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Fernow, a Project Gutenberg eBook. - </title> - <style type="text/css"> - -body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} - -p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1.5em;} - -hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-top: 2em;} -hr.full {width: 95%; margin-top: 2em;} -hr.tb {width: 45%;} - -table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;} -td {padding: 0 0.5em;} -.tblcnt tr:hover {background-color: #eaeaea;} - -.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 3.5%; font-style: normal; /* prevent italics, etc. */ - font-size: small; text-align: right; color: #808080;} /* page numbers */ -.bdl {border-left: solid #000 1px;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.center {text-align: center; margin:0; text-indent: 0;} -.smaller {font-size: 0.8em;} -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.p0 {text-indent: 0;} -.ind2em {padding-left: 2em;} -h1, h2, h3, .caption2, .caption3 {font-weight: bold; text-align: center; text-indent:0;} -h1 {font-size:2.00em; margin-top: 1.5em;} -h2, .caption2 {font-size:1.50em; margin-top: 1.0em;} -h3, .caption3 {font-size:1.25em; margin-top: 0.5em;} -.caption3nb {font-size:1.25em; text-align: center; text-indent:0; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.caption4nb {font-size:1.15em; text-align: center; text-indent:0; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.pmt2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.pmb2 {margin-bottom: 2em;} -.pmb4 {margin-bottom: 4em;} - -/* Images */ - -.fig_center {margin: auto; text-align: center;} - -.fig_left {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; - margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} - -.fig_right {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} - -.fig_caption {font-size: 0.8em; margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; text-align: center;} - -.blockquot {margin-left: 2em;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.trans_notes {background-color: #e6e6fa; color: black; padding:1.5em; - margin-bottom:5em;} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} -.fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 67, by Bernhard E. Fernow - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 67 - Forestry For Farmers - -Author: Bernhard E. Fernow - -Release Date: July 17, 2020 [EBook #62686] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 67 *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas - - - - - -</pre> - - - - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 287px;"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="287" height="481" alt="" /> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">« 1 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="caption2">U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="caption3">FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 67.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - - - -<h1>FORESTRY FOR FARMERS.</h1> - - -<p class="center">BY</p> - -<h2>B. E. FERNOW,</h2> - -<p class="caption3"><i>Chief of the Division of Forestry.</i></p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - - - -<p class="center pmb2">[Reprinted from the Yearbooks of the U. S. Department of Agriculture<br /> -for 1894 and 1895.]</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 237px;"> -<img src="images/unt_logo.png" width="237" height="235" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption3nb pmt2"><a name="WASHINGTON" id="WASHINGTON">WASHINGTON:</a></p> - -<p class="caption4nb">GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.</p> - -<p class="caption3nb pmb4">1898.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">« 2 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.</p> - -<p class="tdr"> -<span class="smcap">U. S. Department of Agriculture</span>, <br /> -<span class="smcap">Division of Forestry</span>, <br /> -<i>Washington, D. C., December 4, 1897.</i><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: I have the honor to recommend that the two articles contributed by me to the -Yearbooks for 1894 and for 1895 on forestry for farmers be reprinted as a Farmers' -Bulletin. The articles contain information in popular form regarding the growth of -trees, the planting of a forest, treatment of the wood lot, the cultivation of the -wood crop, influence of trees, etc. A wider distribution of this information, for -which there is still considerable demand, would, I believe, result in acquainting -farmers with a subject the importance of which has not always been duly recognized.</p> - -<p>Very respectfully,</p> - -<p class="tdr"><span class="smcap">B. E. Fernow</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</p> - -<p class="p0">Approved:<br /> - <span class="smcap">James Wilson</span>, <i>Secretary</i>.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</a></h2> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<table class="tblcnt" summary="ToC"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><span class="smaller">Page.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How trees grow</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOW_TREES_GROW">3</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Food materials and conditions of growth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FOOD_MATERIALS_AND_CONDITIONS">3</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Soil conditions</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SOIL_CONDITIONS">4</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Light conditions</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#LIGHT_CONDITIONS">6</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Physiology of tree growth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PHYSIOLOGY_OF_TREE_GROWTH">9</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> "Sap up and sap down"</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SAP_UP_SAP_DOWN">10</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Progress of development</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PROGRESS_OF_DEVELOPMENT">11</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Growth in length and ramification</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#GROWTH_IN_LENGTH">11</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Growth in thickness</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#GROWTH_IN_THICKNESS">14</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Form development</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FORM_DEVELOPMENT">17</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Rate of growth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#RATE_OF_GROWTH">19</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Reproduction</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#REPRODUCTION">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How to plant a forest</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOW_TO_PLANT_A_FOREST">22</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> What trees to plant</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#WHAT_TREES_TO_PLANT">23</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Methods of planting</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#METHODS_OF_PLANTING">26</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How to treat the wood lot</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOW_TO_TREAT_THE_WOOD_LOT">28</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Improvement cuttings</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#IMPROVEMENT_CUTTINGS">29</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Methods of reproducing the wood crop</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#METHODS_OF_REPRODUCING">31</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Size of openings</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SIZE_OF_OPENINGS">34</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Wind mantle</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#WIND_MANTLE">34</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Coppice</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#COPPICE">35</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Plan of management</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLAN_OF_MANAGEMENT">37</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How to cultivate the wood crop</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOW_TO_CULTIVATE_THE_WOOD_CROP">37</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Effect of light on wood production</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#EFFECT_OF_LIGHT">38</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Number of trees per acre</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#NUMBER_OF_TREES">38</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Weeding and cleaning the crop</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#WEEDING_AND_CLEANING">40</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Methods of thinning</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#METHODS_OF_THINNING">40</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> What trees to remove</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#WHAT_TREES_TO_REMOVE">41</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The relation of forests to farms</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_RELATION_OF_FORESTS_TO_FARMS">42</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The forest waters the farm</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FOREST_WATERS_FARM">44</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The forest tempers the farm</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FOREST_TEMPERS_FARM">45</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The forest protects the farm</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FOREST_PROTECTS_FARM">45</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The forest supplies the farm with useful material</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FOREST_SUPPLIES">46</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">« 3 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h1>FORESTRY FOR FARMERS.</h1> - - - -<p>The following five chapters have been written with the view of aiding -farmers who own small timber tracts or wood lots, or who wish to plant -some part of their land to forest. This country varies so greatly in soil, -climate, and flora that it is only possible, within the limits assigned -for the present discussion, to outline general principles everywhere -applicable. Nevertheless, wherever suggestions have approximated -the laying down of rules of practice, the writer has had mainly in mind -the conditions prevalent in our northeastern States. Moreover, for the -reason already referred to, limitation of space, it has not been possible -to give more than a comprehensive view, without much detail.</p> - -<p>The succeeding chapters should be read connectedly, as they are -more or less interdependent. The first treats of the behavior of a -forest plant; the second, of the principles which should guide the -planter in setting a crop; the third, of the manner in which a natural -forest crop should be produced; the fourth points out how the crop -should be managed afterwards in order to secure the best results in -quantity and quality of material; while the fifth chapter is devoted -to a consideration of the relation of forests to farms.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="HOW_TREES_GROW" id="HOW_TREES_GROW">1. HOW TREES GROW.</a></h2> - - -<p>Trees, like most other plants, originate from seed, build up a body of -cell tissues, form foliage, flower, and fruit, and take up food material -from the soil and air, which they convert into cellulose and other compounds, -from which all their parts are formed. They rely, like other -plants, upon moisture, heat, and light as the means of performing the -functions of growth. Yet there are some peculiarities in their behavior, -their life and growth, which require special attention on the part of -a tree grower or forest planter, and these we shall briefly discuss.</p> - - -<h3><a id="FOOD_MATERIALS_AND_CONDITIONS"></a>FOOD MATERIALS AND CONDITIONS OF GROWTH.</h3> - -<p>Trees derive their food and solid substance in part from the air and -in part from the soil. The solid part of their bodies is made up of -cellulose, which consists largely of carbon (44 per cent of its weight), -with hydrogen and oxygen added in almost the same proportions as in -water. The carbon is derived from the carbonic acid of the air, which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">« 4 »</a></span> -enters into the leaves and, under the influence of light, air, and water, -is there decomposed; the oxygen is exhaled; the carbon is retained and -combined with elements derived from the water, forming compounds, -such as starch, sugar, etc., which are used as food materials, passing -down the tree through its outer layers to the very tips of the roots, -making new wood all along the branches, trunk, and roots.</p> - -<p>This process of food preparation, called "assimilation," can be carried -on only in the green parts, and in these only when exposed to light -and air; hence foliage, air, and light at the top are essential prerequisites -for tree growth, and hence, other conditions being favorable, the -more foliage and the better developed it is, and the more light this -foliage has at its disposal for its work, the more vigorously will the -tree grow.</p> - -<p>In general, therefore, pruning, since it reduces the amount of foliage, -reduces also, for the time, the amount of wood formed; and just so -shading, reducing the activity of foliage, reduces the growth of wood.</p> - - -<h3><a id="SOIL_CONDITIONS"></a>SOIL CONDITIONS.</h3> - -<p>From the soil trees take mainly water, which enters through the -roots and is carried through the younger part of the tree to the leaves, -to be used in part on its passage for food and wood formation and in -part to be given up to the air by transpiration.</p> - -<p>In a vigorously growing tree the solid wood substance itself will contain -half its weight in the form of water chemically combined, and the -tree, in addition, will contain from 40 to 65 per cent and more of its dry -weight in water mechanically or "hygroscopically" held. This last, -when the tree is cut, very largely evaporates; yet well-seasoned wood -still contains 10 to 12 per cent of such water. The weight of a green -tree, a pine, for instance, is made up, in round numbers, of about 30 per -cent of carbon and 70 per cent or water, either chemically or hygroscopically -held, while a birch contains a still larger percentage of water.</p> - -<p>The largest part of the water which passes through the tree is transpired—i. e., -given off to the air in vapor. The amounts thus transpired -during the season vary greatly with the species of tree, its age, the -amount of foliage at work, the amount of light at its disposal, the climatic -conditions (rain, temperature, winds, relative humidity), and the -season. These amounts are, however, very large when compared with -the quantity retained; so that while an acre of forest may store in its -trees, say, 1,000 pounds of carbon, 15 to 20 pounds of mineral substances, -and 5,000 pounds of water in a year, it will have transpired—taken -up from, the soil and returned to the air—from 500,000 to 1,500,000 -pounds of water (one-quarter to one-half as much as agricultural crops).</p> - -<p>Mineral substances are taken up only in very small quantities, and -these are mostly the commoner sorts, such as lime, potash, magnesia, -and nitrogen. These are carried in solution to the leaves, where they -are used (as perhaps also on their passage through the tree), with a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">« 5 »</a></span> -part of the water, in food preparation. The main part of the mineral -substances taken up remains, however, as the water transpires, in the -leaves and young twigs, and is returned to the soil when the leaves -are shed or when the tree is cut and the brush left to decompose and -make humus.</p> - -<p>Hence the improvement of the fertility of the soil by wood crops is -explained, the minerals being returned in more soluble form to the soil; -as also the fact that wood crops do not exhaust the soil of its minerals, -provided the leaves and litter are allowed to remain on the ground.</p> - -<p>For this reason there is no necessity of alternating wood crops, as -far as their mineral needs are concerned; the same kind of trees can be -grown on the same soil continuously, provided the soil is not allowed -to deteriorate from other causes.</p> - -<p>As the foliage can perform its work of food assimilation only when -sufficient water is at its disposal, the amount of growth is also dependent -not only on the presence of sufficient sources of supply, but also on the -opportunity had by the roots to utilize the supply, and this opportunity -is dependent upon the condition of the soil. If the soil is compact, so -that the rain water can not penetrate readily, and runs off superficially, -or if it is of coarse grain and so deep that the water rapidly sinks out -of reach of the roots and can not be drawn up by capillary action, the -water supply is of no avail to the plants; but if the soil is porous and -moderately deep (depth being the distance from the surface to the impenetrable -subsoil, rock, or ground water) the water not only can penetrate -but also can readily be reached and taken up by the roots.</p> - -<p>The moisture of the soil being the most important element in it for -tree growth, the greatest attention must be given to its conservation -and most advantageous distribution through the soil.</p> - -<p>No trees grow to the best advantage in very dry or very wet soil, -although some can live and almost thrive in such unfavorable situations. -A moderately but evenly moist soil, porous and deep enough or -fissured enough to be well drained, and yet of such a structure that -the water supplies from the depths can readily be drawn up and become -available to the roots—that is the soil on which all trees grow -most thriftily.</p> - -<p>The agriculturist procures this condition of the soil as far as possible -by plowing, drainage, and irrigation, and he tries by cultivating to -keep the soil from compacting again, as it does under the influence of -the beating rain and of the drying out of the upper layers by sun and -wind.