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diff --git a/old/62686-8.txt b/old/62686-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c1de076..0000000 --- a/old/62686-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2801 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 67, by Bernhard E. Fernow - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 67 - Forestry For Farmers - -Author: Bernhard E. Fernow - -Release Date: July 17, 2020 [EBook #62686] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 67 *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas - - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Note: Text emphasis denoted as _Italics_. - - - - - U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - - ---------- - - FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 67. - - ---------- - - - - FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. - - - BY - - B. E. FERNOW, - - _Chief of the Division of Forestry._ - - ---------- - - - [Reprinted from the Yearbooks of the U. S. Department of Agriculture - for 1894 and 1895.] - - - [Illustration] - - - WASHINGTON: - - GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. - - 1898. - - ---------- - - - LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. - - U. S. Department of Agriculture, - Division of Forestry, - _Washington, D. C., December 4, 1897._ - -Sir: I have the honor to recommend that the two articles contributed -by me to the Yearbooks for 1894 and for 1895 on forestry for farmers -be reprinted as a Farmers' Bulletin. The articles contain information -in popular form regarding the growth of trees, the planting of a -forest, treatment of the wood lot, the cultivation of the wood crop, -influence of trees, etc. A wider distribution of this information, for -which there is still considerable demand, would, I believe, result in -acquainting farmers with a subject the importance of which has not -always been duly recognized. - -Very respectfully, - - B. E. Fernow, _Chief_. - -Approved: - - James Wilson, _Secretary_. - - - - --------------- - CONTENTS. - ---------- - - - Page. - - How trees grow 3 - Food materials and conditions of growth 3 - Soil conditions 4 - Light conditions 6 - Physiology of tree growth 9 - "Sap up and sap down" 10 - Progress of development 11 - Growth in length and ramification 11 - Growth in thickness 14 - Form development 17 - Rate of growth 19 - Reproduction 21 - - How to plant a forest 22 - What trees to plant 23 - Methods of planting 26 - - How to treat the wood lot 28 - Improvement cuttings 29 - Methods of reproducing the wood crop 31 - Size of openings 34 - Wind mantle 34 - Coppice 35 - Plan of management 37 - - How to cultivate the wood crop 37 - Effect of light on wood production 38 - Number of trees per acre 38 - Weeding and cleaning the crop 40 - Methods of thinning 40 - What trees to remove 41 - - The relation of forests to farms 42 - The forest waters the farm 44 - The forest tempers the farm 45 - The forest protects the farm 45 - The forest supplies the farm with useful material 46 - - - - -FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. - - - -The following five chapters have been written with the view of aiding -farmers who own small timber tracts or wood lots, or who wish to plant -some part of their land to forest. This country varies so greatly in -soil, climate, and flora that it is only possible, within the limits -assigned for the present discussion, to outline general principles -everywhere applicable. Nevertheless, wherever suggestions have -approximated the laying down of rules of practice, the writer has had -mainly in mind the conditions prevalent in our northeastern States. -Moreover, for the reason already referred to, limitation of space, it -has not been possible to give more than a comprehensive view, without -much detail. - -The succeeding chapters should be read connectedly, as they are more -or less interdependent. The first treats of the behavior of a forest -plant; the second, of the principles which should guide the planter -in setting a crop; the third, of the manner in which a natural forest -crop should be produced; the fourth points out how the crop should be -managed afterwards in order to secure the best results in quantity -and quality of material; while the fifth chapter is devoted to a -consideration of the relation of forests to farms. - - - - -1. HOW TREES GROW. - - -Trees, like most other plants, originate from seed, build up a body -of cell tissues, form foliage, flower, and fruit, and take up food -material from the soil and air, which they convert into cellulose and -other compounds, from which all their parts are formed. They rely, like -other plants, upon moisture, heat, and light as the means of performing -the functions of growth. Yet there are some peculiarities in their -behavior, their life and growth, which require special attention on the -part of a tree grower or forest planter, and these we shall briefly -discuss. - - -FOOD MATERIALS AND CONDITIONS OF GROWTH. - -Trees derive their food and solid substance in part from the air and -in part from the soil. The solid part of their bodies is made up -of cellulose, which consists largely of carbon (44 per cent of its -weight), with hydrogen and oxygen added in almost the same proportions -as in water. The carbon is derived from the carbonic acid of the air, -which enters into the leaves and, under the influence of light, air, -and water, is there decomposed; the oxygen is exhaled; the carbon is -retained and combined with elements derived from the water, forming -compounds, such as starch, sugar, etc., which are used as food -materials, passing down the tree through its outer layers to the very -tips of the roots, making new wood all along the branches, trunk, and -roots. - -This process of food preparation, called "assimilation," can be -carried on only in the green parts, and in these only when exposed to -light and air; hence foliage, air, and light at the top are essential -prerequisites for tree growth, and hence, other conditions being -favorable, the more foliage and the better developed it is, and the -more light this foliage has at its disposal for its work, the more -vigorously will the tree grow. - -In general, therefore, pruning, since it reduces the amount of foliage, -reduces also, for the time, the amount of wood formed; and just so -shading, reducing the activity of foliage, reduces the growth of wood. - - -SOIL CONDITIONS. - -From the soil trees take mainly water, which enters through the roots -and is carried through the younger part of the tree to the leaves, to -be used in part on its passage for food and wood formation and in part -to be given up to the air by transpiration. - -In a vigorously growing tree the solid wood substance itself will -contain half its weight in the form of water chemically combined, and -the tree, in addition, will contain from 40 to 65 per cent and more of -its dry weight in water mechanically or "hygroscopically" held. This -last, when the tree is cut, very largely evaporates; yet well-seasoned -wood still contains 10 to 12 per cent of such water. The weight of a -green tree, a pine, for instance, is made up, in round numbers, of -about 30 per cent of carbon and 70 per cent or water, either chemically -or hygroscopically held, while a birch contains a still larger -percentage of water. - -The largest part of the water which passes through the tree is -transpired--i. e., given off to the air in vapor. The amounts thus -transpired during the season vary greatly with the species of tree, -its age, the amount of foliage at work, the amount of light at its -disposal, the climatic conditions (rain, temperature, winds, relative -humidity), and the season. These amounts are, however, very large when -compared with the quantity retained; so that while an acre of forest -may store in its trees, say, 1,000 pounds of carbon, 15 to 20 pounds -of mineral substances, and 5,000 pounds of water in a year, it will -have transpired--taken up from, the soil and returned to the air--from -500,000 to 1,500,000 pounds of water (one-quarter to one-half as much -as agricultural crops). - -Mineral substances are taken up only in very small quantities, and -these are mostly the commoner sorts, such as lime, potash, magnesia, -and nitrogen. These are carried in solution to the leaves, where they -are used (as perhaps also on their passage through the tree), with a -part of the water, in food preparation. The main part of the mineral -substances taken up remains, however, as the water transpires, in the -leaves and young twigs, and is returned to the soil when the leaves are -shed or when the tree is cut and the brush left to decompose and make -humus. - -Hence the improvement of the fertility of the soil by wood crops is -explained, the minerals being returned in more soluble form to the -soil; as also the fact that wood crops do not exhaust the soil of its -minerals, provided the leaves and litter are allowed to remain on the -ground. - -For this reason there is no necessity of alternating wood crops, as far -as their mineral needs are concerned; the same kind of trees can be -grown on the same soil continuously, provided the soil is not allowed -to deteriorate from other causes. - -As the foliage can perform its work of food assimilation only when -sufficient water is at its disposal, the amount of growth is also -dependent not only on the presence of sufficient sources of supply, but -also on the opportunity had by the roots to utilize the supply, and -this opportunity is dependent upon the condition of the soil. If the -soil is compact, so that the rain water can not penetrate readily, and -runs off superficially, or if it is of coarse grain and so deep that -the water rapidly sinks out of reach of the roots and can not be drawn -up by capillary action, the water supply is of no avail to the plants; -but if the soil is porous and moderately deep (depth being the distance -from the surface to the impenetrable subsoil, rock, or ground water) -the water not only can penetrate but also can readily be reached and -taken up by the roots. - -The moisture of the soil being the most important element in it for -tree growth, the greatest attention must be given to its conservation -and most advantageous distribution through the soil. - -No trees grow to the best advantage in very dry or very wet soil, -although some can live and almost thrive in such unfavorable -situations. A moderately but evenly moist soil, porous and deep enough -or fissured enough to be well drained, and yet of such a structure that -the water supplies from the depths can readily be drawn up and become -available to the roots--that is the soil on which all trees grow most -thriftily. - -The agriculturist procures this condition of the soil as far as -possible by plowing, drainage, and irrigation, and he tries by -cultivating to keep the soil from compacting again, as it does under -the influence of the beating rain and of the drying out of the upper -layers by sun and wind. - -The forest grower can not rely upon such methods, because they are -either too expensive or entirely impracticable. He may, indeed, plow -for his first planting, and cultivate the young trees, but in a few -years this last operation will become impossible and the effects of the -first operation will be lost. He must, therefore, attain his object in -another manner, namely, by shading and mulching the soil. The shading -is done at first by planting very closely, so that the ground may be -protected as soon as possible from sun and wind, and by maintaining the -shade well throughout the period of growth. This shade is maintained, -if necessary, by more planting, and in case the main crop in later life -thins out inordinately in the crowns or tops, or by the accidental -death of trees, it may even become desirable to introduce an underbrush. - -The mulching is done by allowing the fallen leaves and twigs to remain -and decay, and form a cover of rich mold or humus. This protective -cover permits the rain and snow waters to penetrate without at the same -time compacting the soil, keeping it granular and in best condition for -conducting water, and at the same time preventing evaporation at the -surface. - -The soil moisture, therefore, is best maintained by proper soil cover, -which, however, is needful only in naturally dry soils. Wet soils, -although supporting tree growth, do not, if constantly wet, produce -satisfactory wood crops, the growth being very slow. Hence they must be -drained and their water level sunk below the depth of the root system. - -Irrigation is generally too expensive to be applied to wood crops, -except perhaps in the arid regions, where the benefit of the shelter -belt may warrant the expense. - -Attention to favorable moisture conditions in the soil requires the -selection of such kinds of trees as shade well for a long time, to -plant closely, to protect the woody undergrowth (but not weeds), and to -leave the litter on the ground as a mulch. - -Different species, to be sure, adapt themselves to different degrees of -soil moisture, and the crop should therefore be selected with reference -to its adaptation to available moisture supplies. - -While, as stated, all trees thrive best with a moderate and even supply -of moisture, some can get along with very little, like the conifers, -especially pines; others can exist even with an excessive supply, as -the bald cypress, honey locust, some oaks, etc. The climate, however, -must also be considered in this connection, for a tree species, -although succeeding well enough on a dry soil in an atmosphere which -does not require much transpiration, may not do so in a drier climate -on the same soil. - -In the selection of different kinds of trees for different soils, the -water conditions of the soil should, therefore, determine the choice. - - -LIGHT CONDITIONS. - -To insure the largest amount of growth, full enjoyment of sunlight is -needed. But as light is almost always accompanied by heat and relative -dryness of air, which demands water from the plant, and may increase -transpiration from the leaves inordinately, making them pump too hard, -as it were, young seedlings of tree species whose foliage is not built -for such strains require partial shading for the first year or two. The -conifers belong to this class. - -In later life the light conditions exert a threefold influence on the -development of the tree, namely, with reference to soil conditions, -with reference to form development, and with reference to amount of -growth. - -The art of the forester consists in regulating the light conditions so -as to secure the full benefit of the stimulating effect of light on -growth, without its deteriorating influences on the soil and on form -development. - -As we have seen, shade is desirable in order to preserve soil moisture. -Now, while young trees of all kinds, during the "brush" stage of -development, have a rather dense foliage, as they grow older they -vary in habit, especially when growing in the forest. Some, like the -beech, the sugar maple, the hemlock, and the spruce, keep up a dense -crown; others, like the chestnut, the oaks, the walnut, the tulip -tree, and the white pine, thin out more and more, and when fully -grown have a much less dense foliage; Anally, there are some which do -not keep up a dense shade for any length of time, like the black and -honey locust, with their small, thin leaves; the catalpa, with its -large but few leaves at the end of the branchlets only, and the larch, -with its short, scattered bunches of needles. So we can establish a -comparative scale of trees with reference to the amount of shade which -they can give continuously, as densely foliaged and thinly foliaged, -in various gradations. If we planted all beech or sugar maple, the -desirable shading of the soil would never be lacking, while if we -planted all locust or catalpa the sun would soon reach the soil and -dry it out, or permit a growth of grass or weeds, which is worse, -because those transpire still larger quantities of water than the bare -ground evaporates or an undergrowth of woody plants would transpire. -Of course, a densely foliaged tree has many more leaves to shed than a -thinly foliaged one, and therefore makes more litter, which increases -the favorable mulch cover of the soil. Another reason for keeping the -ground well shaded is that the litter then decomposes slowly, but into -a desirable humus, which acts favorably upon the soil, while if the -litter is exposed to light, an undesirable, partly decomposed "raw" -humus is apt to be formed. - -Favorable soil conditions, then, require shade, while wood growth is -increased by full enjoyment of light; to satisfy both requirements, -mixed planting, with proper selection of shade-enduring and -light-needing species, is resorted to. - -As the different species afford shade in different degrees, so they -require for their development different degrees of light. The dense -foliage of the beech, with a large number of leaves in the interior -of the crown, proves that the leaves can exist and perform their work -with a small amount of light; the beech is a shade-enduring tree. The -scanty foliage of the birches, poplars, or pines shows that these are -light-needing trees; hence they are never found under the dense shade -of the former, while the shade-enduring can develop satisfactorily -under the light shade of the thin-foliaged kinds. Very favorable soil -conditions increase the shade endurance of the latter, and climatic -conditions also modify their relative position in the scale. - -All trees ultimately thrive best--i. e., grow most vigorously--in the -full enjoyment of light, but their energy then goes into branching. -Crowded together, with the side light cut off, the lower lateral -branches soon die and fall, while the main energy of growth is put into -the shaft and the height growth is stimulated. The denser shade of the -shade-enduring kinds, if placed as neighbors to light-needing ones, is -most effective in producing this result, provided that the light is not -cut off at the top; and thus, in practice, advantage is taken of the -relative requirements for light of the various species.