diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/62696-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/62696-0.txt | 2528 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 2528 deletions
diff --git a/old/62696-0.txt b/old/62696-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7813426..0000000 --- a/old/62696-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2528 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 630 (1915 -edition), by F. E. Beal - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 630 (1915 edition) - Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer - -Author: F. E. Beal - -Release Date: July 19, 2020 [EBook #62696] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 630 (1915) *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Note - -Text emphasis is denoted as _Italics_. - - - - - U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - - Farmers’ Bulleting - - 630 - - - Contribution from the Bureau of - Biological Survey, Henry W. Henshaw, Chief. - - February 13, 1915. - - - - SOME COMMON BIRDS USEFUL TO THE FARMER. - - By F. E. L. Beal, _Assistant Biologist_. - - -Note.—The habitat, food habits, and economic relation to agriculture -of more than 50 birds common to farming sections are discussed in this -bulletin. It supersedes Farmers’ Bulletin 54. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - Page. - - The bluebirds 2 - - The robins 3 - - The titmice 4 - - The wrens 6 - - Brown thrasher 7 - - Catbird 7 - - The swallows 8 - - Towhee 9 - - The sparrows 9 - - House finch 11 - - The grackles 12 - - Brewer blackbird 12 - - Baltimore oriole 13 - - Bullock oriole 14 - - The meadowlarks 14 - - The red-winged blackbirds 15 - - Bobolink 17 - - Crow 17 - - Blue jay 19 - - Pacific coast jays 20 - - The phœbes 21 - - The kingbirds 23 - - Nighthawk 24 - - The woodpeckers 25 - - The cuckoos 27 - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -Whether a bird is beneficial or injurious depends almost entirely -upon what it eats. In the case of species which are very abundant, or -which feed to some extent on the crops of the farmer, the question -of their average diet becomes one of supreme importance, and only by -stomach examination can it be satisfactorily solved. Field observations -are at best but fragmentary and inconclusive and lead to no final -results. Birds are often accused of eating this or that product of -cultivation, when an examination of the stomachs shows the accusation -to be unfounded. Accordingly, the Biological Survey has conducted for -some years past a systematic investigation of the food of those species -which are most common about the farm and garden. - -Within certain limits birds eat the kind of food that is most -accessible, especially when their natural food is scarce or -wanting. Thus they sometimes injure the crops of the farmer who has -unintentionally destroyed their natural food in his improvement of -swamp or pasture. Most of the damage done by birds and complained -of by farmers and fruit growers arises from this very cause. The -berry-bearing shrubs and seed-bearing weeds have been cleared away, -and the birds have no recourse but to attack the cultivated grain or -fruit which have replaced their natural food supply. The great majority -of land birds subsist upon insects during the period of nesting and -moulting, and also feed their young upon them during the first few -weeks. Many species live almost entirely upon insects, taking vegetable -food only when other subsistence fails. It is thus evident that in -the course of a year birds destroy an incalculable number of insects, -and it is difficult to overestimate the value of their services in -restraining the great tide of insect life. - -In winter, in the northern part of the country, insects become scarce -or entirely disappear. Many species of birds, however, remain during -the cold season and are able to maintain bike by eating vegetable -food, as the seeds of weeds. Here again is another useful function of -birds in destroying these weed seeds and thereby lessening the growth -of the next year. - -In the following pages are discussed the food habits of more than -50 birds belonging to 12 families. Many are eastern forms which are -represented in the West by slightly different species or subspecies, -but unless the food habits differ they are not separately described. -In some cases specific percentages of food are given, but for the most -part the statements are made without direct reference to the data on -which they are based.[1] - -[1] Farmers’ Bulletins describing the food habits of wild birds and -groups of birds, or presenting methods of attracting them about our -homes have been issued as follows: - - 54. Some Common Birds in their Relation to Agriculture, by F. E. L. - Beal, 1897. The present bulletin is largely a revision of this - bulletin and supersedes it. - - 383. How to Destroy English Sparrows, by Ned Dearborn, 1910. This - bulletin has been superseded by Farmers’ Bulletin 493. - - 450. Our Grosbeaks and Their Relation to Agriculture, by W. L. - McAtee, 1911. - - 493. The English Sparrow as a Pest, by Ned Dearborn, 1912. - - 497. Some Common Game, Aquatic, and Rapacious Birds in Relation to - Man, by W. L. McAtee and F. E. L. Beal, 1912. - - 506. Food of Some Well-known Birds of Forest, Farm, and Garden, by - F. E. L. Beal and W. L. McAtee, 1912. - - 513. Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard, prepared under the - direction of Henry W. Henshaw, 1913. This bulletin was issued - with illustrations in color, and the demand for it was so - enormous that it is no longer available for free distribution. - Copies may be had for 15 cents (postage stamps not accepted) of - the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office. - - 609. Bird Houses and How to Build Them, by Ned Dearborn, 1914. - - 621. How to Attract Birds in Northeastern United States, by W. L. - McAtee, 1914. - -The parts of this bulletin relating to the crow and blue jay were -contributed by E. R. Kalmbach, and the discussion of the nighthawk is -by W. L. McAtee, both of the Bureau of Biological Survey. - - - - -THE BLUEBIRDS. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.—Bluebird. Length, about 6½ inches.] - -The eastern bluebird[2] (fig. 1), one of the most familiar and welcome -of our feathered visitors, is a common inhabitant of all the States -east of the Rocky Mountains from the Gulf of Mexico to southern Canada. -In the Mississippi Valley it winters as far north as southern Illinois, -and in the East as far as Pennsylvania. It is one of the earliest -northern migrants, and everywhere is hailed as a harbinger of spring. -Very domestic in habits, it frequents orchards and gardens, and builds -its nests in cavities of trees, crannies in farm buildings, or boxes -provided for its use. - -[2] _Sialia sialis._ - -The bluebird has not been accused, so far as known, of stealing fruit -or of preying upon crops. An examination of 855 stomachs showed that 68 -per cent of the food consists of insects and their allies, while the -other 32 per cent is made up of various vegetable substances, found -mostly in stomachs taken in winter. Beetles constitute 21 per cent of -the whole food, grasshoppers 22, caterpillars 10, and various other -insects 9, while a number of spiders and myriapods, about 6 per cent, -comprise the remainder of the animal diet. All these are more or less -harmful, except a few predacious beetles, which amount to 9 per cent. -In view of the large consumption of grasshoppers and caterpillars -we may at least condone this offense, if such it may be called. The -destruction of grasshoppers is very noticeable in August and September, -when these insects make up about 53 per cent of the diet. - -It is evident that in the selection of its food the bluebird is -governed more by abundance than by choice. Predacious beetles are eaten -in spring, as they are among the first insects to appear; but in early -summer caterpillars form an important part of the diet, and these are -later replaced by grasshoppers. Beetles are eaten at all times, except -when grasshoppers are more easily obtained. - -So far as its vegetable food is concerned the bluebird is positively -harmless. The only trace of any useful product in the stomachs -consisted of a few blackberry seeds, and even these probably belonged -to wild rather than cultivated varieties. Following is a list of the -various seeds which were found: Blackberry, chokeberry, juniperberry, -pokeberry, partridgeberry, greenbrier, Virginia creeper, bittersweet, -holly, strawberry bush, false spikenard, wild sarsaparilla, sumac -(several species), rose haws, sorrel, ragweed, grass, and asparagus. -This list shows how little the bluebird depends upon the farm or garden -to supply its needs and how easily, by encouraging the growth of some -of these plants, many of which are highly ornamental, the bird may be -induced to make its home on the premises. - -Two species of bluebirds inhabit the Western States—the mountain -bluebird[3] and the western bluebird.[4] In their food habits they are -even more to be commended than their eastern relative. Their insect -food is obtainable at all times of the year, and the general diet -varies only in the fall, when some fruit, principally elderberries, -is eaten, though an occasional blackberry or grape is also relished. -In an examination of 217 stomachs of the western bluebird, animal -matter (insects and spiders) was found to the extent of 82 per cent -and vegetable matter to the extent of 18 per cent. The bulk of the -former consists of bugs, grasshoppers, and caterpillars. Grasshoppers, -when they can be obtained, are eaten freely during the whole season. -Caterpillars also are a favorite food and are eaten during every month -of the year; March is the month of greatest consumption, with 50 per -cent, and the average for the year is 20 per cent. Two stomachs taken -in January contained 64 and 50 per cent, respectively, of caterpillars. -Beetles also are eaten and comprise mostly harmful species. - -[3] _Sialia currucoides._ - -[4] _Sialia mexicana subspecies._ - -The vegetable matter consists of weed seeds and small fruits. In -December a few grapes are eaten, but elderberries are the favorites -whenever they can be found. It is only when these are in their greatest -abundance that vegetable exceeds animal food. - - - - -THE ROBINS. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.—Robin. Length, about 10 inches.] - -The robin[5] (fig. 2), in many parts of the country one of the most -cherished of our birds, is found throughout the States east of the -Great Plains, and is represented farther west and south by slightly -different subspecies.[6],[7] It breeds far north through Canada, -and is found even in Alaska. Although the great bulk of the species -leaves the Northern States in winter, a few individuals remain in -sheltered swamps, where wild berries furnish abundant food. The robin -is an omnivorous feeder and its food habits have sometimes caused -apprehension to the fruit grower, for it is fond of cherries and other -small fruits, particularly the earlier varieties. For this reason many -complaints have been lodged against the bird, and some persons have -even gone so far as to condemn it. It is, however, far too valuable to -be exterminated, and choice fruit can be readily protected from its -depredations. - -[5] _Planesticus migratorius._ - -[6] _Planesticus migratorius propinquus._ - -[7] _Planesticus migratorius achrusterus._ - -Examinations of 1,236 stomachs show that 42 per cent of its food is -animal matter, principally insects, while the remainder is made up -largely of small fruits or berries. Over 16 per cent consists of -beetles, about one-third of which are useful ground beetles, taken -mostly in spring and fall when other insects are scarce. Grasshoppers -make up about 5 per cent of the whole food, but in August they comprise -17 per cent. Caterpillars form about 9 per cent, while the rest of -the animal food, about 11 per cent, is made up of various insects, -with a few spiders, snails, and angleworms. All the grasshoppers, -caterpillars, and bugs, with a large portion of the beetles, are -injurious, and it is safe to say that noxious insects comprise more -than one-third of the robin’s food. - -Vegetable food forms 58 per cent of the stomach contents, over 42 per -cent being wild fruits and only a little more than 8 per cent being -possibly cultivated varieties. Cultivated fruit amounting to about -25 per cent was found in the stomachs in June and July, but only a -trifle in August. Wild fruit, on the contrary, is eaten every month and -constitutes a staple food during half the year. No less than 65 species -of fruit were identified in the stomachs; of these, the most important -were 4 species of dogwood, 3 of wild cherries, 3 of wild grapes, 4 of -greenbrier, 2 of holly, 2 of elder; and cranberries, huckleberries, -blueberries, barberries, service berries, hackberries, and persimmons; -together with 4 species of sumac and various other seeds not strictly -fruit. - -The depredations of the robin seem to be confined to the smaller and -earlier fruits, few, if any, complaints being made that it eats apples, -peaches, pears, grapes, or even late cherries. By the time these are -ripe the forests and hedges are teeming with wild fruits which the bird -evidently finds more to its taste. The cherry, unfortunately for man, -ripens so early that it is almost the only fruit accessible at a time -when the bird’s appetite has been sharpened by a long-continued diet -of insects, earthworms, and dried berries, and it is no wonder that at -first the rich juicy morsels are greedily eaten. - -While the robin takes some