</p> - -<p>The forest grower can not rely upon such methods, because they are -either too expensive or entirely impracticable. He may, indeed, plow -for his first planting, and cultivate the young trees, but in a few years -this last operation will become impossible and the effects of the first -operation will be lost. He must, therefore, attain his object in another -manner, namely, by shading and mulching the soil. The shading is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">« 6 »</a></span> -done at first by planting very closely, so that the ground may be protected -as soon as possible from sun and wind, and by maintaining the -shade well throughout the period of growth. This shade is maintained, -if necessary, by more planting, and in case the main crop in later life -thins out inordinately in the crowns or tops, or by the accidental death -of trees, it may even become desirable to introduce an underbrush.</p> - -<p>The mulching is done by allowing the fallen leaves and twigs to -remain and decay, and form a cover of rich mold or humus. This protective -cover permits the rain and snow waters to penetrate without at -the same time compacting the soil, keeping it granular and in best -condition for conducting water, and at the same time preventing evaporation -at the surface.</p> - -<p>The soil moisture, therefore, is best maintained by proper soil cover, -which, however, is needful only in naturally dry soils. Wet soils, -although supporting tree growth, do not, if constantly wet, produce -satisfactory wood crops, the growth being very slow. Hence they must -be drained and their water level sunk below the depth of the root -system.</p> - -<p>Irrigation is generally too expensive to be applied to wood crops, -except perhaps in the arid regions, where the benefit of the shelter belt -may warrant the expense.</p> - -<p>Attention to favorable moisture conditions in the soil requires the -selection of such kinds of trees as shade well for a long time, to plant -closely, to protect the woody undergrowth (but not weeds), and to leave -the litter on the ground as a mulch.</p> - -<p>Different species, to be sure, adapt themselves to different degrees -of soil moisture, and the crop should therefore be selected with reference -to its adaptation to available moisture supplies.</p> - -<p>While, as stated, all trees thrive best with a moderate and even supply -of moisture, some can get along with very little, like the conifers, especially -pines; others can exist even with an excessive supply, as the bald -cypress, honey locust, some oaks, etc. The climate, however, must also -be considered in this connection, for a tree species, although succeeding -well enough on a dry soil in an atmosphere which does not require -much transpiration, may not do so in a drier climate on the same -soil.</p> - -<p>In the selection of different kinds of trees for different soils, the -water conditions of the soil should, therefore, determine the choice.</p> - - -<h3><a id="LIGHT_CONDITIONS"></a>LIGHT CONDITIONS.</h3> - -<p>To insure the largest amount of growth, full enjoyment of sunlight -is needed. But as light is almost always accompanied by heat and -relative dryness of air, which demands water from the plant, and may -increase transpiration from the leaves inordinately, making them pump -too hard, as it were, young seedlings of tree species whose foliage is not -built for such strains require partial shading for the first year or two. -The conifers belong to this class.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">« 7 »</a></span></p> - -<p>In later life the light conditions exert a threefold influence on the -development of the tree, namely, with reference to soil conditions, -with reference to form development, and with reference to amount of -growth.</p> - -<p>The art of the forester consists in regulating the light conditions so -as to secure the full benefit of the stimulating effect of light on growth, -without its deteriorating influences on the soil and on form development.</p> - -<p>As we have seen, shade is desirable in order to preserve soil moisture. -Now, while young trees of all kinds, during the "brush" stage of development, -have a rather dense foliage, as they grow older they vary in -habit, especially when growing in the forest. Some, like the beech, -the sugar maple, the hemlock, and the spruce, keep up a dense crown; -others, like the chestnut, the oaks, the walnut, the tulip tree, and the -white pine, thin out more and more, and when fully grown have a much -less dense foliage; Anally, there are some which do not keep up a dense -shade for any length of time, like the black and honey locust, with -their small, thin leaves; the catalpa, with its large but few leaves at -the end of the branchlets only, and the larch, with its short, scattered -bunches of needles. So we can establish a comparative scale of trees -with reference to the amount of shade which they can give continuously, -as densely foliaged and thinly foliaged, in various gradations. If -we planted all beech or sugar maple, the desirable shading of the soil -would never be lacking, while if we planted all locust or catalpa the -sun would soon reach the soil and dry it out, or permit a growth of -grass or weeds, which is worse, because those transpire still larger quantities -of water than the bare ground evaporates or an undergrowth of -woody plants would transpire. Of course, a densely foliaged tree has -many more leaves to shed than a thinly foliaged one, and therefore -makes more litter, which increases the favorable mulch cover of the soil. -Another reason for keeping the ground well shaded is that the litter -then decomposes slowly, but into a desirable humus, which acts favorably -upon the soil, while if the litter is exposed to light, an undesirable, -partly decomposed "raw" humus is apt to be formed.</p> - -<p>Favorable soil conditions, then, require shade, while wood growth -is increased by full enjoyment of light; to satisfy both requirements, -mixed planting, with proper selection of shade-enduring and light-needing -species, is resorted to.</p> - -<p>As the different species afford shade in different degrees, so they -require for their development different degrees of light. The dense -foliage of the beech, with a large number of leaves in the interior of -the crown, proves that the leaves can exist and perform their work with -a small amount of light; the beech is a shade-enduring tree. The -scanty foliage of the birches, poplars, or pines shows that these are -light-needing trees; hence they are never found under the dense shade -of the former, while the shade-enduring can develop satisfactorily -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">« 8 »</a></span> -under the light shade of the thin-foliaged kinds. Very favorable soil -conditions increase the shade endurance of the latter, and climatic -conditions also modify their relative position in the scale.</p> - -<p>All trees ultimately thrive best—i. e., grow most vigorously—in the -full enjoyment of light, but their energy then goes into branching. -Crowded together, with the side light cut off, the lower lateral branches -soon die and fall, while the main energy of growth is put into the -shaft and the height growth is stimulated. The denser shade of the -shade-enduring kinds, if placed as neighbors to light-needing ones, is -most effective in producing this result, provided that the light is not -cut off at the top; and thus, in practice, advantage is taken of the -relative requirements for light of the various species.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> This relation of the different species to varying light conditions; their comparative -shading value and shade endurance, is one of the most important facts to be -observed and utilized by the forester. European foresters have done this, but since -they had to deal with only a few species and over a limited territory, they could -quite readily classify their trees with reference to their shade endurance, and take -it for granted that shade endurance and density of foliage or shading value were -more or less identical. With our great wealth of useful species it will be necessary -and profitable to be more exact in the classification.</p></div> - -<p>The forester finds in close planting and in mixed growth a means of -securing tall, clear trunks, free from knots, and he is able, moreover, -by proper regulation of light conditions, to influence the form development, -and also the quality of his crop, since slow growth and rapid -growth produce wood of different character.</p> - -<p>There are some species which, although light-foliaged and giving -comparatively little shade, are yet shade-enduring—i. e., can subsist, -although not develop favorably, under shade; the oaks are examples of -this kind. Others, like the black cherry, bear a dense crown for the -first twenty years, perhaps, seemingly indicating great shade endurance; -but the fact that the species named soon clears itself of its -branches and finally has a thin crown, indicates that it is light-needing, -though a good shader for the first period of its life. Others, again, like -the catalpa, which is shady and shade-enduring, as the difficulty with -which it clears itself indicates, leaf out so late and lose their foliage -so early that their shading value is thereby impaired. Black locust -and honey locust, on the other hand, leave no doubt either as to their -light-needing or their inferior shading quality.</p> - -<p>That soil conditions and climatic conditions also modify crown development -and shade endurance has been well recognized abroad, but in -our country this influence is of much more importance on account of -the great variation in those conditions. Thus the box elder, an excellent -shader in certain portions of the West, is a failure as soil cover in -others where it nevertheless will grow.</p> - -<p>We see, then, that in determining the shading value as well as the -shade endurance of one species in comparison with another, with reference -to forestry purposes, not only soil and climate but also the character -of foliage and its length of season must be considered.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">« 9 »</a></span></p> - - -<h3><a id="PHYSIOLOGY_OF_TREE_GROWTH"></a>PHYSIOLOGY OF TREE GROWTH.</h3> - -<p>As we have seen, root and foliage are the main life organs of the -tree. The trunk and branches serve to carry the crown upward and -expose it to the light, which is necessary in order to prepare the food -and increase the volume of the tree, and also as conductors of food -materials up and down between root and foliage. A large part of the -roots, too, aside from giving stability to the tree, serve only as conductors -of water and food material; only the youngest parts, the fibrous roots, -beset with innumerable fine hairs, serve to take up the water and minerals -from the soil. These fine roots, root hairs, and young parts are -therefore the essential portion of the root system. A tree may have a -fine, vigorous-looking root system, yet if the young parts and fibrous -roots are cut off or allowed to dry out, which they readily do—some -kinds more so than others—thereby losing their power to take up water, -such a tree is apt to die. Under very favorable moisture and temperature -conditions, however, the old roots may throw out now sprouts and -replace the fibrous roots. Some species, like the willows, poplars, -locusts, and others, are especially capable of doing so. All trees that -"transplant easily" probably possess this capacity of renewing the -fibrous roots readily, or else are less subject to drying out. But it may -be stated as a probable fact that most transplanted trees which die -soon after the planting do so because the fibrous roots have been curtailed -too much in taking up, or else have been allowed to dry out on -the way from the nursery or forest to the place of planting; they were -really dead before being set. Conifers—pines, spruces, etc.—are especially -sensitive; maples, oaks, catalpas, and apples will, in this respect, -stand a good deal of abuse.</p> - -<p>Hence, in transplanting, the first and foremost care of the forest, -grower, besides taking the sapling up with least injury, is the proper -protection of its root fibers against drying out.</p> - -<p>The water, with the minerals in solution, is taken up by the roots -when the soil is warm enough, but to enable the roots to act they must -be closely packed with the soil. It is conveyed mostly through the outer, -which are the younger, layers of the wood of root, trunk, and branches -to the leaves. Here, as we have seen, under the influence of light and -heat it is in large part transpired and in part combined with the carbon -into organic compounds, sugar, etc., which serve as food materials. -These travel from the leaf into the branchlet, and down through the -outer layers of the trunk to the very tips of the root, forming new wood -all the way, new buds, which lengthen into shoots, leaves, and flowers, -and also new rootlets. To live and grow, therefore, the roots need the -food elaborated in the leaves, just as the leaves need the water sent up -from the roots.</p> - -<p>Hence the interdependence of root system and crown, which must be -kept in proportion when transplanting. At least, the root system must -be sufficient to supply the needs of the crown.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">« 10 »</a></span></p> - - -<h3><a id="SAP_UP_SAP_DOWN"></a>"SAP UP AND SAP DOWN."</h3> - -<p>The growing tree, in all its parts, is more or less saturated with -water, and as the leaves, under the influence of sun and wind and -atmospheric conditions generally transpire, new supplies are taken in -through the roots and conveyed to the crown. This movement takes -place even in winter, in a slight degree, to supply the loss of water by -evaporation from the branches. In the growing season it is so active as -to become noticeable; hence -the saying that the sap is -"up," or "rising," and when, -toward the end of the season, -the movement becomes less, -the sap is said to be "down." -But this movement of water -is always upward; hence the -notion that there is a stream -upward at one season and in -one part of the tree, and a -stream downward at another -season and perhaps in another -part of the tree, is erroneous. -The downward movement is -of food materials, and the two -movements of water upward -and food downward take place -simultaneously, and depend, -in part at least, one upon the -other, the food being carried -to the young parts, wherever -required, by a process of diffusion -from cell to cell known as -"osmosis."</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 341px;"> -<a name="fig_1"></a> -<img src="images/unt_fig_1.png" width="341" height="617" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Physiological importance of different parts of -the tree; pathways of water and food materials. (Schematic.)</div> -</div> - -<p>These food materials are, -by the life processes of the -active cells, changed in chemical -composition as need be, -from sugar, which is soluble, -into starch, which is insoluble, -and back into sugar, and combined -with nitrogenous substances to make the cell-forming material, -protoplasm (<a href="#fig_1">fig. 1</a>).</p> - -<p>In the fall, when the leaves cease to elaborate food, both the upward -and the downward movement, more or less simultaneously, come to -rest (the surplus of food materials, as starch, and sometimes as sugar, -being stored for the winter in certain cell tissues), to begin again simultaneously -when in spring the temperature is high enough to reawaken -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">« 11 »</a></span> -activity, when the stored food of last year is dissolved and started on -its voyage. The exact manner in which this movement of water upward -and food materials downward takes place, and the forces at work, are -not yet fully understood, nor is there absolute certainty as to the parts -of the tree in which the movement takes place. It appears, however, -that while all the so-called "sapwood" is capable of conducting water -(the heartwood is probably not), the most active movement of both -water and food materials takes place in the cambium (the growing -cells immediately beneath the bark) and youngest parts of the bark.</p> - -<p>The deductions from these processes important to the planter are: -That injury to the living bark or bast means injury to growth, if not -destruction to life; that during the period of vegetation transplanting -can be done only with great caution; that the best time to move trees -is in the fall, when the leaves have dropped and the movement of water -and food materials has mostly ceased, or in spring, before the movement -begins again, the winter being objectionable only because of the -difficulty of working the soil and of keeping the roots protected against -frost. All things considered, spring planting, before activity in the -tree has begun, is the best, although it is not impossible to plant at -other times.</p> - - -<h3><a id="PROGRESS_OF_DEVELOPMENT"></a>PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT.</h3> - -<p>Like the wheat or corn plant, the tree seed require as conditions for -sprouting sufficient moisture, warmth, and air. Tree seeds, however, -differ from grain in that most of the kinds lose their power of germination -easily; with few exceptions (locust, pine, spruce), they can not -be kept for any length of time.</p> - -<p>The first leaves formed often differ essentially in shape from those of -the mature tree, which may cause their being confounded with other -plants, weeds, etc.</p> - -<p>The little seedlings of many, especially the conifers, are quite delicate, -and remain very small the first season; they need, therefore, the protecting -shade of mother trees, or artificial shading, and also protection -against weeds. The amount of light or shade given requires careful -regulation for some of them; too much light and heat will kill them, -and so will too much shade. This accounts for the failure of many -seedlings that spring up in the virgin forest.</p> - -<p>The planter, then, is required to know the nature and the needs of -the various kinds of seeds and seedlings, so as to provide favorable -conditions, when he will avoid sowing in the open field such as require -the care which it is impracticable to give outside of the nursery.