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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5cc7290 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #62678 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62678) diff --git a/old/62678-0.txt b/old/62678-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 959f74b..0000000 --- a/old/62678-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2530 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 630, by F. E. L. Beal - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 630 - Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer - -Author: F. E. L. Beal - -Release Date: July 17, 2020 [EBook #62678] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 630 *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Notes - -Text emphasis is denoted as _Italics_. - - - - - U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - - FARMERS BULLETIN No. 630 - - - - - SOME COMMON - - BIRDS USEFUL - - to the - - FARMER - - -FROM a purely practical point of view the most important of the relations -of native birds to man are the economic. The esthetic value of birds is -great--greater, indeed, than that of any other group of animals; and that -this is a real and especially treasured value is not to be denied. But it -is in their relation to insect and other enemies of crops that birds are -most directly associated with the welfare of mankind, and their value in -this particular should be made as widely known as possible. - -This bulletin is one of a series designed to assist in doing this. Not -all birds are beneficial, and all facts tending to show in which class -each species belongs will be set forth. The useful kinds far outnumber -the injurious, however, and so great is their value as insect destroyers -in the United States that to them may be given the credit of being one of -the greatest controlling factors in limiting the development of insect -pests and in preventing many disastrous outbreaks. - -In the following pages are discussed the habitat, food habits, and -relation to agriculture of more than 50 species of birds common to -farming sections. - - -Washington, D. C. - -Issued February 13, 1915; revised April, 1926 - - - - -SOME COMMON BIRDS USEFUL TO THE FARMER.[1] - - -By F. E. L. Beal, Late _Assistant Biologist, Division of Food Habits -Research, Bureau of Biological Survey_. - -[1] This bulletin is largely a revision of Farmers' Bulletin 54, by -Prof. F. E. L. Beal. The parts relating to the crow and blue Jay were -contributed by E. R. Kalmbach, assistant biologist, and the discussion -of the nighthawk and bobwhite by W. L. McAtee, in charge. Food Habits -Research. Professor Beal, author of the remainder of the bulletin, died -October 1, 1916. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Page. Page. - The bluebirds 2 Bullock oriole 14 - The robins 3 The meadowlarks 14 - The titmice 4 The red-winged blackbirds 15 - The wrens 6 Bobolink 17 - Brown thrasher 7 Crow 17 - Catbird 7 Blue jay 19 - The swallows 8 Pacific coast jays 20 - Towhee 9 The phÅ“bes 21 - The sparrows 9 The kingbirds 23 - House finch 11 Nighthawk 24 - The grackles 12 The woodpeckers 25 - Brewer blackbird 12 The cuckoos 27 - Baltimore oriole 13 Bobwhite 28 - -WHETHER a bird is beneficial or injurious depends almost entirely upon -what it eats. In the case of species which are very abundant, or which -feed to some extent on the crops of the farmer, the question of their -average diet becomes one of supreme importance, and only by stomach -examinations can it be satisfactorily answered. Field observations are -at best but fragmentary and inconclusive and lead to no final results. -Birds are often accused of eating this or that product of cultivation, -when an examination of the stomachs shows the accusation to be unfounded. -Accordingly, the Biological Survey has conducted for some years a -systematic investigation of the food of those species which are most -common about the farm and garden. - -Within certain limits birds eat the kind of food that is most accessible, -especially when their natural food is scarce or wanting. Thus they -sometimes injure the crops of the farmer who has unintentionally -destroyed their natural food in his improvement of swamp or pasture. -Most of the damage done by birds and complained of by farmers and -fruit growers arises from this very cause, the berry-producing shrubs -and seed-bearing weeds have been cleared away, and the birds have no -recourse but to attack the cultivated grain or fruit which has replaced -their natural food supply. The great majority of land birds subsist upon -insects during the period of nesting and molting, and also feed their -young upon them during the first few weeks. Many species live almost -entirely upon insects, taking vegetable food only when other subsistence -fails. It is thus evident that in the course of a year birds destroy an -incalculable number of insects, and it is difficult to overestimate the -value of their services in restraining the great tide of insect life. - -In winter, in the northern part of the country, insects become scarce or -entirely disappear. Many species of birds, however, remain during the -cold season and are able to maintain life by eating vegetable food, as -the seeds of weeds. Here again is another useful function of birds in -destroying these weed seeds and thereby lessening the growth of the next -year. - -In the following pages are discussed the food habits of more than -50 birds belonging to 12 families. Many are eastern forms which are -represented in the West by slightly different species or subspecies, but -unless the food habits differ they are not separately described. In some -cases specific percentages of food are given, but for the most part the -statements are made without direct reference to the data on which they -are based. - - - - -THE BLUEBIRDS. - - -The eastern bluebird[2] (fig. 1), one of the most familiar and welcome -of our feathered visitors, is a common inhabitant of all the States east -of the Rocky Mountains from the Gulf of Mexico to southern Canada. In -the Mississippi valley it winters as far north as southern Illinois, and -in the East as far as Pennsylvania. It is one of the earliest northern -migrants, and everywhere is hailed as a harbinger of spring. Very -domestic in habits, it frequents orchards and gardens, and builds its -nests in cavities of trees, crannies in farm buildings, or boxes provided -for its use. - -[2] _Sialia sialis_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Bluebird. Length, about 6½ inches.] - -The bluebird has not been accused, so far as known, of stealing fruit or -of preying upon crops. An examination of 855 stomachs showed that 68 per -cent of the food consists of insects and their allies, while the other -32 per cent is made up of various vegetable substances, found mostly in -stomachs taken in winter. Beetles constitute 21 per cent of the whole -food, grasshoppers 22, caterpillars 10, and various other insects 9, -while a number of spiders and myriapods, about 6 per cent, comprise -the remainder of the animal diet. All these are more or less harmful, -except a few predacious beetles, which amount to 9 per cent. In view -of the large consumption of grasshoppers and caterpillars, we may at -least condone this offense, if such it may be called. The destruction -of grasshoppers is very noticeable in August and September, when these -insects make up about 53 per cent of the diet. - -It is evident that in the selection of its food the bluebird is governed -more by abundance than by choice. Predacious beetles are eaten in spring, -as they are among the first insects to appear; but in early summer -caterpillars form an important part of the diet, and these are later -replaced by grasshoppers. Beetles are eaten at all times, except when -grasshoppers are more easily obtained. - -So far as its vegetable food is concerned the bluebird is positively -harmless. The only trace of any useful product in the stomachs consisted -of a few blackberry seeds, and even these probably belonged to wild -rather than cultivated varieties. Following is a list of the various -seeds which were found; Blackberry, chokeberry, juniperberry, pokeberry, -partridgeberry, greenbrier, Virginia creeper, bittersweet, holly, -strawberry bush, false spikenard, wild sarsaparilla, sumac (several -species), rose haws, sorrel, ragweed, grass, and asparagus. This list -shows how little the bluebird depends upon the farm or garden to supply -its needs and how easily, by encouraging the growth of some of these -plants, many of which are highly ornamental, the bird may be induced to -make its home on the premises. - -Two species of bluebirds inhabit the Western States--the mountain -bluebird[3] and the western bluebird.[4] In their food habits they are -even more to be commended than their eastern relative. Their insect food -is obtainable at all times of the year, and the general diet varies only -in the fall, when some fruit, principally elderberries, is eaten, though -an occasional blackberry or grape is also relished. In an examination of -217 stomachs of the western bluebird, animal matter (insects and spiders) -was found to the extent of 82 per cent and vegetable matter to the extent -of 18 per cent. The bulk of the former consists of bugs, grasshoppers, -and caterpillars. Grasshoppers, when they can be obtained, are eaten -freely during the whole season. Caterpillars also are a favorite food -and are eaten during every month of the year; March is the month of -greatest consumption, with 50 per cent, and the average for the year is -20 per cent. Two stomachs taken in January contained 64 and 50 per cent, -respectively, of caterpillars. Beetles also are eaten and comprise mostly -harmful species. - -[3] _Sialia currucoides_. - -[4] _Sialia mexicana_ subspecies. - -The vegetable matter consists of weed seeds and small fruits. In December -a few grapes are eaten, but elderberries are the favorites whenever they -can be found. It is only when these are in their greatest abundance that -vegetable exceeds animal food. - - - - -THE ROBINS. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Robin. Length, about 10 inches.] - -The robin[5] (fig. 2), in many parts of the country one of the most -cherished of our birds, is found throughout the States east of the Great -Plains, and is represented farther west and south by slightly different -subspecies.[6], [7] It breeds far north through Canada, and is found even -in Alaska. Although the great bulk of the species leaves the Northern -States in winter, a few individuals remain in sheltered swamps, where -wild berries furnish abundant food. The robin is an omnivorous feeder -and its food habits have sometimes caused apprehension to the fruit -grower, for it is fond of cherries and other small fruits, particularly -the earlier varieties. For this reason many complaints have been lodged -against robins, and it has been necessary to permit the killing of the -birds in some fruit-growing regions. - -[5] _Planesticus migratorius_. - -[6] _Planesticus migratorius propinquus_. - -[7] _Planesticus migratorius achrusterus_. - -Examinations of 1,236 stomachs show that 42 per cent of its food is -animal matter, principally insects, while the remainder is made up -largely of small fruits or berries. Over 16 per cent consists of beetles, -about one-third of which are useful ground beetles, taken mostly in -spring and fall when other insects are scarce. Grasshoppers make up about -5 per cent of the whole food, but in August they comprise 17 per cent. -Caterpillars form about 9 per cent, while the rest of the animal food, -about 11 per cent, is made up of various insects, with a few spiders, -snails, and angleworms. All the grasshoppers, caterpillars, and bugs, -with a large portion of the beetles, are injurious, and it is safe to say -that noxious insects comprise more than one-third of the robin's food. - -Vegetable food forms 58 per cent of the stomach contents, over 42 per -cent being wild fruits and only a little more than 8 per cent being -possibly cultivated varieties. Cultivated fruit amounting to about 25 per -cent was found in the stomachs in June and July, but only a trifle in -August. Wild fruit, on the contrary, is eaten every month and constitutes -a staple food during half the year. No less than 65 species of fruit were -identified in the stomachs; of these, the most important were 4 species -of dogwood, 3 of wild cherries, 3 of wild grapes, 4 of greenbrier, 2 -of holly, 2 of elder; and cranberries, huckleberries, blueberries, -barberries, service berries, hackberries, and persimmons; together with 4 -species of sumac and various other seeds not strictly fruit. - -The depredations of the robin seem to be confined to the smaller and -earlier fruits, few, if any, complaints being made that it eats apples, -peaches, pears, grapes, or even late cherries. By the time these are -ripe the forests and hedges are teeming with wild fruits which the bird -evidently finds more to its taste. The cherry, unfortunately for man, -ripens so early that it is almost the only fruit accessible at a time -when the bird's appetite has been sharpened by a long-continued diet of -insects, earthworms, and dried berries, and it is no wonder that at first -the rich juicy morsels are greedily eaten. - -While the robin takes some cultivated fruits, it must be remembered that, -being a natural enemy of the insect world, it has been working during the -whole season to make that crop a possibility, and when the fruit ripens -the robin already has a standing account with the farmer for services -rendered, with the credits up to this time entirely on his side. - -Much has been written about the delicate discrimination of birds for -choice fruit and their selection of only the finest and costliest -varieties. This is contrary to observed facts. Birds, unlike human -beings, seem to prefer fruit that, like the mulberry, is sweetly insipid, -or that, like the chokecherry or holly, has some astringent or bitter -quality. The so-called black alder, a species of holly, has bright -scarlet berries tasting as bitter as quinine, that ripen late in October -and remain on the bushes through November. Though frost grapes, the fruit -of the Virginia creeper, and several species of dogwood are abundant at -the same time, the birds have been found to eat the berries of the holly -to a considerable extent. It is, moreover, a remarkable fact that the -wild fruits upon which birds largely feed are those which man neither -gathers for his own use nor adopts for cultivation. - -Where wild fruit is not abundant, a few fruit-bearing shrubs and vines -judiciously planted will serve for ornament and provide food for the -birds. The Russian mulberry is a vigorous grower and a profuse bearer, -ripening at the same time as the cherry. So far as observation has gone, -most birds seem to prefer its fruit to any other. It is believed that a -number of mulberry trees planted around the garden or orchard would fully -protect the more valuable fruits. - - - - -THE TITMICE. - - -Birds of the titmouse family, though insignificant in size, are far from -being so in the matter of food habits. What they lack in size of body -they more than make up in numbers of individuals. While in the case of -some larger birds, as, for instance, the flicker, there is one pair of -eyes to look for food for one large stomach, we have in the case of the -ten times as numerous titmice an equivalent stomach capacity divided into -10 parts, each furnished with a pair of eyes and other accessories, as -wings and feet. As against the one place occupied by the larger bird, 10 -are being searched for food at the same time by the smaller species. - -The character of the food of titmice gives a peculiar value to their -services, for it consists largely of the small insects and their eggs -that wholly escape the search of larger birds. Throughout the year most -of the species of this group remain on their range, so that they are -constantly engaged in their beneficial work, continuing it in winter when -the majority of their coworkers have sought a milder clime. It is at -this season that the titmice do their greatest good, for when flying and -crawling insects are no more to be found, the birds must feed upon such -species as they find hibernating in crevices, or upon the eggs of insects -laid in similar places. In winter's dearth of moving insects the search -for such animal food as may be found is perforce thorough and unremitting. - -Within the boundaries of the United States are some 17 species of -titmice, with nearly as many races or subspecies, so that there is -no portion of the country lacking one or more forms. The western -coast region is peculiarly rich In representatives of the family. In -the eastern portion of the country the best-known and most widely -distributed species is the common black-capped chickadee[8] (fig. 3). -This bird, or some of its subspecies, occupies the whole of that part of -the United States north of the latitude of Washington and extends into -Canada. It is a prolific breeder, usually rearing from six to eight young -in a brood. - -[8] _Penthestes atricapillus_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Black-capped chickadee. Length, about 5¼ -inches.] - -Examination of 289 stomachs of this chickadee shows that its food -consists of 68 per cent animal matter (insects) and 32 per cent vegetable -matter. The former is made up of small caterpillars and moths and their -eggs. Prominent among the latter are the eggs of the tent caterpillar -moths, both the orchard and forest species. As these are two of our most -destructive insects, the good done by the chickadee in devouring their -eggs needs no comment. During the winter the chickadee's food is made -up of larvæ, chrysalids, and eggs of moths, varied by a few seeds, but -as spring brings out hordes of flying, crawling, and jumping insects, -the bird varies its diet by taking also some of these. Flies and bugs -are the favorites until the weather becomes quite warm, when beetles and -small wasps also are enjoyed. Among the bugs may be mentioned the plant -lice and their eggs which are eaten in winter. The beetles nearly all -belong to the group of snout beetles, more commonly known as weevils. -These insects are mostly of small size, and nearly all are known to the -farmer or fruit raiser as pests. Seventeen of them were found in one -stomach. Grasshoppers do not at any time constitute an important element -of the food of the chickadee, as they are too large for so small a bird; -moreover, they are for the most part terrestrial Insects, while the bird -is essentially arboreal. Small wasps and ants are eaten to some extent -Spiders constitute an Important element of the food and are eaten at all -times of the year, the birds locating them when they are hibernating in -winter, as well as when they are active in summer. The vegetable food of -the chickadee consists largely of small seeds, except in summer, when -they are replaced by pulp of wild fruit. The wax from the seeds of poison -ivy Is eaten during the winter months, but the seeds themselves are not -taken. In this respect the chickadee differs from most other birds, which -swallow the seeds whole; these, after digesting the wax, pass the seeds -through the alimentary canal, or regurgitate them, and so scatter them -broadcast to reproduce the noxious plants. - -In the southern part of the country the Carolina chickadee[9] and the -tufted tit[10] replace the black-cap, but their food habits are so -similar that there is practically no difference in the work done. In the -West several other species occur; one of the most interesting is the -bush tit[11] which, with several subspecies, occupies the whole Pacific -coast region. They are active, social little creatures, and except for a -short time during the breeding season are found in flocks, flitting from -tree to tree, busily hunting for Insects and their eggs. The contents -of 66 stomachs of these birds were found to consist mostly of injurious -insects to the extent of 83 per cent. Of these the most important was a -small hemipterous insect which amounted to more than half of the stomach -contents. These insects are of considerable economic importance, as they -frequently infest grapevines and other plants to a harmful extent Several -stomachs were almost exclusively filled with these minute creatures, some -containing as many as 100 individuals. - -[9] _Penthestes carolinensis_. - -[10] _Bæolophus bicolor_. - -[11] _Psaltriparus minimus_. - -Perhaps the most important and interesting insect found was the black -olive scale, which occurred in 24 stomachs and amounted to a little more -than 18 per cent of the food. In addition, a number of the stomachs were -more or less filled with another scale, which was not further identified. -A number of small snout beetles (weevils) were eaten and some small -caterpillars; there were also the remains of a spider. - -The vegetable food of the species seemed to consist mostly of seeds, but -they were so broken up as to defy recognition. A little fruit pulp and a -little mast were also found. - -Among the stomachs of the bush tits examined were those of one brood -of eight nestlings about 10 days old. The vegetable matter in these -stomachs was only three-fourths of 1 per cent and consisted of one seed -and some rubbish. The animal matter was made up of beetles, wasps, bugs, -caterpillars and pupæ, and spiders. The greatest interest lies in the -fact that every one of these stomachs contained pupæ of the codling -moth, on an average of over five to each. The oak tree in which these -birds were found was in a belt of timber near a neglected orchard which -the parent birds used as a foraging ground, and they did their best to -remedy the neglect of the owner. As feeding and digestion in the case of -nestling birds is almost continuous during the hours of daylight, the -above record would be several times repeated during a day's feeding. -There were probably not less than a dozen nests of the bush tit along -the border of this orchard, and these birds must have exerted a great -restrictive influence upon the increase of the codling moth, as well as -of other insects in that vicinity. - - - - -THE WRENS. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--House wren. Length, about 4¾ inches.] - -The diminutive house wren[12] (fig. 4) frequents barns and gardens, and -particularly old orchards in which the trees are partially decayed. He -makes his nest in a hollow where perhaps a woodpecker had a domicile the -year before, but he is a pugnacious character, and if he happens to fancy -one of the boxes put up for bluebirds, he does not hesitate to take it He -is usually not slow to avail himself of boxes, gourds, tin cans, or empty -jars placed for his accommodation. - -[12] _Troglodytes aëdon_. - -In food habits the house wren is entirely beneficial. He may be said to -live upon animal food alone, for an examination of 88 stomachs showed -that 98 per cent of the contents was made up of insects or their allies, -and only 2 per cent was vegetable food, including bits of grass and -similar matter, evidently taken by accident with the insects. Half -of this food consisted of grasshoppers and beetles; the remainder of -caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. As the wren is a prolific breeder, -frequently rearing in a season from 12 to 16 young, a family of these -birds must cause considerable reduction in the number of insects in a -garden. Wrens are industrious foragers, searching every tree, shrub, and -vine for caterpillars, and examining every post and rail of the fence and -every cranny in the wall for insects or spiders. - -The house wren is only one of a numerous group of small birds of similar -habits. There are within the limits of the United States 28 species -and subspecies of wrens, occupying more or less completely the whole -country from the Atlantic to the Pacific. With the exception of the marsh -wrens,[13] they all appear to prefer some cosy nook for a nesting site, -and, as it happens, the farm buildings afford just the place desired. -This has led several of the wrens to seek out the habitations of man, -and he is benefited by their destruction of noxious insects. Wrens have -rarely been accused of harm, and their presence should be encouraged -except when undue interference with the nests of other birds is noted. - -[13] _Telmatodytes palustris_ and _Cistotherus stellaris_. - - - - -BROWN THRASHER. - - -The brown thrasher[14] (fig. 5) breeds throughout the United States -east of the Great Plains, and winters in the South Atlantic and Gulf -States. It visits the garden or orchard, its nest, however, being in -dense shrubbery or groves. The thrasher's favorite time for singing is -in early morning, when, perched on the top of a bush or tree, it gives -an exhibition of vocal powers which would do credit to the mockingbird. -Indeed, in the South, where the latter bird is abundant, the thrasher is -known as the sandy mocker. - -[14] _Toxostoma rufum_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Brown thrasher. Length, about 11 inches.] - -The food of the brown thrasher consists of both fruit and insects. An -examination of 636 stomachs showed 59 per cent of vegetable and 41 per -cent of animal food, practically all insects, and mostly taken in spring -before fruit was ripe. Half the insects were beetles and the remainder -chiefly grasshoppers, caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. A few predacious -beetles were eaten, but on the whole the work of the species as an insect -destroyer may be considered beneficial. - -Eight per cent of its food is made up of fruits like raspberries and -currants which are or may be cultivated, but the raspberries at least -are as likely to belong to wild as to cultivated varieties. Grain, made -up mostly of scattered kernels of oats and corn, is merely a trifle, -amounting to only 3 per cent. Though some of the corn may be taken from -newly planted fields, it is amply paid for by the destruction of May -beetles which are eaten at the same time. The rest of the food consists -of wild fruit or seeds. Taken all in all, the brown thrasher is a useful -bird, and probably does as good work in its secluded retreats as it would -about the garden, for the swamps and groves are no doubt the breeding -grounds of many insects that migrate thence to attack the crops of the -farmer. - - - - -CATBIRD. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Catbird. Length, about 9 inches.] - -The catbird[15] (fig. 6), like the thrasher, is a lover of thickets and -delights to make its home in a tangle of wild grapevines, greenbriers, -and shrubs, where it is safe from attack and can find its favorite food -in abundance. It is found throughout the United States west to the Rocky -Mountains, and extends also from Washington, Idaho, and Utah northward -into the Provinces of Canada. It winters in the Southern States, Cuba, -Mexico, and Central America. - -[15] _Dumetella carolinensis_. - -Reports from the Mississippi Valley indicate that the catbird is -sometimes a serious annoyance to fruit growers. The reason for such -reports may possibly be found in the fact that on the prairies -fruit-bearing shrubs, which afford so large a part of this bird's food, -are conspicuously absent With the settlement of this region comes an -extensive planting of orchards, vineyards, and small-fruit gardens, which -furnish shelter and nesting sites for the catbird as well as for other -species. There is in consequence a large increase in the numbers of the -birds, but no corresponding gain in the supply of native fruits upon -which they were accustomed to feed. Under these circumstances what is -more natural than for the birds to turn to cultivated fruit for their -food. The remedy is obvious: Cultivated fruits can be protected by the -simple expedient of planting the wild species which are preferred by the -birds. Some experiments with catbirds in captivity show that the Russian -mulberry is preferred to any cultivated fruit. - -The stomachs of 645 catbirds were examined and found to contain 44 per -cent of animal (insect) and 56 per cent of vegetable food. Ants, beetles, -caterpillars, and grasshoppers constitute three-fourths of the animal -food, the remainder being made up of bugs, miscellaneous insects, and -spiders. One-third of the vegetable food consists of cultivated fruits, -or those which may be cultivated, as strawberries, raspberries, and -blackberries; but while we debit the bird with the whole of this, it is -probable--and in the eastern and well-wooded part of the country almost -certain--that a large part is obtained from wild vines. The rest of the -vegetable matter is mostly wild fruit, as cherries, dogwood, sour gum, -elderberries, greenbrier, spiceberries, black alder, sumac, and poison -ivy. Although the catbird sometimes does considerable harm by destroying -small fruit, it can not on the whole be considered injurious. On the -contrary, in most parts of the country it does far more good than harm. - - - - -THE SWALLOWS. - - -Seven common species of swallows are found within the limits of the -United States, four of which have abandoned to some extent their -primitive nesting habits and have attached themselves to the abodes of -man. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Barn swallow. Length, about 7 inches.] - -In the eastern part of the country the barn swallow[16] (fig. 7) now -builds exclusively under roofs, having entirely abandoned the rock -caves and cliffs in which it formerly nested. More recently the cliff -swallow[17] has found a better nesting site under the eaves of buildings -than was afforded by the overhanging cliffs of earth or stone which it -once used and to which it still resorts occasionally in the East and -habitually in the unsettled West. The martin[18] and the white-bellied, -or tree, swallow[19] nest either in houses supplied for the purpose, in -abandoned nests of woodpeckers, or in natural crannies in rocks. The -northern violet-green swallow,[20] the rough-winged swallow,[21] and the -bank swallow[22] still live in practically such places as their ancestors -chose. - -[16] _Hirundo erythrogastra_. - -[17] _Petrochelidon lunifrons_. - -[18] _Progne subis_. - -[19] _Iridoprocne bicolor_. - -[20] _Tachycineta thalassina_. - -[21] _Stelgidopteryx serripennis_. - -[22] _Riparia riparia_. - -Field observation convinces an ordinarily attentive person that the food -of swallows must consist of the smaller insects captured in mid-air or -picked from the tops of tall grass or weeds. This observation is borne -out by an examination of stomachs, which shows that the food is made up -of many small species of beetles which are much on the wing; many species -of flies, together with large quantities of flying ants; and a few -insects of similar kinds. Most of these are either injurious or annoying, -and the numbers destroyed by swallows are not only beyond calculation but -almost beyond imagination. - -Unlike many other groups of birds, the six species of swallows found in -the Eastern States extend in a practically unchanged form across the -continent, where they are reinforced by the northern, or Pacific-coast, -violet-green swallow. - -It is a mistake to tear down from the eaves of a barn the nests of a -colony of cliff swallows, for so far from disfiguring a building they -make a picturesque addition to it, and the presence of swallows should -be encouraged by every device. It is said that cliff and barn swallows -may be induced to build their nests in a particular locality, otherwise -suitable, by providing a quantity of mud to be used by them as mortar. -Barn swallows may also be encouraged by cutting a small hole in the gable -of the barn, while martins and white-bellied swallows will be grateful -for boxes like those for the bluebird, but placed in a higher situation. - - - - -TOWHEE. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Towhee. Length, about 8 inches.] - -The towhee, chewink, or ground robin[23] (fig. 8), as it is variously -known, inhabits nearly the whole of the United States east of the Great -Plains. It breeds from the Middle States northward and winters in the -southern half of the country. Naturally associated with the catbird and -brown thrasher, it lives in much the same places, though it is more given -to haunting hedgerows along roads and fences. After snow has disappeared -in early spring an investigation of the rustling so often heard among the -leaves near a fence or in a thicket will frequently disclose a towhee -hard at work scratching for his dinner after the manner of a hen; and -in these places and along the sunny border of woods old leaves will -be found overturned where the bird has been searching for hibernating -beetles and larvæ. The good which the towhee does in this way can hardly -be overestimated, since the death of a single insect at this time, -before it has had an opportunity to deposit its eggs, is equivalent to -the destruction of a host later in the year. The towhee has also been -credited with visiting potato fields and feeding upon the potato beetle. -Its vegetable food consists of seeds and small wild fruits, but no -complaint on this score is known to have been made. So for as observation -goes, the bird never touches either cultivated fruit or grain; in fact, -it is too shy and retiring even to stay about gardens for any length of -time. - -[23] _Pipilo erythrophthalmus_. - - - - -THE SPARROWS.[24] - -[24] The sparrows here mentioned are all native species. A full account -of the English, or house, sparrow (_Passer domesticus_), including its -introduction, habits, and depredations, was published In Bull. No. 1 -of the Division of Ornithology in 1889. For information in regard to -combating the English sparrow, see U. S. Department of Agriculture -Leaflet 61, English Sparrow Control. - - - -Sparrows are not obtrusive birds, either in plumage, song, or action. -There are some 40 species, with nearly as many subspecies, in North -America. Not more than half a dozen forms are generally known in any one -locality. All the species are more or less migratory, but so widely are -they distributed that there is probably no part of the country where some -can not be found throughout the year. - -While sparrows are noted seed eaters, they do not by any means confine -themselves to a vegetable diet. During the summer, and especially in -the breeding season, they eat many insects and feed their young largely -upon the same food. Examination of stomachs of three species--the song -sparrow[25] (fig. 9), chipping sparrow,[26] and field sparrow[27] -(fig. 10)--shows that about one-third of the food consists of insects, -comprising many injurious beetles, as snout beetles or weevils, and -leaf beetles. Many grasshoppers are eaten. In the case of the chipping -sparrow these insects form one-eighth of the food. Grasshoppers would -seem to be rather large morsels, but the bird probably confines itself to -the smaller species; indeed, the greatest amount (over 36 per cent) is -eaten in June, when the larger species are still young and the smaller -most numerous. Besides the insects already mentioned, many wasps and -bugs are taken. Predacious and parasitic hymenopterous insects and -predacious beetles, all useful, are eaten only to a slight extent, so -that as a whole the insect diet of the native sparrows may be considered -beneficial. There are several records of potato-bug larvæ eaten by -chipping sparrows. - -[25] _Melospiza melodia_. - -[26] _Spizella passerina_. - -[27] _Spizella pusilla_. - -Their vegetable food is limited almost exclusively to hard seeds. This -might seem to indicate that the birds feed to some extent upon grain, but -the stomachs examined show only one kind, oats, and but little of that. -The great bulk of the food is made up of grass and weed seeds, which form -almost the entire diet during winter, and the amount consumed is immense. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Song sparrow. Length, about 6½ inches.] - -In the agricultural region of the upper Mississippi Valley, by roadsides, -on borders of cultivated fields, or in abandoned fields, wherever they -can obtain a foothold, masses of rank weeds spring up and often form -almost impenetrable thickets which afford food and shelter for immense -numbers of birds and enable them to withstand great cold and the most -terrible blizzards. A person visiting one of these weed patches on a -sunny morning in January, when the thermometer is 20° or more below -zero, will be struck with the life and animation of the busy little -inhabitants. Instead of sitting forlorn and half frozen, they may be -seen flitting from branch to branch, twittering and fluttering, and -showing every evidence of enjoyment and perfect comfort. If one of them -is captured it will be found in excellent condition; in fact, a veritable -ball of fat. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Field sparrow. Length, about 5½ inches.] - -The snowbird[28] and tree sparrow[29] are perhaps the most numerous of -all the sparrows. Examination of many stomachs shows that in winter the -tree sparrow feeds entirely upon seeds of weeds. Probably each bird -consumes about one-fourth of an ounce a day. In an article contributed in -1881 to the New York Tribune the writer estimated the amount of weed seed -annually destroyed by these birds in Iowa. On the basis of one-fourth -of an ounce of seed eaten daily by each bird, and an average of 10 birds -to each square mile, remaining in their winter range 200 days, there -would be a total of 1,750,000 pounds, or 875 tons of weed seed consumed -in a single season by this one species. Large as are these figures, they -unquestionably fall far short of the reality. The estimate of 10 birds -to a square mile is very conservative, for in Massachusetts, where the -food supply is less than in the Western States, the tree sparrow is even -more abundant than this in winter. The writer has known places in Iowa -where several thousand tree sparrows could be seen within the space of a -few acres. This estimate, moreover, is for a single species, while, as a -matter of fact, there are at least half a dozen birds (not all sparrows) -that habitually feed during winter on these seeds. Farther south the -tree sparrow is replaced in winter by the white-throated sparrow,[30] -the white-crowned sparrow,[31] the fox sparrow,[32] the song sparrow, -the field sparrow, and several others; so that all over the land a vast -number of these seed eaters are at work during the colder months reducing -next year's crop of worse than useless plants. - -[28] _Junco hyemalis_. - -[29] _Spizella monticola_. - -[30] _Zonotrichia albicollis_. - -[31] _Zonotrichia leucophrys_. - -[32] _Passerella iliaca_. - - - - -HOUSE FINCH - - -Of all the sparrow groups, there is probably no member, unless it be -the exotic form known as the English sparrow,[33] that has by reason -of Its food habits called down so many maledictions upon Its head as -the house finch,[34] red head, or linnet, as it is variously called. -This bird, like the other members of its family, is by nature a seed -eater, and before the beginning of fruit raising in California probably -subsisted upon the seeds of weeds, with an occasional taste of some wild -berry. Now, however, when orchards have extended throughout the length -and breadth of the State and every month from May to December sees -some ripening fruit, the linnets take their share. As their number Is -legion, the sum total of the fruit that they destroy is more than the -fruit raiser can well spare. As the bird has a stout beak, it has no -difficulty in breaking the skin of the hardest fruit and feasting upon -the pulp, thereby spoiling the fruit and giving weaker-billed birds a -chance to sample and acquire a taste for what they might not otherwise -have molested. Complaints against this bird have been many and loud, more -especially in the years when fruit crops first came to be an important -factor in the prosperity of the Pacific coast. At that time the various -fruits afforded the linnets a new and easily obtained food, while -cultivation had reduced their formerly abundant supply of weed seed. -When the early fruit growers saw their expected golden harvest suddenly -snatched away or at least much reduced in value by the little marauders, -it is no wonder that they were exasperated and wished to destroy the -authors of the mischief. - -[33] _Passer domesticus_. - -[34] _Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis_. - -In order to test the matter thoroughly and ascertain whether these birds -ate any other kind of food that might to some extent offset the damage -inflicted upon the fruit, the horticulturists and ornithologists of -California were requested to secure a number of the stomachs of these -birds and send them to the Biological Survey. An agent was also sent to -the fruit-raising sections, who watched the birds in the orchards and -collected a number of them. In this way 1,206 stomachs were obtained -and carefully examined, and the result shows that animal food (insects) -constituted 2.44 per cent and vegetable food 97.56 per cent of the -stomach contents, not counting gravel. - -So small a proportion of animal food can not, of course, mean a great -destruction of insects. As these stomachs were collected in every month, -with the greater number taken during the summer, it is evident that -whatever good one may expect from the linnet must not be looked for -in this direction. Unlike most of the sparrow family, the linnet does -not feed its young upon Insects to any great extent. The contents of -the stomachs of a number of nestlings were carefully examined, and the -only animal food was found to consist of wooly plant lice. These also -constituted the great bulk of the animal food eaten by adults. - -The vegetable food of the species consists of three principal -items--grain, fruit, and weed seeds. Grain amounts to less than 1½ -per cent in August, which is the month of greatest consumption, and the -average for the year is a trifle more than one-fourth of 1 per cent. -Fruit attains its maximum in September, when it amounts to 27 per cent -of the whole food, but the average for the year is only 10 per cent. The -seeds of weeds constitute the bulk of the diet of the linnet, and in -August, the month of least consumption, amount to about 64 per cent of -the food. The average for the year is 86 per cent. - -From the foregoing it is evident that whatever the linnet's sins may -be, grain eating is not one of them. In view of the great complaint -made against its fruit-eating habits, the small quantity found in the -stomachs taken is somewhat of a surprise. But it must be remembered that -the stomach contents do not tell the whole story. When a bird takes a -single peck from a cherry or an apricot, it spoils the whole fruit, and -in this way may ruin half a dozen in taking a single meal. It is safe to -say that the fruit pulp found In the stomach does not represent more than -one-fifth of what is actually destroyed. That the linnets are persistent -and voracious eaters of early fruits, especially cherries and apricots, -every fruit raiser hi California will bear testimony. That the damage -is often serious no one will deny. It is noticeable, however, that the -earliest varieties are the ones most affected; also, that in large -orchards the damage is not perceptible, while in small plantations the -whole crop is frequently destroyed. - - - - -THE GRACKLES. - - -The crow blackbird or grackle[35] (fig. 11) in one or more of its -subspecies is a familiar object in all the States east of the Rocky -Mountains. Throughout the year it is resident as far north as southern -Illinois, and in summer extends its range into the Canadian Provinces. -In the Mississippi Valley it is one of the most abundant of birds, -preferring to nest in the artificial groves and windbreaks near farms -instead of in the natural "timber" which it formerly used. It breeds also -in parks and near buildings, often in considerable colonies. Farther -east, in New England, it is only locally abundant, though frequently seen -in migration. In the latter days of August and throughout September it is -found in immense numbers before moving southward. - -[35] _Quiscalus quiscula_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Purple grackle. Length, about 12 inches.] - -The grackle is accused of many sins, such as stealing grain and fruit and -robbing the nests of other birds. An examination of 2,346 stomachs shows -that nearly one-third of its food consists of insects, most of which are -injurious. The bird also eats a few snails, crawfishes, salamanders, -small fish, and occasionally a mouse. The stomach contents do not -indicate that it robs other birds' nests to any great extent, as remains -of birds and birds' eggs amount to less than half of 1 per cent. - -It is on account of its vegetable food that the grackle most deserves -condemnation. Grain is eaten during the whole year, and only for a short -time in summer is other food attractive enough to induce the bird to -alter its diet. The grain taken in winter and spring probably consists of -waste kernels from stubble. The stomachs do not indicate that the bird -pulls sprouting grain; but the wheat eaten in July and August and the -corn eaten in the fall are probably from fields of standing grain. The -total amount of grain consumed during the year constitutes 45 per cent -of the food, but it is safe to say that at least half is waste grain and -consequently of no value. Although the crow blackbird eats a few cherries -and blackberries in their season, and in the fall some wild fruit, it -apparently does no damage in this way. - -Large flocks of grackles no doubt do considerable injury to grain crops, -and there seems to be no remedy, except the destruction of the birds, -which is in itself expensive. During the breeding season, however, the -species does much good by eating insects and by feeding them to its -young, which are reared almost entirely upon this food. The bird does the -greatest amount of good in spring, when it follows the plow in search of -large grubworms, of which it is so fond that it sometimes literally crams -its stomach full of them. - - - - -BREWER BLACKBIRD. - - -The Brewer blackbird[36] takes the place in the Western States of the -grackle, or crow blackbird, which lives in the Mississippi Valley and -farther east and is very similar in appearance and habits. It breeds east -to the Great Plains and north into Canada, and winters over most of its -breeding range in the United States and south to Guatemala. At home in -fields, meadows, and orchards, and about ranch buildings and cultivated -lands generally, it nests in bushes and weeds, sometimes in trees, and is -very gregarious, especially about barnyards and corrals. The bird feeds -freely in stockyards and in cultivated fields, and when fruit is ripe -does not hesitate to take a share During the cherry season in California -the birds are much in the orchards. In one case they were observed -feeding on cherries, but when a neighboring fruit grower began to plow -his orchard almost every blackbird in the vicinity was upon the newly -opened ground close after the plowman's heels in its eagerness to secure -the insects turned up. - -[36] _Euphagus cyanocephalus_. - -The laboratory investigation of this bird's food covered 312 stomachs, -collected in every month and representing especially the fruit and grain -sections of southern California. The animal portion of the food was 32 -per cent and the vegetable 68 per cent. - -Caterpillars and their pupæ amounted to 12 per cent of the whole food -and were eaten every month. They include many of those pests known as -cutworms. The cotton-boll worm, or corn-ear worm, was identified in at -least 10 stomachs, and in 11 were found pupæ of the codling moth. The -animal food also included other insects, and spiders, sow bugs, snails, -and eggshells. - -The vegetable food may be divided into fruit, grain, and weed seeds. -Fruit was eaten in May, June, and July, not a trace appearing in any -other month, and was composed of cherries, or what was thought to be -such, strawberries, blackberries or raspberries, and fruit pulp or skins -not further identified. However, the amount, a little more than 4 per -cent for the year, was too small to make a bad showing, and if the bird -does no greater harm than is involved in its fruit eating it is well -worth protecting. Grain amounts to 54 per cent of the yearly food and -forms a considerable percentage in each month; oats are the favorite and -were the sole contents of 14 stomachs, and wheat of 2, but no stomach -was completely filled with any other grain. Weed seeds, eaten in every -month to the extent of 9 per cent of the food, were found in rather small -quantities and irregularly, and appear to have been merely a makeshift. - -Stomachs of nestlings, varying in age from 24 hours to some that were -nearly fledged, were found to contain 89 per cent animal to 11 per cent -vegetable matter. The largest items in the former were caterpillars, -grasshoppers, and spiders. In the latter the largest items were fruit, -probably cherries; grain, mostly oats; and rubbish. - - - - -BALTIMORE ORIOLE. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Baltimore oriole. Length, about 7½ Inches.] - -Brilliancy of plumage, sweetness of song, and food habits to which no -exception can be taken are some of the striking characteristics of the -Baltimore oriole[37] (fig. 12). In summer it is found throughout the -northern half of the United States east of the Great Plains. Its nest -commands hardly less admiration than the beauty of its plumage or the -excellence of its song. Hanging from the tip of the outermost bough of -a stately elm, it is almost inaccessible to depredators and so strongly -fastened as to bid defiance to the elements. - -[37] _Icterus galbula_. - -Observation both in the field and laboratory shows that caterpillars -constitute the largest item of the fare of the oriole. In 204 stomachs -they formed 34 per cent of the food, and they are eaten in varying -quantities during all the months in which the bird remains in this -country. The fewest are eaten in July, when a little fruit also is taken. -The other insects consist of beetles, bugs, ants, wasps, grasshoppers, -and some spiders. The beetles are principally click beetles, the larvæ of -which are among the most destructive insects known; and the bugs include -plant and bark lice, both very harmful, but so small and obscure as to -be passed over unnoticed by most birds. Ants are eaten mostly in spring, -grasshoppers in July and August, and wasps and spiders with considerable -regularity throughout the season. - -During the stay of the oriole in the United States, vegetable matter -amounts to only a little more than 16 per cent of its food, so that the -possibility of its doing much damage to crops is very limited. The bird -is accused of eating peas to a considerable extent, but remains of such -were found in only two cases. One writer says that it damages grapes, but -none were found in the stomachs. - - - - -BULLOCK ORIOLE. - - -The Bullock oriole[38] is practically a counterpart of the Baltimore -oriole, taking the place of that species west of the Plains and -throughout the Pacific coast region. It does not essentially differ in -its habits of nesting or in its food from its eastern relative, but it -is less beautiful in plumage. The examination of 162 stomachs shows -that 79 per cent of its food consists of insects, with a few spiders, a -lizard, a mollusk shell, and eggshells. Beetles amounted to 35 per cent, -and all except a few ladybugs were harmful species. Ants were found in -19 stomachs, and in one there was nothing else. Bees, wasps, etc., were -in 56 stomachs, and entirely filled 2 of them. Including the ants, they -amount to nearly 15 per cent of the food of the season. - -[38] _Icterus bullocki_. - -One of the most interesting articles of food in the oriole's dietary was -the black olive scale, found in 45 stomachs, and amounting to 5 per cent -of the food. In several cases these scales formed 80 per cent or more of -the contents, and in one, 30 individual scales could be counted. They -were evidently a standard article of diet, and were eaten regularly in -every month of the oriole's stay except April. Hemipterous insects other -than scales, eaten quite regularly, make up a little more than 5 per cent -of the food. They were mostly stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, and tree hoppers. -Plant lice were found in one stomach. - -Moths, pupæ, and caterpillars compose the largest item of the oriole's -animal food; the average consumption during its summer stay Is a little -more than 41 per cent. Of these, perhaps the most interesting were the -pupæ and larvæ of the codling moth. These were found in 23 stomachs, -showing that they are not an unusual article of diet. No less than 14 of -the pupal cases were found in one stomach, and as they are very fragile -many others may have been present, but broken beyond recognition. - -Grasshoppers probably do not come much in the oriole's way. They were -eaten, however; to the extent of a little more than 3 per cent. But in -spite of the fact that grasshoppers are eaten so sparingly, 2 stomachs, -both taken in June, contained nothing else, and another contained 97 per -cent of them. - -Various insects and spiders, with a few other items, make up the rest of -the animal food, a little more than 5 per cent. Spiders are not important -in the oriole's food, but are probably eaten whenever found. They were -identified in 44 stomachs, but in small numbers. The scales of a lizard -were found in one stomach and the shell of a snail in another. - -The vegetable contingent of the oriole's food is mostly fruit, especially -in June and July, when it takes kindly to cherries and apricots, and -sometimes eats more than the fruit grower considers a fair share. -However, no great complaint is made against the bird, and it is probable -that as a rule it does not do serious harm. With such a good record as an -insect eater it can well be spared a few cherries. - - - - -THE MEADOWLARKS. - - -The eastern meadowlark[39] (fig. 13) is a common and well-known bird -occurring from the Atlantic coast to the Great Plains, where it gives -way to the closely related western species,[40] which extends thence -westward to the Pacific. It winters from our southern border as far north -as the District of Columbia, southern Illinois, and occasionally Iowa. -The western, form winters somewhat farther north. Although it is a bird -of the plains, and finds its most congenial haunts in the prairies of the -West, it is at home wherever there is level or undulating land covered -with grass or weeds, with plenty of water at hand. - -[39] _Sturnella magna_. - -[40] _Sturnella neglecta_. - -In the 1,514 stomachs examined, animal food (practically all insects) -constituted 74 per cent of the contents and vegetable matter 26 per cent. -As would naturally be supposed, the insects were ground species, as -beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, and caterpillars, with a few flies, wasps, -and spiders. A number of the stomachs were collected when the ground -was covered with snow, but even these contained a large percentage of -insects, showing the bird's skill in finding proper food under adverse -circumstances. - -Of the various insects eaten, crickets and grasshoppers are the most -important, constituting 26 per cent of the food of the year and 72 per -cent of the food in August. It is scarcely necessary to mention the -beneficial effect of a number of these birds on a field of grass in the -height of the grasshopper season. Of the 1,514 stomachs collected at -all seasons of the year, 778, or more than half, contained remains of -grasshoppers, and one was filled with fragments of 37 of these insects. -This seems to show conclusively that grasshoppers are preferred, and -are eaten whenever they can be found. Especially notable is the great -number taken in August, the month when grasshoppers reach their maximum -abundance; stomach examination shows that large numbers of birds resort -at this time to this diet, no matter what may be the food during the rest -of the year. - -Next to grasshoppers, beetles make up the most important item of the -meadowlark's food, amounting to 25 per cent, about one-half of which are -predacious ground beetles. The others are all harmful species. - -Forty-two individuals of different kinds of May beetles were found in -the stomachs of meadowlarks, and there were probably many more which -were past recognition. To this form and several closely allied ones -belong the numerous white grubs, which are among the worst enemies to -many cultivated crops, notably grasses and grains, and to a less extent -strawberries and garden vegetables. In the larval stage they eat the -roots of these plants, and being large, one individual may destroy -several plants. In the adult stage they feed upon the foliage of trees -and other plants, and in this way add to the damage which they began in -the earlier form. As these enemies of husbandry are not easily destroyed -by man, it is obviously wise to encourage their natural foes. - -Among the weevils found in the stomachs the most important economically -are the cotton-boll weevil and the recently introduced alfalfa weevil -of Utah. Several hundred meadowlarks were taken in the cotton-growing -region, and the boll weevil was found in 25 stomachs of the eastern -meadowlark and in 16 of the western species. Of the former, one stomach -contained 27 individuals. Of 25 stomachs of western meadowlarks taken in -alfalfa fields of Utah, 15 contained the alfalfa weevil. In one stomach -23 adults were found, in another 32 adults and 70 larvæ, still another -had 10 adults and 40 larvæ, and a fourth had 4 adults and 100 larvæ. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Meadowlark. Length, about 10 inches.] - -Caterpillars form a very constant element of the food, and in May -constitute over 24 per cent of the whole. May is the month when the -dreaded cutworm begins Its deadly career, and then the lark does some of -its best work. Most of these caterpillars are ground feeders, and are -overlooked by birds which habitually frequent trees, but the meadowlark -finds and devours them by thousands. The remainder of the insect food is -made up of ants, wasps, and spiders, with some bugs, including chinch -bugs, and a few scales. - -The vegetable food consists of grain and weed and other hard seeds. Grain -in general amounts to 11 per cent and weed and other seeds to 7 per cent. -Grain, principally corn, is eaten mostly in winter and early spring -and consists, therefore, of waste kernels; only a trifle is consumed -in summer and autumn, when it is most plentiful. No trace of sprouting -grain was discovered. Glover seed was found in only six stomachs, and but -little in each. Seeds of weeds, principally ragweed, barnyard grass, and -smartweed, are eaten from November to April, inclusive, but during the -rest of the year are replaced by insects. - -Briefly stated, more than half of the meadowlark's food consists of -harmful insects; its vegetable food is composed either of noxious weeds -or waste grain; and the remainder is made up of useful beetles or -neutral insects and spiders. A strong point in the bird's favor is that, -although naturally an insect eater, it is able to subsist on vegetable -food, and consequently is not forced to migrate in cold weather farther -than is necessary to find ground free from snow. - -THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRDS. - -The red-winged or swamp blackbird[41] in its various forms (fig. 14) is -found all over the United States and the region immediately to the north. -While common in most of its range, its distribution is more or less -local, mainly on account of its partiality for marshes. It builds its -nest over or near standing water, in tall grass, rushes, or bushes. Owing -to this peculiarity the bird may be absent from large tracts of country -which afford no swamps or marshes suitable for nesting. It usually breeds -in large colonies, though single families, consisting of a male and -several females, may sometimes be found in a small slough, where each -female builds her nest and rears her own little brood. While her liege -lord displays his brilliant colors and struts in the sunshine. In the -upper Mississippi Valley the species finds most favorable conditions, for -the countless prairie sloughs and the margins of the numerous shallow -lakes afford nesting sites for thousands of red-wings; and here are bred -the immense flocks which sometimes do so much damage to the grain fields -of the West. After the breeding season the birds congregate preparatory -to migration, and remain thus associated throughout the winter. - -[41] _Agelaius phÅ“niceus_. - -Three species and several subspecies of red-wings are recognized,[42] -but practically no difference exists in the habits of these forms either -in nesting or feeding, except such as may result from local conditions. -Most of the forms are found on the Pacific side of the continent, and -may be considered as included in the following statements as to food and -economic status. - -[42] Agelaius phÅ“niceus (8 forms), Agelaius gubernator, and Agelaius -tricolor. - -Many complaints have been made against the red-wing, and several States -have at times placed a bounty upon its head. It is said to cause great -damage to grain in the West, especially in the upper Mississippi Valley, -but few complaints come from the northeastern section, where the bird is -much less abundant than in the West and South. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Red-winged blackbird. Length, about 9½ -Inches.] - -Examination of 1,083 stomachs showed that vegetable matter forms 74 per -cent of the food, while animal matter, mainly Insects, forms but 26 per -cent A little more than 10 per cent consists of beetles, mostly harmful -species. Weevils, or snout beetles, amount to 4 per cent of the year's -food, but in June reach 25 per cent. As weevils are among the most -harmful insects known, their destruction should condone some, at least, -of the sins of which the bird is accused. Grasshoppers constitute nearly -5 per cent of the food, while the rest of the animal matter is made up -of various insects, a few snails, and crustaceans. The few dragon flies -found were probably picked up dead, for they are too active to be taken -alive, unless by a bird of the flycatcher family. So far as the insect -food as a whole is concerned, the red-wing may be considered entirely -beneficial. - -The interest in the vegetable food of this bird centers around grain. -Only three kinds, corn, wheat, and oats, were found in the stomachs -in appreciable quantities. They aggregate but little more than 13 -per cent of the whole food, oats forming nearly half of this amount. -Field investigation has shown, however, that, when local conditions -are favorable, large flocks of red-wings may do considerable damage. -Conspicuous among such cases are the losses suffered by farmers to sweet -corn in some of the northeastern States and to milo in the South and -West. In the rather limited grain-raising area of the Imperial Valley -of California the annual damage to milo alone by enormous flocks of -red-wings and yellow-headed blackbirds has been estimated to be fully -$50,000. The most important item of the bird's food, however, is weed -seed, which forms practically all of its food in winter and about 57 -per cent of the fare of the whole year. The principal weed seeds eaten -are those of ragweed, barnyard grass, and smartweed. That these seeds -are preferred is shown by the fact that the birds begin to eat them in -August, when grain is still readily obtainable, and continue feeding on -them even after insects become plentiful in April. The red-wing eats very -little fruit and does practically no harm to garden or orchard. It is -apparent that where moderately abundant, the red-wing does more good than -harm, but in sections where it becomes excessively abundant a reduction -in its numbers is justifiable. - - - - -BOBOLINK. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Bobolink, ricebird, or reed bird. Length, about -7 inches.] - -The bobolink, ricebird, or reedbird[43] (fig. 15) is a common summer -resident of the United States, north of about latitude 40°, and from -New England westward to the Great Plains, wintering beyond our southern -border. In New England there are few birds about which so much romance -clusters as this rollicking songster, naturally associated with sunny -June meadows; but in the South there are none on whose head so many -maledictions have been heaped on account of its fondness for rice. During -its sojourn in the Northern States it feeds mainly upon insects and seeds -of useless plants; but while rearing its young, insects constitute its -chief food, and almost the exclusive diet of its brood. After the young -are able to fly, the whole family gathers into a small flock and begins -to live almost entirely upon vegetable food. This consists for the most -part of weed seeds, since In the North these birds do not appear to -attack grain to any great extent. They eat a few oats, but their stomachs -do not reveal a great quantity of this or any other grain. As the season -advances they gather into larger flocks and move southward, until by the -end of August nearly all have left their breeding grounds. On their way -they frequent the reedy marshes about the mouths of rivers and on the -inland waters of the coast region and subsist largely upon wild rice. In -the Middle States, during their southward migration, they are commonly -known as reedbirds, and, becoming very fat, are treated as game. - -[43] _Dolichonyx oryzivorus_. - -Formerly, when the low marshy shores of the Carolinas and some of the -more southern States were devoted to rice culture the bobolinks made -great havoc both upon the sprouting rice in spring and upon the ripening -grain on their return migration in the fall. While the damage is not -so great as when this region was the center of rice production, still -it amounts to many thousands of dollars annually. As a remedy, an open -season on ricebirds was provided in the Coast States from New Jersey to -Florida. - - - - -CROW. - - -In one or another of its geographic races the common crow[44] (fig. 16) -breeds in great numbers throughout the States east of the Plains and -from the Gulf well up into Canada, while in less abundance it is found -in California and in the Northwestern States. During the colder months a -southern migratory movement brings most of these birds within the borders -of the United States, and at about the latitude of Philadelphia and -southern Illinois we find them congregating nightly in roosts. Farmers -dwelling in the vicinity of such roosts frequently suffer losses to -shocked corn. - -[44] _Corvus brachyrhynchos_. - -In fact, none of our native birds so much concerns the average farmer of -the Eastern States as the common crow. Many of our present criticisms -of this bird, as its pulling sprouting corn, feeding on ripening ears, -damaging fruits of various kinds, destroying poultry and wild birds, -and disseminating diseases of live-stock, were common complaints in the -days of the early colonists. Many of the virtues of the crow, now quite -generally recognized, also have been matters of record for many years. In -recent times, however, scientific study of these problems, including the -examination of the stomachs of hundreds of crows secured in every month -of the year and under a variety of conditions, has enabled us to render a -much fairer verdict than was formerly possible. - -The crow is practically omnivorous. During spring and early summer any -form of insect life seems to make a desirable item in its diet, and in -winter when hard pressed nothing in the animal or vegetable kingdoms -which contains a morsel of nutriment is overlooked. - -The insect food of the crow, which comprises about a fifth of its yearly -sustenance, does much to atone for its misdemeanors. Grasshoppers, -May beetles and their larvæ (white grubs), caterpillars, weevils, and -wireworms stand out prominently. In 1,340 stomachs of adults examined -these highly Injurious forms comprised over 80 per cent of the insect -food. Grasshoppers are naturally taken in greatest abundance late in the -season. September being the month of largest consumption, when they form -about a fifth of the total food. May beetles and white grubs are eaten -in every month, but occur most prominently in May. In June caterpillars -are a favorite food, and weevils of various kinds are taken in varying -quantities throughout summer and fall. About half of the remaining -20 per cent of insect food is composed of beneficial ground beetles, -ladybirds, predacious bugs, and parasitic wasps, and related forms, the -rest consisting of neutral or injurious forms. Numerous instances are on -record where fields badly infested with white grubs or grasshoppers have -been favorite resorts of crows, whose voracity has resulted in a material -suppression of the pest. When the amount of food required to sustain the -individual crow is considered, the work of these birds appears all the -more important Single stomachs containing upward of 50 grasshoppers are -not uncommon. Thus in its choice of insect food the crow is rendering an -important service to the farmer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Crow. Length, about 19 inches.] - -In the other animal food of the crow are several items of the utmost -economic importance. Spiders are taken in considerable numbers in May and -June, but the yearly total is a little over 1 per cent of the food. In -early spring crawfish are eagerly sought, and other aquatic food, as fish -and mollusks, lend variety to the crow's bill of fare the year round. -In the consumption of toads, salamanders, frogs, and some snakes, which -together compose a little over 2 per cent of the yearly food, the crow is -doubtless doing harm. Small rodents occurred in the stomachs collected -nearly every month, but it Is often difficult to determine whether small -mammals found in birds' stomachs were taken alive or found dead. - -From its carrion-eating habits the crow has been unfairly criticized as -a disseminator of live-stock diseases. While this may be to some extent -just, the fact that there are many other important carriers which lie -largely beyond our control, shows that we must seek final relief only -through the strictest methods of sanitation. - -The nest-robbing habit of the crow, long a serious criticism, is verified -by stomach analysis. Of the 1,103 crows examined, 47 had fed on wild -birds or their eggs, and the eggs of domestic fowls were found somewhat -more frequently. The crow's habit of rummaging about garbage piles may -explain much of this latter material. - -Of the vegetable food, corn, which is eaten every month, is the most -important item and forms about 38 per cent of the diet. Much of this, -however, must be considered waste, since over 60 per cent of it is -consumed from the first of November to the end of March. During the -periods when corn is sprouting and when in the "roasting-ear" stage the -crow is eating this grain at a rate considerably less than the yearly -average, and the months of smallest consumption are July and August. At -times, however, the damage to corn becomes a serious problem, and were -it not possible to make use of such deterrents as coal tar upon seed -corn there would be little friendship for the crow in some sections of -the East. The "pulling" of corn is a trait most prevalent in small-field -areas. Wheat and oats suffer similar damage at times, especially in the -Northwestern States, where these grains predominate. About the only -safeguard to ripening grain is the constant use of powder and shot or the -scarecrow. - -Various kinds of cultivated fruits are also eaten, and local damage -to such crops as apples, melons, peas, beans, peanuts, and almonds is -occasionally reported. In long, rigorous winters, the crow, like other -birds, resorts to the fruit of numerous wild plants, as dogwood, sour -gum, hackberry, smilax, and the several species of sumac and poison ivy. - -Damage to the eggs of poultry may be reduced to a minimum by careful -housing of lasting hens, and the farmer can protect his sprouting grain -to a large extent by the use of tar-coated seed. It will be well also -to keep the crow within reasonable numbers on game preserves and public -parks where it is desired to encourage the nesting of smaller birds. -While legal protection is not needed for so wary an individual as the -crow, it seems well, where local conditions have not aggravated some -particular shortcomings of the bird, to allow it to continue the good -services gendered to man in the destruction of noxious insects. - - - - -BLUE JAY. - - -The blue jay[45] (fig. 17) is a conspicuous member of our bird population -east of the Plains, especially in autumn when his brilliant plumage -contrasts vividly with the brown> foliage. Even in winter he stays with -us, though at this time he is less common along our northern border. In -spring and summer, while by no means uncommon, the blue jay is not so -often noticed, as the retiring disposition which he assumes during the -breeding season assists in protecting him from enemies. This also allows -him to carry on with considerable impunity that inglorious practice of -nest robbing of which, in a measure, he has been rightfully accused. - -[45] _Cyanocitta cristata_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Blue Jay. Length, about 11½ inches.] - -Examination of 530 stomachs collected at all times of the year in 30 -of our Eastern States and Canada shows that insects comprise about 22 -per cent of the yearly sustenance. About three-fourths of these are -injurious, the remainder being neutral or beneficial. Of the injurious -insects, grasshoppers form the largest portion; in August nearly a fifth -of the food. Caterpillars are conspicuous in July and August and at this -time average about a tenth of the stomach contents. Both laboratory -investigations and field observations have established the fact that in -winter the eggs of the tent caterpillar and the hibernating larvæ of the -brown-tail moth in New England are eagerly sought Scarabæid beetles form -about 4 per cent of the yearly food, and click beetles and wire-worms -about 1 per cent. Of the beneficial forms, ground beetles (3 per cent) -and hymenopterous insects, part of which are parasitic (2.5 per cent), -are taken most frequently. A few other invertebrates, as spiders, -millipedes, mollusks, and crustaceans, also are eaten throughout the year. - -In the consideration of the vertebrate food of the blue jay we are -confronted with the problem of the destruction of wild birds and their -eggs. Special search was made for every possible trace of such material -in the stomachs, and in 6 of the 530 were found the remains of wild birds -or their eggs. In February two jays had killed a small bird apiece; in -May one had robbed a nest of eggs; in June two had taken a small bird and -a clutch of eggs, respectively; and in August another had robbed a nest -As this trait of the jay appears to be most pronounced during its own -breeding season, it is quite possible for many birds which have suffered -from its boldness early in the season to raise another brood unmolested. -Thirty-nine of the 530 jays examined had fed on hen's eggs. Much of this -food, however, was picked up about rubbish heaps, to which the jay, like -other members of the crow family, is partial. While the result of stomach -analysis would appear to belittle this fault of the blue jay, it is -doubtless quite characteristic of the bird under favorable conditions. - -Complaint that the jay is the source of considerable damage to corn in -the fall has been verified to a certain degree by stomach examination. -This grain is taken in every month of the year, but in greater -quantities during winter and early spring, when much of it is necessarily -waste, and it forms about 18 per cent of the yearly food. Cultivated -fruits of various kinds are eaten from June to the end of the year, and -the 15 per cent taken in July apparently justifies complaints against -the bird on this score. The favorite vegetable food of the blue jay is -mast of various kinds, acorns predominating, but beechnuts, chestnuts, -chinquaquins, and hazelnuts also are relished. This food is important in -every month but July and August, the yearly average being over 43 per -cent, and from October to March it constitutes about two-thirds of the -diet. Occasionally harm is done by feeding also on cultivated nuts, as -pecans. Wild fruits are eaten during the summer and fall and constitute -about 7 per cent of the yearly sustenance. - -The blue jay probably renders its best services to man in destroying -grasshoppers late in the season and in feeding on hibernating insects and -their eggs, as it does in the case of the tent caterpillar and brown-tail -moth. Such forest insects as buprestid beetles and weevils of various -kinds also fall as its prey. - -The blue jay's vegetable food, with the exception of some cultivated -fruit and corn in the fall, is largely neutral. The severest criticism -against the species is the destruction of other birds and their eggs. -Where we wish to attract birds in large numbers about our dooryards, in -our parks, and in game preserves, it will be well not to allow the jays -to become too abundant. - - - - -PACIFIC COAST JAYS. - - -In California and adjacent States two species of jays are much in -evidence under several more or less well-marked forms. - -The Steller jay[46] much resembles the eastern bird, but it is more shy -and retiring and seldom visits the orchard or vicinity of the ranch -buildings. Stomach examination shows that its food does not radically -differ from that of the eastern blue jay. As is the case with that bird, -a very considerable part of the food consists of mast, together with -a little fruit and some insects. The insects are largely wasps, with -some beetles and grasshoppers. This jay also eats some grain, which is -probably waste or volunteer. No complaints, so far as known, are made -against this bird. Until it shall become less wary it is not likely to -trespass to a serious extent upon the farmer's preserve. - -[46] _Cyanocitta stelleri_. - -The California jay,[47] although of a different genus, more nearly -resembles its eastern relative in food habits and actions. It freely -visits the stockyards near ranch buildings, and orchards and gardens. As -a fruit stealer it is notorious. One instance is recorded where seven -jays were shot from a prune tree, one after the other, the dead bodies -being left under the tree until all were killed. So eager were the birds -to get the fruit that the report of the gun and the sight of their dead -did not deter them from coming to the tree. In orchards in canyons or on -hillsides adjacent to chaparral or other cover great mischief is done by -this bird. In one such case an orchard was under observation at a time -when the prune crop was ripening, and jays in a continuous stream were -seen to come down a small ravine to the orchard, prey upon the fruit, and -return. - -[47] _Aphelocoma californica_. - -Fruit stealing, however, is only one of the sins of the California jay. -That it robs hens' nests is universal testimony. A case is reported of a -hen having a nest under a clump of bushes; every day a jay came to a tree -a few rods away, and when it heard the cackle of the hen announcing a new -egg it flew at once to the nest. At the same time the mistress of the -house hastened to the spot to secure the prize, but in most cases the jay -won the race. This is only one of many similar cases recounted. The jays -have learned just what the cackle of the hen means. Another case more -serious is that related by a man engaged in raising white leghorn fowls -on a ranch several miles up a canyon. He stated that when the chicks were -very young the jays attacked and killed them by a few blows of the beak -and then pecked open the skull and ate out the brains. In spite of all -efforts to protect the chicks and kill the jays the losses in this way -were serious. - -Examination of the stomachs of 326 California jays shows that 27 per cent -of the contents for the year consists of animal matter and 73 per cent -of vegetable. Although the great bulk of the animal food is made up of -insects, the remains of eggshells and birds' bones appear much too often. -The insect food is fairly well distributed among the more common orders, -but grasshoppers are slightly the most numerous and constitute 4.5 per -cent of the year's food. In July, August, and September, however, the -amount is 14, 18, and 19 per cent, respectively. Four per cent of the -food consists of wasps, bees, etc., but in the three months named they -constitute 15, 7, and 9 per cent, respectively. A worker honeybee found -in each of two stomachs is rather surprising, for it is unusual to find -a bird like the jay eating these active and elusive insects, which enter -into the diet of the flycatchers. The remainder of the insect food is -pretty evenly distributed among beetles, bugs, flies, and caterpillars. -Eggshells were found in 21 stomachs and birds' bones in 5. Six stomachs -contained the bones of mammals and two those of a lizard. No bird has a -worse reputation for nest robbing than has the eastern jay, and yet of -530 stomachs of the eastern species only 6 contained eggshells or the -bones of birds. This comparison serves to show what a marauder and nest -thief the California jay really is. - -In its vegetable diet this bird much resembles its eastern relative, -the most remarkable difference being in the matter of fruit eating. -With greater opportunities the California bird has developed a greater -appetite for fruit and indulges it to the fullest extent. Remains of -fruit were found in 220 of the 326 stomachs. The percentage for the year -is only 16, but for the four months of June, July, August, and September -it is 44, 33, 53, and 25, respectively. Cherries, apricots, and prunes -are the favorites among cultivated fruits, and elderberries are relished -to some extent. Grain, which was found in 48 stomachs, amounts to 6 per -cent of the food of the year. Practically all of it was taken in the -four months above mentioned, but it is not probable that much damage -is done by the jay in this respect. The major portion of the grain was -oats. What was not wild was probably simply scattered grain gleaned -after the harvest. Mast is eaten by the California jay from September -to March, inclusive, and constitutes during most of that period one of -the principal elements of its food. In this respect the bird shows a -remarkable similarity to the eastern species. A few weed seeds and other -miscellaneous items make up the balance of the vegetable food. - -In summing up from an economic point of view the character of the food of -the California jay, it must be conceded that it is not all that could be -wished. Its taste for birds' eggs and fruit is entirely too pronounced, -and at present the species is superabundant in California. While the -natural food supply of the bird has been lessened by bringing the woods -and brushy canyons under cultivation, the same areas have been planted to -fruit, and naturally the jay takes the fruit as an acceptable substitute. -A considerable reduction of the bird's numbers would appear to be the -only effective remedy. - - - - -THE PHÅ’BES. - - -Among the early spring arrivals to their northern homes none is more -welcome than the phÅ“be (fig. 18). The common phÅ“be[48] breeds -throughout the United States east of the Great Plains, and winters from -the South Atlantic and Gulf States southward. Its western relative, the -black phÅ“be,[49] is found from Texas west to the Pacific coast, which -it occupies as far north as Washington, replacing through most of this -region the common or eastern form. - -[48] _Sayornis phÅ“be_. - -[49] _Sayornis Nigricans_. - -Though naturally building its nest under an overhanging cliff of rock -or earth, or in the mouth of a cave, the preference of the eastern -species for the vicinity of farm buildings is so marked that in the more -thickly settled parts of the country the bird is seldom seen at any -great distance from a farmhouse, except where a bridge spanning a stream -affords a secure spot for a nest. Its confiding disposition renders it a -great favorite, and consequently it is seldom disturbed. - -The phÅ“be subsists almost exclusively upon insects, most of which are -caught upon the wing. An examination of 370 stomachs showed that over 89 -per cent of the year's food consists of insects and spiders, while wild -fruit constitutes the remainder. The insects belong chiefly to noxious -species, and include many click beetles. May beetles, and weevils. -Other beetles, belonging to 21 families that were identified, make up -10.65 per cent. They appear to be eaten very regularly in every month, -but the most are taken in spring and early summer. May is the month of -maximum consumption, with 20.43 per cent. Beetles altogether amount to -15.3 per cent, which places them second in rank of the items of animal -food. The notorious cotton-boll weevil was found in six stomachs taken -in the cotton fields of Texas and Louisiana, and five individuals of the -strawberry weevil were taken from one collected in Texas. Many other -beetles contained In the stomachs are equally harmful, but are not so -widely known. Such are the corn leaf-beetle, which feeds upon corn; the -12-spotted cucumber beetle, and the striped cucumber beetle, both of -which seriously injure and sometimes destroy cucumber and squash vines; -and the locust leaf miner, which is sometimes so numerous that all the -locust trees over large areas are blasted as by fire. - -In the phÅ“be's diet hymenopterous insects stand at the head, as -is the case with most of the flycatchers. They are eaten with great -regularity and are the largest item in nearly every month. A few are -useful parasitic species, but these are offset by a number of sawfly -larvæ, which are very harmful insects. Ants were found in 24 stomachs. -No honeybees were identified. In their season grasshoppers are much -relished, while wasps of various forms, many flies of species that annoy -cattle, and a few bugs and spiders are also eaten regularly. It is -evident that a pair of phÅ“bes must materially reduce the number of -insects near a garden or field, as the birds often, if not always, raise -two broods a year, and each brood numbers from four to six young. - -There is hardly a more useful species about the farm than the phÅ“be, -and it should receive every encouragement. To furnish nesting boxes is -helpful, but not necessary, as it usually prefers a more open situation, -like a shed or a nook under the eaves, but it should be protected from -cats and other marauders. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.--PhÅ“be. Length, about 6½ inches.] - -The black phÅ“be has the same habits as its eastern relative, both as -to selection of food and nesting sites, preferring for the latter purpose -some structure of man, as a shed or, better still, a bridge over a stream -of water, and the preference of the black phÅ“be for the vicinity of -water is very pronounced. One may always be found at a stream' or pool -and often at a watering trough by the roadside. - -Careful study of the habits of the bird shows that it obtains a large -portion of Its food about wet places. While camping beside a stream in -California the writer took some pains to observe the habits of the black -phÅ“be. The nesting season was over, and the birds had nothing to do -but eat. This they appeared to be doing all the time. When first observed -in the morning, at the first glimmer of daylight, a phÅ“be was always -found flitting from rock to rock, although it was so dusky that the bird -could hardly be seen. This activity was kept up all day. Even in the -evening, when it was so dark that notes were written by the aid of the -camp fire, the phÅ“be was still engaged in its work of collecting, -though it was difficult to understand how it could catch insects when -there was scarcely light enough to see the bird. Exploration of the -stream showed that every portion of it was patrolled by a phÅ“be, that -each one apparently did not range over more than 12 or 13 rods of water, -and that sometimes two or three were in close proximity. - -The number of insects destroyed in a year by the black phÅ“be is -enormous. Fortunately, the examination of stomachs has supplemented -observation in the field, and we are enabled to give precise details. Of -the 333 stomachs examined, every one contained insects as the great bulk -of the food. Only 15 contained any vegetable food at all, and in no case -was it a considerable part of the contents of the stomach. The insects -eaten were mostly wasps, bugs, and flies, but many beetles also were -destroyed. - -Useful beetles belonging to three families amount to 2.8 per cent of the -food. Other beetles of harmful or neutral species reach 10.5 per cent. -Wasps, the largest item of the food, were found in 252 stomachs and -were the whole contents of 15. The average for the year is 35 per cent. -Parasitic species were noted, but they were very few. Ants were found in -48 stomachs, and for a short time in midsummer they constitute a notable -part of the food. Various wild bees and wasps make up the bulk of this -item. No honeybees were found. - -Bugs in various forms constitute 10.56 per cent and are eaten in every -month but May. Stinkbugs appear to be the favorites, as they were -contained in 10 stomachs. Plant lice were found in one stomach. Flies, -forming the second largest item, were found in 97 stomachs and completely -filled 3. They constitute the most regular article in the black -phÅ“be's diet. The maximum consumption occurs in April, 64.3 per cent. -The black phÅ“be well merits its title of flycatcher. - -Moths and caterpillars amount to 8.2 per cent of the food. They were -found in 72 stomachs, of which 51 contained the adult moths and 28 the -larvæ or caterpillars. One stomach was entirely filled with adults. This -is one of the few birds studied by the writer that eats more moths than -caterpillars, for as a rule the caterpillars are largely in excess. -Flycatchers, taking their food upon the wing, would naturally prove -exceptions to the rule. Crickets are evidently not a favorite food of the -black phÅ“be, as they amount to only 2.45 per cent. They were found in -39 stomachs, but usually the amount in each was small, though one stomach -was entirely filled with them. Grasshoppers did not appear. Dragon flies -were eaten to some extent, and these illustrate the fondness of the -species for the neighborhood of water. - -The vegetable matter eaten consisted chiefly of small wild fruits of no -economic importance. - -Another phÅ“be inhabiting the Western States and breeding as far north -as Alaska is the Say phÅ“be.