cultivated fruits, it must be remembered -that, being a natural enemy of the insect world, it has been working -during the whole season to make that crop a possibility, and when the -fruit ripens the robin already has a standing account with the farmer -for services rendered, with the credits up to this time entirely on his -side. - -Since the robin takes ten times as much wild as cultivated fruit, -it seems unwise to destroy the birds to save so little. Nor is this -necessary, for with care both birds and fruit may be preserved. Where -much fruit is grown it is no great loss to give up one tree to the -birds, and in some cases the crop can be protected by scarecrows. -Where wild fruit is not abundant, a few fruit-bearing shrubs and vines -judiciously planted will serve for ornament and provide food for the -birds. The Russian mulberry is a vigorous grower and a profuse bearer, -ripening at the same time as the cherry. So far as observation has -gone, most birds seem to prefer its fruit to any other. It is believed -that a number of mulberry trees planted around the garden or orchard -would fully protect the more valuable fruits. - -Much has been written about the delicate discrimination of birds for -choice fruit and their selection of only the finest and costliest -varieties. This is contrary to observed facts. Birds, unlike human -beings, seem to prefer fruit that, like the mulberry, is sweetly -insipid, or that, like the chokecherry or holly, has some astringent -or bitter quality. The so-called black alder, a species of holly, has -bright scarlet berries tasting as bitter as quinine, that ripen late in -October and remain on the bushes through November. Though frost grapes, -the fruit of the Virginia creeper, and several species of dogwood are -abundant at the same time, the birds have been found to eat the berries -of the holly to a considerable extent. It is, moreover, a remarkable -fact that the wild fruits upon which birds largely feed are those which -man neither gathers for his own use nor adopts for cultivation. - - - - -THE TITMICE. - - -Birds of the titmouse family, though insignificant in size, are far -from being so in the matter of food habits. What they lack in size of -body they more than make up in numbers of individuals. While in the -case of some larger birds, as, for instance, the flicker, there is -one pair of eyes to look for food for one large stomach, we have in -the case of the ten times as numerous titmice an equivalent stomach -capacity divided into 10 parts, each furnished with a pair of eyes and -other accessories, as wings and feet. As against the one place occupied -by the larger bird, 10 are being searched for food at the same time by -the smaller species. - -The character of the food of titmice gives a peculiar value to their -services, for it consists largely of the small insects and their eggs -that wholly escape the search of larger birds. Throughout the year most -of the species of this group remain on their range, so that they are -constantly engaged in their beneficial work, continuing it in winter -when the majority of their co-workers have sought a milder clime. It is -at this season that the titmice do their greatest good, for when flying -and crawling insects are no more to be found, the birds must feed upon -such species as they find hibernating in crevices, or upon the eggs of -insects laid in similar places. In winter’s dearth of moving insects -the search for such animal food as may be found is perforce thorough -and unremitting. - -Within the boundaries of the United States are some 17 species of -titmice, with nearly as many races or subspecies, so that there is -no portion of the country lacking one or more forms. The western -coast region is peculiarly rich in representatives of the family. In -the eastern portion of the country the best-known and most widely -distributed species is the common black-capped chickadee[8] (fig. 3). -This bird, or some of its subspecies, occupies the whole of that part -of the United States north of the latitude of Washington and extends -into Canada. It is a prolific breeder, usually rearing from six to -eight young in a brood. - -[8] _Penthestes atricapillus._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.—Black-capped chickadee. Length, about 5¼ inches] - -Examination of 289 stomachs of this chickadee shows that its food -consists of 68 per cent animal matter (insects) and 32 per cent -vegetable matter. The former is made up of small caterpillars and -moths and their eggs. Prominent among the latter are the eggs of the -tent-caterpillar moths, both the orchard and forest species. As these -are two of our most destructive insects, the good done by the chickadee -in devouring their eggs needs no comment. During the winter the -chickadee’s food is made up of larvæ, chrysalids, and eggs of moths, -varied by a few seeds, but as spring brings out hordes of flying, -crawling, and jumping insects, the bird varies its diet by taking also -some of these. Flies and bugs are the favorites until the weather -becomes quite warm, when beetles and small wasps also are enjoyed. -Among the bugs may be mentioned the plant lice and their eggs which are -eaten in winter. The beetles nearly all belong to the group of snout -beetles, more commonly known as weevils. These insects are mostly of -small size, and nearly all are known to the farmer or fruit raiser as -pests. Seventeen of them were found in one stomach. The plum curculio -and the cotton-boll weevil may be taken as fair examples. Grasshoppers -do not at any time constitute an important element of the food of the -chickadee, as they are too large for so small a bird; moreover they are -for the most part terrestrial insects, while the bird is essentially -arboreal. Small wasps and ants are eaten to some extent. Spiders -constitute an important element of the food and are eaten at all times -of the year, the birds locating them when they are hibernating in -winter, as well as when they are active in summer. The vegetable food -of the chickadee consists largely of small seeds except in summer when -they are replaced by pulp of wild fruit. The wax from the seeds of -poison ivy is eaten during the winter months, but the seeds themselves -are not taken. In this respect the chickadee differs from most other -birds which swallow the seeds whole; these, after digesting the wax, -pass the seeds through the alimentary canal, and so scatter them -broadcast to reproduce the noxious plants. - -In the southern part of the country the Carolina chickadee[9] and the -tufted tit[10] replace the black-cap, but their food habits are so -similar that there is practically no difference in the work done. In -the West several other species occur; one of the most interesting is -the bush tit[11] which, with several subspecies, occupies the whole -Pacific coast region. They are active, social little creatures, and -except for a short time during the breeding season are found in flocks, -flitting from tree to tree, busily hunting for insects and their eggs -The contents of 66 stomachs of these birds were found to consist -mostly of injurious insects to the extent of 83 per cent. Of these the -most important was a small hemipterous insect which amounted to more -than half of the stomach contents. These insects are of considerable -economic importance, as they frequently infest grapevines and other -plants to a harmful extent. Several stomachs were almost exclusively -filled with these minute creatures, some containing as many as 100 -individuals. - -[9] _Penthestes carolinensis._ - -[10] _Bæolophus bicolor._ - -[11] _Psaltriparus minimus._ - -Perhaps the most important and interesting insect found was the black -olive scale, which occurred in 24 stomachs and amounted to a little -more than 18 per cent of the food. In addition a number of the stomachs -were more or less filled with another scale, which was not further -identified. A number of small snout beetles (weevils) were eaten and -some small caterpillars; there were also the remains of a spider. - -The vegetable food of the species seemed to consist mostly of seeds, -but they were so broken up as to defy recognition. A little fruit pulp -and a little mast were also found. - -Among the stomachs of the bush tits examined were those of one brood -of eight nestlings about 10 days old. The vegetable matter in these -stomachs was only three-fourths of 1 per cent and consisted of one seed -and some rubbish. The animal matter was made up of beetles, wasps, -bugs, caterpillars and pupæ, and spiders. The greatest interest lies in -the fact that every one of these stomachs contained pupæ of the codling -moth, on an average of over five to each. The oak tree in which these -birds were found was in a belt of timber near a neglected orchard which -the parent birds used as a foraging ground, and they did their best to -remedy the neglect of the owner. As feeding and digestion in the case -of nestling birds is almost continuous during the hours of daylight, -the above record would be several times repeated during a day’s -feeding. There were probably not less than a dozen nests of the bush -tit along the border of this orchard, and these birds must have exerted -a great restrictive influence upon the increase of the codling moth, as -well as of other insects in that vicinity. - - - - -THE WRENS. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.—House wren. Length, about 4¾ inches.] - -The diminutive house wren[12] (fig. 4) frequents barns and gardens, and -particularly old orchards in which the trees are partially decayed. He -makes his nest in a hollow where perhaps a woodpecker had a domicile -the year before, but he is a pugnacious character, and if he happens to -fancy one of the boxes put up for bluebirds, he does not hesitate to -take it. He is usually not slow to avail himself of boxes, gourds, tin -cans, or empty jars placed for his accommodation. - -[12] _Troglodytes aëdon._ - -In food habits the house wren is entirely beneficial. He may be said -to live upon animal food alone, for an examination of 88 stomachs -showed that 98 per cent of the contents was made up of insects or their -allies, and only 2 per cent was vegetable food, including bits of grass -and similar matter, evidently taken by accident with the insects. Half -of this food consisted of grasshoppers and beetles; the remainder of -caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. As the wren is a prolific breeder, -frequently rearing in a season from 12 to 16 young, a family of these -birds must cause considerable reduction in the number of insects in a -garden. Wrens are industrious foragers, searching every tree, shrub, -and vine for caterpillars, and examining every post and rail of the -fence and every cranny in the wall for insects or spiders. - -The house wren is only one of a numerous group of small birds of -similar habits. There are within the limits of the United States 28 -species and subspecies of wrens, occupying more or less completely the -whole country from the Atlantic to the Pacific. With the exception -of the marsh wrens,[13] they all appear to prefer some cosy nook for -a nesting site, and, as it happens, the farm buildings afford just -the place desired. This has led several of the wrens to seek out -the habitations of man, and he is benefited by their destruction of -noxious insects. No species of wren has been accused of harm, and their -presence should be encouraged about every farm, ranch, village, or -suburban residence. - -[13] _Telmatodytes palustris._ - - - - -BROWN THRASHER. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.—Brown thrasher. Length, about 11 inches.] - -The brown thrasher[14] (fig. 5) breeds throughout the United States -east of the Great Plains, and winters in the South Atlantic and Gulf -States. It occasionally visits the garden or orchard, but nests in -swamps or in groves standing upon low ground. The thrasher’s favorite -time for singing is in early morning, when, perched on the top of a -tall bush or low tree, it gives an exhibition of vocal powers which -would do credit to a mocking bird. Indeed, in the South, where the -latter bird is abundant, the thrasher is known as the sandy mocker. - -[14] _Toxostoma rufum._ - -The food of the brown thrasher consists of both fruit and insects. An -examination of 636 stomachs showed 36 per cent of vegetable and 64 of -animal food, practically all insects, and mostly taken in spring before -fruit was ripe. Half the insects were beetles and the remainder chiefly -grasshoppers, caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. A few predacious beetles -were eaten, but on the whole the work of the species as an insect -destroyer may be considered beneficial. - -Eight per cent of its food is made up of fruits like raspberries and -currants which are or may be cultivated, but the raspberries at least -are as likely to belong to wild as to cultivated varieties. Grain, made -up mostly of scattered kernels of oats and corn, is merely a trifle, -amounting to only 3 per cent. Though some of the corn may be taken from -newly planted fields, it is amply paid for by the destruction of May -beetles which are eaten at the same time. The rest of the food consists -of wild fruit or seeds. Taken all in all, the brown thrasher is a -useful bird, and probably does as good work in its secluded retreats -as it would about the garden, for the swamps and groves are no doubt -the breeding grounds of many insects that migrate thence to attack the -crops of the farmer. - - - - -CATBIRD. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.