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diff --git a/old/62678-0.txt b/old/62678-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 959f74b..0000000 --- a/old/62678-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2530 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 630, by F. E. L. Beal - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 630 - Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer - -Author: F. E. L. Beal - -Release Date: July 17, 2020 [EBook #62678] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 630 *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Notes - -Text emphasis is denoted as _Italics_. - - - - - U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - - FARMERS BULLETIN No. 630 - - - - - SOME COMMON - - BIRDS USEFUL - - to the - - FARMER - - -FROM a purely practical point of view the most important of the relations -of native birds to man are the economic. The esthetic value of birds is -great--greater, indeed, than that of any other group of animals; and that -this is a real and especially treasured value is not to be denied. But it -is in their relation to insect and other enemies of crops that birds are -most directly associated with the welfare of mankind, and their value in -this particular should be made as widely known as possible. - -This bulletin is one of a series designed to assist in doing this. Not -all birds are beneficial, and all facts tending to show in which class -each species belongs will be set forth. The useful kinds far outnumber -the injurious, however, and so great is their value as insect destroyers -in the United States that to them may be given the credit of being one of -the greatest controlling factors in limiting the development of insect -pests and in preventing many disastrous outbreaks. - -In the following pages are discussed the habitat, food habits, and -relation to agriculture of more than 50 species of birds common to -farming sections. - - -Washington, D. C. - -Issued February 13, 1915; revised April, 1926 - - - - -SOME COMMON BIRDS USEFUL TO THE FARMER.[1] - - -By F. E. L. Beal, Late _Assistant Biologist, Division of Food Habits -Research, Bureau of Biological Survey_. - -[1] This bulletin is largely a revision of Farmers' Bulletin 54, by -Prof. F. E. L. Beal. The parts relating to the crow and blue Jay were -contributed by E. R. Kalmbach, assistant biologist, and the discussion -of the nighthawk and bobwhite by W. L. McAtee, in charge. Food Habits -Research. Professor Beal, author of the remainder of the bulletin, died -October 1, 1916. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Page. Page. - The bluebirds 2 Bullock oriole 14 - The robins 3 The meadowlarks 14 - The titmice 4 The red-winged blackbirds 15 - The wrens 6 Bobolink 17 - Brown thrasher 7 Crow 17 - Catbird 7 Blue jay 19 - The swallows 8 Pacific coast jays 20 - Towhee 9 The phœbes 21 - The sparrows 9 The kingbirds 23 - House finch 11 Nighthawk 24 - The grackles 12 The woodpeckers 25 - Brewer blackbird 12 The cuckoos 27 - Baltimore oriole 13 Bobwhite 28 - -WHETHER a bird is beneficial or injurious depends almost entirely upon -what it eats. In the case of species which are very abundant, or which -feed to some extent on the crops of the farmer, the question of their -average diet becomes one of supreme importance, and only by stomach -examinations can it be satisfactorily answered. Field observations are -at best but fragmentary and inconclusive and lead to no final results. -Birds are often accused of eating this or that product of cultivation, -when an examination of the stomachs shows the accusation to be unfounded. -Accordingly, the Biological Survey has conducted for some years a -systematic investigation of the food of those species which are most -common about the farm and garden. - -Within certain limits birds eat the kind of food that is most accessible, -especially when their natural food is scarce or wanting. Thus they -sometimes injure the crops of the farmer who has unintentionally -destroyed their natural food in his improvement of swamp or pasture. -Most of the damage done by birds and complained of by farmers and -fruit growers arises from this very cause, the berry-producing shrubs -and seed-bearing weeds have been cleared away, and the birds have no -recourse but to attack the cultivated grain or fruit which has replaced -their natural food supply. The great majority of land birds subsist upon -insects during the period of nesting and molting, and also feed their -young upon them during the first few weeks. Many species live almost -entirely upon insects, taking vegetable food only when other subsistence -fails. It is thus evident that in the course of a year birds destroy an -incalculable number of insects, and it is difficult to overestimate the -value of their services in restraining the great tide of insect life. - -In winter, in the northern part of the country, insects become scarce or -entirely disappear. Many species of birds, however, remain during the -cold season and are able to maintain life by eating vegetable food, as -the seeds of weeds. Here again is another useful function of birds in -destroying these weed seeds and thereby lessening the growth of the next -year. - -In the following pages are discussed the food habits of more than -50 birds belonging to 12 families. Many are eastern forms which are -represented in the West by slightly different species or subspecies, but -unless the food habits differ they are not separately described. In some -cases specific percentages of food are given, but for the most part the -statements are made without direct reference to the data on which they -are based. - - - - -THE BLUEBIRDS. - - -The eastern bluebird[2] (fig. 1), one of the most familiar and welcome -of our feathered visitors, is a common inhabitant of all the States east -of the Rocky Mountains from the Gulf of Mexico to southern Canada. In -the Mississippi valley it winters as far north as southern Illinois, and -in the East as far as Pennsylvania. It is one of the earliest northern -migrants, and everywhere is hailed as a harbinger of spring. Very -domestic in habits, it frequents orchards and gardens, and builds its -nests in cavities of trees, crannies in farm buildings, or boxes provided -for its use. - -[2] _Sialia sialis_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Bluebird. Length, about 6½ inches.] - -The bluebird has not been accused, so far as known, of stealing fruit or -of preying upon crops. An examination of 855 stomachs showed that 68 per -cent of the food consists of insects and their allies, while the other -32 per cent is made up of various vegetable substances, found mostly in -stomachs taken in winter. Beetles constitute 21 per cent of the whole -food, grasshoppers 22, caterpillars 10, and various other insects 9, -while a number of spiders and myriapods, about 6 per cent, comprise -the remainder of the animal diet. All these are more or less harmful, -except a few predacious beetles, which amount to 9 per cent. In view -of the large consumption of grasshoppers and caterpillars, we may at -least condone this offense, if such it may be called. The destruction -of grasshoppers is very noticeable in August and September, when these -insects make up about 53 per cent of the diet. - -It is evident that in the selection of its food the bluebird is governed -more by abundance than by choice. Predacious beetles are eaten in spring, -as they are among the first insects to appear; but in early summer -caterpillars form an important part of the diet, and these are later -replaced by grasshoppers. Beetles are eaten at all times, except when -grasshoppers are more easily obtained. - -So far as its vegetable food is concerned the bluebird is positively -harmless. The only trace of any useful product in the stomachs consisted -of a few blackberry seeds, and even these probably belonged to wild -rather than cultivated varieties. Following is a list of the various -seeds which were found; Blackberry, chokeberry, juniperberry, pokeberry, -partridgeberry, greenbrier, Virginia creeper, bittersweet, holly, -strawberry bush, false spikenard, wild sarsaparilla, sumac (several -species), rose haws, sorrel, ragweed, grass, and asparagus. This list -shows how little the bluebird depends upon the farm or garden to supply -its needs and how easily, by encouraging the growth of some of these -plants, many of which are highly ornamental, the bird may be induced to -make its home on the premises. - -Two species of bluebirds inhabit the Western States--the mountain -bluebird[3] and the western bluebird.[4] In their food habits they are -even more to be commended than their eastern relative. Their insect food -is obtainable at all times of the year, and the general diet varies only -in the fall, when some fruit, principally elderberries, is eaten, though -an occasional blackberry or grape is also relished. In an examination of -217 stomachs of the western bluebird, animal matter (insects and spiders) -was found to the extent of 82 per cent and vegetable matter to the extent -of 18 per cent. The bulk of the former consists of bugs, grasshoppers, -and caterpillars. Grasshoppers, when they can be obtained, are eaten -freely during the whole season. Caterpillars also are a favorite food -and are eaten during every month of the year; March is the month of -greatest consumption, with 50 per cent, and the average for the year is -20 per cent. Two stomachs taken in January contained 64 and 50 per cent, -respectively, of caterpillars. Beetles also are eaten and comprise mostly -harmful species. - -[3] _Sialia currucoides_. - -[4] _Sialia mexicana_ subspecies. - -The vegetable matter consists of weed seeds and small fruits. In December -a few grapes are eaten, but elderberries are the favorites whenever they -can be found. It is only when these are in their greatest abundance that -vegetable exceeds animal food. - - - - -THE ROBINS. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Robin. Length, about 10 inches.] - -The robin[5] (fig. 2), in many parts of the country one of the most -cherished of our birds, is found throughout the States east of the Great -Plains, and is represented farther west and south by slightly different -subspecies.[6], [7] It breeds far north through Canada, and is found even -in Alaska. Although the great bulk of the species leaves the Northern -States in winter, a few individuals remain in sheltered swamps, where -wild berries furnish abundant food. The robin is an omnivorous feeder -and its food habits have sometimes caused apprehension to the fruit -grower, for it is fond of cherries and other small fruits, particularly -the earlier varieties. For this reason many complaints have been lodged -against robins, and it has been necessary to permit the killing of the -birds in some fruit-growing regions. - -[5] _Planesticus migratorius_. - -[6] _Planesticus migratorius propinquus_. - -[7] _Planesticus migratorius achrusterus_. - -Examinations of 1,236 stomachs show that 42 per cent of its food is -animal matter, principally insects, while the remainder is made up -largely of small fruits or berries. Over 16 per cent consists of beetles, -about one-third of which are useful ground beetles, taken mostly in -spring and fall when other insects are scarce. Grasshoppers make up about -5 per cent of the whole food, but in August they comprise 17 per cent. -Caterpillars form about 9 per cent, while the rest of the animal food, -about 11 per cent, is made up of various insects, with a few spiders, -snails, and angleworms. All the grasshoppers, caterpillars, and bugs, -with a large portion of the beetles, are injurious, and it is safe to say -that noxious insects comprise more than one-third of the robin's food. - -Vegetable food forms 58 per cent of the stomach contents, over 42 per -cent being wild fruits and only a little more than 8 per cent being -possibly cultivated varieties. Cultivated fruit amounting to about 25 per -cent was found in the stomachs in June and July, but only a trifle in -August. Wild fruit, on the contrary, is eaten every month and constitutes -a staple food during half the year. No less than 65 species of fruit were -identified in the stomachs; of these, the most important were 4 species -of dogwood, 3 of wild cherries, 3 of wild grapes, 4 of greenbrier, 2 -of holly, 2 of elder; and cranberries, huckleberries, blueberries, -barberries, service berries, hackberries, and persimmons; together with 4 -species of sumac and various other seeds not strictly fruit. - -The depredations of the robin seem to be confined to the smaller and -earlier fruits, few, if any, complaints being made that it eats apples, -peaches, pears, grapes, or even late cherries. By the time these are -ripe the forests and hedges are teeming with wild fruits which the bird -evidently finds more to its taste. The cherry, unfortunately for man, -ripens so early that it is almost the only fruit accessible at a time -when the bird's appetite has been sharpened by a long-continued diet of -insects, earthworms, and dried berries, and it is no wonder that at first -the rich juicy morsels are greedily eaten. - -While the robin takes some cultivated fruits, it must be remembered that, -being a natural enemy of the insect world, it has been working during the -whole season to make that crop a possibility, and when the fruit ripens -the robin already has a standing account with the farmer for services -rendered, with the credits up to this time entirely on his side. - -Much has been written about the delicate discrimination of birds for -choice fruit and their selection of only the finest and costliest -varieties. This is contrary to observed facts. Birds, unlike human -beings, seem to prefer fruit that, like the mulberry, is sweetly insipid, -or that, like the chokecherry or holly, has some astringent or bitter -quality. The so-called black alder, a species of holly, has bright -scarlet berries tasting as bitter as quinine, that ripen late in October -and remain on the bushes through November. Though frost grapes, the fruit -of the Virginia creeper, and several species of dogwood are abundant at -the same time, the birds have been found to eat the