[50] Investigation of its food was based -on the examination of 86 stomachs, and while none were available for the -months when insects are most numerous, the bird proved to be one of the -most exclusively insectivorous of the family. That it takes a few useful -insects can not be denied, but these are far outnumbered by the harmful -ones it destroys, and the balance is clearly in favor of the bird. Its -vegetable food amounts to only 2 per cent and is made up of a little wild -fruit, seeds, and rubbish. - -[50] _Sayornis sayus_. - - - -THE KINGBIRDS. - - -The well-known eastern kingbird[51] (fig. 19) is essentially a lover of -the orchard, though groves and the edge of forests were probably its -original habitat. It breeds in the States east of the Rocky Mountains, -and less commonly in the Great Basin and on the Pacific coast. Its -hostility to hawks and crows is proverbial, and for this reason a family -of kingbirds is a desirable adjunct to a poultry yard. On one occasion -in the knowledge of the writer a hawk which attacked a brood of young -turkeys was pounced upon and so severely buffeted by a pair of kingbirds -whose nest was near by that the would-be robber was glad to escape -without his prey. Song birds that nest near the kingbird are similarly -protected. - -[51] _Tyrannus tyrannus_. - -The kingbird is largely insectivorous. It is a true flycatcher and takes -on the wing a large part of its food. It does not, however, confine -itself to this method of hunting, but picks up some insects from trees -and weeds, and even descends to the ground in search of myriapods -or thousand legs. The chief complaint against the species by both -professional bee keepers and others has been that it preys largely upon -honeybees. One bee raiser in Iowa, suspecting the kingbirds of feeding -upon his bees, shot a number near his hives; but when the stomachs of the -birds were examined by an expert entomologist, not a trace of honeybees -could be found. - -An examination of 665 stomachs collected in various parts of the -country, was made by the Biological Survey, but only 22 were found to -contain remains of honeybees. In these 22 stomachs there were in all 61 -honeybees, of which 51 were drones, 8 were certainly workers, and the -remaining 2 were too badly broken to be further identified. - -The insects that constitute the great bulk of the food of the bird -are noxious species, largely beetles--May beetles, click beetles (the -larvæ of which are known as wire-worms), weevils, which prey upon -fruit and grain, and a host of others. Wasps, wild bees, and ants are -conspicuous elements of the food, far outnumbering the hive bees. -During summer many grasshoppers and crickets, as well as leaf hoppers -and other bugs, also are eaten. In the stomachs examined were a number -of robber files--insects which prey largely upon other insects, -including honeybees, and which are known to commit in this way extensive -depredations. It is thus evident that the kingbird by destroying these -flies actually does good work for the apiarist. The 26 robber flies found -in the stomachs may be considered more than an equivalent for the 8 -worker honeybees already mentioned. A few caterpillars are eaten, mostly -belonging to the group commonly known as cutworms, all the species of -which are harmful. - -About 11 per cent of the food consists of small native fruits, comprising -some 30 common species of the roadsides and thickets, as dogwood berries, -elderberries, and wild grapes. The kingbird is not reported as eating -cultivated fruit to an injurious extent, and it is very doubtful if this -is ever the case. - -In the Western States the Arkansas kingbird[52] is not so domestic in -its habits as its eastern relative, preferring to live among scattering -oaks on lonely hillsides, rather than in orchards about ranch buildings. -The work it does, however, in the destruction of noxious insects fully -equals that of any member of its family. Like other flycatchers, it -subsists mostly upon insects taken in mid-air, though it eats a number -of grasshoppers, probably taken from the ground. The bulk of its food -consists of beetles, bugs, wasps, and wild bees. Like its eastern -representative, it has been accused of feeding to an injurious extent -upon honeybees. In an examination of 62 stomachs of this species, -great care was taken to identify every insect or fragment that had any -resemblance to a honeybee; as a result, 30 honeybees were identified, of -which 29 were males or drones and 1 a worker. These were contained in -four stomachs, and were the sole contents of three; in the fourth they -constituted 99 per cent of the food. It is evident that the bee-eating -habit is only occasional and accidental, rather than habitual; and it is -also evident that if this ratio of drones to workers were maintained, the -bird would be of more benefit than harm to the apiary. - -[52] _Tyrannus verticalis_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Kingbird. Length, about 8½ inches.] - -The Cassin kingbird[53] has a more southerly range than the Arkansas -flycatcher. Examination of a number of stomachs shows that its food -habits are similar to those of others of the group. - -[53] _Tyrannus vociferans_. - -Three points seem to be clearly established in regard to the food of -the kingbirds--(1) that about 90 per cent consists of insects, mostly -injurious species; (2) that the alleged habit of preying upon honeybees -is much less prevalent than has been supposed, and probably does not -result in any great damage; and (3) that the vegetable food consists -almost entirely of wild fruits which have no economic value. - -All of the kingbirds are of the greatest importance to the farmer and -fruit grower, as they destroy vast numbers of harmful insects, and do no -appreciable damage to any product of cultivation. - - - - -NIGHTHAWK. - - -The nighthawk, or bull-bat,[54] breeds throughout most of the United -States and Canada, and winters in South America. It is strictly -insectivorous, and hence does no damage to crops. The only charge that -can be made against the bird is that it destroys some useful insects, but -these are greatly in the minority in its food. - -[54] _Chordeiles virginianus_. - -Nighthawks are so expert in flight that no insects can escape them. In -their capacious mouths they sweep up everything from the largest moths -and dragon flies to the tiniest ants and gnats, and in this way sometimes -gather most remarkable collections of insects. Several stomachs have -contained 50 or more different kinds, and the number of individuals ran -into the thousands. - -Nearly a fourth of the birds' total food is composed of ants. These -Insects are generally annoying and often very injurious, especially on -account of their damage to stored products and because of their habit of -fostering destructive plant lice. More than a fifth of the nighthawk's -food consists of June bugs, dung beetles, and other beetles of the -leaf-chafer family. These are the adults of white grubs, noted pests, and -even as adults many members of the family are decidedly harmful. - -Numerous other injurious beetles, as click beetles, wood borers, and -weevils, are relished. True bugs, moths, flies, grasshoppers, and -crickets also are important elements of the food. Several species of -mosquitoes, including the transmitter of malaria, are eaten. Other -well-known pests consumed by the nighthawk are Colorado potato beetles, -cucumber beetles, rice, clover-leaf, and cotton-boll weevils, billbugs, -bark beetles, squash bugs, and moths of the cotton worm. - -Nighthawks are much less numerous than formerly, chiefly because of -wanton shooting. They are given full legal protection almost everywhere, -and citizens should see that the law is obeyed. The bird is far too -useful and attractive to be persecuted. - - - - -THE WOODPECKERS. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Hairy woodpecker. Length, about 9 inches.] - -Five or six species of woodpeckers are familiarly known throughout the -eastern United States, and In the West are replaced by others of similar -habits. Several species remain in the Northern States through the entire -year, while others are more or less migratory. - -Farmers are prone to look upon woodpeckers with suspicion. When the birds -are seen scrambling over fruit trees and pecking holes in the bark, it -is concluded that they must be doing harm. Careful observers, however, -have noticed that, excepting a single species, these birds rarely leave -any conspicuous mark on a healthy tree, except when it is affected by -wood-boring larvæ, which are accurately located, dislodged, and devoured -by the woodpecker. - -Two of the best-known woodpeckers, the hairy woodpecker[55] (fig. -20) and the downy woodpecker,[56] including their races, range over -the greater part of the United States. They differ chiefly in size, -their colors being practically the same. The males, like those of -many other woodpeckers, are distinguished by a scarlet patch on the -head. An examination of many stomachs of these two species shows that -from two-thirds to three-fourths of the food consists of insects, -chiefly noxious kinds. Wood-boring beetles, both adults and larvæ, are -conspicuous, and with them are associated many caterpillars, mostly -species that burrow into trees. Next in importance are the ants that -live in decaying wood, all of which are sought by woodpeckers and eaten -in great quantities. Many ants are particularly harmful to timber, for -if they find a small spot of decay in the vacant burrow of a wood borer, -they enlarge the hole, and, as their colony is always on the increase, -continue to eat away the wood until the whole trunk is honeycombed. -Moreover, they are not accessible to birds generally, and could pursue -their career of destruction unmolested were it not that the woodpeckers, -with beaks and tongues especially fitted for such work, dig out and -devour them. It is thus evident that woodpeckers are great conservators -of forests. To them more than to any other agency we owe the preservation -of timber from hordes of destructive insects. - -[55] _Dryobates villosus_. - -[56] _Dryobates pubecens_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Flicker. Length, about 12½ inches.] - -One of the larger woodpeckers familiar to everyone is the flicker, or -golden-winged woodpecker[57] (fig. 21), which is generally distributed -throughout the United States from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky -Mountains. There it is replaced by the red-shafted flicker,[58] which -extends westward to the Pacific. The two species are as nearly identical -in food habits as their respective environments will allow. The flickers, -while genuine woodpeckers, differ somewhat in habits from the rest of -the family, and are frequently seen searching for food upon the ground. -Like the downy and hairy woodpeckers, they feed upon wood-boring grubs -and ants, but the number of ants eaten is much greater than that eaten -by the other two species. Of the flickers' stomachs examined, three were -completely filled with ants. Two of these contained more than 3,000 -individuals each, while the third contained fully 5,000. These ants -belong to species which live in the ground. It is these insects for -which the flicker searches when it runs about in the grass, although -some grasshoppers also are then taken. The flicker's habit of pecking -holes in buildings sometimes greatly annoys its human friends, and it -is particularly noticeable in the California species. Observation has -shown that the object of the work is to obtain shelter for the winter. -In the East most of the flickers are migratory, and only a few remain -North where shelter is necessary. These generally find a safe retreat -in the hollow tree In which they nested. In California, however, where -the birds do not migrate, trees are not so abundant as in the East, and -consequently buildings are brought into requisition, and in them holes -are drilled, usually under the eaves, where snug nights' lodgings are -found. Often a dozen holes may be seen in one building. Barns or other -outbuildings are usually selected, though churches sometimes have been -used. - -[57] _Colaptes auratus_. - -[58] _Colaptes cafer collaris_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Red-headed woodpecker. Length, about 9½ -inches.] - -The red-headed woodpecker[59] (fig. 22) is well known east of the Rocky -Mountains, but Is rather rare in New England. Unlike some of the other -species, it prefers fence posts and telegraph poles to trees as a -foraging ground. Its food therefore naturally differs from that of the -preceding species, and consists largely of adult beetles and wasps which -it frequently captures on the wing after the fashion of flycatchers. -Grasshoppers also form an important part of the food. Among the beetles -are a number of predacious ground species and some tiger beetles, which -are useful insects. The red-head has been accused of robbing nests of -other birds, and of pecking out the brains of young birds and poultry; -but as the stomachs showed little evidence to substantiate this charge, -the habit probably is exceptional. - -[59] _Melanerpes erythrocephalus_. - -The vegetable food of woodpeckers is varied, but consists largely of -small fruits and berries. The downy and hairy woodpeckers eat such -fruits as dogwood and Virginia creeper and seeds of poison ivy, sumac, -and a few other shrubs. The flicker also eats a great many small fruits -and the seeds of a considerable number of shrubs and weeds. None of -the three species is much given to eating cultivated fruits or crops. -The red-head has been accused of eating the larger kinds of fruit, as -apples, and also of taking considerable corn. Stomach examinations show -that to some extent these charges are substantiated, but that the habit -is not prevalent enough to cause much damage. The bird is fond of mast, -especially beechnuts, and when these nuts are plentiful it remains north -all winter. - -Woodpeckers apparently are the only agents which can successfully cope -with certain insect enemies of the forest, and, to some extent, with -those of fruit trees also. For this reason, if for no other, they should -be protected in every possible way. - - - - -THE CUCKOOS. - - -Two species of cuckoos are common In the United States east of the Great -Plains, the yellow-billed cuckoo[60] (fig. 23) and the black-billed -cuckoo,[61] and in the West a relative of the yellow-bill, the California -cuckoo,[62] ranges from Colorado and Texas to the Pacific coast. While -the two species are quite distinct, the food habits of the yellow-bill -and the black-bill do not greatly differ and their economic status is -practically the same. - -[60] _Coccyzus americanus_. - -[61] _Coccyzus erythyropthalmus_. - -[62] _Coccyzus americanus occidentalis_. - -Examination of 155 stomachs has shown that these species are much given -to eating caterpillars, and, unlike most birds, do not reject those -covered with hair. In fact, cuckoos eat so many hairy caterpillars that -the hairs pierce the inner lining of the stomach and remain there, and -often when the stomach is opened it appears to be lined with a thin -coating of fur. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Yellow-billed cuckoo. Length, about 12 inches.] - -An examination of the stomachs of 46 black-billed cuckoos, taken during -the summer months, showed the remains of 906 caterpillars, 44 beetles, -96 grasshoppers, 100 sawflies, 30 stinkbugs, and 15 spiders. In all -probability more individuals than these were represented, but their -remains were too badly broken for recognition. Most of the caterpillars -were hairy, and many of them belong to a genus that lives in colonies and -feeds on the leaves of trees, including the apple tree. One stomach was -filled with larvæ of a caterpillar belonging to the same genus as the -tent caterpillar, and possibly to that species. Other larvæ were those -of large moths, for which the bird seems to have a special fondness. The -beetles were for the most part click beetles and weevils, as well as a -few May beetles. The sawflies were contained in two stomachs, one of -which held no less than 60 in the larval stage. - -Of the yellow-billed cuckoo, 109 stomachs (collected from May to October) -were examined. They contained 1,865 caterpillars, 93 beetles, 242 -grasshoppers, 37 sawflies, 69 bugs, 6 flies, and 86 spiders. As in the -case of the black-billed cuckoo, most of the caterpillars belonged to -hairy species and many of them were of large size. One stomach contained -250 American tent caterpillars; another 217 fall webworms. The beetles -were distributed among several families, all more or less harmful to -agriculture. In the same stomach which contained the tent caterpillars -were 2 Colorado potato beetles; in another were 3 goldsmith beetles, and -remains of several other large beetles. Besides the ordinary grasshoppers -were several katydids and tree crickets. The sawflies were in the larval -stage, in which they resemble caterpillars so closely that they are -commonly called false caterpillars by entomologists. The bugs consisted -of stinkbugs and cicadas, or dog-day harvest flies, with the single -exception of one wheel bug, which was the only useful insect eaten. - - - - -BOBWHITE. - - -No bird is better known to country residents than the bobwhite[63] (see -illustration on title-page). The bird's cheery calls the year round form -part of the most pleasant associations of country life, and its neat form -and harmonious coloration, and especially its confiding habits, make it a -general favorite. - -[63] _Colinus virginianus._ - -Any bushy fence row serves as a retreat for its nest, or for winter -shelter, and weed-covered fields are its favorite feeding places. Weed -seeds form more than half the total food and include those of all -the worst weed pests of the farm. Among them may be mentioned crab, -cockspur, witch, and foxtail grasses, sheep sorrel, smartweed, bindweed, -lamb's-quarters, pigweeds, corn cockle, chickweed, charlock, partridge -pea, beggar lice, nail grass, rib grass, ragweed, and Spanish needles. - -Acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, and pine seeds make up about 2.5 per cent -of the food, and wild fruit about 10 per cent The fruits include berries -of palmetto, smilax, wax myrtle, mulberry, sassafras, blackberries and -raspberries, rose haws, cherry, sumac, grapes, sour gum, blueberries, -honeysuckle, partridgeberry, and a number of others. The bobwhite feeds -to a slight extent upon buds and leaves, including those of yellow and -red sorrel, cinquefoil, and clover. - -Grain forms scarcely more than a sixth of the food, and most of it is -taken during winter and early spring when nothing but waste grain is -available The habit of gleaning this after the harvest is beneficial -to the farm, for volunteer grain is not desirable, especially where it -serves to maintain certain insect and fungus pests. Although most of the -grain and seed crops grown upon the farm are represented in bobwhite's -dietary, no significant damage can be attributed to the bird. - -Animal food, chiefly insects, composed nearly a sixth of the bird's -subsistence. From June to August, inclusive, when insects are most -numerous, their proportion in the food is about 36 per cent. The variety -of insect food is great and includes a number of the most destructive -agricultural pests. Among them may be mentioned the Colorado potato -beetle, 12-spotted cucumber beetle, bean leaf beetle, squash ladybird, -wire-worms. May beetles, corn billbugs, clover-leaf weevil, army worm, -boilworm, cutworms, and chinch bug. - -The food habits of the bobwhite undoubtedly are beneficial and the bird -should be maintained in numbers on every farm. This is not to say that -all shooting should be prohibited, for the bird is very prolific. But its -numbers should not be reduced below what the available nesting sites and -range will support. On the other hand the policy of absolute protection -recently adopted by one of the States is not called for by strictly -economic considerations. - - - * * * * * - - - ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - WHEN THIS PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED - - - _Secretary of Agriculture_ Henry A. Wallace. - _Under Secretary_ Rexford G. Tugwell. - _Assistant Secretary_ M. L. Wilson. - _Director of Extension Work_ C. W. Warburton. - _Director of Personnel_ W. W. Stockberger. - _Director of Information_ M. S. Eisenhower. - _Director of Finance_ W. A. Jump. - _Solicitor_ Seth Thomas. - _Agricultural Adjustment Chester C. Davis, - Administration_ _Administrator_. - _Bureau of Agricultural Economics_ A. G. Black, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Agricultural Engineering_ S. H. McCrory, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Animal Industry_ John R. Mohler, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Biological Survey_ J. N. Darling, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Chemistry and Soils_ H. G. Knight, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Dairy Industry_ O. E. Reed, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Entomology and Plant Lee A. Strong, _Chief_. - Quarantine_ - _Office of Experiment Stations_ James T. Jardine, _Chief_. - _Food and Drug Administration_ Walter G. Campbell, _Chief_. - _Forest Service_ Ferdinand A. Silcox, _Chief_. - _Grain Futures Administration_ J. W. T. Duvel, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Home Economics_ Louise Stanley, _Chief_. - _Library_ Claribel R. Barnett, _Librarian_. - _Bureau of Plant Industry_ Frederick D. Richey, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Public Roads_ Thomas H. MacDonald, _Chief_. - _Weather Bureau_ Willis R. Gregg, _Chief_. - - - - U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1935 - - - For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. - Price 5 cents - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Notes - - -All illustrations were moved so as to not split paragraphs. There does -not appear to be a footnote numbered "2", therefore, the one numbered "3" -and all following footnote numbers were decremented by 1. - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 630, by F. E. L. 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E. L. Beal, a Project Gutenberg eBook. - </title> - <style type="text/css"> - -body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} - -p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1.5em;} - -hr {width: 33%; color: #000; background-color:#000; - margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} - -hr.tb {width: 45%;} -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin: 2em auto;} - -table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;} - -.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 3.5%; - font-size: small; text-align: right; color: #808080;} /* page numbers */ -.bbox {border: solid #000 1px;} - -.center {text-align: center; margin:0; text-indent: 0;} -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.smaller {font-size: 0.8em;} -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.tdl2 {text-align: left; padding-left:2em;} -.p0 {text-indent: 0;} -.caption1, .caption2, .caption3 {font-weight: bold; text-align: center; text-indent: 0;} -.caption1 {font-size:2.00em; margin-top: 2em;} -.caption2 {font-size:1.50em; margin-top: 1.5em;} -.caption3 {font-size:1.15em; margin-top: 1em;} -.pmt2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.pmt4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.pmb2 {margin-bottom: 2em;} - -/* Images */ - -.fig_center {margin: auto; text-align: center;} - -.fig_left {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; - margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} - -.fig_right {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} - -.fig_caption {font-size: 1.15em; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: center;} - -.dropcap {float: left; padding-right: .25em; font-size: 2.5em;} -.hidden {display: none;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.trans_notes {background-color: #e6e6fa; color: black; padding:1.5em; - margin-bottom:5em;} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} -.fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 630, by F. E. L. Beal - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 630 - Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer - -Author: F. E. L. Beal - -Release Date: July 17, 2020 [EBook #62678] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 630 *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 283px; padding-bottom: 2em;"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="283" height="456" alt="USDA Farmers' Bulletin 630: Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer" /> -</div> - - - -<div class="center bbox" style="width: 80%; margin: 0 auto; padding:2em"> - -<div class="dropcap">F</div> - -<p class="p0"><span class="hidden">F</span>ROM a purely practical point of view the most -important of the relations of native birds to -man are the economic. The esthetic value of birds -is great—greater, indeed, than that of any other -group of animals; and that this is a real and especially -treasured value is not to be denied. But it -is in their relation to insect and other enemies of -crops that birds are most directly associated with -the welfare of mankind, and their value in this particular -should be made as widely known as possible.</p> - -<p>This bulletin is one of a series designed to assist -in doing this. Not all birds are beneficial, and all -facts tending to show in which class each species -belongs will be set forth. The useful kinds far outnumber -the injurious, however, and so great is their -value as insect destroyers in the United States that -to them may be given the credit of being one of -the greatest controlling factors in limiting the development -of insect pests and in preventing many -disastrous outbreaks.</p> - -<p>In the following pages are discussed the habitat, -food habits, and relation to agriculture of more than -50 species of birds common to farming sections.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="center bbox" style="width: 80%; margin: 0 auto; padding:2em"> - -<div class="tdl">Washington, D. C.</div> - -<div class="tdr">Issued February 13, 1915; revised April, 1926</div> - -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">« 1 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="pmt4 center"><span class="caption1">SOME COMMON BIRDS<br />USEFUL TO THE FARMER.</span><a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - - -<p class="caption3">By <span class="smcap">F. E. L. Beal</span>, Late <i>Assistant Biologist, Division of Food Habits Research, -Bureau of Biological Survey</i>.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> This bulletin is largely a revision of Farmers’ Bulletin 54, by Prof. F. E. L. Beal. -The parts relating to the crow and blue Jay were contributed by E. R. Kalmbach, -assistant biologist, and the discussion of the nighthawk and bobwhite by W. L. McAtee, -in charge. Food Habits Research. Professor Beal, author of the remainder of the bulletin, -died October 1, 1916.</p></div> - - - - -<p class="caption2">CONTENTS</p> - - -<table summary="ToC"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="smaller tdr">Page.</td> - <td></td> - <td class="smaller tdr">Page.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The bluebirds</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_BLUEBIRDS">2</a></td> - <td class="tdl2">Bullock oriole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BULLOCK_ORIOLE">14</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The robins</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_ROBINS">3</a></td> - <td class="tdl2">The meadowlarks</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_MEADOWLARKS">14</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The titmice</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_TITMICE">4</a></td> - <td class="tdl2">The red-winged blackbirds</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#RED-WINGED_BLACKBIRDS">15</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The wrens</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_WRENS">6</a></td> - <td class="tdl2">Bobolink</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BOBOLINK">17</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Brown thrasher</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BROWN_THRASHER">7</a></td> - <td class="tdl2">Crow</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CROW">17</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Catbird</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CATBIRD">7</a></td> - <td class="tdl2">Blue jay</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BLUE_JAY">19</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The swallows</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_SWALLOWS">8</a></td> - <td class="tdl2">Pacific coast jays</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PACIFIC_COAST_JAYS">20</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Towhee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#TOWHEE">9</a></td> - <td class="tdl2">The phœbes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_PHOEBES">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The sparrows</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_SPARROWS">9</a></td> - <td class="tdl2">The kingbirds</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_KINGBIRDS">23</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">House finch</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOUSE_FINCH">11</a></td> - <td class="tdl2">Nighthawk</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#NIGHTHAWK">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The grackles</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_GRACKLES">12</a></td> - <td class="tdl2">The woodpeckers</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_WOODPECKERS">25</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Brewer blackbird</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BREWER_BLACKBIRD">12</a></td> - <td class="tdl2">The cuckoos</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_CUCKOOS">27</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Baltimore oriole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BALTIMORE_ORIOLE">13</a></td> - <td class="tdl2">Bobwhite</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BOBWHITE">28</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="dropcap">W</div> - -<p class="p0"><span class="hidden">W</span>HETHER a bird is beneficial or injurious depends almost -entirely upon what it eats. In the case of species which are -very abundant, or which feed to some extent on the crops of -the farmer, the question of their average diet becomes one of supreme -importance, and only by stomach examinations can it be satisfactorily -answered. Field observations are at best but fragmentary and -inconclusive and lead to no final results. Birds are often accused -of eating this or that product of cultivation, when an examination -of the stomachs shows the accusation to be unfounded. Accordingly, -the Biological Survey has conducted for some years a systematic -investigation of the food of those species which are most common -about the farm and garden.</p> - -<p>Within certain limits birds eat the kind of food that is most -accessible, especially when their natural food is scarce or wanting. -Thus they sometimes injure the crops of the farmer who has unintentionally -destroyed their natural food in his improvement of -swamp or pasture. Most of the damage done by birds and complained -of by farmers and fruit growers arises from this very cause, -the berry-producing shrubs and seed-bearing weeds have been cleared -away, and the birds have no recourse but to attack the cultivated -grain or fruit which has replaced their natural food supply. The -great majority of land birds subsist upon insects during the period -of nesting and molting, and also feed their young upon them during -the first few weeks. Many species live almost entirely upon insects, -taking vegetable food only when other subsistence fails. It is thus -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">« 2 »</a></span> -evident that in the course of a year birds destroy an incalculable -number of insects, and it is difficult to overestimate the value of their -services in restraining the great tide of insect life.</p> - -<p>In winter, in the northern part of the country, insects become -scarce or entirely disappear. Many species of birds, however, remain -during the cold season and are able to maintain life by eating vegetable -food, as the seeds of weeds. Here again is another useful function -of birds in destroying these weed seeds and thereby lessening -the growth of the next year.</p> - -<p>In the following pages are discussed the food habits of more than -50 birds belonging to 12 families. Many are eastern forms which -are represented in the West by slightly different species or subspecies, -but unless the food habits differ they are not separately -described. In some cases specific percentages of food are given, -but for the most part the statements are made without direct reference -to the data on which they are based.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="THE_BLUEBIRDS" id="THE_BLUEBIRDS">THE BLUEBIRDS.</a></p> - - -<p>The eastern bluebird<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> (<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>), one of the most familiar and welcome of our -feathered visitors, is a common inhabitant of all the States east of the Rocky -Mountains from the Gulf of Mexico to southern Canada. In the Mississippi -valley it winters as far north as southern Illinois, and in the East as far as -Pennsylvania. It is one of the earliest northern migrants, and everywhere is -hailed as a harbinger of spring. Very domestic in habits, it frequents orchards -and gardens, and builds its nests in -cavities of trees, crannies in farm -buildings, or boxes provided for its -use.