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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 43 - Sewage Disposal on the Farm, and Protection of Drinking Water - -Author: Theobald Smith - -Release Date: July 16, 2020 [EBook #62676] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 43 *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Note - -Emphasis denoted as _Italics_. - - - - - U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - - FARMERS' BULLETIN · No. 43. - - - - SEWAGE DISPOSAL ON THE FARM, - - - - AND - - - - THE PROTECTION OF DRINKING WATER. - - - - BY - - - - THEOBALD SMITH, M. D., - - _Professor in Harvard University, Pathologist to the Massachusetts - State Board of Health, etc._ - - - [Illustration] - - - WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1896. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - Page. - - Introduction 3 - Disposal of sewage 5 - Night soil 7 - The privy 7 - The cesspool 7 - The dry-earth closet 8 - The water-closet 11 - Liquid sewage 11 - Vaults 11 - Irrigation 12 - Kitchen and chamber slops 14 - Waste and garbage 15 - Protection of drinking water 16 - Ways of contamination 17 - Construction of wells 18 - Conclusion 19 - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - Fig. 1. Shallow barnyard well 6 - 2. Portable earth closet 8 - 3. Old form of earth closet 9 - 4. Earth closet and dry catch 10 - 5. Self-acting peat dust closet 11 - 6. Settling chamber and flush tank for - irrigation 12 - 7. Subsurface irrigation of sewage 13 - 8. Garbage cremator 16 - - - - -SEWAGE DISPOSAL ON THE FARM AND THE PROTECTION OF DRINKING WATER. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -The conditions under which homes and their surroundings are kept healthful -in the city and in the country differ in many respects, although the -principles underlying them are essentially the same. In the city the -sanitary condition of homes is maintained chiefly by a system of -cooperation and centralization which brings into existence extensive -sewerage systems, water supplies, and the collection of house waste by -public authority. Regulations are prescribed and enforced under which -the individual household must avoid all conditions which are likely to -prove dangerous to the health of the immediate neighborhood and of the -entire community. In the country districts, and more particularly in -isolated homesteads, the conditions affecting the health of the household -are largely in its own hands, and more individual effort is required to -maintain healthful surroundings than in cities. The farmer must supply -himself with his drinking water and must get rid of the waste of the -household as best he can. On the other hand, the inhabitant of the country -is in many ways better off than the dweller in large cities. Not only -has he pure air to draw upon at all times, but he can supply himself -often with purer food than is possible in large communities. Though he -must procure for himself drinking water, he is, in most cases, able to -get a purer water from the ground than the sewage-polluted fluid which -is the only water accessible in many cities. While he must get rid of -night soil himself rather than have it disposed of by a water-carriage -system conveniently located within the house, he may avoid the annoying -complications of plumbing, bringing with it the leakages of sewer gas, the -plugging up of soil pipes by the roots of trees or by articles carelessly -thrown into them. Moreover, he has it often within his power to acquire -sufficient land around his house to take charge of all sewage and waste -and to utilize it as a manure for enriching the soil. Nevertheless, it -must be acknowledged that when the circumstances under which healthful -surroundings are procurable are under the immediate control of each -individual household they are apt to be perverted through ignorance and -neglect. Conditions may then arise which are not only unfavorable to -health, but which are likely to lead to severe sickness at any time when -the opportunity presents itself. - -Standing between the fortunate inhabitant of a large city whose -water-supply and sewerage systems are above reproach and the farmer -who bas it within his power to make them so with reference to his own -wants, is the half-developed village or town, with its chiefly unsanitary -conditions. Here the leaky cesspool still exists, close by the family -well, or by the neighbor's well. The absence of any system of collecting -garbage and miscellaneous waste shows itself by the littering of the -yards, the alleys, streets, and even stream beds with all kinds of -refuse. In some towns the premature introduction of a water-supply system -causes the ground to become still more thoroughly saturated with diluted -sewage, so that the wells of those households not yet connected with -the water-supply are a continual source of danger. In such communities, -appreciation of the necessity for a public control of sanitation has not -yet made much headway. The acts of each family violating the laws of -health not only react upon itself but upon the immediate neighborhood, -often with disastrous results. When typhoid fever has once gained a -foothold in such communities it is apt to develop into an epidemic. - -The tendency of our population to concentrate in villages and towns makes -the sanitary improvement of such communities a most important and vital -condition of national health and prosperity. The following pages are not -intended for these communities, for they need, in most cases, the advice -of sanitarians and sanitary engineers, acquainted with local conditions. -Still, they may be of service in pointing out the dangers which may and do -actually beset the population that neglects to dispose of refuse and waste -in a manner which does not clash with the laws of health. - -The chief dangers which threaten rural inhabitants are those arising from -polluted drinking water. This is infected from the household excrement and -barnyard drainage, as will be described farther on, and its use leads in -the main to bowel disturbances, typhoid-fever, and dysenteric affections. -It might be claimed that in an isolated homestead the danger is absent -because the night