedal with the foot, and -pointing downward until the pedal is half way on the up stroke. This -carries the crank past the dead centre. To acquire a proper method, -attention should be directed to each foot alternately. - -To learn to balance, have the saddle raised as high as possible, so that -the ball of the foot just touches the pedal at its lowest. Practise -wheeling in this way, with an instructor, or alone on a smooth surface -where you are sure to be undisturbed. - -The hands naturally take a position where it is easy to grasp the -handles of the handle-bars. The handle-bar conveys two principal -movements to the first wheel--a short wiggling movement and a long or -steering sweep. The handle-bars also assist in maintaining the seat at -first. - -The beginner usually exerts too much pressure on the pedals, and has to -pull correspondingly hard on the handles to correct the falling tendency -of the machine. This is very hard work, and stiff arms and shoulders and -blistered hands may be often thus accounted for; they are the result of -badly balanced pedaling. To be able to sit comfortably at work, and to -feel that it is not so hard after all, is a great advance. - -Now, the question of that other foot. By this time which “the other -foot” is will have become quite evident; it is always the foot to which -attention for the moment is not directed, and which consequently may -meet unexpected disaster--a lost pedal, perhaps, with its accompanying -inconveniences. - -Downward pressure with the foot is easily acquired and needs little -effort. To take the pressure off the ascending pedal at the right moment -is a more difficult matter. Usually considerable practice in cycling is -necessary before the unused lifting muscles are strengthened -sufficiently by exercise to permit them to do their work easily. - -There is a third movement of the handle-bars--a quick twist in the -direction the machine is leaning if about to fall; it is made suddenly, -and brings the wheel back to its original position. If the wheel were -stationary, and the front wheel were turned, the bicycle would fall in -an opposite direction from the front wheel. If the wheel is about to -fall, it can be prevented from doing so by throwing the balance the -other way by means of the handle-bars. A similar result is accomplished -by wiggling the front wheel, and when a bicycle is moving very slowly, a -continuous wiggle--changing the balance as the machine inclines from -side to side--is necessary to keep it upright. - -The body should incline with the rear wheel and maintain the same plane -with it, becoming as much as possible a part of the wheel, as though -united by a straight bar going from the base of the tire to the top of -the head. - -The rear wheel and all the weight that it carries is governed by the -front wheel and controlled by means of the handle-bars. The rear wheel -supporting all the rider’s weight, the power is applied to that wheel. -The front wheel serves only for balance and steering. - -It is not necessary to provide a complete outfit to take the first -lesson. If you possess a pair of knickerbockers, so much the better. -Wear an old dress, easy shoes and gloves, and a hat that will stay on -under any conditions. The clothing should be as loose as possible about -the waist. Wear flannels, and no tight bands of any kind or anything -elastic. As respiration is increased by the exercise, the clothing -should be loose enough to allow of a long deep breath, drawn easily, -taken by expanding the chest at the lower ribs to fill the lungs. This -precaution being taken, giddiness and short-windedness can result only -from over-exercise. Ten or fifteen minutes’ practise is enough at first; -and a half hour’s lesson later, with several stops for rest, is the -best rule for many people, particularly those unaccustomed to active -exercise. - -If you are an equestrian, you will meet with many unexpected problems. -The bicycle will do nothing for you, and the lack of horse-sense must be -supplied by your own intelligence. It is well, when learning, to remove -all bicycle accessories. They are only in the way, and add weight and -distract the attention. The propelling of the bicycle--that is the one -idea to keep in mind. Make the machine go; shove it along. Never mind if -you are not quite comfortable or at ease at first. Sit on your saddle -and stay there. Do not try to balance the machine. Lean the way the -machine inclines, not away from it, as it will be your first impulse to -do. The bicycle is not to be fought against; it is to be propelled and -controlled; and the art is not difficult to acquire. - -Avoid starting a bicycle on a down grade when you are learning. For on a -slight, even an almost imperceptible incline, the cycler must -back-pedal; but the beginner wishes to propel the bicycle, and for that -purpose must use an altogether different muscular combination. - - - - -_CHAPTER V._ - -_How to Make Progress._ - - -You have learned to wheel a bicycle,--have had some lessons, can take -the machine and mount it, wheel a little way, and fall off; or can wheel -for some time without a dismount, but feel utterly exhausted after a -short spin. You have accomplished what you attempted,--you can wheel a -bicycle; but you feel dissatisfied. You have tried to ride with friends, -perhaps, and have had to give it up; yet you feel that you should be -able to do what others have done and are doing all the time. It is very -discouraging. - -What you should have now is a suitable and comfortable wheeling outfit. -You perhaps have a bicycle of your own; if not, a good wheel may be -hired reasonably. The matter of dress is now all-important, and a -costume suitable for cycling should be selected; it is impossible to do -good work or to practise comfortably unless you are properly dressed. - -Choose for a practice ride a pleasant day, with little or no wind, and -neither too hot nor too cold. The atmospheric conditions are an -important factor in bicycling; indeed, beginners are often discouraged -by external conditions which really have nothing to do with their -mastery of the machine. Take the bicycle out on a smooth road, where you -may have two or three miles free from traffic, and as level as possible. -If the road is muddy or slippery, wait for the proper conditions. Unless -the surface is smooth and dry, it is better to take the bicycle back -without attempting to mount it. If two or three miles of good road are -not accessible, a quarter-mile stretch or even less will serve. Select a -good pathway, however short. - -See that the wheel is adjusted to suit you; the saddle of a comfortable -height, certainly not too high; the handle-bars convenient to grasp. -Assure yourself that all the nuts are secure, the saddle and handle-bars -firm. Spin the pedals to see that they revolve easily. Make up your mind -before mounting how far you want to go; mount the machine, wheel it for -this distance, and dismount. Do not try to look about while wheeling. -Give your whole attention to the bicycle and keep your eyes fixed in the -direction you are travelling. Avoid hollows and cart-ruts, though these -should not occur if the locality for practice is well chosen. If an -unexpected hollow or hump should be encountered, hold hard to the -handle-bars and press firmly on the pedals, rising at the same time a -little from the saddle. The pedals are most important parts, the -controlling power being centred in them. If there is a good hand-brake -on the bicycle, it is well to note its action and to understand how to -apply it; for in case of a lost pedal, its application might give a -little confidence. By a “lost pedal” is meant, not that part of the -machine is literally lost, but that the foothold is missed on it, and so -control of the wheel lost for the moment. - -[Illustration: PROPER WAY TO STAND A BICYCLE.] - -If out of breath, wait until rested. Rest for a few minutes in any case, -and look about, and note the surface wheeled over. Then plan another -spin, of perhaps a few hundred feet. Fix upon an objective point, wheel -to it, and dismount. Rest thoroughly, and mount again. Be careful to -avoid becoming chilled while resting, stopping only long enough to -restore the natural breathing and to look over the road. - -Half an hour of this kind of work at first every suitable day is enough. -If you are strong and accustomed to active exercise, the time may be -prolonged to an hour or an hour and a half; or you may practise twice -daily, morning and afternoon, or afternoon and evening. Cycling weather -is an uncertain quantity, and all possible advantages should be taken of -it. If tired after the first day’s practice, do not attempt to resume it -until entirely rested, even if it is necessary to wait for two or three -days; for unless the wheel is well understood and the wheeler fairly -practised, it is hard work. The practised cyclist controls the bicycle -without conscious effort, and may direct his attention to his -surroundings; but the novice must concentrate his attention on his -machine. - -A bicycle should always be handled carefully; for though it is made -strong enough for the emergencies of being thrown and pulled and -twisted, none of these things improve it. Keep the polish free from -scratches, and the more delicate parts free from dents. Do not let the -bicycle fall or throw it down carelessly. Learn to balance it against a -curb or post or fence or any other convenient object, without injury to -the bicycle or to the supporting surface. - -A bicycle will balance in this way: The front wheel kept from moving at -either the tire or the centre of the frame; the pedal resting against -some firm object. - -Do not wheel near anything, but give yourself as much room as possible. -A practised cyclist can take a bicycle wherever it is possible to walk, -but it is sometimes a feat to do this. - -The proper position cannot be too soon acquired. Sit erect and not too -far from the handle-bars. Let the hands grasp the handles in an easy, -natural position. The saddle should be quite over the pedals to give a -natural movement, forward, down, back, and up. The bicycle is sensitive, -and yields to almost unconscious direction; but if the eye is not -trained to judge distances, steering will be difficult at first. It is -necessary to look well ahead, to decide quickly what you will do, and to -do it. Pedal fast, but do not hurry. Don’t try to find out how fast you -can go. This is not a good time for such an experiment; it will be easy -later to test your speed. Pedal fast enough to keep the machine running -easily and smoothly and to feel it take care of itself a little. It is -easier to guide and control it when it is in motion with the wheels -rolling rapidly. - -[Illustration: CARRYING THE BICYCLE.] - -It is not a good plan to select a very light wheel for practice. The -tendencies and the peculiarities of the bicycle are more readily -determined when there is a little weight to resist. Be careful to wear -nothing tight, particularly shoes, gloves, waistband, or hat; for they -might prove a source of discomfort or even danger. - -Learn to steady the bicycle as soon as you can. It will wiggle and -wobble from a number of causes. The front wheel must be kept steady. -Wobbling results from losing the sense of direction for a moment. To -overcome the difficulty, either stop and dismount, or, if it is -possible, increase your speed. - -Before taking a bicycle out, have any oil that may have settled on the -outside of the bearings wiped off, and add a little fresh oil to the -oil-cups. The chain or power gear should be lubricated, and any -superfluous lubricant carefully removed. The ease with which the bicycle -runs depends on proper cleaning and oiling; an illy cared for or badly -oiled machine, moreover, is very unpleasant to handle. - -A course of practice will inspire confidence, and wobbling will occur -less and less frequently. Then the inequalities of surface will be -noticed, and the cyclist will wonder why it is harder to wheel in some -places and in certain directions. Parts of the road are covered, the -wheeler being almost unconscious of exerting any force, and again in -places the foot seems to be pushed up. Ease and comfort in wheeling are -dependent to a large degree on the wind and to a much larger degree on -the grades and hills. A very little grade, a very slight rise, quite -unnoticeable to the pedestrian, is disagreeably obvious to the -bicyclist. The difficulty presented may be overcome by pushing on the -pedal at the right place as it descends, and at the right time, time and -place being also adjusted to the weight and power of the bicyclist. To -push at just the right time on a grade assures an easy ascent. Any -difficulty in pedaling may be traced to a wrong application of power. - -Hill-climbing and grade work require thought and practice. Do not be -discouraged because a little bit of a hill seems quite impossible. -Overcoming grades is no easy matter, and is usually learned slowly; -every time a grade is attempted, however, some progress is made. Wheel -as far as it is possible to go comfortably; then dismount, and walk the -rest of the way. Never try to mount on an up grade unless you are -expert, for this is a difficult and most fatiguing thing to do. When -mounting, notice the grade, and if it is downward, do not have the -mounting pedal at its full height; and select a clear place to mount in. -If an up grade must be wheeled over, it is often advisable to mount in a -downward direction, wheel far enough for a start, and then turn to -ascend without dismounting. Learn to pedal slowly and steadily and to -start and stop easily. These things may be practised at convenient -times, and with sufficient practice will be mastered, but meanwhile need -keep no one from attempting a moderately long run. - -[Illustration: PICKING UP A BICYCLE.] - -Uncertain attempts at mounting are very fatiguing. Get some one to mount -and start you when off for the first long outings; the energy saved can -be better utilized in wheeling. Do not be afraid to wheel over small -inequalities if their direction is at right angles to the direction -of the bicycle; but avoid all ruts and depressions parallel with the -wheel’s direction. It is easy to slip into them, and difficult to get -out of them without a spill. - -Never eat a full meal before starting on a bicycle trip; if possible, -set the time for starting at least an hour after eating. Ten, twenty, -and thirty miles are often covered after the first or second trial. It -is better to sit on your wheel and pedal slowly than to dismount. -Getting on and off, stopping and starting, are much more fatiguing than -wheeling; and it is well to economize your strength at this stage. -Always see that the tool-kit is in place on the bicycle, and never go -far without a wrench and a screw driver. - -The tires also should receive close attention; they should be properly -inflated, and the hand-pump carried on a convenient place on the -machine. It is never well to use a tire that is not property inflated. -Avoid all broken glass, nails, etc., and do not rest the wheel against a -barbed wire fence. - -The wheeler who desires to succeed cannot too soon begin to observe and -take notes. Early learn to use the wrench yourself, and study how to -apply that instrument properly. Study the different parts of the -bicycle, and note how they are put together; and particularly observe -each nut and screw, and determine its purpose. Each nut must be at its -proper tension to hold securely. Study the valves of the tires and learn -their construction; and be sure you know how to apply the pump-coupling -properly. Learn the names and uses of the different parts of the -bicycle, and study their construction. This is mechanical geography, if -I may use such a term. Learn to care for your health and how to prepare -your system to resist fatigue. Then you will find that you have mastered -the subject, and are prepared to avail yourself of the many pleasures of -the sport. - -The oftener discouraged, the oftener the opportunity to hope again. The -art of bicycling is a purely mechanical attainment; and though its -complications may at first seem hopeless, sufficient practice will -result in final mastery. - - - - -_CHAPTER VI._ - -_Helping and Teaching; What to Learn._ - - -Accuracy is the first principle of cycling; and the would-be bicyclist -should learn as early as possible that ease of movement and precision of -movement are inseparable; and that bruises and bumps and wrenches, -though they may have an educational value, are not a necessary -accompaniment of the sport. The skilful instructor need never allow a -scratch or a bruise. Some people want to learn everything at once; but -only so much should be done at each attempt as can be done accurately, -if it be only walking the machine about and standing it up. This -exercise is helpful, for walking a bicycle about requires a series of -accurate movements, and accurate movement is necessary in learning -mounting and propelling. - -The bicycle is a marvel of adjustment, and the bicyclist is obliged to -adopt movements that correspond with the movements of the bicycle. The -more accurate this correspondence of movement, the greater the ease of -propulsion. - -The lines and angles of the levers of feet and legs must be studied to -so apply them as to secure the best results. Avoid undue tension. Learn -just how much to lean the bicycle in mounting, just where to place the -foot, where to stand in relation to the handle-bars, and where to place -the weight on the machine. This understood, mounting is accomplished. -The bicycle may be mastered, and easily mastered, by remembering all the -things not to do and by doing all the things that should be done. - -To assist another to do what you do not know how to do yourself is not -an easy task; yet there are people who are willing to undertake it. - -A bicycle is so nicely balanced that it is easy to hold it up if it is -taken hold of in the right way. Grasp the back of the saddle firmly with -one hand, take hold of one of the handles with the other, and the -machine is in your power. A person seated on the saddle with a firm hold -of the handles of the handle-bar, becomes, as it were, a part of the -machine, and when sitting quite still is governed by the same laws of -balance that control the bicycle. - -Take hold of a bicycle with some one seated in the saddle, and move it a -few inches forward, then a few inches backward, and it becomes at once -perceptible that but little force is necessary to overcome the inertia -of the combined weights of wheel and rider. The wheel has a tendency to -fall to either side, but it is easy to balance the weight on the tires. -Then hold the wheel a little toward you, for it is easier and less -fatiguing than to hold it from you. If the bicycle is allowed to incline -from you, it will pull you over; if it inclines toward you, you can -support its weight against the shoulder. If the rider sits still and -inclines with the machine, it is easily righted; but if the rider’s -weight is thrown in a direction opposite to the inclination of the -bicycle, the tendency to fall is increased, and the inclined bicycle is -pushed over. - -[Illustration: LEADING A BICYCLE ABOUT.] - -Before assisting another person with a bicycle, it is well to note all -the tendencies of the machine. This may be done by taking a bicycle and -putting it in all the different positions mentioned. The motions are the -same whether or not there is any one in the saddle, and it is well to -learn to manage the machine without exerting too much force. Stand on -the left-hand side of the bicycle, and hold the saddle with the right -hand. The steering may be done with the left hand, and the bicycle kept -upright by wiggling the front wheel. It is better to do this than to -attempt to hold the front wheel still. Walk the bicycle about by the -handle-bars only, and you will find that to keep the wheel straight it -is necessary to hold the bars stiff, and this is quite a difficult -undertaking. Allowed to move gently from side to side, the wheel is more -easily controlled. - -When assisting a person for the first time, stand beside the machine, -see that the pedal farthest from you is raised to its greatest height, -and move the bicycle forward until the pedal is commencing its down -stroke. Then let the wheeler step in beside the bicycle, in front of you -and on the same side of the machine, and grasp both handles firmly. -Stand as close as possible to the bicycle, having it inclined toward you -at such an inclination that the weight of the wheeler, stepping to the -opposite pedal, will right it. Then, while you hold the bicycle still, -the wheeler should step on the raised pedal, stand upon the pedal with -the knee stiff, and then settle slowly on the saddle; the other foot -must find the down pedal. Do not let the machine move yet, but have the -beginner go over these movements again, practising them from both sides -of the machine until a little confidence is felt. - -It is all important to get on the saddle quickly and easily and without -necessity for readjustment. If a skirt is worn, it should be arranged -before placing the weight on the pedal, and the knee should be slightly -bent when the pedal is lowest. The saddle should be the right height; -the handle-bars should be a trifle high, that is, when the rider sits -erect; the hands should rest easily and comfortably on the hand-grips. -Now the thing for the rider to do is to ride and hold on to the handles. -Don’t let the wheel get away from you. To prevent an accident, should -this happen, the beginner should know how to come off the bicycle. An -active person can step to the ground before the wheel has time to fall. -To get off, step on the pedal that is down, and throw the other foot -over. - -If the saddle is not right, dismount the wheeler in this way: Have the -wheeler’s feet firmly placed on both pedals, and see that the down pedal -is on the side on which you are standing. Pull the machine a little to -that side, and see that the foot is on the down pedal. Then direct the -wheeler to step on this down pedal, throwing all the weight on it, and -to pass the raised foot over in front of the down foot to the ground. -The foot on the down pedal should not be removed until the other -foot, placed on the ground, has taken the rider’s weight. - -[Illustration: PREPARING TO DISMOUNT.] - -Say that you are now going to move, and let the wheeler mount as before. -Show that a wiggling movement must be kept up with the front wheel, and -say that you will help to do it. See that the wheeler has both handles -held firmly, and then grasp the bars just in front of the handle. Keep -firm hold of the saddle, and control the balance and push by that, -letting the bars do their own work. - -A learner always pushes too hard on the pedals. - -Take the machine about, and trot it up and down, holding it firmly and -keeping it balanced. Should it pull you over, the wheeler can step off -without difficulty. - -It is much easier for two than for one to help a beginner. A trio of -novices can form a very fair school. A bicycle is inclined either to -pull or to push, and if supported on both sides, the pulling tendency is -avoided and the pushing tendency readily corrected. If ladies are -helping one another, the best way is for two to hold the bicycle, -standing one on each side of the machine. Both should hold the saddle -and both should hold the handle-bars just beyond the handles and above -the hands of the wheeler. One should instruct, and the other help to -hold the machine. - -Let a beginner first learn to mount, then to dismount, practising these -movements several times before starting; then, having made sure that the -pedal on that side is two-thirds up, come to the left hand side of the -wheel, step on the pedal, and be seated in the saddle; then put the -weight on the pedal that is down, and step off with the other foot. -Repeat several times, mounting from each side, dismounting on the same -side and on the opposite side, at command, and repeating. Tilt the wheel -as the weight goes on the pedal. Dismount the pupil, and walk the wheel -about between you, wiggling the front wheel. Then mount your pupil, and -proceed as already explained. After the pupil begins to propel the -wheel, very little assistance from the instructor is necessary, and care -should be taken not to confuse the pupil as to the amount of work they -are doing. Call attention to the ease with which the wheel is brought up -when inclined to fall, and explain about turning and steering and -wiggling, and what these motions are for. You cannot propel a bicycle -unless you know what you are doing; there cannot be guess-work about it. -The perfect confidence that comes with familiarity and practice must -precede success. - -Given three people with one bicycle, all can learn to ride, helping each -other in turn. Having learned to mount and dismount, the next thing is -to learn to start the bicycle. The weight should be allowed to start the -bicycle as soon as the foot, pressing on the pedal as it descends, -brings the wheeler to the saddle. - -The stop should be learned next. The wheeler should be reminded to -notice which is the down pedal, and to step on it with all the weight -just as it begins to rise. This will stop the machine, and the dismount -is made in the usual way by throwing the other foot over, and stepping -with that on the ground. The foot that has stopped the machine should -not leave the pedal too soon, but remain on it long enough to control -the bicycle. - -[Illustration: DISMOUNTING.] - -As soon as the wheeler can pedal a little and has the balance well -enough to ride without assistance, the next thing is to learn to ride -over ordinary obstructions, and to remain on the wheel for a given -number of minutes without dismounting. All this can be taught in an -ordinary room or on a piazza; and both teacher and pupil will find a -smooth surface, such as a board floor or a pavement, best adapted for -the work. Attention cannot too soon be directed to taking the weight off -the ascending pedal, and the exercise should not be prolonged for a -moment after this becomes a difficult thing to do. - -At first the practice leaves the beginner much agitated and breathless; -but these conditions are overcome after a few lessons, though -experienced riders sometimes experience a return of them when they find -mounting difficult and do not notice the grade they are attempting. The -sensitiveness of the wheel sometimes puzzles the beginner, and the sense -of adjustment is often difficult to acquire. - -Nervous work and nervous effort are noticeable in no other sport in the -same marked degree. Some seize and adopt its salient points at once and -almost unconsciously, but the majority are not so fortunate. The first -fifteen minutes on a bicycle are frequently enough to cause thorough -exhaustion. The best remedy for this is to take the wheel and walk it -about; the pupil should be left alone with it. If fifteen minutes’ work -is too much, alternate five minutes’ work with rest at the next lesson. - -The balance and distribution of strength for the pull by the hands is -quite important in directing and controlling the machine. The feet are -used to propel and to balance. The teacher should note carefully if the -beginner errs by incorrect pedaling or by too much pull on the handles, -and correct the wrong tendency. - -Balance by pedaling comes next in order, and cannot be practised too -early; and as by this time a fair amount of speed will have been -attained, the natural balance begins to be acquired. - -Balanced pedaling and swaying are very different, and should not be -confused. The bicycle may be propelled, balanced, and controlled -entirely by the pedals; and as this is the best and most important mode -of wheeling, it should early be understood and attempted. - -The adjustment of the machine should now be taken up, and the wheeler -should know how and why the bicycle can be changed to suit individual -peculiarities. The wiggling tendency of the front wheel lessens as the -wheeler acquires confidence; and its unsteadiness can be overcome and -controlled with the balance and by pedaling, with the swaying of the -body or the pressure of either foot. - -There is much to avoid as well as much to do. Incorrect position means -difficult work, almost impossible propulsion and possible personal -injury. The knowledge that everything is firmly screwed up about the -bicycle, and particularly that the saddle is secure, cannot be too soon -acquired. Never attempt to mount or even to try the bicycle unless the -saddle is properly secured and immovable. If anything breaks, it is not -necessarily your fault; if anything is insecure, blame no one for not -attending to something you should yourself have attended to. Always -examine the pedals to see that they turn easily; and be sure about that -saddle. It is a good deal of trouble to screw the nut up tight for a few -minutes, or even for half a minute, but it should be done. - -When adjusting the saddle, never be hurried when tools are to be used, -for it is necessary to apply them carefully to insure accuracy; and a -nut really requires serious attention, for often a good deal depends -upon it. If screwed hurriedly, the thread is in danger of being injured, -and on that thread the holding power of the nut depends. - -When the beginner can balance and propel the bicycle for a little way -alone, the really tedious part of learning often begins. At this point -beginners become discouraged, for there seems to be nothing new to -learn; yet the results attained are unsatisfactory. What is needed is -practice. - -Practise on a smooth piece of road, with some one running beside the -bicycle to give confidence and prevent falls. The proper position in -mounting should be studied. In mounting a drop-frame machine, never step -over the frame and place the foot on the ground; it is an awkward and -ungainly method. Take a proper position, then be sure everything is -right, and last of all, step on the pedal, and you are moving. - -A good way to practise, if you have no one to help you, is to mount the -bicycle in the gutter, and limp along; or if in the country, a roadside -fence may give the needed assistance. Grasp a post firmly, and holding -by it, try to mount; and study the tendencies and the balance of the -bicycle without letting go the post. - -Make up your mind how to mount, start the pedal properly, and keep -trying until you can ride a little. If a little, why not more? Keep on -practising, avoiding faults. - -For instruction, the bicycle should be fitted with an instructor’s -handle, and the pupil provided with a belt having one handle or more. -The instruction handle and a hold on the handle-bar are sufficient -safeguard for most pupils, but the belt will often give confidence to -the timid and aid the instructor. - - - - -_CHAPTER VII._ - -_A Few Things to Remember._ - - -Two important points for the bicyclist to study are avoidance of road -traffic and consideration of the surface ridden over. The law of the -road applies to all traffic passing over the road; the law of mechanics -to the surface of the road as it affects the bicycle and the cycler. In -cities, on much-used thoroughfares, careful work, quick eyes, experience -and caution are demanded to insure safety. - -The law of the road, “Keep to the right, pass on the left anything going -in the same direction,” is explicit, and if always observed would render -collisions almost impossible. The avoidance of careless and unobservant -travellers is quite a study. Passing to the right, you can see and be -seen; passing on the left, a traveller moving in the same direction does -not become aware of your intention without being notified. You give -notice to prevent others from changing their direction and to enable -them thus to avoid crowding. - -To pass a vehicle on the road, when travelling in the same direction, -involves increase of speed if the vehicle