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Sialia sialis</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 258px;"> -<a id="fig1" name="fig1"></a> -<img src="images/fig1.png" width="258" height="223" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Bluebird. Length, about 6½ inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>The bluebird has not been accused, -so far as known, of stealing fruit or -of preying upon crops. An examination -of 855 stomachs showed that 68 -per cent of the food consists of insects -and their allies, while the other -32 per cent is made up of various -vegetable substances, found mostly in -stomachs taken in winter. Beetles -constitute 21 per cent of the whole -food, grasshoppers 22, caterpillars 10, -and various other insects 9, while a -number of spiders and myriapods, -about 6 per cent, comprise the remainder -of the animal diet. All -these are more or less harmful, except -a few predacious beetles, which amount to 9 per cent. In view of the large -consumption of grasshoppers and caterpillars, we may at least condone this -offense, if such it may be called. The destruction of grasshoppers is very -noticeable in August and September, when these insects make up about 53 per -cent of the diet.</p> - -<p>It is evident that in the selection of its food the bluebird is governed more -by abundance than by choice. Predacious beetles are eaten in spring, as they -are among the first insects to appear; but in early summer caterpillars form -an important part of the diet, and these are later replaced by grasshoppers. -Beetles are eaten at all times, except when grasshoppers are more easily -obtained.</p> - -<p>So far as its vegetable food is concerned the bluebird is positively harmless. -The only trace of any useful product in the stomachs consisted of a few blackberry -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">« 3 »</a></span> -seeds, and even these probably belonged to wild rather than cultivated -varieties. Following is a list of the various seeds which were found; Blackberry, -chokeberry, juniperberry, pokeberry, partridgeberry, greenbrier, Virginia -creeper, bittersweet, holly, strawberry bush, false spikenard, wild sarsaparilla, -sumac (several species), rose haws, sorrel, ragweed, grass, and asparagus. This -list shows how little the bluebird depends upon the farm or garden to supply -its needs and how easily, by encouraging the growth of some of these plants, -many of which are highly ornamental, the bird may be induced to make its -home on the premises.</p> - -<p>Two species of bluebirds inhabit the Western States—the mountain bluebird<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> -and the western bluebird.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> In their food habits they are even more to be commended -than their eastern relative. Their insect food is obtainable at all -times of the year, and the general diet varies only in the fall, when some fruit, -principally elderberries, is eaten, though an occasional blackberry or grape is -also relished. In an examination of 217 stomachs of the western bluebird, animal -matter (insects and spiders) was found to the extent of 82 per cent and -vegetable matter to the extent of 18 per cent. The bulk of the former consists -of bugs, grasshoppers, and caterpillars. Grasshoppers, when they can be obtained, -are eaten freely during the whole season. Caterpillars also are a -favorite food and are eaten during every month of the year; March is the month -of greatest consumption, with 50 per cent, and the average for the year is 20 -per cent. Two stomachs taken in January contained 64 and 50 per cent, respectively, -of caterpillars. Beetles also -are eaten and comprise mostly -harmful species.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Sialia currucoides</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>Sialia mexicana</i> subspecies.</p></div> - -<p>The vegetable matter consists of -weed seeds and small fruits. In -December a few grapes are eaten, -but elderberries are the favorites -whenever they can be found. It is -only when these are in their greatest -abundance that vegetable exceeds -animal food.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="THE_ROBINS" id="THE_ROBINS">THE ROBINS.</a></p> - - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 268px;"> -<a id="fig2" name="fig2"></a> -<img src="images/fig2.png" width="268" height="165" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Robin. Length, about 10 inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>The robin<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> (<a href="#fig2">fig. 2</a>), in many parts -of the country one of the most cherished -of our birds, is found throughout the States east of the Great Plains, and is -represented farther west and south by slightly different subspecies.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>, <a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> It -breeds far north through Canada, and is found even in Alaska. Although the -great bulk of the species leaves the Northern States in winter, a few individuals -remain in sheltered swamps, where wild berries furnish abundant food. The -robin is an omnivorous feeder and its food habits have sometimes caused apprehension -to the fruit grower, for it is fond of cherries and other small fruits, -particularly the earlier varieties. For this reason many complaints have been -lodged against robins, and it has been necessary to permit the killing of the -birds in some fruit-growing regions.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Planesticus migratorius</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>Planesticus migratorius propinquus</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>Planesticus migratorius achrusterus</i>.</p></div> - -<p>Examinations of 1,236 stomachs show that 42 per cent of its food is animal -matter, principally insects, while the remainder is made up largely of small -fruits or berries. Over 16 per cent consists of beetles, about one-third of which -are useful ground beetles, taken mostly in spring and fall when other insects -are scarce. Grasshoppers make up about 5 per cent of the whole food, but in -August they comprise 17 per cent. Caterpillars form about 9 per cent, while -the rest of the animal food, about 11 per cent, is made up of various insects, -with a few spiders, snails, and angleworms. All the grasshoppers, caterpillars, -and bugs, with a large portion of the beetles, are injurious, and it is safe to -say that noxious insects comprise more than one-third of the robin’s food.</p> - -<p>Vegetable food forms 58 per cent of the stomach contents, over 42 per cent -being wild fruits and only a little more than 8 per cent being possibly cultivated -varieties. Cultivated fruit amounting to about 25 per cent was found in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">« 4 »</a></span> -the stomachs in June and July, but only a trifle in August. Wild fruit, on the -contrary, is eaten every month and constitutes a staple food during half the -year. No less than 65 species of fruit were identified in the stomachs; of these, -the most important were 4 species of dogwood, 3 of wild cherries, 3 of wild -grapes, 4 of greenbrier, 2 of holly, 2 of elder; and cranberries, huckleberries, -blueberries, barberries, service berries, hackberries, and persimmons; together -with 4 species of sumac and various other seeds not strictly fruit.</p> - -<p>The depredations of the robin seem to be confined to the smaller and earlier -fruits, few, if any, complaints being made that it eats apples, peaches, pears, -grapes, or even late cherries. By the time these are ripe the forests and hedges -are teeming with wild fruits which the bird evidently finds more to its taste. -The cherry, unfortunately for man, ripens so early that it is almost the only -fruit accessible at a time when the bird’s appetite has been sharpened by a -long-continued diet of insects, earthworms, and dried berries, and it is no -wonder that at first the rich juicy morsels are greedily eaten.</p> - -<p>While the robin takes some cultivated fruits, it must be remembered that, -being a natural enemy of the insect world, it has been working during the -whole season to make that crop a possibility, and when the fruit ripens the -robin already has a standing account with the farmer for services rendered, -with the credits up to this time entirely on his side.</p> - -<p>Much has been written about the delicate discrimination of birds for choice -fruit and their selection of only the finest and costliest varieties. This is contrary -to observed facts. Birds, unlike human beings, seem to prefer fruit that, -like the mulberry, is sweetly insipid, or that, like the chokecherry or holly, has -some astringent or bitter quality. The so-called black alder, a species of holly, -has bright scarlet berries tasting as bitter as quinine, that ripen late in October -and remain on the bushes through November. Though frost grapes, the fruit -of the Virginia creeper, and several species of dogwood are abundant at the -same time, the birds have been found to eat the berries of the holly to a considerable -extent. It is, moreover, a remarkable fact that the wild fruits upon -which birds largely feed are those which man neither gathers for his own use -nor adopts for cultivation.</p> - -<p>Where wild fruit is not abundant, a few fruit-bearing shrubs and vines -judiciously planted will serve for ornament and provide food for the birds. -The Russian mulberry is a vigorous grower and a profuse bearer, ripening at -the same time as the cherry. So far as observation has gone, most birds seem -to prefer its fruit to any other. It is believed that a number of mulberry trees -planted around the garden or orchard would fully protect the more valuable -fruits.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="THE_TITMICE" id="THE_TITMICE">THE TITMICE.</a></p> - - -<p>Birds of the titmouse family, though insignificant in size, are far from being -so in the matter of food habits. What they lack in size of body they more than -make up in numbers of individuals. While in the case of some larger birds, as, -for instance, the flicker, there is one pair of eyes to look for food for one large -stomach, we have in the case of the ten times as numerous titmice an equivalent -stomach capacity divided into 10 parts, each furnished with a pair of eyes and -other accessories, as wings and feet. As against the one place occupied by the -larger bird, 10 are being searched for food at the same time by the smaller -species.</p> - -<p>The character of the food of titmice gives a peculiar value to their services, -for it consists largely of the small insects and their eggs that wholly escape the -search of larger birds. Throughout the year most of the species of this group -remain on their range, so that they are constantly engaged in their beneficial -work, continuing it in winter when the majority of their coworkers have -sought a milder clime. It is at this season that the titmice do their greatest -good, for when flying and crawling insects are no more to be found, the birds -must feed upon such species as they find hibernating in crevices, or upon the -eggs of insects laid in similar places. In winter’s dearth of moving insects the -search for such animal food as may be found is perforce thorough and -unremitting.</p> - -<p>Within the boundaries of the United States are some 17 species of titmice, -with nearly as many races or subspecies, so that there is no portion of the -country lacking one or more forms. The western coast region is peculiarly rich -In representatives of the family. In the eastern portion of the country the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">« 5 »</a></span> -best-known and most widely distributed species is the common black-capped -chickadee<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> (<a href="#fig3">fig. 3</a>). This bird, or some of its subspecies, occupies the whole of -that part of the United States north of the latitude of Washington and extends -into Canada. It is a prolific breeder, usually rearing from six to eight young -in a brood.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> <i>Penthestes atricapillus</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 260px;"> -<a id="fig3" name="fig3"></a> -<img src="images/fig3.png" width="260" height="289" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Black-capped chickadee. Length, -about 5¼ inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>Examination of 289 stomachs of this chickadee shows that its food consists of -68 per cent animal matter (insects) and 32 per cent vegetable matter. The -former is made up of small caterpillars and moths and their eggs. Prominent -among the latter are the eggs of the tent caterpillar moths, both the orchard -and forest species. As these are two of our most destructive insects, the good -done by the chickadee in devouring their eggs needs no comment. During the -winter the chickadee’s food is made up of larvæ, chrysalids, and eggs of moths, -varied by a few seeds, but as spring brings out hordes of flying, crawling, and -jumping insects, the bird varies its diet by taking also some of these. Flies and -bugs are the favorites until the weather becomes quite warm, when beetles and -small wasps also are enjoyed. Among the bugs may be mentioned the plant -lice and their eggs which are eaten -in winter. The beetles nearly all belong -to the group of snout beetles, -more commonly known as weevils. -These insects are mostly of small -size, and nearly all are known to the -farmer or fruit raiser as pests. Seventeen -of them were found in one -stomach. Grasshoppers do not at any -time constitute an important element -of the food of the chickadee, as they -are too large for so small a bird; -moreover, they are for the most part -terrestrial Insects, while the bird is -essentially arboreal. Small wasps -and ants are eaten to some extent -Spiders constitute an Important element -of the food and are eaten at all -times of the year, the birds locating -them when they are hibernating in -winter, as well as when they are active -in summer. The vegetable food -of the chickadee consists largely of -small seeds, except in summer, when -they are replaced by pulp of wild -fruit. The wax from the seeds of -poison ivy Is eaten during the winter months, but the seeds themselves are not -taken. In this respect the chickadee differs from most other birds, which swallow -the seeds whole; these, after digesting the wax, pass the seeds through the -alimentary canal, or regurgitate them, and so scatter them broadcast to reproduce -the noxious plants.</p> - -<p>In the southern part of the country the Carolina chickadee<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> and the tufted -tit<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> replace the black-cap, but their food habits are so similar that there is -practically no difference in the work done. In the West several other species -occur; one of the most interesting is the bush tit<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> which, with several subspecies, -occupies the whole Pacific coast region. They are active, social little -creatures, and except for a short time during the breeding season are found in -flocks, flitting from tree to tree, busily hunting for Insects and their eggs. The -contents of 66 stomachs of these birds were found to consist mostly of injurious -insects to the extent of 83 per cent. Of these the most important was a small -hemipterous insect which amounted to more than half of the stomach contents. -These insects are of considerable economic importance, as they frequently -infest grapevines and other plants to a harmful extent Several stomachs were -almost exclusively filled with these minute creatures, some containing as many -as 100 individuals.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>Penthestes carolinensis</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>Bæolophus bicolor</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Psaltriparus minimus</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">« 6 »</a></span></p></div> - -<p>Perhaps the most important and interesting insect found was the black olive -scale, which occurred in 24 stomachs and amounted to a little more than 18 -per cent of the food. In addition, a number of the stomachs were more or less -filled with another scale, which was not further identified. A number of small -snout beetles (weevils) were eaten and some small caterpillars; there were also -the remains of a spider.</p> - -<p>The vegetable food of the species seemed to consist mostly of seeds, but they -were so broken up as to defy recognition. A little fruit pulp and a little mast -were also found.</p> - -<p>Among the stomachs of the bush tits examined were those of one brood of -eight nestlings about 10 days old. The vegetable matter in these stomachs was -only three-fourths of 1 per cent and consisted of one seed and some rubbish. -The animal matter was made up of beetles, wasps, bugs, caterpillars and pupæ, -and spiders. The greatest interest lies in the fact that every one of these stomachs -contained pupæ of the codling moth, on an average of over five to each. -The oak tree in which these birds were found was in a belt of timber near a -neglected orchard which the parent birds used as a foraging ground, and they -did their best to remedy the neglect of the owner. As feeding and digestion -in the case of nestling birds is almost continuous during the hours of daylight, -the above record would be several times repeated during a day’s feeding. There -were probably not less than a -dozen nests of the bush tit along -the border of this orchard, and -these birds must have exerted a -great restrictive influence upon the -increase of the codling moth, as -well as of other insects in that -vicinity.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="THE_WRENS" id="THE_WRENS">THE WRENS.</a></p> - - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 260px;"> -<a id="fig4" name="fig4"></a> -<img src="images/fig4.png" width="260" height="223" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—House wren. Length, about 4¾ inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>The diminutive house wren<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> -(<a href="#fig4">fig. 4</a>) frequents barns and gardens, -and particularly old orchards -in which the trees are partially -decayed. He makes his nest in a -hollow where perhaps a woodpecker -had a domicile the year -before, but he is a pugnacious character, -and if he happens to fancy -one of the boxes put up for bluebirds, -he does not hesitate to take it He is usually not slow to avail himself -of boxes, gourds, tin cans, or empty jars placed for his accommodation.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>Troglodytes aëdon</i>.</p></div> - -<p>In food habits the house wren is entirely beneficial. He may be said to -live upon animal food alone, for an examination of 88 stomachs showed that -98 per cent of the contents was made up of insects or their allies, and only 2 -per cent was vegetable food, including bits of grass and similar matter, evidently -taken by accident with the insects. Half of this food consisted of -grasshoppers and beetles; the remainder of caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. -As the wren is a prolific breeder, frequently rearing in a season from 12 to 16 -young, a family of these birds must cause considerable reduction in the number -of insects in a garden. Wrens are industrious foragers, searching every tree, -shrub, and vine for caterpillars, and examining every post and rail of the fence -and every cranny in the wall for insects or spiders.</p> - -<p>The house wren is only one of a numerous group of small birds of similar -habits. There are within the limits of the United States 28 species and subspecies -of wrens, occupying more or less completely the whole country from -the Atlantic to the Pacific. With the exception of the marsh wrens,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> they all -appear to prefer some cosy nook for a nesting site, and, as it happens, the -farm buildings afford just the place desired. This has led several of the wrens -to seek out the habitations of man, and he is benefited by their destruction of -noxious insects. Wrens have rarely been accused of harm, and their presence -should be encouraged except when undue interference with the nests of other -birds is noted.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>Telmatodytes palustris</i> and <i>Cistotherus stellaris</i>.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">« 7 »</a></span></p></div> - - - - -<p class="caption2"><a name="BROWN_THRASHER" id="BROWN_THRASHER">BROWN THRASHER.</a></p> - - -<p>The brown thrasher<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> (<a href="#fig5">fig. 5</a>) breeds throughout the United States east of the -Great Plains, and winters in the South Atlantic and Gulf States. It visits -the garden or orchard, its nest, however, being in dense shrubbery or groves. -The thrasher’s favorite time for singing is in early morning, when, perched -on the top of a bush or tree, it gives an exhibition of vocal powers which -would do credit to the mockingbird. -Indeed, in the South, where the latter -bird is abundant, the thrasher is -known as the sandy mocker.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> <i>Toxostoma rufum</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 259px;"> -<a id="fig5" name="fig5"></a> -<img src="images/fig5.png" width="259" height="186" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Brown thrasher. Length, about 11 inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>The food of the brown thrasher -consists of both fruit and insects. -An examination of 636 stomachs -showed 59 per cent of vegetable and -41 per cent of animal food, practically -all insects, and mostly taken in -spring before fruit was ripe. Half -the insects were beetles and the remainder -chiefly grasshoppers, caterpillars, -bugs, and spiders. A few -predacious beetles were eaten, but on -the whole the work of the species as -an insect destroyer may be considered beneficial.</p> - -<p>Eight per cent of its food is made up of fruits like raspberries and currants -which are or may be cultivated, but the raspberries at least are as likely to -belong to wild as to cultivated varieties. Grain, made up mostly of scattered -kernels of oats and corn, is merely a trifle, amounting to only 3 per cent. -Though some of the corn may be taken from newly planted fields, it is amply -paid for by the destruction of May beetles which are eaten at the same time. -The rest of the food consists of wild fruit or seeds. Taken all in all, the brown -thrasher is a useful bird, and probably does as good work in its secluded -retreats as it would about the garden, for the swamps and groves are no doubt -the breeding grounds of many insects -that migrate thence to attack -the crops of the farmer.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="CATBIRD" id="CATBIRD">CATBIRD.</a></p> - - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 266px;"> -<a id="fig6" name="fig6"></a> -<img src="images/fig6.png" width="266" height="219" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—Catbird. Length, about 9 inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>The catbird<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> (<a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>), like the -thrasher, is a lover of thickets and -delights to make its home in a tangle -of wild grapevines, greenbriers, and -shrubs, where it is safe from attack -and can find its favorite food in -abundance. It is found throughout -the United States west to the Rocky -Mountains, and extends also from -Washington, Idaho, and Utah northward -into the Provinces of Canada. -It winters in the Southern States, -Cuba, Mexico, and Central America.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>Dumetella carolinensis</i>.</p></div> - -<p>Reports from the Mississippi Valley indicate that the catbird is sometimes a -serious annoyance to fruit growers. The reason for such reports may possibly -be found in the fact that on the prairies fruit-bearing shrubs, which afford so -large a part of this bird’s food, are conspicuously absent With the settlement -of this region comes an extensive planting of orchards, vineyards, and small-fruit -gardens, which furnish shelter and nesting sites for the catbird as well -as for other species. There is in consequence a large increase in the numbers -of the birds, but no corresponding gain in the supply of native fruits upon -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">« 8 »</a></span> -which they were accustomed to feed. Under these circumstances what is more -natural than for the birds to turn to cultivated fruit for their food. The -remedy is obvious: Cultivated fruits can be protected by the simple expedient -of planting the wild species which are preferred by the birds. Some experiments -with catbirds in captivity show that the Russian mulberry is preferred -to any cultivated fruit.</p> - -<p>The stomachs of 645 catbirds were examined and found to contain 44 per -cent of animal (insect) and 56 per cent of vegetable food. Ants, beetles, caterpillars, -and grasshoppers constitute three-fourths of the animal food, the remainder -being made up of bugs, miscellaneous insects, and spiders. One-third -of the vegetable food consists of cultivated fruits, or those which may be -cultivated, as strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries; but while we debit -the bird with the whole of this, it is probable—and in the eastern and well-wooded -part of the country almost certain—that a large part is obtained from -wild vines. The rest of the vegetable matter is mostly wild fruit, as cherries, -dogwood, sour gum, elderberries, greenbrier, spiceberries, black alder, sumac, -and poison ivy. Although the catbird sometimes does considerable harm by -destroying small fruit, it can not on the whole be considered injurious. On -the contrary, in most parts of the -country it does far more good than -harm.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="THE_SWALLOWS" id="THE_SWALLOWS">THE SWALLOWS.</a></p> - - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 265px;"> -<a id="fig7" name="fig7"></a> -<img src="images/fig7.png" width="265" height="270" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—Barn swallow. Length, about 7 inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>Seven common species of swallows -are found within the limits of -the United States, four of which -have abandoned to some extent their -primitive nesting habits and have -attached themselves to the abodes -of man.</p> - -<p>In the eastern part of the country -the barn swallow<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> (<a href="#fig7">fig. 7</a>) now -builds exclusively under roofs, having -entirely abandoned the rock -caves and cliffs in which it formerly -nested. More recently the -cliff swallow<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> has found a better -nesting site under the eaves of -buildings than was afforded by the -overhanging cliffs of earth or stone -which it once used and to which it -still resorts occasionally in the East and habitually in the unsettled West. The -martin<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> and the white-bellied, or tree, swallow<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> nest either in houses supplied -for the purpose, in abandoned nests of woodpeckers, or in natural crannies -in rocks. The northern violet-green swallow,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> the rough-winged swallow,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> and -the bank swallow<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> still live in practically such places as their ancestors chose.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>Hirundo erythrogastra</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <i>Petrochelidon lunifrons</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>Progne subis</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Iridoprocne bicolor</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Tachycineta thalassina</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <i>Stelgidopteryx serripennis</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>Riparia riparia</i>.</p></div> - -<p>Field observation convinces an ordinarily attentive person that the food of -swallows must consist of the smaller insects captured in mid-air or picked from -the tops of tall grass or weeds. This observation is borne out by an examination -of stomachs, which shows that the food is made up of many small species -of beetles which are much on the wing; many species of flies, together with -large quantities of flying ants; and a few insects of similar kinds. Most of -these are either injurious or annoying, and the numbers destroyed by swallows -are not only beyond calculation but almost beyond imagination.</p> - -<p>Unlike many other groups of birds, the six species of swallows found in the -Eastern States extend in a practically unchanged form across the continent, -where they are reinforced by the northern, or Pacific-coast, violet-green swallow.</p> - -<p>It is a mistake to tear down from the eaves of a barn the nests of a colony of -cliff swallows, for so far from disfiguring a building they make a picturesque -addition to it, and the presence of swallows should be encouraged by every -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">« 9 »</a></span> -device. It is said that cliff and barn swallows may be induced to build their -nests in a particular locality, otherwise suitable, by providing a quantity of -mud to be used by them as mortar. Barn swallows may also be encouraged by -cutting a small hole in the gable of the barn, while martins and white-bellied -swallows will be grateful for boxes like those for the bluebird, but placed in a -higher situation.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="TOWHEE" id="TOWHEE">TOWHEE.</a></p> - - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 274px;"> -<a id="fig8" name="fig8"></a> -<img src="images/fig8.png" width="274" height="166" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—Towhee. Length, about 8 inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>The towhee, chewink, or ground robin<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> (<a href="#fig8">fig. 8</a>), as it is variously known, -inhabits nearly the whole of the United States east of the Great Plains. It -breeds from the Middle States northward and winters in the southern half of -the country. Naturally associated with the catbird and brown thrasher, it -lives in much the same places, though it is more given to haunting hedgerows -along roads and fences. After snow has disappeared in early spring an investigation -of the rustling so often -heard among the leaves near a -fence or in a thicket will frequently -disclose a towhee hard at -work scratching for his dinner -after the manner of a hen; and -in these places and along the sunny -border of woods old leaves will be -found overturned where the bird -has been searching for hibernating -beetles and larvæ. The good which -the towhee does in this way can -hardly be overestimated, since the -death of a single insect at this -time, before it has had an opportunity -to deposit its eggs, is equivalent -to the destruction of a host -later in the year. The towhee has also been credited with visiting potato -fields and feeding upon the potato beetle. Its vegetable food consists -of seeds and small wild fruits, but no complaint on this score is known -to have been made. So for as observation goes, the bird never touches either -cultivated fruit or grain; in fact, it is too shy and retiring even to stay about -gardens for any length of time.