—Catbird. Length, about 9 inches.] - -The catbird[15] (fig. 6), like the thrasher, is a lover of swamps and -delights to make its home in a tangle of wild grapevines, greenbriers, -and shrubs, where it is safe from attack and can find its favorite -food in abundance. It is found throughout the United States west to -the Rocky Mountains, and extends also from Washington, Idaho, and Utah -northward into the provinces of Canada. It winters in the Southern -States, Cuba, Mexico, and Central America. - -[15] _Dumetella carolinensis._ - -Reports from the Mississippi Valley indicate that the catbird is -sometimes a serious annoyance to fruit growers. The reason for such -reports may possibly be found in the fact that on the prairies -fruit-bearing shrubs, which afford so large a part of this bird’s food, -are conspicuously absent. With the settlement of this region comes an -extensive planting of orchards, vineyards, and small-fruit gardens, -which furnish shelter and nesting sites for the catbird as well as for -other species. There is in consequence a large increase in the numbers -of the birds, but no corresponding gain in the supply of native fruits -upon which they were accustomed to feed. Under these circumstances -what is more natural than for the birds to turn to cultivated fruits -for their food? The remedy is obvious: Cultivated fruits can be -protected by the simple expedient of planting the wild species which -are preferred by the birds. Some experiments with catbirds in captivity -show that the Russian mulberry is preferred to any cultivated fruit. - -The stomachs of 645 catbirds were examined and found to contain 44 -per cent of animal (insect) and 58 per cent of vegetable food. Ants, -beetles, caterpillars, and grasshoppers constitute three-fourths of -the animal food, the remainder being made up of bugs, miscellaneous -insects, and spiders. One-third of the vegetable food consists of -cultivated fruits, or those which may be cultivated, as strawberries, -raspberries, and blackberries; but while we debit the bird with the -whole of this, it is probable—and in the eastern and well-wooded part -of the country almost certain—that a large part is obtained from wild -vines. The rest of the vegetable matter is mostly wild fruit, as -cherries, dogwood, sour gum, elderberries, greenbrier, spiceberries, -black alder, sumac, and poison ivy. Although the catbird sometimes does -considerable harm by destroying small fruit, it can not on the whole be -considered injurious. On the contrary, in most parts of the country it -does far more good than harm. - - - - -THE SWALLOWS. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.—Barn swallow. Length, about 7 inches.] - -Seven common species of swallows are found within the limits of the -United States, four of which have abandoned to some extent their -primitive nesting habits and have attached themselves to the abodes of -man. - -In the eastern part of the country the barn swallow[16] (fig. 7) -now builds exclusively under roofs, having entirely abandoned the -rock caves and cliffs in which it formerly nested. More recently the -cliff swallow[17] has found a better nesting site under the eaves of -buildings than was afforded by the overhanging cliffs of earth or -stone which it once used and to which it still resorts occasionally in -the East and habitually in the unsettled West. The martin[18] and the -white-bellied, or tree, swallow[19] nest either in houses supplied for -the purpose, in abandoned nests of woodpeckers, or in natural crannies -in rocks. The northern violet-green swallow,[20] the rough-winged -swallow,[21] and the bank swallow[22] still live in practically such -places as their ancestors chose. - -[16] _Hirundo erythrogastra._ - -[17] _Petrochelidon lunifrons._ - -[18] _Progne subis._ - -[19] _Iridoprocne bicolor._ - -[20] _Tachycineta thalassina._ - -[21] _Stelgidopteryx serripennis._ - -[22] _Riparia riparia._ - -Field observation convinces an ordinarily attentive person that -the food of swallows must consist of the smaller insects captured -in mid-air or picked from the tops of tall grass or weeds. This -observation is borne out by an examination of stomachs, which shows -that the food is made up of many small species of beetles which are -much on the wing; many species of mosquitoes and their allies, together -with large quantities of flying ants; and a few insects of similar -kinds. Most of these are either injurious or annoying, and the numbers -destroyed by swallows are not only beyond calculation but almost beyond -imagination. - -Unlike many other groups of birds, the six species of swallows found in -the Eastern States extend in a practically unchanged form across the -continent, where they are reinforced by the northern, or Pacific-coast, -violet-green swallow. - -It is a mistake to tear down from the eaves of a barn the nests of a -colony of cliff swallows, for so far from disfiguring a building they -make a picturesque addition to it, and the presence of swallows should -be encouraged by every device. It is said that cliff and barn swallows -may be induced to build their nests in a particular locality, otherwise -suitable, by providing a quantity of mud to be used by them as mortar. -Barn swallows may also be encouraged by cutting a small hole in the -gable of the barn, while martins and white-bellied swallows will be -grateful for boxes like those for the bluebird, but placed in a higher -situation. - - - - -TOWHEE. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.—Towhee. Length, about 8 inches.] - -The towhee, chewink, or ground robin[23] (fig. 8), as it is variously -known, inhabits nearly the whole of the United States east of the Great -Plains. It breeds from the Middle States northward and winters in the -southern half of the country. Naturally associated with the catbird and -brown thrasher, it lives in much the same places, though it is more -given to haunting hedgerows along roads and fences. After snow has -disappeared in early spring an investigation of the rustling so often -heard among the leaves near a fence or in a thicket will frequently -disclose a towhee hard at work scratching for his dinner after the -manner of a hen; and in these places and along the sunny border of -woods old leaves will be found overturned where the bird has been -searching for hibernating beetles and larvæ. The good which the towhee -does in this way can hardly be overestimated, since the death of a -single insect at this time, before it has had an opportunity to deposit -its eggs, is equivalent to the destruction of a host later in the year. -The towhee has also been credited with visiting potato fields and -feeding upon the potato beetle. Its vegetable food consists of seeds -and small wild fruits, but no complaint on this score is known to have -been made. So far as observation goes, the bird never touches either -cultivated fruit or grain; in fact, it is too shy and retiring even to -stay about gardens for any length of time. - -[23] _Pipilo erythrophthalmus._ - - - - -THE SPARROWS.[24] - -[24] The sparrows here mentioned are all native species. A full account -of the English, or house, sparrow (_Passer domesticus_), including its -introduction, habits, and depredations, was published in Bul. No. 1 -of the Division of Ornithology in 1889. For information in regard to -combating the English sparrow, see Farmers’ Bulletin 493, The English -Sparrow as a Pest, by Ned Dearborn, 1912. - - -Sparrows are not obtrusive birds, either in plumage, song, or action. -There are some 40 species, with nearly as many subspecies, in North -America. Not more than half a dozen forms are generally known in any -one locality. All the species are more or less migratory, but so widely -are they distributed that there is probably no part of the country -where some can not be found throughout the year. - -While sparrows are noted seed eaters, they do not by any means confine -themselves to a vegetable diet. During the summer, and especially in -the breeding season, they eat many insects and feed their young largely -upon the same food. Examination of stomachs of three species—the song -sparrow[25] (fig. 9), chipping sparrow,[26] and field sparrow[27] -(fig. 10)—shows that about one-third of the food consists of insects, -comprising many injurious beetles, as snout beetles or weevils, and -leaf beetles. Many grasshoppers are eaten. In the case of the chipping -sparrow these insects form one-eighth of the food. Grasshoppers would -seem to be rather large morsels, but the bird probably confines -itself to the smaller species; indeed, the greatest amount (over 36 -per cent) is eaten in June, when the larger species are still young -and the smaller most numerous. Besides the insects already mentioned, -many wasps and bugs are taken. Predacious and parasitic hymenopterous -insects and predacious beetles, all useful, are eaten only to a slight -extent, so that as a whole the insect diet of the native sparrows may -be considered beneficial. There are several records of potato-bug larvæ -eaten by chipping sparrow’s. - -[25] _Melospiza melodia._ - -[26] _Spizella passerina._ - -[27] _Spizella pusilla._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.—Song sparrow. Length, about 6½ inches.] - -Their vegetable food is limited almost exclusively to hard seeds. -This might seem to indicate that the birds feed to some extent upon -grain, but the stomachs examined show only one kind, oats, and but -little of that. The great bulk of the food is made up of grass and weed -seed, which form almost the entire diet during winter, and the amount -consumed is immense. - -In the agricultural region of the upper Mississippi Valley, by -roadsides, on borders of cultivated fields, or in abandoned fields, -wherever they can obtain a foothold, masses of rank weeds spring up and -often form almost impenetrable thickets which afford food and shelter -for immense numbers of birds and enable them to withstand great cold -and the most terrible blizzards. A person visiting one of these weed -patches on a sunny morning in January, when the thermometer is 20° or -more below zero, will be struck with the life and animation of the busy -little inhabitants. Instead of sitting forlorn and half frozen, they -may be seen flitting from branch to branch, twittering and fluttering, -and showing every evidence of enjoyment and perfect comfort. If one of -them is captured it will be found in excellent condition; in fact, a -veritable ball of fat. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.—Field sparrow. Length, about 5½ inches.] - -The snowbird[28] and tree sparrow[29] are perhaps the most numerous of -all the sparrows. Examination of many stomachs shows that in winter the -tree sparrow feeds entirely upon seeds of weeds. Probably each bird -consumes about one-fourth of an ounce a day. In an article contributed -in 1881 to the New York Tribune the writer estimated the amount of -weed seed annually destroyed by these birds in Iowa. On the basis of -one-fourth of an ounce of seed eaten daily by each bird, and an average -of ten birds to each square mile, remaining in their winter range -200 days, there would be a total of 1,750,000 pounds, or 875 tons of -weed seed consumed in a single season by this one species. Large as -are these figures, they unquestionably fall far short of the reality. -The estimate of 10 birds to a square mile is very conservative, for -in Massachusetts, where the food supply is less than in the Western -States, the tree sparrow is even more abundant than this in winter. -The writer has known places in Iowa where several thousand tree -sparrows could be seen within the space of a few acres. This estimate, -moreover, is for a single species, while, as a matter of fact, there -are at least half a dozen birds (not all sparrows) that habitually -feed during winter on these seeds. Farther south the tree sparrow is -replaced in winter by the white-throated sparrow,[30] the white-crowned -sparrow,[31] the fox sparrow,[32] the song sparrow, the field sparrow, -and several others; so that all over the land a vast number of these -seed eaters are at work during the colder months reducing next year’s -crop of worse than useless plants. - -[28] _Junco hyemails._ - -[29] _Spizella monticola._ - -[30] _Zonotrichia albicollis._ - -[31] _Zonotrichia leucophrys._ - -[32] _Passerella iliaca._ - - - - -HOUSE FINCH. - - -Of all the sparrow group, there is probably no member, unless it be -the exotic form known as the English sparrow,[33] that has by reason -of its food habits called down so many maledictions upon its head as -the house finch,[34] red-head, or linnet, as it is variously called. -This bird, like the other members of its family, is by nature a seed -eater, and before the beginning of fruit raising in California probably -subsisted upon the seeds of weeds, with an occasional taste of some -wild berry. Now, however, when orchards have extended throughout the -length and breadth of the State and every month from May to December -sees some ripening fruit, the linnets take their share. As their name -is legion, the sum total of the fruit that they destroy is more than -the fruit raiser can well spare. As the bird has a stout beak, it has -no difficulty in breaking the skin of the hardest fruit and feasting -upon the pulp, thereby spoiling the fruit and giving weaker-billed -birds a chance to sample and acquire a taste for what they might not -otherwise have molested. Complaints against this bird have been many -and loud, more especially in the years when fruit crops first came to -be an important factor in the prosperity of the Pacific coast. At that -time the various fruits afforded the linnets a new and easily obtained -food, while cultivation had reduced their formerly abundant supply -of weed seed. When the early fruit growers saw their expected golden -harvest suddenly snatched