[1] - -[1] This relation of the different species to varying light conditions; -their comparative shading value and shade endurance, is one of the most -important facts to be observed and utilized by the forester. European -foresters have done this, but since they had to deal with only a few -species and over a limited territory, they could quite readily classify -their trees with reference to their shade endurance, and take it for -granted that shade endurance and density of foliage or shading value -were more or less identical. With our great wealth of useful species it -will be necessary and profitable to be more exact in the classification. - -The forester finds in close planting and in mixed growth a means of -securing tall, clear trunks, free from knots, and he is able, moreover, -by proper regulation of light conditions, to influence the form -development, and also the quality of his crop, since slow growth and -rapid growth produce wood of different character. - -There are some species which, although light-foliaged and giving -comparatively little shade, are yet shade-enduring--i. e., can subsist, -although not develop favorably, under shade; the oaks are examples -of this kind. Others, like the black cherry, bear a dense crown for -the first twenty years, perhaps, seemingly indicating great shade -endurance; but the fact that the species named soon clears itself -of its branches and finally has a thin crown, indicates that it is -light-needing, though a good shader for the first period of its life. -Others, again, like the catalpa, which is shady and shade-enduring, as -the difficulty with which it clears itself indicates, leaf out so late -and lose their foliage so early that their shading value is thereby -impaired. Black locust and honey locust, on the other hand, leave -no doubt either as to their light-needing or their inferior shading -quality. - -That soil conditions and climatic conditions also modify crown -development and shade endurance has been well recognized abroad, but in -our country this influence is of much more importance on account of the -great variation in those conditions. Thus the box elder, an excellent -shader in certain portions of the West, is a failure as soil cover in -others where it nevertheless will grow. - -We see, then, that in determining the shading value as well as the -shade endurance of one species in comparison with another, with -reference to forestry purposes, not only soil and climate but also the -character of foliage and its length of season must be considered. - - -PHYSIOLOGY OF TREE GROWTH. - -As we have seen, root and foliage are the main life organs of the tree. -The trunk and branches serve to carry the crown upward and expose it to -the light, which is necessary in order to prepare the food and increase -the volume of the tree, and also as conductors of food materials up -and down between root and foliage. A large part of the roots, too, -aside from giving stability to the tree, serve only as conductors of -water and food material; only the youngest parts, the fibrous roots, -beset with innumerable fine hairs, serve to take up the water and -minerals from the soil. These fine roots, root hairs, and young parts -are therefore the essential portion of the root system. A tree may -have a fine, vigorous-looking root system, yet if the young parts and -fibrous roots are cut off or allowed to dry out, which they readily -do--some kinds more so than others--thereby losing their power to take -up water, such a tree is apt to die. Under very favorable moisture -and temperature conditions, however, the old roots may throw out now -sprouts and replace the fibrous roots. Some species, like the willows, -poplars, locusts, and others, are especially capable of doing so. -All trees that "transplant easily" probably possess this capacity of -renewing the fibrous roots readily, or else are less subject to drying -out. But it may be stated as a probable fact that most transplanted -trees which die soon after the planting do so because the fibrous roots -have been curtailed too much in taking up, or else have been allowed to -dry out on the way from the nursery or forest to the place of planting; -they were really dead before being set. Conifers--pines, spruces, -etc.--are especially sensitive; maples, oaks, catalpas, and apples -will, in this respect, stand a good deal of abuse. - -Hence, in transplanting, the first and foremost care of the forest, -grower, besides taking the sapling up with least injury, is the proper -protection of its root fibers against drying out. - -The water, with the minerals in solution, is taken up by the roots -when the soil is warm enough, but to enable the roots to act they must -be closely packed with the soil. It is conveyed mostly through the -outer, which are the younger, layers of the wood of root, trunk, and -branches to the leaves. Here, as we have seen, under the influence of -light and heat it is in large part transpired and in part combined -with the carbon into organic compounds, sugar, etc., which serve as -food materials. These travel from the leaf into the branchlet, and -down through the outer layers of the trunk to the very tips of the -root, forming new wood all the way, new buds, which lengthen into -shoots, leaves, and flowers, and also new rootlets. To live and grow, -therefore, the roots need the food elaborated in the leaves, just as -the leaves need the water sent up from the roots. - -Hence the interdependence of root system and crown, which must be kept -in proportion when transplanting. At least, the root system must be -sufficient to supply the needs of the crown. - - -"SAP UP AND SAP DOWN." - -The growing tree, in all its parts, is more or less saturated with -water, and as the leaves, under the influence of sun and wind and -atmospheric conditions generally transpire, new supplies are taken in -through the roots and conveyed to the crown. This movement takes place -even in winter, in a slight degree, to supply the loss of water by -evaporation from the branches. In the growing season it is so active -as to become noticeable; hence the saying that the sap is "up," or -"rising," and when, toward the end of the season, the movement becomes -less, the sap is said to be "down." But this movement of water is -always upward; hence the notion that there is a stream upward at one -season and in one part of the tree, and a stream downward at another -season and perhaps in another part of the tree, is erroneous. The -downward movement is of food materials, and the two movements of water -upward and food downward take place simultaneously, and depend, in -part at least, one upon the other, the food being carried to the young -parts, wherever required, by a process of diffusion from cell to cell -known as "osmosis." - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Physiological importance of different parts of -the tree; pathways of water and food materials. (Schematic.)] - -These food materials are, by the life processes of the active cells, -changed in chemical composition as need be, from sugar, which is -soluble, into starch, which is insoluble, and back into sugar, and -combined with nitrogenous substances to make the cell-forming material, -protoplasm (fig. 1). - -In the fall, when the leaves cease to elaborate food, both the upward -and the downward movement, more or less simultaneously, come to rest -(the surplus of food materials, as starch, and sometimes as sugar, -being stored for the winter in certain cell tissues), to begin again -simultaneously when in spring the temperature is high enough to -reawaken activity, when the stored food of last year is dissolved -and started on its voyage. The exact manner in which this movement of -water upward and food materials downward takes place, and the forces -at work, are not yet fully understood, nor is there absolute certainty -as to the parts of the tree in which the movement takes place. It -appears, however, that while all the so-called "sapwood" is capable -of conducting water (the heartwood is probably not), the most active -movement of both water and food materials takes place in the cambium -(the growing cells immediately beneath the bark) and youngest parts of -the bark. - -The deductions from these processes important to the planter are: -That injury to the living bark or bast means injury to growth, if not -destruction to life; that during the period of vegetation transplanting -can be done only with great caution; that the best time to move trees -is in the fall, when the leaves have dropped and the movement of -water and food materials has mostly ceased, or in spring, before the -movement begins again, the winter being objectionable only because of -the difficulty of working the soil and of keeping the roots protected -against frost. All things considered, spring planting, before activity -in the tree has begun, is the best, although it is not impossible to -plant at other times. - - -PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT. - -Like the wheat or corn plant, the tree seed require as conditions for -sprouting sufficient moisture, warmth, and air. Tree seeds, however, -differ from grain in that most of the kinds lose their power of -germination easily; with few exceptions (locust, pine, spruce), they -can not be kept for any length of time. - -The first leaves formed often differ essentially in shape from those -of the mature tree, which may cause their being confounded with other -plants, weeds, etc. - -The little seedlings of many, especially the conifers, are quite -delicate, and remain very small the first season; they need, therefore, -the protecting shade of mother trees, or artificial shading, and also -protection against weeds. The amount of light or shade given requires -careful regulation for some of them; too much light and heat will kill -them, and so will too much shade. This accounts for the failure of many -seedlings that spring up in the virgin forest. - -The planter, then, is required to know the nature and the needs of -the various kinds of seeds and seedlings, so as to provide favorable -conditions, when he will avoid sowing in the open field such as require -the care which it is impracticable to give outside of the nursery. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Bud development of beech. _B_, as it would be -if all formed buds were to live; _A_, as it is, many buds failing to -develop.] - - -GROWTH IN LENGTH AND RAMIFICATION. - -While the stalk of wheat or corn grows for one season, exhausts -itself in seed production, and then dies, the tree continues to grow -from season to season, in length as well as in thickness. The growth -in length of shaft and branches proceeds from buds, made up of cell -tissues, which can subdivide and lengthen into shoots, as well as make -leaves. These buds are formed during summer, and when winter begins -contain embryo leaves, more or less developed, under the protecting -cover of scales (fig. 3). When spring stimulates the young plant to -new activity, the buds swell, shed their scales, distend their cells, -increasing their number by subdivision, and thus the leaves expand, and -the bud lengthens into a shoot and twig. During the season new buds are -formed, and the whole process repeats itself from year to year, giving -rise to the ramification and height growth of the tree. The end buds -being mostly stronger and better developed, the main axis of tree or -branch increases more rapidly than the rest. All these buds originate -from the youngest, central part of the shoot, the pith, and hence -when the tree grows in thickness, enveloping the base of the limbs, -their connection with the pith can always be traced. This is the usual -manner of bud formation; in addition, so-called "adventitious" buds -maybe formed from the young living wood in later life, which are not -connected with the pith. Such buds are those which develop into sprouts -from the stump when the tree is cut; also those which give rise to -what are known as "water sprouts." Many buds, although formed, are, -however, not developed at once, and perhaps not at all, especially as -the tree grows older; these either die or remain "dormant," often for a -hundred years, to spring into life when necessary (fig. 4). - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Buds of maple. _A_, longitudinal section -through tip of a maple twig; _g_, end bud; _s_, lateral buds; _l_, -scars of leaves of last season. _B_, cross-section through end bud, -showing folded leaves in center and scales surrounding them.] - -The fact that each ordinary limb starts as a bud from the pith is an -important one to the timber grower; it explains knotty timber and gives -him the hint that in order to obtain clear timber the branches first -formed must be soon removed, either by the knife or by proper shading, -which kills the branches and thus "clears" the shaft. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Dormant bud, _K_, on a 12-year old branch of -beech. The bud is still capable of development and is connected with -the pith, _mm_, of the stem by a line trace of pith, _S_.