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> <i>Pipilo erythrophthalmus</i>.</p></div> - - - - -<p class="center"><a name="THE_SPARROWS" id="THE_SPARROWS"></a><span class="caption2">THE SPARROWS.</span><a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The sparrows here mentioned are all native species. A full account of the English, -or house, sparrow (<i>Passer domesticus</i>), including its introduction, habits, and depredations, -was published In Bull. No. 1 of the Division of Ornithology in 1889. For information -in regard to combating the English sparrow, see U. S. Department of Agriculture -Leaflet 61, English Sparrow Control.</p></div> - - - -<p>Sparrows are not obtrusive birds, either in plumage, song, or action. There -are some 40 species, with nearly as many subspecies, in North America. Not -more than half a dozen forms are generally known in any one locality. All the -species are more or less migratory, but so widely are they distributed that there -is probably no part of the country where some can not be found throughout the -year.</p> - -<p>While sparrows are noted seed eaters, they do not by any means confine -themselves to a vegetable diet. During the summer, and especially in the -breeding season, they eat many insects and feed their young largely upon the -same food. Examination of stomachs of three species—the song sparrow<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> -(<a href="#fig9">fig. 9</a>), chipping sparrow,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> and field sparrow<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> (<a href="#fig10">fig. 10</a>)—shows that about one-third -of the food consists of insects, comprising many injurious beetles, as -snout beetles or weevils, and leaf beetles. Many grasshoppers are eaten. In -the case of the chipping sparrow these insects form one-eighth of the food. -Grasshoppers would seem to be rather large morsels, but the bird probably -confines itself to the smaller species; indeed, the greatest amount (over 36 per -cent) is eaten in June, when the larger species are still young and the smaller -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">« 10 »</a></span> -most numerous. Besides the insects already mentioned, many wasps and bugs -are taken. Predacious and parasitic hymenopterous insects and predacious -beetles, all useful, are eaten only to a slight extent, so that as a whole the insect -diet of the native sparrows may be considered beneficial. There are several -records of potato-bug larvæ eaten by chipping sparrows.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> <i>Melospiza melodia</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> <i>Spizella passerina</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> <i>Spizella pusilla</i>.</p></div> - -<p>Their vegetable food is limited almost -exclusively to hard seeds. This -might seem to indicate that the birds -feed to some extent upon grain, but -the stomachs examined show only one -kind, oats, and but little of that. The -great bulk of the food is made up of -grass and weed seeds, which form almost -the entire diet during winter, and -the amount consumed is immense.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 241px;"> -<a id="fig9" name="fig9"></a> -<img src="images/fig9.png" width="241" height="181" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—Song sparrow. Length, about 6½ inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>In the agricultural region of the -upper Mississippi Valley, by roadsides, -on borders of cultivated fields, or in -abandoned fields, wherever they can obtain -a foothold, masses of rank weeds -spring up and often form almost impenetrable -thickets which afford food -and shelter for immense numbers of -birds and enable them to withstand great cold and the most terrible blizzards. A -person visiting one of these weed patches on a sunny morning in January, when -the thermometer is 20° or more below zero, will be struck with the life and -animation of the busy little inhabitants. Instead of sitting forlorn and half -frozen, they may be seen flitting from branch to branch, twittering and -fluttering, and showing every evidence of enjoyment and perfect comfort. If -one of them is captured it will be found in excellent condition; in fact, a -veritable ball of fat.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 236px;"> -<a id="fig10" name="fig10"></a> -<img src="images/fig10.png" width="236" height="274" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Field sparrow. Length, about 5½ inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>The snowbird<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> and tree sparrow<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> are perhaps the most numerous of all the -sparrows. Examination of many stomachs shows that in winter the tree sparrow -feeds entirely upon seeds of weeds. -Probably each bird consumes about -one-fourth of an ounce a day. In an -article contributed in 1881 to the New -York Tribune the writer estimated the -amount of weed seed annually destroyed -by these birds in Iowa. On -the basis of one-fourth of an ounce -of seed eaten daily by each bird, and -an average of 10 birds to each square -mile, remaining in their winter range -200 days, there would be a total of -1,750,000 pounds, or 875 tons of weed -seed consumed in a single season by -this one species. Large as are these -figures, they unquestionably fall far -short of the reality. The estimate of -10 birds to a square mile is very conservative, -for in Massachusetts, where -the food supply is less than in the -Western States, the tree sparrow is -even more abundant than this in winter. -The writer has known places in -Iowa where several thousand tree sparrows -could be seen within the space of a -few acres. This estimate, moreover, is for a single species, while, as a matter of -fact, there are at least half a dozen birds (not all sparrows) that habitually -feed during winter on these seeds. Farther south the tree sparrow is replaced -in winter by the white-throated sparrow,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> the white-crowned sparrow,<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> the fox -sparrow,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> the song sparrow, the field sparrow, and several others; so that all -over the land a vast number of these seed eaters are at work during the colder -months reducing next year’s crop of worse than useless plants.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>Junco hyemalis</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Spizella monticola</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <i>Zonotrichia albicollis</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> <i>Zonotrichia leucophrys</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Passerella iliaca</i>.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">« 11 »</a></span></p></div> - - - - -<p class="caption2"><a name="HOUSE_FINCH" id="HOUSE_FINCH">HOUSE FINCH</a></p> - - -<p>Of all the sparrow groups, there is probably no member, unless it be the -exotic form known as the English sparrow,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> that has by reason of Its food -habits called down so many maledictions upon Its head as the house finch,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> -red head, or linnet, as it is variously called. This bird, like the other members -of its family, is by nature a seed eater, and before the beginning of fruit -raising in California probably subsisted upon the seeds of weeds, with an occasional -taste of some wild berry. Now, however, when orchards have extended -throughout the length and breadth of the State and every month from May to -December sees some ripening fruit, the linnets take their share. As their -number Is legion, the sum total of the fruit that they destroy is more than the -fruit raiser can well spare. As the bird has a stout beak, it has no difficulty -in breaking the skin of the hardest fruit and feasting upon the pulp, thereby -spoiling the fruit and giving weaker-billed birds a chance to sample and acquire -a taste for what they might not otherwise have molested. Complaints against -this bird have been many and loud, more especially in the years when fruit -crops first came to be an important factor in the prosperity of the Pacific coast. -At that time the various fruits afforded the linnets a new and easily obtained -food, while cultivation had reduced their formerly abundant supply of weed -seed. When the early fruit growers saw their expected golden harvest suddenly -snatched away or at least much reduced in value by the little marauders, -it is no wonder that they were exasperated and wished to destroy the authors -of the mischief.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Passer domesticus</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> <i>Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis</i>.</p></div> - -<p>In order to test the matter thoroughly and ascertain whether these birds -ate any other kind of food that might to some extent offset the damage inflicted -upon the fruit, the horticulturists and ornithologists of California were requested -to secure a number of the stomachs of these birds and send them to the -Biological Survey. An agent was also sent to the fruit-raising sections, who -watched the birds in the orchards and collected a number of them. In this -way 1,206 stomachs were obtained and carefully examined, and the result shows -that animal food (insects) constituted 2.44 per cent and vegetable food 97.56 -per cent of the stomach contents, not counting gravel.</p> - -<p>So small a proportion of animal food can not, of course, mean a great -destruction of insects. As these stomachs were collected in every month, with -the greater number taken during the summer, it is evident that whatever good -one may expect from the linnet must not be looked for in this direction. -Unlike most of the sparrow family, the linnet does not feed its young upon -Insects to any great extent. The contents of the stomachs of a number of -nestlings were carefully examined, and the only animal food was found to -consist of wooly plant lice. These also constituted the great bulk of the -animal food eaten by adults.</p> - -<p>The vegetable food of the species consists of three principal items—grain, -fruit, and weed seeds. Grain amounts to less than 1½ per cent in August, which -is the month of greatest consumption, and the average for the year is a trifle -more than one-fourth of 1 per cent. Fruit attains its maximum in September, -when it amounts to 27 per cent of the whole food, but the average for the year -is only 10 per cent. The seeds of weeds constitute the bulk of the diet of the -linnet, and in August, the month of least consumption, amount to about 64 -per cent of the food. The average for the year is 86 per cent.</p> - -<p>From the foregoing it is evident that whatever the linnet’s sins may be, -grain eating is not one of them. In view of the great complaint made against -its fruit-eating habits, the small quantity found in the stomachs taken is somewhat -of a surprise. But it must be remembered that the stomach contents do -not tell the whole story. When a bird takes a single peck from a cherry or an -apricot, it spoils the whole fruit, and in this way may ruin half a dozen in -taking a single meal. It is safe to say that the fruit pulp found In the stomach -does not represent more than one-fifth of what is actually destroyed. That -the linnets are persistent and voracious eaters of early fruits, especially cherries -and apricots, every fruit raiser hi California will bear testimony. That the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">« 12 »</a></span> -damage is often serious no one will deny. It is noticeable, however, that the -earliest varieties are the ones most affected; also, that in large orchards the -damage is not perceptible, while in small plantations the whole crop is frequently -destroyed.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="THE_GRACKLES" id="THE_GRACKLES">THE GRACKLES.</a></p> - - -<p>The crow blackbird or grackle<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> (<a href="#fig11">fig. 11</a>) in one or more of its subspecies is a -familiar object in all the States east of the Rocky Mountains. Throughout -the year it is resident as far north as southern Illinois, and in summer extends -its range into the Canadian Provinces. In the Mississippi Valley it is one of -the most abundant of birds, preferring to nest in the artificial groves and -windbreaks near farms instead of in the natural “timber” which it formerly -used. It breeds also in parks and near buildings, often in considerable colonies. -Farther east, in New England, it is only locally abundant, though frequently -seen in migration. In the latter days of August and throughout September it -is found in immense numbers before moving southward.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Quiscalus quiscula</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 272px;"> -<a id="fig11" name="fig11"></a> -<img src="images/fig11.png" width="272" height="199" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Purple grackle. Length, about 12 inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>The grackle is accused of many sins, such as stealing grain and fruit and -robbing the nests of other birds. An examination of 2,346 stomachs shows -that nearly one-third of its food consists of insects, most of which are injurious. -The bird also eats a few snails, crawfishes, salamanders, small fish, and occasionally -a mouse. The stomach contents do not indicate that it robs other -birds’ nests to any great extent, as -remains of birds and birds’ eggs -amount to less than half of 1 -per cent.</p> - -<p>It is on account of its vegetable -food that the grackle most deserves -condemnation. Grain is eaten during -the whole year, and only for -a short time in summer is other -food attractive enough to induce -the bird to alter its diet. The -grain taken in winter and spring -probably consists of waste kernels -from stubble. The stomachs do not -indicate that the bird pulls sprouting -grain; but the wheat eaten in -July and August and the corn eaten -in the fall are probably from fields -of standing grain. The total -amount of grain consumed during -the year constitutes 45 per cent of the food, but it is safe to say that at least -half is waste grain and consequently of no value. Although the crow blackbird -eats a few cherries and blackberries in their season, and in the fall some -wild fruit, it apparently does no damage in this way.</p> - -<p>Large flocks of grackles no doubt do considerable injury to grain crops, and -there seems to be no remedy, except the destruction of the birds, which is in -itself expensive. During the breeding season, however, the species does much -good by eating insects and by feeding them to its young, which are reared -almost entirely upon this food. The bird does the greatest amount of good in -spring, when it follows the plow in search of large grubworms, of which it is -so fond that it sometimes literally crams its stomach full of them.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="BREWER_BLACKBIRD" id="BREWER_BLACKBIRD">BREWER BLACKBIRD.</a></p> - - -<p>The Brewer blackbird<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> takes the place in the Western States of the grackle, -or crow blackbird, which lives in the Mississippi Valley and farther east and is -very similar in appearance and habits. It breeds east to the Great Plains and -north into Canada, and winters over most of its breeding range in the United -States and south to Guatemala. At home in fields, meadows, and orchards, and -about ranch buildings and cultivated lands generally, it nests in bushes and -weeds, sometimes in trees, and is very gregarious, especially about barnyards -and corrals. The bird feeds freely in stockyards and in cultivated fields, and -when fruit is ripe does not hesitate to take a share During the cherry season -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">« 13 »</a></span> -in California the birds are much in the orchards. In one case they were -observed feeding on cherries, but when a neighboring fruit grower began to -plow his orchard almost every blackbird in the vicinity was upon the newly -opened ground close after the plowman’s heels in its eagerness to secure the -insects turned up.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Euphagus cyanocephalus</i>.</p></div> - -<p>The laboratory investigation of this bird’s food covered 312 stomachs, collected -in every month and representing especially the fruit and grain sections -of southern California. The animal portion of the food was 32 per cent and -the vegetable 68 per cent.</p> - -<p>Caterpillars and their pupæ amounted to 12 per cent of the whole food and -were eaten every month. They include many of those pests known as cutworms. -The cotton-boll worm, or corn-ear worm, was identified in at least 10 stomachs, -and in 11 were found pupæ of the codling moth. The animal food also included -other insects, and spiders, sow bugs, snails, and eggshells.</p> - -<p>The vegetable food may be divided into fruit, grain, and weed seeds. Fruit -was eaten in May, June, and July, not a trace appearing in any other month, -and was composed of cherries, or what was thought to be such, strawberries, -blackberries or raspberries, and fruit pulp or skins not further identified. -However, the amount, a little more than 4 per cent for the year, was too small -to make a bad showing, and if the bird does no greater harm than is involved -in its fruit eating it is well worth protecting. Grain amounts to 54 per cent -of the yearly food and forms a considerable percentage in each month; oats -are the favorite and were the sole contents of 14 stomachs, and wheat of 2, but -no stomach was completely filled with any other grain. Weed seeds, eaten in -every month to the extent of 9 per cent of the food, were found in rather small -quantities and irregularly, and appear to have been merely a makeshift.</p> - -<p>Stomachs of nestlings, varying in age from 24 hours to some that were nearly -fledged, were found to contain 89 per cent animal to 11 per cent vegetable matter. -The largest items in the former -were caterpillars, grasshoppers, and -spiders. In the latter the largest -items were fruit, probably cherries; -grain, mostly oats; and rubbish.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="BALTIMORE_ORIOLE" id="BALTIMORE_ORIOLE">BALTIMORE ORIOLE.</a></p> - - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 248px;"> -<a id="fig12" name="fig12"></a> -<img src="images/fig12.png" width="248" height="175" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Baltimore oriole. Length, about -7½ Inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>Brilliancy of plumage, sweetness -of song, and food habits to which no -exception can be taken are some of -the striking characteristics of the -Baltimore oriole<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> (<a href="#fig12">fig. 12</a>). In summer -it is found throughout the northern -half of the United States east of -the Great Plains. Its nest commands -hardly less admiration than the -beauty of its plumage or the excellence of its song. Hanging from the tip of -the outermost bough of a stately elm, it is almost inaccessible to depredators -and so strongly fastened as to bid defiance to the elements.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Icterus galbula</i>.</p></div> - -<p>Observation both in the field and laboratory shows that caterpillars constitute -the largest item of the fare of the oriole. In 204 stomachs they formed 34 -per cent of the food, and they are eaten in varying quantities during all the -months in which the bird remains in this country. The fewest are eaten in -July, when a little fruit also is taken. The other insects consist of beetles, bugs, -ants, wasps, grasshoppers, and some spiders. The beetles are principally click -beetles, the larvæ of which are among the most destructive insects known; and -the bugs include plant and bark lice, both very harmful, but so small and -obscure as to be passed over unnoticed by most birds. Ants are eaten mostly -in spring, grasshoppers in July and August, and wasps and spiders with considerable -regularity throughout the season.</p> - -<p>During the stay of the oriole in the United States, vegetable matter amounts -to only a little more than 16 per cent of its food, so that the possibility of its -doing much damage to crops is very limited. The bird is accused of eating peas -to a considerable extent, but remains of such were found in only two cases. -One writer says that it damages grapes, but none were found in the stomachs.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">« 14 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="caption2"><a name="BULLOCK_ORIOLE" id="BULLOCK_ORIOLE">BULLOCK ORIOLE.</a></p> - - -<p>The Bullock oriole<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> is practically a counterpart of the Baltimore oriole, -taking the place of that species west of the Plains and throughout the Pacific -coast region. It does not essentially differ in its habits of nesting or in its food -from its eastern relative, but it is less beautiful in plumage. The examination -of 162 stomachs shows that 79 per cent of its food consists of insects, with a few -spiders, a lizard, a mollusk shell, and eggshells. Beetles amounted to 35 per -cent, and all except a few ladybugs were harmful species. Ants were found in -19 stomachs, and in one there was nothing else. Bees, wasps, etc., were in 56 -stomachs, and entirely filled 2 of them. Including the ants, they amount to -nearly 15 per cent of the food of the season.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <i>Icterus bullocki</i>.</p></div> - -<p>One of the most interesting articles of food in the oriole’s dietary was the -black olive scale, found in 45 stomachs, and amounting to 5 per cent of the -food. In several cases these scales formed 80 per cent or more of the contents, -and in one, 30 individual scales could be counted. They were evidently a -standard article of diet, and were eaten regularly in every month of the oriole’s -stay except April. Hemipterous insects other than scales, eaten quite regularly, -make up a little more than 5 per cent of the food. They were mostly -stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, and tree hoppers. Plant lice were found in one stomach.</p> - -<p>Moths, pupæ, and caterpillars compose the largest item of the oriole’s animal -food; the average consumption during its summer stay Is a little more than -41 per cent. Of these, perhaps the most interesting were the pupæ and larvæ -of the codling moth. These were found in 23 stomachs, showing that they are -not an unusual article of diet. No less than 14 of the pupal cases were found -in one stomach, and as they are very fragile many others may have been present, -but broken beyond recognition.</p> - -<p>Grasshoppers probably do not come much in the oriole’s way. They were -eaten, however; to the extent of a little more than 3 per cent. But in spite of -the fact that grasshoppers are eaten so sparingly, 2 stomachs, both taken in -June, contained nothing else, and another contained 97 per cent of them.</p> - -<p>Various insects and spiders, with a few other items, make up the rest of the -animal food, a little more than 5 per cent. Spiders are not important in the -oriole’s food, but are probably eaten whenever found. They were identified in -44 stomachs, but in small numbers. The scales of a lizard were found in one -stomach and the shell of a snail in another.</p> - -<p>The vegetable contingent of the oriole’s food is mostly fruit, especially in -June and July, when it takes kindly to cherries and apricots, and sometimes -eats more than the fruit grower considers a fair share. However, no great -complaint is made against the bird, and it is probable that as a rule it does not -do serious harm. With such a good record as an insect eater it can well be -spared a few cherries.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="THE_MEADOWLARKS" id="THE_MEADOWLARKS">THE MEADOWLARKS.</a></p> - - -<p>The eastern meadowlark<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> (<a href="#fig13">fig. 13</a>) is a common and well-known bird occurring -from the Atlantic coast to the Great Plains, where it gives way to the -closely related western species,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> which extends thence westward to the Pacific. -It winters from our southern border as far north as the District of Columbia, -southern Illinois, and occasionally Iowa. The western, form winters somewhat -farther north. Although it is a bird of the plains, and finds its most congenial -haunts in the prairies of the West, it is at home wherever there is level or -undulating land covered with grass or weeds, with plenty of water at hand.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> <i>Sturnella magna</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> <i>Sturnella neglecta</i>.</p></div> - -<p>In the 1,514 stomachs examined, animal food (practically all insects) constituted -74 per cent of the contents and vegetable matter 26 per cent. As would -naturally be supposed, the insects were ground species, as beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, -and caterpillars, with a few flies, wasps, and spiders. A number of the -stomachs were collected when the ground was covered with snow, but even -these contained a large percentage of insects, showing the bird’s skill in finding -proper food under adverse circumstances.</p> - -<p>Of the various insects eaten, crickets and grasshoppers are the most important, -constituting 26 per cent of the food of the year and 72 per cent of the -food in August. It is scarcely necessary to mention the beneficial effect of a -number of these birds on a field of grass in the height of the grasshopper season. -Of the 1,514 stomachs collected at all seasons of the year, 778, or more than -half, contained remains of grasshoppers, and one was filled with fragments of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">« 15 »</a></span> -37 of these insects. This seems to show conclusively that grasshoppers are -preferred, and are eaten whenever they can be found. Especially notable -is the great number taken in August, the month when grasshoppers reach their -maximum abundance; stomach examination shows that large numbers of birds -resort at this time to this diet, no matter what may be the food during the -rest of the year.</p> - -<p>Next to grasshoppers, beetles make up the most important item of the -meadowlark’s food, amounting to 25 per cent, about one-half of which are predacious -ground beetles. The others are all harmful species.</p> - -<p>Forty-two individuals of different kinds of May beetles were found in the -stomachs of meadowlarks, and there were probably many more which were -past recognition. To this form and several closely allied ones belong the -numerous white grubs, which are among the worst enemies to many cultivated -crops, notably grasses and grains, and to a less extent strawberries and garden -vegetables. In the larval stage they eat the roots of these plants, and being -large, one individual may destroy several plants. In the adult stage they feed -upon the foliage of trees and other plants, and in this way add to the damage -which they began in the earlier form. As these enemies of husbandry are not -easily destroyed by man, it is obviously wise to encourage their natural foes.</p> - -<p>Among the weevils found in the stomachs the most important economically -are the cotton-boll weevil and the recently introduced alfalfa weevil of Utah. -Several hundred meadowlarks were taken in the cotton-growing region, and -the boll weevil was found in 25 stomachs of the eastern meadowlark and in 16 -of the western species. Of the former, one stomach contained 27 individuals. -Of 25 stomachs of western meadowlarks -taken in alfalfa fields of Utah, -15 contained the alfalfa weevil. In -one stomach 23 adults were found, -in another 32 adults and 70 larvæ, -still another had 10 adults and 40 -larvæ, and a fourth had 4 adults -and 100 larvæ.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 277px;"> -<a id="fig13" name="fig13"></a> -<img src="images/fig13.png" width="277" height="166" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Meadowlark. Length, about 10 inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>Caterpillars form a very constant -element of the food, and in May -constitute over 24 per cent of the -whole. May is the month when the -dreaded cutworm begins Its deadly -career, and then the lark does some -of its best work. Most of these -caterpillars are ground feeders, -and are overlooked by birds which -habitually frequent trees, but the meadowlark finds and devours them -by thousands. The remainder of the insect food is made up of ants, wasps, -and spiders, with some bugs, including chinch bugs, and a few scales.</p> - -<p>The vegetable food consists of grain and weed and other hard seeds. Grain -in general amounts to 11 per cent and weed and other seeds to 7 per cent. -Grain, principally corn, is eaten mostly in winter and early spring and consists, -therefore, of waste kernels; only a trifle is consumed in summer and -autumn, when it is most plentiful. No trace of sprouting grain was discovered. -Glover seed was found in only six stomachs, and but little in each. Seeds of -weeds, principally ragweed, barnyard grass, and smartweed, are eaten from November -to April, inclusive, but during the rest of the year are replaced by insects.</p> - -<p>Briefly stated, more than half of the meadowlark’s food consists of harmful -insects; its vegetable food is composed either of noxious weeds or waste grain; -and the remainder is made up of useful beetles or neutral insects and spiders. -A strong point in the bird’s favor is that, although naturally an insect eater, it -is able to subsist on vegetable food, and consequently is not forced to migrate -in cold weather farther than is necessary to find ground free from snow.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<p class="caption2"><a id="RED-WINGED_BLACKBIRDS" name="RED-WINGED_BLACKBIRDS"></a>THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRDS.</p> - - -<p>The red-winged or swamp blackbird<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> in its various forms (<a href="#fig14">fig. 14</a>) is found -all over the United States and the region immediately to the north. While -common in most of its range, its distribution is more or less local, mainly on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">« 16 »</a></span> -account of its partiality for marshes. It builds its nest over or near standing -water, in tall grass, rushes, or bushes. Owing to this peculiarity the bird may -be absent from large tracts of country which afford no swamps or marshes -suitable for nesting. It usually breeds in large colonies, though single families, -consisting of a male and several females, may sometimes be found in a small -slough, where each female builds her nest and rears her own little brood. While -her liege lord displays his brilliant colors and struts in the sunshine. In the -upper Mississippi Valley the species finds most favorable conditions, for the -countless prairie sloughs and the margins of the numerous shallow lakes afford -nesting sites for thousands of red-wings; and here are bred the immense flocks -which sometimes do so much damage to the grain fields of the West. After the -breeding season the birds congregate preparatory to migration, and remain -thus associated throughout the winter.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>Agelaius phœniceus</i>.</p></div> - -<p>Three species and several subspecies of red-wings are recognized,<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> but practically -no difference exists in the habits of these forms either in nesting or -feeding, except such as may result from local conditions. Most of the forms are -found on the Pacific side of the continent, and may be considered as included in -the following statements as to food and economic status.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Agelaius phœniceus (8 forms), Agelaius gubernator, and Agelaius tricolor.</p></div> - -<p>Many complaints have been made against the red-wing, and several States -have at times placed a bounty upon its head. It is said to cause great damage -to grain in the West, especially in the upper Mississippi Valley, but few complaints -come from the northeastern -section, where the bird is much -less abundant than in the West -and South.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 270px;"> -<a id="fig14" name="fig14"></a> -<img src="images/fig14.png" width="270" height="240" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Red-winged blackbird. Length, about -9½ Inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>Examination of 1,083 stomachs -showed that vegetable matter -forms 74 per cent of the food, -while animal matter, mainly Insects, -forms but 26 per cent A -little more than 10 per cent consists -of beetles, mostly harmful -species. Weevils, or snout beetles, -amount to 4 per cent of the year’s -food, but in June reach 25 per cent. -As weevils are among the most -harmful insects known, their destruction -should condone some, at -least, of the sins of which the -bird is accused. Grasshoppers -constitute nearly 5 per cent of the -food, while the rest of the animal -matter is made up of various -insects, a few snails, and crustaceans. -The few dragon flies found were probably picked up dead, for they -are too active to be taken alive, unless by a bird of the flycatcher family. So -far as the insect food as a whole is concerned, the red-wing may be considered -entirely beneficial.</p> - -<p>The interest in the vegetable food of this bird centers around grain. Only -three kinds, corn, wheat, and oats, were found in the stomachs in appreciable -quantities. They aggregate but little more than 13 per cent of the whole food, -oats forming nearly half of this amount. Field investigation has shown, however, -that, when local conditions are favorable, large flocks of red-wings may -do considerable damage. Conspicuous among such cases are the losses suffered -by farmers to sweet corn in some of the northeastern States and to milo in the -South and West. In the rather limited grain-raising area of the Imperial -Valley of California the annual damage to milo alone by enormous flocks of -red-wings and yellow-headed blackbirds has been estimated to be fully $50,000. -The most important item of the bird’s food, however, is weed seed, which forms -practically all of its food in winter and about 57 per cent of the fare of the -whole year. The principal weed seeds eaten are those of ragweed, barnyard -grass, and smartweed. That these seeds are preferred is shown by the fact -that the birds begin to eat them in August, when grain is still readily obtainable, -and continue feeding on them even after insects become plentiful in April. -The red-wing eats very little fruit and does practically no harm to garden or -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">« 17 »</a></span> -orchard. It is apparent that where moderately abundant, the red-wing does -more good than harm, but in sections where it becomes excessively abundant -a reduction in its numbers is justifiable.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="BOBOLINK" id="BOBOLINK">BOBOLINK.</a></p> - - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 262px;"> -<a id="fig15" name="fig15"></a> -<img src="images/fig15.png" width="262" height="254" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Bobolink, ricebird, or reed bird. -Length, about 7 inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>The bobolink, ricebird, or reedbird<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> (<a href="#fig15">fig. 15</a>) is a common summer resident -of the United States, north of about latitude 40°, and from New England westward -to the Great Plains, wintering beyond our southern border. In New -England there are few birds about which so much romance clusters as this -rollicking songster, naturally associated with sunny June meadows; but in the -South there are none on whose head so many maledictions have been heaped -on account of its fondness for rice. During its sojourn in the Northern States -it feeds mainly upon insects and -seeds of useless plants; but while -rearing its young, insects constitute -its chief food, and almost the exclusive -diet of its brood. After the -young are able to fly, the whole family -gathers into a small flock and -begins to live almost entirely upon -vegetable food. This consists for -the most part of weed seeds, since -In the North these birds do not appear -to attack grain to any great -extent. They eat a few oats, but their -stomachs do not reveal a great quantity -of this or any other grain. As -the season advances they gather into -larger flocks and move southward, -until by the end of August nearly all -have left their breeding grounds. On -their way they frequent the reedy -marshes about the mouths of rivers -and on the inland waters of the coast -region and subsist largely upon wild -rice. In the Middle States, during their southward migration, they are commonly -known as reedbirds, and, becoming very fat, are treated as game.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> <i>Dolichonyx oryzivorus</i>.</p></div> - -<p>Formerly, when the low marshy shores of the Carolinas and some of the -more southern States were devoted to rice culture the bobolinks made great -havoc both upon the sprouting rice in spring and upon the ripening grain on -their return migration in the fall. While the damage is not so great as when -this region was the center of rice production, still it amounts to many thousands -of dollars annually. As a remedy, an open season on ricebirds was provided -in the Coast States from New Jersey to Florida.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="CROW" id="CROW">CROW.</a></p> - - -<p>In one or another of its geographic races the common crow<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> (<a href="#fig16">fig. 16</a>) breeds -in great numbers throughout the States east of the Plains and from the Gulf -well up into Canada, while in less abundance it is found in California and in -the Northwestern States. During the colder months a southern migratory -movement brings most of these birds within the borders of the United States, -and at about the latitude of Philadelphia and southern Illinois we find them -congregating nightly in roosts. Farmers dwelling in the vicinity of such roosts -frequently suffer losses to shocked corn.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> <i>Corvus brachyrhynchos</i>.</p></div> - -<p>In fact, none of our native birds so much concerns the average farmer of the -Eastern States as the common crow. Many of our present criticisms of this -bird, as its pulling sprouting corn, feeding on ripening ears, damaging fruits of -various kinds, destroying poultry and wild birds, and disseminating diseases -of live-stock, were common complaints in the days of the early colonists. Many -of the virtues of the crow, now quite generally recognized, also have been -matters of record for many years. In recent times, however, scientific study -of these problems, including the examination of the stomachs of hundreds of -crows secured in every month of the year and under a variety of conditions, -has enabled us to render a much fairer verdict than was formerly possible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">« 18 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The crow is practically omnivorous. During spring and early summer any -form of insect life seems to make a desirable item in its diet, and in winter -when hard pressed nothing in the animal or vegetable kingdoms which contains -a morsel of nutriment is overlooked.</p> - -<p>The insect food of the crow, which comprises about a fifth of its yearly -sustenance, does much to atone for its misdemeanors. Grasshoppers, May -beetles and their larvæ (white grubs), caterpillars, weevils, and wireworms -stand out prominently. In 1,340 stomachs of adults examined these highly Injurious -forms comprised over 80 per cent of the insect food. Grasshoppers are -naturally taken in greatest abundance late in the season. September being the -month of largest consumption, when they form about a fifth of the total food. -May beetles and white grubs are eaten in every month, but occur most -prominently in May. In June caterpillars are a favorite food, and weevils of -various kinds are taken in varying quantities throughout summer and fall. -About half of the remaining 20 per cent of insect food is composed of beneficial -ground beetles, ladybirds, predacious bugs, and parasitic wasps, and related -forms, the rest consisting of neutral or injurious forms. Numerous instances -are on record where fields badly infested with white grubs or grasshoppers -have been favorite resorts of crows, whose voracity has resulted in a material -suppression of the pest. When the amount of food required to sustain the -individual crow is considered, the work of these birds appears all the more -important Single stomachs containing -upward of 50 grasshoppers -are not uncommon. Thus in -its choice of insect food the crow -is rendering an important service -to the farmer.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 279px;"> -<a id="fig16" name="fig16"></a> -<img src="images/fig16.png" width="279" height="194" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—Crow. Length, about 19 inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>In the other animal food of -the crow are several items of -the utmost economic importance. -Spiders are taken in considerable -numbers in May and June, -but the yearly total is a little -over 1 per cent of the food. -In early spring crawfish are -eagerly sought, and other aquatic -food, as fish and mollusks, lend -variety to the crow’s bill of -fare the year round. In the consumption -of toads, salamanders, -frogs, and some snakes, which together compose a little over 2 per cent of the -yearly food, the crow is doubtless doing harm. Small rodents occurred in the -stomachs collected nearly every month, but it Is often difficult to determine -whether small mammals found in birds’ stomachs were taken alive or found dead.</p> - -<p>From its carrion-eating habits the crow has been unfairly criticized as a -disseminator of live-stock diseases. While this may be to some extent just, the -fact that there are many other important carriers which lie largely beyond our -control, shows that we must seek final relief only through the strictest methods -of sanitation.</p> - -<p>The nest-robbing habit of the crow, long a serious criticism, is verified by -stomach analysis. Of the 1,103 crows examined, 47 had fed on wild birds or -their eggs, and the eggs of domestic fowls were found somewhat more frequently. -The crow’s habit of rummaging about garbage piles may explain -much of this latter material.</p> - -<p>Of the vegetable food, corn, which is eaten every month, is the most important -item and forms about 38 per cent of the diet. Much of this, however, -must be considered waste, since over 60 per cent of it is consumed from the first -of November to the end of March. During the periods when corn is sprouting -and when in the “roasting-ear” stage the crow is eating this grain at a rate -considerably less than the yearly average, and the months of smallest consumption -are July and August. At times, however, the damage to corn becomes a -serious problem, and were it not possible to make use of such deterrents as coal -tar upon seed corn there would be little friendship for the crow in some sections -of the East. The “pulling” of corn is a trait most prevalent in small-field -areas. Wheat and oats suffer similar damage at times, especially in the -Northwestern States, where these grains predominate. About the only safeguard -to ripening grain is the constant use of powder and shot or the scarecrow.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">« 19 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Various kinds of cultivated fruits are also eaten, and local damage to such -crops as apples, melons, peas, beans, peanuts, and almonds is occasionally reported. -In long, rigorous winters, the crow, like other birds, resorts to the -fruit of numerous wild plants, as dogwood, sour gum, hackberry, smilax, and the -several species of sumac and poison ivy.</p> - -<p>Damage to the eggs of poultry may be reduced to a minimum by careful -housing of lasting hens, and the farmer can protect his sprouting grain to a -large extent by the use of tar-coated seed. It will be well also to keep the -crow within reasonable numbers on game preserves and public parks where it -is desired to encourage the nesting of smaller birds. While legal protection is -not needed for so wary an individual as the crow, it seems well, where local -conditions have not aggravated some particular shortcomings of the bird, to -allow it to continue the good services gendered to man in the destruction of -noxious insects.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="BLUE_JAY" id="BLUE_JAY">BLUE JAY.</a></p> - - -<p>The blue jay<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> (<a href="#fig17">fig. 17</a>) is a conspicuous member of our bird population east -of the Plains, especially in autumn when his brilliant plumage contrasts vividly -with the brown> foliage. Even in winter he stays with us, though at this time -he is less common along our northern border. In spring and summer, while by -no means uncommon, the blue jay is not so often noticed, as the retiring disposition -which he assumes during the breeding season assists in protecting him -from enemies. This also allows him to carry on with considerable impunity -that inglorious practice of nest robbing -of which, in a measure, he has -been rightfully accused.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> <i>Cyanocitta cristata</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 257px;"> -<a id="fig17" name="fig17"></a> -<img src="images/fig17.png" width="257" height="170" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—Blue Jay. Length, about 11½ inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>Examination of 530 stomachs collected -at all times of the year in 30 -of our Eastern States and Canada -shows that insects comprise about -22 per cent of the yearly sustenance. -About three-fourths of these are injurious, -the remainder being neutral -or beneficial. Of the injurious insects, -grasshoppers form the largest -portion; in August nearly a fifth of -the food. Caterpillars are conspicuous -in July and August and at this -time average about a tenth of the -stomach contents. Both laboratory -investigations and field observations have established the fact that in winter the -eggs of the tent caterpillar and the hibernating larvæ of the brown-tail moth in -New England are eagerly sought Scarabæid beetles form about 4 per cent of -the yearly food, and click beetles and wire-worms about 1 per cent. Of the -beneficial forms, ground beetles (3 per cent) and hymenopterous insects, part -of which are parasitic (2.5 per cent), are taken most frequently. A few other -invertebrates, as spiders, millipedes, mollusks, and crustaceans, also are eaten -throughout the year.</p> - -<p>In the consideration of the vertebrate food of the blue jay we are confronted -with the problem of the destruction of wild birds and their eggs. Special -search was made for every possible trace of such material in the stomachs, -and in 6 of the 530 were found the remains of wild birds or their eggs. In -February two jays had killed a small bird apiece; in May one had robbed a -nest of eggs; in June two had taken a small bird and a clutch of eggs, respectively; -and in August another had robbed a nest As this trait of the jay appears -to be most pronounced during its own breeding season, it is quite possible -for many birds which have suffered from its boldness early in the season to raise -another brood unmolested. Thirty-nine of the 530 jays examined had fed -on hen’s eggs. Much of this food, however, was picked up about rubbish heaps, -to which the jay, like other members of the crow family, is partial. While -the result of stomach analysis would appear to belittle this fault of the blue -jay, it is doubtless quite characteristic of the bird under favorable conditions.</p> - -<p>Complaint that the jay is the source of considerable damage to corn in the -fall has been verified to a certain degree by stomach examination. This grain -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">« 20 »</a></span> -is taken in every month of the year, but in greater quantities during winter and -early spring, when much of it is necessarily waste, and it forms about 18 per -cent of the yearly food. Cultivated fruits of various kinds are eaten from -June to the end of the year, and the 15 per cent taken in July apparently justifies -complaints against the bird on this score. The favorite vegetable food of the -blue jay is mast of various kinds, acorns predominating, but beechnuts, chestnuts, -chinquaquins, and hazelnuts also are relished. This food is important in -every month but July and August, the yearly average being over 43 per cent, -and from October to March it constitutes about two-thirds of the diet. Occasionally -harm is done by feeding also on cultivated nuts, as pecans. Wild fruits -are eaten during the summer and fall and constitute about 7 per cent of the -yearly sustenance.</p> - -<p>The blue jay probably renders its best services to man in destroying grasshoppers -late in the season and in feeding on hibernating insects and their eggs, -as it does in the case of the tent caterpillar and brown-tail moth. Such forest -insects as buprestid beetles and weevils of various kinds also fall as its prey.</p> - -<p>The blue jay’s vegetable food, with the exception of some cultivated fruit and -corn in the fall, is largely neutral. The severest criticism against the species -is the destruction of other birds and their eggs. Where we wish to attract birds -in large numbers about our dooryards, in our parks, and in game preserves, it -will be well not to allow the jays to become too abundant.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="PACIFIC_COAST_JAYS" id="PACIFIC_COAST_JAYS">PACIFIC COAST JAYS.</a></p> - - -<p>In California and adjacent States two species of jays are much in evidence -under several more or less well-marked forms.</p> - -<p>The Steller jay<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> much resembles the eastern bird, but it is more shy and -retiring and seldom visits the orchard or vicinity of the ranch buildings. -Stomach examination shows that its food does not radically differ from that of -the eastern blue jay. As is the case with that bird, a very considerable part -of the food consists of mast, together with a little fruit and some insects. The -insects are largely wasps, with some beetles and grasshoppers. This jay also -eats some grain, which is probably waste or volunteer. No complaints, so far -as known, are made against this bird. Until it shall become less wary it is not -likely to trespass to a serious extent upon the farmer’s preserve.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> <i>Cyanocitta stelleri</i>.</p></div> - -<p>The California jay,<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> although of a different genus, more nearly resembles its -eastern relative in food habits and actions. It freely visits the stockyards near -ranch buildings, and orchards and gardens. As a fruit stealer it is notorious. -One instance is recorded where seven jays were shot from a prune tree, one -after the other, the dead bodies being left under the tree until all were killed. -So eager were the birds to get the fruit that the report of the gun and the sight -of their dead did not deter them from coming to the tree. In orchards in -canyons or on hillsides adjacent to chaparral or other cover great mischief is -done by this bird. In one such case an orchard was under observation at a time -when the prune crop was ripening, and jays in a continuous stream were seen -to come down a small ravine to the orchard, prey upon the fruit, and return.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> <i>Aphelocoma californica</i>.</p></div> - -<p>Fruit stealing, however, is only one of the sins of the California jay. That -it robs hens’ nests is universal testimony. A case is reported of a hen having -a nest under a clump of bushes; every day a jay came to a tree a few rods away, -and when it heard the cackle of the hen announcing a new egg it flew at once -to the nest. At the same time the mistress of the house hastened to the spot -to secure the prize, but in most cases the jay won the race. This is only one of -many similar cases recounted. The jays have learned just what the cackle of -the hen means. Another case more serious is that related by a man engaged -in raising white leghorn fowls on a ranch several miles up a canyon. He -stated that when the chicks were very young the jays attacked and killed -them by a few blows of the beak and then pecked open the skull and ate out -the brains. In spite of all efforts to protect the chicks and kill the jays the -losses in this way were serious.</p> - -<p>Examination of the stomachs of 326 California jays shows that 27 per cent -of the contents for the year consists of animal matter and 73 per cent of vegetable. -Although the great bulk of the animal food is made up of insects, the -remains of eggshells and birds’ bones appear much too often. The insect food -is fairly well distributed among the more common orders, but grasshoppers are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">« 21 »</a></span> -slightly the most numerous and constitute 4.5 per cent of the year’s food. In -July, August, and September, however, the amount is 14, 18, and 19 per cent, -respectively. Four per cent of the food consists of wasps, bees, etc., but in the -three months named they constitute 15, 7, and 9 per cent, respectively. A -worker honeybee found in each of two stomachs is rather surprising, for it is -unusual to find a bird like the jay eating these active and elusive insects, -which enter into the diet of the flycatchers. The remainder of the insect -food is pretty evenly distributed among beetles, bugs, flies, and caterpillars. -Eggshells were found in 21 stomachs and birds’ bones in 5. Six stomachs -contained the bones of mammals and two those of a lizard. No bird has a -worse reputation for nest robbing than has the eastern jay, and yet of 530 -stomachs of the eastern species only 6 contained eggshells or the bones of -birds. This comparison serves to show what a marauder and nest thief the -California jay really is.</p> - -<p>In its vegetable diet this bird much resembles its eastern relative, the most -remarkable difference being in the matter of fruit eating. With greater opportunities -the California bird has developed a greater appetite for fruit and -indulges it to the fullest extent. Remains of fruit were found in 220 of the 326 -stomachs. The percentage for the year is only 16, but for the four months of -June, July, August, and September it is 44, 33, 53, and 25, respectively. Cherries, -apricots, and prunes are the favorites among cultivated fruits, and elderberries -are relished to some extent. Grain, which was found in 48 stomachs, -amounts to 6 per cent of the food of the year. Practically all of it was taken -in the four months above mentioned, but it is not probable that much damage -is done by the jay in this respect. The major portion of the grain was oats. -What was not wild was probably simply scattered grain gleaned after the -harvest. Mast is eaten by the California jay from September to March, inclusive, -and constitutes during most of that period one of the principal elements of -its food. In this respect the bird shows a remarkable similarity to the eastern -species. A few weed seeds and other miscellaneous items make up the balance -of the vegetable food.</p> - -<p>In summing up from an economic point of view the character of the food -of the California jay, it must be conceded that it is not all that could be wished. -Its taste for birds’ eggs and fruit is entirely too pronounced, and at present the -species is superabundant in California. While the natural food supply of the -bird has been lessened by bringing the woods and brushy canyons under cultivation, -the same areas have been planted to fruit, and naturally the jay takes -the fruit as an acceptable substitute. A considerable reduction of the bird’s -numbers would appear to be the only effective remedy.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="THE_PHOEBES" id="THE_PHOEBES">THE PHŒBES.</a></p> - - -<p>Among the early spring arrivals to their northern homes none is more welcome -than the phœbe (<a href="#fig18">fig. 18</a>). The common phœbe<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> breeds throughout the -United States east of the Great Plains, and winters from the South Atlantic -and Gulf States southward. Its western relative, the black phœbe,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> is found -from Texas west to the Pacific coast, which it occupies as far north as Washington, -replacing through most of this region the common or eastern form.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> <i>Sayornis phœbe</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> <i>Sayornis Nigricans</i>.</p></div> - -<p>Though naturally building its nest under an overhanging cliff of rock or -earth, or in the mouth of a cave, the preference of the eastern species for the -vicinity of farm buildings is so marked that in the more thickly settled parts -of the country the bird is seldom seen at any great distance from a farmhouse, -except where a bridge spanning a stream affords a secure spot for a nest. Its -confiding disposition renders it a great favorite, and consequently it is seldom -disturbed.</p> - -<p>The phœbe subsists almost exclusively upon insects, most of which are caught -upon the wing. An examination of 370 stomachs showed that over 89 per cent -of the year’s food consists of insects and spiders, while wild fruit constitutes -the remainder. The insects belong chiefly to noxious species, and include many -click beetles. May beetles, and weevils. Other beetles, belonging to 21 families -that were identified, make up 10.65 per cent. They appear to be eaten very -regularly in every month, but the most are taken in spring and early summer. -May is the month of maximum consumption, with 20.43 per cent. Beetles altogether -amount to 15.3 per cent, which places them second in rank of the items -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">« 22 »</a></span> -of animal food. The notorious cotton-boll weevil was found in six stomachs -taken in the cotton fields of Texas and Louisiana, and five individuals of the -strawberry weevil were taken from one collected in Texas. Many other beetles -contained In the stomachs are equally harmful, but are not so widely known. -Such are the corn leaf-beetle, which feeds upon corn; the 12-spotted cucumber -beetle, and the striped cucumber beetle, both of which seriously injure and -sometimes destroy cucumber and squash vines; and the locust leaf miner, -which is sometimes so numerous that all the locust trees over large areas are -blasted as by fire.</p> - -<p>In the phœbe’s diet hymenopterous insects stand at the head, as is the case -with most of the flycatchers. They are eaten with great regularity and are -the largest item in nearly every month. A few are useful parasitic species, -but these are offset by a number of sawfly larvæ, which are very harmful -insects. Ants were found in 24 stomachs. No honeybees were identified. In -their season grasshoppers are much relished, while wasps of various forms, -many flies of species that annoy cattle, and a few bugs and spiders are also -eaten regularly. It is evident that a pair of phœbes must materially reduce -the number of insects near a garden or field, as the birds often, if not always, -raise two broods a year, and each brood numbers from four to six young.</p> - -<p>There is hardly a more useful species about the farm than the phœbe, and -it should receive every encouragement. To furnish nesting boxes is helpful, -but not necessary, as it usually prefers a more open situation, like a shed or -a nook under the eaves, but it should -be protected from cats and other -marauders.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 261px;"> -<a id="fig18" name="fig18"></a> -<img src="images/fig18.png" width="261" height="241" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—Phœbe. Length, about 6½ inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>The black phœbe has the same -habits as its eastern relative, both -as to selection of food and nesting -sites, preferring for the latter purpose -some structure of man, as a -shed or, better still, a bridge over -a stream of water, and the preference -of the black phœbe for the -vicinity of water is very pronounced. -One may always be found at a stream’ -or pool and often at a watering -trough by the roadside.</p> - -<p>Careful study of the habits of the -bird shows that it obtains a large -portion of Its food about wet places. -While camping beside a stream in -California the writer took some -pains to observe the habits of the -black phœbe. The nesting season -was over, and the birds had nothing -to do but eat. This they appeared to be doing all the time. When first observed -in the morning, at the first glimmer of daylight, a phœbe was always found -flitting from rock to rock, although it was so dusky that the bird could hardly -be seen. This activity was kept up all day. Even in the evening, when it -was so dark that notes were written by the aid of the camp fire, the phœbe -was still engaged in its work of collecting, though it was difficult to understand -how it could catch insects when there was scarcely light enough to see -the bird. Exploration of the stream showed that every portion of it was -patrolled by a phœbe, that each one apparently did not range over more than 12 -or 13 rods of water, and that sometimes two or three were in close proximity.