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">« 12 »</a></span></p> - -<table summary="images"> -<tr> - <td> -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 345px;"> -<a name="fig_2"></a> -<img src="images/unt_fig_2.png" width="345" height="409" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Bud development of beech. <i>B</i>, as it would be -if all formed buds were to live; <i>A</i>, as it is, many buds -failing to develop.</div> -</div> - </td> - <td> -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 245px;"> -<a name="fig_3"></a> -<img src="images/unt_fig_3.png" width="245" height="659" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Buds of maple. <i>A</i>, longitudinal -section through tip of a maple twig; -<i>g</i>, end bud; <i>s</i>, lateral buds; <i>l</i>, scars of -leaves of last season. <i>B</i>, cross-section -through end bud, showing folded leaves -in center and scales surrounding them.</div> -</div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<h3><a id="GROWTH_IN_LENGTH"></a>GROWTH IN LENGTH AND RAMIFICATION.</h3> - -<p>While the stalk of wheat or corn grows for one season, exhausts -itself in seed production, and then dies, the tree continues to grow -from season to season, in length as well as in thickness. The growth -in length of shaft and branches proceeds from buds, made up of -cell tissues, which can subdivide and lengthen into shoots, as well -as make leaves. These buds are formed during summer, and when -winter begins contain embryo leaves, more or less developed, under -the protecting cover of scales (<a href="#fig_3">fig. 3</a>). When spring stimulates the -young plant to new activity, the buds swell, shed their scales, distend -their cells, increasing their number -by subdivision, and thus the leaves expand, -and the bud lengthens into a -shoot and twig. During the season new -buds are formed, and the whole process -repeats itself from year to year, giving -rise to the ramification and height -growth of the tree. The end buds being -mostly stronger and better developed, -the main axis of tree or branch increases -more rapidly than the rest. All these -buds originate from the youngest, central -part of the shoot, the pith, and hence -when the tree grows in thickness, enveloping -the base of the limbs, their connection with the pith can always -be traced. This is the usual manner of bud formation; in addition, -so-called "adventitious" buds maybe formed from the young living -wood in later life, which are not connected with the pith. Such buds -are those which develop into sprouts from the stump when the tree is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">« 13 »</a></span> -cut; also those which give rise to what are known as "water sprouts." -Many buds, although formed, are, however, not developed at once, and -perhaps not at all, especially as the tree grows older; these either die -or remain "dormant," often for a hundred years, to spring into life -when necessary (<a href="#fig_4">fig. 4</a>).</p> - -<p>The fact that each ordinary limb starts as a bud from the pith is an -important one to the timber grower; it explains knotty timber and -gives him the hint that in order to obtain clear timber the branches -first formed must be soon removed, -either by the knife or by proper -shading, which kills the branches and -thus "clears" the shaft.</p> - -<table summary="trees"> -<tr> - <td class="center" style="width:320px;"><a name="fig_4"></a> - <img src="images/unt_fig_4.png" width="315" height="334" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—Dormant bud, <i>K</i>, on a 12-year old branch of - beech. The bud is still capable of development - and is connected with the pith, <i>mm</i>, of the stem by - a line trace of pith, <i>S</i>.</div> - </td> - <td class="center" style="width:320px;"><a name="fig_5"></a> - <img src="images/unt_fig_5.png" width="272" height="440" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Section through a 12-year old stem - of beech, showing manner of bud and limb - formation, <i>a</i>, dormant buds; <i>b</i>, their trace - of pith extending to the pith of the stem; - <i>c</i>, a limb which started two years ago from - a dormant bud; <i>d</i>, normal limb; <i>e</i>, a limb - dead for four years; <i>f</i>, adventitious buds.</div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The planter has it also in his power -to influence the form development of -the tree by removing some of the -buds, giving thereby better chance to the remaining ones. This -pruning of buds is, where practicable, often better practice than the -pruning of limbs.</p> - -<p>Since the tree does not grow in length except by its buds it is evident -that a limb which started to grow at the height of 6 feet has its -base always 6 feet from the ground, and if allowed to grow to size, -must be surrounded by the wood which accumulates on the main stem -or trunk. If a limb is killed and broken off early, only a slender stub -composed entirely of rapidly decaying sapwood, is left, occasioning, -therefore, only a small defect in the heart of the tree; but if left to -grow to considerable age, the base of the limb is encased by the wood of -the stem, which, when the tree is cut into lumber, appears as a knot. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">« 14 »</a></span> -The longer the limb has been allowed to grow, the farther out is the timber -knotty and the thicker is the knot. If the limb remained alive, the -knot is "sound," closely grown together with the fibers of the tree. If -the limb died off, the remaining stub may behave in different ways. In -pines it will be largely composed of heartwood, very resinous and durable; -separated from the fibers of the overgrowing wood, it forms a -"loose" knot, which is apt to fall out of a board, leaving a hole.</p> - -<p>In broad-leaved trees, where no resin assists in the process of healing, -the stub is apt to decay, and this decay, caused by the growth of -fungi, is apt to penetrate into the tree (<a href="#fig_6">fig. 6</a>). In parks and orchards, -pruning is resorted to, and the cuts are painted or tarred to avoid the -decay. In well-managed forests and dense woods in general, the light -is cut off, the limb is killed when young and breaks away, the shaft -"clears itself," and the sound trunk furnishes a good grade of material. -The difference in development of the branch system, whether in full -enjoyment of light, in open stand, -or with the side light cut off, in -dense position, is shown in the -accompanying illustration (<a href="#fig_7">fig. 7</a>).</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 303px;"> -<a name="fig_6"></a> -<img src="images/unt_fig_6.png" width="303" height="311" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—Section through partly decayed knot in -oak wood. <i>a</i>, wood of knot; <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, wood callus -of the stem covering the wound; shaded portion, -decayed wood, black part, a cavity remaining.</div> -</div> - -<p>Both trees start alike; the one retains its branches, the other -loses them gradually, the stubs -being in time overgrown; finally -the second has a clear shaft, with -a crown concentrated at the top, -while the first is beset with -branches and branch stubs for its -whole length (<a href="#fig_8">fig. 8</a>).</p> - -<p>When ripped open lengthwise, -the interior exhibits the condition -shown in <a href="#fig_9">figure 9</a>, the dead -parts of the knot being indicated -in heavier shading. Since the brandies grow in more or less regular -whorls, several knots, stumps, or limbs are met every 6 to 24 inches -through the entire stem.</p> - -<p>Hence, in forest planting, trees are placed and kept for some time close -together, in order to decrease the branching in the lower part of the -tree and thus produce a clean bole and clear lumber.</p> - -<table summary="trees"> -<tr> - <td><a name="fig_7"></a> - <img src="images/unt_fig_7.png" width="316" height="580" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—Development in and out of the forest. <i>A</i>, - young tree alike. In both cases; <i>B</i> and <i>C</i>, successive - stages of tree grown in the open; <i>B´</i> and <i>C´</i>, corresponding - stages of the tree grown in the forest. - Numbers refer to annual growth in height.</div> - </td> - <td><a name="fig_8"></a> - <img src="images/unt_fig_8.png" width="405" height="605" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—Tree in and out of the forest. <i>D</i>, tree grown in the - open; <i>D´</i>, tree grown in the forest.</div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h3><a id="GROWTH_IN_THICKNESS"></a>GROWTH IN THICKNESS.</h3> - -<p>The young seedling and the young shoot of the older tree much -resemble in interior structure that of any herbaceous plant, being -composed of a large amount of pith, loose squarish cells, and a few -bundles of long fibers symmetrically distributed about the center, the -whole covered with a thin skin or epidermis. Each strand or bundle of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">« 15 »</a></span> -fibers, called fibro-vascular (fiber-vessel) bundles, consists of two kinds, -namely, wood fibers on the inner side and bast fibers of different -structure on the outer side. Between these two sets of fibers, the bast -and the wood, there is a row of cells which form the really active, -growing part of the plantlet, the cambium. The cambium cells are -actively subdividing and expanding, giving off wood cells to the interior -and bast cells to the exterior, and extending at the same time side-wise, -until at the end of the season not only are the wood and bast -portions increased in lines radiating from the center, but the cambium -layer, the wood cells, and the -bast cells of all the bundles -(scattered at the beginning) join -at the sides to form a complete -ring, or rather hollow cylinder, -around the central pith. Only -here and there the pith cells -remain, interrupting the wood -cylinder and giving rise to the -system of cells known as medullary -rays. The cross-section -now shows a comparatively -small amount of pith and bast -or bark and a larger body of -strong wood fibers. The new -shoot at the end, to be sure, -has the same appearance and -arrangement as the young -plantlet had, the pith preponderating, -and the continuous -cylinder of cambium, bast, and -wood being separated into -strands or bundles.</p> - -<p>During the season, through -the activity of the cambial part -of the bundles, the same changes -take place in the new shoot as -did the previous year in the -young seedling, while at the -same time the cambium in the -yearling part also actively subdivides, -forming new wood and bast cells, and thus a second ring, or -rather cylinder, is formed. The cambium of the young shoot is always -a continuation of that of the ring or cylinder formed the year before, -and this cambium cylinder always keeps moving outward, so that at -the end of the season, when activity ceases, it is always the last minute -layer of cells on the outside of the wood, between wood proper and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">« 16 »</a></span> -bark. It is here, therefore, that the life of the tree lies, and any injury -to the cambium must interfere with the growth and life of the tree.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 376px;"> -<a name="fig_9"></a> -<img src="images/unt_fig_9.png" width="376" height="577" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—Sections of logs showing the relative development of -knots. <i>E</i>, from tree grown in the open; <i>E´</i>, from tree grown -in a dense forest; <i>a</i> and <i>c</i>, whorls of knots; <i>b</i>, dead limb; -<i>sk</i>, "sound knot;" <i>dk</i>, "dead knot."</div> -</div> - -<p>The first wood cells which the cambium forms in the spring are -usually or always of a more open structure, thin-walled, and with a large -opening or "lumen," comparable to a blown-up paper bag; so large, in -fact, sometimes, is the "lumen" that the width of the cells can be seen -on a cross-section with the naked eye, as, for instance, in oak, ash, -elm, the so-called "pores" are this open wood formed in spring. The -cells, which are formed -later in summer, have -mostly thick walls, are -closely crowded and -compressed, and show -a very small opening or -"lumen," being comparable, -perhaps, to a -very thick wooden box. -They appear in the cross-section not only denser -but of a deeper color, -on account of their -crowded, compressed -condition and thicker -walls. Since at the beginning -of the next season -again thin-walled -cells with wide openings -or lumina are -formed, this difference -in the appearance of -"spring wood" and -"summer wood" enables -us to distinguish -the layer of wood -formed each year. This -"annual ring" is more -conspicuous in Some -kinds than in others. -In the so-called "ring porous" woods, like oak, ash, elm, the rings are -easily distinguished by the open spring wood; in the conifers, especially -pines, by the dark-colored summer wood; while in maple, birch, -tulip, etc., only a thin line of flattened, hence darker and regularly -aligned, summer cells, often hardly recognizable, distinguishes The -rings from each other. Cutting through a tree, therefore, we can not -only ascertain its age by counting its annual layers in the cross-section, -but also determine how much wood is formed each year (<a href="#fig_10">fig. 10</a>). We -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">« 17 »</a></span> -can, in fact, retrace the history of its growth, the vicissitudes through -which it has passed, by the record preserved in its ring growth.</p> - -<p>To ascertain the age of a tree correctly, however, we must cut so -near to the ground as to include the growth of the first year's little -plantlet; any section higher up shows as many years too few as it took -the tree to reach that height.</p> - -<p>This annual-ring formation is the rule in all countries which have -distinct seasons of summer and winter and temporary cessation of -growth. Only exceptionally -a tree may fail to make -its growth throughout its -whole length on account -of loss of foliage or other -causes; and occasionally, -when its growth has been -disturbed during the season, -a "secondary" ring, -resembling the annual -ring, and distinguishable -only by the expert, may -appear and mar the record.</p> - -<p>To the forest planter this -chapter on ring growth is -of great importance, because -not only does this -feature of tree life afford -the means of watching the -progress of his crop, calculating -the amount of -wood formed, and therefrom -determining when it -is most profitable for him -to harvest (namely, when -the annual or periodic -wood growth falls below a -certain amount), but since -the proportion of summer -wood and spring wood -determines largely the quality of the timber, and since he has it in -his power to influence the preponderance of the one or other by -adaptation of species to soils and by their management, ring growth -furnishes an index for regulating the quality of his crop.</p> - - -<h3 style="clear: both;"><a id="FORM_DEVELOPMENT"></a>FORM DEVELOPMENT.</h3> - -<p>If a tree is allowed to grow in the open, it has a tendency to branch, -and makes a low and spreading crown. In order to lengthen its shaft -and to reduce the number of branches it is necessary to narrow its -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">« 18 »</a></span> -growing space, to shade its sides so that the lower branches and their -foliage do not receive light enough to perform their functions. When -the side shade is dense enough, these branches die and finally break -off under the influence of winds and fungous growth; wood then forms -over the scars and we get a clean shaft -which carries a crown high up beyond the -reach of shade from neighbors.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 236px;"> -<a name="fig_10"></a> -<img src="images/unt_fig_10.png" width="236" height="693" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Scheme to Illustrate the arrangement -of annual growth. 1, 2, 3, -etc., represent the parts of the stem -grown during the first, second, third, -etc., twenty years of the life of the -tree, <i>k</i>, knots; the shaded part of each -is the "dead knot" of lumber.</div> -</div> - -<p>The branches being prevented from -spreading out, the shaft is forced to grow -upward, and hence, when crowded by -others, trees become taller and more -cylindrical in form, while in the open, -where they can spread, they remain lower -and more conical in form (figs. <a href="#fig_11">11</a>, <a href="#fig_12">12</a>).</p> - -<p>There are, to be sure, different natural -types of development, some, like the walnuts, -oaks, beeches, and the broad-leaved -trees generally, having greater tendency -to spread than others, like spruces, firs, -and conifers in general, which lengthen -their shaft in preference to spreading, -even in the open. This tendency to spreading -is also influenced by soil conditions -and climate, as well as by the age of the -tree. When the trees cease to grow in -height, their crowns broaden, and this -takes place sooner in shallow soils than in -deep, moist ones; but the tendency can -be checked and all can be made to develop -the shaft at the expense of the branches -by proper shading from the sides.</p> - -<p>It follows that the forest planter, who -desires to produce long and clean shafts -and best working quality of timber, must -secure and maintain side shade by a close -stand, while the landscape gardener, who -desires characteristic form, must maintain -an open stand and full enjoyment of light -for his trees.</p> - -<p>Now, as we have seen, different species -afford different amounts of shade, and in -proportion to the shade which they afford -can they endure shade. The beech or sugar maple or spruce, which -maintain a large amount of foliage under the dense shade of their -own crown, show that their leaves can live and functionate with a small -amount of light. They are shade-enduring trees. On the other hand, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">« 19 »</a></span> -the black walnut, the locust, the catalpa, the poplars, and the larch -show by the manner in which their crowns thin out, the foliage being -confined to the ends of the branches, that their leaves require more -light—they are light-needing trees; so that the scale which arranges -the trees according to the amount of shade they exert serves also to -measure their shade endurance.