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Section through a 12-year old stem of beech, -showing manner of bud and limb formation, _a_, dormant buds; _b_, their -trace of pith extending to the pith of the stem; _c_, a limb which -started two years ago from a dormant bud; _d_, normal limb; _e_, a limb -dead for four years; _f_, adventitious buds.] - -The planter has it also in his power to influence the form development -of the tree by removing some of the buds, giving thereby better chance -to the remaining ones. This pruning of buds is, where practicable, -often better practice than the pruning of limbs. - -Since the tree does not grow in length except by its buds it is evident -that a limb which started to grow at the height of 6 feet has its base -always 6 feet from the ground, and if allowed to grow to size, must be -surrounded by the wood which accumulates on the main stem or trunk. If -a limb is killed and broken off early, only a slender stub composed -entirely of rapidly decaying sapwood, is left, occasioning, therefore, -only a small defect in the heart of the tree; but if left to grow to -considerable age, the base of the limb is encased by the wood of the -stem, which, when the tree is cut into lumber, appears as a knot. The -longer the limb has been allowed to grow, the farther out is the timber -knotty and the thicker is the knot. If the limb remained alive, the -knot is "sound," closely grown together with the fibers of the tree. -If the limb died off, the remaining stub may behave in different ways. -In pines it will be largely composed of heartwood, very resinous and -durable; separated from the fibers of the overgrowing wood, it forms a -"loose" knot, which is apt to fall out of a board, leaving a hole. - -In broad-leaved trees, where no resin assists in the process of -healing, the stub is apt to decay, and this decay, caused by the -growth of fungi, is apt to penetrate into the tree (fig. 6). In parks -and orchards, pruning is resorted to, and the cuts are painted or -tarred to avoid the decay. In well-managed forests and dense woods -in general, the light is cut off, the limb is killed when young and -breaks away, the shaft "clears itself," and the sound trunk furnishes -a good grade of material. The difference in development of the branch -system, whether in full enjoyment of light, in open stand, or with the -side light cut off, in dense position, is shown in the accompanying -illustration (fig. 7). - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Section through partly decayed knot in -oak wood. _a_, wood of knot; _b_ and _c_, wood callus of the stem -covering the wound; shaded portion, decayed wood, black part, a cavity -remaining.] - -Both trees start alike; the one retains its branches, the other loses -them gradually, the stubs being in time overgrown; finally the second -has a clear shaft, with a crown concentrated at the top, while the -first is beset with branches and branch stubs for its whole length -(fig. 8). - -When ripped open lengthwise, the interior exhibits the condition shown -in figure 9, the dead parts of the knot being indicated in heavier -shading. Since the brandies grow in more or less regular whorls, -several knots, stumps, or limbs are met every 6 to 24 inches through -the entire stem. - -Hence, in forest planting, trees are placed and kept for some time -close together, in order to decrease the branching in the lower part of -the tree and thus produce a clean bole and clear lumber. - - -GROWTH IN THICKNESS. - -The young seedling and the young shoot of the older tree much resemble -in interior structure that of any herbaceous plant, being composed of a -large amount of pith, loose squarish cells, and a few bundles of long -fibers symmetrically distributed about the center, the whole covered -with a thin skin or epidermis. Each strand or bundle of fibers, called -fibro-vascular (fiber-vessel) bundles, consists of two kinds, namely, -wood fibers on the inner side and bast fibers of different structure -on the outer side. Between these two sets of fibers, the bast and the -wood, there is a row of cells which form the really active, growing -part of the plantlet, the cambium. The cambium cells are actively -subdividing and expanding, giving off wood cells to the interior and -bast cells to the exterior, and extending at the same time side-wise, -until at the end of the season not only are the wood and bast portions -increased in lines radiating from the center, but the cambium layer, -the wood cells, and the bast cells of all the bundles (scattered at -the beginning) join at the sides to form a complete ring, or rather -hollow cylinder, around the central pith. Only here and there the pith -cells remain, interrupting the wood cylinder and giving rise to the -system of cells known as medullary rays. The cross-section now shows a -comparatively small amount of pith and bast or bark and a larger body -of strong wood fibers. The new shoot at the end, to be sure, has the -same appearance and arrangement as the young plantlet had, the pith -preponderating, and the continuous cylinder of cambium, bast, and wood -being separated into strands or bundles. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Development in and out of the forest. _A_, -young tree alike. In both cases; _B_ and _C_, successive stages of tree -grown in the open; _B´_ and _C´_, corresponding stages of the tree -grown in the forest. Numbers refer to annual growth in height.] - -During the season, through the activity of the cambial part of the -bundles, the same changes take place in the new shoot as did the -previous year in the young seedling, while at the same time the cambium -in the yearling part also actively subdivides, forming new wood and -bast cells, and thus a second ring, or rather cylinder, is formed. The -cambium of the young shoot is always a continuation of that of the ring -or cylinder formed the year before, and this cambium cylinder always -keeps moving outward, so that at the end of the season, when activity -ceases, it is always the last minute layer of cells on the outside of -the wood, between wood proper and bark. It is here, therefore, that -the life of the tree lies, and any injury to the cambium must interfere -with the growth and life of the tree. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Tree in and out of the forest. _D_, tree grown -in the open; _D´_, tree grown in the forest.] - -The first wood cells which the cambium forms in the spring are usually -or always of a more open structure, thin-walled, and with a large -opening or "lumen," comparable to a blown-up paper bag; so large, in -fact, sometimes, is the "lumen" that the width of the cells can be -seen on a cross-section with the naked eye, as, for instance, in oak, -ash, elm, the so-called "pores" are this open wood formed in spring. -The cells, which are formed later in summer, have mostly thick walls, -are closely crowded and compressed, and show a very small opening or -"lumen," being comparable, perhaps, to a very thick wooden box. They -appear in the cross-section not only denser but of a deeper color, on -account of their crowded, compressed condition and thicker walls. Since -at the beginning of the next season again thin-walled cells with wide -openings or lumina are formed, this difference in the appearance of -"spring wood" and "summer wood" enables us to distinguish the layer of -wood formed each year. This "annual ring" is more conspicuous in Some -kinds than in others. In the so-called "ring porous" woods, like oak, -ash, elm, the rings are easily distinguished by the open spring wood; -in the conifers, especially pines, by the dark-colored summer wood; -while in maple, birch, tulip, etc., only a thin line of flattened, -hence darker and regularly aligned, summer cells, often hardly -recognizable, distinguishes The rings from each other. Cutting through -a tree, therefore, we can not only ascertain its age by counting its -annual layers in the cross-section, but also determine how much wood is -formed each year (fig. 10). We can, in fact, retrace the history of -its growth, the vicissitudes through which it has passed, by the record -preserved in its ring growth. - -To ascertain the age of a tree correctly, however, we must cut so near -to the ground as to include the growth of the first year's little -plantlet; any section higher up shows as many years too few as it took -the tree to reach that height. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Sections of logs showing the relative -development of knots. _E_, from tree grown in the open; _E´_, from tree -grown in a dense forest; _a_ and _c_, whorls of knots; _b_, dead limb; -_sk_, "sound knot;" _dk_, "dead knot."] - -This annual-ring formation is the rule in all countries which have -distinct seasons of summer and winter and temporary cessation of -growth. Only exceptionally a tree may fail to make its growth -throughout its whole length on account of loss of foliage or other -causes; and occasionally, when its growth has been disturbed during -the season, a "secondary" ring, resembling the annual ring, and -distinguishable only by the expert, may appear and mar the record. - -To the forest planter this chapter on ring growth is of great -importance, because not only does this feature of tree life afford the -means of watching the progress of his crop, calculating the amount of -wood formed, and therefrom determining when it is most profitable for -him to harvest (namely, when the annual or periodic wood growth falls -below a certain amount), but since the proportion of summer wood and -spring wood determines largely the quality of the timber, and since he -has it in his power to influence the preponderance of the one or other -by adaptation of species to soils and by their management, ring growth -furnishes an index for regulating the quality of his crop. - - -FORM DEVELOPMENT. - -If a tree is allowed to grow in the open, it has a tendency to branch, -and makes a low and spreading crown. In order to lengthen its shaft and -to reduce the number of branches it is necessary to narrow its growing -space, to shade its sides so that the lower branches and their foliage -do not receive light enough to perform their functions. When the side -shade is dense enough, these branches die and finally break off under -the influence of winds and fungous growth; wood then forms over the -scars and we get a clean shaft which carries a crown high up beyond the -reach of shade from neighbors. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Scheme to Illustrate the arrangement of annual -growth. 1, 2, 3, etc., represent the parts of the stem grown during the -first, second, third, etc., twenty years of the life of the tree, _k_, -knots; the shaded part of each is the "dead knot" of lumber.] - -The branches being prevented from spreading out, the shaft is forced -to grow upward, and hence, when crowded by others, trees become taller -and more cylindrical in form, while in the open, where they can spread, -they remain lower and more conical in form (figs. 11, 12). - -There are, to be sure, different natural types of development, some, -like the walnuts, oaks, beeches, and the broad-leaved trees generally, -having greater tendency to spread than others, like spruces, firs, -and conifers in general, which lengthen their shaft in preference -to spreading, even in the open. This tendency to spreading is also -influenced by soil conditions and climate, as well as by the age of the -tree. When the trees cease to grow in height, their crowns broaden, and -this takes place sooner in shallow soils than in deep, moist ones; but -the tendency can be checked and all can be made to develop the shaft at -the expense of the branches by proper shading from the sides. - -It follows that the forest planter, who desires to produce long and -clean shafts and best working quality of timber, must secure and -maintain side shade by a close stand, while the landscape gardener, -who desires characteristic form, must maintain an open stand and full -enjoyment of light for his trees. - -Now, as we have seen, different species afford different amounts of -shade, and in proportion to the shade which they afford can they -endure shade. The beech or sugar maple or spruce, which maintain a -large amount of foliage under the dense shade of their own crown, show -that their leaves can live and functionate with a small amount of -light. They are shade-enduring trees. On the other hand, the black -walnut, the locust, the catalpa, the poplars, and the larch show by the -manner in which their crowns thin out, the foliage being confined to -the ends of the branches, that their leaves require more light--they -are light-needing trees; so that the scale which arranges the trees -according to the amount of shade they exert serves also to measure -their shade endurance. - -In making, therefore, mixed plantations, the different kinds must be so -grouped and managed that the shady trees will not outgrow and overtop -the light-needing; the latter must either have the start of the former -or must be quicker growers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Oak tree grown in the open.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Maple tree grown in the forest.] - - -RATE OF GROWTH. - -Not only do different species grow more or less rapidly in height and -girth, but there is in each species a difference in the rate of growth -during different periods of life, and a difference in the persistence -of growth. - -It stands to reason that trees grow differently in different soils and -situations, and hence we can not compare different species with respect -to their rate of growth except as they grow under the same conditions. - -Thus the black walnut may grow as fast as or faster than the ash on -a rich, deep, moist, warm soil, but will soon fall to the rear in a -wetter, colder, and shallower soil. - -Given the same conditions, some species will start on a rapid upward -growth at once, like the poplars, aspen, locust, and silver maple, -making rapid progress (the most rapid from their tenth to their -fifteenth year), but decreasing soon in rate and reaching their maximum -height early. Others, like the spruce, beech, and sugar maple, will -begin slowly, often occupying several, sometimes as many as 10 to -15, years before they appear to grow at all, their energy all going -into root growth. Then comes a period of more and more accelerated -growth, which reaches its maximum rate at 25 or 30 years; and when the -cottonwood or aspen has reached the end of its growth in height the -spruce or pine is still at its best rate, and continues to grow for a -long time at that rate; in later life the rate decreases, yet height -growth sometimes does not cease altogether for centuries. As a rule, -the light-needing species are the ones which show the rapid height -growth at the start, while the shade-enduring are slow at the start, -but persistent growers. - -This fact is important in explaining the alternations of forest -growth in nature; the persistent shade-enduring species crowd out the -light-needing, and the latter rapidly take possession of any openings -that fire or storm has made. It is also important with reference to -the management of wood crops and starting of mixed plantations; the -light-needing species must be mixed only with such shade-enduring -species as are slower growers than themselves. - -The diameter growth shows also periodic changes in its rate, and is, -of course, influenced in the same way by soil, climate, and light -conditions, as the height growth. - -In the juvenile or brush stage, lasting 6 to 10 years in light-needing -and 20 to 40 years in shade-enduring species, the diameter grows -comparatively little, all energy being directed to height growth and -root growth. When the crown has been definitely formed, more food -material is available for wood formation, and the increase in foliage -is accompanied by a more rapid increase of trunk diameter; in favorable -situations, the highest rate occurs between the fortieth and sixtieth -years; in the poorer situations, between the fiftieth and eightieth -years, which rate continues for some time. Then comes a period of -slower rate, which finally in old age dwindles down almost to zero. - -But neither the diameter growth nor the width of the annual rings alone -tells us directly what amount of wood is forming. The outer rings, -being laid over a larger circumference, although thinner than the -preceding rings, may yet have greater cubic contents. The statements -of diameter growth are, therefore, misleading if we are interested in -knowing how much wood is forming. - -Accordingly the growth in volume must be considered separately, as -determined by the enlargement of the cross-section area and the height. -The growth in volume or mass accretion is quite small in young trees, -so that when wood is cut young the smallest amount of crop per year -is harvested, while, if it is allowed to grow, an increase more than -proportionate to the number of years may be obtained. - -Only when the tree has a fully developed crown does it begin to make -much wood. Its volume growth progresses then at a uniform rate, and -continues to do so