away or at least much reduced in value by the -little marauders, it is no wonder that they were exasperated and wished -to destroy the authors of the mischief. - -[33] _Passer domesticus._ - -[34] _Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis._ - -In order to test the matter thoroughly and ascertain whether these -birds ate any other kind of food that might to some extent offset the -damage inflicted upon the fruit, the horticulturists and ornithologists -of California were requested to secure a number of the stomachs of -these birds and send them to the Biological Survey. An agent was also -sent to the fruit-raising sections, who watched the birds in the -orchards and collected a number of them. In this way 1,206 stomachs -were obtained and carefully examined, and the result shows that animal -food (insects) constituted 2.44 per cent and vegetable food 97.56 per -cent of the stomach contents, not counting gravel. - -So small a proportion of animal food can not, of course, mean a great -destruction of insects. As these stomachs were collected in every -month, with the greater number taken during the summer, it is evident -that whatever good one may expect from the linnet must not be looked -for in this direction. Unlike most of the sparrow family, the linnet -does not feed its young upon insects to any great extent. The contents -of the stomachs of a number of nestlings were carefully examined, and -the only animal food was found to consist of woolly plant lice. These -also constituted the great bulk of the animal food eaten by adults. - -The vegetable food of the species consists of three principal -items—grain, fruit, and weed seeds. Grain amounts to less than 1½ per -cent in August, which is the month of greatest consumption, and the -average for the year is a trifle more than one-fourth of 1 per cent. -Fruit attains its maximum in September, when it amounts to 27 per cent -of the whole food, but the average for the year is only 10 per cent. -The seeds of weeds constitute the bulk of the diet of the linnet, and -in August, the month of least consumption, amount to about 64 per cent -of the food. The average for the year is 86 per cent. - -From the foregoing it is evident that whatever the linnet’s sins may -be, grain eating is not one of them. In view of the great complaint -made against its fruit-eating habit, the small quantity found in the -stomachs taken is somewhat of a surprise. But it must be remembered -that the stomach contents do not tell the whole story. When a bird -takes a single peck from a cherry or an apricot, it spoils the whole -fruit, and in this way may ruin half a dozen in taking a single meal. -It is safe to say that the fruit pulp found in the stomach does not -represent more than one-fifth of what is actually destroyed. That the -linnets are persistent and voracious eaters of early fruits, especially -cherries and apricots, every fruit raiser in California will bear -testimony. That the damage is often serious no one will deny. It is -noticeable, however, that the earliest varieties are the ones most -affected; also, that in large orchards the damage is not perceptible, -while in small plantations the whole crop is frequently destroyed. - - - - -THE GRACKLES. - - -The crow blackbird or grackle[35] (fig. 11) in one or more of its -subspecies is a familiar object in all the States east of the Rocky -Mountains. Throughout the year it is resident as far north as -southern Illinois, and in summer extends its range into the Canadian -Provinces. In the Mississippi Valley it is one of the most abundant -of birds, preferring to nest in the artificial groves and windbreaks -near farms instead of in the natural “timber” which it formerly used. -It breeds also in parks and near buildings, often in considerable -colonies. Farther east, in New England, it is only locally abundant, -though frequently seen in migration. In the latter days of August and -throughout September it is found in immense numbers before moving -southward. - -[35] _Quiscalus quiscula._ - -The grackle is accused of many sins, such as stealing grain and fruit -and robbing the nests of other birds. An examination of 2,346 stomachs -shows that nearly one-third of its food consists of insects, most of -which are injurious. The bird also eats a few snails, crawfishes, -salamanders, small fish, and occasionally a mouse. The stomach contents -do not indicate that it robs other birds’ nests to any great extent, as -remains of birds and birds’ eggs amount to less than half of 1 per cent. - -It is on account of its vegetable food that the grackle most deserves -condemnation. Grain is eaten during the whole year, and only for a -short time in summer is other food attractive enough to induce the -bird to alter its diet. The grain taken in winter and spring probably -consists of waste kernels from the stubble. The stomachs do not -indicate that the bird pulls sprouting grain; but the wheat eaten in -July and August and the corn eaten in fall are probably from fields -of standing grain. The total amount of grain consumed during the year -constitutes 45 per cent of the food, but it is safe to say that at -least half is waste grain and consequently of no value. Although the -crow blackbird eats a few cherries and blackberries in their season, -and in the fall some wild fruit, it apparently does no damage in this -way. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.—Purple grackle. Length, about 12 inches.] - -Large flocks of grackles no doubt do considerable injury to grain -crops, and there seems to be no remedy, except the destruction of -the birds, which is in itself expensive. During the breeding season, -however, the species does much good by eating insects and by feeding -them to its young, which are reared almost entirely upon this food. -The bird does the greatest amount of good in spring, when it follows -the plow in search of large grubworms, of which it is so fond that it -sometimes literally crams its stomach full of them. - - - - -BREWER BLACKBIRD. - - -The Brewer blackbird[36] takes the place in the Western States of the -grackle, or crow blackbird, which lives in the Mississippi Valley and -farther east and is very similar in appearance and habits. It breeds -east to the Great Plains and north into Canada, and winters over most -of its breeding range in the United States and south to Guatemala. At -home in fields, meadows, and orchards, and about ranch buildings and -cultivated lands generally, it nests in bushes and weeds, sometimes in -trees, and is very gregarious, especially about barnyards and corrals. -The bird feeds freely in stockyards and in cultivated fields, and when -fruit is ripe does not hesitate to take a share. During the cherry -season in California the birds are much in the orchards. In one case -they were observed feeding on cherries, but when a neighboring fruit -grower began to plow his orchard almost every blackbird in the vicinity -was upon the newly opened ground close after the plowman’s heels in its -eagerness to secure the insects turned up. - -[36] _Euphagus cyanocephalus._ - -The laboratory investigation of this bird’s food covered 312 stomachs, -collected in every month and representing especially the fruit and -grain sections of southern California. The animal portion of the food -was 32 per cent and the vegetable 68 per cent. - -Caterpillars and their pupæ amounted to 12 per cent of the whole food -and were eaten every month. They include many of those pests known as -cutworms. The cotton-boll worm, or corn-ear worm, was identified in at -least 10 stomachs, and in 11 were found pupæ of the codling moth. The -animal food also included other insects, and spiders, sow bugs, snails, -and eggshells. - -The vegetable food may be divided into fruit, grain, and weed seeds. -Fruit was eaten in May, June, and July, not a trace appearing in any -other month, and was composed of cherries, or what was thought to be -such, strawberries, blackberries or raspberries, and fruit pulp or -skins not further identified. However, the amount, a little more than -4 per cent for the year, was too small to make a bad showing, and if -the bird does no greater harm than is involved in its fruit eating it -is well worth protecting. Grain amounts to 54 per cent of the yearly -food and forms a considerable percentage in each month; oats are the -favorite and were the sole contents of 14 stomachs, and wheat of 2, -but no stomach was completely filled with any other grain. Weed seeds, -eaten in every month to the extent of 9 per cent of the food, were -found in rather small quantities and irregularly, and appear to have -been merely a makeshift. - -Stomachs of nestlings, varying in age from 24 hours to some that were -nearly fledged, were found to contain 89 per cent animal to 11 per cent -vegetable matter. The largest items in the former were caterpillars, -grasshoppers, and spiders. In the latter the largest items were fruit, -probably cherries; grain, mostly oats; and rubbish. - - - - -BALTIMORE ORIOLE. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.—Baltimore oriole. Length, about 7½ inches.] - -Brilliancy of plumage, sweetness of song, and food habits to which no -exception can be taken are some of the striking characteristics of the -Baltimore oriole[37] (fig. 12). In summer it is found throughout the -northern half of the United States east of the Great Plains. Its nest -commands hardly less admiration than the beauty of its plumage or the -excellence of its song. Hanging from the tip of the outermost bough of -a stately elm, it is almost inaccessible to depredators and so strongly -fastened as to bid defiance to the elements. - -[37] _Icterus galbula._ - -Observation both in the field and laboratory shows that caterpillars -constitute the largest item of the fare of the oriole. In 204 stomachs -they formed 34 per cent of the food, and they are eaten in varying -quantities during all the months in which the bird remains in this -country. The fewest are eaten in July, when a little fruit also is -taken. The other insects consist of beetles, bugs, ants, wasps, -grasshoppers, and some spiders. The beetles are principally click -beetles, the larvæ of which are among the most destructive insects -known; and the bugs include plant and bark lice, both very harmful, but -so small and obscure as to be passed over unnoticed by most birds. Ants -are eaten mostly in spring, grasshoppers in July and August, and wasps -and spiders with considerable regularity throughout the season. - -During the stay of the oriole in the United States, vegetable matter -amounts to only a little more than 16 per cent of its food, so that the -possibility of its doing much damage to crops is very limited. The bird -is accused of eating peas to a considerable extent, but remains of such -were found in only two cases. One writer says that it damages grapes, -but none were found in the stomachs. - - - - -BULLOCK ORIOLE. - - -The Bullock oriole[38] is practically a counterpart of the Baltimore -oriole, taking the place of that species west of the Plains and -throughout the Pacific coast region. It does not essentially differ in -its habits of nesting or in its food from its eastern relative, but it -is less beautiful in plumage. The examination of 162 stomachs shows -that 79 per cent of its food consists of insects, with a few spiders, -a lizard, a mollusk shell, and eggshells. Beetles amounted to 35 per -cent, and all except a few ladybugs were harmful species. Ants were -found in 19 stomachs, and in one there was nothing else. Bees, wasps, -etc., were in 56 stomachs, and entirely filled 2 of them. Including the -ants, they amount to nearly 15 per cent of the food of the season. - -[38] _Icterus bullocki._ - -One of the most interesting articles of food in the oriole’s dietary -was the black olive scale, found in 45 stomachs, and amounting to 5 -per cent of the food. In several cases these scales formed 80 per cent -or more of the contents, and in one, 30 individual scales could be -counted. They were evidently a standard article of diet, and were eaten -regularly in every month of the oriole’s stay except April. Hemipterous -insects other than scales, eaten quite regularly, make up a little more -than 5 per cent of the food. They were mostly stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, -and tree hoppers. Plant lice were found in one stomach. - -Moths, pupæ, and caterpillars compose the largest item of the oriole’s -animal food. The average consumption during its summer stay is a -little more than 41 per cent. Of these, perhaps the most interesting -were the pupæ and larvæ of the codling moth. These were found in 23 -stomachs, showing that they are not an unusual article of diet. No -less than 14 of the pupa cases were found in one stomach, and as they -are very fragile many others may have been present, but broken beyond -recognition. - -Grasshoppers probably do not come much in the oriole’s way. They were -eaten, however, to the extent of a little more than 3 per cent. But in -spite of the fact that grasshoppers are eaten so sparingly, 2 stomachs, -both taken in June, contained nothing else, and another contained 97 -per cent of them. - -Various insects and spiders, with a few other items, make up the rest -of the animal food, a little more than 5 per cent. Spiders are not -important in the oriole’s food, but are probably eaten whenever found. -They were identified in 44 stomachs, but in small numbers. The scales -of a lizard were found in one stomach and the shell of a snail in -another. - -The vegetable contingent of the oriole’s food is mostly fruit, -especially in June and July, when it takes kindly to cherries and -apricots, and sometimes eats more than the fruit grower considers