berries of the holly -to a considerable extent. It is, moreover, a remarkable fact that the -wild fruits upon which birds largely feed are those which man neither -gathers for his own use nor adopts for cultivation. - -Where wild fruit is not abundant, a few fruit-bearing shrubs and vines -judiciously planted will serve for ornament and provide food for the -birds. The Russian mulberry is a vigorous grower and a profuse bearer, -ripening at the same time as the cherry. So far as observation has gone, -most birds seem to prefer its fruit to any other. It is believed that a -number of mulberry trees planted around the garden or orchard would fully -protect the more valuable fruits. - - - - -THE TITMICE. - - -Birds of the titmouse family, though insignificant in size, are far from -being so in the matter of food habits. What they lack in size of body -they more than make up in numbers of individuals. While in the case of -some larger birds, as, for instance, the flicker, there is one pair of -eyes to look for food for one large stomach, we have in the case of the -ten times as numerous titmice an equivalent stomach capacity divided into -10 parts, each furnished with a pair of eyes and other accessories, as -wings and feet. As against the one place occupied by the larger bird, 10 -are being searched for food at the same time by the smaller species. - -The character of the food of titmice gives a peculiar value to their -services, for it consists largely of the small insects and their eggs -that wholly escape the search of larger birds. Throughout the year most -of the species of this group remain on their range, so that they are -constantly engaged in their beneficial work, continuing it in winter when -the majority of their coworkers have sought a milder clime. It is at -this season that the titmice do their greatest good, for when flying and -crawling insects are no more to be found, the birds must feed upon such -species as they find hibernating in crevices, or upon the eggs of insects -laid in similar places. In winter's dearth of moving insects the search -for such animal food as may be found is perforce thorough and unremitting. - -Within the boundaries of the United States are some 17 species of -titmice, with nearly as many races or subspecies, so that there is -no portion of the country lacking one or more forms. The western -coast region is peculiarly rich In representatives of the family. In -the eastern portion of the country the best-known and most widely -distributed species is the common black-capped chickadee[8] (fig. 3). -This bird, or some of its subspecies, occupies the whole of that part of -the United States north of the latitude of Washington and extends into -Canada. It is a prolific breeder, usually rearing from six to eight young -in a brood. - -[8] _Penthestes atricapillus_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Black-capped chickadee. Length, about 5¼ -inches.] - -Examination of 289 stomachs of this chickadee shows that its food -consists of 68 per cent animal matter (insects) and 32 per cent vegetable -matter. The former is made up of small caterpillars and moths and their -eggs. Prominent among the latter are the eggs of the tent caterpillar -moths, both the orchard and forest species. As these are two of our most -destructive insects, the good done by the chickadee in devouring their -eggs needs no comment. During the winter the chickadee's food is made -up of larvæ, chrysalids, and eggs of moths, varied by a few seeds, but -as spring brings out hordes of flying, crawling, and jumping insects, -the bird varies its diet by taking also some of these. Flies and bugs -are the favorites until the weather becomes quite warm, when beetles and -small wasps also are enjoyed. Among the bugs may be mentioned the plant -lice and their eggs which are eaten in winter. The beetles nearly all -belong to the group of snout beetles, more commonly known as weevils. -These insects are mostly of small size, and nearly all are known to the -farmer or fruit raiser as pests. Seventeen of them were found in one -stomach. Grasshoppers do not at any time constitute an important element -of the food of the chickadee, as they are too large for so small a bird; -moreover, they are for the most part terrestrial Insects, while the bird -is essentially arboreal. Small wasps and ants are eaten to some extent -Spiders constitute an Important element of the food and are eaten at all -times of the year, the birds locating them when they are hibernating in -winter, as well as when they are active in summer. The vegetable food of -the chickadee consists largely of small seeds, except in summer, when -they are replaced by pulp of wild fruit. The wax from the seeds of poison -ivy Is eaten during the winter months, but the seeds themselves are not -taken. In this respect the chickadee differs from most other birds, which -swallow the seeds whole; these, after digesting the wax, pass the seeds -through the alimentary canal, or regurgitate them, and so scatter them -broadcast to reproduce the noxious plants. - -In the southern part of the country the Carolina chickadee[9] and the -tufted tit[10] replace the black-cap, but their food habits are so -similar that there is practically no difference in the work done. In the -West several other species occur; one of the most interesting is the -bush tit[11] which, with several subspecies, occupies the whole Pacific -coast region. They are active, social little creatures, and except for a -short time during the breeding season are found in flocks, flitting from -tree to tree, busily hunting for Insects and their eggs. The contents -of 66 stomachs of these birds were found to consist mostly of injurious -insects to the extent of 83 per cent. Of these the most important was a -small hemipterous insect which amounted to more than half of the stomach -contents. These insects are of considerable economic importance, as they -frequently infest grapevines and other plants to a harmful extent Several -stomachs were almost exclusively filled with these minute creatures, some -containing as many as 100 individuals. - -[9] _Penthestes carolinensis_. - -[10] _Bæolophus bicolor_. - -[11] _Psaltriparus minimus_. - -Perhaps the most important and interesting insect found was the black -olive scale, which occurred in 24 stomachs and amounted to a little more -than 18 per cent of the food. In addition, a number of the stomachs were -more or less filled with another scale, which was not further identified. -A number of small snout beetles (weevils) were eaten and some small -caterpillars; there were also the remains of a spider. - -The vegetable food of the species seemed to consist mostly of seeds, but -they were so broken up as to defy recognition. A little fruit pulp and a -little mast were also found. - -Among the stomachs of the bush tits examined were those of one brood -of eight nestlings about 10 days old. The vegetable matter in these -stomachs was only three-fourths of 1 per cent and consisted of one seed -and some rubbish. The animal matter was made up of beetles, wasps, bugs, -caterpillars and pupæ, and spiders. The greatest interest lies in the -fact that every one of these stomachs contained pupæ of the codling -moth, on an average of over five to each. The oak tree in which these -birds were found was in a belt of timber near a neglected orchard which -the parent birds used as a foraging ground, and they did their best to -remedy the neglect of the owner. As feeding and digestion in the case of -nestling birds is almost continuous during the hours of daylight, the -above record would be several times repeated during a day's feeding. -There were probably not less than a dozen nests of the bush tit along -the border of this orchard, and these birds must have exerted a great -restrictive influence upon the increase of the codling moth, as well as -of other insects in that vicinity. - - - - -THE WRENS. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--House wren. Length, about 4¾ inches.] - -The diminutive house wren[12] (fig. 4) frequents barns and gardens, and -particularly old orchards in which the trees are partially decayed. He -makes his nest in a hollow where perhaps a woodpecker had a domicile the -year before, but he is a pugnacious character, and if he happens to fancy -one of the boxes put up for bluebirds, he does not hesitate to take it He -is usually not slow to avail himself of boxes, gourds, tin cans, or empty -jars placed for his accommodation. - -[12] _Troglodytes aëdon_. - -In food habits the house wren is entirely beneficial. He may be said to -live upon animal food alone, for an examination of 88 stomachs showed -that 98 per cent of the contents was made up of insects or their allies, -and only 2 per cent was vegetable food, including bits of grass and -similar matter, evidently taken by accident with the insects. Half -of this food consisted of grasshoppers and beetles; the remainder of -caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. As the wren is a prolific breeder, -frequently rearing in a season from 12 to 16 young, a family of these -birds must cause considerable reduction in the number of insects in a -garden. Wrens are industrious foragers, searching every tree, shrub, and -vine for caterpillars, and examining every post and rail of the fence and -every cranny in the wall for insects or spiders. - -The house wren is only one of a numerous group of small birds of similar -habits. There are within the limits of the United States 28 species -and subspecies of wrens, occupying more or less completely the whole -country from the Atlantic to the Pacific. With the exception of the marsh -wrens,[13] they all appear to prefer some cosy nook for a nesting site, -and, as it happens, the farm buildings afford just the place desired. -This has led several of the wrens to seek out the habitations of man, -and he is benefited by their destruction of noxious insects. Wrens have -rarely been accused of harm, and their presence should be encouraged -except when undue interference with the nests of other birds is noted. - -[13] _Telmatodytes palustris_ and _Cistotherus stellaris_. - - - - -BROWN THRASHER. - - -The brown thrasher[14] (fig. 5) breeds throughout the United States -east of the Great Plains, and winters in the South Atlantic and Gulf -States. It visits the garden or orchard, its nest, however, being in -dense shrubbery or groves. The thrasher's favorite time for singing is -in early morning, when, perched on the top of a bush or tree, it gives -an exhibition of vocal powers which would do credit to the mockingbird. -Indeed, in the South, where the latter bird is abundant, the thrasher is -known as the sandy mocker. - -[14] _Toxostoma rufum_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Brown thrasher. Length, about 11 inches.] - -The food of the brown thrasher consists of both fruit and insects. An -examination of 636 stomachs showed 59 per cent of vegetable and 41 per -cent of animal food, practically all insects, and mostly taken in spring -before fruit was ripe. Half the insects were beetles and the remainder -chiefly grasshoppers, caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. A few predacious -beetles were eaten, but on the whole the work of the species as an insect -destroyer may be considered beneficial. - -Eight per cent of its food is made up of fruits like raspberries and -currants which are or may be cultivated, but the raspberries at least -are as likely to belong to wild as to cultivated varieties. Grain, made -up mostly of scattered kernels of oats and corn, is merely a trifle, -amounting to only 3 per cent. Though some of the corn may be taken from -newly planted fields, it is amply paid for by the destruction of May -beetles which are eaten at the same time. The rest of the food consists -of wild fruit or seeds. Taken all in all, the brown thrasher is a useful -bird, and probably does as good work in its secluded retreats as it would -about the garden, for the swamps and groves are no doubt the breeding -grounds of many insects that migrate thence to attack the crops of the -farmer. - - - - -CATBIRD. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Catbird. Length, about 9 inches.] - -The catbird[15] (fig. 6), like the thrasher, is a lover of thickets and -delights to make its home in a tangle of wild grapevines, greenbriers, -and shrubs, where it is safe from attack and can find its favorite food -in abundance. It is found throughout the United States west to the Rocky -Mountains, and extends also from Washington, Idaho, and Utah northward -into the Provinces of Canada. It winters in the Southern States, Cuba, -Mexico, and Central America. - -[15] _Dumetella carolinensis_. - -Reports from the Mississippi Valley indicate that the catbird is -sometimes a serious annoyance to fruit growers. The reason for such -reports may possibly be found in the fact that on the prairies -fruit-bearing shrubs, which afford so large a part of this bird's food, -are conspicuously absent With the settlement of this region comes an -extensive planting of orchards, vineyards, and small-fruit gardens, which -furnish shelter and nesting sites for the catbird as well as for other -species. There is in consequence a large increase in the numbers of the -birds, but no corresponding gain in the supply of native fruits upon -which they were accustomed to feed. Under these circumstances what is -more natural than for the birds to turn to cultivated fruit for their -food. The remedy is obvious: Cultivated fruits can be protected by the -simple expedient of planting the wild species which are preferred by the -birds. Some experiments with catbirds in captivity show that the Russian -mulberry is preferred to any cultivated fruit. - -The stomachs of 645 catbirds were examined and found to contain 44 per -cent of animal (insect) and 56 per cent of vegetable food. Ants, beetles, -caterpillars, and grasshoppers constitute three-fourths of the animal -food, the remainder being made up of bugs, miscellaneous insects, and -spiders. One-third of the vegetable food consists of cultivated fruits, -or those which may be cultivated, as strawberries, raspberries, and -blackberries; but while we debit the bird with the whole of this, it is -probable--and in the eastern and well-wooded part of the country almost -certain--that a large part is obtained from wild vines. The rest of the -vegetable matter is mostly wild fruit, as cherries, dogwood, sour gum, -elderberries, greenbrier, spiceberries, black alder, sumac, and poison -ivy. Although the catbird sometimes does considerable harm by destroying -small fruit, it can not on the whole be considered injurious. On the -contrary, in most parts of the country it does far more good than harm. - - - - -THE SWALLOWS. - - -Seven common species of swallows are found within the limits of the -United States, four of which have abandoned to some extent their -primitive nesting habits and have attached themselves to the abodes of -man. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Barn swallow. Length, about 7 inches.] - -In the eastern part of the country the barn swallow[16] (fig. 7) now -builds exclusively under roofs, having entirely abandoned the rock -caves and cliffs in which it formerly nested. More recently the cliff -swallow[17] has found a better nesting site under the eaves of buildings -than was afforded by the overhanging cliffs of earth or stone which it -once used and to which it still resorts occasionally in the East and -habitually in the unsettled West. The martin[18] and the white-bellied, -or tree, swallow[19] nest either in houses supplied for the purpose, in -abandoned nests of woodpeckers, or in natural crannies in rocks. The -northern violet-green swallow,[20] the rough-winged swallow,[21] and the -bank swallow[22] still live in practically such places as their ancestors -chose. - -[16] _Hirundo erythrogastra_. - -[17] _Petrochelidon lunifrons_. - -[18] _Progne subis_. - -[19] _Iridoprocne bicolor_. - -[20] _Tachycineta thalassina_. - -[21] _Stelgidopteryx serripennis_. - -[22] _Riparia riparia_. - -Field observation convinces an ordinarily attentive person that the food -of swallows must consist of the smaller insects captured in mid-air or -picked from the tops of tall grass or weeds. This observation is borne -out by an examination of stomachs, which shows that the food is made up -of many small species of beetles which are much on the wing; many species -of flies, together with large quantities of flying ants; and a few -insects of similar kinds. Most of these are either injurious or annoying, -and the numbers destroyed by swallows are not only beyond calculation but -almost beyond imagination. - -Unlike many other groups of birds, the six species of swallows found in -the Eastern States extend in a practically unchanged form across the -continent, where they are reinforced by the northern, or Pacific-coast, -violet-green swallow. - -It is a mistake to tear down from the eaves of a barn the nests of a -colony of cliff swallows, for so far from disfiguring a building they -make a picturesque addition to it, and the presence of swallows should -be encouraged by every device. It is said that cliff and barn swallows -may be induced to build their nests in a particular locality, otherwise -suitable, by providing a quantity of mud to be used by them as mortar. -Barn swallows may also be encouraged by cutting a small hole in the gable -of the barn, while martins and white-bellied swallows will be grateful -for boxes like those for the bluebird, but placed in a higher situation. - - - - -TOWHEE. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Towhee. Length, about 8 inches.] - -The towhee, chewink, or ground robin[23] (fig. 8), as it is variously -known, inhabits nearly the whole of the United States east of the Great -Plains. It breeds from the Middle States northward and winters in the -southern half of the country. Naturally associated with the catbird and -brown thrasher, it lives in much the same places, though it is more given -to haunting hedgerows along roads and fences. After snow has disappeared -in early spring an investigation of the rustling so often heard among the -leaves near a fence or in a thicket will frequently disclose a towhee -hard at work scratching for his dinner after the manner of a hen; and -in these places and along the sunny border of woods old leaves will -be found overturned where the bird has been searching for hibernating -beetles and larvæ. The good which the towhee does in this way can hardly -be overestimated, since the death of a single insect at this time, -before it has had an opportunity to deposit its eggs, is equivalent to -the destruction of a host later in the year. The towhee has also been -credited with visiting potato fields and feeding upon the potato beetle. -Its vegetable food consists of seeds and small wild fruits, but no -complaint on this score is known to have been made. So for as observation -goes, the bird never touches either cultivated fruit or grain; in fact, -it is too shy and retiring even to stay about gardens for any length of -time. - -[23] _Pipilo erythrophthalmus_. - - - - -THE SPARROWS.[24] - -[24] The sparrows here mentioned are all native species. A full account -of the English, or house, sparrow (_Passer domesticus_), including its -introduction, habits, and depredations, was published In Bull. No. 1 -of the Division of Ornithology in 1889. For information in regard to -combating the English sparrow, see U. S. Department of Agriculture -Leaflet 61, English Sparrow Control. - - - -Sparrows are not obtrusive birds, either in plumage, song, or action. -There are some 40 species, with nearly as many subspecies, in North -America. Not more than half a dozen forms are generally known in any one -locality. All the species are more or less migratory, but so widely are -they distributed that there is probably no part of the country where some -can not be found throughout the year. - -While sparrows are noted seed eaters, they do not by any means confine -themselves to a vegetable diet. During the summer, and especially in -the breeding season, they eat many insects and feed their young largely -upon the same food. Examination of stomachs of three species--the song -sparrow[25] (fig. 9), chipping sparrow,[26] and field sparrow[27] -(fig. 10)--shows that about one-third of the food consists of insects, -comprising many injurious beetles, as snout beetles or weevils, and -leaf beetles. Many grasshoppers are eaten. In the case of the chipping -sparrow these insects form one-eighth of the food. Grasshoppers would -seem to be rather large morsels, but the bird probably confines itself to -the smaller species; indeed, the greatest amount (over 36 per cent) is -eaten in June, when the larger species are still young and the smaller -most numerous. Besides the insects already mentioned, many wasps and -bugs are taken. Predacious and parasitic hymenopterous insects and -predacious beetles, all useful, are eaten only to a slight extent, so -that as a whole the insect diet of the native sparrows may be considered -beneficial. There are several records of potato-bug larvæ eaten by -chipping sparrows. - -[25] _Melospiza melodia_. - -[26] _Spizella passerina_. - -[27] _Spizella pusilla_. - -Their vegetable food is limited almost exclusively to hard seeds. This -might seem to indicate that the birds feed to some extent upon grain, but -the stomachs examined show only one kind, oats, and but little of that. -The great bulk of the food is made up of grass and weed seeds, which form -almost the entire diet during winter, and the amount consumed is immense. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Song sparrow. Length, about 6½ inches.] - -In the agricultural region of the upper Mississippi Valley, by roadsides, -on borders of cultivated fields, or in abandoned fields, wherever they -can obtain a foothold, masses of rank weeds spring up and often form -almost impenetrable thickets which afford food and shelter for immense -numbers of birds and enable them to withstand great cold and the most -terrible blizzards. A person visiting one of these weed patches on a -sunny morning in January, when the thermometer is 20° or more below -zero, will be struck with the life and animation of the busy little -inhabitants. Instead of sitting forlorn and half frozen, they may be -seen flitting from branch to branch, twittering and fluttering, and -showing every evidence of enjoyment and perfect comfort. If one of them -is captured it will be found in excellent condition; in fact, a veritable -ball of fat. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Field sparrow. Length, about 5½ inches.] - -The snowbird[28] and tree sparrow[29] are perhaps the most numerous of -all the sparrows. Examination of many stomachs shows that in winter the -tree sparrow feeds entirely upon seeds of weeds. Probably each bird -consumes about one-fourth of an ounce a day. In an article contributed in -1881 to the New York Tribune the writer estimated the amount of weed seed -annually destroyed by these birds in Iowa. On the basis of one-fourth -of an ounce of seed eaten daily by each bird, and an average of 10 birds -to each square mile, remaining in their winter range 200 days, there -would be a total of 1,750,000 pounds, or 875 tons of weed seed consumed -in a single season by this one species. Large as are these figures, they -unquestionably fall far short of the reality. The estimate of 10 birds -to a square mile is very conservative, for in Massachusetts, where the -food supply is less than in the Western States, the tree sparrow is even -more abundant than this in winter. The writer has known places in Iowa -where several thousand tree sparrows could be seen within the space of a -few acres. This estimate, moreover, is for a single species, while, as a -matter of fact, there are at least half a dozen birds (not all sparrows) -that habitually feed during winter on these seeds. Farther south the -tree sparrow is replaced in winter by the white-throated sparrow,[30] -the white-crowned sparrow,[31] the fox sparrow,[32] the song sparrow, -the field sparrow, and several others; so that all over the land a vast -number of these seed eaters are at work during the colder months reducing -next year's crop of worse than useless plants. - -[28] _Junco hyemalis_. - -[29] _Spizella monticola_. - -[30] _Zonotrichia albicollis_. - -[31] _Zonotrichia leucophrys_. - -[32] _Passerella iliaca_. - - - - -HOUSE FINCH - - -Of all the sparrow groups, there is probably no member, unless it be -the exotic form known as the English sparrow,[33] that has by reason -of Its food habits called down so many maledictions upon Its head as -the house finch,[34] red head, or linnet, as it is variously called. -This bird, like the other members of its family, is by nature a seed -eater, and before the beginning of fruit raising in California probably -subsisted upon the seeds of weeds, with an occasional taste of some wild -berry. Now, however, when orchards have extended throughout the length -and breadth of the State and every month from May to December sees -some ripening fruit, the linnets take their share. As their number Is -legion, the sum total of the fruit that they destroy is more than the -fruit raiser can well spare. As the bird has a stout beak, it has no -difficulty in breaking the skin of the hardest fruit and feasting upon -the pulp, thereby spoiling the fruit and giving weaker-billed birds a -chance to sample and acquire a taste for what they might not otherwise -have molested. Complaints against this bird have been many and loud, more -especially in the years when fruit crops first came to be an important -factor in the prosperity of the Pacific coast. At that time the various -fruits afforded the linnets a new and easily obtained food, while -cultivation had reduced their formerly abundant supply of weed seed. -When the early fruit growers saw their expected golden harvest suddenly -snatched away or at least much reduced in value by the little marauders, -it is no wonder that they were exasperated and wished to destroy the -authors of the mischief. - -[33] _Passer domesticus_. - -[34] _Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis_. - -In order to test the matter thoroughly and ascertain whether these birds -ate any other kind of food that might to some extent offset the damage -inflicted upon the fruit, the horticulturists and ornithologists of -California were requested to secure a number of the stomachs of these -birds and send them to the Biological Survey. An agent was also sent to -the fruit-raising sections, who watched the birds in the orchards and -collected a number of them. In this way 1,206 stomachs were obtained -and carefully examined, and the result shows that animal food (insects) -constituted 2.44 per cent and vegetable food 97.56 per cent of the -stomach contents, not counting gravel. - -So small a proportion of animal food can not, of course, mean a great -destruction of insects. As these stomachs were collected in every month, -with the greater number taken during the summer, it is evident that -whatever good one may expect from the linnet must not be looked for -in this direction. Unlike most of the sparrow family, the linnet does -not feed its young upon Insects to any great extent. The contents of -the stomachs of a number of nestlings were carefully examined, and the -only animal food was found to consist of wooly plant lice. These also -constituted the great bulk of the animal food eaten by adults. - -The vegetable food of the species consists of three principal -items--grain, fruit, and weed seeds. Grain amounts to less than 1½ -per cent in August, which is the month of greatest consumption, and the -average for the year is a trifle more than one-fourth of 1 per cent. -Fruit attains its maximum in September, when it amounts to 27 per cent -of the whole food, but the average for the year is only 10 per cent. The -seeds of weeds constitute the bulk of the diet of the linnet, and in -August, the month of least consumption, amount to about 64 per cent of -the food. The average for the year is 86 per cent. - -From the foregoing it is evident that whatever the linnet's sins may -be, grain eating is not one of them. In view of the great complaint -made against its fruit-eating habits, the small quantity found