in front maintains its pace; -should it go slower or stop, and the roadway permits, a change of pace -is neither necessary nor desirable, unless you wish to steady your -machine. In nearing any vehicle or person coming from the opposite -direction, keep your share of the road. Be always alert and observant; -do not fail to give ample room to the approaching vehicle; but on the -other hand, do not permit yourself to be crowded or inconvenienced, and -keep enough of the roadway on your right in reserve in case a change of -direction becomes necessary. - -The importance of having your machine at all times perfectly under -control cannot be over-estimated. Put faith in your pedaling, and never -ride at greater speed than you can determine and check at will. -Dependence on any brake, however perfect its action, is bad practice. - -Vehicles approaching pass each other on the right. In case of collision, -the vehicle which has maintained the proper side of the roadway has the -advantage in case of legal controversy. In passing a vehicle drawn by -horses, the bicycle should keep to the centre of the roadway when -possible, leaving the curb for the horse-drawn vehicle. The bicycle can -only draw away from the curb, and is limited to one direction. The -centre of the roadway, therefore, affords the best opportunity for a -change of direction. - -Sit well on your saddle, observe the adjustment of the centre of -gravity, but ride on the pedals, using the weight as much as possible. -Trust to the pedals only for rough riding and for unexpected -inequalities of surface. The study of the mechanics of balance, -resistance, and friction is most interesting in this connection, as -their action affects cycler or wheel or the combined mechanisms. - -The law of the road is simple and very generally understood, though -there are reckless and ignorant people who disregard it. The law defines -where you shall ride, how you shall pass, and sets a limit to increase -of speed beyond what is considered compatible with the general safety. -There is, besides, the unwritten law of courtesy, more often observed -than disregarded; and there is the law you make for yourself. - -The traffic of a crowded thoroughfare may be analyzed, and the conduct -of a wheel explained and simplified, though travel on such routes is -difficult at best and had better be avoided. Given a long, straight -road, with two streams of travel from opposite directions. One of these -streams will consist of vehicles, quadrupeds, and pedestrians, few -maintaining an even rate of progress, fewer still the same rate. The law -requires that you pass on the left, and you must await the opportunity -to do so. When a clear way opens, take immediate advantage of it, and -increase your speed. Should there not be room enough to pass, signal, -and the vehicle in advance is bound to make way for you. Should there be -a free road to the right, you may take it, but only with the consent of -the traveller ahead, and then at your own risk. - -Never ride more than two abreast. Riding in single file, with ample room -for turning, is better on a crowded street or when making time. For -moderate wheeling, the cyclists being disciplined and drilled, the -distance between bicycles may be shortened. But control of the wheel -should be absolute before this is attempted. When travelling at even a -moderate rate of speed, a certain distance between wheels should be -observed. When in single file, turn on the same line, but not at the -same time as the leader. Inexperienced wheelers are apt to turn at the -moment the wheel ahead turns. Should you be following close, keep on -your own line, unless you see good cause to change your direction. If -the leader wishes to stop, let him turn out: if you are wanted, you will -know soon enough. Gain all the distance you can between dismounts. A -little drill and the understanding of a few signals will prove very -useful. - -For the public at large, the bicycle may be specialized to suit -individual needs, and locomotion becomes simplified, distances are -reduced, and the obliterated landscape of railroad travel takes form and -substance. Cycling means travel over well-constructed highways, with -telephone and telegraph, post-office and express office, usually easily -accessible. To enjoy the full freedom that wheeling should give, little -luggage should be carried, yet that little must include all necessaries. - -When a party of six or even twelve start to wheel a given distance, what -are the problems to be met? All being fairly expert cyclists, in good -practice, sociability is incidental while making time. On the road -attention, strict attention, to business and to the signals is -necessary. Conversation is not prohibited; it is entirely dependent upon -the nature of the surface you are travelling. - -How to keep together is a vexed question, and a very nice adjustment of -animate and inanimate mechanism would be necessary to its satisfactory -settlement. The better way is, all knowing the road, to wheel along -independently, with an occasional halt, not necessarily a dismount, -assembling at intervals of half or three-quarters of an hour. The leader -should keep back until the roller of the party is hailed, and has -reported, then increase speed again until the next interval has elapsed. -Another plan is to wheel with only a given number of minutes headway, -this arrangement keeping the roller-up always within hailing distance. - -A good leader deserves implicit confidence. He has responsibilities -aside from wheeling, for the comfort and convenience of others must be -intelligently studied, and consideration for each individual cyclist in -the party makes constant demand on the qualities of tact and decision; -in other words, the leader must possess good judgment and be as well a -thorough bicyclist. - -The present rate of wheeling averages ten miles an hour, and greater -speed is undesirable, except for special purposes. A point to keep in -mind is that every five minutes’ halt is a mile lost. The time lost in -slowing and stopping should also be carefully taken, as it is of value -in reckoning possible mileage. - -There are grades to hesitate about, and there are grades to avoid. If a -grade seems possible, try it, but dismount the instant it becomes hard -work. It is better to dismount too soon than to persist too long. -Without regard to the inclination, there are two principal kinds of -grades--the increased grade and the decreased grade. In mounting the -increased grade, more and more power is required at every stroke to push -the machine upward. In mounting the decreased grade, this additional -power is not necessary, and the ascent is accomplished with little -fatigue. Increase of grade means application of more power in ascending, -and an increase of momentum in descending. This is on the whole the most -dangerous kind of bicycle travel; for over-work on the ascent, loss of -pedals or dangerous coasting on the descent, are to be expected, and -danger should be looked for, and observed in time to be avoided. - -It is always well to walk an increasing grade, if the hill be long and -steep, both in ascending and descending. The decreasing grade has many -pleasant features, and on a well-known road may be ridden up or down -with ease and with little danger of injury. It is interesting to watch -the effect of individual adjustment to hill-work, a group of bicyclists -being almost always scattered when mounting a grade. - -When and where to apply power and when to make the push tell best on his -own machine, each cyclist must determine by practice and experience. -Sometimes a long and apparently easy down-grade is rendered dangerous by -its increase of pitch; and seemingly easy roads are often difficult to -travel on account of an increasing but almost imperceptible ascent. -Unless power is applied to the stroke at the right place, much -inconvenience from fatigue will be felt, and will soon overcome the -ambitious bicyclist. - -When short expeditions are to be undertaken--all trips of more than an -hour’s duration being so classed--remember that lack of preparation -means delay, and that ignorance entails discomfort. If the start is to -be an early one, go over the bicycle carefully, see that the lamp is in -order, that matches are convenient, tools and repair-kit in place, a -small envelope of sewing materials with needle and thread and another of -red-cross supplies in the pocket. - -I have often been laughed at for taking out my lamp for a short -afternoon’s ride with friends who could ride well enough for their own -satisfaction; and as often have I been obliged to help with my lantern’s -light belated wheels coming in close behind me. A lantern is a -convenience at dusk, or even earlier, enabling others to see and avoid -you; and this helps more than the uncertain light annoys. - -For luncheon on a short trip, it is quite safe to depend on the road; if -you carry luncheon, a couple of bread-and-butter sandwiches well wrapped -in waterproof paper, and thin slices of cheese in a separate paper, or -hard chocolate and water-biscuit, are as good as anything; and such a -luncheon may prevent delay in swampy or foggy or damp country from -becoming dangerous. - -Study the country you are to travel and the road-surface, understand -your map, know your route, its general direction, etc. Always observe -the road you cover; keep a small note-book, and jot down everything of -interest. Use the pocket-compass, even in your home locality, to fix -general direction; for when detained at night, such knowledge may prove -useful. Fog and rain or a moonless night are bewildering, rendering -familiar roads weird and strange; and, unlike the driver or equestrian -in the dark, a bicyclist must trust to himself alone. Wheeling in the -dark, however, has some advantages, as you are apt to ride in a straight -line, and not turn out for bad places in the road; on the other hand, a -certain amount of risk is necessarily taken. There should be no close -riding, and constant care should be exercised for the avoidance of -collision. - -Cycling offers endless opportunities for the formation of clubs, and -cycling clubs there are of all ages and sizes. A simple form of club for -the earlier phases of the sport may be organized in this way: Buy two -bicycles, and form as small a club as can manage their purchase. Keep a -register, and pass the bicycles from member to member, for say a week at -a time, repairs in case of accident to be paid for by the member using -the wheel at the time of the accident. The club may later be enlarged by -receiving any desired number of members and purchasing additional wheels -in proportion. But nothing is so satisfactory as a chosen mount of your -own, adjusted to suit your individual needs and kept for your own -exclusive use. A bicycle exactly adjusted to your liking should be -jealously devoted to your individual use. A beautiful machine should be -kept free from finger-marks. Keep a chamois and a clean piece of -cheese-cloth at hand where it is kept, and use them. Nickel holds its -polish if not attacked by acid or grease. Enamel should be treated -differently, with cold water, sponge and chamois, after light dusting. - - - - -_CHAPTER VIII._ - -_The Art of Wheeling a Bicycle._ - - -There are three very important methods of controlling the bicycle, -namely, steering by the hands, guiding by foot-pressure on the pedals, -and guiding by the swaying of the body; and these methods may be used -separately or in combination. - -The wheels are kept in motion either by pedaling, or simply by gravity -in descending a grade. The use of the hands on the handle-bar is -two-fold for the inexperienced--for steering and for correcting undue -pressure on the pedals. The hand opposite the pedal that receives too -much pressure corrects the tendency of the bicycle by an extra pull on -the handle-bars. This is very good exercise, but it is a useless -expenditure of force, and cannot be prolonged without great fatigue. It -is the work of hill-climbing done on the level. The feet are on the -pedals, and the natural tendency is to press equally at all times on -both pedals and pull at the same time on both handles. One pedal must -descend, and the other pedal must ascend; they are attached to the same -axle, which is turned by either pedal or both pedals. As the pedals are -always on opposite sides of a circle, one is always coming up, and its -upward tendency is resisted by any pressure, however slight. The -lifting of the foot, therefore, from the ascending pedal means easy -wheeling. This is one of the hardest things to realize. If there is -little or no pressure to resist from the up-coming pedal, it is -necessary to expend but little force to propel or push the down pedal; -only enough, indeed, to overcome the weight or inertia of the bicycle -and the bicyclist and of surface friction, provided there is no grade. -But of grades, there are many; and to this is due the infinite variety -of the sport of cycling, the muscular development and increased -respiration of the cycler. - -[Illustration: CORRECT PEDALING.] - -The handle-bars should at all times be ready to receive a sudden grip or -squeeze. Grip the handles hard when you want to hold on, and only pull -as much as is absolutely necessary; for if the arms are stiff and rigid -from pulling on the bars, they will not be sensitive enough to control -the bicycle. The handles of the bar are the ends of a pair of levers; -and the nearer the hand to the centre of the bar, the less power is -needed to oppose the other hand. When there is a tendency to pull hard -on the handles, gradually slip the hands near the middle of the bar, and -the pull will ease up. The front wheel, to run easily, should run -steadily; and the less wiggle there is, the better for steady travel. - -The pedal is the projection on the crank adapted to the use of the foot. -There are many varieties of pedals, of differing sorts, weights, -patterns, and purposes. The foot placed on the pedal pushes it down; the -push is communicated to the wheel to propel the bicycle forward. As the -pedal leaves the dead centre, the power begins to take effect, and -continues until the dead centre below is reached. Now, it is necessary -to push at just the right time and place; if too soon and too hard, the -wheels of the bicycle will go too fast, and must be retarded by pressing -down on the up-coming pedal. The natural weight pressure of the foot is -more than enough to propel the bicycle over ordinary surfaces at a fair -rate of speed, without the application of great muscular power. - -The foot should be placed squarely on the pedal, the ball of the foot -only resting on it, and the toe pointing downward. The foot may be made -to perform divers duties, and numberless new combinations of pressure -can be and are called for and applied. - -To apply more power in the stroke, begin to push when the pedal is all -the way up, the toe pointing down until at the lowest part of the -stroke, ready to follow the pedal around, pushing it backwards, and -helping to lift it. Here the toe-clip helps, and holds the foot on the -pedal, in the place where the tendency to leave it is greatest. Balanced -pedaling is a little different, and weight-pressure on the pedal is used -as a factor to overcome the front wheel. - -Use the weight as much as possible to propel, and reserve the push for -hard grade-work. Keep the knees well turned in; it squares the foot and -prevents the ankle from receiving hard knocks. When the knee is turned -out, the ankle bones are turned in, and so receive many a bruise that -could have been avoided. To keep the ankles from interfering, turn -the knees in, and ride square leg. - -[Illustration: FOLLOWING PEDAL.] - -Controlling a bicycle on a down-grade requires pressure on the ascending -pedal. Point the heel down or hold the toe up, and an even pressure will -be maintained. Let the lift come with the heel well squared and the leg -as straight as possible, the weight to be supplied at the right point on -the up stroke to control the machine. Always use the weight when -possible as a supplementary driving power. - -The pedals differ in construction and in material, being differently -adapted for racing and for road work. A pedal with a good broad resting -surface for the foot is very comfortable, though a “rat-trap” pedal used -with a stiff-soled shoe is lighter and preferable. Toe-clips are -desirable for those who can use them easily, but for a novice they are -dangerous, being liable to cause the mishaps they are intended to -prevent. Experienced bicyclers prefer any discomfort to that of a lost -pedal, and when wheeling with only a light, even pressure, toe-clips are -good reminders; but their principal use is to apply more power and help -the foot to carry the pedal around and back. - -The swaying of the body controls the bicycle from the saddle. In walking -the bicycle about, it is soon perceived that it may be directed by -holding the saddle only. The pressure comes from the saddle, and the -bicycle is swayed by the rider, by leg pressure against the saddle. -There is little or no shoulder movement, and the body, though flexible, -does not move perceptibly. When starting a machine, hold it well -balanced by the handle-bars, and know how much inclination to allow. -Take hold, and mount steadily and easily, and move off quietly, noting -the running of the bicycle. Gradually increase the speed, leaning a -little forward to lessen any sudden strain and to help the push on the -pedals. Then increase the stroke to the desired speed, and the machine -will take care of itself. Speed power may be increased, and it is good -practice to slow, and start again at will. - -Figure wheeling, with a good leader, is capital practice to insure -steadiness and increase the power of control over the bicycle. It is not -easy to stop suddenly when going at a good rate of speed, and it is well -to know your limit of distance in such case; nor is it easy to spring -alertly from the saddle when bringing up in a dangerous position, even -when frightened into doing it. Back pedal hard, grip with the hands and -press down, holding the bicycle still as you reach the ground. The -pedals will not get in the way, and it is well to remember not to let go -of the machine if you do not want to get hurt. To jump off and hold the -bicycle still may at times prevent collisions. - -The cyclist, however sure of his skill, should not throw his machine at -any one, even inadvertently. There is much unnecessarily fine riding -done--dashing between two passing vehicles, for instance, or rushing -through a gap instead of wheeling slowly behind a wagon until an open -space is reached; but some prefer the stimulation and excitement of -danger to safety, and like to perform such hazardous feats. - -[Illustration: LIFTING.] - -Steering is a subject for serious consideration; a sharp eye, quick -determination, constant care, and a steady hand are needed. A knowledge -of steering is essential for safe coasting; and as one of the pleasures -of cycling is to descend easily the hill you have climbed, a fair degree -of steadiness should be attained. Brakes are important aids. Learn to -brake with the foot, but do not resort to this expedient unless -compelled to. - -Now to consider hill-work. The resistance of the grade is always -perceptible; it is not always recognized. As the angle of ascent -increases, the powers of the bicyclist are taxed. - -The spindle of the pedal describes a circle. The foot part of the pedal -revolves around the spindle, and permits the foot to take any angle that -is needed for the best application of power, the plane always, however, -remaining parallel with the spindle. This arrangement of the pedal -allows of ankle-motion within certain limits; and to give greater -efficiency, the foot and ankle may move in adjustment with the weight -and power to be applied. This is the much-talked-of ankle-motion. The -pressure may be applied to the pedal by this ankle-motion at any part or -at all parts of the circle that the pedal describes. - -As constructed, the pedal permits free ankle and instep movement, -prevents cramping of the foot, and allows the foot the same freedom that -it has in walking or running. Ease of work depends on proper application -of power. To be able to apply just the right amount of push to carry the -crank past the dead centre, and to pull it past the lowest dead centre, -and to follow the pedal accurately, is the aim of all good pedal work. -The push down is almost instinctive; but the lifting of the weight from -the ascending pedal can be acquired only by practice, when the muscles -have become sufficiently accustomed to the work to move without the -effort of mental concentration that they seem to require in the -beginning. - -The power of the stroke may be given by applying the weight after the -dead centre is passed. - -The weight should be entirely removed from the ascending pedal, and the -balance and sway used to take the pull off the handle-bars by throwing -the weight from side to side for that purpose. The weight and balance -should be directed in this way: If the push on the down pedal only is -used, it must be corrected by a pull on the handle; this pull increases -as the grade obstructs the wheel. Skilful hill-work shows in the -lessened pull on the handles. - -In travelling on the level, the ascending foot is pushed up, and rested -by being lifted. There is no reason why the pushing muscles should be -stronger than the lifting muscles of the leg except that they are -accustomed to do more work. - -Always try to ride a hill, but never begin by looking at the top to see -how far off it is. Pay no more attention to the surface than is -absolutely required by the nature of the surface. Concentrate all -thought on the pedals and how best to push or take the pull off the -handle-bars. Lean a little forward if necessary, and do not try to -increase the stroke. The number of strokes is bound to lessen if the -power is not increased proportionately on the ascent. And how can the -power be effectively applied unless the work is done intelligently by -mental application, or instinctively by the use of accustomed muscles? - -[Illustration: BACK PEDALING.] - -Hills should be ridden easily, or not ridden at all. It is easier to -wheel up an ascent than to walk up, if the wheeling is properly done. -Always stop before the hill proves too much for you. Never think any -incline too steep to attempt; this is the first move on the road to -successful hill-climbing. - -The seat for hill-work should be made to support the body. The bicyclist -should not be obliged to cling to the handles to keep from slipping off -over the saddle; there should be something else to push against. To get -all possible power out of the levers, there should be a sufficiency of -fulcrum for the lever to work against; and the saddle should certainly -be made to do duty in hill-work. - -If there is no support from the rear of the saddle, the fulcrum must be -located at the handle-bars, which should have all possible strain -removed from them to lessen the pedal work. A saddle placed at this -angle is of little use as a fulcrum on an incline. In all work, levers -and fulcrums are kept in position by the hands, unless the weight is -supported from the saddle. If this principle of the application of power -is considered, the usual difficulty of hill-climbing is overcome. Why -should it be harder to wheel up hill than to walk up and push a bicycle? - -In the first place, it is necessary to be able to stay on the bicycle -without holding yourself on; in the next place, to know how to apply the -power; and then to perform the work, keeping all essential points well -in mind. Wheel up hill with the mouth shut, or get off; wheel slowly; -concentrate power to apply it most effectively. - -Power is needed in overcoming both the crank dead centres. The weight -should be applied to force the crank downward, and the weight lifted to -let the other crank rise. The body sways to ease the handle pull, and -the bicycle mounts steadily. The inertia, of course, becomes more -apparent as the weight is resisted by gravity; so do not attempt to -force or strain, with the idea that hill-climbing is something that must -be done. It should be done only when it can be done easily. - -The rule for climbing universally recommended reads, “Pay no attention -to the hills. Ride them.” This is good as far as it goes, but it is of -little assistance in mounting an incline. - -There are two kinds of grades independent of the angle--the increase -grade and the decrease grade, in ascending, and in descending as well; -for descending is only the reverse of ascending. In approaching an -ascending grade, always note its character, whether long or short, what -the pitch is, and particularly if the angle of ascent increases or -decreases at the top of the incline, and prepare for the work before -you. - -[Illustration: BACK PEDALING--SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT.] - -Each hill has its peculiarities, which must be studied and conquered. -The actual mounting to the top is not all you have to do; you should -mount in proper trim, arriving at the summit fresh and fit. It is most -saddening to see some one else mount a hill easily, leaving you, -puffing and pushing, half way up, and to know that, when you reach the -top, speechless and exhausted, that exasperating person will be seated -there, cool, contemplative, and comfortable. - -Intelligent practice, however, should result in scientific attainment. -The saddle should be adjusted in relation to the pedals for the carrying -of the cranks past the dead centre. The angle of the saddle should be -studied, and the adjustment permit of its use as a fulcrum in hill-work, -while admitting of balance-work on a level and of comfort and ease in -coasting. It should support the weight when the feet are on the forks, -not merely permit of balancing. - -In studying this adjustment, weight, length of limb, strength, and the -work to be done should all be taken into consideration. The rule that -what is lost in speed is gained in power should comfort the hill climber -when, half-way up a grade, the bicycle gradually loses speed, and seems -to be stopping, in spite of all efforts to the contrary. - -In mounting, the machine is started by the placing of the weight on the -pedal, and in hill-climbing the weight should be used to force the pedal -down and around. The bringing of the pedal into position where the -weight will take effect is the true secret of success. Follow this by -making the weight carry as far as possible, prolonging its usefulness by -pushing the pedal back past the lowest dead centre, and following and -lifting it. But it is useless to prolong the work if the commencement of -the stroke is not executed in an effective manner. - -The up-coming pedal must either be pulled up, or have all weight removed -to permit the power to be fully effective on the down pedal. What is the -point where power applied will begin to tell? If the upper dead centre -is left to be overcome by the downward stroke of the foot on the pedal, -the foot on the ascending pedal is doing no work, only kept from doing -harm, held in a cramped position. - -After carrying the crank past the lower dead centre, the weight is -removed and the angle of the foot changed from pointing the toe down to -holding the toe up and dropping the heel. As the foot-rest will follow -the sole of the foot, it is a simple matter to change the pressure from -pushing and pulling up to pressing and shoving over. Before the crank -has arrived at the top of the circle, say at sixty degrees, the heel -should be lowered, and the attention directed to pushing the cranks over -and past the dead centre. As the top of the circle is reached, the foot -levels, and prepares to point the toe to make an effective downward -thrust. Rise from the saddle a little at this point, to make the weight -more effective, and prepare to carry the pedal back as far as possible. -This method leaves very little time for the foot to change its angle. -From the toe pointing downward to the toe held up ready to push, the -change from pull to push is abrupt, and hill-work depends on correct -ankle-motion more than anything else. The ankle-motion may be corrected -by swaying, the hands meanwhile being held lightly on the handle-bars -ready for emergencies, but not used for the work of climbing. - -[Illustration: HILL-CLIMBING--PUSHING CRANK OVER.] - -The breathless condition induced by extra work may be remedied; for the -upper chest is forced to expand, while, if the arms are held rigid, a -plentiful supply of air for the lungs is not insured. (See Chapter on -Exercises). Free combustion is needed for the extra power exerted. - -The bicycle and its load are lifted, and a given weight requires a given -power to lift it. That power must be supplied by the stored force of the -human body, and must be utilized to the best advantage if the work is to -be prolonged. Hill-work is not impossible of achievement; but it -requires intelligent work unless one applies mechanical laws -intuitively. Easy hill-work is delightful; it is work, hard work, but -work done without strain. Nothing, on the other hand, can be more -injurious than forced hill-climbing; the strain on heart and lungs is -severe, particularly for one wearing a tight belt, or any constrictive -clothing about the waist. - -Because a hill looks rough and the surface difficult, it does not at all -follow that it will be bad wheeling. If the tires are not too full, -inequalities of surface are an assistance, helping to block the wheels, -and preventing them from slipping back, while the soft tire takes up the -stones and bumps, holding on by them. Always look well at your hill on -approaching it; study its inclination, determine its grade, and the -nature of its surface, and quickly decide how best to attack it. - -On mounting the top of a grade, never hurry or increase speed; wheel -along slowly and easily, with the mouth shut, until rested and really -ready to start up. If there is a good coast, don’t hurry to it, but -keep working gently until the balance of the respiratory organs is fully -restored. Then take the coast, and all the benefits of hard work, and -rest, and the exhilarating effects of swift motion and free oxidation -are fully realized. - -To work in balance or equilibrium is the aim of hill-work, and there -should not be too abrupt a transition after severe exertion. Pedal along -at a pace to restore the breathing after hard work, then change; never -dismount when breathless, but wheel along slowly. The strain is thus -much less than by forcing the body to accommodate itself to a change of -position just when a general easing is required, a general slackening of -all the muscles that have been at work. - -Rest always before dismounting long enough at least to restore -breathing; and rather than coast after climbing, back-pedal gently and -slowly if the grade should descend from the top of the ascent. - -Never let a hill get the better of you, if it is one that you have a -chance to attack a second time. Set to work and study it. Find out the -changes of grade, and prepare for a change in the amount of power at the -proper place in the incline. See if the grade is simple, prolonged, or -compound. If the surface is very smooth, it will be more difficult. -There is a bit of road that I remember well, a country road, seemingly -good enough, with a little grade perhaps in some places; but, one after -another, it dismounted us all. A heavy Telford pavement was laid, but -there was still a mile and a half of that road that winded the best of -us every time. Though it was up grade all the way, experience had taught -us that at places we must stop, and mount again and go on. Our machines -were heavy, but this fact did not explain what puzzled us; for it ought -not to be easier to start a heavy wheel up a grade than to continue to -wheel up steadily. Knowing this bit of road so well, we were