soil from the healthy household can not contain the -germs of typhoid-fever, and, therefore, the well water can not receive -them from leaky cesspools and surface drainage. This would be true if -the family lived secluded from other human beings. As the case stands, -there is much more communication than is at first thought supposed. There -is more or less coming and going of farm hands and other hired help, -of tramps, peddlers, etc. The farmer travels more than formerly. He -frequently visits neighboring communities. The children go to school. As -it has been shown that there may be mild cases of typhoid-fever passing -unnoticed, in a farm hand, for example, who leaves on account of ill -health, perhaps, and who has meanwhile, in his discharges, deposited the -germs of this disease on the premises, it is evident that isolation -nowadays does not exist except in remote, thinly settled regions, and that -disease germs may make themselves suddenly felt in an unexpected manner in -any farmhouse. - -There are other important reasons, however, why rural sanitation should -not be neglected. The health of the large communities of people who draw -their food supply from the country is in a measure dependent on the health -of the farming community. There is scarcely a city child who is not, in a -degree, dependent for its health on the sanitary conditions prevailing in -the house of the dairyman. Milk has been repeatedly shown to be the means -of distributing typhoid-fever and other diseases. Any vegetable foods -from the farm eaten raw are liable to become carriers of infection under -unsanitary conditions. - -In many parts of our country other causes operate in making the health -of many people depend on the proprieties of country homes. The thousands -of city people, who flock every summer to the country and bring to the -farming community considerable sums of money, should be properly protected -against the dangers of polluted water and infected milk by the adoption -of suitable methods of sewage disposal. Too frequently those who left the -city for the purpose of gaining strength by breathing pure air, drinking -pure water, and eating pure food, only return with the germs of an often -fatal disease within them to swell the typhoid statistics of our large -cities. - - - - -DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE. - - -The vital thing which thus presents itself is the disposal of fecal matter -and other refuse so that the wells, upon which most rural families depend -for their drinking water, may remain pure. To this matter we will first -turn our attention. - -Every person who tills the soil is acquainted with the remarkable -transforming power of the superficial layers of the earth upon manure and -excrement. Out of these offensive wastes harmless substances are produced -which are essential to the growth of vegetation. This power, known as -decay, is now generally attributed to very minute organisms (bacteria) -which are found in immense numbers in the superficial layers of the soil, -which diminish in number as we go deeper, and which completely disappear -below a depth of 6 to 12 feet, according to the physical condition of -the soil. Bacteria are more numerous where waste and excrement are most -abundant. When night soil and manure are deposited in excavations or -so-called cesspools in the earth, from which the fluid matter may enter -the ground at some depth below the surface, where the air or certain kinds -of bacteria can penetrate only to a slight extent, the substances, which -under the influence of the air (oxygen) and of bacteria near the surface, -would have decayed, now undergo partial putrefaction with the setting -free of disagreeable gases and odors. The deeper layers of the earth -slowly become saturated with organic matter, which is carried by the -ground-water into the wells or springs near by. There is also some reason -to believe that disease germs live longer in the oxygen-free depths of the -soil than at or near the surface. - -The extent to which the filling up of the soil with excrementitious matter -may go on in densely populated cities has been shown by Fodor for the -Hungarian city Budapest. By analyzing the soil at different levels from -the surface to a depth of about 13 feet, he found, over an area comprising -15 acres, about 1,000,000,000 pounds organic matter, equivalent to the -excrement of 100,000 people voided during thirty-seven years. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--The shallow barnyard well, with privy vault and -manure heaps near by. The water is likely to receive fluid from these at -any time.] - -To the surface of the earth we owe thus a purifying influence whose -activity furnishes us vegetation and food on the one hand and preservation -from disease on the other. This purifying power is not possessed by the -deeper layers, and therefore the percolation of organic refuse into them -from deep cesspools is wasteful to agriculture and dangerous to our -storehouse of drinking water. - -Even the surface of the soil when overloaded with sewage loses partially -its power of purifying the organic matter. After sufficient rest, such an -overloaded soil regains its original power. The purifying activity of the -soil from a sanitary aspect is the same as that governing fertility from -an agricultural standpoint, hence any further discussion of this subject -is unnecessary. - -A hint as to the proper disposition of waste, excrement, etc., is -furnished by what is stated above concerning the purifying capacities of -the earth's surface. Waste, night soil, etc., should be deposited with -proper precautions on or immediately below the surface of the soil, where -it may perform the double function of ridding the household of a nuisance -and of enriching the soil itself. This leads us to a consideration of the -best means of taking care of the household wastes. These are, in general, -of three classes: First, fecal matter; second, kitchen and chamber slops; -and third, miscellaneous rubbish and ashes. - - -NIGHT SOIL. - -The proper disposition of fecal matter or night soil in the country has -been one of the most pressing and vexatious problems of modern sanitation. -Many plans have been