in the -stomachs taken is somewhat of a surprise. But it must be remembered that -the stomach contents do not tell the whole story. When a bird takes a -single peck from a cherry or an apricot, it spoils the whole fruit, and -in this way may ruin half a dozen in taking a single meal. It is safe to -say that the fruit pulp found In the stomach does not represent more than -one-fifth of what is actually destroyed. That the linnets are persistent -and voracious eaters of early fruits, especially cherries and apricots, -every fruit raiser hi California will bear testimony. That the damage -is often serious no one will deny. It is noticeable, however, that the -earliest varieties are the ones most affected; also, that in large -orchards the damage is not perceptible, while in small plantations the -whole crop is frequently destroyed. - - - - -THE GRACKLES. - - -The crow blackbird or grackle[35] (fig. 11) in one or more of its -subspecies is a familiar object in all the States east of the Rocky -Mountains. Throughout the year it is resident as far north as southern -Illinois, and in summer extends its range into the Canadian Provinces. -In the Mississippi Valley it is one of the most abundant of birds, -preferring to nest in the artificial groves and windbreaks near farms -instead of in the natural "timber" which it formerly used. It breeds also -in parks and near buildings, often in considerable colonies. Farther -east, in New England, it is only locally abundant, though frequently seen -in migration. In the latter days of August and throughout September it is -found in immense numbers before moving southward. - -[35] _Quiscalus quiscula_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Purple grackle. Length, about 12 inches.] - -The grackle is accused of many sins, such as stealing grain and fruit and -robbing the nests of other birds. An examination of 2,346 stomachs shows -that nearly one-third of its food consists of insects, most of which are -injurious. The bird also eats a few snails, crawfishes, salamanders, -small fish, and occasionally a mouse. The stomach contents do not -indicate that it robs other birds' nests to any great extent, as remains -of birds and birds' eggs amount to less than half of 1 per cent. - -It is on account of its vegetable food that the grackle most deserves -condemnation. Grain is eaten during the whole year, and only for a short -time in summer is other food attractive enough to induce the bird to -alter its diet. The grain taken in winter and spring probably consists of -waste kernels from stubble. The stomachs do not indicate that the bird -pulls sprouting grain; but the wheat eaten in July and August and the -corn eaten in the fall are probably from fields of standing grain. The -total amount of grain consumed during the year constitutes 45 per cent -of the food, but it is safe to say that at least half is waste grain and -consequently of no value. Although the crow blackbird eats a few cherries -and blackberries in their season, and in the fall some wild fruit, it -apparently does no damage in this way. - -Large flocks of grackles no doubt do considerable injury to grain crops, -and there seems to be no remedy, except the destruction of the birds, -which is in itself expensive. During the breeding season, however, the -species does much good by eating insects and by feeding them to its -young, which are reared almost entirely upon this food. The bird does the -greatest amount of good in spring, when it follows the plow in search of -large grubworms, of which it is so fond that it sometimes literally crams -its stomach full of them. - - - - -BREWER BLACKBIRD. - - -The Brewer blackbird[36] takes the place in the Western States of the -grackle, or crow blackbird, which lives in the Mississippi Valley and -farther east and is very similar in appearance and habits. It breeds east -to the Great Plains and north into Canada, and winters over most of its -breeding range in the United States and south to Guatemala. At home in -fields, meadows, and orchards, and about ranch buildings and cultivated -lands generally, it nests in bushes and weeds, sometimes in trees, and is -very gregarious, especially about barnyards and corrals. The bird feeds -freely in stockyards and in cultivated fields, and when fruit is ripe -does not hesitate to take a share During the cherry season in California -the birds are much in the orchards. In one case they were observed -feeding on cherries, but when a neighboring fruit grower began to plow -his orchard almost every blackbird in the vicinity was upon the newly -opened ground close after the plowman's heels in its eagerness to secure -the insects turned up. - -[36] _Euphagus cyanocephalus_. - -The laboratory investigation of this bird's food covered 312 stomachs, -collected in every month and representing especially the fruit and grain -sections of southern California. The animal portion of the food was 32 -per cent and the vegetable 68 per cent. - -Caterpillars and their pupæ amounted to 12 per cent of the whole food -and were eaten every month. They include many of those pests known as -cutworms. The cotton-boll worm, or corn-ear worm, was identified in at -least 10 stomachs, and in 11 were found pupæ of the codling moth. The -animal food also included other insects, and spiders, sow bugs, snails, -and eggshells. - -The vegetable food may be divided into fruit, grain, and weed seeds. -Fruit was eaten in May, June, and July, not a trace appearing in any -other month, and was composed of cherries, or what was thought to be -such, strawberries, blackberries or raspberries, and fruit pulp or skins -not further identified. However, the amount, a little more than 4 per -cent for the year, was too small to make a bad showing, and if the bird -does no greater harm than is involved in its fruit eating it is well -worth protecting. Grain amounts to 54 per cent of the yearly food and -forms a considerable percentage in each month; oats are the favorite and -were the sole contents of 14 stomachs, and wheat of 2, but no stomach -was completely filled with any other grain. Weed seeds, eaten in every -month to the extent of 9 per cent of the food, were found in rather small -quantities and irregularly, and appear to have been merely a makeshift. - -Stomachs of nestlings, varying in age from 24 hours to some that were -nearly fledged, were found to contain 89 per cent animal to 11 per cent -vegetable matter. The largest items in the former were caterpillars, -grasshoppers, and spiders. In the latter the largest items were fruit, -probably cherries; grain, mostly oats; and rubbish. - - - - -BALTIMORE ORIOLE. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Baltimore oriole. Length, about 7½ Inches.] - -Brilliancy of plumage, sweetness of song, and food habits to which no -exception can be taken are some of the striking characteristics of the -Baltimore oriole[37] (fig. 12). In summer it is found throughout the -northern half of the United States east of the Great Plains. Its nest -commands hardly less admiration than the beauty of its plumage or the -excellence of its song. Hanging from the tip of the outermost bough of -a stately elm, it is almost inaccessible to depredators and so strongly -fastened as to bid defiance to the elements. - -[37] _Icterus galbula_. - -Observation both in the field and laboratory shows that caterpillars -constitute the largest item of the fare of the oriole. In 204 stomachs -they formed 34 per cent of the food, and they are eaten in varying -quantities during all the months in which the bird remains in this -country. The fewest are eaten in July, when a little fruit also is taken. -The other insects consist of beetles, bugs, ants, wasps, grasshoppers, -and some spiders. The beetles are principally click beetles, the larvæ of -which are among the most destructive insects known; and the bugs include -plant and bark lice, both very harmful, but so small and obscure as to -be passed over unnoticed by most birds. Ants are eaten mostly in spring, -grasshoppers in July and August, and wasps and spiders with considerable -regularity throughout the season. - -During the stay of the oriole in the United States, vegetable matter -amounts to only a little more than 16 per cent of its food, so that the -possibility of its doing much damage to crops is very limited. The bird -is accused of eating peas to a considerable extent, but remains of such -were found in only two cases. One writer says that it damages grapes, but -none were found in the stomachs. - - - - -BULLOCK ORIOLE. - - -The Bullock oriole[38] is practically a counterpart of the Baltimore -oriole, taking the place of that species west of the Plains and -throughout the Pacific coast region. It does not essentially differ in -its habits of nesting or in its food from its eastern relative, but it -is less beautiful in plumage. The examination of 162 stomachs shows -that 79 per cent of its food consists of insects, with a few spiders, a -lizard, a mollusk shell, and eggshells. Beetles amounted to 35 per cent, -and all except a few ladybugs were harmful species. Ants were found in -19 stomachs, and in one there was nothing else. Bees, wasps, etc., were -in 56 stomachs, and entirely filled 2 of them. Including the ants, they -amount to nearly 15 per cent of the food of the season. - -[38] _Icterus bullocki_. - -One of the most interesting articles of food in the oriole's dietary was -the black olive scale, found in 45 stomachs, and amounting to 5 per cent -of the food. In several cases these scales formed 80 per cent or more of -the contents, and in one, 30 individual scales could be counted. They -were evidently a standard article of diet, and were eaten regularly in -every month of the oriole's stay except April. Hemipterous insects other -than scales, eaten quite regularly, make up a little more than 5 per cent -of the food. They were mostly stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, and tree hoppers. -Plant lice were found in one stomach. - -Moths, pupæ, and caterpillars compose the largest item of the oriole's -animal food; the average consumption during its summer stay Is a little -more than 41 per cent. Of these, perhaps the most interesting were the -pupæ and larvæ of the codling moth. These were found in 23 stomachs, -showing that they are not an unusual article of diet. No less than 14 of -the pupal cases were found in one stomach, and as they are very fragile -many others may have been present, but broken beyond recognition. - -Grasshoppers probably do not come much in the oriole's way. They were -eaten, however; to the extent of a little more than 3 per cent. But in -spite of the fact that grasshoppers are eaten so sparingly, 2 stomachs, -both taken in June, contained nothing else, and another contained 97 per -cent of them. - -Various insects and spiders, with a few other items, make up the rest of -the animal food, a little more than 5 per cent. Spiders are not important -in the oriole's food, but are probably eaten whenever found. They were -identified in 44 stomachs, but in small numbers. The scales of a lizard -were found in one stomach and the shell of a snail in another. - -The vegetable contingent of the oriole's food is mostly fruit, especially -in June and July, when it takes kindly to cherries and apricots, and -sometimes eats more than the fruit grower considers a fair share. -However, no great complaint is made against the bird, and it is probable -that as a rule it does not do serious harm. With such a good record as an -insect eater it can well be spared a few cherries. - - - - -THE MEADOWLARKS. - - -The eastern meadowlark[39] (fig. 13) is a common and well-known bird -occurring from the Atlantic coast to the Great Plains, where it gives -way to the closely related western species,[40] which extends thence -westward to the Pacific. It winters from our southern border as far north -as the District of Columbia, southern Illinois, and occasionally Iowa. -The western, form winters somewhat farther north. Although it is a bird -of the plains, and finds its most congenial haunts in the prairies of the -West, it is at home wherever there is level or undulating land covered -with grass or weeds, with plenty of water at hand. - -[39] _Sturnella magna_. - -[40] _Sturnella neglecta_. - -In the 1,514 stomachs examined, animal food (practically all insects) -constituted 74 per cent of the contents and vegetable matter 26 per cent. -As would naturally be supposed, the insects were ground species, as -beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, and caterpillars, with a few flies, wasps, -and spiders. A number of the stomachs were collected when the ground -was covered with snow, but even these contained a large percentage of -insects, showing the bird's skill in finding proper food under adverse -circumstances. - -Of the various insects eaten, crickets and grasshoppers are the most -important, constituting 26 per cent of the food of the year and 72 per -cent of the food in August. It is scarcely necessary to mention the -beneficial effect of a number of these birds on a field of grass in the -height of the grasshopper season. Of the 1,514 stomachs collected at -all seasons of the year, 778, or more than half, contained remains of -grasshoppers, and one was filled with fragments of 37 of these insects. -This seems to show conclusively that grasshoppers are preferred, and -are eaten whenever they can be found. Especially notable is the great -number taken in August, the month when grasshoppers reach their maximum -abundance; stomach examination shows that large numbers of birds resort -at this time to this diet, no matter what may be the food during the rest -of the year. - -Next to grasshoppers, beetles make up the most important item of the -meadowlark's food, amounting to 25 per cent, about one-half of which are -predacious ground beetles. The others are all harmful species. - -Forty-two individuals of different kinds of May beetles were found in -the stomachs of meadowlarks, and there were probably many more which -were past recognition. To this form and several closely allied ones -belong the numerous white grubs, which are among the worst enemies to -many cultivated crops, notably grasses and grains, and to a less extent -strawberries and garden vegetables. In the larval stage they eat the -roots of these plants, and being large, one individual may destroy -several plants. In the adult stage they feed upon the foliage of trees -and other plants, and in this way add to the damage which they began in -the earlier form. As these enemies of husbandry are not easily destroyed -by man, it is obviously wise to encourage their natural foes. - -Among the weevils found in the stomachs the most important economically -are the cotton-boll weevil and the recently introduced alfalfa weevil -of Utah. Several hundred meadowlarks were taken in the cotton-growing -region, and the boll weevil was found in 25 stomachs of the eastern -meadowlark and in 16 of the western species. Of the former, one stomach -contained 27 individuals. Of 25 stomachs of western meadowlarks taken in -alfalfa fields of Utah, 15 contained the alfalfa weevil. In one stomach -23 adults were found, in another 32 adults and 70 larvæ, still another -had 10 adults and 40 larvæ, and a fourth had 4 adults and 100 larvæ. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Meadowlark. Length, about 10 inches.] - -Caterpillars form a very constant element of the food, and in May -constitute over 24 per cent of the whole. May is the month when the -dreaded cutworm begins Its deadly career, and then the lark does some of -its best work. Most of these caterpillars are ground feeders, and are -overlooked by birds which habitually frequent trees, but the meadowlark -finds and devours them by thousands. The remainder of the insect food is -made up of ants, wasps, and spiders, with some bugs, including chinch -bugs, and a few scales. - -The vegetable food consists of grain and weed and other hard seeds. Grain -in general amounts to 11 per cent and weed and other seeds to 7 per cent. -Grain, principally corn, is eaten mostly in winter and early spring -and consists, therefore, of waste kernels; only a trifle is consumed -in summer and autumn, when it is most plentiful. No trace of sprouting -grain was discovered. Glover seed was found in only six stomachs, and but -little in each. Seeds of weeds, principally ragweed, barnyard grass, and -smartweed, are eaten from November to April, inclusive, but during the -rest of the year are replaced by insects. - -Briefly stated, more than half of the meadowlark's food consists of -harmful insects; its vegetable food is composed either of noxious weeds -or waste grain; and the remainder is made up of useful beetles or -neutral insects and spiders. A strong point in the bird's favor is that, -although naturally an insect eater, it is able to subsist on vegetable -food, and consequently is not forced to migrate in cold weather farther -than is necessary to find ground free from snow. - -THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRDS. - -The red-winged or swamp blackbird[41] in its various forms (fig. 14) is -found all over the United States and the region immediately to the north. -While common in most of its range, its distribution is more or less -local, mainly on account of its partiality for marshes. It builds its -nest over or near standing water, in tall grass, rushes, or bushes. Owing -to this peculiarity the bird may be absent from large tracts of country -which afford no swamps or marshes suitable for nesting. It usually breeds -in large colonies, though single families, consisting of a male and -several females, may sometimes be found in a small slough, where each -female builds her nest and rears her own little brood. While her liege -lord displays his brilliant colors and struts in the sunshine. In the -upper Mississippi Valley the species finds most favorable conditions, for -the countless prairie sloughs and the margins of the numerous shallow -lakes afford nesting sites for thousands of red-wings; and here are bred -the immense flocks which sometimes do so much damage to the grain fields -of the West. After the breeding season the birds congregate preparatory -to migration, and remain thus associated throughout the winter. - -[41] _Agelaius phœniceus_. - -Three species and several subspecies of red-wings are recognized,[42] -but practically no difference exists in the habits of these forms either -in nesting or feeding, except such as may result from local conditions. -Most of the forms are found on the Pacific side of the continent, and -may be considered as included in the following statements as to food and -economic status. - -[42] Agelaius phœniceus (8 forms), Agelaius gubernator, and Agelaius -tricolor. - -Many complaints have been made against the red-wing, and several States -have at times placed a bounty upon its head. It is said to cause great -damage to grain in the West, especially in the upper Mississippi Valley, -but few complaints come from the northeastern section, where the bird is -much less abundant than in the West and South. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Red-winged blackbird. Length, about 9½ -Inches.] - -Examination of 1,083 stomachs showed that vegetable matter forms 74 per -cent of the food, while animal matter, mainly Insects, forms but 26 per -cent A little more than 10 per cent consists of beetles, mostly harmful -species. Weevils, or snout beetles, amount to 4 per cent of the year's -food, but in June reach 25 per cent. As weevils are among the most -harmful insects known, their destruction should condone some, at least, -of the sins of which the bird is accused. Grasshoppers constitute nearly -5 per cent of the food, while the rest of the animal matter is made up -of various insects, a few snails, and crustaceans. The few dragon flies -found were probably picked up dead, for they are too active to be taken -alive, unless by a bird of the flycatcher family. So far as the insect -food as a whole is concerned, the red-wing may be considered entirely -beneficial. - -The interest in the vegetable food of this bird centers around grain. -Only three kinds, corn, wheat, and oats, were found in the stomachs -in appreciable quantities. They aggregate but little more than 13 -per cent of the whole food, oats forming nearly half of this amount. -Field investigation has shown, however, that, when local conditions -are favorable, large flocks of red-wings may do considerable damage. -Conspicuous among such cases are the losses suffered by farmers to sweet -corn in some of the northeastern States and to milo in the South and -West. In the rather limited grain-raising area of the Imperial Valley -of California the annual damage to milo alone by enormous flocks of -red-wings and yellow-headed blackbirds has been estimated to be fully -$50,000. The most important item of the bird's food, however, is weed -seed, which forms practically all of its food in winter and about 57 -per cent of the fare of the whole year. The principal weed seeds eaten -are those of ragweed, barnyard grass, and smartweed. That these seeds -are preferred is shown by the fact that the birds begin to eat them in -August, when grain is still readily obtainable, and continue feeding on -them even after insects become plentiful in April. The red-wing eats very -little fruit and does practically no harm to garden or orchard. It is -apparent that where moderately abundant, the red-wing does more good than -harm, but in sections where it becomes excessively abundant a reduction -in its numbers is justifiable. - - - - -BOBOLINK. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Bobolink, ricebird, or reed bird. Length, about -7 inches.] - -The bobolink, ricebird, or reedbird[43] (fig. 15) is a common summer -resident of the United States, north of about latitude 40°, and from -New England westward to the Great Plains, wintering beyond our southern -border. In New England there are few birds about which so much romance -clusters as this rollicking songster, naturally associated with sunny -June meadows; but in the South there are none on whose head so many -maledictions have been heaped on account of its fondness for rice. During -its sojourn in the Northern States it feeds mainly upon insects and seeds -of useless plants; but while rearing its young, insects constitute its -chief food, and almost the exclusive diet of its brood. After the young -are able to fly, the whole family gathers into a small flock and begins -to live almost entirely upon vegetable food. This consists for the most -part of weed seeds, since In the North these birds do not appear to -attack grain to any great extent. They eat a few oats, but their stomachs -do not reveal a great quantity of this or any other grain. As the season -advances they gather into larger flocks and move southward, until by the -end of August nearly all have left their breeding grounds. On their way -they frequent the reedy marshes about the mouths of rivers and on the -inland waters of the coast region and subsist largely upon wild rice. In -the Middle States, during their southward migration, they are commonly -known as reedbirds, and, becoming very fat, are treated as game. - -[43] _Dolichonyx oryzivorus_. - -Formerly, when the low marshy shores of the Carolinas and some of the -more southern States were devoted to rice culture the bobolinks made -great havoc both upon the sprouting rice in spring and upon the ripening -grain on their return migration in the fall. While the damage is not -so great as when this region was the center of rice production, still -it amounts to many thousands of dollars annually. As a remedy, an open -season on ricebirds was provided in the Coast States from New Jersey to -Florida. - - - - -CROW. - - -In one or another of its geographic races the common crow[44] (fig. 16) -breeds in great numbers throughout the States east of the Plains and -from the Gulf well up into Canada, while in less abundance it is found -in California and in the Northwestern States. During the colder months a -southern migratory movement brings most of these birds within the borders -of the United States, and at about the latitude of Philadelphia and -southern Illinois we find them congregating nightly in roosts. Farmers -dwelling in the vicinity of such roosts frequently suffer losses to -shocked corn. - -[44] _Corvus brachyrhynchos_. - -In fact, none of our native birds so much concerns the average farmer of -the Eastern States as the common crow. Many of our present criticisms -of this bird, as its pulling sprouting corn, feeding on ripening ears, -damaging fruits of various kinds, destroying poultry and wild birds, -and disseminating diseases of live-stock, were common complaints in the -days of the early colonists. Many of the virtues of the crow, now quite -generally recognized, also have been matters of record for many years. In -recent times, however, scientific study of these problems, including the -examination of the stomachs of hundreds of crows secured in every month -of the year and under a variety of conditions, has enabled us to render a -much fairer verdict than was formerly possible. - -The crow is practically omnivorous. During spring and early summer any -form of insect life seems to make a desirable item in its diet, and in -winter when hard pressed nothing in the animal or vegetable kingdoms -which contains a morsel of nutriment is overlooked. - -The insect food of the crow, which comprises about a fifth of its yearly -sustenance, does much to atone for its misdemeanors. Grasshoppers, -May beetles and their larvæ (white grubs), caterpillars, weevils, and -wireworms stand out prominently. In 1,340 stomachs of adults examined -these highly Injurious forms comprised over 80 per cent of the insect -food. Grasshoppers are naturally taken in greatest abundance late in the -season. September being the month of largest consumption, when they form -about a fifth of the total food. May beetles and white grubs are eaten -in every month, but occur most prominently in May. In June caterpillars -are a favorite food, and weevils of various kinds are taken in varying -quantities throughout summer and fall. About half of the remaining -20 per cent of insect food is composed of beneficial ground beetles, -ladybirds, predacious bugs, and parasitic wasps, and related forms, the -rest consisting of neutral or injurious forms. Numerous instances are on -record where fields badly infested with white grubs or grasshoppers have -been favorite resorts of crows, whose voracity has resulted in a material -suppression of the pest. When the amount of food required to sustain the -individual crow is considered, the work of these birds appears all the -more important Single stomachs containing upward of 50 grasshoppers are -not uncommon. Thus in its choice of insect food the crow is rendering an -important service to the farmer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Crow. Length, about 19 inches.] - -In the other animal food of the crow are several items of the utmost -economic importance. Spiders are taken in considerable numbers in May and -June, but the yearly total is a little over 1 per cent of the food. In -early spring crawfish are eagerly sought, and other aquatic food, as fish -and mollusks, lend variety to the crow's bill of fare the year round. -In the consumption of toads, salamanders, frogs, and some snakes, which -together compose a little over 2 per cent of the yearly food, the crow is -doubtless doing harm. Small rodents occurred in the stomachs collected -nearly every month, but it Is often difficult to determine whether small -mammals found in birds' stomachs were taken alive or found dead. - -From its carrion-eating habits the crow has been unfairly criticized as -a disseminator of live-stock diseases. While this may be to some extent -just, the fact that there are many other important carriers which lie -largely beyond our control, shows that we must seek final relief only -through the strictest methods of sanitation. - -The nest-robbing habit of the crow, long a serious criticism, is verified -by stomach analysis. Of the 1,103 crows examined, 47 had fed on wild -birds or their eggs, and the eggs of domestic fowls were found somewhat -more frequently. The crow's habit of rummaging about garbage piles may -explain much of this latter