on the -lookout to note its effect on others; and there were always wheels lined -up at some part of the road, and a curious variety of expressions on the -countenances of their riders--puzzled defeat on those unacquainted with -the road, and sad determination on those who knew it too well. - -After a careful study of this grade, that was long but not steep, and -seemingly not difficult, we found it made up of a series of differently -inclined planes and curves, the up-curves all against us; and, taken -from foot to top, there was a continued increase of pitch, with certain -changes that were all against wheeling; and moreover a generally -increasing pitch for the whole distance, and four places of change of -grade, each change an increase of pitch and an increased angle of -ascent. The smooth surface concealed these difficulties at first, making -the deceptive stretch appear easy and inviting. It was like the inside -of a curved line set with scollops. - -To overcome this most difficult kind of incline, wheel along at a good -pace, note the increase of grade, and drop the heel at the beginning of -the down stroke, or rather while the pedal is half way on the up stroke -and the foot is prepared to resist the change. Take into consideration -the fact that an increase of power is necessary; look where to apply it, -adjust the balance of the body to the work, and your work will be -effective. - - - - -_CHAPTER IX._ - -_Position and Power._ - - -The racing wheelman has adopted a position that has received much -censure--a position accepted as the one enabling applied power to -produce the greatest speed. If this position is analyzed and compared -with the erect position, several interesting features may be noted, and -by comparing the two positions, important information may be gathered. - -The bicyclist seated upon the saddle, not against it, has little power -for work. The thrust is downward; there can be no forward push or -backward thrust, unless the hands grip the handle-bars and pull against -the push, if the push needed is greater than can be resisted by the -weight of the body. - -The power of the stroke is all in the downward direction; there can be -but little power in the forward thrust; the most important part of the -stroke in hill-climbing is that given by getting behind the pedal and -pushing it down. If the saddle be too far forward, power is again lost -in the push and thrust, and the up-and-down motion must do the work, and -power is lost on the down thrust, though added in the upward and -backward push. - -We may conclude that a proper position has much to do with the work of -bicycling; that there is more than one correct position, different -positions being adapted to different work. The racing position on the -bicycle is the position for speed, and is the position of the running -athlete. It is not adapted to moving at a moderate pace or to being -maintained for any length of time. It is the position in which power may -be most readily converted into speed; where the leverage may be applied -with the greatest efficiency, and the greatest amount of work -accomplished in the least possible time. - -The drop position also takes the strain off the upper leg muscles, and -is desirable on that account, apart from the fact that more power may be -exerted from that position. The leg does not straighten out, and is -always ready to give a powerful stroke and maintain an increased or even -speed. It is a position of continuous movement; and if the weight and -all the muscles are not directed to propel, the weight is improperly -supported on all fours. - -The position for speed where the weight is distributed between -handle-bar, saddle, and pedals is not suitable for road work, nor can it -be maintained for any long period without injurious results. It is the -position where power is best converted into speed. - -For prolonged work a different position is demanded. Here speed is not a -necessary factor, but ease of movement and continuous movement are -essential. We are not anxious to convert power quickly, but rather to -reserve our powers, and use them slowly. - -[Illustration: COASTING.] - -For pleasure riding and ordinary exercise, the erect position is the -best. The drop position is the racing or running position; the erect -position, the position of ease. - -Here the saddle question presents itself. The saddle should support the -weight while seated, or, in the racing position, hold the weight; it -should not hamper movement, and should be comfortable for coasting. In -moving over the ground, the relative position for the balance of the -cyclist changes according to the grades; and the seat should be adjusted -so as to be adaptable to the different positions required to enable the -bicyclist to change the balance for the work of the moment. - -There is also the position adapted to quick work and exercise. Change in -adjustment of the application of power varies with the amount of work -done by the bicyclist in covering a certain distance. The resistance -caused by change of speed and varied wind resistance have also to be -taken into the calculation. People of different lengths of leverage must -study the different adjustments of the machine to produce the best -results for the different kinds of work required of the machine. - -When a hill is to be surmounted, the climb should be made without -effort, that is, effort understood in its technical sense. The position -should be such as to permit of work being done by the foot, and the -power should be applied at the right time and place. Assistance by a -pull on the handle-bars means lessened power on the stroke. Effort -succeeds effort. The work should be done by the foot, the pelvis being -the fulcrum. The saddle should be the real fulcrum. If the hands are -used to do the work by pulling, the pelvis becomes the only fulcrum, and -the bicycle saddle is not used at all for the application of power. The -weight should be made to do as much of the work as possible, and the -added resistance of lever pressure made auxiliary. - -To obtain leverage for the hands, it is necessary to use a fulcrum. -Where is that fulcrum located? Each set of muscles pulls on its point of -application--the hand on the arm, the arm on the shoulder, the shoulder -on the thorax, the thorax on the pelvis. If more power is needed, it -must require effort. - -In hill-climbing, effort is a physiological phenomenon associated with -great expenditure of force. In making an effort, exerting force, the -air-passages of the lungs are closed, the air in them making of them an -air-cushion, as it were, which acts as a fulcrum for certain extra -muscular combinations. This accounts for the feeling of suffocation -experienced in severe hill-climbing, which should never be prolonged. -The hill should be climbed with the hands held easily, not gripping the -handles; and gripping and pulling on the handles, it should be -remembered, lessen the power for prolonged work. Squeezing the -handle-bars induces involuntary lung compression, and pulling on them -adds to the strain. Lean forward, if need be, to balance and maintain -the equilibrium, but do not maintain the centre of gravity by pulling on -the handles. - -[Illustration: WHEELING ONE FOOT OVER.] - -The fixed position of the arms, when sitting with spinal column erect, -certainly prevents a full, free inflation of the lungs; the shoulders -are held fixed, and between the saddle and the fixed shoulders there -is no up and down lung-play. In running, the forearms and shoulders -permit free chest expansion. In the racing position on a bicycle, the -arms and shoulders take the same relative position as in running, and a -full, free lung expansion is obtained. - -No rigidity is maintained between shoulders and saddle in the racing -drop-position. - -For speeding and work of that kind, the position that allows of the -greatest flexibility as well as the greatest leverage is the position to -be chosen. - -In travelling and in every-day wheeling, the position should be one -permitting the minimum expenditure of power; the weight should be -supported, yet the position should be such as to permit the weight to be -used as a propelling power. The hands should be held where they are -supported and in the position where they can most easily control the -wheel under any change of conditions. The saddle should be placed where -the foot can act most effectively at all parts or at as many parts as -possible of the circle that the pedal describes. The height of the -saddle should be calculated to permit of extension of the leg without -supporting the weight on the saddle, which causes compression of the -larger veins and arteries. The foot should at all times be fully on the -pedal; that is, the position should permit of throwing all the weight on -to the pedals, whatever the position of the cranks at the moment. The -handle-bar should be adjusted; also length of arm and relative position; -and the weight, height, and curve of bar adapted to suit individual -build. - -Length of crank, gear, height, position, and adjustments of saddle may -be used as factors in adjustment of position for ease of movement and -prevention of fatigue. Each individual has different combinations of -lever power, varying with the lengths of the different parts of -different limbs. One may have a long thigh-bone with short lower leg; -another may have just the reverse combination--short thigh-bone and long -lower leg. - -The crank is the lever of application of power; the gear, the power in -resistance. The gear determines, in a sense, how much force is needed; -the length of crank, combined with the levers of foot and leg, the -proper or most comfortable lever for overcoming that resistance. -Long-limbed people do well on long cranks, short-limbed people on short -cranks,--the question of length of limb to be determined, not by actual -measurement, but as to the proportions in weight and length of limbs -generally. Either too long or too short a crank will produce numbness -and fatigue. The leg and foot on the crank as it works form a crank -lever movement. The crank of a bicycle should be of such length as to -permit of the greatest amount of force being conveyed along the lever -movement with the least resistance. - -The sprocket-wheel is the weight to be moved by the crank; but the crank -is only one of a series of levers. - -[Illustration: WHEELING FROM THE PEG--SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT.] - -The knee, the ankle, and the pedal-pin must revolve in a circle or a -part of a circle; and each individual must find out the size of circle -that is determined by the crank that will best move in adjustment -with his individual lever combination. A small circle on the pedal may -mean cramped or uncomfortable movement for a long-limbed cyclist; or a -large pedal circle too great distance to traverse on the stroke for a -short-limbed cyclist. A stout person working on a high gear, with a -crank adapted to his requirements, makes fewer strokes of the pedal for -distance traversed, but expends more power at each stroke; therefore, -when wishing to reduce weight, he should use a low gear, working -rapidly, and when wishing to travel easily, a higher gear. A thin person -should be careful to choose such a length of crank and such a gear as -will give ease, so that undue fatigue may be avoided. - -The position of the saddle should be most carefully considered. It -should be just far enough back to permit of getting a forward pressure -on the pedal against the crank, as it were, at the top of the stroke, -and yet have something to work against in hill-climbing. The tilt or -inclination should be studied as well as the build of the saddle; its -height from the pedal should allow the foot, when on the pedal, at its -most distant point from the saddle, to press with the ball firmly on the -pedal; and yet the saddle, when the leg is extended, should not press so -as to compress the large blood vessels of the inside of the leg as it -rests against the saddle. - -The handle-bar adjustment permits of individual preference to a certain -extent. The handles should be within easy reach of the hands and below -the line of the elbow. If above the level, power is lost, and the -controlling sense of direction as well. The grip on the handles is -instinctive, and as there is much work for the hands to do, they should -be able to grip easily and quickly, and to move easily in all directions -that the handles take, retaining their controlling power undiminished. A -position with the hands reaching down a little gives more power than a -position with the hands reaching up; and in this position the leverage -of the elbows and the power of the shoulder and upper arm may be more -effectively exerted. - -Speed work should be done only on a track or a place set apart for that -kind of work; and the most delicate adjustment and balance of weight and -pressure should be studied to produce the proper results. Scorching, -also, to be effective, should be done only on a track, and the position -for the work should be planned most carefully. High speed over rough -surfaces on even well-made roads may prove disastrous if the position -for the work is not a correct one. Serious injury may result to the -bicyclist working incorrectly, with wheel out of adjustment. - -Scorching and racing, however, are not properly part of the subject of -bicycling, but are a sport, and should be separately considered. - -The adjustment of position may be changed for rest or for any particular -purpose; but for practical purposes it is well to adopt a fixed -adjustment of handle-bar and saddle and length of crank and gear, and -adhere to that, endeavoring to acquire the best form on a machine -adapted to suit your individual requirements. - -A bicycle should be used only by the person for whom it has been -adjusted; for comfort on a bicycle depends on such infinitely small -adjustments. Never lend a bicycle or a tool, and never make any change -in adjustment by guess. For ordinary use, the saddle should be a little -back of the pedals and not too high, and the handles within easy reach. -This will allow of the balance and adjustment of weight and balance to -suit changing conditions of surface and grade. - -Sprinting is often tempting, and comparatively harmless. Scorching is a -form of bicycle intoxication, and the taste once acquired, the bicyclist -craves its excitement, caring little for the other pleasures of the -sport. The scorcher sees little, hears little, and is conscious of -little but the exhilaration of the moment, and seems to be imbued with -the idea of consuming a certain amount of tissue in a given time. -Scorching is a form of bicycling hardly to be commended, and reckless -scorching is to be condemned at all times. Sprinting consumes a large -quantity of material in a limited time, and though it is well at times -to practise speeding, still the getting up of speed involves -considerable expenditure of power and greatly increased momentum, and -should be indulged in only by those who understand the limit of their -powers and know what they hold in reserve. - -The wheel of to-day was evolved on the race-track and for the conditions -determined thereon; and the amateur bicyclist owes much to the -professional wheelman. Improvements in construction, in detail, and in -adaptability have reached a certain limit, a limit of possibilities in -certain directions. It behooves us now to accept the machine and to -adapt ourselves to its requirements and to avail ourselves of all that -it offers. - -The elasticity of the machine, the resiliency of the tire, rigidity of -frame, position, vibration, and concussion should be next considered. - -On a bicycle fitted with a rigid saddle and with hard tires, well blown -up, the vibration that is conveyed through the entire machine is very -perceptible, even on a smooth wheeling surface. Over uneven country, -Belgian blocks, or other rough or corrugated surfaces, the vibration -produces concussion; and if too erect and rigid a position is -maintained, fatigue, if nothing worse, is sure to result. - -On a horse the position, while erect, is studied to lessen the -concussion; the weight is carried well under to avoid it. The flexible -curve of the spine is there, though not perceptible, as the body is held -erect and in balance. The lower part of the body becomes part of the -saddle, the upper body flexible from above the hips. The concussion -comes as each of the horse’s feet is placed on the ground; while -concussion on the bicycle is produced by the change caused by each -inequality of surface. The pneumatic tire lessens this to a degree, if -not blown up too hard; for inequalities sink into the yielding surface -that would make a wheel with a hard tire bump. - -The frame should be stiff to hold its direction, and the saddle elastic -enough to interrupt the vibration of the frame. The position on the -saddle should be studied to prevent tension or compression of any of -the joints, large or small; and the spine should be easily erect, not -stiff and rigid, but flexible. - -The sense of balance and the adjustment required to balance the bicycle -tends to keep the body flexible. The danger to be avoided is concussion -induced by a rigid position--a position where, the bones being held -closely against each other by tense muscles, shock is easily conveyed -over the entire body. - -Let the weight come well on the saddle, in such a position that it can -be shifted to the pedals at will; and let the whole trunk be flexible, -elastically flexible, equally in all directions. Then the bicycle may be -controlled almost unconsciously and from the saddle, the hands being -used only in an auxiliary manner. The front wheel may be steered and -controlled from the saddle by means of the power over the front wheel -gained by the bicycle frame construction. - -Bicycling can be thoroughly enjoyed only when the machinery ceases to -require constant and concentrated attention. The rhythmical movements of -a bicyclist at ease, master of the conditions, comes only with -confidence and the persistent practice which causes all the muscles to -move easily together in uninterrupted combinations, and the bicycle no -longer to require conscious attention. - - - - -_CHAPTER X._ - -_Difficulties to Overcome._ - - -There is the mounting difficulty and the steering difficulty and the -pedaling difficulty; and then there is the general difficulty of doing -all these things together. - -The first thing to do after learning the theory of starting and stopping -the machine is to make it go. No matter what happens, keep it going, the -faster the better, until a taste is acquired for the pastime; until the -going-forward-forever idea seems to have taken possession of you. - -Then you want to try it again, but mounting seems more difficult than -ever. The machine will not do anything it ought to do; it bucks and -kicks and stops and spills and slips, and will not stand still, or even -move on. You know how to mount, or think you know; but that knowledge -does not seem to aid materially in overcoming the tendencies of the -machine. - -Now be sure that you do know what to do. The first thing to know is that -the weight placed on the pedal starts the machine; that the foot on the -ground will hold the machine, and keep it from starting; that the -machine when in motion will move without falling, and when at rest -will not stand still unless held up. - -[Illustration: PREPARING TO MOUNT--SHOWING INCLINATION.] - -Then determine the amount of inclination the bicycle requires to balance -against your weight. The weight placed on the pedal pulls the machine up -to a vertical plane; and the inclination to be calculated for soon -becomes an accepted quantity. In gripping the handles and inclining the -machine, the balance that is felt will set you up on your wheel. - -In mounting, the beginner is apt to stand too far behind the mounting -pedal. The position should be beside it, and the mounting foot be placed -over the frame and on the pedal. Then, raising the weight by means of -the handles, step off the ground, letting the pedal take the weight. Do -not give any push from the foot on the ground, but step off the ground -as you step on the pedal. Stepping on the pedal sets the machine in -motion, and rights it at the same time. There is nothing now to do but -to let the pedal lower you to the saddle, and hold the other foot up -until the other pedal comes around and carries the foot forward. - -In mounting, the weight should be distributed between the handles and -the pedal until seated on the saddle. To practise mounting, take the -wheel, and start on a very slight down grade. Never attempt to practise -mounting against a grade, no matter how slight the inclination. A -careful instructor teaches mounting and dismounting thoroughly; but if a -poor method has been acquired, practise alone until you have gained -confidence and perhaps a few bruises. The only way to succeed is to try -and try again. Practise fifteen minutes at a time, for it is fatiguing -work; and do not become discouraged. With sufficient practice, the -difficulty vanishes. - -Never practise mounting when tired; for you should be alert, and all -your muscles responsive. But persist; practise first mounting, and then -dismounting; and then rest by walking the machine about to learn its -balance. - -Any one who rides or drives, or rows or sails, knows something of the -art of steering,--pulling or pushing on one side or the other to change -direction,--and on mounting a bicycle has only to apply knowledge -already acquired. In steering a bicycle, look directly over the centre -of the handle-bars in the direction you wish to take, and push or pull -the wheel until the centre of the bars coincides with your objective -point. This is really what is done; but the machine is so delicately -sensitive that you change its direction almost without knowing that you -are doing so. You go where you look; the hands follow the eye; and the -art of steering a bicycle resolves itself into knowing where you want to -go, and looking in that direction as you move. In steering or mounting, -always have an objective point. Look up the road well ahead, and keep -the general direction. - -A difficulty early experienced is uncertain steering and an uncertain -sense of direction. When you are out for practice, look well ahead -towards the end of your road over the handles. Novices run into anything -they look at, and must concentrate their attention, therefore, on the -direction the bicycle ought to take. - -[Illustration: INCORRECT MOUNTING POSITION.] - -The weight inclined from side to side steers the bicycle; pressure on -either pedal steers it as well. - -Correct and effective pedaling is a very difficult attainment, to be -acquired only with care and practice. First make the bicycle go, then -study how you do it, and improve your method. Keep in mind the points -that are required for correct pedaling. The early difficulty experienced -is to keep the knees and ankles in proper line. Turning the knees in and -the heels out will prevent the ankle-bones from striking, a difficulty -that many experience. - -The reason that mounting is so difficult for some is because the foot is -placed incorrectly on the pedal, with the toe pointing out. The foot -should be parallel with the frame of the bicycle, and the knee turned -in; or else, when the weight is raised, the ankle will strike, and the -discomfort of the blow will render the attempt to mount unsuccessful. -The position seems awkward until correctly acquired; but the awkwardness -is due usually to lack of confidence to come close to the machine and to -taking a position too far back of the mounting pedal. - -The change of direction on mounting often proves confusing, and the -bicycle must be steadied, and made to keep its direction at the same -time. - -Choose your direction, and assure yourself of plenty of room to work in, -away from trees or stones or other objects that might prove a source of -danger in case of collision. Then mount and go. Keep these two ideas -well in mind. If you are uncomfortable, stop and get off; don’t try to -adjust anything while in motion. When you get on, go. You cannot get on -and keep still. Do not get on unless you are ready to go; keep going -when you are on; and the mounting difficulty vanishes. - -Steer steadily, and be quick without haste. A hurried change of -direction can only be made without danger of a spill by an expert, and -then only in an emergency or for track-work. Bicycling requires -precision, and haste or hurry is out of place, while quick and alert -movement is required. - -Take the bicycle out and do as much as you can with it. Part of the fun -is conquering difficulties, and each difficulty overcome is an -achievement. - -Another difficulty experienced is striking the saddle in mounting. This -is usually due to springing from the ground to the saddle, or attempting -to do so, instead of stepping on the mounting pedal, and supporting and -holding the weight on the handle-bars. Of course, if the weight is not -supported on the machine, and the machine is started, it cannot carry -the weight forward. The saddle will strike, and push you over. Mount by -means of the handle-bars; let them take you; shift the weight up by them -on to the pedal. Then lower the weight to the saddle, step clear of the -ground, and lean a little over the bars if necessary to clear the -saddle. - -In mounting a bicycle, you mount up on the pedal, and settle from that -down to the saddle. If the pedal strikes the other foot, it is because -the foot is not held up. Do not be in dread of that other foot; hold it -well up out of the way, using the mounting foot to make the machine -go. - -[Illustration: MOUNTING--PREPARATORY POSITION.] - -Too great inclination of the machine will spoil the mount, and -insufficient inclination will have the same effect. The front wheel must -be held in line with the frame, and any wrong tendency corrected by the -handle-bars after the weight is raised on the pedal, and the machine is -upright. - -Many good tires are ruined by ineffectual efforts to mount. The machine -is pulled against the tire, and it is hard to understand why the tires -are not torn off or ripped to pieces. The light wheels are not made to -stand such usage; and it is a mistake to subject a new wheel to it. The -rubber is pulled sideways (a proper way to pull a tire off), and the -novice is fortunate if the bicycle is not all pulled out of true by -being strained in directions not calculated to resist wear and strain. A -twenty-pound wheel may be pulled out of true and so bent and untwisted -by ineffectual mounting efforts that it cannot be restored without labor -that amounts to practically rebuilding the bicycle. - -In turning a bicycle, always lean in the direction the machine is -inclined. Lean in the direction you want to go, and very little -correction will be needed from the handle-bars. In turning, lean with -the wheel, and meet it with the handle-bars. Meeting the machine is done -continually, and is done by swinging the front wheel to meet the -inclination of the bicycle on whichever side it has a tendency to fall. -Bringing up is done by pulling the wheel around a little further -quickly, and very quickly back again. The frame is lifted by the front -wheel. This is explained in the principles of bicycle construction. -When an obstacle, as a car track or rut in the road, is met, the -obstacle must be crossed squarely; or if obliged to make a different -angle, the angle should be met with the front wheel at the instant of -contact, and a proper balance maintained with the pedals. - -To stop and stand still, pedal slowly until the machine is almost ready -to stop; then “catch the pedals half way,” that is, stand on them, -rising from the saddle, having the pedals at equal heights, and -alternate the pressure. Hold the saddle firmly, pressing against both -sides to feel the balance and to hold the balance by means of the saddle -between the pedals with the weight on the feet. - -As you catch the pedals, give the front wheel a sudden twist towards the -back pedal, which will prevent the bicycle from falling on that side; -then control the balance by the weight on the other pedal, and if -necessary restore balance by a quick twist of the front wheel. The best -way to practise this is to stop near a smooth wall, and use that to -assist to steady the balance. - -Two people can stop and stand still in this way, crossing hands as in -skating, gripping the inner handles of the bicycles, and stopping by -holding the pedals and controlling the front wheels by the handles, -using the outer hand. This makes a very pretty and effective pause. - -[Illustration: CORRECT MOUNTING POSITION.] - -Numbness undoubtedly comes from interrupted circulation, caused either -by the clothing or the method of working. Numbness of the hands and -fingers may be traced generally to tight clothing, and after all -surface pressure is removed may safely be attributed to a too tight -gripping of the handles. A large soft glove often aids to prevent -numbness of the fingers; if gloves are not worn, the hand is apt to -grasp too closely. Change of position, too, will tend to counteract -numbness. It is not well to work too long at a time without a rest, if -there is any tendency of this kind. Walk up hill or on the level to -restore the circulation. - -Numbness of the foot can be caused by surface pressure, the shoes, or -the saddle. Sitting too close to the saddle while working, instead of -carrying the weight on the pedals, is apt to produce numbness of the -feet. Garters or belts will have the same effect, and must be watched -and regulated. A shoe adapted for walking is not at all suitable for -serious bicycle exercise; the strains and pressure all come in the wrong -places, and confine and numb the feet. Free ankle movement is -imperative, and freedom for the lower muscles of the calf of the leg; -room for the feet, and especially for the toes to spread and to assist -in pressing the pedal. The sole of the shoe should be stiff, to prevent -bruises from the pedals or from irregularities on the ground. - -Concussion and a consequent vibratory movement of the bicycle are -impossible to avoid, but they need not affect the wheeler injuriously. -Numbness is sometimes due to a condition of the nerves of the parts -affected by the vibratory movement. To prevent this condition of -affairs, never wheel with the weight on the hands, nor grip the handles -of the handle-bars too tight. Rest the hands lightly on the handles, -and be prepared to squeeze hard when necessary. Study the best position -and most convenient height for the hands when the machine is best under -control, and the jar and vibration are not perceived. All joints of -wrist, elbow, and shoulder should transmit any motion, not locate it, by -being fixed or rigid at any point. - -The tire of the wheel should not be hard, nor should the saddle be -fitted with springs; and it should be so placed as to allow the rider to -rise easily on the pedals for rough wheeling. These rules being -observed, serious danger from this cause need not be apprehended. - -Wheeling over cobble-stone pavement or over good Belgian blocks produces -a marked vibration in the bicycle. It would be a satisfactory test for -adjustment of position to be able to wheel over such a surface with -comfort, feeling the vibration of the bicycle hardly at all. - -The difficulty experienced in wheeling over rough surface is caused by -lack of confidence and by general stiffness of all the muscles, which -causes the full force of the vibration to be felt. In carrying the -weight on the pedals, the vibration is less intensely felt. To grip the -handles for rough surface riding is almost involuntary, but it is -accompanied by acute discomfort from vibration. Pedal work only will -meet this difficulty. - -There are different methods of mounting. The pedal mount is usually the -one first attempted on a drop-frame bicycle; the mount