for decades, and sometimes for a century or more. - -On poorer sites the rate is slower, but remains longer on the increase, -while on good sites the maximum rate is soon reached. - -Of course, in a forest, where light conditions are not most favorable, -because form development and soil conditions require shade, the total -wood formation is less than in an isolated tree, favorably placed. -Just so the dominant trees in a forest--i. e., those which have their -crowns above all others--show, of course, the advantage they have -over the inferior trees which are suffering from the shade of their -neighbors. - -Finally, if we would take into consideration an entire forest growth, -and determine, for instance, how much wood an acre of such forest -produces at different periods, we must not overlook the fact that the -number of trees per acre changes as the trees grow older. Some of them -are overshaded and crowded out by the others, so that a young growth of -spruce might start with 100,000 little seedlings to the acre, of which -in the twentieth year only 10,000 would be alive, while in the fortieth -year the number would be reduced to 1,200, and in the hundredth year to -280. Hence the rate of growth of any single tree gives no idea of what -the acre of forest will do. - -Tims, while a single good white pine might grow the fastest in volume -when about one hundred years old, then making wood at the rate of, -say, 1.5 cubic feet per year, an acre of pine on good soil, containing -about 1,600 trees, may make the most wood in the thirtieth year, then -growing at the rate of 170 cubic feet per acre, while in the hundredth -year the rate would not exceed 70 cubic feet; and an acre of pine in a -poorer location, with about 1,400 trees, may make the most wood in the -fortieth year, at the rate of 100 cubic feet per acre. - -From the consideration of the relation of light conditions to soil -conditions, to form development, and to rate of growth, we may make the -following deductions of interest to the forest planter: - -In order to secure the best results in wood production, in quantity -and quality, at the same time preserving favorable soil conditions, -the forest should be composed of various species, a mixture of -light-needing and shade-enduring kinds. The light-needing ones should -be of quicker growth; the shady ones, in larger numbers, should -be slower growers. For the first fifteen to twenty-five years the -plantation should be kept as dense as possible, to secure clear shafts -and good growth in height; then it should be thinned, to increase crown -development and diameter growth; the thinning, however, is not to be so -severe that the crowns can not close up again in two or three years; -the thinning is to be repeated again and again, always favoring the -best developed trees. - - -REPRODUCTION. - -All trees reproduce themselves naturally from seed. Man can secure -their reproduction also from cuttings or layers; and some kinds can -reproduce themselves by shoots from the stump when the parent tree has -been cut. This latter capacity is possessed in a varying degree by -different species; chestnuts, oaks, elms, maples, poplars, and willows -are most excellent sprouters; most conifers do not sprout at all, and -the shoots of those that do sprout soon die (Sequoia or California -redwood seems to be an exception). Sprouts of broad-leaved trees -develop differently from seedlings, growing very rapidly at first, but -soon lessening in the rate of growth and never attaining the height and -perhaps not the diameter of trees grown from the seed; they are also -shorter lived. With age the stumps lose their capacity for sprouting. -To secure best results, the parent tree should be cut close to the -ground in early spring, avoiding severe frost, and a sharp cut should -be made which will not sever the bark from the trunk. - -Not all trees bear seed every year, and plentiful seed production, -especially in a forest, occurs, as a rule, periodically. The periods -differ with species, climate, and season. - -Not all seeds can germinate, and in some species the number of seeds -that can germinate is very small, and they lose their power of -germination when kept a few hours, like the willows. Others, if kept -till they have become dry, will "lie over" in the soil a year or more -before germinating. The same thing will occur if they are covered too -deep in the soil, provided they germinate at all under such conditions. - -In order to germinate, seeds must have warmth, air, and moisture. -The preparation of a seed bed is, therefore, necessary in order to -supply these conditions in most favorable combination. In the natural -forest millions of seeds rot or dry without sprouting, and millions -of seedlings sprout, but soon perish under the too dense shade of the -mother trees. - -Man, desiring to reproduce a valuable wood crop, cannot afford to be -as lavish as nature, and must therefore improve upon nature's methods, -making more careful preparation for the production of his crop, either -by growing the seedlings in nurseries and transplanting them, or else -by cutting away the old growth in such a manner as to secure to the -young self-grown crop better chances for life and development. - - - - -2. HOW TO PLANT A FOREST. - - -Forest planting and tree planting are two different things. The -orchardist, who plants for fruit; the landscape gardener, who plants -for form; the roadside planter, who plants for shade, all have objects -in view different from that of the forest planter, and therefore -select and use their plant material differently. They deal with single -individual trees, each one by itself destined for a definite purpose. -The forester, on the other hand, plants a crop like the farmer; he -deals not with the single seed or plant, but with masses of trees; the -individual tree has value to him only as apart of the whole. It may -come to harvest for its timber, or it may not come to harvest, and yet -have answered its purpose as a part of the whole in shading the ground, -or acting as nurse or "forwarder" as long as it was necessary. - -His object is not to grow trees, but to produce wood, the largest -amount of the best quality per acre, whether it be stored in one tree -or in many, and his methods must be directed to that end. - -As far as the manner of setting out plants or sowing seeds is -concerned, the same general principles and the same care in -manipulation are applicable as in any other planting, except as the -coat of operating on so Large a scale may necessitate less careful -methods than the gardener or nurseryman can afford to apply; the -nearer, however, the performance of planting can be brought to the -careful manner of the gardener, the surer the success. The principles -underlying such methods have been discussed in the chapter "How trees -grow;" in the present chapter it is proposed to point out briefly -the special considerations which should guide the forest planter in -particular. - - -WHAT TREES TO PLANT. - -_Adaptability to climate_ is the first requisite in the species to be -planted. - -It is best to choose from the native growth of the region which is -known to be adapted to it. With regard to species not native, the -reliance must be placed upon the experience of neighboring planters -and upon experiment (at first on a small scale), after study of the -requirements of the kinds proposed for trial. - -Adaptation must be studied, not only with reference to temperature -ranges and rainfall, but especially with reference to atmospheric -humidity and requirements of transpiration. - -Many species have a wide range of natural distribution, and hence -of climatic adaptation. If such are to be used, it is important to -secure seeds from that part of the range of natural distribution where -the plants must be hardiest, i. e., the coldest and driest region in -which it occurs, which insures hardy qualities in the offspring. For -instance, the Douglas spruce from the humid and evenly tempered Pacific -Slope will not be as hardy as that grown from seed collected on the dry -and frigid slopes of the Rockies. Lack of attention to this requisite -accounts for many failures. It must also be kept in mind that, while -a species may be able to grow in another than its native climate, its -wood may not there have the same valuable qualities which it develops -in its native habitat. - -_Adaptability to soil_ must be studied less with reference to mineral -constituents than to physical condition. Depth and moisture conditions, -and the structure of the soil, which influences the movement of water -in it, are the most important elements. While all trees thrive best -in a moist to "fresh" soil of moderate depth (from 2 to 4 feet) and -granular structure, some can adapt themselves to drier or wetter, -shallow, and compact soils. Fissures in rocks into which the roots can -penetrate often stand for depth of soil, and usually aid in maintaining -favorable moisture conditions. In soils of great depth (i. e., from the -surface to the impenetrable subsoil) and of coarse structure water may -drain away so fast as not to be available to the roots. - -Soil moisture must always be studied in conjunction with atmospheric -moisture; for, while a species may thrive in an arid soil, when the -demands of transpiration are not great, it may not do so when aridity -of atmosphere is added. Trees of the swamp are apt to be indifferent to -soil moisture and to thrive quite well, if not better, in drier soils. - -_Adaptability to site._--While a species may be well adapted to the -general climatic conditions of a region, and in general to the soil, -there still remains to be considered its adaptability to the particular -"site," under which term we may comprise the total effect of general -climate, local climate, and soil. The general climatic conditions are -locally influenced, especially by the slope, exposure, or aspect, and -the surroundings. Thus we know that eastern exposures are more liable -to frost, western exposures more liable to damage from winds, southern -more apt to be hot and to dry out, and northern to be cooler and -damper, having in consequence a shorter period of vegetation. Hollows -and lowlands are more exposed to frosts and more subject to variations -in soil moisture, etc. - -Hence for these various situations it is advisable to select species -which can best withstand such local dangers. - -_The use value, or utility_, of the species is next to be considered. -This must be done with reference to the commercial and domestic demand, -and the length of time it takes the species to attain its value. The -greater variety of purposes a wood may serve--i. e., the greater its -general utility--and the sooner it attains its use value the better. -White pine for the northeastern States as a wood is like the apple -among fruits, making an all-round useful material in large quantities -per acre in short time. Tulip poplar, applicable to a wider climatic -range, is almost as valuable, while oak, ash, and hickory are standard -woods in the market. Other woods are of limited application. Thus the -black locust, which grows most quickly into useful posts, has only a -limited market, much more limited than it should have; hickory soon -furnishes valuable hoop poles from the thinnings, and later the best -wagon material, not, however, large quantities in a short time; while -black walnut of good quality is very high in price, the market is also -limited, and the dark color of the heartwood, for which it is prized, -is attained only by old trees. The black cherry, used for similar -purposes, attains its value much sooner. - -By planting various species together, variety of usefulness may be -secured and the certainty of a market increased. - -_The forest value_ of the species is only in part expressed by its use -value. As has been shown in another place, the composition of the crop -must be such as to insure maintenance of favorable soil conditions, -as well as satisfactory development of the crop itself. Some species, -although of high use value, like ash, oak, etc, are poor preservers of -soil conditions, allowing grass and weeds to enter the plantation and -to deteriorate the soil under their thin foliage. Others, like beech, -sugar maple, box elder, etc., although of less use value, being dense -foliaged and preserving a shady crown for a long time, are of great -forest value as soil improvers. - -Again, as the value of logs depends largely on their freedom from -knots, straightness, and length, it is of importance to secure these -qualities. Some valuable species, if grown by themselves, make crooked -trunks, do not clean their shafts of branches, and are apt to spread -rather than lengthen. If planted in close companionship with others, -they are forced by these "nurses or forwarders" to make better growths -and clean their shafts of branches. - -Furthermore, from financial considerations, it is well to know that -some species develop more rapidly and produce larger quantities of -useful material per acre than others; thus the white pine is a "big -cropper," and, combining with this a tolerably good shading quality, -and being in addition capable of easy reproduction, it is of highest -"forest value." - -Hence, as the object of forestry is to make money from continued wood -crops, use value and forest value must both be considered in The -selection of materials for forest planting. - -_Mutual relationship of different species_, with reference especially -to their relative height growth and their relative light requirements, -must be considered in starting a mixed plantation. - -Mixed forest plantations (made of several kinds) have so many -advantages over pure plantations (made of one kind) that they should -be preferred, except for very particular reasons. Mixed plantations -are capable of producing larger quantities of better and more varied -material, preserve soil conditions hotter, are less liable to damage -from winds, fires, and insects, and can be more readily reproduced. - -The following general rules should guide in making up the composition -of a mixed plantation: - - _a._ Shade-enduring kinds should form the bulk (five-eighths to - seven-eighths) of the plantation, except on specially favored - soils where no deterioration is to be feared from planting only - light-needing kinds, and in which case those may even be planted by - themselves. - - _b._ The light-needing trees should be surrounded by shade-enduring - of slower growth, so that the former may not be overtopped, but have - the necessary light and be forced by side shade to straight growth. - - _c._ Shade-enduring species may be grown in admixture with each - other when their rate of height growth is about equal, or when the - slower-growing kind can be protected against the quicker-growing (for - instance, by planting a larger proportion of the former in groups or - by cutting back the latter). - - _d._ The more valuable timber trees which are to form the main crop - should be so disposed individually, and planted in such numbers among - the secondary crop or nurse crop, that the latter can be thinned out - first without disturbing the former. - -Where a plantation of light-foliaged trees has been made (black walnut, -for instance), it can be greatly improved by "under-planting" densely -with a shade-enduring kind, which will choke out weed growth, improve -the soil, and thereby advance the growth of the plantation. - -The selection and proper combination of species with reference to -this mutual relationship to each other and to the soil are the most -important elements of success. - -_Availability_ of the species also still needs consideration in -this country; for, although a species may be very well adapted to -the purpose in hand, it may be too difficult to obtain material -for planting in quantity or at reasonable prices. While the beech -is one of the best species for shade endurance, and hence for soil -cover, seedlings can not be had as yet in quantity. Western conifers, -although promising good material for forest planting, are at present -too high priced for general use. Some eastern trees can be secured -readily--either their