a -fair share. However, no great complaint is made against the bird, and -it is probable that as a rule it does not do serious harm. With such a -good record as an insect eater it can well be spared a few cherries. - - - - -THE MEADOWLARKS. - - -The eastern meadowlark[39] (fig. 13) is a common and well-known bird -occurring from the Atlantic coast to the Great Plains, where it gives -way to the closely related western species,[40] which extends thence -westward to the Pacific. It winters from our southern border as far -north as the District of Columbia, southern Illinois, and occasionally -Iowa. The western form winters somewhat farther north. Although it is a -bird of the plains, and finds its most congenial haunts in the prairies -of the West, it is at home wherever there is level or undulating land -covered with grass or weeds, with plenty of water at hand. - -[39] _Sturnella magna._ - -[40] _Sturnella neglecta._ - -In the 1,514 stomachs examined, animal food (practically all insects) -constituted 74 per cent of the contents and vegetable matter 26 per -cent. As would naturally be supposed, the insects were ground species, -as beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, and caterpillars, with a few flies, -wasps, and spiders. A number of the stomachs were collected when -the ground was covered with snow, but even these contained a large -percentage of insects, showing the bird’s skill in finding proper food -under adverse circumstances. - -Of the various insects eaten, crickets and grasshoppers are the most -important, constituting 26 per cent of the food of the year and 72 per -cent of the food in August. It is scarcely necessary to mention the -beneficial effect of a number of these birds on a field of grass in the -height of the grasshopper season. Of the 1,514 stomachs collected at -all seasons of the year, 778, or more than half, contained remains of -grasshoppers, and one was filled with fragments of 37 of these insects. -This seems to show conclusively that grasshoppers are preferred, and -are eaten whenever they can be found. Especially notable is the great -number taken in August, the month when grasshoppers reach their maximum -abundance; stomach examination shows that large numbers of birds resort -at this time to this diet, no matter what may be the food during the -rest of the year. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.—Meadowlark. Length, about 10 inches.] - -Next to grasshoppers, beetles make up the most important item of the -meadowlark’s food, amounting to 25 per cent, about one-half of which -are predacious ground beetles. The others are all harmful species. - -Forty-two individuals of different kinds of May beetles were found in -the stomachs of meadowlarks, and there were probably many more which -were past recognition. To this form and several closely allied ones -belong the numerous white grubs, which are among the worst enemies to -many cultivated crops, notably grasses and grains, and to a less extent -strawberries and garden vegetables. In the larval stage they eat the -roots of these plants, and being large, one individual may destroy -several plants. In the adult stage they feed upon the foliage of trees -and other plants, and in this way add to the damage which they began -in the earlier form. As these enemies of husbandry are not easily -destroyed by man, it is obviously wise to encourage their natural foes. - -Among the weevils found in the stomachs the most important economically -are the cotton-boll weevil and the recently introduced alfalfa weevil -of Utah. Several hundred meadowlarks were taken in the cotton-growing -region, and the boll weevil was found in 25 stomachs of the eastern -meadowlark and in 16 of the western species. Of the former, one stomach -contained 27 individuals. Of 25 stomachs of western meadowlarks taken -in alfalfa fields of Utah, 15 contained the alfalfa weevil. In one -stomach 23 adults were found, in another 32 adults and 70 larvæ, still -another had 10 adults and 40 larvæ, while a fourth had 4 adults and 100 -larvæ. - -Caterpillars form a very constant element of the food, and in May -constitute over 24 per cent of the whole. May is the month when the -dreaded cutworm begins its deadly career, and then the lark does some -of its best work. Most of these caterpillars are ground feeders, and -are overlooked by birds which habitually frequent trees, but the -meadowlark finds and devours them by thousands. The remainder of the -insect food is made up of ants, wasps, and spiders, with some bugs, -including chinch bugs, and a few scales. - -The vegetable food consists of grain and weed and other hard seeds. -Grain in general amounts to 11 per cent and weed and other seeds to -7 per cent. Grain, principally corn, is eaten mostly in winter and -early spring and consists, therefore, of waste kernels; only a trifle -is consumed in summer and autumn, when it is most plentiful. No trace -of sprouting grain was discovered. Clover seed was found in only six -stomachs, and but little in each. Seeds of weeds, principally ragweed, -barnyard grass, and smartweed, are eaten from November to April, -inclusive, but during the rest of the year are replaced by insects. - -Briefly stated, more than half of the meadowlark’s food consists of -harmful insects; its vegetable food is composed either of noxious -weeds or waste grain, and the remainder is made up of useful beetles -or neutral insects and spiders. A strong point in the bird’s favor -is that, although naturally an insect eater, it is able to subsist -on vegetable food, and consequently is not forced to migrate in cold -weather farther than is necessary to find ground free from snow. - - - - -THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRDS. - - -The red-winged or swamp blackbird[41] in its various forms (fig. 14) -is found all over the United States and the region immediately to the -north. While common in most of its range, its distribution is more or -less local, mainly on account of its partiality for marshes. It builds -its nest over or near standing water, in tall grass, rushes, or bushes. -Owing to this peculiarity the bird may be absent from large tracts of -country which afford no swamps or marshes suitable for nesting. It -usually breeds in large colonies, though single families, consisting -of a male and several females, may sometimes be found in a small -slough, where each female builds her nest and rears her own little -brood, while her liege lord displays his brilliant colors and struts in -the sunshine. In the upper Mississippi Valley the species finds most -favorable conditions, for the countless prairie sloughs and the margins -of the numerous shallow lakes afford nesting sites for thousands of -red-wings; and here are bred the immense flocks which sometimes do -so much damage to the grain fields of the West. After the breeding -season the birds congregate preparatory to migration, and remain thus -associated throughout the winter. - -[41] _Agelaius phœniceus._ - -Three species and several subspecies of red-wings are recognized,[42] -but practically no difference exists in the habits of these forms -either in nesting or feeding, except such as may result from local -conditions. Most of the forms are found on the Pacific side of -the continent, and may be considered as included in the following -statements as to food and economic status. - -[42] _Agelaius phœniceus_ (8 forms), _Agelaius gubernator_, and -_Agelaius tricolor_. - -Many complaints have been made against the red-wing, and several States -have at times placed a bounty upon its head. It is said to cause great -damage to grain in the West, especially in the upper Mississippi -Valley, but no complaints come from the northeastern section, where the -bird is much less abundant than in the West and South. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.—Red-winged blackbird. Length, about 9½ inches.] - -Examination of 1,083 stomachs showed that vegetable matter forms 74 per -cent of the food, while animal matter, mainly insects, forms but 20 -per cent. A little more than 10 per cent consists of beetles, mostly -harmful species. Weevils, or snout beetles, amount to 4 per cent of -the year’s food, but in June reach 25 per cent. As weevils are among -the most harmful insects known, their destruction should condone some, -at least, of the sins of which the bird is accused. Grasshoppers -constitute nearly 5 per cent of the food, while the rest of the animal -matter is made up of various insects, a few snails, and crustaceans. -The few dragon flies found were probably picked up dead, for they -are too active to be taken alive, unless by a bird of the flycatcher -family. So far as the insect food as a whole is concerned, the red-wing -may be considered entirely beneficial. - -The interest in the vegetable food of this bird centers around grain. -Only three kinds, corn, wheat, and oats, were found in the stomachs -in appreciable quantities. They aggregate but little more than 13 per -cent of the whole food, oats forming nearly half of this amount. In -view of the many complaints that the red-wing eats grain, this record -is surprisingly small. The purple grackle has been found to eat more -than three times as much. In the case of the crow, corn forms one-third -of the food, so that the red-winged blackbird, whose diet is made -up of only a trifle more than one-eighth of grain, is really one of -the least destructive species. The most important item of the bird’s -food, however, is weed seed, which forms practically all of its food -in winter and about 57 per cent of the fare of the whole year. The -principal weed seeds eaten are those of ragweed, barnyard grass, and -smartweed. That these seeds are preferred is shown by the fact that -the birds begin to eat them in August, when grain is still readily -obtainable, and continue feeding on them even after insects become -plentiful in April. The red-wing eats very little fruit and does -practically no harm to garden or orchard. Nearly seven-eighths of its -food is made up of weed seed or of insects injurious to agriculture, -indicating unmistakably that the bird should be protected, except, -perhaps, in a few places where it is overabundant. - - - - -BOBOLINK. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.—Bobolink, rice bird, or reed bird. Length, -about 7 inches.] - -The bobolink, rice bird, or reed bird[43] (fig. 15) is a common summer -resident of the United States, north of about latitude 40°, and from -New England westward to the Great Plains, wintering beyond our southern -border. In New England there are few birds about which so much romance -clusters as this rollicking songster, naturally associated with sunny -June meadows; but in the South there are none on whose head so many -maledictions have been heaped on account of its fondness for rice. -During its sojourn in the Northern States it feeds mainly upon insects -and seeds of useless plants; but while rearing its young, insects -constitute its chief food, and almost the exclusive diet of its brood. -After the young are able to fly, the whole family gathers into a small -flock and begins to live almost entirely upon vegetable food. This -consists for the most part of weed seeds, since in the North these -birds do not appear to attack grain to any great extent. They eat a -few oats, but their stomachs do not reveal a great quantity of this or -any other grain. As the season advances they gather into larger flocks -and move southward, until by the end of August nearly all have left -their breeding grounds. On their way they frequent the reedy marshes -about the mouths of rivers and on the inland waters of the coast region -and subsist largely upon wild rice. In the Middle States, during -their southward migration, they are commonly known as reed birds, and -becoming very fat are treated as game. - -[43] _Dolichonyx oryzivorus._ - -Formerly, when the low marshy shores of the Carolinas and some of -the more southern States were devoted to rice culture the bobolinks -made great havoc both upon the sprouting rice in spring and upon the -ripening grain on their return migration in the fall. With a change in -the rice-raising districts, however, this damage is no longer done. - - - - -CROW. - - -In one or another of its geographic races the common crow[44] (fig. 16) -breeds in great numbers throughout the States east of the Plains and -from the Gulf well up into Canada, while in less abundance it is found -in California and in the Northwestern States. During the colder months -a southern migratory movement brings most of these birds within the -borders of the United States, and at about the latitude of Philadelphia -and southern Illinois we find them congregating nightly in roosts. -Farmers dwelling in the vicinity of such roosts frequently suffer -losses to shocked corn. - -[44] _Corvus brachyrhynchos._ - -In fact none of our native birds so much concerns the average farmer of -the Eastern States as the common crow. Many of our present criticisms -of this bird, as its pulling sprouting corn, feeding on ripening ears, -damaging fruits of various kinds, destroying poultry and wild birds, -and disseminating diseases of live stock, were common complaints in the -days of the early colonists. Many of the virtues of the crow, now quite -generally recognized, also have been matters of record for many years. -In recent times, however, scientific study of these problems, including -the examination of the stomachs of hundreds of crows secured in every -month of the year and under a variety of conditions, has enabled us to -render a much fairer verdict than was formerly possible. - -The crow is practically omnivorous. During spring and early summer any -form of insect life seems to make a desirable item in its diet, and in -winter when hard pressed nothing in the animal or vegetable kingdoms -which contains a morsel of nutriment is overlooked. - -The insect food of the crow, which comprises about a fifth of -its yearly sustenance, does much to atone for its misdemeanors. -Grasshoppers, May beetles and their larvæ (white grubs), caterpillars, -weevils, and wireworms stand out prominently. In 1,103 stomachs -examined these highly injurious forms comprised over 80 per cent of the -insect food. Grasshoppers are naturally taken in greatest abundance -late in the season, September being the month of largest consumption, -when they form about a fifth of the total food. May beetles and -white grubs are eaten in every month except January, but occur most -prominently in May. In June caterpillars are a favorite food, and -weevils of various kinds are taken in varying quantities throughout -summer and fall. About half of the remaining 20 per cent of insect food -is composed of beneficial ground beetles, ladybirds, predacious bugs, -and parasitic wasps, and related forms, the rest consisting of neutral -or injurious forms. Numerous instances are on record where fields badly -infested with white grubs or grasshoppers have been favorite resorts -of crows, whose voracity has resulted in a material suppression of the -pest. When the amount of food required to sustain the individual crow -is considered, the work of these birds appears all the more important. -Single stomachs containing upward of 50 grasshoppers are not uncommon. -Thus in its choice of insect food the crow is rendering an important -service to the farmer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.