material. - -Of the vegetable food, corn, which is eaten every month, is the most -important item and forms about 38 per cent of the diet. Much of this, -however, must be considered waste, since over 60 per cent of it is -consumed from the first of November to the end of March. During the -periods when corn is sprouting and when in the "roasting-ear" stage the -crow is eating this grain at a rate considerably less than the yearly -average, and the months of smallest consumption are July and August. At -times, however, the damage to corn becomes a serious problem, and were -it not possible to make use of such deterrents as coal tar upon seed -corn there would be little friendship for the crow in some sections of -the East. The "pulling" of corn is a trait most prevalent in small-field -areas. Wheat and oats suffer similar damage at times, especially in the -Northwestern States, where these grains predominate. About the only -safeguard to ripening grain is the constant use of powder and shot or the -scarecrow. - -Various kinds of cultivated fruits are also eaten, and local damage -to such crops as apples, melons, peas, beans, peanuts, and almonds is -occasionally reported. In long, rigorous winters, the crow, like other -birds, resorts to the fruit of numerous wild plants, as dogwood, sour -gum, hackberry, smilax, and the several species of sumac and poison ivy. - -Damage to the eggs of poultry may be reduced to a minimum by careful -housing of lasting hens, and the farmer can protect his sprouting grain -to a large extent by the use of tar-coated seed. It will be well also -to keep the crow within reasonable numbers on game preserves and public -parks where it is desired to encourage the nesting of smaller birds. -While legal protection is not needed for so wary an individual as the -crow, it seems well, where local conditions have not aggravated some -particular shortcomings of the bird, to allow it to continue the good -services gendered to man in the destruction of noxious insects. - - - - -BLUE JAY. - - -The blue jay[45] (fig. 17) is a conspicuous member of our bird population -east of the Plains, especially in autumn when his brilliant plumage -contrasts vividly with the brown> foliage. Even in winter he stays with -us, though at this time he is less common along our northern border. In -spring and summer, while by no means uncommon, the blue jay is not so -often noticed, as the retiring disposition which he assumes during the -breeding season assists in protecting him from enemies. This also allows -him to carry on with considerable impunity that inglorious practice of -nest robbing of which, in a measure, he has been rightfully accused. - -[45] _Cyanocitta cristata_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Blue Jay. Length, about 11½ inches.] - -Examination of 530 stomachs collected at all times of the year in 30 -of our Eastern States and Canada shows that insects comprise about 22 -per cent of the yearly sustenance. About three-fourths of these are -injurious, the remainder being neutral or beneficial. Of the injurious -insects, grasshoppers form the largest portion; in August nearly a fifth -of the food. Caterpillars are conspicuous in July and August and at this -time average about a tenth of the stomach contents. Both laboratory -investigations and field observations have established the fact that in -winter the eggs of the tent caterpillar and the hibernating larvæ of the -brown-tail moth in New England are eagerly sought Scarabæid beetles form -about 4 per cent of the yearly food, and click beetles and wire-worms -about 1 per cent. Of the beneficial forms, ground beetles (3 per cent) -and hymenopterous insects, part of which are parasitic (2.5 per cent), -are taken most frequently. A few other invertebrates, as spiders, -millipedes, mollusks, and crustaceans, also are eaten throughout the year. - -In the consideration of the vertebrate food of the blue jay we are -confronted with the problem of the destruction of wild birds and their -eggs. Special search was made for every possible trace of such material -in the stomachs, and in 6 of the 530 were found the remains of wild birds -or their eggs. In February two jays had killed a small bird apiece; in -May one had robbed a nest of eggs; in June two had taken a small bird and -a clutch of eggs, respectively; and in August another had robbed a nest -As this trait of the jay appears to be most pronounced during its own -breeding season, it is quite possible for many birds which have suffered -from its boldness early in the season to raise another brood unmolested. -Thirty-nine of the 530 jays examined had fed on hen's eggs. Much of this -food, however, was picked up about rubbish heaps, to which the jay, like -other members of the crow family, is partial. While the result of stomach -analysis would appear to belittle this fault of the blue jay, it is -doubtless quite characteristic of the bird under favorable conditions. - -Complaint that the jay is the source of considerable damage to corn in -the fall has been verified to a certain degree by stomach examination. -This grain is taken in every month of the year, but in greater -quantities during winter and early spring, when much of it is necessarily -waste, and it forms about 18 per cent of the yearly food. Cultivated -fruits of various kinds are eaten from June to the end of the year, and -the 15 per cent taken in July apparently justifies complaints against -the bird on this score. The favorite vegetable food of the blue jay is -mast of various kinds, acorns predominating, but beechnuts, chestnuts, -chinquaquins, and hazelnuts also are relished. This food is important in -every month but July and August, the yearly average being over 43 per -cent, and from October to March it constitutes about two-thirds of the -diet. Occasionally harm is done by feeding also on cultivated nuts, as -pecans. Wild fruits are eaten during the summer and fall and constitute -about 7 per cent of the yearly sustenance. - -The blue jay probably renders its best services to man in destroying -grasshoppers late in the season and in feeding on hibernating insects and -their eggs, as it does in the case of the tent caterpillar and brown-tail -moth. Such forest insects as buprestid beetles and weevils of various -kinds also fall as its prey. - -The blue jay's vegetable food, with the exception of some cultivated -fruit and corn in the fall, is largely neutral. The severest criticism -against the species is the destruction of other birds and their eggs. -Where we wish to attract birds in large numbers about our dooryards, in -our parks, and in game preserves, it will be well not to allow the jays -to become too abundant. - - - - -PACIFIC COAST JAYS. - - -In California and adjacent States two species of jays are much in -evidence under several more or less well-marked forms. - -The Steller jay[46] much resembles the eastern bird, but it is more shy -and retiring and seldom visits the orchard or vicinity of the ranch -buildings. Stomach examination shows that its food does not radically -differ from that of the eastern blue jay. As is the case with that bird, -a very considerable part of the food consists of mast, together with -a little fruit and some insects. The insects are largely wasps, with -some beetles and grasshoppers. This jay also eats some grain, which is -probably waste or volunteer. No complaints, so far as known, are made -against this bird. Until it shall become less wary it is not likely to -trespass to a serious extent upon the farmer's preserve. - -[46] _Cyanocitta stelleri_. - -The California jay,[47] although of a different genus, more nearly -resembles its eastern relative in food habits and actions. It freely -visits the stockyards near ranch buildings, and orchards and gardens. As -a fruit stealer it is notorious. One instance is recorded where seven -jays were shot from a prune tree, one after the other, the dead bodies -being left under the tree until all were killed. So eager were the birds -to get the fruit that the report of the gun and the sight of their dead -did not deter them from coming to the tree. In orchards in canyons or on -hillsides adjacent to chaparral or other cover great mischief is done by -this bird. In one such case an orchard was under observation at a time -when the prune crop was ripening, and jays in a continuous stream were -seen to come down a small ravine to the orchard, prey upon the fruit, and -return. - -[47] _Aphelocoma californica_. - -Fruit stealing, however, is only one of the sins of the California jay. -That it robs hens' nests is universal testimony. A case is reported of a -hen having a nest under a clump of bushes; every day a jay came to a tree -a few rods away, and when it heard the cackle of the hen announcing a new -egg it flew at once to the nest. At the same time the mistress of the -house hastened to the spot to secure the prize, but in most cases the jay -won the race. This is only one of many similar cases recounted. The jays -have learned just what the cackle of the hen means. Another case more -serious is that related by a man engaged in raising white leghorn fowls -on a ranch several miles up a canyon. He stated that when the chicks were -very young the jays attacked and killed them by a few blows of the beak -and then pecked open the skull and ate out the brains. In spite of all -efforts to protect the chicks and kill the jays the losses in this way -were serious. - -Examination of the stomachs of 326 California jays shows that 27 per cent -of the contents for the year consists of animal matter and 73 per cent -of vegetable. Although the great bulk of the animal food is made up of -insects, the remains of eggshells and birds' bones appear much too often. -The insect food is fairly well distributed among the more common orders, -but grasshoppers are slightly the most numerous and constitute 4.5 per -cent of the year's food. In July, August, and September, however, the -amount is 14, 18, and 19 per cent, respectively. Four per cent of the -food consists of wasps, bees, etc., but in the three months named they -constitute 15, 7, and 9 per cent, respectively. A worker honeybee found -in each of two stomachs is rather surprising, for it is unusual to find -a bird like the jay eating these active and elusive insects, which enter -into the diet of the flycatchers. The remainder of the insect food is -pretty evenly distributed among beetles, bugs, flies, and caterpillars. -Eggshells were found in 21 stomachs and birds' bones in 5. Six stomachs -contained the bones of mammals and two those of a lizard. No bird has a -worse reputation for nest robbing than has the eastern jay, and yet of -530 stomachs of the eastern species only 6 contained eggshells or the -bones of birds. This comparison serves to show what a marauder and nest -thief the California jay really is. - -In its vegetable diet this bird much resembles its eastern relative, -the most remarkable difference being in the matter of fruit eating. -With greater opportunities the California bird has developed a greater -appetite for fruit and indulges it to the fullest extent. Remains of -fruit were found in 220 of the 326 stomachs. The percentage for the year -is only 16, but for the four months of June, July, August, and September -it is 44, 33, 53, and 25, respectively. Cherries, apricots, and prunes -are the favorites among cultivated fruits, and elderberries are relished -to some extent. Grain, which was found in 48 stomachs, amounts to 6 per -cent of the food of the year. Practically all of it was taken in the -four months above mentioned, but it is not probable that much damage -is done by the jay in this respect. The major portion of the grain was -oats. What was not wild was probably simply scattered grain gleaned -after the harvest. Mast is eaten by the California jay from September -to March, inclusive, and constitutes during most of that period one of -the principal elements of its food. In this respect the bird shows a -remarkable similarity to the eastern species. A few weed seeds and other -miscellaneous items make up the balance of the vegetable food. - -In summing up from an economic point of view the character of the food of -the California jay, it must be conceded that it is not all that could be -wished. Its taste for birds' eggs and fruit is entirely too pronounced, -and at present the species is superabundant in California. While the -natural food supply of the bird has been lessened by bringing the woods -and brushy canyons under cultivation, the same areas have been planted to -fruit, and naturally the jay takes the fruit as an acceptable substitute. -A considerable reduction of the bird's numbers would appear to be the -only effective remedy. - - - - -THE PHŒBES. - - -Among the early spring arrivals to their northern homes none is more -welcome than the phœbe (fig. 18). The common phœbe[48] breeds -throughout the United States east of the Great Plains, and winters from -the South Atlantic and Gulf States southward. Its western relative, the -black phœbe,[49] is found from Texas west to the Pacific coast, which -it occupies as far north as Washington, replacing through most of this -region the common or eastern form. - -[48] _Sayornis phœbe_. - -[49] _Sayornis Nigricans_. - -Though naturally building its nest under an overhanging cliff of rock -or earth, or in the mouth of a cave, the preference of the eastern -species for the vicinity of farm buildings is so marked that in the more -thickly settled parts of the country the bird is seldom seen at any -great distance from a farmhouse, except where a bridge spanning a stream -affords a secure spot for a nest. Its confiding disposition renders it a -great favorite, and consequently it is seldom disturbed. - -The phœbe subsists almost exclusively upon insects, most of which are -caught upon the wing. An examination of 370 stomachs showed that over 89 -per cent of the year's food consists of insects and spiders, while wild -fruit constitutes the remainder. The insects belong chiefly to noxious -species, and include many click beetles. May beetles, and weevils. -Other beetles, belonging to 21 families that were identified, make up -10.65 per cent. They appear to be eaten very regularly in every month, -but the most are taken in spring and early summer. May is the month of -maximum consumption, with 20.43 per cent. Beetles altogether amount to -15.3 per cent, which places them second in rank of the items of animal -food. The notorious cotton-boll weevil was found in six stomachs taken -in the cotton fields of Texas and Louisiana, and five individuals of the -strawberry weevil were taken from one collected in Texas. Many other -beetles contained In the stomachs are equally harmful, but are not so -widely known. Such are the corn leaf-beetle, which feeds upon corn; the -12-spotted cucumber beetle, and the striped cucumber beetle, both of -which seriously injure and sometimes destroy cucumber and squash vines; -and the locust leaf miner, which is sometimes so numerous that all the -locust trees over large areas are blasted as by fire. - -In the phœbe's diet hymenopterous insects stand at the head, as -is the case with most of the flycatchers. They are eaten with great -regularity and are the largest item in nearly every month. A few are -useful parasitic species, but these are offset by a number of sawfly -larvæ, which are very harmful insects. Ants were found in 24 stomachs. -No honeybees were identified. In their season grasshoppers are much -relished, while wasps of various forms, many flies of species that annoy -cattle, and a few bugs and spiders are also eaten regularly. It is -evident that a pair of phœbes must materially reduce the number of -insects near a garden or field, as the birds often, if not always, raise -two broods a year, and each brood numbers from four to six young. - -There is hardly a more useful species about the farm than the phœbe, -and it should receive every encouragement. To furnish nesting boxes is -helpful, but not necessary, as it usually prefers a more open situation, -like a shed or a nook under the eaves, but it should be protected from -cats and other marauders. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Phœbe. Length, about 6½ inches.] - -The black phœbe has the same habits as its eastern relative, both as -to selection of food and nesting sites, preferring for the latter purpose -some structure of man, as a shed or, better still, a bridge over a stream -of water, and the preference of the black phœbe for the vicinity of -water is very pronounced. One may always be found at a stream' or pool -and often at a watering trough by the roadside. - -Careful study of the habits of the bird shows that it obtains a large -portion of Its food about wet places. While camping beside a stream in -California the writer took some pains to observe the habits of the black -phœbe. The nesting season was over, and the birds had nothing to do -but eat. This they appeared to be doing all the time. When first observed -in the morning, at the first glimmer of daylight, a phœbe was always -found flitting from rock to rock, although it was so dusky that the bird -could hardly be seen. This activity was kept up all day. Even in the -evening, when it was so dark that notes were written by the aid of the -camp fire, the phœbe was still engaged in its work of collecting, -though it was difficult to understand how it could catch insects when -there was scarcely light enough to see the bird. Exploration of the -stream showed that every portion of it was patrolled by a phœbe, that -each one apparently did not range over more than 12 or 13 rods of water, -and that sometimes two or three were in close proximity. - -The number of insects destroyed in a year by the black phœbe is -enormous. Fortunately, the examination of stomachs has supplemented -observation in the field, and we are enabled to give precise details. Of -the 333 stomachs examined, every one contained insects as the great bulk -of the food. Only 15 contained any vegetable food at all, and in no case -was it a considerable part of the contents of the stomach. The insects -eaten were mostly wasps, bugs, and flies, but many beetles also were -destroyed. - -Useful beetles belonging to three families amount to 2.8 per cent of the -food. Other beetles of harmful or neutral species reach 10.5 per cent. -Wasps, the largest item of the food, were found in 252 stomachs and -were the whole contents of 15. The average for the year is 35 per cent. -Parasitic species were noted, but they were very few. Ants were found in -48 stomachs, and for a short time in midsummer they constitute a notable -part of the food. Various wild bees and wasps make up the bulk of this -item. No honeybees were found. - -Bugs in various forms constitute 10.56 per cent and are eaten in every -month but May. Stinkbugs appear to be the favorites, as they were -contained in 10 stomachs. Plant lice were found in one stomach. Flies, -forming the second largest item, were found in 97 stomachs and completely -filled 3. They constitute the most regular article in the black -phœbe's diet. The maximum consumption occurs in April, 64.3 per cent. -The black phœbe well merits its title of flycatcher. - -Moths and caterpillars amount to 8.2 per cent of the food. They were -found in 72 stomachs, of which 51 contained the adult moths and 28 the -larvæ or caterpillars. One stomach was entirely filled with adults. This -is one of the few birds studied by the writer that eats more moths than -caterpillars, for as a rule the caterpillars are largely in excess. -Flycatchers, taking their food upon the wing, would naturally prove -exceptions to the rule. Crickets are evidently not a favorite food of the -black phœbe, as they amount to only 2.45 per cent. They were found in -39 stomachs, but usually the amount in each was small, though one stomach -was entirely filled with them. Grasshoppers did not appear. Dragon flies -were eaten to some extent, and these illustrate the fondness of the -species for the neighborhood of water. - -The vegetable matter eaten consisted chiefly of small wild fruits of no -economic importance. - -Another phœbe inhabiting the Western States and breeding as far north -as Alaska is the Say phœbe.[50] Investigation of its food was based -on the examination of 86 stomachs, and while none were available for the -months when insects are most numerous, the bird proved to be one of the -most exclusively insectivorous of the family. That it takes a few useful -insects can not be denied, but these are far outnumbered by the harmful -ones it destroys, and the balance is clearly in favor of the bird. Its -vegetable food amounts to only 2 per cent and is made up of a little wild -fruit, seeds, and rubbish. - -[50] _Sayornis sayus_. - - - -THE KINGBIRDS. - - -The well-known eastern kingbird[51] (fig. 19) is essentially a lover of -the orchard, though groves and the edge of forests were probably its -original habitat. It breeds in the States east of the Rocky Mountains, -and less commonly in the Great Basin and on the Pacific coast. Its -hostility to hawks and crows is proverbial, and for this reason a family -of kingbirds is a desirable adjunct to a poultry yard. On one occasion -in the knowledge of the writer a hawk which attacked a brood of young -turkeys was pounced upon and so severely buffeted by a pair of kingbirds -whose nest was near by that the would-be robber was glad to escape -without his prey. Song birds that nest near the kingbird are similarly -protected. - -[51] _Tyrannus tyrannus_. - -The kingbird is largely insectivorous. It is a true flycatcher and takes -on the wing a large part of its food. It does not, however, confine -itself to this method of hunting, but picks up some insects from trees -and weeds, and even descends to the ground in search of myriapods -or thousand legs. The chief complaint against the species by both -professional bee keepers and others has been that it preys largely upon -honeybees. One bee raiser in Iowa, suspecting the kingbirds of feeding -upon his bees, shot a number near his hives; but when the stomachs of the -birds were examined by an expert entomologist, not a trace of honeybees -could be found. - -An examination of 665 stomachs collected in various parts of the -country, was made by the Biological Survey, but only 22 were found to -contain remains of honeybees. In these 22 stomachs there were in all 61 -honeybees, of which 51 were drones, 8 were certainly workers, and the -remaining 2 were too badly broken to be further identified. - -The insects that constitute the great bulk of the food of the bird -are noxious species, largely beetles--May beetles, click beetles (the -larvæ of which are known as wire-worms), weevils, which prey upon -fruit and grain, and a host of others. Wasps, wild bees, and ants are -conspicuous elements of the food, far outnumbering the hive bees. -During summer many grasshoppers and crickets, as well as leaf hoppers -and other bugs, also are eaten. In the stomachs examined were a number -of robber files--insects which prey largely upon other insects, -including honeybees, and which are known to commit in this way extensive -depredations. It is thus evident that the kingbird by destroying these -flies actually does good work for the apiarist. The 26 robber flies found -in the stomachs may be considered more than an equivalent for the 8 -worker honeybees already mentioned. A few caterpillars are eaten, mostly -belonging to the group commonly known as cutworms, all the species of -which are harmful. - -About 11 per cent of the food consists of small native fruits, comprising -some 30 common species of the roadsides and thickets, as dogwood berries, -elderberries, and wild grapes. The kingbird is not reported as eating -cultivated fruit to an injurious extent, and it is very doubtful if this -is ever the case. - -In the Western States the Arkansas kingbird[52] is not so domestic in -its habits as its eastern relative, preferring to live among scattering -oaks on lonely hillsides, rather than in orchards about ranch buildings. -The work it does, however, in the destruction of noxious insects fully -equals that of any member of its family. Like other flycatchers, it -subsists mostly upon insects taken in mid-air, though it eats a number -of grasshoppers, probably taken from the ground. The bulk of its food -consists of beetles, bugs, wasps, and wild bees. Like its eastern -representative, it has been accused of feeding to an injurious extent -upon honeybees. In an examination of 62 stomachs of this species, -great care was taken to identify every insect or fragment that had any -resemblance to a honeybee; as a result, 30 honeybees were identified, of -which 29 were males or drones and 1 a worker. These were contained in -four stomachs, and were the sole contents of three; in the fourth they -constituted 99 per cent of the food. It is evident that the bee-eating -habit is only occasional and accidental, rather than habitual; and it is -also evident that if this ratio of drones to workers were maintained, the -bird would be of more benefit than harm to the apiary. - -[52] _Tyrannus verticalis_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Kingbird. Length, about 8½ inches.] - -The Cassin kingbird[53] has a more southerly range than the Arkansas -flycatcher. Examination of a number of stomachs shows that its food -habits are similar to those of others of the group. - -[53] _Tyrannus vociferans_. - -Three points seem to be clearly established in regard to the food of -the kingbirds--(1) that about 90 per cent consists of insects, mostly -injurious species; (2) that the alleged habit of preying upon honeybees -is much less prevalent than has been supposed, and probably does not -result in any great damage; and (3) that the vegetable food consists -almost entirely of wild fruits which have no economic value. - -All of the kingbirds are of the greatest importance to the farmer and -fruit grower, as they destroy vast numbers of harmful insects, and do no -appreciable damage to any product of cultivation. - - - - -NIGHTHAWK. - - -The nighthawk, or bull-bat,[54] breeds throughout most of the United -States and Canada, and winters in South America. It is strictly -insectivorous, and hence does no damage to crops. The only charge that -can be made against the bird is that it destroys some useful insects, but -these are greatly in the minority in its food. - -[54] _Chordeiles virginianus_. - -Nighthawks are so expert in flight that no insects can escape them. In -their capacious mouths they sweep up everything from the largest moths -and dragon flies to the tiniest ants and gnats, and in this way sometimes -gather most remarkable collections of insects. Several stomachs have -contained 50 or more different kinds, and the number of individuals ran -into the thousands. - -Nearly a fourth of the birds' total food is composed of ants. These -Insects are generally annoying and often very injurious, especially on -account of their damage to stored products and because of their habit of -fostering destructive plant lice. More than a fifth of the nighthawk's -food consists of June bugs, dung beetles, and other beetles of the -leaf-chafer family. These are the adults of white grubs, noted pests, and -even as adults many members of the family are decidedly harmful. - -Numerous other injurious beetles, as click beetles, wood borers, and -weevils, are relished. True bugs, moths, flies, grasshoppers, and -crickets also are important elements of the food. Several species of -mosquitoes, including the transmitter of malaria, are eaten. Other -well-known pests consumed by the nighthawk are Colorado potato beetles, -cucumber beetles, rice, clover-leaf, and cotton-boll weevils, billbugs, -bark beetles, squash bugs, and moths of the cotton worm. - -Nighthawks are much less numerous than formerly, chiefly because of -wanton shooting. They are given full legal protection almost everywhere, -and citizens should see that the law is obeyed. The bird is far too -useful and attractive to be persecuted. - - - - -THE WOODPECKERS. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Hairy woodpecker. Length, about 9 inches.] - -Five or six species of woodpeckers are familiarly known throughout the -eastern United States, and In the West are replaced by others of similar -habits. Several species remain in the Northern States through the entire -year, while others are more or less migratory. - -Farmers are prone to look upon woodpeckers with suspicion. When the birds -are seen scrambling over fruit trees and pecking holes in the bark, it -is concluded that they must be doing harm. Careful observers, however, -have noticed that, excepting a single species, these birds rarely leave -any conspicuous mark on a healthy tree, except when it is affected by -wood-boring larvæ, which are accurately located, dislodged, and devoured -by the woodpecker. - -Two of the best-known woodpeckers, the hairy woodpecker[55] (fig. -20) and the downy woodpecker,[56] including their races, range over -the greater part of the United States. They differ chiefly in size, -their colors being practically the same. The males, like those of -many other woodpeckers, are distinguished by a scarlet patch on the -head. An examination of many stomachs of these two species shows that -from two-thirds to three-fourths of the food consists of insects, -chiefly noxious kinds. Wood-boring beetles, both adults and larvæ, are -conspicuous, and with them are associated many caterpillars, mostly -species that burrow into trees. Next in importance are the ants that -live in decaying wood, all of which are sought by woodpeckers and eaten -in great quantities. Many ants are particularly harmful to timber, for -if they find a small spot of decay in the vacant burrow of a wood borer, -they enlarge the hole, and, as their colony is always on the increase, -continue to eat away the wood until the whole trunk is honeycombed. -Moreover, they are not accessible to birds generally, and could pursue -their career of destruction unmolested were it not that the woodpeckers, -with beaks and tongues especially fitted for such work, dig out and -devour them. It is thus evident that woodpeckers are great conservators -of forests. To them more than to any other agency we owe the preservation -of timber from hordes of destructive insects. - -[55] _Dryobates villosus_. - -[56] _Dryobates pubecens_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Flicker. Length, about 12½ inches.] - -One of the larger woodpeckers familiar to everyone is the flicker, or -golden-winged woodpecker[57] (fig. 21), which is generally distributed -throughout the United States from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky -Mountains. There it is replaced by the red-shafted flicker,[58] which -extends westward to the Pacific. The two species are as nearly identical -in food habits as their respective environments will allow. The flickers, -while genuine woodpeckers, differ somewhat in habits from the rest of -the family, and are frequently seen searching for food upon the ground. -Like the downy and hairy woodpeckers, they feed upon wood-boring grubs -and ants, but the number of ants eaten is much greater than that eaten -by the other two species. Of the flickers' stomachs examined, three were -completely filled with ants. Two of these contained more than 3,000 -individuals each, while the third contained fully 5,000. These ants -belong to species which live in the ground. It is these insects for -which the flicker searches when it runs about in the grass, although -some grasshoppers also are then taken. The flicker's habit of pecking -holes in buildings sometimes greatly annoys its human friends, and it -is particularly noticeable in the California species. Observation has -shown that the object of the work is to obtain shelter for the winter. -In the East most of the flickers are migratory, and only a few remain -North where shelter is necessary. These generally find a safe retreat -in the hollow tree In which they nested. In California, however, where -the birds do not migrate, trees are not so abundant as in the East, and -consequently buildings are brought into requisition, and in them holes -are drilled, usually under the eaves, where snug nights' lodgings are -found. Often a dozen holes may be seen in one building. Barns or other -outbuildings are usually selected, though churches sometimes have been -used. - -[57] _Colaptes auratus_. - -[58] _Colaptes cafer collaris_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Red-headed woodpecker. Length, about 9½ -inches.] - -The red-headed woodpecker[59] (fig. 22) is well known east of the Rocky -Mountains, but Is rather rare in New England. Unlike some of the other -species, it prefers fence posts and telegraph poles to trees as a -foraging ground. Its food therefore naturally differs from that of the -preceding species, and consists largely of adult beetles and wasps which -it frequently captures on the wing after the fashion of flycatchers. -Grasshoppers also form an important part of the food. Among the beetles -are a number of predacious ground species and some tiger beetles, which -are useful insects. The red-head has been accused of robbing nests of -other birds, and of pecking out the brains of young birds and poultry; -but as the stomachs showed little evidence to substantiate this charge, -the habit probably is exceptional. - -[59] _Melanerpes erythrocephalus_. - -The vegetable food of woodpeckers is varied, but consists largely of -small fruits and berries. The downy and hairy woodpeckers eat such -fruits as dogwood and Virginia creeper and seeds of poison ivy, sumac, -and a few other shrubs. The flicker also eats a great many small fruits -and the seeds of a considerable number of shrubs and weeds. None of -the three species is much given to eating cultivated fruits or crops. -The red-head has been accused of eating the larger kinds of fruit, as -apples, and also of taking considerable corn. Stomach examinations show -that to some extent these charges are substantiated, but that the habit -is not prevalent enough to cause much damage. The bird is fond of mast, -especially beechnuts, and when these nuts are plentiful it remains north -all winter. - -Woodpeckers apparently are the only agents which can successfully cope -with certain insect enemies of the forest, and, to some extent, with -those of fruit trees also. For this reason, if for no other, they should -be protected in every possible way. - - - - -THE CUCKOOS. - - -Two species of cuckoos are common In the United States east of the Great -Plains, the yellow-billed cuckoo[60] (fig. 23) and the black-billed -cuckoo,[61] and in the West a relative of the yellow-bill, the California -cuckoo,[62] ranges from Colorado and Texas to the Pacific coast. While -the two species are quite distinct, the food habits of the yellow-bill -and the black-bill do not greatly differ and their economic status is -practically the same. - -[60] _Coccyzus americanus_. - -[61] _Coccyzus erythyropthalmus_. - -[62] _Coccyzus americanus occidentalis_. - -Examination of 155 stomachs has shown that these species are much given -to eating caterpillars, and, unlike most birds, do not reject those -covered with hair. In fact, cuckoos eat so many hairy caterpillars that -the hairs pierce the inner lining of the stomach and remain there, and -often when the stomach is opened it appears to be lined with a thin -coating of fur. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Yellow-billed cuckoo. Length, about 12 inches.] - -An examination of the stomachs of 46 black-billed cuckoos, taken during -the summer months, showed the remains of 906 caterpillars, 44 beetles, -96 grasshoppers, 100 sawflies, 30 stinkbugs, and 15 spiders. In all -probability more individuals than these were represented, but their -remains were too badly broken for recognition. Most of the caterpillars -were hairy, and many of them belong to a genus that lives in colonies and -feeds on the leaves of trees, including the apple tree. One stomach was -filled with larvæ of a caterpillar belonging to the same genus as the -tent caterpillar, and possibly to that species. Other larvæ were those -of large moths, for which the bird seems to have a special fondness. The -beetles were for the most part click beetles and weevils, as well as a -few May beetles. The sawflies were contained in two stomachs, one of -which held no less than 60 in the larval stage. - -Of the yellow-billed cuckoo, 109 stomachs (collected from May to October) -were examined. They contained 1,865 caterpillars, 93 beetles, 242 -grasshoppers, 37 sawflies, 69 bugs, 6 flies, and 86 spiders. As in the -case of the black-billed cuckoo, most of the caterpillars belonged to -hairy species and many of them were of large size. One stomach contained -250 American tent caterpillars; another 217 fall webworms. The beetles -were distributed among several families, all more or less harmful to -agriculture. In the same stomach which contained the tent caterpillars -were 2 Colorado potato beetles; in another were 3 goldsmith beetles, and -remains of several other large beetles. Besides the ordinary grasshoppers -were several katydids and tree crickets. The sawflies were in the larval -stage, in which they resemble caterpillars so closely that they are -commonly called false caterpillars by entomologists. The bugs consisted -of stinkbugs and cicadas, or dog-day harvest flies, with the single -exception of one wheel bug, which was the only useful insect eaten. - - - - -BOBWHITE. - - -No bird is better known to country residents than the bobwhite[63] (see -illustration on title-page). The bird's cheery calls the year round form -part of the most pleasant associations of country life, and its neat form -and harmonious coloration, and especially its confiding habits, make it a -general favorite. - -[63] _Colinus virginianus._ - -Any bushy fence row serves as a retreat for its nest, or for winter -shelter, and weed-covered fields are its favorite feeding places. Weed -seeds form more than half the total food and include those of all -the worst weed pests of the farm. Among them may be mentioned crab, -cockspur, witch, and foxtail grasses, sheep sorrel, smartweed, bindweed, -lamb's-quarters, pigweeds, corn cockle, chickweed, charlock, partridge -pea, beggar lice, nail grass, rib grass, ragweed, and Spanish needles. - -Acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, and pine seeds make up about 2.5 per cent -of the food, and wild fruit about 10 per cent The fruits include berries -of palmetto, smilax, wax myrtle, mulberry, sassafras, blackberries and -raspberries, rose haws, cherry, sumac, grapes, sour gum, blueberries, -honeysuckle, partridgeberry, and a number of others. The bobwhite feeds -to a slight extent upon buds and leaves, including those of yellow and -red sorrel, cinquefoil, and clover. - -Grain forms scarcely more than a sixth of the food, and most of it is -taken during winter and early spring when nothing but waste grain is -available The habit of gleaning this after the harvest is beneficial -to the farm, for volunteer grain is not desirable, especially where it -serves to maintain certain insect and fungus pests. Although most of the -grain and seed crops grown upon the farm are represented in bobwhite's -dietary, no significant damage can be attributed to the bird. - -Animal food, chiefly insects, composed nearly a sixth of the bird's -subsistence. From June to August, inclusive, when insects are most -numerous, their proportion in the food is about 36 per cent. The variety -of insect food is great and includes a number of the most destructive -agricultural pests. Among them may be mentioned the Colorado potato -beetle, 12-spotted cucumber beetle, bean leaf beetle, squash ladybird, -wire-worms. May beetles, corn billbugs, clover-leaf weevil, army worm, -boilworm, cutworms, and chinch bug. - -The food habits of the bobwhite undoubtedly are beneficial and the bird -should be maintained in numbers on every farm. This is not to say that -all shooting should be prohibited, for the bird is very prolific. But its -numbers should not be reduced below what the available nesting sites and -range will support. On the other hand the policy of absolute protection -recently adopted by one of the States is not called for by strictly -economic considerations. - - - * * * * * - - - ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - WHEN THIS PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED - - - _Secretary of Agriculture_ Henry A. Wallace. - _Under Secretary_ Rexford G. Tugwell. - _Assistant Secretary_ M. L. Wilson. - _Director of Extension Work_ C. W. Warburton. - _Director of Personnel_ W. W. Stockberger. - _Director of Information_ M. S. Eisenhower. - _Director of Finance_ W. A. Jump. - _Solicitor_ Seth Thomas. - _Agricultural Adjustment Chester C. Davis, - Administration_ _Administrator_. - _Bureau of Agricultural Economics_ A. G. Black, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Agricultural Engineering_ S. H. McCrory, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Animal Industry_ John R. Mohler, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Biological Survey_ J. N. Darling, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Chemistry and Soils_ H. G. Knight, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Dairy Industry_ O. E. Reed, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Entomology and Plant Lee A. Strong, _Chief_. - Quarantine_ - _Office of Experiment Stations_ James T. Jardine, _Chief_. - _Food and Drug Administration_ Walter G. Campbell, _Chief_. - _Forest Service_ Ferdinand A. Silcox, _Chief_. - _Grain Futures Administration_ J. W. T. Duvel, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Home Economics_ Louise Stanley, _Chief_. - _Library_ Claribel R. Barnett, _Librarian_. - _Bureau of Plant Industry_ Frederick D. Richey, _Chief_. - _Bureau of Public Roads_ Thomas H. MacDonald, _Chief_. - _Weather Bureau_ Willis R. Gregg, _Chief_. - - - - U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1935 - - - For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. - Price 5 cents - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Notes - - -All illustrations were moved so as to not split paragraphs. There does -not appear to be a footnote numbered "2", therefore, the one numbered "3" -and all following footnote numbers were decremented by 1. - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 630, by F. E. L. 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