seed or seedlings--from the native woods; others -must be grown in nurseries before they can be placed in the field. - -_Whether to procure seeds or plants_, and if the latter, what kind, -depends upon a number of considerations. The main crop, that which is -to furnish the better timber, had best be planted with nursery-grown -plants, if of slow-growing kinds, perhaps once transplanted, with -well-developed root systems, the plants in no case to be more than 2 to -3 years old. The secondary or nurse crop may then be sown or planted -with younger and less costly material taken from the woods or grown in -seed beds, or else cuttings may be used. - -In some localities--for instance, the Western plains--the germinating -of seeds in the open field is so uncertain, and the life of the young -seedlings for the first year or two so precarious, that the use of -seeds in the field can not be recommended. In such locations careful -selection and treatment of the planting material according to the -hardships which it must encounter can alone insure success. - -Seedlings from 6 to 12 inches high furnish the best material. The -planting of large-sized trees is not excluded, but is expensive and -hence often impracticable, besides being less sure of success, since -the larger-sized tree is apt to lose a greater proportion of its roots -in transplanting. - - -METHODS OF PLANTING. - -_Preparation of soil_ is for the purpose of securing a favorable start -for the young crop; its effects are lost after the first few years. -Most land that is to be devoted to forest planting does not admit of -as careful preparation as for agricultural crops, nor is it necessary -where the climate is hot too severe and the soil not too compact to -prevent the young crop from establishing itself. Thousands of acres in -Germany are planted annually without any soil preparation, yearling -pine seedlings being set with a dibble in the unprepared ground. This -absence of preparation is even necessary in sandy soils, like that -encountered in the sand-hills of Nebraska, which may, if disturbed, -be blown out and shifted. In other cases a partial removal of a too -rank undergrowth or soil cover and a shallow scarifying or hoeing is -resorted to, or else furrows are thrown up and the trees set out in -them. - -In land that has been tilled, deep plowing (10 to 12 inches) and -thorough pulverizing give the best chances for the young crop to -start. For special conditions, very dry or very moist situations, -special methods are required. The best methods for planting in the -semiarid regions of the far West have not yet been developed. Thorough -cultivation, as for agricultural crops, with subsequent culture, is -successful, but expensive. A plan which might be tried would consist in -breaking the raw prairie in June and turning over a shallow sod, sowing -a crop of oats or alfalfa, harvesting it with a high stubble, then -opening furrows for planting and leaving the ground between furrows -undisturbed, so as to secure the largest amount of drainage into the -furrows and a mulch between the rows. - -_The time for planting_ depends on climatic and soil conditions and -the convenience of the planter. Spring planting is preferable except -in southern latitudes, especially in the West, where the winters are -severe and the fall apt to be dry, the soil therefore not in favorable -condition for planting. - -The time for fall planting is after the leaves have fallen; for spring -planting, before or just when life begins anew. In order to be ready in -time for spring planting, it is a good practice to take up the plants -in the fall and "heel them in" over winter (covering them, closely -packed, in a dry trench of soil). Conifers can be planted later in -spring and earlier in fall than broad-leaved trees. - -_The density_ of the trees is a matter in which most planters fail. The -advantages of close planting lie in the quicker shading of the soil, -hence the better preservation of its moisture and improved growth and -form development of the crop. These advantages must be balanced against -the increased cost of close planting. The closer the planting, the -sooner will the plantation be self-sustaining and the surer the success. - -If planted in squares, or, better still, in quincunx order (the trees -in every other row alternating at equal distances), which is most -desirable on account of the more systematic work possible and the more -complete cover which it makes, the distance should not be more than 4 -feet, unless for special reasons and conditions, while 2 feet apart is -not too close, and still closer planting is done by nature with the -best success. - -The following numbers of trees per acre are required when planting at -distances as indicated: - - 1½ by 1½ feet 19,360 | 2 by 4 feet 6,445 - 1½ by 2 feet 14,520 | 3 by 3 feet 4,840 - 2 by 2 foot 10,890 | 3 by 4 feet 3,630 - 2 by 3 feet 7,260 | 4 by 4 feet 2,722 - -To decrease expense, the bulk of the plantation may be made of the -cheapest kinds of trees that may serve as soil cover and secondary or -nurse crop, the main crop of from 300 to 600 trees to consist of better -kinds, and with better planting material, mainly of light-needing -species. These should be evenly disposed through the plantation, each -closely surrounded by the nurse crop. It is, of course, understood that -not all trees grow up; a constant change in numbers by the death (or -else timely removal) of the overshaded takes place, so that the final -crop shows at 100 years a close cover, with hardly 300 trees to the -acre. - -_After-culture_ is not entirely avoidable, especially under unfavorable -climatic conditions, and if the planting was not close enough. Shallow -cultivation between the rows is needed to prevent weed growth and to -keep the soil open, until it is shaded by the young trees, which may -take a year with close planting and two or three years with rows 4 by 4 -feet apart, the time varying also with the species. - -It is rare that a plantation succeeds in all its parts; gaps or fail -places occur, as a rule, and must be filled in by additional planting -as soon as possible, if of larger extent than can be closed up in a few -years by the neighboring growth. - -When the soil is protected by a complete leaf canopy, the forest crop -may be considered as established, and the after-treatment will consist -of judicious thinning. - - - - -3. HOW TO TREAT THE WOOD LOT. - - -In the northeastern States it is the custom to have connected with -the farm apiece of virgin woodland, commonly called the wood lot. Its -object primarily is to supply the farmer with the firewood, fence -material, and such dimension timbers as he may need from time to time -for repairs on buildings, wagons, etc. - -As a rule, the wood lot occupies, as it ought to, the poorer part of -the farm, the rocky or stony, the dry or the wet portions, which are -not well fitted for agricultural crops. As a rule, it is treated as -it ought not to be, if the intention is to have it serve its purpose -continuously; it is cut and culled without regard to its reproduction. - -As far as firewood supplies go, the careful farmer will first use -the dead and dying trees, broken limbs, and leavings, which is quite -proper. The careless man avoids the extra labor which such material -requires, and takes whatever splits best, no matter whether the -material could be used for better purposes or not. - -When it comes to the cutting of other material, fence rails, posts, or -dimension timber, the general rule is to go into the lot and select -the best trees of the best kind for the purpose. This looks at first -sight like the natural, most practical way of doing. It is the method -which the lumberman pursues when he "culls" the forest, and is, from -his point of view perhaps, justifiable, for he only desires to secure -at once what is most profitable in the forest. But for the farmer, who -proposes to use his wood lot continuously for supplies of this kind, it -is a method detrimental to his object, and in time it leaves him with a -lot of poor, useless timber which encumbers the ground and prevents the -growth of a better crop. - -Our woods are mostly composed of many species of trees; they are mixed -woods. Some of the species are valuable for some special purposes, -others are applicable to a variety of purposes, and again others -furnish but poor material for anything but firewood, and even for that -use they may not be of the best. - -Among the most valuable in the northeastern woods we should mention -the white pine--king of all--the white ash, white and chestnut oak, -hickories, tulip tree, black walnut, and black cherry, the last three -being now nearly exhausted; next, spruce and hemlock, red pine, sugar -maple, chestnut, various oaks of the black or red oak tribe, several -species of ash and birch, black locust; lastly, elms and soft maples, -basswood, poplars, and sycamore. - -Now, by the common practice of culling the best it is evident that -gradually all the best trees of the best kinds are taken out, leaving -only inferior trees or inferior kinds--the weeds among trees, if one -may call them such--and thus the wood lot becomes well-nigh useless. - -It does not supply that for which it was intended; the soil, which was -of little use for anything but a timber crop before, is still further -deteriorated under this treatment, and being compacted by the constant -running of cattle, the starting of a crop of seedlings is made nearly -impossible. It would not pay to turn it into tillage ground or pasture; -the farm has by so much lost in value. In other words, instead of using -the interest on his capital, interest and capital have been used up -together; the goose that laid the golden egg has been killed. - -This is not necessary if only a little system is brought into the -management of the wood lot and the smallest care is taken to avoid -deterioration and secure reproduction. - - -IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS. - -The first care should be to improve the crop in its composition. -Instead of culling it of its best material, it should be culled of its -weeds, the poor kinds, which we do not care to reproduce, and which, -like all other weeds, propagate themselves only too readily. This -weeding must not, however, be done all sit once, as it could be in -a field crop, for in a full-grown piece of woodland each tree has a -value, even the weed trees, as soil cover. - -The great secret of success in all crop production lies in the -regulating of water supplies; the manuring in part and the cultivating -entirely, as well as drainage and irrigation, are means to this end. In -forestry these means are usually not practicable, and hence other means -are resorted to. The principal of these is to keep the soil as much as -possible under cover, either by the shade which the foliage of the tall -trees furnishes, or by that from the underbrush, or by the litter which -accumulates and in decaying forms a humus cover, a most excellent mulch. - -A combination of these three conditions, viz, a dense crown cover, -woody underbrush where the crown cover is interrupted, and a heavy -layer of well-decomposed humus, gives the best result. Under such -conditions, first of all, the rain, being intercepted by the foliage -and litter, reaches the ground only gradually, and therefore does not -compact the soil as it does in the open field, but leaves it granular -and open, so that the water can readily penetrate and move in the soil. -Secondly, the surface evaporation is considerably reduced by the shade -and lack of air circulation in the dense woods, be that more moisture -remains for the use of the trees. When the shade of the crowns overhead -(the so-called "crown cover," or "canopy,") is perfect, but little -undergrowth will be seen; but where the crown cover is interrupted -or imperfect, an undergrowth will appear. If this is composed of -young trees, or even shrubs, it is an advantage, but if of weeds, and -especially grass, it is a misfortune, because these transpire a great -deal more water than the woody plants and allow the soil to deteriorate -in structure and therefore in water capacity. - -Some weeds and grasses, to be sure, are capable of existing where but -little light reaches the soil. When they appear it is a sign to the -forester that he must be careful not to thin out the crown cover any -more. When the more light-needing weeds and grasses appear it is a sign -that too much light reaches the ground, and that the soil is already -deteriorated. If this state continues, the heavy drain which the -transpiration of these weeds makes upon the soil moisture, without any -appreciable conservative action by their shade, will injure the soil -still further. - -The overhead shade or crown cover may be imperfect because there are -not enough trees on the ground to close up the interspaces with their -crowns, or else because the kinds of trees which make up the forest do -not yield much shade; thus it can easily be observed that a beech, a -sugar maple, a hemlock, is so densely foliaged that but little light -reaches the soil through its crown canopy, while an ash, an oak, a -larch, when full grown, in the forest, allows a good deal of light to -penetrate. - -Hence, in our weeding process for the improvement of the wood crop, -we must be careful not to interrupt the crown cover too much, and -thereby deteriorate the soil conditions. And for the same reason, in -the selection of the kinds that are to be left or to be taken out, we -shall not only consider their use value but also their shading value, -trying to bring about such a mixture of shady and less shady kinds as -will insure a continuously satisfactory crown cover, the shade-enduring -kinds to occupy the lower stratum in the crown canopy, and to be more -numerous than the light-needing. - -The forester, therefore, watches first the conditions of his soil -cover, and his next care is for the condition of the overhead shade, -the "crown cover;" for a change in the condition of the latter brings -change into his soil conditions, and, inversely, from the changes -in the plant cover of the soil he judges whether he may or may not -change the light conditions. The changes of the soil cover teach him -more often when "to let alone" than when to go on with his operations -of thinning out; that is to say, he can rarely stop short of that -condition which is most favorable. Hence the improvement cuttings must -be made with caution and only very gradually, so that no deterioration -of the soil conditions be invited. We have repeated this injunction -again and again, because all success in the management of future wood -crops depends upon the care bestowed upon the maintenance of favorable -soil conditions. - -As the object of this weeding is not only to remove the undesirable -kinds from the present crop, but to prevent as much as possible their -reappearance in subsequent crops, it maybe advisable to cut such kinds -as sprout readily from the stump in summer time--June or July--when the -stumps are, likely to die without sprouting. - -It may take several years' cutting to bring the composition of the main -crop into such a condition as to satisfy us. - - -METHODS OF REPRODUCING THE WOOD CROP. - -Then comes the period of utilizing the main crop. As we propose to keep -the wood lot as such, and desire to reproduce a satisfactory wood crop -in place of the old one, this latter must be cut always with a view to -that reproduction. There are various methods pursued for this purpose -in large forestry operations which are not practicable on small areas, -especially when these are expected to yield only small amounts of -timber, and these little by little as required. It is possible, to be -sure, to cut the entire crop and replant a new one, or else to use the -ax skillfully and bring about a natural reproduction in a few years; -but we want in the present case to lengthen out the period during which -the old crop is cut, and hence must resort to other methods. There are -three methods practicable. - -We may clear narrow strips or bands entirely, expecting the neighboring -growth to furnish the seed for covering the strip with a new crop--"the -strip method;" or we can take out single trees here and there, relying -again on an after growth from seed shed by the surrounding trees--the -"selection method;" or, finally, instead of single trees, we may cut -entire groups of trees hero and there in the same manner, the gaps to -be filled, as in the other cases, with a young crop from the seed of -the surrounding trees, and this we may call the "group method." - -In _the strip method_, in order to secure sufficient seeding of the -cleared strip, the latter must not be so broad that the seed from the -neighboring growth can not be carried over it by the wind. In order to -get the best results from the carrying power of the wind (as well as to -avoid windfalls when the old growth is suddenly opened on the windward -side) the strips should be located on the side opposite the prevailing -winds. Oaks, beech, hickory, and nut trees in general with heavy seeds -will not seed over any considerable breadth of strip, while with maple -and ash the breadth may be made twice as great as the height of the -timber, and the mother trees with lighter seeds, like spruce and pine, -or birch and elm, maybe able to cover strips of a breadth of 3 or 4 and -even 8 times their height. But such broad strips are hazardous, since -with insufficient seed fall, or fail years in the seed, the strip may -remain exposed to sun and wind for several years without a good cover -and deteriorate. It is safer, therefore, to make the strips no broader -than just the height of the neighboring timber, in which case not only -has the seed better chance of covering the ground, but the soil and -seedlings have more protection from the mother crop. In hilly country -the strips must not be made in the direction of the slope, for the -water would wash out soil and seed. - -Every year, then, or from time to time, a new strip is to be cleared -and "regenerated." But if the first strip failed to cover itself -satisfactorily, the operation is stopped, for it would be unwise to -remove the seed trees further by an additional clearing. Accordingly, -this method should be used only where the kinds composing the mother -crop are frequent and abundant seeders and give assurance of reseeding -the strips quickly and successfully. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Showing plan of group system in regenerating -a forest crop. 1, 2, 3, 4, successive groups of young timber, 1 being -the oldest, 4 the youngest, 5 old timber; _a_, wind mantle, specially -managed to secure protection.] - -The other two methods have greater chances of success in that they -preserve the soil conditions more surely, and there is more assurance -of seeding from the neighboring trees on all sides. - -_The selection method_, by which single trees are taken out all over -the forest, is the same as has been practiced by the farmer and -lumberman hitherto, only they have forgotten to look after the young -crop. Millions of seed may fall to the ground and germinate, but -perish from the excessive shade of the mother trees. If we wish to be -successful in establishing a new crop, it will be necessary to be ready -with the ax all the time and give light as needed by the young crop. -The openings made by taking out single trees are so small that there is -great danger of the young crop being lost, or at least impeded in its -development, because it is impracticable to come in time to its relief -with the ax. - -The best method, therefore, in all respects, is the "_group method_" -which not only secures continuous soil cover, chances for full seeding, -and more satisfactory light conditions, but requires loss careful -attention, or at least permits more freedom of movement and adaptation -to local conditions (fig. 13). - -It is especially adapted to mixed woods, as it permits securing for -each species the most desirable light conditions by making the openings -larger or smaller, according as the species we wish to favor in a -particular group demand more or less shade. Further, when different -species are ripe for regeneration at different times, this plan makes -it possible to take them in hand as needed. Again, we can begin with -one group or we can take in hand several groups simultaneously, as may -be desirable and practicable. - -We start our groups of new crop either where a young growth is already -on the ground, enlarging around it, or where old timber has reached -its highest usefulness and should be cut in order that we may not lose -the larger growth which young trees would make; or else we choose a -place which is but poorly stocked, where, if it is not regenerated, -the soil is likely to deteriorate further. The choice is affected -further by the consideration that dry situations should be taken in -hand earlier than those in which the soil and site are more favorable, -and that some species reach maturity and highest use value earlier -than others and should therefore be reproduced earlier. In short, we -begin the regeneration when and where the necessity for it exists, or -where the young crop has the best chance to start most satisfactorily -with the least artificial aid. Of course, advantage should betaken of -the occurrence of seed years, which come at different intervals with -different species. - -If we begin with a group of young growth already on the ground, our -plan is to remove gradually the old trees standing over them when no -longer required for shade, and then to cut away the adjoining old -growth and enlarge the opening in successive narrow bands around the -young growth. When the first band has seeded itself satisfactorily, and -the young growth has come to require more light (which may take several -years), we remove another band around it, and thus the regeneration -progresses. Where no young growth already exists, of course the first -opening is made to afford a start, and afterwards the enlargement -follows as occasion requires. - - -SIZE OF OPENINGS. - -The size of the openings and the rapidity with which they should be -enlarged vary, of course, with local conditions and the species which -is to 'be favored, the light-needing species requiring larger openings -and quicker light additions than the shade-enduring. It is difficult to -give any rules, since the modifications due to local conditions are so -manifold, requiring observation and judgment. Caution in not opening -too much at a time and too quickly may avoid failure in securing good -stands. - -In general, the first openings may contain from one-fourth to one-half -an acre or more, and the gradual enlarging may progress by clearing -bands of a breadth not to exceed the height of the surrounding timber. - -The time of the year when the cutting is to be done is naturally in -winter, when the farmer has the most leisure, and when the wood seasons -best after felling and is also most readily moved. Since it is expected -that the seed fallen in the autumn will sprout in the spring, all wood -should, of course, be removed from the seed ground. - -The first opening, as well as the enlargement of the groups, should -not be made at once, but by gradual thinning out, if the soil is -not in good condition to receive and germinate the seed and it is -impracticable to put it in such condition by artificial means--hoeing -or plowing. - -It is, of course, quite practicable--nay, sometimes very desirable--to -prepare the soil for the reception and germination of the seed. Where -undesirable undergrowth has started, it should be cut out, and where -the soil is deteriorated with weed growth or compacted by the tramping -of cattle, it should be hoed or otherwise scarified, so that the seed -may find favorable conditions. To let pigs do the plowing and the -covering of acorns is not an uncommon practice abroad. - -It is also quite proper, if the reproduction from the seed of the -surrounding mother trees does not progress satisfactorily, to assist, -when an opportunity is afforded, by planting such desirable species as -were or were not in the composition of the original crop. - -It may require ten, twenty, or forty years or more to secure the -reproduction of a wood lot in this way. A new growth, denser and better -than the old, with timber of varying age, will be the result. The -progress of the regeneration in groups is shown on the accompanying -plan, the different shadings showing the successive additions of young -crop, the darkest denoting the oldest parts, first regenerated. If we -should make a section through any one of the groups, this, ideally -represented, would be like figure 14, the old growth on the outside, -the youngest new crop adjoining it, and tiers of older growths of -varying height toward the center of the group. - - -WIND MANTLE. - -On the plan there will be noted a strip specially shaded, surrounding -the entire plat (fig. 13, _a_), representing a strip of timber which -should surround the farmer's wood lot, and which he should keep as -dense as possible, especially favoring undergrowth. This part, if -practicable, should be kept reproduced as coppice or by the method of -selection, i. e., by taking out trees hero and there. When gaps are -made, they should be filled, if possible, by introducing shade-enduring -kinds, which, like the spruces and firs and beech, retain their -branches down to the foot for a long time. This mantle is intended to -protect the interior against the drying influence of winds, which are -bound to enter the small wood lot and deteriorate the soil. The smaller -the lot, the more necessary and desirable it is to maintain such a -protective cover or wind-break. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Appearance of regeneration by group method.] - - -COPPICE. - -Besides reproducing a wood crop from the seed of mother trees or by -planting, there is another reproduction possible by sprouts from the -stump. This, to be sure, can be done only with broad-leaved species, -since conifers, with but few exceptions, do not sprout from the stump. -When a wood lot is cut over and over again, the reproduction taking -place by such sprouts we call coppice. - -Most wooded areas in the Eastern States have been so cut that -reproduction from seed could not take place, and hence we have large -areas of coppice, with very few seedling trees interspersed. As we -have seen in the chapter on "How trees grow," the sprouts do not -develop into as good trees as the seedlings. They grow faster, to be -sure, in the beginning, but do not grow as tall and are apt to be -shorter lived. - -For the production of firewood, fence, and post material, coppice -management may suffice, but not for dimension timber. And even to keep -the coppice in good reproductive condition, care should be taken to -secure a certain proportion of seedling trees, since the old stumps, -after repeated cutting, tail to sprout and die out. - -Soil and climate influence the success of the coppice; shallow -soils produce weaker but more numerous sprouts and are more readily -deteriorated by the repeated laying bare of the soil; a mild climate is -most favorable to a continuance of the reproductive power of the stump. - -Some species sprout more readily than others; hence the composition -of the crop will change, unless attention is paid to it. In the -coppice, as in any other management of a natural wood crop, a desirable -composition must first be secured, which is done by timely improvement -cuttings, as described in a previous section. - -The best trees for coppice in the northeastern States are the chestnut, -various oaks, hickory, ash, elm, maples, basswood, and black locust, -which are all good sprouters. - -When cutting is done for reproduction, the time and manner are the main -care. The best results are probably obtained, both financially and with -regard to satisfactory reproduction, when the coppice is cut between -the twentieth and thirtieth years. All cutting must be done in early -spring or in winter, avoiding, however, days of severe frost, which is -apt to sever the bark from the trunk and to kill the cambium. Cutting -in summer kills the stump, as a rule. The cut should be made slanting -downward, and as smooth as possible, to prevent collection of moisture -on the stump and the resulting decay, and as close as possible to -the ground, where the stump is less exposed to injuries, and the new -sprouts, starting close to the ground, may strike independent roots. - -Fail places or gaps should be filled by planting. This can be readily -done by bending to the ground some of the neighboring sprouts, when 2 -to 3 years old, notching, fastening them down with a wooden hook or a -stone, and covering them with soil a short distance (4 to 6 inches) -from the end. The sprout will then strike root, and after a year or so -may be severed from the mother stock by a sharp cut (fig. 15). - -For the recuperation of the crop, it is desirable to maintain a supply -of seedling trees, which may be secured either by the natural seeding -of a few mother trees of the old crop which are left, or by planting. -This kind of management, coppice with seedling or standard trees -intermixed, if the latter are left regularly and well distributed over -the wood lot, leads to a management called "standard coppice." In this -it is attempted to avoid the drawbacks of the coppice, viz, failure to -produce dimension material and running out of the stocks. The former -object is, however, only partially accomplished, as the trees grown -without sufficient side shading are apt to produce branchy boles and -hence knotty timber, besides injuring the coppice by their shade. - - -PLAN OF MANAGEMENT. - -In order to harmonize the requirements of the wood lot from a -sylvicultural point of view, and the needs of the farmer for wood -supplies, the cutting must follow some systematic plan. - -The improvement cuttings need not, in point of time, have been made all -over the lot before beginning the cuttings for regeneration, provided -they have been made in those parts which are to be regenerated. Both -the cuttings may go on simultaneously, and this enables the farmer -to gauge the amount of cutting to his consumption. According to the -amount of wood needed, one or more groups may be started at the same -time. It is, however, desirable, for the sake of renewing the crop -systematically, to arrange the groups in a regular order over the lot. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Method of layering to produce new stocks in -coppice wood.] - - - - -4. HOW TO CULTIVATE THE WOOD CROP. - - -Where only firewood is desired, i. e., wood without special form, size, -or quality, no attention to the crop is necessary, except to insure -that it covers the ground completely. Nevertheless, even in such a -crop, which is usually managed as coppice,[2] some of the operations -described in this chapter may prove advantageous. Where, however, not -only quantity but useful quality of the crop is also to be secured, -the development of the wood crop may be advantageously influenced by -controlling the supply of light available to the individual trees. - -[2] See page 35 for description of coppice. - -It may be proper to repeat here briefly what has been explained in -previous pages regarding the influence of light on tree development. - - -EFFECT OF LIGHT ON WOOD PRODUCTION. - -Dense shade preserves soil moisture, the most essential element for -wood production; a close stand of suitable kinds of trees secures this -shading and prevents the surface evaporation of soil moisture, making -it available for wood production. But a close stand also cuts off side -light and confines the lateral growing space, and hence prevents the -development of side branches and forces the growth energy of the soil -to expend itself in height growth; the crown is carried up, and long, -cylindrical shafts, clear of branches, are developed; a close stand -thus secures desirable form and quality. Yet, since the quality of -wood production or accretion (other things being equal) is in direct -proportion to the amount of foliage and the available light, and since -an open position promotes the development of a larger crown and of -more foliage, an open stand tends to secure a larger amount of wood -accretion on each tree. On the other hand, a tree grown in the open, -besides producing more branches, deposits a larger proportion of wood -at The base, so that the shape of the bole becomes more conical, a -form which in sawing proves unprofitable; whereas a tree grown in the -dense forest both lengthens its shaft at the expense of branch growth -and makes a more even deposit of wood over the whole trunk, thus -attaining a more cylindrical form. While, then, the total amount of -wood production per acre may be as large in a close stand of trees as -in an open one (within limits), the distribution of this amount among -a larger or smaller number of individual trees produces different -results in the quality of the crop. And since the size of a tree or log -is important in determining its usefulness and value, the sooner the -individual trees reach useful size, without suffering in other points -of quality, the more profitable the whole crop. - - -NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE. - -The care of the forester, then, should be to maintain the smallest -number of individuals on the ground which will secure the greatest -amount of wood growth in the most desirable form of which the soil and -climate are capable, without deteriorating the soil conditions. He -tries to secure the most advantageous individual development of single -trees without suffering the disadvantages resulting from too open -stand. The solution of this problem requires the greatest skill and -judgment, and rules can hardly be formulated with precision, since for -every species or combination of species and conditions these rules must -be modified. - -In a well-established young crop the number of seedlings per acre -varies greatly, from 3,000 to 100,000, according to soil, species, and -the manner in which it originated, whether planted, sown, or seeded -naturally.[3] Left to themselves, the seedlings, as they develop, begin -to crowd each other. At first this crowding results only in increasing -the height growth and in preventing the spread and full development -of side branches; by and by the lower branches failing to receive -sufficient light finally die and break off--the shaft "clears itself." -Then a distinct development of definite crowns takes place, and after -some years a difference of height growth in different individuals -becomes marked. Not a few trees fail to reach the general upper crown -surface, and, being more or less overtopped, we can readily classify -them according to height and development of crown, the superior or -"dominating" ones growing more and more vigorously, the inferior or -"dominated" trees falling more and more behind, and finally dying for -lack of light, and thus a natural reduction in numbers, or thinning, -takes place. This natural thinning goes on with varying rates at -different ages continuing through the entire life of the crop, so -that, while only 4,000 trees per acre may be required in the tenth -year to make a dense crown cover or normally close stand, untouched by -man, in the fortieth year 1,200 would suffice to make the same dense -cover, in the eightieth year 350 would be a full stand, and in the one -hundredth not more than 250, according to soil and species, more or -less. As we can discern three stages in the development of a single -tree--the juvenile, adolescent, and mature--so, in the development -of a forest growth, we may distinguish three corresponding stages, -namely, the "thicket" or brushwood, the "pole-wood" or sapling, and -the "timber" stage. During The thicket stage, in which the trees have -a bushy appearance, allowing hardly any distinction of stem and crown, -the height growth is most rapid. This period may last, according to -conditions and species, from 5 or 10 to 30 and even 40 years--longer on -poor soils and with shade-enduring species, shorter with light-needing -species on good soils--and, while it lasts, it is in the interest of -the wood grower to maintain the close stand, which produces the long -shaft, clear of branches, on which at a later period the wood that -makes valuable, clear timber, may accumulate. Form development is now -most important. The lower branches are to die and break off before they -become too large. (See illustrations of the progress of "clearing," -on pp. 15 and 16.) With light-needing species and with deciduous -trees generally this dying off is accomplished more easily than with -conifers. The spruces and even the white pine require very dense -shading to "clear" the shaft. During this period it is only necessary -to weed out the undesirable kinds, such as trees infested by insect -and fungus, shrubs, sickly, stunted, or bushy trees which are apt to -overtop and prevent the development of their better neighbors. In -short, our attention is now devoted mainly to improving the composition -of the crop. - -[3] If the crop does not, at 3 to 5 years of age, shade the ground -well, with a complete crown cover, or canopy, it can not be said to be -well established and should be filled out by planting. - - -WEEDING AND CLEANING THE CROP. - -This weeding or cleaning is easily done with shears when the crop is -from 3 to 5 years old. Later, mere cutting back of the undesirable -trees with a knife or hatchet maybe practiced. In well-made artificial -plantations this weeding is rarely needed until about the eighth or -tenth year. But in natural growths the young crop is sometimes so dense -as to inordinately interfere with the development of the individual -trees. The stems then remain so slender that there is danger of their -being bent or broken by storm or snow when the growth is thinned out -later. In such cases timely thinning is indicated to stimulate more -rapid development of the rest of the crop. This can be done most -cheaply by cutting swaths or lanes one yard wide and us far apart -through the crop, leaving strips standing. The outer trees of the -strip, at least, will then shoot ahead and become the main crop. These -weeding or improvement cuttings, which must be made gradually and be -repeated every two or three years, are best performed during the summer -months, or in August and September, when it is easy to judge what -should be taken out. - - -METHODS OF THINNING. - -During the "thicket" stage, then, which may last from 10 to 25 and -more years, the crop is gradually brought into proper composition and -condition. When the "pole-wood" stage is reached, most of the saplings -being now from 3 to 6 inches in diameter and from 15 to 25 feet in -height, the variation in sizes and in appearance becomes more and more -marked. Some of the taller trees begin to show a long, clear shaft and -a definite crown. The trees can be more or less readily classified -into height and size classes. The rate at which the height growth has -progressed begins to fall off and diameter growth increases. Now comes -the time when attention must be given to increasing this diameter -growth by reducing the number of individuals and thus having all the -wood which the soil can produce deposited on fewer individuals. This -is done by judicious and often repeated thinning, taking out some of -the trees and thereby giving more light and increasing the foliage of -those remaining; and as the crowns expand, so do the trunks increase -their diameter in direct proportion. These thinnings must, however, be -made cautiously lest at the same time the soil is exposed too much, or -the branch growth of those trees which are to become timber wood is -too much stimulated. So varying are the conditions to be considered, -according to soil, site, species, and development of the crop, that it -is well-nigh impossible, without a long and detailed discussion, to -lay down rules for the proper procedure. In addition the opinions of -authorities differ largely both as to manner and degree of thinning, -the old school advising moderate, and the new school severer thinnings. - -For the farmer, who can give personal attention to detail and whose -object is to grow a variety of sizes and kinds of wood, the following -general method may perhaps be most useful: - -First determine which trees are to be treated as the main crop or -"final harvest" crop. For this 300 to 500 trees per acre of the -best grown and most useful kinds may be selected, which should be -distributed as uniformly as possible over the acre. These, then--or -as many as may live till the final harvest--are destined to grow into -timber and are to form the special favorites as much as possible. They -may at first be marked to insure recognition; later on they will be -readily distinguished by their superior development The rest, which we -will call the "subordinate" crop, is then to serve merely as filler, -nurse, and soil cover. - - -WHAT TREES TO REMOVE. - -It is now necessary, by careful observation of the surroundings of -each of the "final harvest" crop trees, or "superiors," as we may call -them, to determine what trees of the "subordinate" crop trees, or -"inferiors," must be removed. All nurse trees that threaten to overtop -the superiors must either be cut out or cut back and topped, if that -is practicable, so that the crown of the superiors can develop freely. -Those that are only narrowing in the superiors from the side, without -preventing their free top development, need not be interfered with, -especially while they are still useful in preventing the formation and -spreading of side branches on the superiors. As soon as the latter -have fully cleared their shafts, these crowding inferiors must be -removed. Care must be taken, however, not to remove too many at a time, -thus opening the crown cover too severely and thereby exposing the -soil to the drying influence of the sun. Gradually, as the crowns of -inferiors standing farther away begin to interfere with those of the -superiors, the inferiors are removed, and thus the full effect of the -light is secured in the accretion of the main harvest crop; at the same -time the branch growth has been prevented and the soil has been kept -shaded. Meanwhile thinnings may also be made in the subordinate crop, -in order to secure also the most material from this part of the crop. -This is done by cutting out all trees that threaten to be killed by -their neighbors. In this way many a useful stick is saved and the dead -material, only good for firewood, lessened. It is evident that trees -which in the struggle for existence have fallen behind, so as to be -overtopped by their neighbors, can not, either by their presence or by -their removal, influence the remaining growth. They are removed only in -order to utilize their wood before it decays. - -It may be well to remark again that an undergrowth of woody plants -interferes in no way with the development of the main crop, but, on -the contrary, aids by its shade in preserving favorable moisture -conditions. Its existence, however, shows in most cases that the crown -cover is not as dense as it should be, and hence that thinning is not -required. Grass and weed growth, on the other hand, is emphatically -disadvantageous and shows that the crown cover is dangerously open. - -The answer to the three questions, When to begin the thinnings, How -severely to thin, and How often to repeat the operation, must always -depend upon the varying appearance of the growth and the necessities -in each case. The first necessity for interference may arise with -light-needing species as early as the twelfth or fifteenth year; with -shade-enduring, not before the twentieth or twenty-fifth year. The -necessary severity of the thinning and the repetition are somewhat -interdependent. It is better to thin carefully and repeat the operation -oftener than to open up so severely at once as to jeopardize the soil -conditions. Especially in younger growths and on poorer soil, it is -best never to open a continuous crown cover so that it could not close -up again within 3 to 5 years; rather repeat the operation oftener. -Later, when the trees have attained heights of 50 to 60 feet and clear -boles (which may be in 40 to 50 years, according to soil and kind) the -thinning may be more severe, so as to require repetition only every 6 -to 10 years. - -The condition of the crown cover, then, is the criterion which directs -the ax. As soon as the crowns again touch or interlace, the time has -arrived to thin again. In mixed growths it must not be overlooked that -light-needing species must be specially protected against shadier -neighbors. Shade-enduring trees, such as the spruces, beech, sugar -maple, and hickories, bear overtopping for a time and will then grow -vigorously when more light is given, while light-needing species, like -the pines, larch, oaks, and ash, when once suppressed, may never be -able to recover. - -Particular attention is called to the necessity of leaving a rather -denser "wind mantle" all around small groves. In this part of the -grove the thinning must be less severe, unless coniferous trees on the -outside can be encouraged by severe thinning to hold their branches low -down, thus increasing their value as wind-breaks. - -The thinnings, then, while giving to the "final harvest" crop all the -advantage of light for promoting its rapid development into serviceable -timber size, furnish also better material from the subordinate crop. -At 60 to 70 years of age the latter may have been entirely removed and -only the originally selected "superiors" remain on the ground, or as -many of them as have not died and been removed; 250 to 400 of these -per acre will make a perfect stand of most valuable form and size, -ready for the final harvest, which should be made as indicated in the -preceding chapter. - - - - -5.--THE RELATION OF FORESTS TO FARMS. - - -That all things in nature are related to each other and interdependent -is a common saying, a fact doubted by nobody, yet often forgotten or -neglected in practical life. The reason is partly indifference and -partly ignorance as to the actual nature of the relationship; hence we -suffer, deservedly or not. - -The farmer's business, more than any other, perhaps, depends for -its success upon a true estimate of and careful regard for this -inter-relation, he adapts his crop to the nature of the soil, the -manner of its cultivation to the changes of the seasons, and altogether -he shapes conditions and places them in their proper relations to each -other and adapts himself to them. - -Soil, moisture, and heat are the three factors which, if properly -related and utilized, combine to produce his crops. In some directions -he can control these factors more or less readily; in others they are -withdrawn from his immediate influence, and he is seemingly helpless. -He can maintain the fertility of the soil by manuring, by proper -rotation of crops, and by deep culture; he can remove surplus moisture -by ditching and draining; he can, by irrigation systems, bring water -to his crops, and by timely cultivation prevent excessive evaporation, -thereby rendering more water available to the crop; but he can not -control the rainfall nor the temperature changes of the seasons. Recent -attempts to control the rainfall by direct means exhibit one of the -greatest follies and misconceptions of natural forces we have witnessed -during this age. Nevertheless, by indirect means the farmer has it -in his power to exercise much greater control over these forces than -he has attempted hitherto. He can prevent or reduce the unfavorable -effects of temperature changes; he can increase the available water -supplies, and prevent the evil effects of excessive rainfall; he can so -manage the waters which fall as to get the most benefit from them and -avoid the harm which they are able to inflict. - -Before attempting to control the rainfall itself by artifice, we should -study how to secure the best use of that which falls, as it comes -within reach of human agencies and becomes available by natural causes. - -How poorly we understand the use of these water supplies is evidenced -yearly by destructive freshets and floods, with the accompanying -washing of soil, followed by droughts, low waters, and deterioration of -agricultural lands. It is claimed that annually in the United States -about 200 square miles of fertile soil are washed into brooks and -rivers, a loss of soil capital which can not be repaired for centuries. -At the same time millions of dollars are appropriated yearly in the -river and harbor bills to dig out the lost farms from the rivers, -and many thousands of dollars' worth of crops and other property are -destroyed by floods and overflows; not to count the large loss from -droughts which this country suffers yearly in one part or the other, -and which, undoubtedly, could be largely avoided, if we knew how to -manage the available water supplies. - -The regulation, proper distribution, and utilization of the rain waters -in humid as well as in arid regions--water management--is to be the -great problem of successful-agriculture in the future. - -One of the most powerful means for such water management lies in the -proper distribution and maintenance of forest areas. Nay, we can say -that the most successful water management is not possible without -forest management. - - -THE FOREST WATERS THE FARM. - -Whether forests increase the amount of precipitation within or near -their limits is still an open question, although there are indications -that under certain conditions large, dense forest areas may have such -an effect. At any rate, the water transpired by the foliage is certain, -in some degree, to increase the relative humidity near the forest, -and thereby increase directly or indirectly the water supplies in its -neighborhood. This much we can assert, also, that while extended plains -and fields, heated by the sun, and hence giving rise to warm currents -of air, have the tendency to prevent condensation of the passing -moisture-bearing currents, forest areas, with their cooler, moister air -strata, do not have such a tendency, and local showers may therefore -become more frequent in their neighborhood. But, though no increase in -the amount of rainfall may be secured by forest areas, the availability -of whatever falls is increased for the locality by a well-kept and -properly located forest growth. The foliage, twigs, and branches break -the fall of the raindrops, and so does the litter of the forest floor, -hence the soil under this cover is not compacted as in the open field, -but kept loose and granular, so that the water can readily penetrate -and percolate; the water thus reaches the ground more slowly, dripping -gradually from the leaves, branches, and trunks, and allowing more time -for it to sink into the soil. This percolation is also made easier by -the channels along the many roots. Similarly, on account of the open -structure of the soil and the slower melting of the snow under a forest -cover in spring, where it lies a fortnight to a month longer than in -exposed positions and melts with less waste from evaporation, the snow -waters more fully penetrate the ground. Again, more snow is caught and -preserved under the forest cover than on the wind-swept fields and -prairies. - -All these conditions operate together, with the result that larger -amounts of the water sink into the forest soil and to greater depths -than in open fields. This moisture is conserved because of the reduced -evaporation in the cool and still forest air, being protected from -the two great moisture-dissipating agents, sun and wind. By these -conditions alone the water supplies available in the soil are increased -from 50 to 60 per cent over those available on the open field. -Owing to those two causes, then--increased percolation and decreased -evaporation--larger amounts of moisture become available to feed the -springs and subsoil waters, and these become finally available to the -farm, if the forest is located at a higher elevation than the field. -The great importance of the subsoil water especially and the influence -of forest areas upon it has so far received too little attention and -appreciation. It is the subsoil water that is capable of supplying the -needed moisture in times of drought. - - -THE FOREST TEMPERS THE FARM. - -Another method by which a forest belt becomes a conservator of moisture -lies in its wind-breaking capacity, by which both velocity and -temperature of winds are modified and evaporation from the fields to -the leeward is reduced. - -On the prairie, wind-swept every day and every hour, the farmer has -learned to plant a wind-break around his buildings and orchards, often -only a single-row of trees, and finds even that a desirable shelter, -tempering both the hot winds of summer and the cold blasts of winter. -The fields he usually leaves unprotected; yet a wind-break around his -crops to the windward would bring him increased yield, and a timber -belt would act still more effectively. Says a farmer from Illinois: - - My experience is that now in cold and stormy winters fields protected - by timber belts yield full crops, while fields not protected yield - only one-third of a crop. Twenty-five or thirty years ago we never - had any wheat killed by winter frost, and every year we had a full - crop of peaches, which is now very rare. At that time we had plenty - of timber around our fields and orchards, now cleared away. - -Not only is the temperature of the winds modified by passing over -and through the shaded and cooler spaces of protecting timber bolts -disposed toward the windward and alternating with the fields, but their -velocity is broken and moderated, and since with reduced velocity the -evaporative power of the winds is very greatly reduced, so more water -is left available for crops. Every foot in height of a forest growth -will protect 1 rod in distance, and several bolts in succession would -probably greatly increase the effective distance. By preventing deep -freezing of the soil the winter cold is not so much prolonged, and -the frequent fogs and mists that hover near forest areas prevent many -frosts. That stock will thrive better where it can find protection from -the cold blasts of winter and from the heat of the sun in summer is a -well-established fact. - - -THE FOREST PROTECTS THE FARM. - -On the sandy plains, where the winds are apt to blow the sand, shifting -it hither and thither, a forest belt to the windward is the only means -to keep the farm protected. - -In the mountain and hill country the farms are apt to suffer from -heavy rains washing away the soil. Where the tops and slopes are -bared of their forest cover, the litter of the forest floor burnt up, -the soil trampled and compacted by cattle and by the patter of the -raindrops, the water can not penetrate the soil readily, but is earned -off superficially, especially when the soil is of, day and naturally -compact. As a result the waters, rushing over the surface down the -hill, run together in rivulets and streams and acquire such a force as -to be able to move loose particles and even stones; the ground becomes -furrowed with gullies and runs; the fertile soil is washed away; the -fields below are covered with silt; the roads are damaged; the water -courses tear their banks, and later run dry because the waters that -should feed them by subterranean channels have been carried away in the -flood. - -The forest cover on the hilltops and steep hillsides which are not fit -for cultivation prevents this erosive action of the waters by the same -influence by which it increases available water supplies. The important -effects of a forest cover, then, are retention of larger quantities of -water and carrying them off under ground and giving them up gradually, -thus extending the time of their usefulness and preventing their -destructive action. - -In order to be thoroughly effective, the forest growth must be -dense, and, especially, the forest floor must not be robbed of its -accumulations of foliage, surface mulch and litter, or its underbrush -by fire, nor must it be compacted by the trampling of cattle. - -On the gentler slopes, which are devoted to cultivation, methods of -underdraining, such as horizontal ditches partly filled with stones and -covered with soil, terracing, and contour plowing, deep cultivation, -sodding, and proper rotation of crops, must be employed to prevent -damage from surface waters. - - -THE FOREST SUPPLIES THE FARM WITH USEFUL MATERIAL. - -All the benefits derived from the favorable influence of forest bolts -upon water conditions can be had without losing any of the useful -material that the forest produces. The forest grows to be cut and to be -utilized; it is a crop to be harvested. It is a crop which, if properly -managed, does not need to be replanted; it reproduces itself. - -When once established, the ax, if properly guided by skillful hands, is -the only tool necessary to cultivate it and to reproduce it. There is -no necessity of planting unless the wood lot has been mismanaged. - -The wood lot, then, if properly managed, is not only the guardian of -the farm, but it is the savings bank from which fair interest can be -annually drawn, utilizing for the purpose the poorest part of the farm. -Nor does the wood lot require much attention; it is to the farm what -the workbasket is to the good housewife--a means with which improve -the odds and ends of time, especially during the winter, when other -farm business is at a standstill. - -It may be added that the material which the farmer can secure from the -wood lot, besides the other advantages recited above, is of far greater -importance and value than is generally admitted. - -On a well-regulated farm of 160 acres, with its 4 miles and more -of fencing and with its wood fires in range and stove, at least 25 -cords of wood are required annually, besides material for repair of -buildings, or altogether the annual product of probably 40 to 50 acres -of well-stocked forest is needed. The product may represent, according -to location, an actual stumpage value of from $1 to $3 per acre, a sure -crop coming every year without regard to weather, without trouble and -work, and raised on the poorest part of the farm. It is questionable -whether such net results could be secured with the same steadiness from -any other crop. Nor must it be overlooked that the work in harvesting -this crop falls into a time when little else could be done. - -Wire fences and coal fires are, no doubt, good substitutes, but they -require ready cash, and often the distance of haulage makes them -rather expensive. Presently, too, when the virgin woods have been -still further culled of their valuable stores, the farmer who has -preserved a sufficiently large and well-tended wood lot will be able -to derive a comfortable money revenue from it by supplying the market -with wood of various kinds and sizes. The German State forests, with -their complicated administrations, which eat up 4 per cent of the gross -income, yield, with prices of wood about the same as in our country, -an annual net revenue of from $1 to $4 and more per acre. Why should -not the farmer, who does not pay salaries to managers, overseers, and -forest guards, make at least as much money out of this crop when he is -within reach of a market? - -With varying conditions the methods would of course vary. In a general -way, if he happens to have a virgin growth of mixed woods, the first -care would be to improve the composition of the wood lot by cutting -out the less desirable kinds, the weeds of tree growth, and the poorly -grown trees which impede the development of more deserving neighbors. - -The wood thus cut he will use as firewood or in any other way, and, -even if he could not use it at all, and had to burn it up, the -operation would pay indirectly by leaving him a better crop. Then he -may use the rest of the crop, gradually cutting the trees as needed, -but he must take care that the openings are not made too large, so -that they can readily fill out with young growth from the seed of -the remaining trees, and he must also pay attention to the young -aftergrowth, giving it light as needed. Thus without ever resorting to -planting he may harvest the old timber and have a now crop taking its -place and perpetuate the wood lot without in any way curtailing his use -of the same. - - -FARMERS' BULLETINS. - -These bulletins are sent free of charge to any address upon application -to the Secretary of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. Only the following -are available for distribution: - - - No. 15. Some Destructive Potato Diseases: What They Are and How to - Prevent Thorn. Pp. 8. - No. 16. Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and for Feeding. Pp. 24. - No. 18. Forage Plants for the South. Pp. 30. - No. 19. Important Insecticides: Directions For Their Preparation - and Use. Pp. 20. - No. 21. Barnyard Manure. Pp. 32. - No. 22. Feeding Farm Animals. Pp. 32. - No. 23. Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost. Pp. 32. - No. 24. Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. Pp. 16. - No. 25. Peanuts: Culture and Uses. Pp. 24. - No. 26. Sweet Potatoes: Culture and Uses. Pp. 30. - No. 27. Flax for Seed and Fiber. Pp. 16. - No. 28. Weeds; and How to Kill Them. Pp. 30. - No. 29. Souring of Milk, and Other Changes in Milk Products. Pp. 28. - No. 30. Grape Diseases on the Pacific Coast. Pp. 16. - No. 31. Alfalfa, or Lucern. Pp. 23. - No. 32. Silos and Silage. Pp. 31. - No. 33. Peach Growing for Market. Pp. 24. - No. 34. Meats: Composition and Cooking. Pp. 29. - No. 35. Potato Culture. Pp. 23. - No. 36. Cotton Seed and Its Products. Pp. 10. - No. 37. Katir Corn: Characteristics, Culture, and Uses. Pp. 12. - No. 38. Spraying for Fruit Diseases. Pp. 12. - No. 39. Onion Culture. Pp. 31. - No. 40. Farm Drainage. Pp. 24. - No. 41. Fowls: Care and Feeding. Pp. 24. - No. 42. Facts About Milk. Pp. 29. - No. 43. Sewage Disposal on the Farm. Pp. 22. - No. 44. Commercial Fertilizers. Pp. 24. - No. 45. Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. Pp. 32. - No. 46. Irrigation in Humid Climates. Pp. 27. - No. 47. Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. Pp. 32. - No. 48. The Manuring of Cotton. Pp. 10. - No. 49. Sheep Feeding. Pp. 24. - No. 50. Sorghum as a Forage Crop. Pp. 24. - No. 51. Standard Varieties of Chickens. Pp. 48. - No. 52. The Sugar Beet. Pp. 48. - No. 53. How to Grow Mushrooms. Pp. 20. - No. 54. Some Common Birds in Their Relation to Agriculture. Pp. 40. - No. 55. The Dairy Herd: Its Formation and Management. Pp. 24. - No. 56. Experiment Station Work--I. Pp. 30. - No. 57. Butter Making on the Farm. Pp. 15. - No. 58. The Soy Bean as a Forage Crop. Pp. 24. - No. 59. Bee Keeping. Pp. 32. - No. 60. Methods of Curing Tobacco. Pp. 10. - No. 61. Asparagus Culture. Pp. 40. - No. 62. Marketing Farm Produce. Pp. 28. - No. 63. Care of Milk on the Farm. Pp. 40. - No. 64. Ducks and Geese. Pp. 48. - No. 65. Experiment Station Work--II. Pp. 32. - No. 66. Meadows and Pastures. Pp. 24. - No. 67. Forestry for Farmers. Pp. 48. - No. 68. The Black Rot of the Cabbage. Pp. 22. - No. 69. Experiment Station Work--III. Pp. 32. - No. 70. The Principal Insect Enemies of the Grape. Pp. 24. - No. 71. Some Essentials of Beef Production. Pp. 24. - No. 72. Cattle Ranges of the Southwest. Pp. 32. - No. 73. Experiment Station Work--IV. Pp. 32. - No. 74. Milk as Food. Pp. 39. - No. 75. The Grain Smuts. Pp. 20. - No. 76. Tomato Growing. Pp. 30. - No. 77. The Liming of Soils. Pp. 19. - No. 78. Experiment Station Work--V. Pp. 32. - No. 79. Experiment Station Work--VI. Pp. 28. - No. 80. The Peach Twig-borer--an Important Enemy of Stone Fruits. Pp. 10. - No. 81. Corn Culture in the South. Pp. 24. - No. 82. The Culture of Tobacco. Pp. 23. - No. 83. Tobacco Soils. Pp. 23. - No. 84. Experiment Station Work--VII. Pp. 82. - No. 85. Fish as Food. Pp. 30. - No. 86. Thirty Poisonous Plants. Pp. 32. - No. 87. Experiment Station Work--VIII. (In press.) - No. 88. Alkali Lands. Pp. 23. - No. 89. Cowpeas. (In press.) - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - -Illustrations were move so a to prevent splitting paragraphs. Minor -typos corrected. Illustrations were obtained from the The Internet -Archive and the University of North Texas' USDA Farmers' Bulletins -Digital Library. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 67, by -Bernhard E. 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