</p> - -<p>In making, therefore, mixed plantations, the different kinds must be -so grouped and managed that the shady trees will not outgrow and -overtop the light-needing; the latter must either have the start of the -former or must be quicker growers.</p> - -<table summary="trees"> -<tr> - <td><a name="fig_11"></a> - <img src="images/unt_fig_11.png" width="269" height="215" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Oak tree grown in the open.</div> - </td> - <td><a name="fig_12"></a> - <img src="images/unt_fig_12.png" width="280" height="355" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Maple tree grown in the forest.</div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<h3><a id="RATE_OF_GROWTH"></a>RATE OF GROWTH.</h3> - -<p>Not only do different species grow more or less rapidly in height and -girth, but there is in each species a difference in the rate of growth -during different periods of life, and -a difference in the persistence of -growth.</p> - -<p>It stands to reason that trees grow -differently in different soils and situations, -and hence we can not compare -different species with respect -to their rate of growth except as they grow under the same conditions.</p> - -<p>Thus the black walnut may grow as fast as or faster than the ash on -a rich, deep, moist, warm soil, but will soon fall to the rear in a wetter, -colder, and shallower soil.</p> - -<p>Given the same conditions, some species will start on a rapid upward -growth at once, like the poplars, aspen, locust, and silver maple, making -rapid progress (the most rapid from their tenth to their fifteenth year), -but decreasing soon in rate and reaching their maximum height early. -Others, like the spruce, beech, and sugar maple, will begin slowly, often -occupying several, sometimes as many as 10 to 15, years before they -appear to grow at all, their energy all going into root growth. Then -comes a period of more and more accelerated growth, which reaches its -maximum rate at 25 or 30 years; and when the cottonwood or aspen -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">« 20 »</a></span> -has reached the end of its growth in height the spruce or pine is still -at its best rate, and continues to grow for a long time at that rate; in -later life the rate decreases, yet height growth sometimes does not -cease altogether for centuries. As a rule, the light-needing species are -the ones which show the rapid height growth at the start, while the -shade-enduring are slow at the start, but persistent growers.</p> - -<p>This fact is important in explaining the alternations of forest growth -in nature; the persistent shade-enduring species crowd out the light-needing, -and the latter rapidly take possession of any openings that -fire or storm has made. It is also important with reference to the management -of wood crops and starting of mixed plantations; the light-needing -species must be mixed only with such shade-enduring species -as are slower growers than themselves.</p> - -<p>The diameter growth shows also periodic changes in its rate, and is, of -course, influenced in the same way by soil, climate, and light conditions, -as the height growth.</p> - -<p>In the juvenile or brush stage, lasting 6 to 10 years in light-needing and -20 to 40 years in shade-enduring species, the diameter grows comparatively -little, all energy being directed to height growth and root growth. -When the crown has been definitely formed, more food material is available -for wood formation, and the increase in foliage is accompanied -by a more rapid increase of trunk diameter; in favorable situations, -the highest rate occurs between the fortieth and sixtieth years; in the -poorer situations, between the fiftieth and eightieth years, which rate -continues for some time. Then comes a period of slower rate, which -finally in old age dwindles down almost to zero.</p> - -<p>But neither the diameter growth nor the width of the annual rings -alone tells us directly what amount of wood is forming. The outer -rings, being laid over a larger circumference, although thinner than the -preceding rings, may yet have greater cubic contents. The statements -of diameter growth are, therefore, misleading if we are interested in -knowing how much wood is forming.</p> - -<p>Accordingly the growth in volume must be considered separately, as -determined by the enlargement of the cross-section area and the height. -The growth in volume or mass accretion is quite small in young trees, -so that when wood is cut young the smallest amount of crop per year -is harvested, while, if it is allowed to grow, an increase more than proportionate -to the number of years may be obtained.</p> - -<p>Only when the tree has a fully developed crown does it begin to -make much wood. Its volume growth progresses then at a uniform -rate, and continues to do so for decades, and sometimes for a century -or more.</p> - -<p>On poorer sites the rate is slower, but remains longer on the increase, -while on good sites the maximum rate is soon reached.</p> - -<p>Of course, in a forest, where light conditions are not most favorable, -because form development and soil conditions require shade, the total -wood formation is less than in an isolated tree, favorably placed. Just -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">« 21 »</a></span> -so the dominant trees in a forest—i. e., those which have their crowns -above all others—show, of course, the advantage they have over the -inferior trees which are suffering from the shade of their neighbors.</p> - -<p>Finally, if we would take into consideration an entire forest growth, -and determine, for instance, how much wood an acre of such forest produces -at different periods, we must not overlook the fact that the number -of trees per acre changes as the trees grow older. Some of them -are overshaded and crowded out by the others, so that a young growth -of spruce might start with 100,000 little seedlings to the acre, of which -in the twentieth year only 10,000 would be alive, while in the fortieth -year the number would be reduced to 1,200, and in the hundredth year -to 280. Hence the rate of growth of any single tree gives no idea of -what the acre of forest will do.</p> - -<p>Tims, while a single good white pine might grow the fastest in volume -when about one hundred years old, then making wood at the rate -of, say, 1.5 cubic feet per year, an acre of pine on good soil, containing -about 1,600 trees, may make the most wood in the thirtieth year, then -growing at the rate of 170 cubic feet per acre, while in the hundredth -year the rate would not exceed 70 cubic feet; and an acre of pine in a -poorer location, with about 1,400 trees, may make the most wood in the -fortieth year, at the rate of 100 cubic feet per acre.</p> - -<p>From the consideration of the relation of light conditions to soil conditions, -to form development, and to rate of growth, we may make the -following deductions of interest to the forest planter:</p> - -<p>In order to secure the best results in wood production, in quantity -and quality, at the same time preserving favorable soil conditions, the -forest should be composed of various species, a mixture of light-needing -and shade-enduring kinds. The light-needing ones should be of quicker -growth; the shady ones, in larger numbers, should be slower growers. -For the first fifteen to twenty-five years the plantation should be kept -as dense as possible, to secure clear shafts and good growth in height; -then it should be thinned, to increase crown development and diameter -growth; the thinning, however, is not to be so severe that the crowns -can not close up again in two or three years; the thinning is to be -repeated again and again, always favoring the best developed trees.</p> - - -<h3><a id="REPRODUCTION"></a>REPRODUCTION.</h3> - -<p>All trees reproduce themselves naturally from seed. Man can secure -their reproduction also from cuttings or layers; and some kinds can -reproduce themselves by shoots from the stump when the parent tree -has been cut. This latter capacity is possessed in a varying degree -by different species; chestnuts, oaks, elms, maples, poplars, and willows -are most excellent sprouters; most conifers do not sprout at all, and the -shoots of those that do sprout soon die (Sequoia or California redwood -seems to be an exception). Sprouts of broad-leaved trees develop differently -from seedlings, growing very rapidly at first, but soon lessening -in the rate of growth and never attaining the height and perhaps not -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">« 22 »</a></span> -the diameter of trees grown from the seed; they are also shorter lived. -With age the stumps lose their capacity for sprouting. To secure best -results, the parent tree should be cut close to the ground in early spring, -avoiding severe frost, and a sharp cut should be made which will not -sever the bark from the trunk.</p> - -<p>Not all trees bear seed every year, and plentiful seed production, -especially in a forest, occurs, as a rule, periodically. The periods differ -with species, climate, and season.</p> - -<p>Not all seeds can germinate, and in some species the number of seeds -that can germinate is very small, and they lose their power of germination -when kept a few hours, like the willows. Others, if kept till they -have become dry, will "lie over" in the soil a year or more before germinating. -The same thing will occur if they are covered too deep in -the soil, provided they germinate at all under such conditions.</p> - -<p>In order to germinate, seeds must have warmth, air, and moisture. -The preparation of a seed bed is, therefore, necessary in order to supply -these conditions in most favorable combination. In the natural forest -millions of seeds rot or dry without sprouting, and millions of seedlings -sprout, but soon perish under the too dense shade of the mother trees.</p> - -<p>Man, desiring to reproduce a valuable wood crop, cannot afford to be -as lavish as nature, and must therefore improve upon nature's methods, -making more careful preparation for the production of his crop, either -by growing the seedlings in nurseries and transplanting them, or else -by cutting away the old growth in such a manner as to secure to the -young self-grown crop better chances for life and development.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="HOW_TO_PLANT_A_FOREST" id="HOW_TO_PLANT_A_FOREST">2. HOW TO PLANT A FOREST.</a></h2> - - -<p>Forest planting and tree planting are two different things. The -orchardist, who plants for fruit; the landscape gardener, who plants for -form; the roadside planter, who plants for shade, all have objects in view -different from that of the forest planter, and therefore select and use -their plant material differently. They deal with single individual trees, -each one by itself destined for a definite purpose. The forester, on the -other hand, plants a crop like the farmer; he deals not with the single -seed or plant, but with masses of trees; the individual tree has value -to him only as apart of the whole. It may come to harvest for its timber, -or it may not come to harvest, and yet have answered its purpose -as a part of the whole in shading the ground, or acting as nurse or -"forwarder" as long as it was necessary.</p> - -<p>His object is not to grow trees, but to produce wood, the largest -amount of the best quality per acre, whether it be stored in one tree or -in many, and his methods must be directed to that end.</p> - -<p>As far as the manner of setting out plants or sowing seeds is concerned, -the same general principles and the same care in manipulation -are applicable as in any other planting, except as the coat of operating -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">« 23 »</a></span> -on so Large a scale may necessitate less careful methods than the gardener -or nurseryman can afford to apply; the nearer, however, the -performance of planting can be brought to the careful manner of the -gardener, the surer the success. The principles underlying such -methods have been discussed in the chapter "<a href="#HOW_TREES_GROW">How trees grow</a>;" in the -present chapter it is proposed to point out briefly the special considerations -which should guide the forest planter in particular.</p> - - -<h3><a id="WHAT_TREES_TO_PLANT"></a>WHAT TREES TO PLANT.</h3> - -<p><i>Adaptability to climate</i> is the first requisite in the species to be -planted.</p> - -<p>It is best to choose from the native growth of the region which is -known to be adapted to it. With regard to species not native, the -reliance must be placed upon the experience of neighboring planters -and upon experiment (at first on a small scale), after study of the -requirements of the kinds proposed for trial.</p> - -<p>Adaptation must be studied, not only with reference to temperature -ranges and rainfall, but especially with reference to atmospheric -humidity and requirements of transpiration.</p> - -<p>Many species have a wide range of natural distribution, and hence -of climatic adaptation. If such are to be used, it is important to secure -seeds from that part of the range of natural distribution where the -plants must be hardiest, i. e., the coldest and driest region in which it -occurs, which insures hardy qualities in the offspring. For instance, -the Douglas spruce from the humid and evenly tempered Pacific Slope -will not be as hardy as that grown from seed collected on the dry -and frigid slopes of the Rockies. Lack of attention to this requisite -accounts for many failures. It must also be kept in mind that, while a -species may be able to grow in another than its native climate, its wood -may not there have the same valuable qualities which it develops in -its native habitat.</p> - -<p><i>Adaptability to soil</i> must be studied less with reference to mineral -constituents than to physical condition. Depth and moisture conditions, -and the structure of the soil, which influences the movement of -water in it, are the most important elements. While all trees thrive -best in a moist to "fresh" soil of moderate depth (from 2 to 4 feet) -and granular structure, some can adapt themselves to drier or wetter, -shallow, and compact soils. Fissures in rocks into which the roots can -penetrate often stand for depth of soil, and usually aid in maintaining -favorable moisture conditions. In soils of great depth (i. e., from the -surface to the impenetrable subsoil) and of coarse structure water may -drain away so fast as not to be available to the roots.</p> - -<p>Soil moisture must always be studied in conjunction with atmospheric -moisture; for, while a species may thrive in an arid soil, when the -demands of transpiration are not great, it may not do so when aridity -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">« 24 »</a></span> -of atmosphere is added. Trees of the swamp are apt to be indifferent -to soil moisture and to thrive quite well, if not better, in drier soils.</p> - -<p><i>Adaptability to site.</i>—While a species may be well adapted to the -general climatic conditions of a region, and in general to the soil, there -still remains to be considered its adaptability to the particular "site," -under which term we may comprise the total effect of general climate, -local climate, and soil. The general climatic conditions are locally -influenced, especially by the slope, exposure, or aspect, and the surroundings. -Thus we know that eastern exposures are more liable to -frost, western exposures more liable to damage from winds, southern -more apt to be hot and to dry out, and northern to be cooler and -damper, having in consequence a shorter period of vegetation. Hollows -and lowlands are more exposed to frosts and more subject to -variations in soil moisture, etc.</p> - -<p>Hence for these various situations it is advisable to select species -which can best withstand such local dangers.</p> - -<p><i>The use value, or utility</i>, of the species is next to be considered. This -must be done with reference to the commercial and domestic demand, -and the length of time it takes the species to attain its value. The -greater variety of purposes a wood may serve—i. e., the greater its -general utility—and the sooner it attains its use value the better. -White pine for the northeastern States as a wood is like the apple -among fruits, making an all-round useful material in large quantities -per acre in short time. Tulip poplar, applicable to a wider climatic -range, is almost as valuable, while oak, ash, and hickory are standard -woods in the market. Other woods are of limited application. Thus -the black locust, which grows most quickly into useful posts, has only -a limited market, much more limited than it should have; hickory soon -furnishes valuable hoop poles from the thinnings, and later the best -wagon material, not, however, large quantities in a short time; while -black walnut of good quality is very high in price, the market is also -limited, and the dark color of the heartwood, for which it is prized, is -attained only by old trees. The black cherry, used for similar purposes, -attains its value much sooner.</p> - -<p>By planting various species together, variety of usefulness may be -secured and the certainty of a market increased.</p> - -<p><i>The forest value</i> of the species is only in part expressed by its use -value. As has been shown in another place, the composition of the -crop must be such as to insure maintenance of favorable soil conditions, -as well as satisfactory development of the crop itself. Some -species, although of high use value, like ash, oak, etc, are poor preservers -of soil conditions, allowing grass and weeds to enter the plantation -and to deteriorate the soil under their thin foliage. Others, like -beech, sugar maple, box elder, etc., although of less use value, being -dense foliaged and preserving a shady crown for a long time, are of -great forest value as soil improvers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">« 25 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Again, as the value of logs depends largely on their freedom from -knots, straightness, and length, it is of importance to secure these -qualities. Some valuable species, if grown by themselves, make crooked -trunks, do not clean their shafts of branches, and are apt to spread -rather than lengthen. If planted in close companionship with others, -they are forced by these "nurses or forwarders" to make better growths -and clean their shafts of branches.</p> - -<p>Furthermore, from financial considerations, it is well to know that -some species develop more rapidly and produce larger quantities of -useful material per acre than others; thus the white pine is a "big -cropper," and, combining with this a tolerably good shading quality, -and being in addition capable of easy reproduction, it is of highest -"forest value."</p> - -<p>Hence, as the object of forestry is to make money from continued -wood crops, use value and forest value must both be considered in The -selection of materials for forest planting.</p> - -<p><i>Mutual relationship of different species</i>, with reference especially to -their relative height growth and their relative light requirements, must -be considered in starting a mixed plantation.</p> - -<p>Mixed forest plantations (made of several kinds) have so many advantages -over pure plantations (made of one kind) that they should be -preferred, except for very particular reasons. Mixed plantations are -capable of producing larger quantities of better and more varied -material, preserve soil conditions hotter, are less liable to damage from -winds, fires, and insects, and can be more readily reproduced.</p> - -<p>The following general rules should guide in making up the composition -of a mixed plantation:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><i>a.</i> Shade-enduring kinds should form the bulk (five-eighths to seven-eighths) of -the plantation, except on specially favored soils where no deterioration is to be -feared from planting only light-needing kinds, and in which case those may even -be planted by themselves.</p> - -<p><i>b.</i> The light-needing trees should be surrounded by shade-enduring of slower -growth, so that the former may not be overtopped, but have the necessary light and -be forced by side shade to straight growth.</p> - -<p><i>c.</i> Shade-enduring species may be grown in admixture with each other when their -rate of height growth is about equal, or when the slower-growing kind can be protected -against the quicker-growing (for instance, by planting a larger proportion of -the former in groups or by cutting back the latter).</p> - -<p><i>d.</i> The more valuable timber trees which are to form the main crop should be so -disposed individually, and planted in such numbers among the secondary crop or -nurse crop, that the latter can be thinned out first without disturbing the former.</p></div> - -<p>Where a plantation of light-foliaged trees has been made (black -walnut, for instance), it can be greatly improved by "under-planting" -densely with a shade-enduring kind, which will choke out weed growth, -improve the soil, and thereby advance the growth of the plantation.</p> - -<p>The selection and proper combination of species with reference to -this mutual relationship to each other and to the soil are the most important -elements of success.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">« 26 »</a></span></p> - -<p><i>Availability</i> of the species also still needs consideration in this -country; for, although a species may be very well adapted to the purpose -in hand, it may be too difficult to obtain material for planting in -quantity or at reasonable prices. While the beech is one of the best -species for shade endurance, and hence for soil cover, seedlings can not -be had as yet in quantity. Western conifers, although promising good -material for forest planting, are at present too high priced for general -use. Some eastern trees can be secured readily—either their seed or -seedlings—from the native woods; others must be grown in nurseries -before they can be placed in the field.</p> - -<p><i>Whether to procure seeds or plants</i>, and if the latter, what kind, -depends upon a number of considerations. The main crop, that which -is to furnish the better timber, had best be planted with nursery-grown -plants, if of slow-growing kinds, perhaps once transplanted, with well-developed -root systems, the plants in no case to be more than 2 to 3 -years old. The secondary or nurse crop may then be sown or planted -with younger and less costly material taken from the woods or grown -in seed beds, or else cuttings may be used.</p> - -<p>In some localities—for instance, the Western plains—the germinating -of seeds in the open field is so uncertain, and the life of the young -seedlings for the first year or two so precarious, that the use of seeds -in the field can not be recommended. In such locations careful selection -and treatment of the planting material according to the hardships -which it must encounter can alone insure success.</p> - -<p>Seedlings from 6 to 12 inches high furnish the best material. The -planting of large-sized trees is not excluded, but is expensive and -hence often impracticable, besides being less sure of success, since -the larger-sized tree is apt to lose a greater proportion of its roots in -transplanting.</p> - - -<h3><a id="METHODS_OF_PLANTING"></a>METHODS OF PLANTING.</h3> - -<p><i>Preparation of soil</i> is for the purpose of securing a favorable start for -the young crop; its effects are lost after the first few years. Most land -that is to be devoted to forest planting does not admit of as careful -preparation as for agricultural crops, nor is it necessary where the -climate is hot too severe and the soil not too compact to prevent the -young crop from establishing itself. Thousands of acres in Germany -are planted annually without any soil preparation, yearling pine seedlings -being set with a dibble in the unprepared ground. This absence -of preparation is even necessary in sandy soils, like that encountered -in the sand-hills of Nebraska, which may, if disturbed, be blown out and -shifted. In other cases a partial removal of a too rank undergrowth -or soil cover and a shallow scarifying or hoeing is resorted to, or else -furrows are thrown up and the trees set out in them.</p> - -<p>In land that has been tilled, deep plowing (10 to 12 inches) and -thorough pulverizing give the best chances for the young crop to start. -For special conditions, very dry or very moist situations, special -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">« 27 »</a></span> -methods are required. The best methods for planting in the semiarid -regions of the far West have not yet been developed. Thorough cultivation, -as for agricultural crops, with subsequent culture, is successful, -but expensive. A plan which might be tried would consist in breaking -the raw prairie in June and turning over a shallow sod, sowing a crop -of oats or alfalfa, harvesting it with a high stubble, then opening furrows -for planting and leaving the ground between furrows undisturbed, -so as to secure the largest amount of drainage into the furrows and a -mulch between the rows.</p> - -<p><i>The time for planting</i> depends on climatic and soil conditions and the -convenience of the planter. Spring planting is preferable except in -southern latitudes, especially in the West, where the winters are severe -and the fall apt to be dry, the soil therefore not in favorable condition -for planting.</p> - -<p>The time for fall planting is after the leaves have fallen; for spring -planting, before or just when life begins anew. In order to be ready -in time for spring planting, it is a good practice to take up the plants in -the fall and "heel them in" over winter (covering them, closely packed, -in a dry trench of soil). Conifers can be planted later in spring and -earlier in fall than broad-leaved trees.</p> - -<p><i>The density</i> of the trees is a matter in which most planters fail. The -advantages of close planting lie in the quicker shading of the soil, hence -the better preservation of its moisture and improved growth and form -development of the crop. These advantages must be balanced against -the increased cost of close planting. The closer the planting, the sooner -will the plantation be self-sustaining and the surer the success.</p> - -<p>If planted in squares, or, better still, in quincunx order (the trees in -every other row alternating at equal distances), which is most desirable -on account of the more systematic work possible and the more complete -cover which it makes, the distance should not be more than 4 feet, -unless for special reasons and conditions, while 2 feet apart is not too -close, and still closer planting is done by nature with the best success.</p> - -<p>The following numbers of trees per acre are required when planting -at distances as indicated:</p> - -<table summary="table"> -<tr> - <td>1½</td> - <td>by</td> - <td>1½ feet</td> - <td class="tdr">19,360</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>by</td> - <td>4 feet</td> - <td class="tdr">6,445</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>1½</td> - <td>by</td> - <td>2 feet</td> - <td class="tdr">14,520</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td>by</td> - <td>3 feet</td> - <td class="tdr">4,840</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>2</td> - <td>by</td> - <td>2 foot</td> - <td class="tdr">10,890</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td>by</td> - <td>4 feet</td> - <td class="tdr">3,630</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>2</td> - <td>by</td> - <td>3 feet</td> - <td class="tdr">7,260</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td>by</td> - <td>4 feet</td> - <td class="tdr">2,722</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>To decrease expense, the bulk of the plantation may be made of the -cheapest kinds of trees that may serve as soil cover and secondary or -nurse crop, the main crop of from 300 to 600 trees to consist of better -kinds, and with better planting material, mainly of light-needing species. -These should be evenly disposed through the plantation, each closely -surrounded by the nurse crop. It is, of course, understood that not all -trees grow up; a constant change in numbers by the death (or else -timely removal) of the overshaded takes place, so that the final crop -shows at 100 years a close cover, with hardly 300 trees to the acre.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">« 28 »</a></span></p> - -<p><i>After-culture</i> is not entirely avoidable, especially under unfavorable -climatic conditions, and if the planting was not close enough. Shallow -cultivation between the rows is needed to prevent weed growth and to -keep the soil open, until it is shaded by the young trees, which may take -a year with close planting and two or three years with rows 4 by 4 feet -apart, the time varying also with the species.</p> - -<p>It is rare that a plantation succeeds in all its parts; gaps or fail -places occur, as a rule, and must be filled in by additional planting as -soon as possible, if of larger extent than can be closed up in a few -years by the neighboring growth.</p> - -<p>When the soil is protected by a complete leaf canopy, the forest crop -may be considered as established, and the after-treatment will consist -of judicious thinning.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="HOW_TO_TREAT_THE_WOOD_LOT" id="HOW_TO_TREAT_THE_WOOD_LOT">3. HOW TO TREAT THE WOOD LOT.</a></h2> - - -<p>In the northeastern States it is the custom to have connected with -the farm apiece of virgin woodland, commonly called the wood lot. Its -object primarily is to supply the farmer with the firewood, fence material, -and such dimension timbers as he may need from time to time for -repairs on buildings, wagons, etc.</p> - -<p>As a rule, the wood lot occupies, as it ought to, the poorer part of the -farm, the rocky or stony, the dry or the wet portions, which are not well -fitted for agricultural crops. As a rule, it is treated as it ought not to -be, if the intention is to have it serve its purpose continuously; it is -cut and culled without regard to its reproduction.</p> - -<p>As far as firewood supplies go, the careful farmer will first use the -dead and dying trees, broken limbs, and leavings, which is quite proper. -The careless man avoids the extra labor which such material requires, -and takes whatever splits best, no matter whether the material could -be used for better purposes or not.</p> - -<p>When it comes to the cutting of other material, fence rails, posts, or -dimension timber, the general rule is to go into the lot and select the -best trees of the best kind for the purpose. This looks at first sight -like the natural, most practical way of doing. It is the method which -the lumberman pursues when he "culls" the forest, and is, from his point -of view perhaps, justifiable, for he only desires to secure at once what -is most profitable in the forest. But for the farmer, who proposes to use -his wood lot continuously for supplies of this kind, it is a method detrimental -to his object, and in time it leaves him with a lot of poor, useless -timber which encumbers the ground and prevents the growth of a -better crop.</p> - -<p>Our woods are mostly composed of many species of trees; they are -mixed woods. Some of the species are valuable for some special purposes, -others are applicable to a variety of purposes, and again others -furnish but poor material for anything but firewood, and even for that -use they may not be of the best.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">« 29 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Among the most valuable in the northeastern woods we should mention -the white pine—king of all—the white ash, white and chestnut oak, -hickories, tulip tree, black walnut, and black cherry, the last three being -now nearly exhausted; next, spruce and hemlock, red pine, sugar maple, -chestnut, various oaks of the black or red oak tribe, several species of -ash and birch, black locust; lastly, elms and soft maples, basswood, -poplars, and sycamore.</p> - -<p>Now, by the common practice of culling the best it is evident that -gradually all the best trees of the best kinds are taken out, leaving only -inferior trees or inferior kinds—the weeds among trees, if one may call -them such—and thus the wood lot becomes well-nigh useless.</p> - -<p>It does not supply that for which it was intended; the soil, which -was of little use for anything but a timber crop before, is still further -deteriorated under this treatment, and being compacted by the constant -running of cattle, the starting of a crop of seedlings is made -nearly impossible. It would not pay to turn it into tillage ground or -pasture; the farm has by so much lost in value. In other words, instead -of using the interest on his capital, interest and capital have been used -up together; the goose that laid the golden egg has been killed.</p> - -<p>This is not necessary if only a little system is brought into the management -of the wood lot and the smallest care is taken to avoid deterioration -and secure reproduction.</p> - - -<h3><a id="IMPROVEMENT_CUTTINGS"></a>IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS.</h3> - -<p>The first care should be to improve the crop in its composition. -Instead of culling it of its best material, it should be culled of its -weeds, the poor kinds, which we do not care to reproduce, and which, -like all other weeds, propagate themselves only too readily. This weeding -must not, however, be done all sit once, as it could be in a field crop, -for in a full-grown piece of woodland each tree has a value, even the -weed trees, as soil cover.</p> - -<p>The great secret of success in all crop production lies in the regulating -of water supplies; the manuring in part and the cultivating entirely, -as well as drainage and irrigation, are means to this end. In forestry -these means are usually not practicable, and hence other means are -resorted to. The principal of these is to keep the soil as much as possible -under cover, either by the shade which the foliage of the tall trees -furnishes, or by that from the underbrush, or by the litter which accumulates -and in decaying forms a humus cover, a most excellent mulch.</p> - -<p>A combination of these three conditions, viz, a dense crown cover, -woody underbrush where the crown cover is interrupted, and a heavy -layer of well-decomposed humus, gives the best result. Under such -conditions, first of all, the rain, being intercepted by the foliage and -litter, reaches the ground only gradually, and therefore does not compact -the soil as it does in the open field, but leaves it granular and -open, so that the water can readily penetrate and move in the soil. -Secondly, the surface evaporation is considerably reduced by the shade -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">« 30 »</a></span> -and lack of air circulation in the dense woods, be that more moisture -remains for the use of the trees. When the shade of the crowns overhead -(the so-called "crown cover," or "canopy,") is perfect, but little -undergrowth will be seen; but where the crown cover is interrupted or -imperfect, an undergrowth will appear. If this is composed of young -trees, or even shrubs, it is an advantage, but if of weeds, and especially -grass, it is a misfortune, because these transpire a great deal more water -than the woody plants and allow the soil to deteriorate in structure and -therefore in water capacity.</p> - -<p>Some weeds and grasses, to be sure, are capable of existing where -but little light reaches the soil. When they appear it is a sign to the -forester that he must be careful not to thin out the crown cover any -more. When the more light-needing weeds and grasses appear it is a -sign that too much light reaches the ground, and that the soil is already -deteriorated. If this state continues, the heavy drain which the transpiration -of these weeds makes upon the soil moisture, without any -appreciable conservative action by their shade, will injure the soil still -further.</p> - -<p>The overhead shade or crown cover may be imperfect because there -are not enough trees on the ground to close up the interspaces with -their crowns, or else because the kinds of trees which make up the -forest do not yield much shade; thus it can easily be observed that a -beech, a sugar maple, a hemlock, is so densely foliaged that but little -light reaches the soil through its crown canopy, while an ash, an oak, -a larch, when full grown, in the forest, allows a good deal of light to -penetrate.</p> - -<p>Hence, in our weeding process for the improvement of the wood crop, -we must be careful not to interrupt the crown cover too much, and -thereby deteriorate the soil conditions. And for the same reason, in -the selection of the kinds that are to be left or to be taken out, we -shall not only consider their use value but also their shading value, -trying to bring about such a mixture of shady and less shady kinds as -will insure a continuously satisfactory crown cover, the shade-enduring -kinds to occupy the lower stratum in the crown canopy, and to be more -numerous than the light-needing.</p> - -<p>The forester, therefore, watches first the conditions of his soil cover, -and his next care is for the condition of the overhead shade, the "crown -cover;" for a change in the condition of the latter brings change into -his soil conditions, and, inversely, from the changes in the plant cover of -the soil he judges whether he may or may not change the light conditions. -The changes of the soil cover teach him more often when "to let -alone" than when to go on with his operations of thinning out; that -is to say, he can rarely stop short of that condition which is most favorable. -Hence the improvement cuttings must be made with caution -and only very gradually, so that no deterioration of the soil conditions -be invited. We have repeated this injunction again and again, because -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">« 31 »</a></span> -all success in the management of future wood crops depends upon the -care bestowed upon the maintenance of favorable soil conditions.</p> - -<p>As the object of this weeding is not only to remove the undesirable -kinds from the present crop, but to prevent as much as possible their -reappearance in subsequent crops, it maybe advisable to cut such kinds -as sprout readily from the stump in summer time—June or July—when -the stumps are, likely to die without sprouting.</p> - -<p>It may take several years' cutting to bring the composition of the -main crop into such a condition as to satisfy us.</p> - - -<h3><a id="METHODS_OF_REPRODUCING"></a>METHODS OF REPRODUCING THE WOOD CROP.</h3> - -<p>Then comes the period of utilizing the main crop. As we propose to -keep the wood lot as such, and desire to reproduce a satisfactory wood -crop in place of the old one, this latter must be cut always with a view -to that reproduction. There are various methods pursued for this purpose -in large forestry operations which are not practicable on small -areas, especially when these are expected to yield only small amounts -of timber, and these little by little as required. It is possible, to be -sure, to cut the entire crop and replant a new one, or else to use the ax -skillfully and bring about a natural reproduction in a few years; but -we want in the present case to lengthen out the period during which -the old crop is cut, and hence must resort to other methods. There are -three methods practicable.</p> - -<p>We may clear narrow strips or bands entirely, expecting the neighboring -growth to furnish the seed for covering the strip with a new crop—"the -strip method;" or we can take out single trees here and there, -relying again on an after growth from seed shed by the surrounding -trees—the "selection method;" or, finally, instead of single trees, we -may cut entire groups of trees hero and there in the same manner, the -gaps to be filled, as in the other cases, with a young crop from the seed -of the surrounding trees, and this we may call the "group method."</p> - -<p>In <i>the strip method</i>, in order to secure sufficient seeding of the cleared -strip, the latter must not be so broad that the seed from the neighboring -growth can not be carried over it by the wind. In order to get the -best results from the carrying power of the wind (as well as to avoid -windfalls when the old growth is suddenly opened on the windward side) -the strips should be located on the side opposite the prevailing winds. -Oaks, beech, hickory, and nut trees in general with heavy seeds will not -seed over any considerable breadth of strip, while with maple and ash -the breadth may be made twice as great as the height of the timber, and -the mother trees with lighter seeds, like spruce and pine, or birch and -elm, maybe able to cover strips of a breadth of 3 or 4 and even 8 times -their height. But such broad strips are hazardous, since with insufficient -seed fall, or fail years in the seed, the strip may remain exposed -to sun and wind for several years without a good cover and deteriorate. -It is safer, therefore, to make the strips no broader than just the height -of the neighboring timber, in which case not only has the seed better -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">« 32 »</a></span> -chance of covering the ground, but the soil and seedlings have more -protection from the mother crop. In hilly country the strips must not -be made in the direction of the slope, for the water would wash out soil -and seed.</p> - -<p>Every year, then, or from time to time, a new strip is to be cleared and -"regenerated." But if the first strip failed to cover itself satisfactorily, -the operation is stopped, for it would be unwise to remove the seed trees -further by an additional clearing. Accordingly, this method should be -used only where the kinds composing the mother crop are frequent and -abundant seeders and give assurance of reseeding the strips quickly -and successfully.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 522px;"> -<a name="fig_13"></a> -<img src="images/unt_fig_13.png" width="522" height="593" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Showing plan of group system in regenerating a forest crop. 1, 2, 3, 4, successive -groups of young timber, 1 being the oldest, 4 the youngest, 5 old timber; <i>a</i>, wind -mantle, specially managed to secure protection.</div> -</div> - -<p>The other two methods have greater chances of success in that they -preserve the soil conditions more surely, and there is more assurance of -seeding from the neighboring trees on all sides.</p> - -<p><i>The selection method</i>, by which single trees are taken out all over the -forest, is the same as has been practiced by the farmer and lumberman -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">« 33 »</a></span> -hitherto, only they have forgotten to look after the young crop. Millions -of seed may fall to the ground and germinate, but perish from the excessive -shade of the mother trees. If we wish to be successful in establishing -a new crop, it will be necessary to be ready with the ax all the -time and give light as needed by the young crop. The openings made -by taking out single trees are so small that there is great danger of the -young crop being lost, or at least impeded in its development, because -it is impracticable to come in time to its relief with the ax.</p> - -<p>The best method, therefore, in all respects, is the "<i>group method</i>" -which not only secures continuous soil cover, chances for full seeding, -and more satisfactory light conditions, but requires loss careful attention, -or at least permits more freedom of movement and adaptation to -local conditions (<a href="#fig_13">fig. 13</a>).</p> - -<p>It is especially adapted to mixed woods, as it permits securing for each -species the most desirable light conditions by making the openings larger -or smaller, according as the species we wish to favor in a particular group -demand more or less shade. Further, when different species are ripe -for regeneration at different times, this plan makes it possible to take -them in hand as needed. Again, we can begin with one group or we can -take in hand several groups simultaneously, as may be desirable and -practicable.</p> - -<p>We start our groups of new crop either where a young growth is -already on the ground, enlarging around it, or where old timber has -reached its highest usefulness and should be cut in order that we may -not lose the larger growth which young trees would make; or else we -choose a place which is but poorly stocked, where, if it is not regenerated, -the soil is likely to deteriorate further. The choice is affected -further by the consideration that dry situations should be taken in hand -earlier than those in which the soil and site are more favorable, and -that some species reach maturity and highest use value earlier than -others and should therefore be reproduced earlier. In short, we begin -the regeneration when and where the necessity for it exists, or where -the young crop has the best chance to start most satisfactorily with the -least artificial aid. Of course, advantage should betaken of the occurrence -of seed years, which come at different intervals with different -species.</p> - -<p>If we begin with a group of young growth already on the ground, -our plan is to remove gradually the old trees standing over them when -no longer required for shade, and then to cut away the adjoining old -growth and enlarge the opening in successive narrow bands around -the young growth. When the first band has seeded itself satisfactorily, -and the young growth has come to require more light (which -may take several years), we remove another band around it, and thus -the regeneration progresses. Where no young growth already exists, -of course the first opening is made to afford a start, and afterwards the -enlargement follows as occasion requires.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">« 34 »</a></span></p> - - -<h3><a id="SIZE_OF_OPENINGS"></a>SIZE OF OPENINGS.</h3> - -<p>The size of the openings and the rapidity with which they should be -enlarged vary, of course, with local conditions and the species which is -to 'be favored, the light-needing species requiring larger openings and -quicker light additions than the shade-enduring. It is difficult to give -any rules, since the modifications due to local conditions are so manifold, -requiring observation and judgment. Caution in not opening too -much at a time and too quickly may avoid failure in securing good stands.</p> - -<p>In general, the first openings may contain from one-fourth to one-half -an acre or more, and the gradual enlarging may progress by clearing -bands of a breadth not to exceed the height of the surrounding timber.</p> - -<p>The time of the year when the cutting is to be done is naturally in -winter, when the farmer has the most leisure, and when the wood seasons -best after felling and is also most readily moved. Since it is -expected that the seed fallen in the autumn will sprout in the spring, -all wood should, of course, be removed from the seed ground.</p> - -<p>The first opening, as well as the enlargement of the groups, should -not be made at once, but by gradual thinning out, if the soil is not in -good condition to receive and germinate the seed and it is impracticable -to put it in such condition by artificial means—hoeing or plowing.</p> - -<p>It is, of course, quite practicable—nay, sometimes very desirable—to -prepare the soil for the reception and germination of the seed. Where -undesirable undergrowth has started, it should be cut out, and where -the soil is deteriorated with weed growth or compacted by the tramping -of cattle, it should be hoed or otherwise scarified, so that the seed may -find favorable conditions. To let pigs do the plowing and the covering -of acorns is not an uncommon practice abroad.</p> - -<p>It is also quite proper, if the reproduction from the seed of the surrounding -mother trees does not progress satisfactorily, to assist, when -an opportunity is afforded, by planting such desirable species as were -or were not in the composition of the original crop.</p> - -<p>It may require ten, twenty, or forty years or more to secure the reproduction -of a wood lot in this way. A new growth, denser and better -than the old, with timber of varying age, will be the result. The progress -of the regeneration in groups is shown on the accompanying plan, -the different shadings showing the successive additions of young crop, -the darkest denoting the oldest parts, first regenerated. If we should -make a section through any one of the groups, this, ideally represented, -would be like <a href="#fig_14">figure 14</a>, the old growth on the outside, the youngest -new crop adjoining it, and tiers of older growths of varying height -toward the center of the group.</p> - - -<h3><a id="WIND_MANTLE"></a>WIND MANTLE.</h3> - -<p>On the plan there will be noted a strip specially shaded, surrounding -the entire plat (<a href="#fig_13">fig. 13, <i>a</i></a>), representing a strip of timber which should -surround the farmer's wood lot, and which he should keep as dense as -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">« 35 »</a></span> -possible, especially favoring undergrowth. This part, if practicable, -should be kept reproduced as coppice or by the method of selection, -i. e., by taking out trees hero and there. When gaps are made, they -should be filled, if possible, by introducing shade-enduring kinds, which, -like the spruces and firs and beech, retain their branches down to the -foot for a long time. This mantle is intended to protect the interior -against the drying influence of winds, which are bound to enter the -small wood lot and deteriorate the soil. The smaller the lot, the more -necessary and desirable it is to maintain such a protective cover or -wind-break.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 597px;"> -<a name="fig_14"></a> -<img src="images/unt_fig_14.png" width="597" height="538" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Appearance of regeneration by group method.</div> -</div> - - -<h3><a id="COPPICE"></a>COPPICE.</h3> - -<p>Besides reproducing a wood crop from the seed of mother trees or by -planting, there is another reproduction possible by sprouts from the -stump. This, to be sure, can be done only with broad-leaved species, -since conifers, with but few exceptions, do not sprout from the stump. -When a wood lot is cut over and over again, the reproduction taking -place by such sprouts we call coppice.</p> - -<p>Most wooded areas in the Eastern States have been so cut that reproduction -from seed could not take place, and hence we have large areas -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">« 36 »</a></span> -of coppice, with very few seedling trees interspersed. As we have seen -in the chapter on "How trees grow," the sprouts do not develop into -as good trees as the seedlings. They grow faster, to be sure, in the -beginning, but do not grow as tall and are apt to be shorter lived.</p> - -<p>For the production of firewood, fence, and post material, coppice management -may suffice, but not for dimension timber. And even to keep -the coppice in good reproductive condition, care should be taken to -secure a certain proportion of seedling trees, since the old stumps, after -repeated cutting, tail to sprout and die out.</p> - -<p>Soil and climate influence the success of the coppice; shallow soils -produce weaker but more numerous sprouts and are more readily deteriorated -by the repeated laying bare of the soil; a mild climate is most -favorable to a continuance of the reproductive power of the stump.</p> - -<p>Some species sprout more readily than others; hence the composition -of the crop will change, unless attention is paid to it. In the coppice, -as in any other management of a natural wood crop, a desirable composition -must first be secured, which is done by timely improvement -cuttings, as described in a previous section.</p> - -<p>The best trees for coppice in the northeastern States are the chestnut, -various oaks, hickory, ash, elm, maples, basswood, and black locust, -which are all good sprouters.</p> - -<p>When cutting is done for reproduction, the time and manner are the -main care. The best results are probably obtained, both financially -and with regard to satisfactory reproduction, when the coppice is cut -between the twentieth and thirtieth years. All cutting must be done -in early spring or in winter, avoiding, however, days of severe frost, -which is apt to sever the bark from the trunk and to kill the cambium. -Cutting in summer kills the stump, as a rule. The cut should be made -slanting downward, and as smooth as possible, to prevent collection of -moisture on the stump and the resulting decay, and as close as possible -to the ground, where the stump is less exposed to injuries, and the new -sprouts, starting close to the ground, may strike independent roots.</p> - -<p>Fail places or gaps should be filled by planting. This can be readily -done by bending to the ground some of the neighboring sprouts, when 2 -to 3 years old, notching, fastening them down with a wooden hook or -a stone, and covering them with soil a short distance (4 to 6 inches) -from the end. The sprout will then strike root, and after a year or so -may be severed from the mother stock by a sharp cut (<a href="#fig_15">fig. 15</a>).</p> - -<p>For the recuperation of the crop, it is desirable to maintain a supply -of seedling trees, which may be secured either by the natural seeding of -a few mother trees of the old crop which are left, or by planting. This -kind of management, coppice with seedling or standard trees intermixed, -if the latter are left regularly and well distributed over the -wood lot, leads to a management called "standard coppice." In this -it is attempted to avoid the drawbacks of the coppice, viz, failure to -produce dimension material and running out of the stocks. The former -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">« 37 »</a></span> -object is, however, only partially accomplished, as the trees grown without -sufficient side shading are apt to produce branchy boles and hence -knotty timber, besides injuring the coppice by their shade.</p> - - -<h3><a id="PLAN_OF_MANAGEMENT"></a>PLAN OF MANAGEMENT.</h3> - -<p>In order to harmonize the requirements of the wood lot from a sylvicultural -point of view, and the needs of the farmer for wood supplies, -the cutting must follow some systematic plan.</p> - -<p>The improvement cuttings need not, in point of time, have been made -all over the lot before beginning the cuttings for regeneration, provided -they have been made in those parts which are to be regenerated. Both -the cuttings may go on simultaneously, and this enables the farmer to -gauge the amount of cutting to his consumption. According to the -amount of wood needed, one or more groups may be started at the same -time. It is, however, desirable, for the sake of renewing the crop -systematically, to arrange the groups in a regular order over the lot.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="fig_15"></a> -<img src="images/unt_fig_15.png" width="600" height="369" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Method of layering to produce new stocks in coppice wood.</div> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="HOW_TO_CULTIVATE_THE_WOOD_CROP" id="HOW_TO_CULTIVATE_THE_WOOD_CROP">4. HOW TO CULTIVATE THE WOOD CROP.