</p> - -<p>The number of insects destroyed in a year by the black phœbe is enormous. -Fortunately, the examination of stomachs has supplemented observation in -the field, and we are enabled to give precise details. Of the 333 stomachs examined, -every one contained insects as the great bulk of the food. Only 15 -contained any vegetable food at all, and in no case was it a considerable part -of the contents of the stomach. The insects eaten were mostly wasps, bugs, -and flies, but many beetles also were destroyed.</p> - -<p>Useful beetles belonging to three families amount to 2.8 per cent of the -food. Other beetles of harmful or neutral species reach 10.5 per cent. Wasps, -the largest item of the food, were found in 252 stomachs and were the whole -contents of 15. The average for the year is 35 per cent. Parasitic species -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">« 23 »</a></span> -were noted, but they were very few. Ants were found in 48 stomachs, and for -a short time in midsummer they constitute a notable part of the food. Various -wild bees and wasps make up the bulk of this item. No honeybees were found.</p> - -<p>Bugs in various forms constitute 10.56 per cent and are eaten in every month -but May. Stinkbugs appear to be the favorites, as they were contained in 10 -stomachs. Plant lice were found in one stomach. Flies, forming the second -largest item, were found in 97 stomachs and completely filled 3. They constitute -the most regular article in the black phœbe’s diet. The maximum consumption -occurs in April, 64.3 per cent. The black phœbe well merits its title -of flycatcher.</p> - -<p>Moths and caterpillars amount to 8.2 per cent of the food. They were found -in 72 stomachs, of which 51 contained the adult moths and 28 the larvæ or -caterpillars. One stomach was entirely filled with adults. This is one of the -few birds studied by the writer that eats more moths than caterpillars, for as -a rule the caterpillars are largely in excess. Flycatchers, taking their food -upon the wing, would naturally prove exceptions to the rule. Crickets are -evidently not a favorite food of the black phœbe, as they amount to only 2.45 -per cent. They were found in 39 stomachs, but usually the amount in each was -small, though one stomach was entirely filled with them. Grasshoppers did -not appear. Dragon flies were eaten to some extent, and these illustrate the -fondness of the species for the neighborhood of water.</p> - -<p>The vegetable matter eaten consisted chiefly of small wild fruits of no -economic importance.</p> - -<p>Another phœbe inhabiting the Western States and breeding as far north as -Alaska is the Say phœbe.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> Investigation of its food was based on the examination -of 86 stomachs, and while none were available for the months when -insects are most numerous, the bird proved to be one of the most exclusively -insectivorous of the family. That it takes a few useful insects can not be -denied, but these are far outnumbered by the harmful ones it destroys, and the -balance is clearly in favor of the bird. Its vegetable food amounts to only 2 -per cent and is made up of a little wild fruit, seeds, and rubbish.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> <i>Sayornis sayus</i>.</p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<p class="caption2"><a id="THE_KINGBIRDS" name="THE_KINGBIRDS"></a>THE KINGBIRDS.</p> - - -<p>The well-known eastern kingbird<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> (<a href="#fig19">fig. 19</a>) is essentially a lover of the -orchard, though groves and the edge of forests were probably its original habitat. -It breeds in the States east of the Rocky Mountains, and less commonly in -the Great Basin and on the Pacific coast. Its hostility to hawks and crows is -proverbial, and for this reason a family of kingbirds is a desirable adjunct to -a poultry yard. On one occasion in the knowledge of the writer a hawk which -attacked a brood of young turkeys was pounced upon and so severely buffeted -by a pair of kingbirds whose nest was near by that the would-be robber was -glad to escape without his prey. Song birds that nest near the kingbird are -similarly protected.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> <i>Tyrannus tyrannus</i>.</p></div> - -<p>The kingbird is largely insectivorous. It is a true flycatcher and takes on -the wing a large part of its food. It does not, however, confine itself to this -method of hunting, but picks up some insects from trees and weeds, and even -descends to the ground in search of myriapods or thousand legs. The chief -complaint against the species by both professional bee keepers and others has -been that it preys largely upon honeybees. One bee raiser in Iowa, suspecting -the kingbirds of feeding upon his bees, shot a number near his hives; but when -the stomachs of the birds were examined by an expert entomologist, not a trace -of honeybees could be found.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 260px;"> -<a id="fig19" name="fig19"></a> -<img src="images/fig19.png" width="260" height="275" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—Kingbird. Length, about 8½ inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>An examination of 665 stomachs collected in various parts of the country, -was made by the Biological Survey, but only 22 were found to contain remains -of honeybees. In these 22 stomachs there were in all 61 honeybees, of which -51 were drones, 8 were certainly workers, and the remaining 2 were too badly -broken to be further identified.</p> - -<p>The insects that constitute the great bulk of the food of the bird are noxious -species, largely beetles—May beetles, click beetles (the larvæ of which are -known as wire-worms), weevils, which prey upon fruit and grain, and a host -of others. Wasps, wild bees, and ants are conspicuous elements of the food, far -outnumbering the hive bees. During summer many grasshoppers and crickets, -as well as leaf hoppers and other bugs, also are eaten. In the stomachs examined -were a number of robber files—insects which prey largely upon other -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">« 24 »</a></span> -insects, including honeybees, and which are known to commit in this way -extensive depredations. It is thus evident that the kingbird by destroying these -flies actually does good work for the apiarist. The 26 robber flies found in the -stomachs may be considered more than an equivalent for the 8 worker honeybees -already mentioned. A few caterpillars are eaten, mostly belonging to the -group commonly known as cutworms, all the species of which are harmful.</p> - -<p>About 11 per cent of the food consists of small native fruits, comprising some -30 common species of the roadsides and thickets, as dogwood berries, elderberries, -and wild grapes. The kingbird is not reported as eating cultivated -fruit to an injurious extent, and it is very doubtful if this is ever the case.</p> - -<p>In the Western States the Arkansas kingbird<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> is not so domestic in its habits -as its eastern relative, preferring to live among scattering oaks on lonely hillsides, -rather than in orchards about ranch buildings. The work it does, however, -in the destruction of noxious insects fully equals that of any member of -its family. Like other flycatchers, it subsists mostly upon insects taken in -mid-air, though it eats a number of grasshoppers, probably taken from the -ground. The bulk of its food consists of beetles, bugs, wasps, and wild bees. -Like its eastern representative, it has been accused of feeding to an injurious -extent upon honeybees. In an examination of 62 stomachs of this species, -great care was taken to identify every insect or fragment that had any resemblance -to a honeybee; as a result, -30 honeybees were identified, of -which 29 were males or drones -and 1 a worker. These were contained -in four stomachs, and were -the sole contents of three; in the -fourth they constituted 99 per cent -of the food. It is evident that the -bee-eating habit is only occasional -and accidental, rather than habitual; -and it is also evident that -if this ratio of drones to workers -were maintained, the bird would be -of more benefit than harm to the -apiary.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> <i>Tyrannus verticalis</i>.</p></div> - -<p>The Cassin kingbird<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> has a more -southerly range than the Arkansas -flycatcher. Examination of a number -of stomachs shows that its food -habits are similar to those of others -of the group.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>Tyrannus vociferans</i>.</p></div> - -<p>Three points seem to be clearly -established in regard to the food of -the kingbirds—(1) that about 90 -per cent consists of insects, mostly -injurious species; (2) that the alleged habit of preying upon honeybees is much -less prevalent than has been supposed, and probably does not result in any -great damage; and (3) that the vegetable food consists almost entirely of -wild fruits which have no economic value.</p> - -<p>All of the kingbirds are of the greatest importance to the farmer and fruit -grower, as they destroy vast numbers of harmful insects, and do no appreciable -damage to any product of cultivation.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="NIGHTHAWK" id="NIGHTHAWK">NIGHTHAWK.</a></p> - - -<p>The nighthawk, or bull-bat,<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> breeds throughout most of the United States and -Canada, and winters in South America. It is strictly insectivorous, and hence -does no damage to crops. The only charge that can be made against the bird -is that it destroys some useful insects, but these are greatly in the minority in -its food.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> <i>Chordeiles virginianus</i>.</p></div> - -<p>Nighthawks are so expert in flight that no insects can escape them. In their -capacious mouths they sweep up everything from the largest moths and dragon -flies to the tiniest ants and gnats, and in this way sometimes gather most -remarkable collections of insects. Several stomachs have contained 50 or more -different kinds, and the number of individuals ran into the thousands.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">« 25 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Nearly a fourth of the birds’ total food is composed of ants. These Insects -are generally annoying and often very injurious, especially on account of their -damage to stored products and because of their habit of fostering destructive -plant lice. More than a fifth of the nighthawk’s food consists of June bugs, -dung beetles, and other beetles of the leaf-chafer family. These are the adults -of white grubs, noted pests, and even as adults many members of the family -are decidedly harmful.</p> - -<p>Numerous other injurious beetles, as click beetles, wood borers, and weevils, -are relished. True bugs, moths, flies, grasshoppers, and crickets also are -important elements of the food. Several species of mosquitoes, including the -transmitter of malaria, are eaten. Other well-known pests consumed by the -nighthawk are Colorado potato beetles, cucumber beetles, rice, clover-leaf, and -cotton-boll weevils, billbugs, bark beetles, squash bugs, and moths of the cotton -worm.</p> - -<p>Nighthawks are much less numerous than formerly, chiefly because of -wanton shooting. They are given full legal protection almost everywhere, and -citizens should see that the law is -obeyed. The bird is far too useful -and attractive to be persecuted.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="THE_WOODPECKERS" id="THE_WOODPECKERS">THE WOODPECKERS.</a></p> - - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 269px;"> -<a id="fig20" name="fig20"></a> -<img src="images/fig20.png" width="269" height="304" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Hairy woodpecker. Length, about 9 inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>Five or six species of woodpeckers -are familiarly known throughout -the eastern United States, and -In the West are replaced by others -of similar habits. Several species -remain in the Northern States -through the entire year, while -others are more or less migratory.</p> - -<p>Farmers are prone to look upon -woodpeckers with suspicion. When -the birds are seen scrambling over -fruit trees and pecking holes in -the bark, it is concluded that they -must be doing harm. Careful observers, -however, have noticed -that, excepting a single species, -these birds rarely leave any conspicuous -mark on a healthy tree, -except when it is affected by wood-boring -larvæ, which are accurately -located, dislodged, and devoured -by the woodpecker.</p> - -<p>Two of the best-known woodpeckers, the hairy woodpecker<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> (<a href="#fig20">fig. 20</a>) and the -downy woodpecker,<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> including their races, range over the greater part of the -United States. They differ chiefly in size, their colors being practically the -same. The males, like those of many other woodpeckers, are distinguished by -a scarlet patch on the head. An examination of many stomachs of these two -species shows that from two-thirds to three-fourths of the food consists of -insects, chiefly noxious kinds. Wood-boring beetles, both adults and larvæ, are -conspicuous, and with them are associated many caterpillars, mostly species -that burrow into trees. Next in importance are the ants that live in decaying -wood, all of which are sought by woodpeckers and eaten in great quantities. -Many ants are particularly harmful to timber, for if they find a small spot of -decay in the vacant burrow of a wood borer, they enlarge the hole, and, as -their colony is always on the increase, continue to eat away the wood until the -whole trunk is honeycombed. Moreover, they are not accessible to birds generally, -and could pursue their career of destruction unmolested were it not -that the woodpeckers, with beaks and tongues especially fitted for such work, -dig out and devour them. It is thus evident that woodpeckers are great conservators -of forests. To them more than to any other agency we owe the preservation -of timber from hordes of destructive insects.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> <i>Dryobates villosus</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>Dryobates pubecens</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">« 26 »</a></span></p></div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 258px;"> -<a id="fig21" name="fig21"></a> -<img src="images/fig21.png" width="258" height="217" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Flicker. Length, about 12½ inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>One of the larger woodpeckers familiar to everyone is the flicker, or golden-winged -woodpecker<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> (<a href="#fig21">fig. 21</a>), which is generally distributed throughout the -United States from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountains. There it is -replaced by the red-shafted flicker,<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> which extends westward to the Pacific. -The two species are as nearly identical -in food habits as their respective -environments will allow. The -flickers, while genuine woodpeckers, -differ somewhat in habits from -the rest of the family, and are frequently -seen searching for food -upon the ground. Like the downy -and hairy woodpeckers, they feed -upon wood-boring grubs and ants, -but the number of ants eaten is -much greater than that eaten by -the other two species. Of the flickers’ -stomachs examined, three were -completely filled with ants. Two -of these contained more than 3,000 -individuals each, while the third -contained fully 5,000. These ants -belong to species which live in the -ground. It is these insects for which -the flicker searches when it runs about in the grass, although some grasshoppers -also are then taken. The flicker’s habit of pecking holes in buildings sometimes -greatly annoys its human friends, and it is particularly noticeable in the California -species. Observation has shown that the object of the work is to obtain -shelter for the winter. In the East most of the flickers are migratory, and only a -few remain North where shelter is necessary. These generally find a safe retreat -in the hollow tree In which they nested. In California, however, where the -birds do not migrate, trees are not -so abundant as in the East, and -consequently buildings are brought -into requisition, and in them holes -are drilled, usually under the eaves, -where snug nights’ lodgings are -found. Often a dozen holes may -be seen in one building. Barns or -other outbuildings are usually selected, -though churches sometimes -have been used.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> <i>Colaptes auratus</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> <i>Colaptes cafer collaris</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 260px;"> -<a id="fig22" name="fig22"></a> -<img src="images/fig22.png" width="260" height="286" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—Red-headed woodpecker. Length, -about 9½ inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>The red-headed woodpecker<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> (<a href="#fig22">fig. 22</a>) -is well known east of the Rocky -Mountains, but Is rather rare in -New England. Unlike some of the -other species, it prefers fence posts -and telegraph poles to trees as -a foraging ground. Its food therefore -naturally differs from that of -the preceding species, and consists -largely of adult beetles and wasps -which it frequently captures on the -wing after the fashion of flycatchers. -Grasshoppers also form an -important part of the food. Among -the beetles are a number of predacious -ground species and some -tiger beetles, which are useful insects. The red-head has been accused -of robbing nests of other birds, and of pecking out the brains of young birds -and poultry; but as the stomachs showed little evidence to substantiate this -charge, the habit probably is exceptional.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> <i>Melanerpes erythrocephalus</i>.</p></div> - -<p>The vegetable food of woodpeckers is varied, but consists largely of small -fruits and berries. The downy and hairy woodpeckers eat such fruits as dogwood -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">« 27 »</a></span> -and Virginia creeper and seeds of poison ivy, sumac, and a few other -shrubs. The flicker also eats a great many small fruits and the seeds of a considerable -number of shrubs and weeds. None of the three species is much -given to eating cultivated fruits or crops. The red-head has been accused of -eating the larger kinds of fruit, as apples, and also of taking considerable corn. -Stomach examinations show that to some extent these charges are substantiated, -but that the habit is not prevalent enough to cause much damage. The -bird is fond of mast, especially beechnuts, and when these nuts are plentiful it -remains north all winter.</p> - -<p>Woodpeckers apparently are the only agents which can successfully cope with -certain insect enemies of the forest, and, to some extent, with those of fruit -trees also. For this reason, if for no other, they should be protected in every -possible way.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="caption2"><a name="THE_CUCKOOS" id="THE_CUCKOOS">THE CUCKOOS.</a></p> - - -<p>Two species of cuckoos are common In the United States east of the Great -Plains, the yellow-billed cuckoo<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> (<a href="#fig23">fig. 23</a>) and the black-billed cuckoo,<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> and in -the West a relative of the yellow-bill, the California cuckoo,<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> ranges from -Colorado and Texas to the Pacific coast. While the two species are quite distinct, -the food habits of the yellow-bill and the black-bill do not greatly differ -and their economic status is practically the same.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> <i>Coccyzus americanus</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> <i>Coccyzus erythyropthalmus</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <i>Coccyzus americanus occidentalis</i>.</p></div> - -<p>Examination of 155 stomachs has shown that these species are much given -to eating caterpillars, and, unlike most birds, do not reject those covered with -hair. In fact, cuckoos eat so -many hairy caterpillars that the -hairs pierce the inner lining of -the stomach and remain there, -and often when the stomach is -opened it appears to be lined -with a thin coating of fur.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 282px;"> -<a id="fig23" name="fig23"></a> -<img src="images/fig23.png" width="282" height="190" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—Yellow-billed cuckoo. Length, about 12 inches.</div> -</div> - -<p>An examination of the stomachs -of 46 black-billed cuckoos, -taken during the summer months, -showed the remains of 906 caterpillars, -44 beetles, 96 grasshoppers, -100 sawflies, 30 stinkbugs, -and 15 spiders. In all -probability more individuals -than these were represented, but -their remains were too badly -broken for recognition. Most of -the caterpillars were hairy, and -many of them belong to a genus that lives in colonies and feeds on the leaves of -trees, including the apple tree. One stomach was filled with larvæ of a caterpillar -belonging to the same genus as the tent caterpillar, and possibly to that -species. Other larvæ were those of large moths, for which the bird seems to -have a special fondness. The beetles were for the most part click beetles and -weevils, as well as a few May beetles. The sawflies were contained in two -stomachs, one of which held no less than 60 in the larval stage.</p> - -<p>Of the yellow-billed cuckoo, 109 stomachs (collected from May to October) -were examined. They contained 1,865 caterpillars, 93 beetles, 242 grasshoppers, -37 sawflies, 69 bugs, 6 flies, and 86 spiders. As in the case of the black-billed -cuckoo, most of the caterpillars belonged to hairy species and many of them -were of large size. One stomach contained 250 American tent caterpillars; -another 217 fall webworms. The beetles were distributed among several families, -all more or less harmful to agriculture. In the same stomach which contained -the tent caterpillars were 2 Colorado potato beetles; in another were -3 goldsmith beetles, and remains of several other large beetles. Besides the -ordinary grasshoppers were several katydids and tree crickets. The sawflies -were in the larval stage, in which they resemble caterpillars so closely that -they are commonly called false caterpillars by entomologists. The bugs consisted -of stinkbugs and cicadas, or dog-day harvest flies, with the single exception -of one wheel bug, which was the only useful insect eaten.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">« 28 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="caption2"><a name="BOBWHITE" id="BOBWHITE">BOBWHITE.</a></p> - - -<p>No bird is better known to country residents than the bobwhite<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> (see illustration -on title-page). The bird’s cheery calls the year round form part of -the most pleasant associations of country life, and its neat form and harmonious -coloration, and especially its confiding habits, make it a general -favorite.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> <i>Colinus virginianus.</i></p></div> - -<p>Any bushy fence row serves as a retreat for its nest, or for winter shelter, and -weed-covered fields are its favorite feeding places. Weed seeds form more -than half the total food and include those of all the worst weed pests of the -farm. Among them may be mentioned crab, cockspur, witch, and foxtail -grasses, sheep sorrel, smartweed, bindweed, lamb’s-quarters, pigweeds, corn -cockle, chickweed, charlock, partridge pea, beggar lice, nail grass, rib grass, ragweed, -and Spanish needles.</p> - -<p>Acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, and pine seeds make up about 2.5 per cent of -the food, and wild fruit about 10 per cent The fruits include berries of palmetto, -smilax, wax myrtle, mulberry, sassafras, blackberries and raspberries, -rose haws, cherry, sumac, grapes, sour gum, blueberries, honeysuckle, partridgeberry, -and a number of others. The bobwhite feeds to a slight extent upon -buds and leaves, including those of yellow and red sorrel, cinquefoil, and -clover.</p> - -<p>Grain forms scarcely more than a sixth of the food, and most of it is taken -during winter and early spring when nothing but waste grain is available -The habit of gleaning this after the harvest is beneficial to the farm, for -volunteer grain is not desirable, especially where it serves to maintain certain -insect and fungus pests. Although most of the grain and seed crops grown upon -the farm are represented in bobwhite’s dietary, no significant damage can be -attributed to the bird.</p> - -<p>Animal food, chiefly insects, composed nearly a sixth of the bird’s subsistence. -From June to August, inclusive, when insects are most numerous, their proportion -in the food is about 36 per cent. The variety of insect food is great -and includes a number of the most destructive agricultural pests. Among -them may be mentioned the Colorado potato beetle, 12-spotted cucumber beetle, -bean leaf beetle, squash ladybird, wire-worms. May beetles, corn billbugs, -clover-leaf weevil, army worm, boilworm, cutworms, and chinch bug.</p> - -<p>The food habits of the bobwhite undoubtedly are beneficial and the bird -should be maintained in numbers on every farm. This is not to say that all -shooting should be prohibited, for the bird is very prolific. But its numbers -should not be reduced below what the available nesting sites and range will -support. On the other hand the policy of absolute protection recently adopted -by one of the States is not called for by strictly economic considerations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">« 29 »</a></span></p> - - -<hr class="tb" /> - - -<p class="caption2">ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE<br /> -WHEN THIS PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED</p> - -<table summary="Organization"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" style="width: 20em;"><i>Secretary of Agriculture</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Henry A. Wallace</span>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Under Secretary</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Rexford G. Tugwell</span>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Assistant Secretary</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">M. L. Wilson</span>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Director of Extension Work</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. W. Warburton</span>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Director of Personnel</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">W. W. Stockberger</span>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Director of Information</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">M. S. Eisenhower</span>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Director of Finance</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">W. A. Jump</span>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Solicitor</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Seth Thomas</span>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Agricultural Adjustment Administration</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Chester C. Davis</span>, <i>Administrator</i>.</td> - </tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Agricultural Economics</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A. G. Black</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Agricultural Engineering</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">S. H. McCrory</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Animal Industry</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">John R. Mohler</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Biological Survey</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">J. N. Darling</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Chemistry and Soils</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">H. G. Knight</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Dairy Industry</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">O. E. Reed</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Lee A. Strong</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Office of Experiment Stations</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">James T. Jardine</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Food and Drug Administration</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Walter G. Campbell</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Forest Service</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ferdinand A. Silcox</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Grain Futures Administration</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">J. W. T. Duvel</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Home Economics</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Louise Stanley</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Library</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Claribel R. Barnett</span>, <i>Librarian</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Plant Industry</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Frederick D. Richey</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Public Roads</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Thomas H. MacDonald</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Weather Bureau</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Willis R. Gregg</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="pmt2 pmb2 center">U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1935<br /> -<br /> -For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.<br /> -Price 5 cents</p> - - -<div class="trans_notes"> - -<p class="caption2">Transcriber Notes</p> - - -<p>All illustrations were moved so as to not split paragraphs. There does not -appear to be a footnote numbered “2”, therefore, the one numbered “3” and -all following footnote numbers were decremented by 1.</p> - -</div> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 630, by F. E. L. 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