over the wheel on -a diamond-frame. - -[Illustration: MOUNTING--SECOND POSITION.] - -The diamond-frame mount from the peg is made in this way: Standing -directly behind the machine, the handles of the handle-bars are grasped -firmly. One foot is placed on the peg, and the wheel inclined away from -that foot; the foot on the ground gives a shove, and the bicycle moves -off, carrying the weight on the peg; and the other foot swings forward -to catch the pedal, which was a little behind the top of the circle on -starting. - -The drop-frame has several rather pretty pedal mounts and vaults. In -one, the bars are held, and the machine is started. Watch the rhythm of -the pedal, and as it passes the top of the stroke, incline the machine -away from you, place the other foot on the pedal, swing the foot next -the machine over in front, and catch the other pedal as it rises; then -sit easily on the saddle. The vault is made after starting the machine, -running or hurrying along, and springing from the ground to the saddle, -using the handles to help. The pedals are found after being seated on -the saddle; and the machine moves with the momentum given it in running -before rising in the vault. - -There is a mount from the pedal on the same side on which you are -standing. Start the bicycle, and keep along with it, watching the -pedals. As the pedal near you comes up and over the top of the curve, -step on it with the outside foot, inclining the machine well away from -you; at the same time the weight will carry the pedal around with you, -and as it rises, the other pedal and the saddle can be found. The same -mount may be made without starting the machine. Hold the machine -inclined from you; place the outside foot against the pedal until it is -at its furthest point away from you; hold the bicycle firmly, and step -on, swinging the foot off the ground around to the other pedal, in front -of the saddle, not behind it. On the diamond-frame, the same mount is -made, only the foot is swung behind the saddle, not in front of it, as -is possible on the drop-frame machine. - -To stop the bicycle with another person on it, grasp the handle-bars, -and take hold of the shoulder of the person propelling the bicycle, if -necessary. - -[Illustration: DISMOUNTING OVER THE WHEEL.] - - - - -_CHAPTER XI._ - -_Dress._ - - -The matter of dress for bicycling is quite important from the hygienic -standpoint. - -Clothing should be most carefully selected, with the view to an equal -distribution of weight and an even thickness of material; it should have -no constricting, no tight bands anywhere, but should permit of absolute -freedom of movement, and be warm enough to prevent chilling through too -great radiation of heat, yet porous enough to allow of free evaporation. - -All seasons of the year permit of cycling; the bicyclist therefore has -opportunity for much variety in dress. The essentials are -knickerbockers, shirt-waist, stockings, shoes, gaiters, sweater, coat, -no skirt, or skirt with length decided by individual preference, hat and -gloves. - -The knickerbockers should be very carefully cut; smooth and tight just -over the top of the hips, and fitting easily below; not fulled or -gathered; full at the knees, and boxed or finished with a band and -button and button-hole; nothing elastic on any account. The stockings -should be worn folded on the boxed part of the knickerbockers, below the -knees, and rolled down and held by the band of the knickerbockers, being -fastened below. This arrangement does away with garters, which compress -surface circulation, or pull if attached at the waist, causing pressure -where they pull, and are most objectionable for many reasons. The -knickerbockers should be made of cloth or woollen material. - -The shirt-waist should have wristbands or sleeves finished to open a -little way, and button; the neck finished with a band, with a detachable -collar of the same material. The body of the waist should be shaped to -the figure at the sides and back, gathered slightly in the front, and -finished at the waist-line without a band, and may be of the same -material as the rest of the suit. The knickerbockers should button to -this waist, the places for the buttons being reinforced. The stockings -should preferably be of wool, and of a seasonable weight. - -The combination of knickerbockers, shirt-waist, and stockings forms the -essential part of a cycling costume. A union under-garment may be worn -and the knickerbocker suit; over this a coat and a skirt if desired, -with a sweater for an extra wrap. - -Bicycling is warm work, and the clothing should always be rather light -in weight. For touring it must all be carried on the wheel, and yet be -heavy enough for comfort when not exercising, and not too heavy for -work, and should, moreover, allow of adjustment for changes in -temperature or for any required change in distribution. To this end, all -the clothing should be of one color or of colors that look well -together. The knickerbockers, waist, and skirt should match; then if the -coat is removed, the costume looks complete. An outfit might consist -of two suits complete, of different weights; sweaters of different -weights; wool stockings, heavy and light, that will roll below the knee -without being either bulky or tight. - -[Illustration: MOUNTING OVER THE WHEEL FROM PEG.] - -The knickerbockers are better fastened with a button, the button being -in just the right place, than with a strap and buckle, which is liable -to be pulled too tight at times. - -The shoes should be low, made of thin leather, laced well down toward -the toe, with light uppers, and soles stiff yet flexible, and made with -grooves to take the pedals and prevent slipping. Blocks or cleats on the -soles to fit the pedals are sometimes preferred, but are hardly so good -for general work. - -The gaiters may be made of almost any suitable material, leather, -canvas, or woollen, to match or contrast with the rest of the costume. -They should fit easily around the ankle and over the instep, and should -never, on any account, extend more than half way to the knee. The -muscles of the calf of the leg must have room to work; and gaiters badly -cut, or too tight or too long, would impede circulation and restrict -muscular action. - -The sweater should come well up around the neck, and pull down easily -below the saddle; it is better too long than not long enough to cover -the large muscular masses that have been at work, and may be turned up -if in the way. It should slip on easily, and be soft and woolly, and not -so cumbersome that the coat cannot slip on over it and be buttoned up to -the throat. - -The coat should be cut long-waisted, and easy across the shoulders, -single-breasted, and made to button close to the throat; the collar to -roll and remain open, but so cut that it may be easily turned up to the -ears. The sleeves should be finished with two buttons and button-holes, -so that they may be turned up a little if desired. - -There are occasions when a covert coat made of close cloth may be -useful, when out in very cold weather or standing in the wind without -shelter; but it cannot be generally recommended. - -Pockets in any part of the dress should be made of woollen material. -Cotton retains moisture, and a cotton pocket or a pocket lined with -cotton may become damp and clammy and cold, acting almost like a damp -compress. The fewer pockets, the better; but a number are often found -convenient. Everything if possible should be carried on the wheel, not -in the pockets. Metal condenses moisture and interrupts evaporation. - -As the skirt should always open at the side, and fasten with several -buttons, a convenient pocket may be placed in the placket-hole; a -watch-pocket in the skirt is a good thing, but the watch is better -carried on the wheel; and a pocket should be set aside for matches, -where they may always be found quickly. - -Collars and cuffs of linen or of celluloid, of silk or of the same -material as the suit, may be used for touring; but soft neckwear should -be worn if possible. - -If a neck-muffler is worn, it should be of cashmere, not of silk. - -Neatness is most important. Each article of dress should be carefully -adjusted and fastened. Never use pins or put things carelessly -together, hoping they will stay, but be sure that every article of dress -fits and is securely fastened, and it will never need a thought after it -is in place. - -In warm weather gloves with one button are most comfortable; for cooler -weather, four buttons, fastened about the wrists, keep the hands warm. - -The adjustment of the covering of wrists and ankles makes the greatest -difference in comfort in wheeling. In cold weather, hands and feet -should be kept warm; in hot weather, it is comfortable to work with the -cuffs turned back and wearing low shoes without gaiters. Indeed, in hot -weather it is important not to encase the ankles in heavy boots or -leggings, as these would ensure overheating. - -The outfit may be completed with a number of hats--a light straw for -summer, a soft felt for touring, and a small and becoming hat for the -park. The hat should be chosen to stay on easily, and not pinned, but -fastened under the hair with elastic, and the hair dressed to stand any -amount of blowing about. - -The skirt should not reach more than half way below the knee, and the -hem and all seams should be finished on the outside; then there will be -nothing to catch or pull. The width around the bottom may be a matter of -choice, but the skirt need not fall behind the pedal when furthest back, -and should be cut full enough in the front to permit the knees to work -easily. The top of the skirt should take the place of a waistband, -following the curves of the figure, made to flare at the top of the -waist, and fitted snugly over the hips and hanging from them. It may be -worn with or without a belt. - -The coat should be long enough to touch the saddle or hang an inch or -two below it, to protect all the vital organs and as much of the working -masses of muscle as possible. - -The sweater may be worn for coolness or warmth. As an outside garment, -it allows the air to pass through its mesh easily; worn under another -garment, it is very warm, retaining the heat. - -The color of a bicycle suit may be chosen for the kind of work to be -done; its texture may be decided suitable if, a piece being held over -the mouth, it is possible to inhale and exhale through it easily. The -cloth should be firm enough to stand wear and rough usage; smooth enough -to shed dust easily; and of a quality that will stand being wet without -shrinking, and will turn the rain if caught in a shower. It should be -firm, elastic, soft; have what is known as substance; be very light in -weight and yet not clinging; and possessing all these qualities, the -ideal cloth for bicycling should not be so expensive that it cannot be -renewed easily. - -Simplicity in detail for any garment made to work in is always -commendable, and a bicycle dress must be simple to be suitable. - -A corset, if one is worn, should not extend below the waist-line, and -should have elastic side-lacing. - -To choose what to wear when the weather is changeable is rather -difficult; and the bicyclist starting early in the morning for an -all-day outing must expect changes of temperature during the day. -Starting, the coat may be folded on the handles, and the sweater worn; -later, as the sun grows warmer, the sweater may be removed; at the -noonday halt, the coat may be donned while lunching, as it usually seems -chilly coming under cover; later in the afternoon the sweater is again -of use; and before the evening is advanced, the coat worn over the -sweater often proves acceptable. - -For touring, only an extra change of underwear, with a change of -neckwear, is needed to carry on the wheel. - -To look well at all times when bicycling, it is necessary to remember -the possible conditions that may be encountered, and to wear no garment -that may prove incongruous. - -When touring, of course, fresh toilettes may be indulged in at the -expense of extra luggage. The chief pleasure of bicycling is -independence and the joy of being free; yet a long trip without access -to the conveniences and even the luxuries of civilization, should not be -attempted. A trunk may be sent home as soon as it has been proved -unnecessary, or sent ahead and met at intervals; but its non-arrival -should never be allowed to disconcert the traveller. - -It is an accepted fact that bicycling cannot be properly enjoyed unless -the clothing is suitable. Of course, one can take a drop-frame bicycle, -mount, and wheel slowly for a short distance, barring inconveniences, in -ordinary dress; so can one swim a little if unexpectedly placed in the -water. Bicycling requires the same freedom of movement that swimming -does, and the dress must not hamper or hinder. - - - - -_CHAPTER XII._ - -_Watch and Cyclometer._ - - -Suitably attired, with a bicycle of the latest model and most perfect -construction, it matters little whether the residence be in town or -country, for the largest city is soon left behind. The country, when the -highway ceases to be passable, is easily traversable on the foot-trodden -pathway beside it. Wherever the foot has trodden, the wheel may follow, -if the path be well defined; and as the wheel can be carried easily, -there is no limit but the limit of endurance in crossing country that -cannot be wheeled over. But in order to cover distance without -dismounting and within a time limit, where the speed attained is an -element to be considered, good roads should be chosen. - -The bicycle multiplies our power of advancing by five. One who can walk -three miles in an hour can wheel fifteen miles on a bicycle, given all -the conditions necessary to attain that speed for the period of an hour. -The wonderful speed of the running and sprinting athlete is again -multiplied by five, for a short time, in the contests where wheeling -records are made. - -While increasing the distance travelled the bicycle has greatly -decreased the time limit. A person travelling afoot at the rate of three -miles an hour (the average walking gait) covers a mile in twenty -minutes, and at the end of an hour is not more than three miles from the -starting point. On a bicycle a mile is covered usually in four minutes -or less. The average distance, owing to the varied resistance met, is -not usually so great; and more power may be expended in the hour than is -required to walk three miles in the same length of time. Six miles may -be the record for an hour on a wheel, and yet the amount of work done be -very great. Until the position is adjusted to suit individual -requirements, the output of power to accomplish a certain distance, even -though it be a short one, is necessarily great. Considerable study is -necessary to work out the perfect individual adjustment of the bicycle, -weight of clothing, and amount of practice requisite to easy, rhythmical -movement; but that once attained, the world lies before you. - -Bicycling trains and quickens the perceptions; it cultivates and -develops courage, judgment, and discrimination as well as prompt -decision and quick and accurate sight. The hand follows the eye without -effort; and the machine responds to each impression received without -conscious expenditure of power. - -To cyclists is due the keen public interest recently aroused in good -roadways and in legislation to effect their construction, and the -consequent improvement in public highways. For years the amateur -cyclists of the country labored to this end in the interest of the -sport, the League of American Wheelmen intelligently preparing the minds -of the public on the subject. - -To be accomplished as a bicyclist means something more than knowing how -to wheel a bicycle and to be able to get about on it. It is necessary -besides to keep informed of the laws and ordinances relating to bicycles -and to vehicles in general; to possess a complete and accurate knowledge -of the wheel as a machine; to be able to do for it all that can be done -one’s self or to direct another who has not this knowledge; to know the -country travelled, know distance and direction; the use of map and -compass, and how to travel without them, finding the direction by sun or -stars, or even, if need be, without either; to understand the effect of -time and season on the face of nature and to cultivate the senses of the -woods. - -If, while touring with a party, you find that you have missed the way in -a strange country and that something about the bicycle has given out, -calm decision is requisite. Estimate your resources, and keep quiet. Do -not try to find your party; let them find you. Study your wheel-tracks; -if off the line of travel, follow them carefully to where they join the -tracks of your companions. Then wait until some one comes for you. Rest -or be busy about your wheel. Do what you can easily, not to be tired and -worn out when your companions find you. It is seldom wise to try and -walk after the party; the only object in moving would be to keep warm, -for a chill must be avoided. - -There is a wonderful difference in the distances covered under different -conditions. Winds, adverse or favorable, affect the bicyclist more than -anything else. An unfavorable wind is one directly ahead or that can be -felt on either cheek while advancing. A favorable wind is one that blows -on the back, or cannot be felt on either cheek while looking ahead. A -wind blowing directly at right angles with the direction of the wheel is -a favorable wind; you unconsciously balance against it, and the bicycle -glides forward under pressure as a boat does with the sail trimmed in. - -When starting out, note the weather conditions; what the prevailing -winds are and what the changes are likely to be during the time you -expect to be on your bicycle. If the wind is west or northwest, do not -take that direction for the run out, unless the trip is to be a short -one. Always try to have the wind with you, both going and returning. -Learn the peculiarities of the weather and study the government weather -reports; they are of quite as much assistance to the bicyclist as to the -mariner who knows how to use them; for winds frequently change their -direction, and the indications for such changes should be sought and -studied. - -If a short trip is planned, as the wind is not likely to change during -the run, start out against the wind; that is, plan to do the hardest -work first, and let the wind help on the return. Avoid hard work -whenever possible. Hill-climbing against the wind is the hardest kind of -work; with the wind to assist, even quite steep hills may often be -coasted part of the way up, and all easy grades taken with the feet off -the pedals. Coasting should be indulged in with discretion, or the -bicycle may run away with you. Check speed at the first indication that -the wheel is escaping control by applying the brake and catching the -pedal, back pedaling at the same time. On a public road, the bicycle -should never be beyond control. - -To thoroughly enjoy an outing, road, direction, and atmospheric -conditions should be studied. If you are out for several hours’ spin in -chilly weather, there is little pleasure to be had in exploring; but in -weather when the temperature permits of stops without danger to health, -frequent dismounts and short-distance trips across country are -enjoyable. One of the pleasures of bicyclists is the good fellowship -existing between them, which is rarely disturbed. On the bicycle -conversation is interrupted by long pauses, by intervals of silence, -when each rider is alone, with opportunity for reflection and mental -expansion. - -On long trips note first the general direction of the road, the wind, -and the sun; try to have the wind with you and the sun behind you for -the better part of the day. Be able to change your plans quickly to meet -changed conditions, and have a reserve of grit to fall back on if things -do not go quite to your liking. Dressed for bicycling, it matters little -whether it rains or shines; but wind, sand, and stones make impossible -conditions for the bicyclist. When wind has reached a certain velocity, -wheeling becomes unsafe. Mud causes the wheels to slip and prevents -them from turning; sand does the same. A surface offering little or no -resistance is impossible. Stones are dangerously liable to cause spills, -while ruts and bumps twist the bicycle and are apt to throw the rider. - -In the autumn months, when the sun sets early, a lantern should be -provided even when it seems an absurdly unnecessary encumbrance; for a -town or village where the ordinances are strict may lie on the route, -and the unlucky bicyclist without a light must go afoot. - -Of course, speeding cannot be attempted with the bicycle encumbered; but -with all the extras, a good average speed may be maintained. The -bicyclist wishing for freedom from all encumbrance is apt to forget -unpleasant possibilities. A punctured tire thirty miles from anything is -such a possibility; so, though the tool-kit weighs something, it can -never prudently be dispensed with. - -Have the bicycle all ready, and start free from care and with a quiet -mind, after a last careful and reassuring inspection of the machine. -Starting from a town with a perfectly running machine, the attention is -first directed to getting into the country easily, either by train or by -wheeling. In wheeling, streets free from traffic and with the best -possible surfaces should be chosen. - -Country wheeling is often good when city work is impossible. The dangers -of city wheeling are traffic, car tracks, and mud. City mud is usually -of a greasy nature, very difficult to wheel over. Even pedaling is very -necessary, and uneven pressure on the pedals means a side spill. - -In wheeling over mud, never attempt to control the machine by the front -wheel; it must be controlled by the pedals. If too much pressure is -used, there is nothing left but to step off. Do not try to recover by -means of the front wheel; the attempt will be useless, and a fall can be -avoided only by stepping off. Keep the front wheel steady, and rely on -the weight-carrying wheel to take you clear of the mud. Keep a sharp -lookout, and travel slowly. Any one can make a bicycle go. - -Get out of town, and then be ready to pedal up to time on the first -clear stretch of good road. Make time, but never hurry. Never work hard -over hill-work or try to go fast against the wind. When using -side-paths, always recollect they may be protected by local ordinances. -Keep posted on the law of the road, taking to the highway on approaching -towns and villages. If the work is hard, travel slowly, and look ahead. -Two good rules are--To travel fast, look well ahead; and watch the -ground when there is a hard bit of road to pass over. - -A good stiff pull against the wind can be accomplished easily, really -easily, if you take your time, giving full attention to pedaling, and -keeping the eyes a short distance ahead of the wheel. It is much easier -to rest on the bicycle by slowing than to dismount. In cold weather, -never stop without seeking shelter, at least the lee of bank or wall; -and keep away from a fire, as it renders one liable to take cold. -Nothing is so dangerous in frosty weather as a pause of even a few -minutes dismounted. - -In warm weather, it is permissible to drink water when wheeling; but it -should be remembered that the bicyclist passes through all sorts of -country, and the water may sometimes be anything but drinkable from a -sanitary point of view, even causing typhoid and other fevers. Water -that has been boiled is unpalatable, but it is safe; boiled and cooled, -it may be rendered more palatable by shaking it or pouring it from one -pitcher to another to mix air with it. Ice in water is another source of -danger. The water, after being boiled or filtered, should be placed in -bottles with absorbent cotton for stoppers, and cooled by being placed -on ice. Muddy water may be cleansed with a piece of alum. If a lump of -alum is stirred about for a second or two in a pail or pitcher of muddy -water, and then the water allowed to settle, it will be found fit to -boil for drinking. Bottled waters are safest when the country is unknown -or when there is doubt as to the purity of the local supply; but failing -these, the precautions mentioned will ensure safety. - -Never prolong bicycle exercise without eating, and never work after a -hearty meal; but the consumption of a couple of sandwiches at noon -cannot be regarded as a serious meal; and it is often better to push on -after a short halt, moving slowly, than to sit around on rocks or stumps -to wait for a proper digestive period to elapse. It is well to have a -small reserve supply of food, such as chocolate or beef tablets, to tide -one over a prolonged period between meals. Milk and bread and cheese -are good to take as an extra meal. Never work hungry if it can be -avoided; the bicycle will lag, and the cyclist wonder at being weary. -Keep up the food supply by all means, for fatigue sets in quickly with -the desire for food, and the system quickly becomes enfeebled. - -The cyclometer registers each revolution of the wheel, and by an -ingenious mechanism the dial gives the record in miles. There is a great -temptation to roll up miles, that the cyclometer may make a good -showing; indeed, this striving after mileage often becomes a ruling -passion, interfering with the real pleasures of the sport. - -The pedestrian, accustomed to noting distances, can usually judge the -rate or pace travelled, and decide very accurately upon the distance -traversed, with only the time as a guide; for the pace, so many miles an -hour, multiplied by the number of hours, gives the distance. - -On the bicycle the pace is very easily estimated in a similar manner. -Count the strokes per minute as each knee rises, divide that by two, and -you have the number of revolutions of the crank. The gear gives the -diameter of the wheel larger than the one on the bicycle; sixty-four -gear, for instance, means that the crank revolution covers a distance -equal to a wheel with a diameter of sixty-four inches. The circumference -of a wheel is three times its diameter; and 64 multiplied by 3 equals -192 inches measured on the ground for one revolution of the crank. -Multiply the distance measured on the ground by the crank revolution by -the number of strokes made per minute, divide by twelve to give the -number of feet the crank has covered in one revolution, and you have the -distance in feet travelled per minute. To find the rate of miles per -hour, multiply that result by 60 to find the number of feet travelled -per hour, and divide the result by 5280, the number of feet in a mile. -The watch should have a second hand for bicycle work. The cyclometer -taken for five minutes, then multiplied by twelve, gives the rate of -mileage per hour, a very convenient way of ascertaining the rate of -speed per hour. - -It is well to know the rhythm of stroke of a certain rate per hour, for -it is often of assistance in determining distance, and will frequently -prevent a hurry when train connections are to be made, by assuring you -that you are easily travelling a pace that will take you to your -destination on time. - -The alertness and quickness of perception that bicycling cultivates seem -marvellous. A road, previously accepted as ordinarily good, becomes full -of pitfalls that the wary learn to avoid. Slippery or uneven surfaces, -tacks and broken glass, are to be noted and avoided, inequalities -allowed for, and preparation made to overcome the tendency of the -machine on unexpected hard bits of road. - -One of the dangers of sidepath wheeling often encountered is a slippery -spot or a place where the surface may give way, such as the edge of a -bank along which the path runs, with a fence on the other side. Here, if -the bicycle slips, the bicyclist is pretty sure to be thrown against the -fence. In sidepath wheeling a sharp lookout must be kept for these -slippery spots and weak edges, and also for stones or stumps that run -through the uneven surface. - -A first coast on a hill whose pitch has been miscalculated, and which -proves steeper than was anticipated, is a terrible surprise. To find -one’s self clinging desperately to a runaway machine, with no hope save -in the ascending grade that seems so far away, is anything but a -pleasant experience. In such case sit still, hold fast, keep straight, -and if nothing is in the way to collide with, there is hope, barring -unexpected surface obstacles. The coaster’s safety in steering lies in -swaying; the pedals are out of the question, and the front wheel is -better undisturbed. A slight inclination to either side will alter the -course of the bicycle without interfering with balance or momentum, and -the hands can be ready, gripping hard, to keep the wheel steady. - -In coasting, sit well in the saddle, letting that take the whole weight, -and do not push too hard with the feet on the coasters. The feet should -not be braced against the coasters, but should rest easily against them -with an even pressure. - -To learn to coast, practise at first either on a slight or a small -grade; another way is to get up speed on the level, and take one foot -off at the time. The most marvellous experience of bicycling is to have -a wind carry you coasting up hill--a wind, too, that is seemingly -adverse, or at least not directly favorable. - -Trust to the map, the watch, and the cyclometer to locate your -whereabouts, and do not place too much faith in answers to inquiries, -unless you are speaking to a bicyclist; for people unaccustomed to -accurate judgment differ greatly in their estimation of a given distance -or a general direction. You need only stop three or four times in a mile -or two, and inquire the way to a town say five or six miles distant, to -be convinced of this fact. - - - - -_CHAPTER XIII._ - -_Women and Tools._ - - -Most women can sew on a button or run up a seam; sewing, in fact, is -regarded rather as a feminine instinct than an art. There are many -capable people in the world, both men and women, who can comprehend at a -glance the use or the application of an article or an idea--people who -instinctively use their eyes and hands with ease and accuracy; there are -others who learn more slowly to use their mechanical senses; and there -are also those whose attention has never been called to certain simple -mechanical facts and details that they are quite capable of -understanding. To all the mastery of these facts means an expenditure of -more or less time, and in this busy world of ours, there is nothing so -much appreciated or so carelessly wasted. It is my intention to place -before my readers a few simple mechanical explanations. - -I hold that any woman who is able to use a needle or scissors can use -other tools equally well. It is a very important matter for a bicyclist -to be acquainted with all parts of the bicycle, their uses and -adjustment. Many a weary hour would be spared were a little proper -attention given at the right time to your machine. - -[Illustration: STARTING A NUT.] - -Ask any carriage maker or coachman, and he will tell you that everything -on wheels needs attention. Any owner or lover of horses will say that -horses require constant care. The bicyclist is the motor, the horse; the -bicycle, the vehicle. These ideas should remain distinct. When you mount -a wheel, you do not mount an iron horse; you are a human propelling -power, and the bicycle is a carriage. - -It is all important to work without unnecessary effort, and for this you -must have a knowledge of bicycle construction, how to make the machine -run smoothly, and how not to injure the human motor or the mechanism. -The human body is so beautifully self-adjustable that it may be safely -attributed to ignorance or neglect if anything goes wrong with it. -Attention should always be paid at the right time to nature’s warnings; -they are