suggested, much apparatus has been invented to meet -the difficulty, but opinions not only differ but change from year to year -and have led to different practices in different countries. Moreover, -different climatic conditions and the divergent tendencies of rural -populations in the various sections of our own country make it impossible -to apply the same scheme to the whole country. Different degrees of -prosperity and wealth, even in the same locality, will bring into use -widely different schemes to accomplish the same end. There are in use -several systems-- - -_The privy._--The old-fashioned privy, at present still quite a common -thing even in cities, is, perhaps, the most favored method of disposing of -fecal matter in the country. A pit is dug and a small building set over -it. The excrement deposited in it slowly fills it up. The fluids and the -solids dissolved by them penetrate the subsoil and diffuse themselves in -the ground. Rarely is such a pit cleaned out. Another is dug and the old -one covered up. In this way the ground becomes overloaded with refuse -organic matter. It is even stated on good authority that such collections -of fecal matter have been found under the dwelling; also, that the privy -vaults have been dug until the current of ground-water was reached which -was to facilitate the removal of the excrement. It is difficult to -conceive a more pernicious custom, or one more certain to pollute the -drinking water. The privy vault is the most rudimentary way of getting rid -of night soil, and its dangerous features are too plain to be referred to. - -_The cesspool._--Next comes the cesspool, which is usually connected with -a water-closet, and may also receive the slops from the kitchen. - -These are constructed in two ways, either as water-tight receptacles or as -simple pervious pits differing in no way from the privy vault excepting, -perhaps, in their more dangerous tendencies. All sanitary authorities -agree in condemning the leaky cesspool as a most shiftless and dangerous -method of getting rid of sewage. In most countries they are prohibited -by law in populous communities. In exceptional cases, leaky cesspools -may do no harm, as in an isolated house in the country whose cesspool is -built at a considerable distance both from the house and the well. The -safe distance from any well it would be difficult to state, because that -would depend on the character of the subsoil and the general slope of the -land. In any case, the cesspool should be on lower ground than the well, -as the current of the ground water feeding the latter, usually but not -always, conforms to the slope of the surface. A fair estimate of the least -allowable distance between well and cesspool would be 100 feet. Soluble -salts from sewage might still find their way into the well water, but it -is quite improbable that disease germs could penetrate the soil for such a -distance except where fissures and cracks may be present. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Portable earth closet. A, the pail to receive the -excrement; B, the urine-separating receptacle hanging on the open door; C, -mouth of the hopper conveying the dry-earth or ashes from reservoir D upon -the night soil in A.] - -In villages, leaky cesspools are still of frequent occurrence. If the -drinking water is taken from wells, such cesspools are a constant menace, -and all that is needed in many such towns is a spark in the shape of some -disease germ to kindle an epidemic. It is true that years may pass by -without the occurrence of more than the usual amount of illness, but even -then we have good reason to suppose that in many villages using cesspools -the average amount of sickness and mortality is far too high, not to -mention the occasional epidemics of typhoid-fever. We may sum up the -matter of leaky cesspools by the statement that they may do no harm near -isolated houses on farms, provided they are sufficiently far away from the -source of water-supply. In small towns cesspools should be prohibited, or -only very thoroughly constructed water-tight ones permitted, according to -circumstances. The same holds true for the well-known privies. - -_The dry-earth closet._--The dry conservancy system is a much better -method of disposal of excrement, and is extensively in use to-day even -in certain large cities on the Continent of Europe where sewers have not -yet been introduced. This consists in the main of the frequent removal of -excreta in the country by some man servant or member of the family; in -villages and towns according to some cooperative plan. This system has -taken various directions, according to circumstances. Thus there are what -is called the pail system, which consists in the daily or less frequent -removal of a pail receiving the excreta; and the earth closet invented by -the Rev. Henry Moule, of England, the chief feature of which consists in -the covering of the excreta with some absorbent substance like dry-earth -or ashes. In some places the excreta are received into a well-built brick -or stone receptacle and covered with earth, from which they may be removed -from time to time. Of these systems the dry-earth closet has received the -greatest amount of attention and discussion. It consists, essentially, of -a pail to receive night soil, which is covered either automatically or -with a scoop with dry-earth (fig. 2). The earth absorbs the fluids and the -odors and keeps the closet inoffensive. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--The old form of earth closet with frame and pail -removed to show the mechanism. The handle on the left when raised throws -into the pail a certain quantity of dry-earth or ashes from the reservoir -or hopper in the rear.] - -The earth to be used should be a rather fine loam, sifted to remove -coarse particles, thoroughly dried by spreading out in the sun or under a -shed, and then stored in barrels. The drier the earth the better it is. -The finer the particles of earth the greater the capacity for absorbing -fluids. For this reason sand is not satisfactory. Goal or wood ashes are -quite satisfactory, as they are, after proper sifting, of the requisite -fineness and are thoroughly dry. The mixture of earth or ashes and night -soil should be removed at certain times, depending on the location of -the closet, the season of the year, and other conditions. The more -frequent the removal the better. The mixture of soil and excrement is so -unobjectionable that it has been used over a number of times after being -dried each time. This can not be recommended, however, as it is generally -accepted nowadays that disease germs may remain alive in such a mixture -for some time. - -In place of the movable earth closets, a water-tight, concreted area -may be built in an annex to the house, which is to receive the night -soil from a closet on the floor above with the necessary quantity of dry -soil (see fig. 4). Poore, from whose book the illustration is taken, -recommends, in addition, the construction of the floor of such a pit with -an inclination sufficient to carry away the urine into some gutter outside -filled with absorbent soil. The area should have suitable openings for -inspection and for removal of contents, as well as for ventilation. Waring -recommended a similar system many years ago. The closet described by him -discharges into a water-tight vault in the cellar, which requires emptying -only occasionally. The contents remain inoffensive, provided sufficient -thoroughly dry earth is used. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Earth closet and dry catch (from Poore's -"Rural hygiene," scale, 1/2 inch equals 1 foot). To prevent drafts the -earth closet is closed below by a hinged flap which opens and shuts -automatically by means of a counterpoise. The catch below is provided with -air bricks and an air shaft leading to a ventilator.] - -In cold climates, indoor closets are especially desirable to obviate -the exposure which can not be avoided when closets are out of doors. -For invalids there should be a carefully managed earth closet kept in -a well-aired room set apart for this purpose. In warm climates, earth -closets should be frequently cleaned. To prevent the attraction of flies -and insects and the too rapid decomposition of the contents a little -unslacked lime added with the earth to the excrement will be of value. -The discharges of persons suffering from typhoid-fever and bowel troubles -should be mixed with thin slacked lime[1] (milk of lime). One-half to -one hour after the mixing, such discharges may be put upon the soil, -always at some distance from a well or spring, a stream, or a field under -cultivation. - -[1] Lime, to be used for disinfection, should not be air-slacked, but kept -in tightly covered receptacles to prevent this from taking place. - -In Europe, the use of earth and ashes has been superseded by peat dust. -The upper layer of peat is dried in the air and ground in a suitable -machine. The coarser particles are removed by sifting and used for bedding -in stables. The fine portion, which has a very high absorbing power for -fluids and is also capable of preventing odors, is used in dry closets. -In Germany there are at present about thirty factories engaged in the -preparation of peat moss for the purposes mentioned. Its great advantages -over dry earth should bring it into use in our country. (See fig. 5.) - -It does not matter from a sanitary standpoint which one of the dry-earth -systems is adopted, provided the necessary attention be given to it. Every -system which can be recommended is bad if not properly attended to. The -conditions to be observed are: - -The night soil should be received in water-tight receptacles. - -It should be frequently removed. - -It should be utilized in the garden or field by being placed under a thin -layer of soil. - -To excreta from the sick, milk of lime or unslacked lime should be added -before disposal in the soil. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Self-acting peat dust closet. The lid is replaced -by a hinged reservoir containing the peat dust. Whenever this is let down -a certain quantity of peat dust is discharged automatically and thrown, -upon the night soil. (From Weyl's Handbuch der Hygiene. II, p. 315.)] - -_The water-closet._--There can be no doubt that to-day the water-carriage -system, as it is called, or, in simpler language, the indoor water-closet, -is preferred to all other contrivances. This is true for the open country -as well as for villages and the suburban territories of cities. There -is much to be said in favor of the present-day perfect contrivance for -the rapid removal of excreta and the exposure thereby prevented. But -for all rural inhabitants the cost should be carefully weighed before a -water-carriage system is introduced into a house, for none but the best -will answer, as all others are likely to become nuisances. - -The supply of water must be sufficient to flush the water-closet -thoroughly and keep all the pipes clean; the plumbing must conform to -that in vogue in cities, with its traps and ventilating pipes to prevent -the odors of the pipes from escaping into the house; and the disposal of -the large quantity of liquid sewage, the most difficult problem, must -be properly attended to or it is likely to prove more dangerous to the -water-supply than the old dry privy pits. - - -LIQUID SEWAGE. - -The methods available to dispose of liquid sewage in the country are -water-tight cesspools and irrigation. - -_Vaults._--Water-tight cesspools should be constructed of hard-burned -brick, laid in cement, and having a similar brick or a concreted bottom. -The inside and outside surfaces of the brick wall should be coated with -a thin layer of cement, and clay rammed in around the wall, to increase -its imperviousness to water. It should be vaulted above, and topped by -a square or round central opening, covered with stone or iron plate. -Cesspools are also made of cast or wrought iron, the joints being made -water-tight. Cesspools must be ventilated by two pipes, one rising several -feet above ground, the other carried to the roof of the house, barn, or -other structure near by. The current will, in most cases, tend down the -short and up the long pipe. The latter may be dispensed with and the soil -pipe of the house act as a flue, provided all branches are perfectly -trapped. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Settling chamber and flush tank for surface -and subsurface irrigation of sewage. (From Gerhard's "The Disposal of -Household Wastes," 1890.)] - -_Irrigation._--The disposal of sewage by irrigation is by far the best -method now within reach. Two methods are in use, viz, surface and subsoil -irrigation. The first in its most complete form consists in carrying the -liquid sewage to a piece of ground set apart for the purpose and carefully -underdrained. The sewage is allowed to flow over the ground in shallow -channels. The fluid slowly disappears in the soil and enters the drains -as comparatively pure water, which may be allowed to flow into a stream. -For villages this is the best means of disposing of sewage. Those who as -village officials may be interested in this method will find plans of -such sewage farms, together with faithful accounts of their operation and -the results obtained, in the annual report of the State Board of Health -of Massachusetts for 1892, page 559, and same report for 1893, page 563. -Suggestions for its application to country houses are given farther on. - -For isolated rural homes, or village homes commanding a certain amount of -ground around the house, the liquid sewage from water-closets, the kitchen -and chamber slops may be disposed of by the simple means of subsoil -irrigation, first described by Mr. Moule and subsequently elaborated by -Colonel Waring. - -The system as used at present in its most successful form consists, -outside of the house, of the following parts (see fig. 6): - -Two adjoining water-tight receptacles of brick. One of these receives -the sewage from the house and is intended to act as a settling chamber -for the coarser particles, paper, etc. This communicates with the second -receptacle, which receives from it the fluid sewage. This chamber is -called the flush tank and is provided with a siphon. When the fluid has -reached a certain level, the siphon is set in operation and discharges the -contents of the chamber at one time into the subsoil pipes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Subsurface irrigation of sewage: _a_, absorption -tiles (Gerhard's "The Disposal of Household Wastes"); _b_ and _c_, lines -of absorption tiles showing their relation to flush tank (From Waring's -"Sewerage and Land Drainage").] - -From the second cistern a system of subsoil pipes laid over a treeless -piece of ground, preferably a lawn, receives and discharges the sewage -into the ground. These pipes should consist of porous tiles, 2 inches -in diameter and about 1 foot long, laid from 8 to 16 inches beneath the -surface of the ground, and with a gentle inclination of 2 or 3 inches for -every 100 feet. The tiles should have open joints not less than one-fourth -of an inch wide. They are laid upon earthen gutters and the joints are -protected above by caps from being clogged with earth. The intermittent -discharge of the liquid sewage is quite essential to the successful -working of this system. If the sewage is allowed to dribble away into the -pipes certain portions of these will become supersaturated with fluid and -others will not receive any; the purification of the sewage in the soil is -thereby rendered imperfect. The discharge of a large quantity of fluid at -one time, besides scouring the system of pipes, fills it more uniformly -and distributes the work to all parts of the subsoil system. - -The successful construction of such a plant requires the services of -someone familiar with it, and it is therefore not necessary for me to -do more than call attention to it here as a highly recommended system -for homes, especially in villages, where the proper amount of land is -procurable and where the sewage must be disposed of in a manner both -inoffensive and safe. In any case the soil of such land must be porous, -not clayey and retentive. Those who wish to familiarize themselves with -the details will find descriptions in the Sanitary Engineer for 1883, page -530, by Philbrick; in "The Disposal of Household Wastes," by Gerhard, and -in "Sewerage and Land Drainage," by Waring. The entire plant is said to -cost $200 to $300, the annual expenditures for cleaning, repairs, etc., -about $10. - -The method of subsurface irrigation just described may be too complex -and too expensive where land is abundant and neighboring houses at some -distance. The simpler method of surface irrigation may be resorted to by -laying out at some distance--at least 100 feet--from the house a small -sewage farm where the sewage may flow in shallow trenches over the surface -and slowly sink into the ground. Such an irrigation field must have the -same qualities demanded by subsurface irrigation. Its surface should have -sufficient slope and the soil should be porous, not retentive. The liquid -sewage, including kitchen and chamber slops, is conducted to this field in -a water-tight tile drain and then allowed to flow into shallow trenches. -To avoid the overloading of the soil with sewage at any one place the -main distributing trench should be so arranged that it and the irrigating -trenches branching from it may be temporarily blocked at any point to -divert the sewage into one or more different trenches every day. In winter -the warmth of the sewage will keep it in motion and the filtration will -go on although the field may be covered with snow and ice. The use of the -flush tank as described above would cause a more uniform distribution of -the fluid over the field and make the filtration distinctly intermittent. -The ground between the trenches may be cultivated to increase the amount -of evaporation. If conveniently situated, an orchard may be used as the -irrigation field. It should be distinctly understood, however, that -marketable fruits and vegetables should not be carelessly allowed to come -in contact with fresh sewage, nor should the irrigation field be near the -well unless the latter is fairly deep and tubed or tiled to the surface of -the water. - - -KITCHEN AND CHAMBER SLOPS. - -The removal of kitchen and chamber slops is a matter which also requires -proper attention, as this liquid frequently gives rise to unhealthful -conditions, annoying alike to sight and smell when carelessly disposed -of. The simplest way to utilize kitchen slops is to pour them upon plants -about the house in summer, in winter upon the soil, each time in another -spot, so as not to supersaturate the surface layers of soil in any one -place. A means of less trouble recommended by Waring is to partly fill -with soil a barrel with leaky bottom and cover this with a layer of stable -manure to prevent the puddling of the soil. The slops filter through the -soil and leave the barrel below as a clear fluid. The barrel is emptied -two or three times a year and the contents used for fertilizer. - -House slops may be disposed of by surface irrigation or by subsoil pipes, -as already described. The originator of this method, Mr. Moule, may here -be profitably quoted as to its simplicity and success: - - Where there is a garden the house slops and sink water may, in most - cases, be made of great value and removed from the house without - the least annoyance The only requirement is that there shall be a - gradual incline from the house to the garden. Let all the slops fall - into a trapped sink, the drain from which to the garden shall be of - glazed socket pipes well jointed, and emptying itself into a small - tank, 18 inches deep, about a foot wide, and of such length as may - be necessary. The surplus rain water from the roof may also enter - this. Out of this tank lay 3-inch common drain pipes, 8 feet apart - and 12 inches below the surface. Lay mortar at the top and bottom - of the joints, leaving the sides open. If these pipes are extended - to a considerable length, small tanks about 1 foot square and 18 - inches deep must be sunk at about every 20 or 40 feet to allow for - subsidence. These can be emptied as often as required, and the deposit - may be either mixed with dry-earth or be dug in at once as manure. The - liquid oozes into the cultivated soil, and the result is something - fabulous. * * * - - On a wall 55 feet in length and 16 feet high a vine grows. A 3-inch - pipe runs parallel with this at a distance of 6 feet from it for the - entire length. The slops flow through this pipe as above described. On - this vine year after year had been grown 400 well-ripened bunches of - grapes, some of the bunches weighing three-fourths of a pound. During - a period of four years, for a certain purpose, the supply was cut off. - To the surprise of the gardener scarcely any grapes during those years - appeared; but afterwards the supply was restored, and the consequence - was an abundant crop, the wood grow fully 16 feet, of good size and - well ripened. - -In place of an indoor sink, an upright tube or hopper may be constructed -out of doors in communication with the subsurface pipes into which the -waste fluids are poured. - - -WASTE AND GARBAGE. - -The attractiveness of a rural home depends largely upon the promptness -with which all kinds of waste material are disposed of. The abundance -of space around the house is a great temptation for the members of the -household to use it as a place for storing rubbish and useless, worn-out -things. Sifted ashes are easily utilized in earth closets and upon walks -and roads, to make them compact and firm. Other articles of no use, -such as broken crockery, bottles, tin cans, etc., can be thrown into -depressions and gullies and covered over with earth, or else buried in -trenches where subsoil drainage is desirable. The removal of rubbish is a -very fruitful theme and might be dealt with at length. Its importance as -related to health and disease is a subordinate one, and the reformer must -appeal to the love of order, propriety, and beauty in and around the home -in order to make an impression. - -Garbage is of much less annoyance in the country than in the city, where -its collection and destruction is a great expense, and is frequently very -unsatisfactorily done. In the country, the household garbage is fed to the -swine and poultry, and is in this way profitably used. There are, however, -homes where garbage must be taken care of in other ways. It may be buried -in the garden or else burned in the kitchen range. Recently a device has -been patented which enables the housekeeper to place the garbage in a -section of the smoke pipe of the range, where it dries out rapidly, burns, -and leaves only a little charcoal behind, which may be used for fuel next -day. This device has been well recommended by sanitarians (see fig. 8). - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Garbage cremator. The garbage is placed in the -perforated frame. The latter is pushed into the smoke pipe, where the -garbage becomes slowly carbonized.] - - - - -PROTECTION OF DRINKING; WATER. - - -The next subject to claim our attention is the protection of the sources -of drinking water. In the country water is, as a rule, obtained from wells -and springs. The important bearing upon well water of soil purity demands -a few explanatory remarks concerning the origin of well water. Wells -are excavations made into the ground to a variable depth until water is -reached. This water is denominated ground or subsoil water. Its origin -may be better understood if, for the moment, we conceive the surface of -the earth as more or less irregular and entirely impervious to water. The -rain would collect on this surface and form lakes, ponds, and streams, -according to the configuration of the surface. If, now, we conceive this -surface covered with sand or other porous earth to a greater or lesser -height, and the top of this be considered the earth's actual surface, the -water will remain in the same position, but it will be buried within and -fill the pores of the overlying soil as subterranean lakes, ponds, and -streams. In digging a well we remove this porous layer of earth until we -reach these subterranean streams or reservoirs of ground-water. If the -above description be thoroughly understood, the condition under which well -water may be obtained at different depths will become intelligible, and -it will also appear plain why ground-water may flow as any surface stream -and pick up on its way various substances which have percolated into the -ground. - -When the bed of porous soil overlying the impervious layers is very deep, -wells will have to be dug down to a considerable depth to