—Crow. Length, about 19 inches.] - - -In the other animal food of the crow are several items of the utmost -economic importance. Spiders are taken in considerable numbers in May -and June, but the yearly total is a little over 1 per cent of the -food. In early spring crawfish are eagerly sought, and other aquatic -food as fish and mollusks lend variety to the crow’s bill of fare the -year round. In the consumption of toads, salamanders, frogs, and some -snakes, which together compose a little over 2 per cent of the yearly -food, the crow is doubtless doing harm. Small rodents occurred in the -stomachs collected nearly every month, but it is often difficult to -determine whether small mammals found in birds’ stomachs were taken -alive or found dead. - -From its carrion-eating habits the crow has been unfairly criticized as -a disseminator of live-stock diseases. While this may be to some extent -just, the fact that there are many other important carriers which lie -largely beyond our control, shows that we must seek final relief only -through the strictest methods of sanitation. - -The nest-robbing habit of the crow, long a serious criticism, is -verified by stomach analysis. Fifty of the 1,103 crows examined had fed -on wild birds or their eggs, and the eggs of domestic fowls were found -slightly more frequently. The crow’s habit of rummaging about garbage -piles may explain much of this latter material. - -Of the vegetable food, corn, which is eaten every month, is the most -important item and forms about a third of the yearly diet. Much of -this, however, must be considered waste. Over 60 per cent is consumed -from the first of November to the end of March. During the periods when -corn is sprouting and when in the “roasting-ear” stage the crow is -eating this grain at a rate considerably less than the yearly average, -and the months of smallest consumption are July and August. At times, -however, the damage to corn becomes a serious problem, and were it not -possible to make use of such deterrents as coal tar upon seed corn -there would be little friendship for the crow in some sections of the -East. The “pulling” of corn is a trait most prevalent in small-field -areas. Wheat and oats suffer similar damage at times, especially in the -Northwestern States, where these grains predominate. About the only -safeguard to ripening grain is the constant use of powder and shot or -the scarecrow. - -Various kinds of cultivated fruits also are eaten, and local damage -to such crops as apples, melons, peas, beans, peanuts, and almonds is -occasionally reported. In long, rigorous winters, the crow, like other -birds, resorts to the fruit of numerous wild plants, as dogwood, sour -gum, hackberry, smilax, and the several species of sumac and poison ivy. - -Damage to the eggs of poultry may be reduced to a minimum by careful -housing of laying hens, and the farmer can protect his sprouting grain -to a large extent by the use of tar-coated seed. It will be well also -to keep the crow within reasonable numbers on game preserves and public -parks where it is desired to encourage the nesting of smaller birds. -While legal protection is not needed for so wary an individual as the -crow, it seems well, where local conditions have not aggravated some -particular shortcomings of the bird, to allow it to continue the good -services rendered to man in the destruction of noxious insects. - - - - -BLUE JAY. - - -The blue jay[45] (fig. 17) is a conspicuous member of our bird -population east of the Plains, especially in autumn when his brilliant -plumage contrasts vividly with the brown foliage. Even in winter he -stays with us, though at this time he is less common along our northern -border. In spring and summer, while by no means uncommon, the blue jay -is not so often noticed, as the retiring disposition which he assumes -during the breeding season assists in protecting him from enemies. This -also allows him to carry on with considerable impunity that inglorious -practice of nest robbing of which, in a measure, he has been rightfully -accused. - -[45] _Cyanocitta cristata._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.—Blue jay. Length, about 11½ inches.] - -Examination of 530 stomachs collected at all times of the year in 30 -of our Eastern States and Canada shows that insects comprise about 22 -per cent of the yearly sustenance. About three-fourths of these are -injurious, the remainder being neutral or beneficial. Of the injurious -insects grasshoppers form the largest portion; in August nearly a -fifth of the food. Caterpillars are conspicuous in July and August -and at this time average about a tenth of the stomach contents. Both -laboratory investigations and field observations have established -the fact that in winter the eggs of the tent caterpillar and the -hibernating larvæ of the brown-tail moth in New England are eagerly -sought. Scarabæid beetles form about 4 per cent of the yearly food, and -click beetles and wireworms about 1 per cent. Of the beneficial forms -ground beetles (3 per cent) and hymenopterous insects, part of which -are parasitic (2.5 percent), are taken most frequently. A few other -invertebrates, as spiders, millipedes, mollusks, and crustaceans, also -are eaten throughout the year. - -In the consideration of the vertebrate food of the blue jay we are -confronted with the problem of the destruction of wild birds and -their eggs. Special search was made for every possible trace of such -material in the stomachs, and in 6 of the 530 were found the remains -of wild birds or their eggs. In February two jays had killed a small -bird apiece; in May one had robbed a nest of eggs; in June two had -taken a small bird and a clutch of eggs, respectively; and in August -another had robbed a nest. As this trait of the jay appears to be -most pronounced during its own breeding season, it is quite possible -for many birds which have suffered from his boldness early in the -season to raise another brood unmolested. Thirty-nine of the 530 jays -examined had fed on hen’s eggs Much of this food, however, was picked -up about rubbish heaps to which the jay, like other members of the -crow family, is partial. While the result of stomach analysis would -appear to belittle this fault of the blue jay, it is doubtless quite -characteristic of the bird under favorable conditions. - -Complaint that the jay is the source of considerable damage to -corn in the fall has been verified to a certain degree by stomach -examination. This grain is taken in every month of the year, but in -greater quantities during winter and early spring, when much of it is -necessarily waste, and it forms about 18 per cent of the yearly food. -Cultivated fruits of various kinds are eaten from June to the end -of the year, and the To per cent taken in July apparently justifies -complaints against the bird on this score. The favorite vegetable food -of the blue jay is mast of various kinds, acorns predominating, but -beechnuts, chestnuts, chinquapins, and hazelnuts also are relished. -This food is important in every month but July and August, the -yearly average being over 43 per cent, and from October to March it -constitutes about two-thirds of the diet. Occasionally harm is done -by feeding also on cultivated nuts, as pecans. Wild fruits are eaten -during the summer and fall and constitute about 7 per cent of the -yearly sustenance. - -The blue jay probably renders its best services to man in destroying -grasshoppers late in the season and in feeding on hibernating insects -and their eggs, as they do in the case of the tent caterpillar and -brown-tail moth. Such forest insects as buprestid beetles and weevils -of various kinds also fall as their prey. - -The blue jay’s vegetable food, with the exception of some cultivated -fruit and corn in the fall, is largely neutral. The severest criticism -against the species is the destruction of other birds and their -eggs. Where we wish to attract the latter in large numbers about our -dooryards, in our parks, and in game preserves, it will be well not to -allow the jays to become too abundant. - - - - -PACIFIC COAST JAYS. - - -In California and adjacent States two species of jays are much in -evidence under several more or less well-marked forms. - -The Steller jay[46] much resembles the eastern bird, but it is more shy -and retiring and seldom visits the orchard or vicinity of the ranch -buildings. Stomach examination shows that its food does not radically -differ from that of the eastern blue jay. As is the case with that -bird, a very considerable part of the food consists of mast, together -with a little fruit and some insects. The insects are largely wasps, -with some beetles and grasshoppers. The jay also eats some grain, -which is probably waste or volunteer. No complaints, so far as known, -are made against this bird. Until it shall become less wary it is not -likely to trespass to a serious extent upon the farmer’s preserve. - -[46] _Cyanocitta stelleri._ - -The California jay,[47] although of a different genus, more nearly -resembles its eastern relative in food habits and actions. It freely -visits the stockyards near ranch buildings, and orchards and gardens. -As a fruit stealer it is notorious. One instance is recorded where -seven jays were shot from a prune tree, one after the other, the dead -bodies being left under the tree until all were killed. So eager were -the birds to get the fruit that the report of the gun and the sight -of their dead did not deter them from coming to the tree. In orchards -in canyons or on hillsides adjacent to chaparral or other cover great -mischief is done by this bird. In one such case an orchard was under -observation at a time when the prune crop was ripening, and jays in a -continuous stream were seen to come down a small ravine to the orchard, -prey upon the fruit, and return. - -[47] _Aphelocoma californica._ - -Fruit stealing, however, is only one of the sins of the California jay. -That it robs hens’ nests is universal testimony. A case is reported -of a hen having a nest under a clump of bushes; every day a jay came -to a tree a few rods away, and when it heard the cackle of the hen -announcing a new egg it flew at once to the nest. At the same time the -mistress of the house hastened to the spot to secure the prize, but in -most cases the jay won the race. This is only one of many similar cases -recounted. The jays have learned just what the cackle of the hen means. -Another case more serious is that related by a man engaged in raising -white leghorn fowls on a ranch several miles up a canyon. He stated -that when the chicks were very young the jays attacked and killed them -by a few blows of the beak and then pecked open the skull and ate out -the brains. In spite of all efforts to protect the chicks and kill the -jays the losses in this way were serious. - -Examination of the stomachs of 326 California jays shows that 27 per -cent of the contents for the year consists of animal matter and 73 -per cent of vegetable. Although the great bulk of the animal food -is made up of insects, the remains of eggshells and birds’ bones -appear much too often. The insect food is fairly well distributed -among the more common orders, but grasshoppers are slightly the most -numerous and constitute 4.5 per cent of the year’s food. In July, -August, and September, however, the amount is 14, 18, and 19 per cent, -respectively. Four per cent of the food consists of wasps, bees, etc., -but in the three months named they constitute 15, 7, and 9 per cent, -respectively. A worker honeybee found in each of two stomachs is rather -surprising, for it is unusual to find a bird like the jay eating many -of these active and elusive insects, which enter into the diet of -the flycatchers. The remainder of the insect food is pretty evenly -distributed among beetles, bugs, flies, and caterpillars. Eggshells -were found in 21 stomachs and birds’ bones in 5. Six stomachs contained -the bones of mammals and two those of a lizard. No bird has a worse -reputation