danger-signals, and if disregarded, unpleasant results are sure -to follow. A little common-sense goes far; and with that and a right -knowledge--not necessarily an extensive knowledge--of the working of the -human machine, there need be little to fear from injuries resulting from -athletic exercise. - -The amount of work different individuals can perform, of course, varies. -Find out how much work you ought to do, and do it. A physician is the -only competent judge of your limitations. Never attempt any new form of -exercise without being examined for it. Sensible people when they -purchase a horse require a veterinary certificate to accompany the -guarantee; and the work the horse is to do is planned according to the -ascertained amount the animal is capable of performing. If it is right -for you to wheel but five miles every other day, and at a certain hour -only, it does not follow that that is always to be your limit. Practice -accomplishes great results; and the strength and endurance that come of -exercise taken regularly, under proper conditions, seems marvellous to -those who, after a course of proper preparation, attempt and accomplish -with pleasure and ease what at first seemed impossible. It is hard, of -course, to see some one else do what you would like to do and cannot; -but it is weak not to be able to say, “I have done enough, and I must -stop.” There are many other people similarly placed. - -The bicycle may be so adapted and adjusted as to enable bicyclists of -different powers to work together and enjoy a fair amount of -sociability; for if one has wheeled around the world, why should that -spoil one’s pleasure in wheeling around a block? To wheel alone is not -much pleasure. Find some one to wheel around the block with you, and you -have the beginning of a club. - -Many people do not understand what is best for them. The experienced -athlete knows the amount of work he can do, and what must be done and -avoided to enable him to do his work well. Women and girls are able to -do good work, but they should not expect to accomplish such a result -through ignorance or neglect. They must be willing to study and to give -proper attention to important details, and their knowledge of the -subject must be sufficient to enable them to use judgment and -discrimination. Almost any form of athletics will aid in cultivating -these qualities; and bicycling has besides valuable educational features -of its own. A certain familiarity with mechanics is assured by a course -of bicycling, for it is impossible to handle a bicycle without taking -some degree of interest in its construction. - -Women must expect ridicule and little sympathy from experienced cyclists -if they essay feats they should not attempt. Many decide that a thing -must be easy of accomplishment because they have seen some one do it -easily. Easy muscular work, however, is the result of strength, -confidence, and precision of movement, which come only from practice. -All new muscular movements and combinations of movements must be -learned; they cannot be acquired hurriedly with good results. People who -can work well are usually patient with a beginner who is doing his best, -knowing themselves what it means to work hard and to face disappointment -and failure and what is involved in repeated effort. The ambitious are -liable to over-exertion, the timid not to practice enough. - -There is much prejudice against athletic exercise for women and girls, -many believing that nothing of the kind can be done without over-doing; -but there is a right way of going about athletics as everything else. -Prejudice can be removed only by showing good results, and good results -can be accomplished only by work done under proper restrictions. To do a -thing easily is to do it gracefully; and grace, without properly -balanced muscular action, is impossible; grace is the embodiment of -balance, strength, and intelligence. Jerky movement indicates lack of -muscular development and training. - -The human machine is capable of a seemingly unlimited series of muscular -movements and combined muscular motions. Any training or practice of -mind or muscles assists to fit them for new combinations. But little -time is necessary to learn to know how to do and what to do, though the -subjects to be considered, mechanics and physiology, are exhaustive and -extensive in their range. - -It is always a pleasure to do a thing well, whether it is handling a -needle or using a screw-driver; and the art of using either successfully -is not difficult to acquire. With the bicycle it is necessary to know -what to do; the human motor, unless pushed beyond reasonable limits, is -self-adjusting. Over-taxing is the result often of too great ambition, -of failure to keep in view the proper aim of exercise, and sacrificing -health and ultimate success for passing vanity. The bicycle is but the -means to the end, first of all, of health--health of mind and body. The -human mechanism is far more difficult to adjust when out of order than -the mechanism of the bicycle. In bicycling, the two machines are one and -interdependent. The foot on the pedal pushing the crank is but one point -of application of power conveyed by a series of levers, actuated by -muscles, controlled by nerves, supplied and directed by accumulated -power. - -[Illustration: ADJUSTING A WRENCH.] - -We hear of horse-power as a unit; we have also human power--the amount -of power the average individual can exercise. Food supplies material to -be converted into power, stored and transmuted in the human system -either for use or waste, as the case may be. Energy or power, unless -applied within a specified time, is given off as heat, etc. Less food -is needed, loss of appetite follows, if too little work is done. The -muscular tissues become almost useless, it is an effort to do any kind -of work; the power is not there. By gradual and persistent practice, -strength is acquired, and power stored in reserve. Exercise tends to -strengthen, not to weaken; over-exercise uses up stored power and newly -acquired power as well; longer periods of rest are needed to renew the -wasted tissues than is necessary when exercise is not carried to excess. -It must be kept in mind when bicycling that rider and wheel are a -complete, compound, combined mechanism, and mechanically inseparable. -The wheeler’s weight, when shifted or inclined, affects his equilibrium, -and wheeler and bicycle are as much one as a skater and his skates. - -Levers and their application; power, stored, distributed, or wasted; how -to prevent waste and acquire reserve; proper adjustment to mechanical -environment, translated to mean the use of a few common tools, and their -application to the adjustment of the bicycle; and the care, adjustment, -and proper preparation of the machine for work, are points of such -importance that too much stress cannot be laid on them. A little -thought, a little attention at the right time, prepares for emergencies, -for cheerful work, and for the enjoyment of the exercise, and the health -and accumulated benefits sure to follow. - - - - -_CHAPTER XIV._ - -_Tools and How to Use Them._ - - -“A nut is a piece of metal adapted to screw on the end of a bolt.” “A -bolt is a stout metallic pin adapted for holding objects together.” The -nut is to the bolt what the knot is to the thread, to keep it from -slipping through. Iron and steel are fibrous materials, and very hard; -though strong, they are also brittle. Indeed, these metals, and metals -generally, resemble molasses candy in their nature more than any other -familiar substance that will serve for illustration. When heated, they -become soft and liquid; when cold, they are tough, hard, and even -brittle. A few powerful, sharp blows with a heavy object are enough to -fracture a piece of metal. Direct, heavy blows or tapping on the end of -a bolt will flatten and alter its shape sufficiently to cause the edges -to project, a very little seemingly, but enough to render it useless. - -[Illustration: APPLYING POWER.] - -If you wish to remove a bolt that seems to fit too tight and resists -ordinary methods, place the nut on the bolt, and screw it on level, so -that the end of the bolt will be flush or even with the top of the nut. -Then lay your piece of wood, quite smooth and flat, on the nut and bolt, -covering both, and hammer gently on that with a heavy hammer, with -gentle, short, sharp, even strokes. The most obstinate bolt will usually -yield to this method of persuasion. Should a burr have formed on the end -of a bolt, a file is necessary to remove it; and filing off a burr is a -somewhat lengthy and tedious operation. - -Unscrew a nut gently and examine it. On the inside will be found a -spiral groove and a spiral ridge or thread. Examine the bolt, and -observe a similar spiral groove and thread. These, when screwed -together, prevent slipping, and the nut cannot be pulled or pushed off. -To remove the nut, it is necessary to turn it; and always turn one way, -from left to right, if the nut lies uppermost. - -To keep a nut from unscrewing by jarring, etc., screw it down until it -jams, as it is called, firmly against the surface it rests on. If -screwed too tight, it will burst or break the thread, or if enough force -is applied the bolt may break. This hardly seems possible until we -realize that in the wrench we possess a very powerful lever, capable of -destroying quite a large bolt and its accompanying nut. If pains be -taken always to start a nut on square and to turn gently and firmly and -not too fast, the previous instructions may prove unnecessary. - -There are usually two kinds of wrench in a bicycle outfit--an adjustable -wrench with sliding jaw, and one or more key-wrenches, so called because -made to fit particular parts of the machine, and to be used for them -only. The adjustable wrench with sliding jaw should be used with the -pressure or pull coming on the angle of the head, and the sliding jaw -so placed as to hold its position, the wrench applied so that the -greatest strain is taken at the strongest part; then the faces of the -jaw keep smooth and true, and will not deface the plating or polish of -the machine. - -There is another point to note--that a properly adjusted wrench starts a -nut easily, while if the strain is taken on the movable jaw of the -wrench, there is give enough in the wrench itself to prevent the nut -from starting, and the wrench slips off the nut without effecting its -object. The handle of the wrench acts as a lever, and the head of the -wrench forms a right angle with the handle; it is here that the power is -centred, not at the angle made by the movable jaw. Of course, this -position seems the reverse of proper until it is analyzed; but once -understood and adopted, it will prove most effective. - -There are various screws in and about the machine. A screw is defined as -a bolt or bar having a thread cut upon it spirally, so that it will -enter a hole in which a corresponding spiral groove and thread have been -cut, or on which they will be formed by the screw entering the hole. The -thread and screw interwind and prevent the screw from being withdrawn -unless it is turned. To turn the screw, a notch is cut on one end, which -is made flat for that purpose, and the other end of the screw is -pointed, to enable it to enter the hole easily. After a screw is placed -and started in its proper hole, it is only necessary to turn it until it -is driven home. To turn the screw, a short bar is flattened thin to -enter the notch on the end of the screw. - -[Illustration: SCREWING UP.] - -The screw-driver should be held and turned with one hand, and steadied -and guided with the other. Metal is not so hard but that the leverage of -the screw-driver is enough to bend the notches on the end of a screw, -and thus render it useless. The question may be raised, Why are not -screws made harder? If metal is tempered too hard, it becomes brittle, -and flies. A well-tempered screw should be neither too hard nor too -soft, but adapted for its particular use or position. - -A screw should always be made clean before it is screwed home, any -particle of dust or rust being liable to injure the thread and spoil the -screw. If the screw is oily or greasy, it will work loose. All screws, -bolts, etc., therefore, should be carefully wiped, and never placed -where there is any chance for even a little dust to settle upon them. A -nut with a small grain of sand inside will burst or break the thread of -the bolt. - -Bolts and screws are used to hold different parts together or in place -and to give strength and firmness. - -There is usually an oil-can belonging to every machine, and a bicycle -should be provided with a good one, small, light, and easily carried; -and special care should be taken that it does not leak. A greasy oil-can -is unpleasant to handle and almost useless, as it cannot be handled -properly. The least possible amount of oil that can be used is the -proper quantity. Greasy bearings only collect dust, and the dust follows -the oil back into the friction surfaces, where its presence is always -undesirable. - -Two kinds of lubricant are used on a bicycle--oil and graphite. A -lubricant is used to diminish friction where two or more surfaces move -over each other. If these surfaces are of the same material and the same -degree of hardness, they do not slip; but the unevennesses of the -surfaces engage each other and cause resistance, which produces -friction, and friction causes heat, and the parts move more and more -slowly, until at last they stop. Now, if a substance of a different -character, like oil or graphite, is introduced between the moving -surfaces, it forms little cushions, which prevent the two surfaces from -coming into close contact; and, as the oil or graphite splits up readily -into minute particles, the surfaces slip upon that, instead of holding -fast. A smooth surface of metal is full of inequalities, perceptible -when magnified, and slipping past each other with as much difficulty as -would surfaces of sand paper. Only oil of the best quality and pure -graphite should be used. Nothing sticky or gritty in its nature should -be allowed near bearing surfaces. - -The pump is an all-important and indispensable adjunct of the pneumatic -tire. Each tire is fitted with a valve, and accompanied by a pump with -which to inflate it. A valve is a lifting, sliding cover, connected with -an aperture to prevent the passage of air or other fluids, and so -constructed that the pump forces the cover down, and the air pushes -past. The cover is held in place by a spring and air pressure, and, -fitting tightly against a washer of some soft, impervious material, -makes an air-tight joint, and will not move unless displaced. The pump -itself is fitted with a valve to fill its cylinder or barrel with -air, and to hold the air after the cylinder is full and when the plunger -of the pump is forcing the air out of it again. A flexible tube coupling -is used to connect the pump-barrel with the valve of the tire. - -[Illustration: UNSCREWING.] - -The valves are of many patterns and sizes, and there are pumps made to -fit special tires, and pumps that will in a manner suit almost any -ordinary valve. It is most important to note that all the washers about -the pump and valves are in place. Deflated tires are often caused by a -misplaced washer; and though valves are so constructed that it is not -easy to disturb the washers, still it is well to know where they are and -when they require attention. Washers wear out and require renewing, and -sometimes a defective washer should be replaced; they are usually made -of rubber or leather, but metal washers are sometimes used where there -is much pressure or friction. - -The metal used in bicycle construction must be finished, smoothed, and -prepared to resist the corroding effects of the atmosphere and to -present an attractive and durable exterior. The metal used for the -different parts must be smoothed and polished; all foreign substances, -like grease, removed from their surface by a chemical process; and -lastly a coating of nickel deposited on the surface by means of -electricity. The nickel in this way becomes a part of the original -metal, and protects its surface from rust and corrosion. A well-nickeled -piece of metal, beautifully polished, and kept free from finger marks, -loses its lustre only when neglected. Of course, there are other ways -of finishing the surface of the metal parts of the bicycle; other -plating metal may be substituted for the nickel, and other finish than -polish used. - -Light wheels cannot be recommended for rough country or for very fast -work over only moderately good roads. A certain weight of material has -been taken from the bicycle to make it light; the machine begins to lose -its rigidity and consequently its accuracy, and cannot maintain its -direction, but wavers, and really travels further to attain a given -distance. The weight of a bicycle should depend on the roads it is to -cover and the purposes it is to serve. Very light wheels wear out -quickly; they cannot stand the strain of practice. Beginners, therefore, -should choose a wheel that can endure the handling they will give it. - -A very light, well-made, and delicately adjusted bicycle can carry a -skilled cyclist anywhere; but a light wheel sooner loses its accuracy, -and is then more difficult to work than a heavier wheel that runs true. -Heavy wheels are not to be endured; light wheels, too light wheels, not -to be encouraged. - - - - -_CHAPTER XV._ - -_Solving a Problem._ - - -When choosing a wheel, you should know what you want and why you want -it. Machines are built for special purposes, and any reliable dealer can -help you in selecting a machine and will guarantee satisfaction. -Bicycles wear out, of course, but with proper care they may be made to -last a long time. - -Careful examination of your wheel should always be made before starting -for even a short ride; and on returning it is well to test gear and -pedals, to look at spokes and tires. Any needed repair can be noted, and -attended to at convenience. Always examine your bicycle thoroughly after -a collision, for shocks are dangerous even to the toughest metal, and -such precaution may prevent a serious accident. - -On returning from a ride the wheel should have a thorough going over, -the enamel dusted, and any mud washed off with a wet sponge. The chain, -if your machine has one, should be taken off every two or three hundred -miles of dusty road, and soaked in kerosene over night; the nickel or -metal well dusted, rubbed with a chamois, and polished; and all the -bearings, axles, and gear carefully wiped, and dust and grit removed. -Then the chain should be replaced, oiled, graphited, and the bearings -oiled. - -The chain is a complicated mechanism, consisting of many repetitions of -parts; it should be kept clean and well lubricated. To apply graphite, -turn the wheel upside down, hold the graphite still against the chain, -and turn the wheel. The oil is needed in the joints of the chain; the -graphite where the chain engages the cogs. The other parts used for -applying power need the usual care given to the best machines--absolute -cleanliness, freedom from grit, and thorough lubrication. - -The chain is at present a mechanical detail only, and the application of -power to the wheel capable of a great variety of forms. The principle -remains the same, the application of power; the mechanical contrivance -for transmitting it is a detail of construction. The difference of -individuality can be compensated for in the length of the lever, size -and number of gear, size of wheel, diameter of wheel, and width of -tread. - -The ideal machine requires little adjustment. The less the screws, the -nuts, and the bearings are wrenched, the more perfect is the machine, -the more free from wear and dents and scratches. To apply a wrench is a -serious responsibility that should not be undertaken lightly. It seems -easy, and yet skilled men are employed just for that kind of work, for -it is work requiring the precision of the trained mechanic. - -[Illustration: PREPARING TO TURN THE BICYCLE OVER.] - -After purchasing a watch, the owner does not at once investigate the -machinery; yet many, because the tools are at hand, are tempted to -experiment on a bicycle. A bicycle, like a watch, should be ready to -run, and only require winding up to keep it going. It should be -adjusted; and if it needs regulating, this should be done by people who -understand the machine and have the requisite knowledge and -responsibility to do well what is to be done. Two rules may be laid down -for one who does not study mechanical details--never to touch the -bicycle except to ride it; and never to let any one else touch it who -has not skill and experience. - -This practice will prove satisfactory until some day, miles from home, -the bicycle will not go; you carry it more miles to the nearest -conveyance, and send it home. There you have it examined, and find that -a touch sets it free; just as sometimes, when your watch will not go, -you take it to a watchmaker, and he examines it, winds it up, and hands -it back, telling you there is no charge. After learning to wheel a -bicycle, therefore, the next step should be to learn to care for it. -Unless somewhat familiar with machinery, it is bewildering to -contemplate taking the thing apart and putting all those parts together -again; even more bewildering is it, having taken the thing apart, not to -be able to put it together. In such case, there is nothing to do but to -gather the pieces of the puzzle, and send them to be set up. If in this -extremity a friend who knows all about a bicycle should offer -assistance, it is well to hear what he has to say before he undertakes -the work. “I do not think your wheel is just like mine,” perhaps, or -“Where do these things belong?” is enough for the wise. Better send to -the shop for a machinist at once. All the parts of the bicycle are made -to go together in one way, and any attempt at experiment may injure the -mechanism. - -When you undertake to investigate a bicycle for the first time, take an -old one as a subject, and endeavor to put it in perfect running order. -If an old bicycle cannot be had, proceed with much circumspection. Go -where you will be undisturbed, where there is plenty of room, and where -a key may be turned if there is possibility of interruption. There is -sure to be some oil and grease spattered about, in spite of the utmost -care, and it is well to remember this while making preparations. Have -ready a pile of old newspapers, some cups, plates, and boxes, and a -painting apron if you possess one; if not an old skirt and apron, and -sleeves well rolled up. For tools, a monkey-wrench, two or three -screw-drivers, large as well as small, a hammer, one or two pieces of -wood, the bicycle kit, oil, graphite, a can of kerosene, some -cheesecloth and canton flannel, and a large wooden box. - -Take two newspapers folded in half, and put them on the floor for the -saddle and handle-bars; then turn the bicycle upside down, and arrange -the newspapers under the saddle and handles. If there is a bell, take it -off, or place a block under the opposite end of the bar to balance it. -Before turning the bicycle over, remove the lantern, if there is one on -the bicycle, as the oil will be spilled out if the lamp is turned upside -down. - -[Illustration: TURNING THE BICYCLE OVER.] - -Begin by carefully removing all mud and grit from the bicycle. Wear -old gloves, and remove mud with the hand when possible, finishing with a -cheese-cloth duster and an old oily cloth. Go over all the joints where -the wheels turn, and remove every particle of grit, then remove mud and -dust. - -An experienced worker, to save labor, cleans each piece as it comes off, -but the beginner must work more slowly. Have ready a shallow box or tray -to receive the parts as they are removed. Lay each part, as it is taken -off, in the tray, with the oily side up, for a guide. First, remove the -chain, turn it until the nut of the little screw-bolt is found. This -little bolt forms one of the link-pins, and can be found quite readily. -One end of the bolt has a screw-head notch, and the other a nut and -thread. Use the small bicycle screw-wrench for this, a large -screw-driver, and a small screw-driver to fit the screw. Turn the chain -until the bolt is in a convenient position, then take the large -screw-driver or a rod, and place through the spokes of the rear wheel, -letting the bar rest on the frame. This will prevent the wheel from -turning, and keep the pedals and sprocket-wheel in position; your -fingers may be caught and badly cut if this precaution is not taken. -Fasten the small wrench on the little nut, and hold it there with one -hand, with the other unscrewing the little screw with a small -screw-driver. Should the screw fail to yield easily, a drop or two of -kerosene will soften the rust and grit, and help to start it. - -Return the nut to the screw end, and place it on the tray. Take hold of -one end of the chain, and remove the bar that steadies the rear wheel, -then turn one of the pedal cranks, and the chain will come off in your -hand. The chain should be placed in kerosene and left to soak. - -The enamel of the frame should then be carefully rubbed and polished -with canton flannel. A clean piece should be kept for the purpose, for -if greasy it gives a dull look to the enamel. The plating should be -first polished with a cloth, and then if dull with whiting. Nickel -plating takes a beautiful polish with electro-silicon used on canton -flannel. - -Go carefully over each oil-cup, and be sure it is cleaned, and work -around the ends of the axles. Ascertain if either wheel needs adjusting, -and look carefully to see that the rims are true. A good way to do this -is to hold a pencil-top on the frame against the rim of the wheel, and -spin the wheel. If it touches evenly all around, the wheel is true; if -uneven, take the bicycle to a repair shop and have the wheels trued as -soon as possible. - -After cleaning all the bearings, put oil in the oil-cups and replace the -chain. It is well to leave the chain soaking in kerosene, and later hang -it up to drip, and when dry, it will be found bright and clean; or keep -a can of lubricating oil in which to soak the chain, and after draining -it thoroughly, wipe clean before replacing on the machine. Take an -oil-can, and oil each separate rivet. Start the chain on the sprocket, -and pull it over the rear sprocket by turning a pedal crank, bringing -the ends on the lower side. Place the bar across as before, to keep the -sprocket from moving, and then replace the little screw-bolt, using a -small wrench, and a screw-driver that fits the screw. Remove the bar, -see that the chain is not too tight, and note if it requires any taking -up, an adjustment that is done in the rear wheel. - -[Illustration: THE BICYCLE TURNED OVER.] - -Hold the stick of graphite on a convenient surface of the chain, and -turn the cranks; then dust the chain to take off any small lumps of the -lubricant, and the wheel is ready to be run. Examine the tires and -valves, see that the tires are not too soft, and inflate them. See that -the valves are in order, then set the wheel right side up. Replace bell -and lantern, rub off any finger-marks, and the bicycle is ready. - -If the bicycle has been running for some time, and in spite of the care -bestowed on it, the chain runs a little heavy, the pedals don’t spin as -they should, or the cranks revolve as often as they might, and the -wheels are sluggish, there is no remedy but to take down the bicycle, -clean it thoroughly, set it up and adjust it. It will require several -hours’ hard work to do this, combined with a knowledge of machinery and -a knowledge of bicycle working, or else enterprise, care, and common -sense. - -Begin work on a wheel perfectly free, as far as the outside can be made -so, from sand, mud, and grit. Remove the chain and put it to soak. Have -a pan of kerosene, and place each small part in that to soak, and any -part that has friction surface or is notably oily or greasy. - -Begin serious work on a pedal, which is small and easily handled. If the -pedal is a removable one, take it off. If the spindle is stationary, -take off the movable parts, first the nuts or screws, then loosen the -cones, having a box placed underneath to catch the balls if any should -fall out. Support the box well up under the pedal, as the balls bounce -and jump about. Even if you have had the pedals off before, and know how -it is done, it is well to have something to catch the balls, as -otherwise you must atone for any mistake by a scramble. Place the balls -in a separate dish of kerosene, and carefully count them. Wipe the -movable parts of the pedals with a cloth wet in kerosene, and finish -with a dry cloth. - -In taking a pedal down, the place of each part should be carefully -noted, so that it may be a simple matter to replace the parts. If, the -first pedal being now apart, the novice is confused, there is the other -pedal to afford comparison. Study that, then return the parts of the -dismembered pedal to their proper places, and adjust them. The balls may -prove troublesome; but a screw-driver dipped in vaseline will pick up -any very small balls, and pliers can manage the larger ones. See that -cones and washers are replaced, then add a few drops of oil, adjusting -the pedal to spin easily without lateral play, and tighten cones and -nuts. Spin the pedal for a final test, and then begin on the other -pedal. - -If after several hours’ work, but one pedal is finished, if that one -pedal is in perfect order, there is much cause for congratulation. The -other pedal may be done very much more easily and rapidly. Of course, it -takes time to wipe all the balls and cones, and nuts and screws, and -washers and spindles, and when the pedal is in your hand, a little time -may be spent to give it an extra rub to brighten its polish. Wipe off -any oil that may have shown in the joints of the bearings, and the -pedals are finished. - -The front wheel should next engage attention. Take a large wrench, and -start the bearing cones, and take off the nuts at opposite sides of the -ends of the forks. These nuts are screwed on the ends of the axle, and -perhaps have metal washers under them. Place them in a box by -themselves, and if the forks are notched, there will be nothing to do -but to lift out the wheel. If the ends of the forks have only eyes, the -forks must be sprung to take the wheel out. - -When the wheel is in your hand, avoid letting any grease or oil touch -the tire, for it will injure the rubber. Now proceed to work on the -axles. Support the wheel on a large, empty wooden box. The axle is a -spindle, and has cones to hold the balls in against the bearings. The -cones must be removed and cleaned, and the socket of the hub made clean -with an oily cloth followed by a clean one. The axle’s spindle should be -replaced, and the balls and cones restored to their proper relative -positions. Drop in a little oil, adjust and tighten the cones, then -spring the wheel back between the forks, and true it; see that it runs -even between the forks and that the cones are keyed up firm and even. -Replace the nuts, and screw up firm. Wipe off any oil that may have -worked out, and spin the wheel to try it. If it runs long and steadily, -and has no lateral play, and everything is keyed up tight and true, this -part of the work may be considered finished. - -Some prefer to use a little pure graphite for the balls, and no oil; and -again some bicycles are made without oil-cups. For the first work, oil -is safer to handle; but remember that two or three drops are enough. Too -much is worse than useless, for oil spreads over a large surface, and -will cover all the surface of the bicycle with a thin film, which will -need to be constantly wiped off. - -The rear wheel may be removed without springing the frame. Unscrew the -adjustment attachment, and the wheel will come out. Clean the rear wheel -bearings in the same way you have cleaned those of the front wheel; -replace the rear wheel, and put back the adjusting attachment. - -Give the crank axle the same care and attention that the wheel axles -have received. The pedal cranks are fastened on either end of the crank -axle in such a way that the dead centre is avoided as much as possible. -The large sprocket-wheel is on the crank axles, and sometimes not -movable. The cranks are screwed or fastened with pins to the ends of the -axles, and should not be disturbed. Take the large key-wrench from the -kit, and start the bearing cones. If the crank must come off, see that -the nut on the end of the crank-pin is flush with the end, and place a -piece of wood on it before striking it with a hammer, as already -explained, to start the bolt or pin. Or if you have some one to help, -let a heavy hammer-head be held under the crank beside the bolt, at the -other end; and the double shock and recoil from the heavy hammer as the -blow is struck will jar the bolt loose. - -Remove and clean the cones and balls, then replace and oil them, and -adjust the cones tight, ready for adjustment when the cranks are in -place. The only bearings left to attend to are those in the head of the -frame. Take out the handle-bars, and wipe them and their socket very -carefully; never allow any oil to remain there. The handles should never -be immovably tight; yet grease, if any were introduced, would perhaps -cause them to slip when they should remain in place. The crank axle-key -usually fits the cone of the head of the frame, and that may be treated -as any other set of ball bearings--loosened, removed, cleaned, replaced, -oiled, adjusted, and tightened. Any dust may be removed from inside the -frame-head while the bearings are off. - -When the head bearings have been restored and the handle-bar replaced, -put on the chain and adjust it. The rear wheel is arranged to move -forward or back on the frame by the adjusting attachment. This allows -the two sprocket-wheels to be placed nearer together or farther apart, -and the chain may be stretched and held between them to any desired -degree of rigidity or of slackness. - -When the bicycle has been set up, the parts correctly replaced, before -turning it right side up, go over the entire adjustment of the machine, -to see that nothing has been forgotten. Have wrench and screw-driver at -hand and a clean cloth. Begin with the bearings of the front wheel. See -that the oil is not working out, and wipe them again. Take the key, and -see that they are true and tight. Apply the screw-wrench to the nuts of -the fork, and see that they are screwed home. Treat the rear wheel in -the same way, and look that both wheels travel on the same line or -plane; if they do not, it is because the bearings are out or the frame -is bent. Go over the axle bearing, feel the chain, spin the pedals and -wheels. A well-adjusted wheel will carry the weight of the valve around -quickly and then swing back, showing how sensitive it is to so small a -weight. If you are satisfied that everything is right, turn the bicycle -right side up, and square the handle-bars. The only way to do this is to -stand in front of the bicycle, and take the wheel between the knees -while the handles are pulled into place. - -The saddle-post and screw-nuts that hold it should be examined and -removed and carefully wiped, as well as the socket where they belong. -The screw that holds the saddle-post in place does its work by friction, -and any oil would prevent it from acting properly, and the saddle would -slip. Keep the oil-can carefully wiped, and see that the little spout -has a clean round hole at the end that will allow only a drop at a time -to escape; for oil travels and spreads in a marvellous manner, appearing -where least expected or wanted. If there is a hand-brake on the bicycle, -adjusted to alter with the handle-bars, examine it carefully, and wipe -the rods. Oil here will allow the coupling to slip and the action of the -brake to be impaired. - -[Illustration: STRAIGHTENING THE HANDLE-BARS.] - -There are so many things to be carefully observed and accurately done in -this kind of work that mistakes and omissions may be easily made by the -inexperienced; but there need not be so many blunders, after all, if -one works slowly and observingly, taking notes, in writing if necessary, -as for instance how far the bearing cones are keyed in when in place, -which is the reverse side of the crank and pedal pins, if they are -interchangeable, or rights and lefts. - -Screw threads are made rights and lefts, and threads are made to fit -them in the sockets where they belong. That pedals may not work loose, -the spindles are made right and left, with a reverse screw, so that -forward pedaling drives them tighter. In the older constructions, the -pedal sometimes became unscrewed and fell off, or the nut fell off and -the pedal loosened. All such matters should be studied before taking -down a machine. Usually the maker’s catalogue will describe and -illustrate these details. Study that, and learn the names and uses of -all the parts of the bicycle, and then you will be prepared to go to -work by yourself, or with but little assistance. - - - - -_CHAPTER XVI._ - -_Where to Keep a Bicycle._ - - -Almost anywhere that a bicycle can stand or hang will do for a place to -keep it; and almost any place will do to go to work on a bicycle--the -roadside, the lawn (though the grass is worse than a haystack to lose -things in), anywhere, in fact, that may suit your convenience. The -accessories of the bicycle should have places where they may always be -found, and the bicycle itself should be kept where it will be -undisturbed and where it may be kept free from finger-marks, dust, and -oil. - -With the bicycle should be kept certain conveniences for handling it--a -table or bench fitted conveniently, frames to hold the wheel for -cleaning and adjusting, a good light to work by, and a place for the -tools that are sure to accumulate. There are two kinds of workshop for -the amateur--the one that you fit up for yourself, and the one that is -fitted up for you. The amateur with a place well fitted out likes to add -details of home construction, and the proud owner of a corner cupboard -is always anxious to replace makeshifts. In either case, get the best -you can, and take care of it. Of tools, the best are always cheapest; -but good tools, or tools of any kind, can become a very expensive -luxury. Taste for the best comes quickly to even the moderately -enthusiastic. - -A bicycle rack room should be light, with plenty of head room, and -conveniently fitted with racks, shelves, and lockers. Each rack should -have its corresponding shelf-room and pigeon-hole, either beside it or -above and behind it. There is an infinite variety of racks to select -from, from the two stakes driven into the ground or fastened to the -floor, to the handsomely finished metal racks with joints to hold the -frame at any angle. - -If there is but one bicycle to care for, it is better to have its rack -and shelf and cupboard together--the rack to hold the bicycle in a -proper position, the shelf for sundry attachments, and the cupboard for -the lamp and extras. Such a bicycle corner can be made very attractive -to look at when everything is arranged and kept in perfect order. When -several bicycles are to be cared for together, when neatly set up they -make a very pretty showing. If possible, the rack-room should be -separate, set apart for that purpose, and kept under lock and key; it -should be dry and well lighted, free from frost, and not likely to be -over-heated by direct sun-rays in summer. The frost is injurious to -metal and enamel; and the sun or too much heat will spoil rubber, and -possibly injure enamel as well. - -An even temperature, not any special degree of temperature, is -requisite; for changes of temperature cause different degrees of -expansion and contraction in different materials; and as the steel -frame, and the enamel it is covered with, do not expand and contract in -quite the same degree, they will gradually work loose from each other, -and the enamel will flake or split. - -The rubber tire should be kept out of the sun, and the place where it -stands should be kept very clean, and no oil allowed about; for oil is -injurious to the rubber, and in case of punctures makes repairing very -difficult, if not impossible. A rubber surface with even the slightest -film of oil will not make a joint, as the oil prevents the rubber -surface and that of the cement and the article to be repaired from -uniting. - -If the workshop is to be used by more than one person, each should have -a tool-chest and a work-bench of his own, and each tool-chest provided -with lock and key, and each person with a key to the outer door. Tools -are but the continuation of the individual brain and will power. What -one handles becomes, while in one’s hand, a part of one’s self, as it -were. Tools, therefore, should be individual property always, just as -scissors and thimble are, though of course extra tools may be provided -for general work. Every one prefers a good pair of scissors to a poor -pair, and the same preference is likely to be evinced in the case of -other tools. If the tools are common property, the best will be always -taken, and often not restored to their proper place. - -A bicycle workshop is devoted to metal work, woodwork, and rubber work. -The metal work should be kept by itself, and the tools used for metal -work only. - -The amateur can commence fitting a shop by setting up a small deal table -and a vise. The table will do for a work-bench, and one vise will serve -for a beginning; it should be of medium size, quite heavy, made of -wrought iron or cast steel, and capable of holding a wrench in its jaws, -though a less expensive one could be made to do. A cheap vise, however, -is pretty sure to break if a strain is put upon it; and, while a good -workman could get comparatively good work out of a poor vise, the poor -tool in unskilled hands would be sure to show its weak place. - -Have a notch cut in the edge of the table to let the vise back to where -there is bearing surface; and it is well to have it as far in as -convenient, for the weight will thus be supported more steadily. Get a -plumber to cut a section of lead pipe about as long as the jaws of the -vise, and have the piece of pipe split and flattened. You can do this -yourself if you can handle a saw, and have one that is suitable for -cutting metal; or a jig saw will do, and the lead can be flattened on a -block with a mallet. Screw one of the flattened pieces of lead into the -jaws of the vise, leaving about an inch to project above; hammer the -projecting part over, and one side of the jaws will have a lead face -that can be taken out. Do the same with the other piece of lead. Replace -them both, and the vise is fitted with a pair of lead jaw faces, which -will be found most useful. - -The lead being soft, any small metal object may be held between the jaws -without injury, while if the steel face of the vise came in direct -contact with the metal, a screw for example, the thread might be -bruised; or if the screw were harder than the vise, the face of the jaws -would be marred. - -With a work-table, a vise, and the bicycle kit, a very fair beginning -may be made, and any refractory small part handled with ease. Even the -spindle of the axles of one of the wheels may be screwed in, and the -bearings removed, while held in this way. The vise will act as a clamp -for holding pieces to be polished, and it is most useful in taking a -pedal or other small parts down. Above the table should be a tool-rack, -three feet of board ten or twelve inches wide, with a ledge or shelf -nailed along the lower edge, and a strip of leather or some stiff and -pliable material nailed on in loops to hold the tools. Under the table -should be kept a couple of boxes--wooden boxes such as canned goods come -in will do--one as a receptacle for oil-cans, kerosene, and cloths, and -the other to use as a frame. The outfit should be completed by a little -bench, and a wooden stool to sit on when working at the table; for much -of the work about a bicycle may be done while seated comfortably, and it -is always well to save strength when possible. - -A workshop once started, many little contrivances suggest themselves for -convenient working,--a nail must be put up for the apron, a corner found -for the working gloves, separate places allotted for oily cloths and -clean ones and for the kerosene. The bicycle lamp, if an oil-lamp, -should have a stand for trimming and filling, and should be cared for -regularly; the best of lamps will smoke occasionally, and the soot must -not be allowed to fly about. - -From fitting up a bicycle workshop, the transition is easy to studying -accomplishments that may be of use--planning tours and trips, exercising -scientifically to prepare to enjoy them, studying the construction and -improvement of modern contrivances, learning the use of map and compass, -investigating camping possibilities, and learning how to depend on -limited resources when cut off from supplies. The simple appliances and -contrivances of the home workshop lead the mind to appreciation and -desire for something better, more workmanlike. A choice of tools -suggests itself; and from the first assortment of a couple of wrenches, -a few screw-drivers, a hammer, and a couple of wooden boxes, is finally -evolved the well-furnished amateur workshop. - -The ideal room for this purpose should have a good north light, with -windows on two sides if possible, and high enough from the floor to -allow a work-bench to be placed in front of the window with the light -falling upon it, and a space of ten inches or a foot between the lowest -part of the window and the bench; this space to be arranged as a rack -for tools. The windows should open and shut easily, and be fitted with -two kinds of shades, dark green and white, two pairs of shades to each -window, two rolling up from the lower part, and two down from the upper -part. Nothing is so fatiguing as working by light not suited to the work -to be done. With shades arranged in this way, light may be perfectly -controlled, and distributed where needed by means of reflectors. -Ventilating and heating, also, must be arranged for. - -The workshop should have running water, and a closet for working -clothes, which are apt to be oily or greasy. There should be plenty of -shelf-room, and an extra cupboard or two. The floor should be of wood, -unpainted. There should be a bench for carpenter work and carpenter -tools; a bench for cabinet-working tools for fine wood-working; a table -for rubber and naphtha; and a long, heavy, narrow bench fitted with -vises of different sizes and patterns; a table devoted to the blast -furnace, a corner for an anvil and portable forge and another for a -lathe and power-saw, though these may be dispensed with. The movable -furniture may consist of stools and benches of different heights, and -the frames necessary to take down and handle a bicycle on. - -Metal can be bent, twisted, cut, pressed, elongated, sawed, stretched, -and melted into any shape desired. The tools adapted to this work may -consist of holding tools, carving tools, molding tools, and bending -tools; and contrivances and tools made to perform certain work, as -screw-driver, etc. - -Cutting tools are knives, saws, files, and chisels, which perform their -work by applied power, whether controlled directly by the hand or -otherwise. - -The metal-working outfit may contain many varieties of tools. - - - - -_CHAPTER XVII._ - -_Tires._ - - -In the older forms of wheel, the tire did duty in protecting and -strengthening the wheel and holding it together. In the bicycle wheel, -the rim is the strengthening and supporting contrivance. The tire -protects the rim, and acts as a spring cushion as well, receiving shock -and jar. The solid rubber tire was an advance over the old steel tire on -the bone-shaking machine, as it was called, in the days when the bicycle -was still in its experimental stage. - -The solid tire was narrow, and after a certain diameter of material was -reached, the weight of rubber became too great if the tire was made -larger. It was found that a certain thickness of material was sufficient -for wear and tear and that more surface was desired to grip the roadway, -and that consequently the tire should be made lighter. Hose-pipe was -tried, and did well; and then experiment succeeded experiment in the -effort to produce a tire that would fit, wear well, be light, and give -speed and resiliance. - -A pneumatic tire is made of a tough, hard outer material to resist wear, -a fibrous inner material to give stiffness and prevent stretching, and -an impervious inner layer to retain the air. Rubber is a sticky, gummy -substance, easily melted at a comparatively low temperature, and -becoming hard when exposed to the air and moderately low temperature; it -dissolves readily in benzine or gasoline or naphtha, and is insoluble in -water. Grease and oil have a peculiar disintegrating effect on rubber -and rubber materials, and are most injurious to them. To prevent rubber -substances from adhering to each other, they are prepared in a -particular way, and feel dry and gritty to the touch. - -Tires are made in layers, and double-tube tires have a separate inner -tube of impervious rubber to hold the air, and an outer covering of -toughened material, that is quite separate and not necessarily -air-tight, to resist wear. - -The tire must be held immovable on the rim of the wheel. There is all -the pull of the weight of the moving bicycle against the surface over -which it moves, and the tire must be secured to the rim in such a way as -to keep it forced in place. There are two methods of fastening it -permanently to the rim,--with cement or other material of that -character, so as to make it a part of the rim, as it were; and by -clamping it fast. A cemented tire, or indeed any tire of rubber, should -never be left in the sun, as the heat affects the rubber and perhaps the -cement. - -Changes of temperature affect different materials in different degrees, -and the different materials expand and contract, working loose from each -other until something gives way, with apparently inexplicable results. -When two or more different materials are used in construction in this -way, this problem will always present itself. - -The tire inflated, the impervious inner covering of the tire tube, which -is made of a soft and yielding substance, fills the interstices in the -outer covering, rendering it air-tight. Should a hard substance then be -introduced into this material, and a puncture occur, it is necessary to -locate the puncture. This is very difficult to do if the puncture is -small, and the substance that made the hole has been removed. Ascertain -first that the trouble is not with the valve of the tire if the air is -not retained properly. Then test for puncture in this way. Wet the -surface of the tire, and note the bubbles that form under the film of -water, and the puncture is found. - -The inner surface tire is made to resist the air, and is usually of pure -rubber. The outer covering is for strength and wear. Rubber may be -repaired with rubber easily enough, and the purer the rubber, the easier -it is to cement it with a cement made of pure rubber dissolved in a -volatile vehicle. Almost any repair or renovation of the tire may be -accomplished with rubber material, rubber cement to be used for -plugging, and twine or cotton cloth to be used for strengthening -purposes. Small punctures require only plugging from the inside; tears -and rents require plugging and reinforcing as well. Each make of tire -has its repair-kit and directions for use. - -The single-tube tire, with its inner coat, is so made that the inner -covering will act as a continuous plug. The soft rubber is compressed, -and put on in such a way that the air pressure, even if a puncture -occurs, will help to close the hole by pressing on all sides around and -about it. To illustrate this principle, cover the outside of the tube -with soft rubber cement, and let it dry. Then turn the tube inside out. -The rubber will be in an active state of compression. Force air against -the surface, and it is easily seen how the rubber is crowded if there is -any place made by puncture, and how the hole would be closed. - -Numberless punctures are made and resealed, and the tire works all -right. The puncture that does not reseal must be plugged or patched. -Rubber plugs are made in all sizes; and rubber cement, liquid rubber, is -put up in collapsible metal tubes, like paint-tubes, with a pointed -spout to introduce the cement behind and through the puncture. There are -numberless convenient contrivances made to hold plugs, enlarge holes, -and to do the repair work neatly. - -In mending a puncture, the tire remains on the wheel, and the work is -done from the outside of the tire. If the hole is very small, it must be -enlarged sufficiently to introduce the plug. The rubber of the plug is -very soft and compressible, and the hole should be considerably smaller -than the shank of the plug. - -The plug must be held firmly, and forced through the hole, and held in -place while the nose of the cement-tube is introduced, and a plentiful -supply of liquid rubber smeared over the inside of the hole around and -on the plug, and enough extra cement added to flow all about the inside -of the tire around the puncture. Pull the plug back by the shank, -allowing the head to rest on the inside of the tire, and the shank to -come back through the hole. Pull the plug firmly into place by the -shank, which should fit the hole very tight. Cut off the projecting end -of the plug shank, and the repair is made. Turn the wheel until the plug -comes to the lowest point, and keep it there until the cement gets -around the plug. To smooth a ragged hole before introducing the plug, -when the proper tools are not to be had, a heated wire may be used to -make a round smooth hole. Rubber may be handled and cut while wet with -water, but must be dry and free from grease to take cement. Always wet -the knife-blade before cutting the end off the plug; this will ensure a -smooth, clean cut. - -A puncture may be repaired by introducing almost any material on the -inner surface, and holding it in place; and it is well to know of a few -substitutes for the regular repair-kit for emergency use. Punctures -difficult to locate may be found by inflating the tire and wetting with -soapy water, when a bubble will form where the air escapes. - -A puncture that goes all the way through the inner tube of the tire must -be repaired on the inside. The outer covering of the tire is porous, and -if the hole is plugged or patched on the outside, the air will escape in -other directions through the material of the tire. Failing the -repair-kit tools, a rubber plug, some liquid cement, a piece of string, -and a pair of pliers will do good work. Tie the string to the plug to -keep it from slipping, apply plenty of cement to the plug, then grasp it -with the pliers, and introduce it through the hole prepared for it in -the tire. Pull the string to pull the plug into place, see that there is -plenty of cement around and about it, inflate the tire, and the air will -hold the plug in place until the cement hardens. - -The plugs that are supplied are disks of rubber of different sizes, with -stems attached to the centre, and a nice tool is made for the purpose of -punching the hole in the tire. When a hole is burned, the charred edges -should be removed, and if possible cleaned with benzine. A tire well -patched on the inside is almost as good as new, and very serviceable, -unless the brake is applied frequently and unevenly, when the plug is -almost sure to feel the push. - -The commercial patch or plug makes the most satisfactory repair for a -puncture, although there are other things that may be used. Rubber bands -may be pressed into service, and sheet rubber also may be used. Repair -on the roadside is made in the same way as repair in the workshop, the -differences being in the conveniences for working and the permanency of -the patch. A rent may be repaired with plugs, it being first stitched -together, then the plugs introduced, and finally a patch cemented on the -outside over the rent to protect the stitches. A puncture may be -repaired with rubber bands held in place on a wire, covered with cement, -and forced into the hole made in the tire. A piece of wire flattened on -the end, a cross piece with a notch cut in it and twisted below, makes a -fair repair needle. The end of the projecting rubber cut off, a very -fair plug results. - -Sheet rubber may be placed over the hole on the inside, though it is -difficult to keep it in place. Twisted up and tied into a plug, or -spread into place on the inside, the difficulty with this repair is that -the patch must be held in place until the cement hardens, and then is -liable to work out of place. Inner tube tires are repaired with patches -of soft rubber. After the puncture is located, the patch will retain its -place by being pressed against the inner surface of the tire when -inflated. - -To do good work in repairing rubber, always clean the surface of the -rubber material thoroughly, washing with benzine when possible; and -always test a patch when finished by placing it in water or wetting it, -to ascertain that it is satisfactory. On the road a puncture may be -plugged in any time under five minutes when located. In the workshop, it -is more convenient to hang the wheel up while making a patch, as it is -more readily held in place when working from below. - -There are many ways of doing makeshift repairs. Melted rosin may replace -the rubber cement, and rosin may be found at any tinsmith’s. Melt the -rosin, and dip the rubber in that to make it stick. - -Tire tape may be used in a variety of ways. Find the puncture, cut -strips three or four inches long, and place them lengthwise on the tire, -lapping the edges at least half way over; then wrap the two thicknesses -of tape round and round the tire, and keep lapping the tape each time -over the last turn to hold the edge down, making it air-tight. Well put -on, tire tape will last for many miles. The tire should be partly -inflated while the tape is being put on, and fully inflated when it is -all on. Force more air into the tire to cause the tape to grip securely. -Such repair, though not permanent, may prove serviceable in emergency. - -A simple and effective substitute for the rubber plug is absorbent -cotton or jeweller’s cotton, well dipped in cement, and the cement -worked into the cotton. Quite a large puncture may be repaired with -this, and the hole need not be enlarged or burnt to receive it, as the -soft mass of cotton fills the irregularities in the puncture. It may be -introduced into the puncture either with an ordinary repair tool or a -piece of twisted wire. The tire is held on the rim by cement made of -shellac or some other equally good cementing substance. Of course, in -using a cotton plug, the greatest mass of the cotton should be on the -inside of the tire, leaving a stem in the puncture, and then the outside -ends should be trimmed off. - -The tire may be readily removed with the hands by pulling at right -angles with the wheel. Rubber cement may be made by dissolving perfectly -pure rubber in naphtha; but the commercial cement is usually found the -cheapest in the end. - -If you should be so unfortunate as to break down, what are the problems -you must meet? The bicycle is made of different materials--iron, metal, -steel, wood, rubber, and leather, and each different material requires a -different kind of treatment. The general idea in any kind of repairs is -to effect the holding of the parts in position with a material that -will supply strength and stiffness. The use of glue or cement is merely -to hold parts in position, to replace the fractured pieces and keep them -in place, to enable the particular part to do its duty, and to keep the -piece in place while the cement hardens. - -There is room for great ingenuity in handling repair work and in -estimating the available resources. The most common accident is a -puncture in a pneumatic tire. There are also repairs to be considered to -the wooden rims and the spokes and the tubing and lost or broken parts. -A great deal of damage could occur in a collision, and the bicycle be in -very poor shape, but it can be set right with a little assistance from a -mechanic, even though he does not understand the mechanism of a bicycle. - -Suppose nothing to be injured except a piece of the supporting tubing; -or that the bicycle could be made to go if the rim were spliced or -strengthened at a place where it has been split. A temporary repair -usually takes considerable time, and should never be attempted unless -there is nothing else to be done. A blacksmith shop, unless the smith is -very ingenious, is not a very good place to look for assistance; a -plumber or tinsmith or locksmith, unless a bicyclist, can help but -little. For a broken rim I would betake me to a carpenter shop or -carriage maker’s. If the break is in a straight piece of tube, get the -carpenter to make a round stick, not as long as the broken tube, and fit -it to the inside, to slip in easily. Hardware stores keep round wooden -rods, and perhaps one of these would answer. Push the round stick up -into the tube, and, holding the parts in place, let it slip down into -the other part of the break; this will keep the ends of the break -together. Then get the carpenter to take two blocks of wood, hollow them -out to hold the tube, and screw them fast together, holding the tube -between them. If he has an auger-bit the size of the tubing, he can -easily bore a hole in a block the size of the tube; then have this block -cut in two with the saw, leaving the hole cut in half, and screw the -pieces together after they are placed on the broken part. The same kind -of a repair may be made on the angles of the frame if the blocks are -hollowed to fit. This makes an unsightly job, but can be recommended as -strong and safe when properly done. - -A broken spoke may be repaired, if it cannot be replaced, by bending the -ends of the broken parts into loops; then, taking a piece of wire -through both loops, fasten it together, and tighten by screwing it up. - -A wooden rim may be whipped or wound. The tire must be deflated first, -and removed from the rim at the broken place; then wind fine wire or -fish-line about the place, after filling the break with glue or shellac. -In wrapping, take care that the turns are made very smooth and even, and -close to each other. Then the tire may be cemented and inflated. Of -course, there will be a lumpy place on the rim, but it will do until the -rim can be replaced. - -Any bolt that has lost its nut, when the nut cannot be replaced, may be -held by hammering a burr on the end. If the end is too long, a piece may -be cut or filed off, and a burr hammered down to hold. - -A bicycle cannot travel easily if the frame has been bent out of true; -and to straighten a bent frame is an easy matter. Take out wheels, -saddle, and handle-bars, and use a piece of broom-handle to spring the -frame into true; or take a stout cord, fasten it to either end of the -part to be straightened, insert a stick, and wind the cord up tight. - -There are three things to take into consideration when doing repair -work: First, finding out what is to be done, then doing it, then seeing -that it has been done right. - - - - -_CHAPTER XVIII._ - -_Mechanics of Bicycling._ - - -All applied mechanical power is the application of lever movement (and -lever movement is but the effect of applied power), either simple, -compound, or complex. - -In the bicycle propelled by human power, we have a series of lever -movements, initiated and executed by the highest and most effective -mechanism known--the human body, applied human power. There is the seat -of power, the point of application, and the object. The bicycle or -object is so constructed that it continues the application of power -applied. - -The lever is described as “a bar or other rigid instrument having a -fixed point for the exercise of power and the application of power to -the object to be moved.” The series of lever movements in the human body -is the most wonderful known. - -There are three varieties of levers, of three different degrees of -efficiency, known as levers of the first, second, and third classes, or -orders, of levers. - -In the lever of the first class, the fulcrum is between the weight and -the power: - - P F W. - -In the lever of the second class the fulcrum is opposite to the power: - - P W . - F - -In the lever of the third class the fulcrum is opposite to the weight: - - P W. - F - -These different powers of levers are used in combination, and produce a -great variety of power effects and applications. - -Other factors to note are: - -That a body in motion persists in maintaining its direction unless other -forces intervene. - -That the gyroscope overcomes the force of gravity while rapidly -revolving. - -That a body set in motion tends to move in a straight line. - -That the centre of gravity must be maintained by balance if disturbed or -shifted. - -That force is the cause of a change in the velocity or direction of -motion of a body. - -That all alterations of velocity take place gradually and continuously. - -That centripetal force and centrifugal force are force directed by -radial action. - -That the air offers resistance, which increases when the air is in -motion. - -That friction offers resistance to power. - -That the smaller the surface presented, the less friction there is to -resist. - -That resistance must be overcome by power expended for the purpose. - -That the base of the bicycle is practically without width, and is -usually about from forty-two to forty-four inches long. - -That the direction of the base may be changed at will within certain -limits. - -That the bicycle will fall unless prevented from doing so. - -That to prevent a bicycle from falling, or to maintain a bicycle on its -base, it is necessary to balance it. - -That the constant effort to maintain the bicycle upright upon its base -is on account of the motion of the different opposing forces. - -The bicycle is constructed to overcome the resisting forces in different -ways, supplying as many forces as can be made available to accomplish a -particular purpose, permitting a certain choice and discrimination in -the matter. - -The bicycle has one weight-carrying wheel and a frame and a pivoted -wheel. The driving power is applied to the weight-carrying wheel, and -the steering is done with the pivoted wheel. The bicycle remains upright -because several forces co-operate to enable it to maintain its plane, -change direction, and overcome certain resisting and opposing forces. - -A bicyclist is propelled at a sufficient velocity to maintain the plane -of movement. By altering the centre of gravity, inclining one way or the -other, change of direction may be made. - -The front or guiding wheel of the bicycle, being controlled by the -different angles of resistance it presents to the surface it rotates -upon, and not being immovably fixed, can pivot to a plane corresponding -to a plane of least resistance. After a little momentum is attained, a -bicycle will maintain its speed with but little assistance of power, -unless it is accidentally obstructed, or an increase of grade requires -an increase of power. - -The frame of a bicycle is a compound lever, combining the second and -third orders. The wheels are a compound lever of the second and third -orders. The fork and handles a lever of the second order. - -The forks and handle-bars are set at an angle with the front wheel, thus -conveying the touch on the ground or other surface to the pivot head and -the hands. - -A moving body tends to pursue its direction. A wheel loses its power to -change its direction after passing the point of friction. With the forks -at this angle, the blow is felt, and change of direction caused by an -obstacle conveyed; but the wheel has still some power to maintain its -plane from friction, and is steadied by its head. The motion of swaying -is conveyed and overcome at the tire base. If the pivot were directly -over the tire base, the swing would be given to the wheel; and the tire, -having passed its point of friction, would continue to swing. If the -head were pivoted on a point, there would be no side friction on the -rim; because it is pivoted at an incline, the friction base is increased -in proportion, and the wheel, steadied in itself, is easily controlled -by an increased line of friction or by prolonging the time from the -point of contact. - -A body in motion persists in maintaining its plane of motion unless -additional forces intervene. The occurrence of these forces is -detrimental and frequent, requiring a continuous swing of the guiding -wheel either by the hands or by balance. The direction of the base line -is continually changed, as it were, broadening the base line. The weight -must incline with the front wheel, and the front wheel will support it. -If inclined away from the direction of the front wheel, the weight -becomes the long arm of the lever, exerting weight against weight at the -base of the bicycle, there being no opposing force. The front wheel -being turned away, the bicycle falls or slips over. - -With the fork at this angle the wheel is inclined, the frame held on the -wheel at this angle, as the wheel is turned sideways, it gradually -brings the centre directly over the axles, raising the front end of the -frame up. This pressure or leverage from the frame tends to keep the -wheel straight in the line of least resistance. In turning, the wheel -must lift the weight, and push it up; and this factor greatly adds to -the steadiness of direction. - -A bicycle with the steering wheel held fast will maintain its plane so -long as its momentum is not overcome. With the steering wheel the plane -of movement may be regained after each opposition, provided the -proportionate amount of power is expended. - -The radius of a wheel is the long arm of a lever; the pedal crank is the -short arm of the lever, though its length may exceed that of the radius -of the wheel. - -Power and speed are interchangeable. The shorter the arm of the crank, -the greater the weight required to balance the long arm at the rim of -the wheel (an imaginary line). If the pedal crank is lengthened, it will -require less power to move it. At the same time the foot, following the -crank, describes a larger circle for the distance travelled by the rear -wheel. The crank lengthened, the power is diminished, demanding -increased exertion to follow it, the foot travelling at a rate -determined by the distance to be traversed. - -When the hub rests on the axle of the wheel, there is considerable -friction to overcome in the entire length of the hub, the friction, or -ability of the wheel to turn, depending on the amount of axle surface. -The axle, therefore, becomes heated when the air cannot readily reach -the surface to convey away the heat generated by friction. - -Weight may be balanced and supported on a point; when weight rests on a -sphere, only a point supports weight. By surrounding the axle with -balls, the weight is taken from point to point on each ball, and a -circulation of air allowed. The weight, carried from ball to ball, gives -the advantage of a larger cooling surface in a confined space, while the -weight and friction are applied directly to a very limited area. Each -ball is also an axle in itself, and carries the weight, and passes it on -to the next ball. The balls act as lubricators, preventing the moving -surfaces from contact. - -The problem of speed produced by power means that speed is obtained at -the expense of power expended. The relative size of the sprocket-wheels -determines the relative speed of the cranks and rear wheel. To get the -greatest speed with the least power possible means diminished friction -and lessened weight. The band or chain complies mechanically with these -requirements, permitting a certain amount of play, which lessens the -danger of sudden strains and jars, and supplies the power to the rear -wheel with the least possible loss by friction. - - Gear 63 72 76 80 - 6¹⁄₂ crank - proportion 4¹¹⁄₁₃ to 1 ⁵⁄₁₃ to 1 5¹¹⁄₁₃ to 1 6²⁄₁₃ to 1 - 8 crank - proportion 3¹⁵⁄₁₆ to 1 44¹⁄₂ to 1 33³⁄₄ to 1 5 to 1 - 6¹⁄₂ crank pressure 4.85 5.54 5.85 6.15 - 8 crank pressure 3.37 3.84 4.5 5.00 - 6¹⁄₂ crank ground - covered by large wheel 16 ft. 19 ft. 20 ft. 21 ft. - 8 crank ground - covered by large wheel 16 ft. 19 ft. 20 ft. 21 ft. - 6¹⁄₂ crank ground - covered by pedal 40.84 inches - 8 crank ground - covered by pedal 50.26 inches - - “_Scientific American Supplement, No. 1025_,” August 24, 1895. - -Rating wheel by the amount of progression for each turn of the crank -(pedal), the following table, compiled by Henry Starkweather, will be -found of advantage: - - No. teeth in 26 in. wheel. - large Sprocket. No. teeth in small sprocket. - 6 7 8 9 - 18 20 ft 17 ft 15 ft 13 ft - 19 21 ft 18 ft 16 ft 14 ft - 20 22 ft 19 ft 17 ft 15 ft - 28 inch wheel. - 18 22 ft 19 ft 16 ft 14 ft - 19 23 ft 20 ft 17 ft 15 ft - 20 24 ft 21 ft 18 ft 16 ft - -The following table, from the New York _Evening Post_, shows the gear -according to the number of teeth on large and small sprocket-wheels: - - Sprockets 28 in. wheel - on pedal crank. Sprockets on rear wheel. - 7 8 9 - 17 68 59¹⁄₂ 53 - 18 72 63 56 - 19 76 66¹⁄₂ 59 - 20 80 70 62 - 21 84 73¹⁄₂ 65 - - - - -_CHAPTER XIX._ - -_Adjustment._ - - -In bicycling, the word “adjustment” means much, for the movable parts of -the bicycle must be adjusted to suit the requirements of the individual -bicyclist, and the mechanical parts of the bicycle’s construction -adjusted so that they will work together properly. - -In a machine properly adjusted, the chain and other gear should run -smoothly, the chain be neither too tight nor too loose, and the -sprocket-wheels exactly in line. The bicycle wheels should run true and -be exactly in line with the frame, and the rear wheel follow the -identical plane of the front wheel when in place. The frame should be -true and square at all points, and should be examined and tested always -after the machine has been travelling by rail or has had a fall. The -bearings in all parts of the machine should have their cone-caps in -place and so screwed and keyed that the balls run easily without -perceptible play. Nuts and washers should all be in place and screwed -home. The handle-bar should be tight and square with the front wheel, -but only tight enough to turn the wheel on a good surface, not so tight -as to prevent it from turning easily if the wheel is caught or held. -The proper adjustment for position has to do with the frame, wheel-base, -length of crank, height and position of saddle; the curve, width, -height, and general adjustment of the handle-bar; the size and number of -teeth on the sprocket-wheels, which determines the gear; and the weight, -construction, and inflation of the tire. - -The saddle is one of the most important, if not the most important, part -of the bicycle to study, as it should provide the fulcrum to work from. -Any saddle may be adjusted to be comfortable, but saddles seldom remain -comfortable after being adjusted. The saddle should be hard enough to -act as a fulcrum and should not give or spring under work, for power is -lost on each stroke that presses down on a soft saddle; it should also -permit of change of position without readjustment, unless it is intended -for racing purposes, for the bicyclist should be able to speed, climb, -or coast on a saddle properly constructed for general purposes. Each of -these different kinds of bicycle work requires a different application -of muscular power, and the saddle should permit of a readjustment of -position that will at least accommodate the altered tendency caused by a -shifted centre of gravity in grade work. - -Every individual is differently proportioned, with differing lever -lengths and lever power. If people differently proportioned find the -same adjustment possible, it would be for the reason, not that their -different requirements average the same, but that the average of their -different requirements is the same. A higher gear means greater -resistance; a lengthened crank causes the foot to travel in a larger -circle while gaining in increased leverage in the lengthened arm. - -In determining the proper proportion of crank length and gear, it may be -calculated that the same amount of resistance may be overcome by using a -higher gear and longer crank as by using a lower gear and shorter crank, -the difference being in the rapidity of the stroke necessary to cover a -given distance in a certain length of time. This adjustment may be -considered equivalent to length of pace and rapidity of pace in walking. -It is well to have crank and gear selected by some one sufficiently -experienced to make an intelligent choice. - -In the lever action of the leg, working the bicycle crank, care should -be taken to prevent waste of power in carrying the foot back and behind, -rendering the lever movement useless behind the line where the power may -be made to tell. This loss will occur when the saddle is placed too far -forward. The foot in returning should supply the pull, and lift with a -push-back. The power here gained cannot compensate for power lost on the -forward and down thrust, and the saddle should be placed far enough back -to permit of the full power of the forward push and downward thrust. The -knee should never fully extend when the pedal is pushed to the point -where it is furthest from you, for if it is, there is danger in -hill-climbing of straining the knee as well as the tendons and muscles -of the back of the leg. - -The handle-bars should be adapted to the work to be done, whether -racing, touring, or ordinary. They certainly should not be high enough -to prevent them from taking part of the weight of the body, nor so low -as to cramp any portion of the trunk. - -Fatigue, with its various manifestations, cramp, stiffness, and -numbness, comes from too long a period of work without change of -position. For this reason different muscular combinations should be -called to do the same work, or different work should be done with unused -muscular combinations, permitting rest or partial rest to muscles that -have been taxed. - -A bicycle should be fitted with adjustable handle-bar and saddle-post, -and in case of fatigue or cramp, a slight change in the adjustment will -reduce the tendency at once. Travelling should be done with as little -weight on the saddle as possible, working on the pedals and resting on -the handles. But when it comes to climbing, the push must be located -from a fulcrum, and that fulcrum must be the saddle. All weight must be -removed from the handles, and the wheel ridden by balance. - -A hill should be coasted with the weight all on the saddle, the feet -supported, and the handles held firmly and lightly, a proper average -position for continuous work being, however, maintained. To carry weight -forward, the weight should be forward of the centre of gravity, and the -hands dropped. - -The question of handle-bars, with the reason of their many varying -curves, may pertinently be discussed here. The bar is a pair of levers -finding a common fulcrum in the head or centre bar, and the difference -in curve has to do with the distribution of weight and the touch best -suited to control the bicycle according to position and individual -balance and lever power. A distribution of weight and leverage may be -made without altering the wheel base by the use of a different pattern -of bar that seems to suit the individual touch. - -To analyze the curves in a handle-bar, and their different lever values, -would be difficult. Preference has much to do with it, and this may be -accounted for by the different steering touch of the differently -adjusted bars. The forward drop should never be so great that the face -cannot be lifted easily and the eyes always able to see up and ahead. - -In the tire we look for elasticity, and the amount of air it contains -has much to do with the comfort of the rider and the speed of the wheel. -Soft tires are adapted for a rough or stony road. The soft tire may wear -out a little sooner, but the extra wear is fully compensated by the gain -in lessened shock and apparent improvement of wheeling surface. A very -hard tire is not necessarily made of rubber. The advantage of the rubber -tire is its elasticity, which should come between the fulcrum and the -power. - -To attain a proper position and its equivalent adjustment, first have -the saddle as nearly right as possible so that you can work comfortably; -then have the handles and the height of the bar tested, working on these -until you can determine if the saddle is too far forward or too far -back. Then change the height of the bars to suit the saddle. - -Next attend to gear. Find if with comfort you could exert more pressure -on the pedals. If so, have the gear increased. If there is cramp in the -foot, or the foot feels strained, have the length of crank changed. If -the foot is long in proportion to the other lever lengths, lengthen the -crank to permit of freer instep play; or have it shortened to relieve a -strained feeling in the foot. The crank length may be changed to relieve -either cramp or strain in the leg and thigh until the pressure and -length are arranged to suit the natural step or pace. - -While these adjustments are in progress--and it may take months to -determine them--the shoe may cause discomfort. The slightest pressure, a -shoe too tight or ill-fitting, would be responsible for much more -discomfort than could possibly be caused by either crank or gear. -Waist-bands, or any pressure on the trunk, will cause numbness of the -foot; and a saddle of imperfect construction or wrong adjustment would -be responsible for the same evils--unequal pressure and unequal strains -and overcharged blood-vessels, with their accompanying discomforts of -cramp, fatigue, numbness, and more permanent disorders. - - - - -_CHAPTER XX._ - -_Exercise._ - - -How shall be determined the proper amount of exercise for any -individual? The human body is constructed for use, and will suffer from -want of use, rust out, as it were; and it will suffer from over-use if -any one set of muscles or any one supply of nerve power is overtaxed. - -Exercise, in some form, is necessary for every one; work is necessary; -recreation is necessary. Rest is to recreate, to renew. The food that we -eat is digested and made into blood; the blood flows through the system -of tissues, depositing building material and taking up waste matter. The -arterial system, physiologists tell us, supplies the new material; the -venous system takes up the waste material, returning the blood to the -heart, after which the fresh air comes in contact with the blood in the -lungs, and is aerated and oxygenated, and waste material given off. The -heart pumps the blood through the arterial and venous systems. When we -move or work, more blood is needed, and the heart pumps harder. When -little or no exercise is taken, the heart loses its vigor from want of -use; and it may be strained if overtaxed. - -Brain power and nerve power depend on the blood supply for renewal of -their tissue. Any organ or any combination of organs and muscles, when -exercised, give off their accumulated material, and then, after a limit -of assimilation is reached, the products are reabsorbed. The materials -properly accumulate only when needed. - -These facts bring to our notice three conditions--a condition of -atrophy, or too little use; a perfect condition of equilibrium of -forces; and a condition of strain from over-work. In the condition of -equilibrium or perfect health, the brain is active and the muscular -tissue under perfect control. The mind can receive impressions, and can -convey them at will; and the muscles obey without difficulty and without -fatigue, because of the great existing power of resistance. On the power -to resist fatigue depends the power of prolonging exertion. - -In exercising we exert our powers, and if from lack of use or other -cause our amount of stored energy is small, exercise for even a very -short period will produce a condition which makes rest absolutely -necessary. Muscles must be gradually accustomed to work; and if work is -prolonged beyond the point where exercise is beneficial, a state of -tension and exhaustion ensues which can be remedied only by rest -prolonged enough to allow the system to recuperate. Where the tissues, -from disuse, have come to have little resistance value, a very gradual -and persistent course of exercise must be determined upon, for -unaccustomed muscles are quickly fatigued, and the subsequent rest they -require may seem out of proportion to the work done. This condition of -affairs is discouraging when not understood; yet there can be no -different result except in degree; and in degree must the condition be -changed and the tissues gradually renewed. If there is but little power -stored, only little may be used until the power of assimilation is -established. - -The thin woman is benefited by bicycling; the liver works better, the -food digests better. The stout woman is benefited, for the exercise -hardens and condenses the flesh. The average healthy woman is kept in -the best of health by the exercise and plenty of pure, fresh air. For -the sedentary, the undeveloped, and the insufficiently nourished, the -bicycle seems to work wonders. All the powers are accelerated and a -general renewing of tissues takes place. The organs of digestion are -stimulated and do better work, the appetite improves, the complexion -brightens, and the mind responds readily. But people of either of these -classes should be careful not to prolong exercise until loss of appetite -is brought about; for the exercise should tend to increase, not to -decrease, the desire for food and power of assimilation. - -Baths should be taken in moderation, the skin being kept in free, -healthy condition by dry rubs and tepid baths until the system is -brought to the state where the cold bath can be used beneficially. The -diet should be generous and wholesome, and care should be taken to avoid -food that does not digest easily. Sufficient clothing should be worn but -not too much, and all exercise should be avoided that might produce -very copious perspiration. Only a healthy activity of the skin should be -induced, and plenty of water drunk. - -Do not work nervously. Go to work gently, and save your energies to make -the wheels go around. A thin person can remain thin and a fat person -remain fat while exercising assiduously if the exercise is not properly -directed. - -To overcome fat, persistent, systematic, and regular exercise is needed, -and attention to diet must be considered essential. For the food -consumed produces certain results; and if the system selects and digests -most readily the fat-producing elements, their amount should be -curtailed, and a diet of good working quality chosen. Fat is burned in -producing heat; but if the same amount of fat-producing elements are -again taken into the system, the same amount of fat results. The -fat-producing tendency must be overcome, and the fat already accumulated -consumed, until a good healthy average of tissue is produced and -maintained. - -Tea and coffee are not foods; they retard the assimilation of tissue, -and must be eliminated from the diet of the weight-reducer. Sugar and -starch--the latter when eaten is converted into sugar--are -heat-producing foods, first forming fats which are used as -energy-producing material. Persons wishing to reduce weight, therefore, -must manufacture, not so much fat, but bone and sinew. To produce these, -nitrogenous foods must be eaten. Fat consists largely of water; and -heavy work, like hill-climbing, which induces free perspiration, is -desirable. But any one wishing to seriously undertake weight-reduction -should learn to enjoy bicycling for itself before attempting this -application of the exercise. - -Excess of fat produces physical laziness, which is hard to overcome; and -stout persons, after exercise, crave fat-producing elements of food to -reduce the tissue consumed. A taste seems to develop for sweet stuff and -mild stimulants, and it is difficult to refrain from indulging it. Stout -people are apt to believe, also, that they cannot endure exercise. They -cannot comfortably, and must work with care until they are in a fair -state of balance, where exercise ceases to fatigue, before attempting -anything like scientific weight-reducing. Sufficient exercise regularly -taken, proper diet persistently selected, will finally have the desired -effect. - -Exercise sufficiently to produce good, thorough perspiration; take a -bath and rub down, and put on fresh clothing; avoid tea and coffee, -sugar and ice cream, dessert and pastry. - -For those in health and in the habit of exercising regularly, there are -only the dangers of the sport to avoid while enjoying its pleasures and -benefits. - - - - -_CHAPTER XXI._ - -_Training._ - - -If you intend a fifty-mile or a week’s trip awheel, it will be very -necessary to accustom yourself to the work before attempting a distance -you have not yet covered. Suppose, though your muscles are unaccustomed -to long-continued exercise, that you know how to wheel a bicycle and are -anxious to go with your friends. They perhaps wheel for an hour or two -hours daily, or for several hours twice a week. They are afraid to take -you with them; and you feel sure that you can go as far as they do, and -at the same rate of speed. - -You must make your opportunity and prove your ability. Suppose you can -wheel for half an hour without fatigue. Wheel that half-hour every day -the weather permits; know your distance and your road; and then practise -increasing speed, that is, do your distance in less than the half-hour -without hurry. Start slowly, and keep the pace until you get your -breathing apparatus steady; then ride faster, and maintain that pace; -and so on, in increasing ratio. If you have been in the habit of -covering your distance in five minutes under the half-hour, next time -add that distance to your spin, and do it in your limit time. When you -easily do five miles in half an hour on the road, add a mile or more for -the next two or three spins; then do not wheel for one day; the next day -wheel twice the distance, wheel eight miles, and rest a day. Then double -your distance again. If you cannot do this without feeling the effects -seriously, go back to where you made your greatest distance with ease, -and start from that point again. - -Keep a careful record of your outings, dates, wind, sun, time of day, -and humidity. The latter is very important, for on a hot, dry day, -greater distance can be done with safety than when evaporation is slow. -Consider all the conditions when you find that you are fatigued, and -decide if the trouble is with yourself or with the weather. Do not start -for at least an hour after eating, and always rest after exercise before -taking a meal. Observing these directions, you will soon find that you -are making very fair progress, that your confidence is assured, and that -you have acquired a certain amount of endurance, and can attempt any -reasonable distance. - -Exercise transforms, making the inactive capable of performing work and -of enjoying opportunities for using their newly discovered powers. The -weak are strengthened; the strong retain and renew their stores of -strength; the young are symmetrically developed, and the older remain -supple and active. Exercise preserves and develops all parts of the -organism that are capable of performing work. Exercise is work, muscular -work; and in working the muscles, all the tissues become readjusted, and -all materials and accumulations tending to hinder movement are -diminished in quantity and equalized in distribution. - -Ease of movement and a state of muscular inactivity are incompatible. To -be active, one must work; and the whole organism will respond, and -adjust itself to the conditions imposed by occupation and manner of -living. The complicated mechanisms and intricate processes of the human -body adapt themselves to required conditions; it is only necessary to -determine what those conditions shall be to produce certain results. - -It is difficult for some to overcome the tendency to a state of -inactivity; and there are others to whom even the contemplation of -repose is distasteful. The physiological effects produced by exercise -differ in different individuals, active persons and those not in the -habit of doing muscular work being very differently affected. For -exercise, of whatever kind, is muscular work, and “muscular work tends -to modify the nutrition of all motor organs and to give them a structure -favorable for the performance of work.” - -All muscular work is done through the contractile power of the muscles. -By use the fibres become freed from fat and other accumulations, the -muscles increase in size, the contractile power becomes greater, and the -impedimenta of fat, etc., are removed by the processes that are -accelerated by movement. “Repose causes atrophy of muscular tissue,” and -the necessary discernment and powers of discrimination must be -cultivated to avoid a tendency either in the direction of over-doing or -of insufficient exercise. - -“The effect of muscular exercise is to render vital combustion more -active; it causes more active processes of assimilation.” “Muscular -education leads to an economy of forces. Practice leads to a diminution -of muscular expenditure”--more work done for power expended. For the -power to perform work depends on knowing how to do it properly. Real -strength lies, not so much in the mass of muscular tissue as in the -ability to use it. - -“Exercise of strength demands the simultaneous action of a great number -of muscles.” “Exercise of speed involves repetition of movement and the -application of nervous energy.” “Exercises of endurance permit of -economy of fatigue,” and are characterized by the necessity of perfect -equilibrium between muscular effort and the powers of assimilation of -the system. - -In exercise of strength, every muscle should bring its whole force into -play, and the bony structure is united by pressure to make a rigid -whole. “Exercises of speed are accompanied by fatigue out of proportion -to the mechanical work represented.” “Every movement needs the -intervention of a great number of muscles; each muscle must contract -with definite force in order that the whole work may lead to definite -movement.” - -Co-ordination is the operation of choosing the muscles which shall -participate in a certain movement and of regulating the exact quantity -of nervous energy necessary to produce the right amount of contraction. -Automatism is acquired by practice; and the muscles must be exercised -regularly to enable them to respond intuitively. A complicated series -of movement can only be acquired gradually, unless the mind has a large -number of muscular combinations at command. - -“Exhaustion will result from overwork even when well fed.” “Exercises of -endurance do not disturb the working of the organs; while increasing -their activity, it gives to the system the power to repair wasted -tissue, even during work.” Carbonic acid is not formed in excess, and is -eliminated without producing noticeable results. - -The bicyclist, even though indulging moderately in the pastime, must -consider these things, and determine the course to be pursued; otherwise -the exercise will prove a bane instead of a blessing. There are -principles capable of general or special application; and there are -special laws that may be generalized; and all may be made to accord with -the exercise of