</a></h2> - - -<p>Where only firewood is desired, i. e., wood without special form, size, -or quality, no attention to the crop is necessary, except to insure that -it covers the ground completely. Nevertheless, even in such a crop, -which is usually managed as coppice,<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> some of the operations described -in this chapter may prove advantageous. Where, however, not only -quantity but useful quality of the crop is also to be secured, the development -of the wood crop may be advantageously influenced by controlling -the supply of light available to the individual trees.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_35">page 35</a> for description of coppice.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">« 38 »</a></span></p></div> - -<p>It may be proper to repeat here briefly what has been explained in -previous pages regarding the influence of light on tree development.</p> - - -<h3><a id="EFFECT_OF_LIGHT"></a>EFFECT OF LIGHT ON WOOD PRODUCTION.</h3> - -<p>Dense shade preserves soil moisture, the most essential element for -wood production; a close stand of suitable kinds of trees secures this -shading and prevents the surface evaporation of soil moisture, making -it available for wood production. But a close stand also cuts off side -light and confines the lateral growing space, and hence prevents the -development of side branches and forces the growth energy of the soil -to expend itself in height growth; the crown is carried up, and long, -cylindrical shafts, clear of branches, are developed; a close stand thus -secures desirable form and quality. Yet, since the quality of wood production -or accretion (other things being equal) is in direct proportion -to the amount of foliage and the available light, and since an open -position promotes the development of a larger crown and of more foliage, -an open stand tends to secure a larger amount of wood accretion -on each tree. On the other hand, a tree grown in the open, besides -producing more branches, deposits a larger proportion of wood at The -base, so that the shape of the bole becomes more conical, a form which -in sawing proves unprofitable; whereas a tree grown in the dense forest -both lengthens its shaft at the expense of branch growth and makes -a more even deposit of wood over the whole trunk, thus attaining a more -cylindrical form. While, then, the total amount of wood production per -acre may be as large in a close stand of trees as in an open one (within -limits), the distribution of this amount among a larger or smaller number -of individual trees produces different results in the quality of the -crop. And since the size of a tree or log is important in determining -its usefulness and value, the sooner the individual trees reach useful -size, without suffering in other points of quality, the more profitable the -whole crop.</p> - - -<h3><a id="NUMBER_OF_TREES"></a>NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE.</h3> - -<p>The care of the forester, then, should be to maintain the smallest -number of individuals on the ground which will secure the greatest -amount of wood growth in the most desirable form of which the soil -and climate are capable, without deteriorating the soil conditions. He -tries to secure the most advantageous individual development of single -trees without suffering the disadvantages resulting from too open -stand. The solution of this problem requires the greatest skill and -judgment, and rules can hardly be formulated with precision, since for -every species or combination of species and conditions these rules -must be modified.</p> - -<p>In a well-established young crop the number of seedlings per acre -varies greatly, from 3,000 to 100,000, according to soil, species, and -the manner in which it originated, whether planted, sown, or seeded -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">« 39 »</a></span> -naturally.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Left to themselves, the seedlings, as they develop, begin to -crowd each other. At first this crowding results only in increasing -the height growth and in preventing the spread and full development -of side branches; by and by the lower branches failing to receive sufficient -light finally die and break off—the shaft "clears itself." Then a -distinct development of definite crowns takes place, and after some -years a difference of height growth in different individuals becomes -marked. Not a few trees fail to reach the general upper crown surface, -and, being more or less overtopped, we can readily classify them according -to height and development of crown, the superior or "dominating" -ones growing more and more vigorously, the inferior or "dominated" -trees falling more and more behind, and finally dying for lack of light, -and thus a natural reduction in numbers, or thinning, takes place. This -natural thinning goes on with varying rates at different ages continuing -through the entire life of the crop, so that, while only 4,000 trees -per acre may be required in the tenth year to make a dense crown cover -or normally close stand, untouched by man, in the fortieth year 1,200 -would suffice to make the same dense cover, in the eightieth year 350 -would be a full stand, and in the one hundredth not more than 250, -according to soil and species, more or less. As we can discern three -stages in the development of a single tree—the juvenile, adolescent, -and mature—so, in the development of a forest growth, we may distinguish -three corresponding stages, namely, the "thicket" or brushwood, -the "pole-wood" or sapling, and the "timber" stage. During The -thicket stage, in which the trees have a bushy appearance, allowing -hardly any distinction of stem and crown, the height growth is most -rapid. This period may last, according to conditions and species, from -5 or 10 to 30 and even 40 years—longer on poor soils and with shade-enduring -species, shorter with light-needing species on good soils—and, -while it lasts, it is in the interest of the wood grower to maintain the -close stand, which produces the long shaft, clear of branches, on which -at a later period the wood that makes valuable, clear timber, may -accumulate. Form development is now most important. The lower -branches are to die and break off before they become too large. (See -illustrations of the progress of "clearing," on pp. <a href="#Page_15">15</a> and <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.) With -light-needing species and with deciduous trees generally this dying off -is accomplished more easily than with conifers. The spruces and even -the white pine require very dense shading to "clear" the shaft. During -this period it is only necessary to weed out the undesirable kinds, -such as trees infested by insect and fungus, shrubs, sickly, stunted, or -bushy trees which are apt to overtop and prevent the development of -their better neighbors. In short, our attention is now devoted mainly -to improving the composition of the crop.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> If the crop does not, at 3 to 5 years of age, shade the ground well, with a complete -crown cover, or canopy, it can not be said to be well established and should be filled -out by planting.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">« 40 »</a></span></p></div> - - -<h3><a id="WEEDING_AND_CLEANING"></a>WEEDING AND CLEANING THE CROP.</h3> - -<p>This weeding or cleaning is easily done with shears when the crop is -from 3 to 5 years old. Later, mere cutting back of the undesirable trees -with a knife or hatchet maybe practiced. In well-made artificial plantations -this weeding is rarely needed until about the eighth or tenth -year. But in natural growths the young crop is sometimes so dense -as to inordinately interfere with the development of the individual -trees. The stems then remain so slender that there is danger of their -being bent or broken by storm or snow when the growth is thinned out -later. In such cases timely thinning is indicated to stimulate more -rapid development of the rest of the crop. This can be done most -cheaply by cutting swaths or lanes one yard wide and us far apart -through the crop, leaving strips standing. The outer trees of the strip, -at least, will then shoot ahead and become the main crop. These weeding -or improvement cuttings, which must be made gradually and be -repeated every two or three years, are best performed during the summer -months, or in August and September, when it is easy to judge what -should be taken out.</p> - - -<h3><a id="METHODS_OF_THINNING"></a>METHODS OF THINNING.</h3> - -<p>During the "thicket" stage, then, which may last from 10 to 25 and -more years, the crop is gradually brought into proper composition and -condition. When the "pole-wood" stage is reached, most of the saplings -being now from 3 to 6 inches in diameter and from 15 to 25 feet -in height, the variation in sizes and in appearance becomes more and -more marked. Some of the taller trees begin to show a long, clear -shaft and a definite crown. The trees can be more or less readily -classified into height and size classes. The rate at which the height -growth has progressed begins to fall off and diameter growth increases. -Now comes the time when attention must be given to increasing this -diameter growth by reducing the number of individuals and thus having -all the wood which the soil can produce deposited on fewer individuals. -This is done by judicious and often repeated thinning, taking out some -of the trees and thereby giving more light and increasing the foliage of -those remaining; and as the crowns expand, so do the trunks increase -their diameter in direct proportion. These thinnings must, however, -be made cautiously lest at the same time the soil is exposed too much, -or the branch growth of those trees which are to become timber wood -is too much stimulated. So varying are the conditions to be considered, -according to soil, site, species, and development of the crop, that it is -well-nigh impossible, without a long and detailed discussion, to lay -down rules for the proper procedure. In addition the opinions of authorities -differ largely both as to manner and degree of thinning, the old -school advising moderate, and the new school severer thinnings.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">« 41 »</a></span></p> - -<p>For the farmer, who can give personal attention to detail and whose -object is to grow a variety of sizes and kinds of wood, the following -general method may perhaps be most useful:</p> - -<p>First determine which trees are to be treated as the main crop or -"final harvest" crop. For this 300 to 500 trees per acre of the best -grown and most useful kinds may be selected, which should be distributed -as uniformly as possible over the acre. These, then—or as -many as may live till the final harvest—are destined to grow into -timber and are to form the special favorites as much as possible. They -may at first be marked to insure recognition; later on they will be -readily distinguished by their superior development The rest, which -we will call the "subordinate" crop, is then to serve merely as filler, -nurse, and soil cover.</p> - - -<h3><a id="WHAT_TREES_TO_REMOVE"></a>WHAT TREES TO REMOVE.</h3> - -<p>It is now necessary, by careful observation of the surroundings of -each of the "final harvest" crop trees, or "superiors," as we may call -them, to determine what trees of the "subordinate" crop trees, or -"inferiors," must be removed. All nurse trees that threaten to overtop -the superiors must either be cut out or cut back and topped, if that is -practicable, so that the crown of the superiors can develop freely. -Those that are only narrowing in the superiors from the side, without -preventing their free top development, need not be interfered with, -especially while they are still useful in preventing the formation and -spreading of side branches on the superiors. As soon as the latter -have fully cleared their shafts, these crowding inferiors must be removed. -Care must be taken, however, not to remove too many at a time, thus -opening the crown cover too severely and thereby exposing the soil to -the drying influence of the sun. Gradually, as the crowns of inferiors -standing farther away begin to interfere with those of the superiors, -the inferiors are removed, and thus the full effect of the light is secured -in the accretion of the main harvest crop; at the same time the branch -growth has been prevented and the soil has been kept shaded. Meanwhile -thinnings may also be made in the subordinate crop, in order to -secure also the most material from this part of the crop. This is done -by cutting out all trees that threaten to be killed by their neighbors. -In this way many a useful stick is saved and the dead material, only -good for firewood, lessened. It is evident that trees which in the struggle -for existence have fallen behind, so as to be overtopped by their -neighbors, can not, either by their presence or by their removal, influence -the remaining growth. They are removed only in order to utilize -their wood before it decays.</p> - -<p>It may be well to remark again that an undergrowth of woody plants -interferes in no way with the development of the main crop, but, on the -contrary, aids by its shade in preserving favorable moisture conditions. -Its existence, however, shows in most cases that the crown cover is not -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">« 42 »</a></span> -as dense as it should be, and hence that thinning is not required. -Grass and weed growth, on the other hand, is emphatically disadvantageous -and shows that the crown cover is dangerously open.</p> - -<p>The answer to the three questions, When to begin the thinnings, -How severely to thin, and How often to repeat the operation, must -always depend upon the varying appearance of the growth and the -necessities in each case. The first necessity for interference may arise -with light-needing species as early as the twelfth or fifteenth year; with -shade-enduring, not before the twentieth or twenty-fifth year. The -necessary severity of the thinning and the repetition are somewhat -interdependent. It is better to thin carefully and repeat the operation -oftener than to open up so severely at once as to jeopardize the soil -conditions. Especially in younger growths and on poorer soil, it is -best never to open a continuous crown cover so that it could not close -up again within 3 to 5 years; rather repeat the operation oftener. -Later, when the trees have attained heights of 50 to 60 feet and clear -boles (which may be in 40 to 50 years, according to soil and kind) the -thinning may be more severe, so as to require repetition only every -6 to 10 years.</p> - -<p>The condition of the crown cover, then, is the criterion which directs -the ax. As soon as the crowns again touch or interlace, the time has -arrived to thin again. In mixed growths it must not be overlooked -that light-needing species must be specially protected against shadier -neighbors. Shade-enduring trees, such as the spruces, beech, sugar -maple, and hickories, bear overtopping for a time and will then grow vigorously -when more light is given, while light-needing species, like the -pines, larch, oaks, and ash, when once suppressed, may never be able to -recover.</p> - -<p>Particular attention is called to the necessity of leaving a rather -denser "wind mantle" all around small groves. In this part of the -grove the thinning must be less severe, unless coniferous trees on the -outside can be encouraged by severe thinning to hold their branches -low down, thus increasing their value as wind-breaks.</p> - -<p>The thinnings, then, while giving to the "final harvest" crop all the -advantage of light for promoting its rapid development into serviceable -timber size, furnish also better material from the subordinate crop. -At 60 to 70 years of age the latter may have been entirely removed and -only the originally selected "superiors" remain on the ground, or as -many of them as have not died and been removed; 250 to 400 of these -per acre will make a perfect stand of most valuable form and size, ready -for the final harvest, which should be made as indicated in the preceding -chapter.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">« 43 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="THE_RELATION_OF_FORESTS_TO_FARMS" id="THE_RELATION_OF_FORESTS_TO_FARMS">5.—THE RELATION OF FORESTS TO FARMS.</a></h2> - - -<p>That all things in nature are related to each other and interdependent -is a common saying, a fact doubted by nobody, yet often -forgotten or neglected in practical life. The reason is partly indifference -and partly ignorance as to the actual nature of the relationship; -hence we suffer, deservedly or not.</p> - -<p>The farmer's business, more than any other, perhaps, depends for -its success upon a true estimate of and careful regard for this inter-relation, -he adapts his crop to the nature of the soil, the manner -of its cultivation to the changes of the seasons, and altogether he -shapes conditions and places them in their proper relations to each -other and adapts himself to them.</p> - -<p>Soil, moisture, and heat are the three factors which, if properly -related and utilized, combine to produce his crops. In some directions -he can control these factors more or less readily; in others they -are withdrawn from his immediate influence, and he is seemingly -helpless. He can maintain the fertility of the soil by manuring, by -proper rotation of crops, and by deep culture; he can remove surplus -moisture by ditching and draining; he can, by irrigation systems, -bring water to his crops, and by timely cultivation prevent excessive -evaporation, thereby rendering more water available to the crop; -but he can not control the rainfall nor the temperature changes of -the seasons. Recent attempts to control the rainfall by direct means -exhibit one of the greatest follies and misconceptions of natural -forces we have witnessed during this age. Nevertheless, by indirect -means the farmer has it in his power to exercise much greater control -over these forces than he has attempted hitherto. He can prevent or -reduce the unfavorable effects of temperature changes; he can increase -the available water supplies, and prevent the evil effects of excessive -rainfall; he can so manage the waters which fall as to get the most -benefit from them and avoid the harm which they are able to inflict.</p> - -<p>Before attempting to control the rainfall itself by artifice, we should -study how to secure the best use of that which falls, as it comes within -reach of human agencies and becomes available by natural causes.</p> - -<p>How poorly we understand the use of these water supplies is evidenced -yearly by destructive freshets and floods, with the accompanying -washing of soil, followed by droughts, low waters, and deterioration -of agricultural lands. It is claimed that annually in the United -States about 200 square miles of fertile soil are washed into brooks -and rivers, a loss of soil capital which can not be repaired for centuries. -At the same time millions of dollars are appropriated yearly in -the river and harbor bills to dig out the lost farms from the rivers, and -many thousands of dollars' worth of crops and other property are -destroyed by floods and overflows; not to count the large loss from -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">« 44 »</a></span> -droughts which this country suffers yearly in one part or the other, -and which, undoubtedly, could be largely avoided, if we knew how to -manage the available water supplies.</p> - -<p>The regulation, proper distribution, and utilization of the rain -waters in humid as well as in arid regions—water management—is to -be the great problem of successful-agriculture in the future.</p> - -<p>One of the most powerful means for such water management lies in -the proper distribution and maintenance of forest areas. Nay, we -can say that the most successful water management is not possible -without forest management.</p> - - -<h3><a id="FOREST_WATERS_FARM"></a>THE FOREST WATERS THE FARM.</h3> - -<p>Whether forests increase the amount of precipitation within or near -their limits is still an open question, although there are indications -that under certain conditions large, dense forest areas may have such -an effect. At any rate, the water transpired by the foliage is certain, -in some degree, to increase the relative humidity near the forest, and -thereby increase directly or indirectly the water supplies in its neighborhood. -This much we can assert, also, that while extended plains -and fields, heated by the sun, and hence giving rise to warm currents -of air, have the tendency to prevent condensation of the passing -moisture-bearing currents, forest areas, with their cooler, moister air -strata, do not have such a tendency, and local showers may therefore -become more frequent in their neighborhood. But, though no increase -in the amount of rainfall may be secured by forest areas, the availability -of whatever falls is increased for the locality by a well-kept and -properly located forest growth. The foliage, twigs, and branches break -the fall of the raindrops, and so does the litter of the forest floor, hence -the soil under this cover is not compacted as in the open field, but -kept loose and granular, so that the water can readily penetrate and -percolate; the water thus reaches the ground more slowly, dripping -gradually from the leaves, branches, and trunks, and allowing more -time for it to sink into the soil. This percolation is also made easier -by the channels along the many roots. Similarly, on account of the -open structure of the soil and the slower melting of the snow under -a forest cover in spring, where it lies a fortnight to a month longer -than in exposed positions and melts with less waste from evaporation, -the snow waters more fully penetrate the ground. Again, more snow -is caught and preserved under the forest cover than on the wind-swept -fields and prairies.</p> - -<p>All these conditions operate together, with the result that larger -amounts of the water sink into the forest soil and to greater depths -than in open fields. This moisture is conserved because of the reduced -evaporation in the cool and still forest air, being protected from the -two great moisture-dissipating agents, sun and wind. By these conditions -alone the water supplies available in the soil are increased from -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">« 45 »</a></span> -50 to 60 per cent over those available on the open field. Owing to -those two causes, then—increased percolation and decreased evaporation—larger -amounts of moisture become available to feed the springs -and subsoil waters, and these become finally available to the farm, if -the forest is located at a higher elevation than the field. The great -importance of the subsoil water especially and the influence of forest -areas upon it has so far received too little attention and appreciation. -It is the subsoil water that is capable of supplying the needed moisture -in times of drought.</p> - - -<h3><a id="FOREST_TEMPERS_FARM"></a>THE FOREST TEMPERS THE FARM.</h3> - -<p>Another method by which a forest belt becomes a conservator of -moisture lies in its wind-breaking capacity, by which both velocity and -temperature of winds are modified and evaporation from the fields -to the leeward is reduced.</p> - -<p>On the prairie, wind-swept every day and every hour, the farmer -has learned to plant a wind-break around his buildings and orchards, -often only a single-row of trees, and finds even that a desirable shelter, -tempering both the hot winds of summer and the cold blasts of winter. -The fields he usually leaves unprotected; yet a wind-break -around his crops to the windward would bring him increased yield, -and a timber belt would act still more effectively. Says a farmer -from Illinois:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>My experience is that now in cold and stormy winters fields protected by timber -belts yield full crops, while fields not protected yield only one-third of a crop. -Twenty-five or thirty years ago we never had any wheat killed by winter frost, -and every year we had a full crop of peaches, which is now very rare. At that -time we had plenty of timber around our fields and orchards, now cleared away.</p></div> - -<p>Not only is the temperature of the winds modified by passing over -and through the shaded and cooler spaces of protecting timber bolts -disposed toward the windward and alternating with the fields, but -their velocity is broken and moderated, and since with reduced -velocity the evaporative power of the winds is very greatly reduced, -so more water is left available for crops. Every foot in height of -a forest growth will protect 1 rod in distance, and several bolts in -succession would probably greatly increase the effective distance. -By preventing deep freezing of the soil the winter cold is not so -much prolonged, and the frequent fogs and mists that hover near -forest areas prevent many frosts. That stock will thrive better where -it can find protection from the cold blasts of winter and from the -heat of the sun in summer is a well-established fact.</p> - - -<h3><a id="FOREST_PROTECTS_FARM"></a>THE FOREST PROTECTS THE FARM.</h3> - -<p>On the sandy plains, where the winds are apt to blow the sand, -shifting it hither and thither, a forest belt to the windward is the -only means to keep the farm protected.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">« 46 »</a></span></p> - -<p>In the mountain and hill country the farms are apt to suffer from -heavy rains washing away the soil. Where the tops and slopes are -bared of their forest cover, the litter of the forest floor burnt up, -the soil trampled and compacted by cattle and by the patter of the -raindrops, the water can not penetrate the soil readily, but is earned -off superficially, especially when the soil is of, day and naturally -compact. As a result the waters, rushing over the surface down the -hill, run together in rivulets and streams and acquire such a force as -to be able to move loose particles and even stones; the ground becomes -furrowed with gullies and runs; the fertile soil is washed -away; the fields below are covered with silt; the roads are damaged; -the water courses tear their banks, and later run dry because the -waters that should feed them by subterranean channels have been -carried away in the flood.</p> - -<p>The forest cover on the hilltops and steep hillsides which are not -fit for cultivation prevents this erosive action of the waters by the -same influence by which it increases available water supplies. The -important effects of a forest cover, then, are retention of larger quantities -of water and carrying them off under ground and giving them -up gradually, thus extending the time of their usefulness and preventing -their destructive action.</p> - -<p>In order to be thoroughly effective, the forest growth must be dense, -and, especially, the forest floor must not be robbed of its accumulations -of foliage, surface mulch and litter, or its underbrush by fire, -nor must it be compacted by the trampling of cattle.</p> - -<p>On the gentler slopes, which are devoted to cultivation, methods -of underdraining, such as horizontal ditches partly filled with stones -and covered with soil, terracing, and contour plowing, deep cultivation, -sodding, and proper rotation of crops, must be employed to prevent -damage from surface waters.</p> - - -<h3><a id="FOREST_SUPPLIES"></a>THE FOREST SUPPLIES THE FARM WITH USEFUL MATERIAL.</h3> - -<p>All the benefits derived from the favorable influence of forest bolts -upon water conditions can be had without losing any of the useful -material that the forest produces. The forest grows to be cut and to -be utilized; it is a crop to be harvested. It is a crop which, if properly -managed, does not need to be replanted; it reproduces itself.</p> - -<p>When once established, the ax, if properly guided by skillful hands, -is the only tool necessary to cultivate it and to reproduce it. There -is no necessity of planting unless the wood lot has been mismanaged.</p> - -<p>The wood lot, then, if properly managed, is not only the guardian -of the farm, but it is the savings bank from which fair interest can -be annually drawn, utilizing for the purpose the poorest part of the -farm. Nor does the wood lot require much attention; it is to the farm -what the workbasket is to the good housewife—a means with which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">« 47 »</a></span> -improve the odds and ends of time, especially during the winter, when -other farm business is at a standstill.</p> - -<p>It may be added that the material which the farmer can secure -from the wood lot, besides the other advantages recited above, is of -far greater importance and value than is generally admitted.</p> - -<p>On a well-regulated farm of 160 acres, with its 4 miles and more of -fencing and with its wood fires in range and stove, at least 25 cords -of wood are required annually, besides material for repair of buildings, -or altogether the annual product of probably 40 to 50 acres of -well-stocked forest is needed. The product may represent, according -to location, an actual stumpage value of from $1 to $3 per acre, a sure -crop coming every year without regard to weather, without trouble -and work, and raised on the poorest part of the farm. It is questionable -whether such net results could be secured with the same steadiness -from any other crop. Nor must it be overlooked that the work -in harvesting this crop falls into a time when little else could be done.</p> - -<p>Wire fences and coal fires are, no doubt, good substitutes, but they -require ready cash, and often the distance of haulage makes them -rather expensive. Presently, too, when the virgin woods have been -still further culled of their valuable stores, the farmer who has preserved -a sufficiently large and well-tended wood lot will be able to -derive a comfortable money revenue from it by supplying the market -with wood of various kinds and sizes. The German State forests, with -their complicated administrations, which eat up 4 per cent of the -gross income, yield, with prices of wood about the same as in our -country, an annual net revenue of from $1 to $4 and more per acre. -Why should not the farmer, who does not pay salaries to managers, -overseers, and forest guards, make at least as much money out of this -crop when he is within reach of a market?</p> - -<p>With varying conditions the methods would of course vary. In -a general way, if he happens to have a virgin growth of mixed woods, -the first care would be to improve the composition of the wood lot by -cutting out the less desirable kinds, the weeds of tree growth, and the -poorly grown trees which impede the development of more deserving -neighbors.</p> - -<p>The wood thus cut he will use as firewood or in any other way, and, -even if he could not use it at all, and had to burn it up, the operation -would pay indirectly by leaving him a better crop. Then he may use -the rest of the crop, gradually cutting the trees as needed, but he -must take care that the openings are not made too large, so that they -can readily fill out with young growth from the seed of the remaining -trees, and he must also pay attention to the young aftergrowth, -giving it light as needed. Thus without ever resorting to planting he -may harvest the old timber and have a now crop taking its place and -perpetuate the wood lot without in any way curtailing his use of -the same.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">« 48 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption2">FARMERS' BULLETINS.</p> - -<p>These bulletins are sent free of charge to any address upon application to the -Secretary of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. Only the following are available for -distribution:</p> - - -<p class="p0 smaller ind2em"> -No. 15. Some Destructive Potato Diseases: What They Are and How to Prevent Thorn. Pp. 8.<br /> -No. 16. Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and for Feeding. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 18. Forage Plants for the South. Pp. 30.<br /> -No. 19. Important Insecticides: Directions For Their Preparation and Use. Pp. 20.<br /> -No. 21. Barnyard Manure. Pp. 32.<br /> -No. 22. Feeding Farm Animals. Pp. 32.<br /> -No. 23. Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost. Pp. 32.<br /> -No. 24. Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. Pp. 16.<br /> -No. 25. Peanuts: Culture and Uses. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 26. Sweet Potatoes: Culture and Uses. Pp. 30.<br /> -No. 27. Flax for Seed and Fiber. Pp. 16.<br /> -No. 28. Weeds; and How to Kill Them. Pp. 30.<br /> -No. 29. Souring of Milk, and Other Changes in Milk Products. Pp. 28.<br /> -No. 30. Grape Diseases on the Pacific Coast. Pp. 16.<br /> -No. 31. Alfalfa, or Lucern. Pp. 23.<br /> -No. 32. Silos and Silage. Pp. 31.<br /> -No. 33. Peach Growing for Market. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 34. Meats: Composition and Cooking. Pp. 29.<br /> -No. 35. Potato Culture. Pp. 23.<br /> -No. 36. Cotton Seed and Its Products. Pp. 10.<br /> -No. 37. Katir Corn: Characteristics, Culture, and Uses. Pp. 12.<br /> -No. 38. Spraying for Fruit Diseases. Pp. 12.<br /> -No. 39. Onion Culture. Pp. 31.<br /> -No. 40. Farm Drainage. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 41. Fowls: Care and Feeding. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 42. Facts About Milk. Pp. 29.<br /> -No. 43. Sewage Disposal on the Farm. Pp. 22.<br /> -No. 44. Commercial Fertilizers. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 45. Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. Pp. 32.<br /> -No. 46. Irrigation in Humid Climates. Pp. 27.<br /> -No. 47. Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. Pp. 32.<br /> -No. 48. The Manuring of Cotton. Pp. 10.<br /> -No. 49. Sheep Feeding. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 50. Sorghum as a Forage Crop. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 51. Standard Varieties of Chickens. Pp. 48.<br /> -No. 52. The Sugar Beet. Pp. 48.<br /> -No. 53. How to Grow Mushrooms. Pp. 20.<br /> -No. 54. Some Common Birds in Their Relation to Agriculture. Pp. 40.<br /> -No. 55. The Dairy Herd: Its Formation and Management. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 56. Experiment Station Work—I. Pp. 30.<br /> -No. 57. Butter Making on the Farm. Pp. 15.<br /> -No. 58. The Soy Bean as a Forage Crop. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 59. Bee Keeping. Pp. 32.<br /> -No. 60. Methods of Curing Tobacco. Pp. 10.<br /> -No. 61. Asparagus Culture. Pp. 40.<br /> -No. 62. Marketing Farm Produce. Pp. 28.<br /> -No. 63. Care of Milk on the Farm. Pp. 40.<br /> -No. 64. Ducks and Geese. Pp. 48.<br /> -No. 65. Experiment Station Work—II. Pp. 32.<br /> -No. 66. Meadows and Pastures. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 67. Forestry for Farmers. Pp. 48.<br /> -No. 68. The Black Rot of the Cabbage. Pp. 22.<br /> -No. 69. Experiment Station Work—III. Pp. 32.<br /> -No. 70. The Principal Insect Enemies of the Grape. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 71. Some Essentials of Beef Production. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 72. Cattle Ranges of the Southwest. Pp. 32.<br /> -No. 73. Experiment Station Work—IV. Pp. 32.<br /> -No. 74. Milk as Food. Pp. 39.<br /> -No. 75. The Grain Smuts. Pp. 20.<br /> -No. 76. Tomato Growing. Pp. 30.<br /> -No. 77. The Liming of Soils. Pp. 19.<br /> -No. 78. Experiment Station Work—V. Pp. 32.<br /> -No. 79. Experiment Station Work—VI. Pp. 28.<br /> -No. 80. The Peach Twig-borer—an Important Enemy of Stone Fruits. Pp. 10.<br /> -No. 81. Corn Culture in the South. Pp. 24.<br /> -No. 82. The Culture of Tobacco. Pp. 23.<br /> -No. 83. Tobacco Soils. Pp. 23.<br /> -No. 84. Experiment Station Work—VII. Pp. 82.<br /> -No. 85. Fish as Food. Pp. 30.<br /> -No. 86. Thirty Poisonous Plants. Pp. 32.<br /> -No. 87. Experiment Station Work—VIII. (In press.)<br /> -No. 88. Alkali Lands. Pp. 23.<br /> -No. 89. Cowpeas. (In press.)<br /> -</p> - - -<p class="center">◯</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<div class="trans_notes"> - -<p class="caption2">Transcriber Note</p> - -<p>Illustrations were move so a to prevent splitting paragraphs. Minor -typos corrected. Illustrations were obtained from the The Internet -Archive and the University of North Texas' USDA Farmers' Bulletins -Digital Library.</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 67, by -Bernhard E. Fernow - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 67 *** - -***** This file should be named 62686-h.htm or 62686-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/6/8/62686/ - -Produced by Tom Cosmas -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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