for nest robbing than has the eastern jay, and yet of 530 -stomachs of the eastern species only 6 contained eggshells or the bones -of birds. This comparison serves to show what a marauder and nest thief -the California jay really is. - -In its vegetable diet this bird much resembles its eastern relative, -the most remarkable difference being in the matter of fruit eating. -With greater opportunities the California bird has developed a greater -appetite for fruit and indulges it to the fullest extent. Remains of -fruit were found in 220 of the 326 stomachs. The percentage for the -year is only 16, but for the four months of June, July, August, and -September it is 44, 33, 53, and 25, respectively. Cherries, apricots, -and prunes are the favorites among cultivated fruits, and elderberries -are relished to some extent. Grain, which was found in 48 stomachs, -amounts to 6 per cent of the food of the year. Practically all of it -was taken in the four months above mentioned, but it is not probable -that much damage is done by the jay in this respect. The major portion -of the grain was oats. What was not wild was probably simply scattered -grain gleaned after the harvest. Mast is eaten by the California jay -from September to March, inclusive, and constitutes during most of -that period one of the principal elements of its food. In this respect -the bird shows a remarkable similarity to the eastern species. A few -weed seeds and other miscellaneous items make up the balance of the -vegetable food. - -In summing up from an economic point of view the character of the food -of the California jay, it must be conceded that it is not all that -could be wished. Its taste for birds’ eggs and fruit is entirely too -pronounced, and at present the species is superabundant in California. -While the natural food supply of the bird has been lessened by bringing -the woods and brushy canyons under cultivation, the same areas have -been planted to fruit, and naturally the jay takes the fruit as an -acceptable substitute. A considerable reduction of the bird’s numbers -would appear to be the only effective remedy. - - - - -THE PHŒBES. - - -Among the early spring arrivals to their northern homes none is -more welcome than the phœbe (fig. 18). The common phœbe[48] breeds -throughout the United States east of the Great Plains, and winters from -the South Atlantic and Gulf States southward. Its western relative, the -black phœbe,[49] is found from Texas west to the Pacific coast, which -it occupies as far north as Washington, replacing through most of this -region the common or eastern form. - -[48] _Sayornis phœbe._ - -[49] _Sayornis nigricans._ - -Though naturally building its nest under an overhanging cliff of rock -or earth, or in the mouth of a cave, the preference of the eastern -species for the vicinity of farm buildings is so marked that in the -more thickly settled parts of the country the bird is seldom seen at -any great distance from a farmhouse, except where a bridge spanning -a stream affords a secure spot for a nest. Its confiding disposition -renders it a great favorite, and consequently it is seldom disturbed. - -The phœbe subsists almost exclusively upon insects, most of which are -caught upon the wing. An examination of 370 stomachs showed that over -89 per cent of the year’s food consists of insects and spiders, while -wild fruit constitutes the remainder. The insects belong chiefly to -noxious species, and include many click beetles, May beetles, and -weevils. Other beetles, belonging to 21 families that were identified, -make up 10.65 per cent. They appear to be eaten very regularly in every -month, but the most are taken in spring and early summer. May is the -month of maximum consumption, with 20.43 per cent. Beetles altogether -amount to 15.3 per cent, which places them second in rank of the items -of animal food. The notorious cotton-boll weevil was found in six -stomachs taken in the cotton fields of Texas and Louisiana, and five -individuals of the strawberry weevil were taken from one collected -in Texas. Many other beetles contained in the stomachs are equally -harmful, but are not so widely known. Such are the corn leaf-beetle, -which feeds upon corn; the 12-spotted cucumber beetle and the striped -cucumber beetle, both of which seriously injure and sometimes destroy -cucumber and squash vines; and the locust leaf miner, which is -sometimes so numerous that all the locust trees over large areas are -blasted as by fire. - -In the phœbe’s diet hymenopterous insects stand at the head, as in -the case with most of the flycatchers. They are eaten with great -regularity and are the largest item in nearly every month. A few are -useful parasitic species, but these are offset by a number of sawfly -larvæ, which are very harmful insects. Ants were found in 24 stomachs. -No honeybees were identified. In their season grasshoppers are much -relished, while wasps of various forms, many flies of species that -annoy cattle, and a few bugs and spiders are also eaten regularly. It -is evident that a pair of phœbes must materially reduce the number of -insects near a garden or field, as the birds often, if not always, -raise two broods a year, and each brood numbers from four to six young. - -There is hardly a more useful species, about the farm than the phœbe, -and it should receive every encouragement. To furnish nesting boxes -is helpful, but not necessary, as it usually prefers a more open -situation, like a shed or a nook under the eaves, but it should be -protected from cats and other marauders. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 18._—Phœbe. Length, about 6½ inches.] - -The black phœbe has the same habits as its eastern relative, both as to -selection of food and nesting sites, preferring for the latter purpose -some structure of man, as a shed or, better still, a bridge over a -stream of water, and the preference of the black phœbe for the vicinity -of water is very pronounced. One may always be found at a stream or -pool and often at a watering trough by the roadside. - -Careful study of the habits of the bird shows that it obtains a large -portion of its food about wet places. While camping beside a stream -in California the writer took some pains to observe the habits of the -black phœbe. The nesting season was over, and the birds had nothing to -do but eat. This they appeared to be doing all the time. When first -observed in the morning, at the first glimmer of daylight, a phœbe -was always found flitting from rock to rock, although it was so dusky -that the bird could hardly be seen. This activity was kept up all -day. Even in the evening, when it was so dark that notes were written -by the aid of the camp fire, the phœbe was still engaged in its work -of collecting, though it was difficult to understand how it could -catch insects when there was scarcely light enough to see the bird. -Exploration of the stream showed that every portion of it was patrolled -by a phœbe, that each one apparently did not range over more than 12 -or 13 rods of water, and that sometimes two or three were in close -proximity. - -The number of insects destroyed in a year by the black phœbe is -enormous. Fortunately, the examination of stomachs has supplemented -observation in the field, and we are enabled to give precise details. -Of the 333 stomachs examined, every one contained insects as the great -bulk of the food. Only 15 contained any vegetable food at all, and in -no case was it a considerable part of the contents of the stomach. The -insects eaten were mostly wasps, bugs, and flies, but many beetles also -were destroyed. - -Useful beetles belonging to three families amount to 2.8 per cent of -the food. Other beetles of harmful or neutral species reach 10.5 per -cent. Wasps, the largest item of the food, were found in 252 stomachs -and were the whole contents of 15. The average for the year is 35 -per cent. Parasitic species were noted, but they were very few. Ants -were found in 48 stomachs, and for a short time in midsummer they -constitute a notable part of the food. Various wild bees and wasps make -up the bulk of this item. No honeybees were found. - -Bugs in various forms constitute 10.56 per cent and are eaten in -every month but May. Stinkbugs appear to be the favorites, as they -were contained in 10 stomachs. Plant lice were found in one stomach. -Flies, forming the second largest item, were found in 97 stomachs and -completely filled 3. They constitute the most regular article in the -black phœbe’s diet. The maximum consumption occurs in April, 64.3 per -cent. The black phœbe well merits its title of flycatcher. - -Moths and caterpillars amount to 8.2 per cent of the food. They were -found in 72 stomachs, of which 51 contained the adult moths and 28 the -larvæ or caterpillars. One stomach was entirely filled with adults. -This is one of the few birds studied by the writer that eats more -moths than caterpillars, for as a rule the caterpillars are largely in -excess. Flycatchers, taking their food upon the wing, would naturally -prove exceptions to the rule. Crickets are evidently not a favorite -food of the black phœbe, as they amount to only 2.45 per cent. They -were found in 39 stomachs, but usually the amount in each was small, -though one stomach was entirely filled with them. Grasshoppers did not -appear. Dragon flies were eaten to some extent, and these illustrate -the fondness of the species for the neighborhood of water. - -The vegetable matter eaten consisted chiefly of small wild fruits of no -economic importance. - -Another phœbe inhabiting the Western States and breeding as far north -as Alaska is the Say phœbe.[50] Investigation of its food was based on -the examination of 86 stomachs, and while none were available for the -months when insects are most numerous, the bird proved to be one of -the most exclusively insectivorous of the family. That it takes a few -useful insects can not be denied, but these are far outnumbered by the -harmful ones it destroys, and the balance is clearly in favor of the -bird. Its vegetable food amounts to only 2 per cent and is made up of a -little wild fruit, seeds, and rubbish. - -[50] _Sayornis sayus._ - - - - -THE KINGBIRDS. - - -The well-known eastern kingbird[51] (fig. 19) is essentially a lover of -the orchard, though groves and the edge of forests were probably its -original habitat. It breeds in the States east of the Rocky Mountains, -and less commonly in the Great Basin and on the Pacific coast. Its -hostility to hawks and crows is proverbial, and for this reason a -family of kingbirds is a desirable adjunct to a poultry yard. On one -occasion in the knowledge of the writer a hawk which attacked a brood -of young turkeys was pounced upon and so severely buffeted by a pair -of kingbirds whose nest was near by that the would-be robber was glad -to escape without his prey. Song birds that nest near the kingbird are -similarly protected. - -[51] _Tyrannus tyrannus._ - -The kingbird is largely insectivorous. It is a true flycatcher and -takes on the wing a large part of its food. It does not, however, -confine itself to this method of hunting, but picks up some insects -from trees and weeds, and even descends to the ground in search of -myriapods or thousand legs. The chief complaint against the species by -both professional bee keepers and others has been that it preys largely -upon honeybees. One bee raiser in Iowa, suspecting the kingbirds of -feeding upon his bees, shot a number near his hives; but when the -stomachs of the birds were examined by an expert entomologist, not a -trace of honeybees could be found. - -An examination of 665 stomachs collected in various parts of the -country was made by the Biological Survey, but only 22 were found to -contain remains of honeybees. In these 22 stomachs there were in all 61 -honeybees, of which 51 were drones, 8 were certainly workers, and the -remaining 2 were too badly broken to be further identified. - -The insects that constitute the great bulk of the food of the bird are -noxious species, largely beetles—May beetles, click beetles (the larvæ -of which are known as wire worms), weevils, which prey upon fruit and -grain, and a host of others. Wasps, wild bees, and ants are conspicuous -elements of the food, far outnumbering the hive bees. During summer -many grasshoppers and crickets, as well as leaf hoppers and other -bugs, also are eaten. In the stomachs examined were a number of robber -flies—insects which prey largely upon other insects, especially -honeybees, and which are known to commit in this way extensive -depredations. It is thus evident that the kingbird by destroying these -flies actually does good work for the apiarist. The 26 robber flies -found in the stomachs may be considered more than an equivalent for the -8 worker honeybees already mentioned. A few caterpillars are eaten, -mostly belonging to the group commonly known as cutworms, all the -species of which are harmful. - -About 11 per cent of the food consists of small native fruits, -comprising some 30 common species of the roadsides and thickets, as -dogwood berries, elderberries, and wild grapes. The kingbird is not -reported as eating cultivated fruit to an injurious extent, and it is -very doubtful if this is ever the case. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.