bicycling, but each individual must accept a certain -responsibility in the matter. The bicycle having been accepted as a -means, the end sought for can be attained only by its intelligent use -and application. - -One of the many advantages of cycling is that the exercise involved is -not limited to the use of any one set of muscles. The legs propel the -machine, the muscles of the trunk engage in balancing the body, and the -arms are employed in steering and controlling the front wheel. All the -larger joints are active, and are made supple as well as strengthened -and developed. Muscles, unless directed by mental effort, are useless. -The bones give stiffness, and act as levers and fulcrums; the muscles -are tools of the mind, levers wherewith to pull and push the bones into -position. - -Precision of movement means economy of expenditure of force, no more -effort being expended than is necessary for the act of the moment. -People who hunt for the pedal, and try for the saddle two or three -times, and fall off because the bicycle fails to start, work hard enough -to have mounted a number of times; that is, they have lifted or -supported their own weight in different directions a number of times -without attaining their object. They appear to be awkward; they are -really unaccustomed to their work. Practice will accustom the muscles to -the work they have to do. - -Try to do one thing only at a time. If it is mounting, for instance, -memorize each thing that must be done; how, when, and where to do it. Do -not think, because the mind does not at once grasp all that is forced -upon its attention, that your brain is of inferior quality; it may not -be able to adapt itself to that particular mental process at that -minute. But the effort made will result in added tissue, and next time -there will be more hope of success. Increase by a little at a time the -amount of exercise undertaken. You can gauge the practice you need only -by the amount of attention you give to the subject. After muscles are -once trained to an exercise, the mind will not readily lose power to -reproduce the combination, and experience begins to help. - -Endurance means well-directed strength as well as capacity of power -stored in reserve; and the aim of all athletic work is to give an -increased store of strength, vitality, and power to draw upon, not -merely to expend the stock already on hand. - -The muscular development that comes with bicycle exercise will often -cause surprise. In persons unaccustomed to active exercise, the increase -is most noticeable on the chest and forearms, the chest development -increasing two and three inches, the arm and forearm in proportion, and -the whole muscular system gaining in firmness and tone. Persistent -bicycling, prolonged exercise on the wheel, speed work on the track, -develop disproportionately the muscle of the leg. The track-man, -therefore, prepares for his season of work, not by exercising and -developing his legs, but by general exercise and special work that will -develop the arms and back and other sets of muscles not called upon for -heavy work during the season when he is to do his best. Getting up -speed, increasing speed, and hill-climbing all tend to develop the -muscles of the leg, which in such exercise are called upon for the heavy -work of push and thrust, using a concentrated power to propel. Light -dumbbell work is recommended as a good alternate for bicycle work and a -means of keeping the muscular system in balance. - -Leisure and the weather limit bicycling; other causes are incidental. -The weather, indeed, affects bicycling more than any other sport. One of -the most imperative needs of bicycling is rapid evaporation, and -conditions that do not permit of that are unfavorable. Observe -atmospheric conditions, therefore, and avoid severe work when the dew -point is approached. - -All the hard work wanted can be accomplished in half an hour after the -wheel has been taken out; or it may be used as a vehicle for travelling -steadily hour after hour for days consecutively; or an invigorating spin -of two or three hours may be taken, regulating the pace and the work. -One of the things to know about a bicycle is that you can get almost any -kind of work you want out of it. To realize that you are doing the work -you have been accustomed to have a horse do for you, and in a similar -way, and to know that many of a horseman’s rules for the care of their -working animals may be equally well applied to human beings who do the -same work, is apt, perhaps, to cause a sensation of unpleasant surprise. -It is a fact, however, that there is much information about the care of -horses that the cyclist may study and apply with advantage. - -The bicycle is not an iron horse; it is more like skates; is in some -things like a boat; in some like a coasting sled; and in many ways is -different from anything else. It seems alive at times, as does a boat; -but it is the power propelling it that causes the delusion. The only -thing alive about bicycles is the persons who propel them; and if they -are only half alive before attempting to mount, they will become very -alert and keenly appreciative of all that concerns them long before the -sport has ceased to be a novelty. - -“Exercise is important as a regulator of nutrition.” “The best athletic -exercise for increasing the size of the chest is that which compels the -deepest inspiration.” The lower limbs, with their masses of muscular -tissue, are most capable of awakening the respiratory need which is -proportioned to the expenditure of force. Exercise induces change of -shape as well as change of size; and too much exercise of any one kind -will produce a local effect. - -Breathlessness is not the only form of fatigue, and fats are not the -only reserve material. Nitrogenous products of combustion, which cannot -be derived from fatty substances, are produced by work; and these are -stored among the reserve material, and produce stiffness, as fat -produces breathlessness. - -In no other sport is the blood sent coursing through the veins in the -same way as in bicycling; and as there is not a very great quantity of -that wonderful fluid passing and repassing through the circulatory -system, any obstruction or pressure is instantly felt and provided for. -To avoid giving nature unnecessary trouble in providing for interrupted -or unequal circulation, not even a glove that is the least tight should -be worn; indeed, the covering of head, hands, and feet should be -carefully selected. And the same precaution should be exercised with -regard to all clothing. No tight underwear should be worn, and nothing -like equestrian tights, which interfere with surface circulation. The -waist and lower ribs must be kept free. You should never ride so hard as -to allow the air to force the ribs out and in, so that you cannot -control them. It is a good rule not to ride so hard that you cannot hold -your breath at pleasure. - -It is important always to remove perspiration before cooling; therefore, -take a bath at once on coming in from a ride; if you cannot do that, rub -off with a dry towel, or sponge with tepid water, and rub dry gently; -then put on dry underclothing. The cold bath is most invigorating and -refreshing, and never more refreshing than after bicycle exercise; but -all cannot use it with good results. Provide for your change of -underclothing before starting out, and if you do not intend to return, -take it with you. - -Remember always that it is essential to provide an entire covering for -the body that will admit of free exhalations, and warm enough to prevent -chilling under all circumstances. While riding, provided the condensing -moisture is allowed to escape, it is quite possible to feel overheated, -yet the skin must be protected from chill resulting from rapid motion -through the air. Air pressure and evaporation nearly balance each other, -and the extra heat caused by exertion is tempered by moisture and the -constant fanning of rapid locomotion. These effects are most appreciably -felt upon halting. If the covering is thin, of light weight, and of too -hard a texture to admit of quick passage of air and steam, the garments -at once become saturated with moisture, and a serious chilling follows. -Even if the halt be but short, it will be found that an appreciable time -passes after remounting before one becomes warm, and the distaste for -work that follows is a sure indication that something is amiss. If -energy were preserved, instead of wasted in warming up after halting, -the benefit of the rest would be felt. - -A proper porous material should be always worn. With a flannel -shirt-waist and woollen sweater, even in quite warm weather, riding is -not at all uncomfortable; but substitute a Holland linen coat for the -sweater, and the rider will be first very warm, and then very damp -indeed and most uncomfortable. Nature provides various means for keeping -the body at an even temperature, and it is most essential not to disturb -this balance. While working, heat is generated, the skin becomes moist, -and a normal temperature is maintained by the rapid evaporation. Too -little covering means too great evaporation and lowering of temperature; -and even if no chill is experienced, the too rapid cooling prevents good -working results, and stiffness is apt to set in with fatigue after the -day’s work, and a languid, sleepy feeling on the day following. - -Too much stress cannot be laid on the necessity of being able easily and -expeditiously to adjust or redistribute the clothing. Flannel is a good -non-conductor of heat, but the bicyclist must use discrimination in -selection. Too heavy flannel will induce a copious and weakening -perspiration; insufficient clothing will allow the body to be chilled by -too rapid evaporation. - -One of the greatest benefits to be derived from bicycle exercise is the -free, healthy action of the skin that is induced. If this activity is -retarded by pressure, much injury may be done by the holding and -reabsorbing of waste matter. This reabsorbed matter, which is a direct -poison and must be worked off again in the complexities of the system, -causes languor and headache and a feeling that exercise is of no -benefit, as indeed it is not if proper hygienic laws are not complied -with. - -While in the open air, there is little danger to be apprehended from -damp clothing, as oxidation is going on freely. It is under shelter that -danger lurks, where the air does not circulate freely. The underwear -should be changed before eating, or the food will do little good. Where -you can get shelter, you can usually find conveniences for making the -change; otherwise, it is better to eat in the open air. - -Digestion involves muscular action as well as chemical processes. -Wherever in the system muscular work is being done, the blood is needed -in large quantity to enable the muscular processes to continue. In the -process of digestion important chemical work is accomplished by the -action of certain juices or secretions of the stomach, and rhythmical -muscular work in the walls and coatings of the stomach is required to -regulate their supply. It may be easily understood, therefore, that -digestion should be properly or rather uninterruptedly accomplished, and -it cannot be thus properly accomplished if too much of the blood supply -is called away in the earlier stages of assimilation. - -Active muscular work should never be undertaken immediately after a full -meal. The more food there is to be digested, the more work there is to -be done, the less capable is the rest of the system for severe work. -Such work, after eating heavily, would involve an interruption, almost a -suspension, of digestive processes, and a consequent difficulty in the -adjustment of the processes involved in muscular work. It would mean a -much longer time to get the second wind, inability to do hard or heavy -work, as well as inability to prolong the work without discomfort. Such -a course of action must lead to serious complications and derangements -of the digestive functions and eventually induce liability to disease. - -It is very injurious, also, to attempt to perform heavy work fasting, or -to prolong the period of exercise when food or rest is required. The -human machine requires a certain amount of fuel, and the supply must be -taken at regular intervals, or reserved material, which is too valuable -to be recklessly expended, will be consumed. - -A mixed diet, with plenty of variety, is the best to work on, everything -to be thoroughly cooked. Three good meals a day, and no eating between -meals; though, when tired, it is not well to work on an empty stomach, -and if you are delayed it is better to eat something while waiting than -to go too long without eating. Beef and mutton are always good food; and -fresh vegetables, fruit, milk and eggs, and cereals either with cream -and sugar or milk and sugar. Simple desserts are not harmful, neither -are they necessary. - -The so-called sustaining power of stimulants merely enables one to burn -up reserve tissue, to use up more fuel, to produce more power. Work done -under such conditions is forced work, like the forced draught of a -steam-engine using power to force the air into the furnace. In both -cases, intense heat and great power can be produced, and corresponding -radiation and depression occur while the system is undergoing its -processes of restoration. Tea, coffee, bouillon, are stimulating, and -good as food accessories; but they are not good to work on. - - - - -_CHAPTER XXII._ - -_Breathlessness; The Limit Mechanical._ - - -Seated awheel, the bicyclist feels master of the situation. The bicycle -obeys the slightest impulse, moving at will, almost without conscious -effort, virtually as much a part of the rider, and as easily under -control, as hand or foot. It is because weight is supported and friction -overcome that the bicyclist loses consciousness of effort as he moves, -with seemingly no limit to endurance. - -A trouble often experienced is breathlessness. For this there are -several causes. Sometimes the machine is started too hurriedly and -before the processes of the body have had time to adjust themselves. To -work easily, the muscles must be heated gradually, until they are -brought to the proper point of tension. Again, the easy movement of the -wheel often causes the cyclist to become oblivious of the fact that the -muscles are working quickly while doing easy work, that the power -applied is being converted into speed with little appreciable effort, -until suddenly his breath becomes labored, and a halt must be made for -rest. We need not attempt here to give the figures for power expended -and work done, though both factors may be estimated. - -Technically, effort is a physiological condition involving complicated -chemical changes and concentration of power. The work of the lungs is -done mechanically, automatically, is muscular work, involving chemical -changes and giving chemical results. We breathe in air full of oxygen; -we exhale air loaded with carbonic acid. Muscular effort produces -carbonic acid through chemical changes in the tissues of the body. The -oxygen of the air, taken into the lungs to purify the blood, is absorbed -and stored. Easy muscular movements give off a limited quantity of -carbonic acid and other products, but not more than can be eliminated -without readjustment of processes. When a succession of efforts is made, -involving the manufacture of larger quantities of carbonic acid, the -eliminating capacity is correspondingly taxed. - -In making an effort, the lungs become momentarily fixed, and their -regular respiratory movement is suspended. Carbonic acid is held, not -given off, and a feeling of suffocation is observed. Unless respiration -is restored by a pause, poisoning by the waste products ensues, they -being reabsorbed, and inducing discomfort and fatigue. Working with -effort, the lungs should be free to expand and contract. To this end it -is all-important to exhale, expelling the air from the lungs by -compression of the chest after severe exertion. Air rushes naturally -into the chest cavity; attention, therefore, should be directed, not to -getting in air, but to expelling the air already in the lungs. This -successfully done assists materially in bringing about that desirable -condition known as “second wind,” and gives control over the muscles of -the chest, which enables waste products to be readily eliminated. - -“The intensity of breathlessness during exercise is in direct proportion -to the expenditure of force demanded by the exercise in a given time.” -Breathlessness is due to power expended in a limited time. This, at -least, is one of the inducing causes. On the bicycle, power is converted -into speed. In hill-climbing, shortness of wind is due not so much to -position on the wheel as to the amount of power expended in doing the -work. If power is wasted, the work attempted is usually not -accomplished; if intelligently expended, the work is done easily and -well, leaving the bicyclist in condition to renew the effort when -necessary. - -Hill-climbing is like stair-climbing; power is expended in a succession -of efforts made in raising the weight on an ascending plane. The weight -must be lifted, either pushed up or pulled up, and the respiratory need -is increased. The hill-climber must aim to mount with as little effort -as possible and to make the ascent with the minimum expenditure of -power. - -Rapidly increased heart-beat is accompanied by deeply inflated lungs and -a tendency the bicyclist should guard against to work open-mouthed. Here -the question of tight clothing comes prominently forward. Sitting erect -and holding by the handle-bars, the bicyclist’s upper chest muscles are -held comparatively fixed or rigid; the arms, being used for support, -act as levers holding down the upward expansion of the chest. The air, -being compressed, is forced laterally and downward. The downward -expansion of the chest is checked by the movement of pedaling, there -being a constant upward pressure in the ascending stroke and an -increased muscular compression in the descending stroke. With a tight -belt, the breathing is chiefly upward, and downward when sitting or -walking, the lateral expansion depending on the width and compression of -the belt. - -When working on a bicycle, with the hands fixed and holding hard, the -upper chest is comparatively rigid, the muscles below the diaphragm hard -at work; and muscles at work do not admit of compression, which prevents -the diaphragm from moving downward. The diaphragm is a muscular wall, -stretched across the trunk below the lung cavity and near the -waist-line. If the lower muscles of the trunk are actively at work, the -diaphragm can be distended but a little way in a downward direction by -lung pressure. The air in the lungs, which are hard at work, and -over-full, presses against the heart, and makes harder work for that -organ. When the lungs are distended, any clothing that can be felt about -the waist exerts more or less pressure. The lungs of a bicyclist at work -are constantly distended, seldom deflated, and an equal pressure is -exerted in all directions. The diaphragm is forced downward, pressure -comes on the large blood-vessels, and the legs feel tired as one of the -results of the constriction. Pressure on the heart and the large blood -vessels of the lung cavity causes rush of blood to the head and gives a -heated look to the face and a feeling of faintness and headache. - -The muscles of the waist are elastic, but lose their elasticity when not -in use. Fat accumulates, and is pressed down, usually below the belt, -causing the muscles of the figure to sag and the trunk to lose its -proper lines. Compression of the waist while cycling is dangerous, and -will cause enlargement of the hips and distort the lines of the figure -below and above the waist. If tight clothing must be worn, do not wear -it while exercising any more than while sleeping. - -Bicycling is a great equalizer of tissue. The system, when this exercise -is moderately indulged, is freshened as is a city by a heavy rain, all -accumulations and deposits being swept away. - -There is a difference, a very great difference, between muscular fatigue -and breathlessness, and the two conditions should not be confused. -Breathlessness is general fatigue; muscular fatigue is fatigue -localized. When you are breathless, all your muscles are tired; they do -not want to work and are indeed incapable of performing work. Work -performed by the lower limbs causes breathlessness more quickly than any -other kind of exertion, and the bicyclist must bear this fact in mind. -The respiratory need is increased in proportion to the amount of -carbonic acid in the blood. The lower limbs can perform a great deal of -work in a few seconds, the large masses of muscle in the legs at work -throwing large quantities of carbonic acid into the blood to be given -off or eliminated by the lungs. - -Each individual has his own limit or pace, at which he can do work most -easily. If this pace is exceeded, effort follows and increased -expenditure of power; a greater quantity of carbonic acid is produced to -be given off; and fatigue is induced sooner than when working at the -pace which can be kept without extraordinary exertion. Every bicyclist -knows his own natural pace, and when departing from that must expect to -be winded sooner or later. - -Rapid work on the bicycle is similar, as muscular exertion, to running, -racing, speeding, and sprinting. Here we have the time limit,--great -speed produced in a short time; tissue consumed, and carbonic acid -produced in large quantities to be quickly eliminated. Increased effort -means more power expended. The fixed lung cavity means lessened capacity -for increased air-consumption and greatly lessened means of inhaling and -expelling air. One of the effects produced by carbonic acid in the blood -is a stimulation to increased effort, which causes a desire to prolong -work after reasonable limits have been exceeded, a feeling that more -must be done, rather than a desire to stop and rest. - -Second wind is the condition produced by the adjustment of the processes -of the body to the new state of exertion, where the heart and lungs -balance and work according to the demands of the new condition. A -pendulum, slipped on its spindle and let go, swings irregularly until it -finds its new rhythm. The rhythm that corresponds with its weight, -momentum and length of spindle, leverage, is the rhythm of the work. All -repeated work has a rhythm, and the movement disturbed requires a -little time for readjustment. The heart and lungs work automatically and -rhythmically, and any new movement disturbs their rhythm, which must be -adjusted for change of occupation or exercise until the balance of the -working functions is established. - -The second wind usually comes after the first fifteen minutes of work. -Quickly acquired, it means rapid and easy adjustment of processes, a -quick response to effort, and little power wasted. Though individuals -differ in this respect, a difficulty in getting the second wind, when -exercise has been suspended for a time, will sometimes be experienced, -and care should be taken not to overwork when taking up an exercise that -has been for some time discontinued. - -When you have had exercise enough, stop and rest. Change of occupation, -turning from active mental work to active muscular work, has been said -to give rest to the mental faculties. Though they perhaps do, in a -sense, experience rest, it might be unwise to assert that this rest is -really recuperative. Repeated alternation from active mental exercise to -active physical exercise would inevitably result in a state of -exhaustion, in which the reserve fund of energy or strength would be -completely consumed. It is a more accurate statement that a certain -amount of muscular work, which will restore the balance of the system, -is a good preparation for rest after active mental exertion. - -During mental work of any kind, muscular work must be performed; for -breathing, seeing, moving the hands, require muscular movement. The -question, therefore, resolves itself into one of degree of work done and -equilibrium of forces to be maintained, rather than one of restoration -of one set of faculties by the overtaxing of another set. Good muscular -work cannot be accomplished without the exercise of brain and will; -therefore, when the mind is actively employed, a certain amount of -muscular tissue is consumed, though not enough to maintain the system in -a state of bodily activity. For body and mind, to be in a state of -perfect health or equilibrium, should be equally active. - -The tissues of the body are constantly renewed, and the amount of work, -mental or muscular, that can be accomplished is determined by these -constantly renewing processes. The amount of material taken up and -stored for use depends upon the amount of material needed; and this is -gauged by the amount of work already done, and restricted by the amount -of work the material is capable of performing. The balance of work and -rest, quantity and quality, varies with different temperaments. - -Training means nothing more than preparation. For those engaged in -active mental occupation it is well to consider if they are giving -themselves the best preparation for resisting the fatigue consequent -upon their occupation. Cycling is a pastime and sport, and may be a -relaxation and the alternate of other athletic exercises. After the -machine is under control, the muscular work becomes virtually automatic; -and for this reason cycling, in its various forms, has proved so -beneficial as a relaxation. - -Overwork produces the effect of poisoning of the system, and reduces its -power of resistance. This poisoning is produced by the waste products of -the system, which accumulate during work, as the forces for eliminating -them are overtaxed; and before work can be properly resumed, the poison -must be eliminated from the system, and the power-producing materials -again stored for use. - -Stiffness is a form of fatigue due to an accumulation of deposits in the -tissues, which are best removed by exercising after a period of rest. -With their removal, stiffness disappears, to return with fresh deposits -if exercise is again prolonged. The amount of material not taken up by -the system lessens with regular exercise, and the tendency to stiffness -gradually disappears. The only remedy for stiffness is work, then rest, -then work again. Sleep does not always come to the over-tired, and we -may therefore conclude that it is better to be rested before attempting -to sleep. - -A pause, to be recuperative, need not be prolonged; fifteen minutes’ -rest after exertion should be sufficient; and during a day’s work, this -fifteen minutes’ rest between changes of occupation, not including the -quiet necessary for digestion, will keep one fresh. A pause longer than -fifteen minutes prepares or readjusts the processes. Do no work, mental -or muscular, for at least an hour after a meal; and sleep in a cool--not -cold--well-ventilated room. - -Low tension power usually accomplishes its object without waste. Work -done at high pressure, that might be done at low pressure, indicates -waste of effort under strain. The intense concentration of effort when -the beginner is struggling with a bicycle is made at high pressure. The -excitement of the unexpected probably has something to do with this, as -well as the novelty of the situation. If all bicycle work required the -same state of tension, however, it could not be long endured; the strain -would be too great. - -There is a certain amount you can do, or think you can do; this is one -measure of your capacity. The work you do is done by stored energy. How -may that energy be applied to give the best results? The intricate -workings of the mind we may not attempt to analyze: what we do, we do -because we wish to, or because we ought, or because we must. -Concentrated effort, persistent effort, continuous effort, all consume -force. When you dread anything you have undertaken as too difficult of -accomplishment, just so much more force is required to overcome that -idea. If, mounted on your bicycle, you wheel along in a state of -apprehension, you induce a high nervous tension that requires a great -reserve of power to resist and supply. Fear, or a sense of insecurity, -or a lack of confidence, produces the same result. A bicycle is run by -the direct application of power; and power diverted is power wasted. - -In wheeling, after the invigorating freshness of the exercise has -reached a certain point, the benefit derived lessens with the amount of -power drawn from the reserve. Bicycle exercise, moreover, to be really -beneficial, should be alternated with other exercise. The bicycle -freshens and brings into good condition muscles already developed, but -it is an exercise that must be taken with judgment. It is not a panacea -for all human ills; it can be generally beneficial, or, immoderately -indulged, may become most harmful. - -Wheeling for long distances should not be undertaken without proper -training. For the sedentary, and for all others tempted by the -fascinations of the sport to over-exertion, caution is most necessary. -Reaction from over-exertion will bring about a physical condition as -detrimental as that caused by lack of exercise--general lassitude and -unfitness for work, if nothing more serious. - -Persons who are naturally timid cannot accomplish in the same time as -much as the more courageous, for their powers are actively at work -overcoming their dread of collision and fear of falling; and the -distance covered, for power expended, must consequently be less than -when no other exertion is required than is needed for propelling the -bicycle. - -Learn to work without strain or effort; practise where fear is not -likely to be aroused, for fear induces a state of tension, and bicycling -cannot be enjoyed or prolonged if this drain of the power-supply is -allowed. Confidence will come with the knowledge that you are no longer -at the mercy of the machine, that it is in your power. - -No one make of bicycle is acknowledged the best, and no one is -absolutely perfect. The selection of a bicycle, therefore, is a matter -of knowledge and nice discrimination, and its use opens a wide field of -opportunity before you--touring and cruising, and expeditions of all -kinds; travel and sight-seeing; means for study and investigation. - -The possible cost of cycling may be quite appalling to consider; but in -cycling, as in other things, you may choose between the demands of -necessity and the suggestions of luxury. One--almost the -chief--fascination of the sport is its simplicity as a mode of travel; -the possibility of doing away with all impedimenta. The bicyclist soon -learns to dispense with every accessory not positively necessary and to -know every possible use of indispensable articles. - -The bicycle bestows and restores health; it has its limit, though it -does so much that more seems always possible. Take the bicycle as it is, -use it intelligently, enjoy it, and become an enthusiast. - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber’s note: - - Inconsistencies in spelling, hyphenation, etc. and unusual spelling - have been retained. - - Page 162 and 163, tables: as printed in the source document, although - they obviously contain several errors. - - Changes made - - Illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs. - - Some minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected - silently. - - The illustration numbers in the List of Illustrations have been added - by the transcriber. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BICYCLING FOR LADIES*** - - -******* This file should be named 62227-0.txt or 62227-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/6/2/2/2/62227 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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