reach the -surface of the ground-water. Where this layer of pervious earth is of -slight thickness wells will be shallow, and the ground-water may appear on -the bottom of gullies, trenches, and wherever the porous layer has been -dug or washed away. - -The movement of the ground-water depends on the inclination or slope of -the impervious strata, and has been observed to be quite rapid in some -instances. By adding common salt to the water in a well its detection -in other wells at a short distance has been found a guide in the -determination of the rapidity and direction of the underground current. - -When the ground-water resting on the uppermost impervious layers is near -the surface, and therefore not safe or fit to use as drinking water, -it may be possible by digging below this layer to find another porous -bed containing water. This source will, in general, be much purer since -it is less exposed to pollution from above, and since the water has to -travel longer distances underground. Such a deep supply must, however, be -protected from the superficial supply by a water-tight wall extending to -the surface of the deep supply, otherwise the water from the upper layers -will simply drain into the well. - - -WAYS OF CONTAMINATION. - -Wells are exposed to contamination in two ways. The surface water from -rain, house slops, and barnyard drainage may find its way into the well at -or near the surface of the ground. Or the ground-water stream supplying -the well with water may in its subterranean movements encounter cesspools -or seepings from cesspools, and carry with it soluble and suspended -particles, some of which may enter the well. There can be no doubt that -a large percentage of the wells are exposed to contamination with refuse -matter in the manner described; and it now remains to gauge the danger -to health and life which may be carried in the contaminating substance. -The danger of typhoid-fever bacteria entering the water has already been -mentioned. These may be washed in from the surface or they may pass from -cesspools near by through fissures in the ground, passages dug by rats, -etc. Whether such bacteria can pass through the pores of a compact, -unbroken soil from a cesspool to a well near it is a matter not fully -settled. Since, however, the actual condition of the deeper layers of the -soil between cesspool and well can not be known, it becomes imperative -to prevent all pollution of the ground-water current supplying wells by -either abolishing the cesspools or else placing them at a considerable -distance from all sources of water. - -Beside typhoid-fever bacteria, those organisms which cause digestive -disturbances, and severer troubles, such as diarrhea, dysentery, and -possibly other unknown diseases, may be carried into well water. During -cholera epidemics, polluted wells might form centers of infection. Eggs of -animal parasites may be washed in from the surface. Again, the barnyard -manure, representing the mixed excrement of various animals, may under -certain conditions be bearers of disease germs, and such excrement -should, under no conditions, be looked upon as entirely harmless to human -beings.[2] - -[2] It is probable that the filth which gets into cow's milk and which -appears to be mainly excrement of cows is largely responsible for the -severe summer diseases of infants fed on cow's milk. - -Besides the protection of the ground-water near the well from pollution -emanating from cesspools, etc., the surface of the ground about the well -should be kept free from manure, slops, and other waste water; hence -the well should not be dug under or close by the house,[3] nor should -it be located in the barnyard, where the ground is usually saturated -with manure. It should be surrounded by turf, and not by richly manured, -cultivated, or irrigated soil. The ground immediately around it should -slope gently away from it and be paved if possible. The waste water from -the well should not be allowed to soak into the ground, but should be -collected in water-tight receptacles or else conducted at least 25 feet -away in open or closed channels which are water-tight. - -[3] The water may be carried into the kitchen by running the pipe from the -well, horizontally, under ground. - - -CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS. - -The well itself must be so constructed that impurities can not get into -it from above or from the sides. If water can soak into it after passing -through a few feet of soil only, it can not be regarded as secure from -pollution. To prevent this, the well may be provided with a water-tight -wall built of hard-burned brick and cement down to the water level. The -outside surface of this wall should be covered with a thin layer of -cement, and clay pounded and puddled in around it. Or, tile may be used -to line the well and the joints made water-tight with cement down to the -water level. Driven wells, i. e., wells constructed of iron tubing driven -into the ground, are, perhaps, the safest where the quantity of water -needed is not large and where other conditions are favorable. - -These different devices are all designed to keep water near the surface -of the soil from percolating into the well. To keep impurities from -entering the well directly from the top considerable care is necessary. -Such impurities are likely to prove the most dangerous because there is -no earth niter to hold them back and destroy them before they can reach -the water. Adequate protection above may be provided in several ways. -The sides of the tiled wells should project above the surface and be -securely covered with a water-tight lid. The ordinary well should also -have its sides project above the surface and a water-tight cover of heavy -planks provided, which should not be disturbed excepting for repairing or -cleansing the well. Under no circumstances should objects be let down into -the well to cool. A still better method of protecting the water from above -is to have the lining wall of the well end 3 feet below the surface of the -ground and to be topped there with a vaulted roof, closed in the center -with a removable iron or stone plate. The top should be covered with 12 -inches of clay or loam; above this there should be a layer of sand, and -lastly a pavement sloping away in all directions. - -Too much care can not be bestowed upon the household well. It should -be guarded jealously and all means applied to put the water above any -suspicion of being impure. This is especially true in dairies where well -water is used in cleaning the milk cans, and where steam and boiling water -have not yet found their way for this end. Polluted wells in such houses -not only endanger the health of the inmates but that of a more or less -numerous body of city customers. - -In those regions where rain water is the only safe drinking water, the -same care is necessary to protect the stored supply from contamination, -and no suggestions beyond those already given are necessary here. - - - - -CONCLUSION. - - -In the foregoing pages it has been the aim of the writer to give a few -facts and supply a certain number of ideas which, in the mind of any -person who has thoroughly understood them and who thinks for himself, -may be safely left to ripen into schemes adapted to his own wants and -surroundings. How many resources a man armed with correct views may find -in the simplest appliances the reader may judge for himself by consulting -Chapters IX, X, and XI of Dr. Vivian Poore's very interesting volume on -rural hygiene. Whether the means for utilizing household wastes there -described and adopted by him would be adequate outside of a limited -territory of our own country, I am not prepared to state. For the same -reason no definite suggestions can be made in these pages, owing to the -wide diversity in the climatic and other conditions obtaining over the -vast territory of our country. The writer has, furthermore, omitted all -statements of detail which properly belong to the sanitary engineer. The -works referred to will, however, supply those more directly interested -with the facts and figures desired. - -The principles to be kept in the foreground are the disposal of sewage -in the superficial layers of the soil in not too great quantity, the -disinfection of the stools of the sick with lime before such disposition -is made, the digging of wells in places kept permanently in grass and at -some distance from barnyards, and, above all, their thorough protection -from contamination from the surface and from the soil immediately below -the surface. - -In every community there are public-spirited citizens who could do much -good by taking hold of the simplest and safest methods of disposing of -sewage and refuse, putting them into practice, and showing the rest of -the community just what good can be accomplished and what harm avoided -by a little continuous attention to sanitary matters. In this way many -may be led to undertake improvements who, with no definite knowledge of -the expense involved and with misgivings as to the final success of the -undertaking, would otherwise hesitate to make a beginning. - - - * * * * * - - -FARMERS' BULLETINS. - -These bulletins fire sent free of charge to any address upon application -to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. - -[Only the bulletins named below are available for distribution.] - - No. 15. Some Destructive Potato Diseases: What They Are and How to - Prevent Them. Pp. 8. - No. 16. Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and for Feeding. Pp. 24. - No. 18. Forage Plants for the South. Pp. 30. - No. 19. Important Insecticides: Directions for Their Preparation and - Use. Pp. 20. - No. 20. Washed Soils: How to Prevent and Reclaim Them. Pp. 22. - No. 21. Barnyard Manure. Pp. 32. - No. 22. Feeding Farm Animals. Pp. 32. - No. 23. Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost. Pp. 32. - No. 24. Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. Pp. 16. - No. 26. Sweet Potatoes: Culture and Uses. Pp. 30. - No. 27. Flax for Seed and Fiber. Pp. 10. - No. 28. Weeds; and How to Kill Them. Pp. 30. - No. 29. Souring of Milk and Other Changes in Milk Products. Pp. 23. - No. 30. Grape Diseases on the Pacific Coast. Pp. 16. - No. 31. Alfalfa, or Lucern. Pp. 23. - No. 32. Silos and Silage. Pp. 31. - No. 33. Peach Growing for Market. Pp. 24. - No. 34. Meats: Composition and Cooking. Pp. 29. - No. 35. Potato Culture. Pp. 23. - No. 36. Cotton Seed and Its Products. Pp. 16. - No. 37. Kafir Corn: Characteristics, Culture, and Uses. Pp. 12. - No. 38. Spraying for Fruit Diseases. Pp. 12. - No. 39. Onion Culture. Pp. 31. - No. 40. Farm Drainage. Pp. 24. - No. 41. Fowls: Care and Feeding. Pp. 24. - No. 42. Facts about Milk. Pp. 29. - No. 43. Sewage Disposal on the Farm. Pp. 22. - No. 44. Commercial Fertilizers. Pp. 24. - No. 45. Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. Pp. 32. - No. 46. Irrigation in Humid Climates. Pp. 27. - No. 47. Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. Pp. 32. - No. 48. The Manuring of Cotton. Pp. 16. - No. 49. Sheep Feeding. Pp. 24. - No. 50. Sorghum as a Forage Crop. Pp. 24. - No. 51. Standard Varieties of Chickens. Pp. 48. - No. 52. The Sugar Beet. Pp. 48. - No. 53. How to Grow Mushrooms. Pp. 20. - No. 51. Some Common Birds in Their Relation to Agriculture. Pp. 40. - No. 55. The Dairy Herd: Its Formation and Management. Pp. 21. - No. 56. Experiment Station Work--I. Pp. 30. - No. 57. Butter Making on the Farm. Pp. 15. - No. 58. The Soy Bean as a Forage Crop. Pg. 24. - No. 59. Bee Keeping. Pp. 32. - No. 60. Methods of Curing Tobacco. Pp. 16. - No. 61. Asparagus Culture. Pp. 40. - No. 62. Marketing Farm Produce. Pp. 28. - No. 63. Care of Milk on the Farm. Pp. 40. - No. 64. Ducks and Geese. Pp. 48. - No. 65. Experiment Station Work--II. Pp. 32. - No. 66. Meadows and Pastures. Pp. 24. - No. 67. Forestry for Farmers. Pp. 48. - No. 68. The Black Rot of the Cabbage. Pp. 22. - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - -Illustrations were moved to prevent splitting paragraphs. - - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 43, by Theobald Smith - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 43 *** - -***** This file should be named 62676-8.txt or 62676-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/6/7/62676/ - -Produced by Tom Cosmas -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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