—Kingbird. Length, about 8½ inches.] - -In the Western States the Arkansas kingbird[52] is not so domestic in -its habits as its eastern relative, preferring to live among scattering -oaks on lonely hillsides, rather than in orchards about ranch -buildings. The work it does, however, in the destruction of noxious -insects fully equals that of any member of its family. Like other -flycatchers, it subsists mostly upon insects taken in midair, though -it eats a number of grasshoppers, probably taken from the ground. The -bulk of its food consists of beetles, bugs, wasps, and wild bees. -Like its eastern representative, it has been accused of feeding to an -injurious extent upon honeybees. In an examination of 62 stomachs of -this species, great care was take to identify every insect or fragment -that had any resemblance to a honeybee; as a result, 30 honeybees were -identified, of which 29 were males or drones and 1 a worker. These -were contained in four stomachs, and were the sole contents of three; -in the fourth they constituted 99 per cent of the food. It is evident -that the bee-eating habit is only occasional and accidental, rather -than habitual; and it is also evident that if this ratio of drones to -workers were maintained, the bird would be of more benefit than harm to -the apiary. - -[52] _Tyrannus verticalis._ - -The Cassin kingbird[53] has a more southerly range than the Arkansas -fly-catcher. Examination of a number of stomachs shows that its food -habits are similar to those of others of the group. - -[53] _Tyrannus vociferans._ - -Three points seem to be clearly established in regard to the food of -the kingbirds—(1) that about 90 per cent consists of insects, mostly -injurious species; (2) that the alleged habit of preying upon honeybees -is much less prevalent than has been supposed, and probably does not -result in any great damage; and (3) that the vegetable food consists -almost entirely of wild fruits which have no economic value. - -All of the kingbirds are of the greatest importance to the farmer and -fruit grower, as they destroy vast numbers of harmful insects, and do -no appreciable damage to any product of cultivation. - - - - -NIGHTHAWK. - - -The nighthawk, or bull-bat[54] breeds throughout most of the United -States and Canada, and winters in South America. It is strictly -insectivorous, and hence does no damage to crops. The only charge that -can be made against the bird is that it destroys some useful insects, -but these are greatly in the minority in its food. - -[54] _Chordeiles virginianus._ - -Nighthawks are so expert in flight that no insects can escape them. -In their capacious mouths they sweep up everything from the largest -moths and dragon flies to the tiniest ants and gnats, and in this -way sometimes gather most remarkable collections of insects. Several -stomachs have contained 50 or more different kinds, and the number of -individuals ran into the thousands. - -Nearly a fourth of the birds’ total food is composed of ants. These -insects are generally annoying and often very injurious, especially -on account of their damage to stored products and because of their -habit of fostering destructive plant lice. More than a fifth of the -nighthawk’s food consists of June bugs, dung beetles, and other beetles -of the leaf-chafer family. These are the adults of white grubs, noted -pests, and even as adults many members of the family are decidedly -harmful. - -Numerous other injurious beetles, as click beetles, wood borers, and -weevils, are relished. True bugs, moths, flies, grasshoppers, and -crickets also are Important elements of the food. Several species of -mosquitoes, including the transmitter of malaria, are eaten. Other -well-known pests consumed by the nighthawk are Colorado potato beetles, -cucumber beetles, rice, clover-leaf, and cotton-boll weevils, bill -bugs, bark beetles, squash bugs, and moths of the cotton worm. - -Nighthawks are much less numerous than formerly, chiefly because -of wanton shooting. They are given full legal protection almost -everywhere, and citizens should see that the law is obeyed. The bird is -far too useful and attractive to be persecuted. - - - - -THE WOODPECKERS. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.—Hairy woodpecker. Length, about 9 inches.] - -Five or six species of woodpeckers are familiarly known throughout -eastern United States, and in the West are replaced by others of -similar habits. Several species remain in the Northern States through -the entire year, while others are more or less migratory. - -Farmers are prone to look upon woodpeckers with suspicion. When the -birds are seen scrambling over fruit trees and pecking holes in the -bark, it is concluded that they must be doing harm. Careful observers, -however, have noticed that, excepting a single species, these birds -rarely leave any conspicuous mark on a healthy tree, except when it is -affected by wood-boring larvæ, which are accurately located, dislodged, -and devoured by the woodpecker. - -Two of the best-known woodpeckers, the hairy woodpecker[55] (fig. -20) and the downy woodpecker,[56] including their races, range over -the greater part of the United States. They differ chiefly in size, -their colors being practically the same. The males, like those of -many other woodpeckers, are distinguished by a scarlet patch on the -head. An examination of many stomachs of these two species shows that -from two-thirds to three-fourths of the food consists of insects, -chiefly noxious kinds. Wood-boring beetles, both adults and larvæ are -conspicuous, and with them are associated many caterpillars, mostly -species that burrow into trees. Next in importance are the ants that -live in decaying wood, all of which are sought by woodpeckers and eaten -in great quantities. Many ants are particularly harmful to timber, -for if they find a small spot of decay in the vacant burrow of a -wood borer, they enlarge the hole, and, as their colony is always on -the increase, continue to eat away the wood until the whole trunk is -honeycombed. Moreover, they are not accessible to birds generally, and -could pursue their career of destruction unmolested were it not that -the woodpeckers, with beaks and tongues especially fitted for such -work, dig out and devour them. It is thus evident that woodpeckers are -great conservators of forests. To them more than to any other agency we -owe the preservation of timber from hordes of destructive insects. - -[55] _Dryobates villosus._ - -[56] _Dryobates pubescens._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.—Flicker. Length, about 12½ inches. ] - -One of the larger woodpeckers familiar to everyone is the flicker, or -golden-winged woodpecker[57] (fig. 21), which is generally distributed -throughout the United States from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky -Mountains. There it is replaced by the red-shafted flicker,[58] -which extends westward to the Pacific. The two species are as nearly -identical in food habits as their respective environments will allow. -The flickers, while genuine woodpeckers, differ somewhat in habits -from the rest of the family, and are frequently seen searching for -food upon the ground. Like the downy and hairy woodpeckers, they feed -upon wood-boring grubs and ants, but the number of ants eaten is much -greater than that eaten by the other two species. Of the flickers’ -stomachs examined, three were completely filled with ants. Two of these -contained more than 3,000 individuals each, while the third contained -fully 5,000. These ants belong to species which live in the ground. -It is these insects for which the flicker searches when it runs about -in the grass, although some grasshoppers also are then taken. The -flicker’s habit of pecking holes in buildings sometimes greatly annoys -his human friends, and it is particularly noticeable in the California -species. Observation has shown that the object of the work is to obtain -shelter for the winter. In the East most of the flickers are migratory, -and only a few remain North where shelter is necessary. These generally -find a safe retreat in the hollow tree in which they nested. In -California, however, where the birds do not migrate, trees are not so -abundant as in the East, and consequently buildings are brought into -requisition, and in them holes are drilled, usually under the eaves, -where snug nights’ lodgings are found. Often a dozen holes may be seen -in one building. Barns or other outbuildings are usually selected, -though churches sometimes have been used. - -[57] _Colaptes auratus._ - -[58] _Colaptes cafer collaris._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.—Red-headed woodpecker. Length, about 9½ inches.] - -The red-headed woodpecker[59] (fig. 22), is well known east of the -Rocky Mountains, but is rather rare in New England. Unlike some of the -other species, it prefers fence posts and telegraph poles to trees -as a foraging ground. Its food therefore naturally differs from that -of the preceding species, and consists largely of adult beetles and -wasps which it frequently captures on the wing after the fashion of -flycatchers. Grasshoppers also form an important part of the food. -Among the beetles are a number of predacious ground species and some -tiger beetles, which are useful insects. The red-head has been accused -of robbing nests of other birds, and of pecking out the brains of -young birds and poultry; but as the stomachs showed little evidence to -substantiate this charge, the habit probably is exceptional. - -[59] _Melanerpes erythrocephalus._ - -The vegetable food of woodpeckers is varied, but consists largely of -small fruits and berries. The downy and hairy woodpeckers eat such -fruits as dogwood and Virginia creeper and seeds of poison ivy, sumac, -and a few other shrubs. The flicker also eats a great many small fruits -and the seeds of a considerable number of shrubs and weeds. None of -the three species is much given to eating cultivated fruits or crops. -The red-head has been accused of eating the larger kinds of fruit, as -apples, and also of taking considerable corn. Stomach examinations show -that to some extent these charges are substantiated, but that the habit -is not prevalent enough to cause much damage. The bird is fond of mast, -especially beechnuts, and when these nuts are plentiful it remains -north all winter. - -Woodpeckers apparently are the only agents which can successfully cope -with certain insect enemies of the forest, and, to some extent, with -those of fruit trees also. For this reason, if for no other, they -should be protected in every possible way. - - - - -THE CUCKOOS. - - -Two species of cuckoos are common in the United States east of -the Great Plains, the yellow-billed cuckoo[60] (fig. 23) and the -black-billed cuckoo,[61] and in the West a relative of the yellow-bill, -the California cuckoo,[62] ranges from Colorado and Texas to the -Pacific coast. While the two species are quite distinct, the food -habits of the yellow-bill and the black-bill do not greatly differ and -their economic status is practically the same. - - -[60] _Coccyzus americanus._ - -[61] _Coccyzus erythropthalmus._ - -[62] _Coccyzus americanus occidentalis._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.—Yellow-billed cuckoo. Length, about 12 inches.] - -Examination of 155 stomachs has shown that these species are much given -to eating caterpillars, and, unlike most birds, do not reject those -covered with hair. In fact, cuckoos eat so many hairy caterpillars that -the hairs pierce the inner lining of the stomach and remain there, so -that when the stomach is opened it appears to be lined with a thin -coating of fur. - -An examination of the stomachs of 46 black-billed cuckoos, taken during -the summer months, showed the remains of 906 caterpillars, 44 beetles, -96 grasshoppers, 100 sawflies, 30 stinkbugs, and 15 spiders. In all -probability more individuals than these were represented, but their -remains were too badly broken for recognition. Most of the caterpillars -were hairy, and many of them belong to a genus that lives in colonies -and feeds on the leaves of trees, including the apple tree. One stomach -was filled with larvæ of a caterpillar belonging to the same genus -as the tent caterpillar, and possibly to that species. Other larvæ -were those of large moths, for which the bird seems to have a special -fondness. The beetles were for the most part click beetles and weevils, -including a few May beetles. The sawflies were contained in two -stomachs, one of which held no less than 60 in the larval stage. - -Of the yellow-billed cuckoo, 109 stomachs (collected from May to -October) were examined. They contained 1,865 caterpillars, 93 beetles, -242 grasshoppers, 37 sawflies, 69 bugs, 6 flies, and 86 spiders. As in -the case of the black-billed cuckoo, most of the caterpillars belonged -to hairy species and many of them were of large size. One stomach -contained 250 American tent caterpillars; another 217 fall webworms. -The beetles were distributed among several families, all more or -less harmful to agriculture. In the same stomach which contained the -tent caterpillars were 2 Colorado potato beetles; in another were 3 -goldsmith beetles, and remains of several other large beetles. Besides -the ordinary grasshoppers were several katydids and tree crickets. The -sawflies were in the larval stage, in which they resemble caterpillars -so closely that they are commonly called false caterpillars by -entomologists. The bugs consisted of stinkbugs and cicadas, or dog-day -harvest flies, with the single exception of one wheel bug, which was -the only useful insect eaten. - - -WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber Note - - -Illustrations moved to prevent splitting paragraphs. - - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 630 (1915 -edition), by F. E. Beal - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 630 (1915) *** - -***** This file should be named 62696-0.txt or 62696-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/6/9/62696/ - -Produced by Tom Cosmas -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - |