diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/62704-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/62704-0.txt | 44485 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 44485 deletions
diff --git a/old/62704-0.txt b/old/62704-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e171104..0000000 --- a/old/62704-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,44485 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Natural History of Pliny, Volume 6 of 6, by -Pliny the Elder - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: The Natural History of Pliny, Volume 6 of 6 - by Pliny, the Elder - -Author: Pliny the Elder - -Translator: John Bostock - Henry T. Riley - -Release Date: July 19, 2020 [EBook #62704] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PLINY, THE ELDER *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Mr. Franco Sogliani, Brian -Wilcox and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes:— - -The spelling, hyphenation, punctuation and accentuation are as the -original, except for apparent typographical errors which have been -corrected. - -See further notes at the end of the book. - - - - - THE - - NATURAL HISTORY - - OF - - PLINY. - - TRANSLATED, WITH COPIOUS NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS - - BY THE LATE - - JOHN BOSTOCK, M.D., F.R.S., - - AND - - H. T. RILEY, ESQ., B.A., - - LATE SCHOLAR OF CLARE HALL, CAMBRIDGE. - - - VOL. VI. - - WITH GENERAL INDEX. - - - LONDON: - - HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. - - MDCCCLVII. - - - - -CONTENTS - -OF THE SIXTH VOLUME. - - - BOOK XXXII. - - REMEDIES DERIVED FROM AQUATIC ANIMALS. - - CHAP. Page - - 1. The power of Nature as manifested in antipathies. The - echeneïs: two remedies 1 - - 2. The torpedo: nine remedies 4 - - 3. The sea-hare: five remedies _ib._ - - 4. Marvels of the Red Sea 5 - - 5. The instincts of fishes 6 - - 6. Marvellous properties belonging to certain fishes 8 - - 7. Places where fish eat from the hand _ib._ - - 8. Places where fish recognize the human voice. Oracular - responses given by fish _ib._ - - 9. Places where bitter fish are found, salt, or sweet 9 - - 10. When sea-fish were first eaten by the people of Rome. The - ordinance of King Numa as to fish 10 - - 11. Coral: forty-three remedies and observations _ib._ - - 12. The antipathies and sympathies which exist between certain - objects. The hatreds manifested by certain aquatic - animals. The pastinaca: eight remedies. The galeos: - fifteen remedies. The sur-mullet: fifteen remedies 12 - - 13. Amphibious animals. Castoreum: sixty-six remedies and - observations 13 - - 14. The tortoise: sixty-six remedies and observations 15 - - 15. Remedies derived from the aquatic animals, classified - according to the respective diseases 18 - - 16. Remedies for poisons, and for noxious spells. The dorade: - four remedies. The sea-star: seven remedies 19 - - 17. Remedies for the stings of serpents, for the bites of dogs, - and for injuries indicted by venomous animals. The - sea-dragon: three remedies. Twenty-five remedies derived - from salted fish. The sarda: one remedy. Eleven remedies - derived from cybium 20 - - 18. The sea-frog: six remedies. The river-frog: fifty-two - remedies. The bramble-frog: one remedy. Thirty-two - observations on these animals 21 - - 19. The enhydris: six remedies. The river-crab: fourteen remedies. - The sea-crab: seven remedies. The river-snail: - seven remedies. The coracinus: four remedies. The sea-pig: - two remedies 23 - - 20. The sea-calf: ten remedies. The muræna: one remedy. The - hippocampus: nine remedies. The sea-urchin: eleven - remedies 24 - - 21. The various kinds of oysters: fifty-eight remedies and - observations. Purples: nine remedies 25 - - 22. Sea-weed: two remedies 28 - - 23. Remedies for alopecy, change of colour in the hair, and - ulcerations of the head. The sea-mouse: two remedies. - The sea-scorpion: twelve remedies. The leech: seven - remedies. The murex: thirteen remedies. The conchylium: - five remedies 29 - - 24. Remedies for diseases of the eyes and eyelids. Two remedies - derived from the fat of fishes. The callionymus: three - remedies. The gall of the coracinus: one remedy. The - sæpia: twenty-four remedies. Ichthyocolla: five - remedies _ib._ - - 25. Remedies for diseases of the ears. The batia: one remedy. - The bacchus or myxon: two remedies. The sea-louse: two - remedies 33 - - 26. Remedies for tooth-ache. The dog-fish: four remedies. - Whale’s flesh 34 - - 27. Remedies for lichens, and for spots upon the face. The - dolphin: nine remedies. Coluthia or coryphia: three - remedies. Halcyoneum: seven remedies. The tunny: five - remedies 35 - - 28. Remedies for scrofula, imposthumes of the parotid glands, - quinzy, and diseases of the fauces. The mæna; thirteen - remedies. The sea-scolopendra: two remedies. The saurus: - one remedy. Shell-fish: one remedy. The silurus: fifteen - remedies 37 - - 29. Remedies for cough and diseases of the chest 38 - - 30. Remedies for pains in the liver and side. The elongated - conch: six remedies. The tethea: five remedies 39 - - 31. Remedies for diseases of the bowels. Sea-wort: one remedy - The myax: twenty-five remedies. The mitulus: eight - remedies. Pelorides: one remedy. Seriphum: two remedies. - The erythinus: two remedies _ib._ - - 32. Remedies for diseases of the spleen, for urinary calculi, - and for affections of the bladder. The sole: one remedy. - The turbot: one remedy. The blendius: one remedy. The - sea-nettle; seven remedies. The pulmo marinus: six - remedies. Onyches: four remedies 42 - - 33. Remedies for intestinal hernia, and for diseases of the - rectum. The water-snake: one remedy. The hydrus: one - remedy. The mullet: one remedy. The pelamis: three - remedies 44 - - 34. Remedies for inflamed tumours, and for diseases of the - generative organs. The sciæna: one remedy. The perch: - four remedies. The squatina: three remedies. The smaris: - three remedies _ib._ - - 35. Remedies for incontinence of urine. The ophidion: one - remedy 46 - - 36. Remedies for gout, and for pains in the feet. The beaver: - four remedies. Bryon: one remedy _ib._ - - 37. Remedies for epilepsy 47 - - 38. Remedies for fevers. The fish called asellus: one remedy. - The phagrus: one remedy _ib._ - - 39. Remedies for lethargy, cachexy, and dropsy 49 - - 40. Remedies for burns and for erysipelas _ib._ - - 41. Remedies for diseases of the sinews 50 - - 42. Methods of arresting hæmorrhage and of letting blood. The - polyp: one remedy _ib._ - - 43. Methods of extracting foreign bodies from the flesh 51 - - 44. Remedies for ulcers, carcinomata, and carbuncle 52 - - 45. Remedies for warts, and for malformed nails. The glanis: - one remedy 53 - - 46. Remedies for female diseases. The glauciscus: one - remedy _ib._ - - 47. Methods of removing superfluous hair. Depilatories 55 - - 48. Remedies for the diseases of infants 56 - - 49. Methods of preventing intoxication. The fish called rubellio: - one remedy. The eel: one remedy. The grape-fish: one - remedy 57 - - 50. Antaphrodisiacs and aphrodisiacs. The hippopotamus: one - remedy. The crocodile: one remedy _ib._ - - 51. Remedies for the diseases of animals _ib._ - - 52. Other aquatic productions. Adarca or calamochnos: three - remedies. Reeds: eight remedies. The ink of the sæpia 58 - - 53. The names of all the animals that exist in the sea, one - hundred and seventy-six in number 59 - - 54. Additional names of fishes found in the poem of Ovid 65 - - - BOOK XXXIII. - - THE NATURAL HISTORY OF METALS. - - 1. Metals 68 - - 2. Gold 69 - - 3. What was the first recommendation of gold 71 - - 4. The origin of gold rings _ib._ - - 5. The quantity of gold possessed by the ancients 75 - - 6. The right or wearing gold rings 76 - - 7. The decuries of the judges 82 - - 8. Particulars connected with the equestrian order 83 - - 9. How often the name of the equestrian order has been changed 85 - - 10. Gifts for military services, in gold and silver 86 - - 11. At what period the first crown of gold was presented _ib._ - - 12. Other uses made of gold, by females 87 - - 13. Coins of gold. At what periods copper, gold, and silver, - were first impressed. How copper was used before gold - and silver were coined. What was the largest sum of money - possessed by any one at the time of our first census. How - often, and at what periods, the value of copper and of - coined money has been changed 88 - - 14. Considerations on man’s cupidity for gold 91 - - 15. The persons who have possessed the greatest quantity of gold - and silver 93 - - 16. At what period silver first made its appearance upon the arena - and upon the stage 94 - - 17. At what periods there was the greatest quantity of gold and - silver in the treasury of the Roman people 95 - - 18. At what period ceilings were first gilded _ib._ - - 19. For what reasons the highest value is set upon gold 96 - - 20. The method of gilding 98 - - 21. How gold is found 99 - - 22. Orpiment 104 - - 23. Electrum 105 - - 24. The first statues of gold _ib._ - - 25. Eight remedies derived from gold 106 - - 26. Chrysocolla 107 - - 27. The use made of chrysocolla in painting 108 - - 28. Seven remedies derived from chrysocolla 110 - - 29. The chrysocolla of the goldsmiths, known also as - santerna _ib._ - - 30. The marvellous operations of nature in soldering metallic - substances, and bringing them to a state of perfection 111 - - 31. Silver _ib._ - - 32. Quicksilver 113 - - 33. Stimmi, stibi, alabastrum, larbasis, or platy-ophthalmon 115 - - 34. Seven remedies derived from stimmi _ib._ - - 35. The scoria of silver. Six remedies derived from it 116 - - 36. Minium: for what religious purposes it was used by the - ancients 119 - - 37. The discovery and origin of minium 120 - - 38. Cinnabaris _ib._ - - 39. The employment of cinnabaris in painting 121 - - 40. The various kinds of minium. The use made of it in - painting _ib._ - - 41. Hydrargyros. Remedies derived from minium 124 - - 42. The method of gilding silver _ib._ - - 43. Touchstones for testing gold 125 - - 44. The different kinds of silver, and the modes of testing - it _ib._ - - 45. Mirrors 126 - - 46. Egyptian silver 128 - - 47. Instances of immense wealth. Persons who have possessed - the greatest sums of money 129 - - 48. At what period the Roman people first made voluntary - contributions 131 - - 49. Instances of luxury in silver plate _ib._ - - 50. Instances of the frugality of the ancients in reference - to silver plate 132 - - 51. At what period silver was first used as an ornament for - couches 134 - - 52. At what period silver chargers of enormous size were first - made. When silver was first used as a material for - sideboards. When the sideboards called tympana were first - introduced _ib._ - - 53. The enormous price of silver plate 135 - - 54. Statues of silver 136 - - 55. The most remarkable works in silver, and the names of the - most famous artists in silver 138 - - 56. Sil: The persons who first used it in painting and the - method they adopted 140 - - 57. Cæruleum 141 - - 58. Two remedies derived from cæruleum 143 - - - BOOK XXXIV. - - THE NATURAL HISTORY OF METALS. - - 1. The ores of brass 147 - - 2. The different kinds of copper 148 - - 3. The Corinthian brass 149 - - 4. The Delian brass 151 - - 5. The Æginetan brass _ib._ - - 6. Stands for lamps 152 - - 7. Ornaments of the temples made of brass 153 - - 8. Couches of brass _ib._ - - 9. Which was the first statue of a god made of brass at Rome. - The origin of statues, and the respect paid to them 154 - - 10. The different kinds and forms of statues. Statues at Rome - with cuirasses 155 - - 11. In honour of whom public statues were first erected: in - honour of whom they were first placed on pillars: when - the rostra were first erected 156 - - 12. In honour of what foreigners public statues were erected at - Rome 159 - - 13. The first equestrian statues publicly erected at Rome, and - in honour of what females statues were publicly erected - there 160 - - 14. At what period all the statues erected by private - individuals were removed from the public places _ib._ - - 15. The first statues publicly erected by foreigners 161 - - 16. That there were statuaries in Italy also at an early - period 162 - - 17. The immoderate prices of statues 163 - - 18. The most celebrated colossal statues in the city 164 - - 19. An account of the most celebrated works in brass, and of - the artists, 366 in number 168 - - 20. The different kinds of copper and its combinations. Pyropus. - Campanian copper 189 - - 21. The method of preserving copper 191 - - 22. Cadmia _ib._ - - 23. Fifteen remedies derived from cadmia. Ten medicinal effects - of calcined copper 193 - - 24. The scoria of copper 194 - - 25. Stomoma of copper: forty-seven remedies _ib._ - - 26. Verdigris: Eighteen remedies 195 - - 27. Hieracium 197 - - 28. Scolex of copper: eighteen remedies _ib._ - - 29. Chalcitis: seven remedies 198 - - 30. Sory: three remedies 199 - - 31. Misy: thirteen remedies _ib._ - - 32. Chalcanthum, or shoemakers’ black: sixteen remedies 200 - - 33. Pompholyx 202 - - 34. Spodos: five remedies _ib._ - - 35. Fifteen varieties of antispodos 203 - - 36. Smegma 204 - - 37. Diphryx _ib._ - - 38. Particulars relative to the Servilian triens 205 - - 39. Iron ores _ib._ - - 40. Statues of iron; chased works in iron 206 - - 41. The different kinds of iron, and the mode of tempering - it _ib._ - - 42. The metal called live iron 209 - - 43. Methods of preventing rust _ib._ - - 44. Seven remedies derived from iron 210 - - 45. Fourteen remedies derived from rust 211 - - 46. Seventeen remedies derived from the scales of iron. - Hygremplastrum _ib._ - - 47. The ores of lead 212 - - 48. Stannum. Argentarium 214 - - 49. Black lead 215 - - 50. Fifteen remedies derived from lead 216 - - 51. Fifteen remedies derived from the scoria of lead 218 - - 52. Spodium of lead _ib._ - - 53. Molybdæna: fifteen remedies _ib._ - - 54. Psimithium, or ceruse; six remedies 219 - - 55. Sandarach: eleven remedies 220 - - 56. Arrhenicum _ib._ - - - BOOK XXXV. - - AN ACCOUNT OF PAINTINGS AND COLOURS. - - 1. The honour attached to painting 223 - - 2. The honour attached to portraits 224 - - 3. When shields were first invented with portraits upon them; - and when they were first erected in public 227 - - 4. When these shields were first placed in private houses _ib._ - - 5. The commencement of the art of painting. Monochrome - paintings. The earliest painters 228 - - 6. The antiquity of painting in Italy 229 - - 7. Roman painters 230 - - 8. At what period foreign paintings were first introduced at - Rome 232 - - 9. At what period painting was first held in high esteem at Rome, - and from what causes _ib._ - - 10. What pictures the Emperors have exhibited in public 233 - - 11. The art of painting 234 - - 12. Pigments other than those of a metallic origin. Artificial - colours 235 - - 13. Sinopis: eleven remedies _ib._ - - 14. Rubrica; Lemnian earth: four remedies 236 - - 15. Egyptian earth 237 - - 16. Ochra: remedies derived from rubrica _ib._ - - 17. Leucophoron _ib._ - - 18. Parætonium 238 - - 19. Melinum: six remedies. Ceruse _ib._ - - 20. Usta 239 - - 21. Eretria _ib._ - - 22. Sandarach _ib._ - - 23. Sandyx 240 - - 24. Syricum _ib._ - - 25. Atramentum _ib._ - - 26. Purpurissum 242 - - 27. Indicum _ib._ - - 28. Armenium: one remedy 243 - - 29. Appianum _ib._ - - 30. Anularian white 244 - - 31. Which colours do not admit of being laid on a wet - coating _ib._ - - 32. What colours were used by the ancients in painting 245 - - 33. At what time combats of gladiators were first painted - and publicly exhibited 246 - - 34. The age of painting; with the names of the more celebrated - works and artists, four hundred and five in number _ib._ - - 35. The first contest for excellence in the pictorial art 248 - - 36. Artists who painted with the pencil 249 - - 37. Various other kinds of painting 268 - - 38. An effectual way of putting a stop to the singing of - birds 272 - - 39. Artists who have painted in eucaustics or wax, with - either the cestrum or the pencil _ib._ - - 40. The first inventors of various kinds of painting. The - greatest difficulties in the art of painting. The - several varieties of painting. The first artist that - painted ceilings. When arched roofs were first painted. - The marvellous price of some pictures _ib._ - - 41. Encaustic painting 282 - - 42. The colouring of tissues _ib._ - - 43. The inventors of the art of modelling 283 - - 44. Who was the first to mould figures in imitation of the - features of living persons, or of statues 284 - - 45. The most famous modellers _ib._ - - 46. Works in pottery 286 - - 47. Various kinds of earth. The Puteolan dust, and other - earths of which cements like stone are made 288 - - 48. Formacean walls 289 - - 49. Walls of brick. The method of making bricks 290 - - 50. Sulphur, and the several varieties of it: fourteen - remedies 291 - - 51. Bitumen, and the several varieties of it: twenty-seven - remedies 293 - - 52. Alumen, and the several varieties of it: thirty-eight - remedies 294 - - 53. Samian earth: three remedies 298 - - 54. The various kinds of eretria _ib._ - - 55. The method of washing earths for medicinal purposes _ib._ - - 56. Chian earth: three remedies. Selinusian earth: three - remedies. Pnigitis: nine remedies. Ampelitis: four - remedies 299 - - 57. Cretaceous earths used for scouring cloth. Cimolian earth: - nine remedies. Sardinian earth. Umbrian earth. Suxum _ib._ - - 58. Argentaria. Names of freedmen who have either risen to - power themselves, or have belonged to men of influence 301 - - 59. The earth of Galata; of Clypea; of the Baleares; and of - Ebusus 303 - - - BOOK XXXVI. - - THE NATURAL HISTORY OF STONES. - - 1. Luxury displayed in the use of various kinds of marble 305 - - 2. Who was the first to employ marble in public buildings 306 - - 3. Who was the first to erect columns of foreign marble at Rome 307 - - 4. The first artists who excelled in the sculpture of marble, - and the various periods at which they flourished. The - Mausoleum in Caria. The most celebrated sculptors and - works in marble, two hundred and twenty-five in number 308 - - 5. At what period marble was first used in buildings 323 - - 6. Who were the first to cut marble into slabs, and at what - period 324 - - 7. Who was the first to encrust the walls of houses at Rome with - marble _ib._ - - 8. At what period the various kinds of marble came into use at - Rome 325 - - 9. The method of cutting marble into slabs. The sand used in - cutting marble _ib._ - - 10. Stone of Naxos. Stone of Armenia 327 - - 11. The marbles of Alexandria _ib._ - - 12. Onyx and alabastrites: six remedies 329 - - 13. Lygdinus; corallitic stone; stone of Alabanda; stone of - Thebais; stone of Syene 330 - - 14. Obelisks 331 - - 15. The obelisk which serves as a dial in the Campus Martius 334 - - 16. Marvellous works in Egypt. The pyramids 335 - - 17. The Egyptian Sphinx 336 - - 18. The Pharos 339 - - 19. Labyrinths _ib._ - - 20. Hanging gardens. A hanging city 343 - - 21. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus _ib._ - - 22. Marvels connected with other temples 344 - - 23. The fugitive stone. The seven-fold echo. Buildings erected - without the use of nails _ib._ - - 24. Marvellous buildings at Rome, eighteen in number 345 - - 25. The magnet: three remedies 355 - - 26. Stone of Scyros 357 - - 27. Sarcophagus, or stone of Assos: ten remedies _ib._ - - 28. Chernites _ib._ - - 29. Osseous stones. Palm stones. Corani. Black stones 358 - - 30. Molar stones. Pyrites: seven remedies 359 - - 31. Ostrocites: four remedies. Amianthus: two remedies 360 - - 32. Geodes: three remedies _ib._ - - 33. Melitinus: six remedies _ib._ - - 34. Gagates: six remedies 361 - - 35. Spongites: two remedies 362 - - 36. Phrygian stone _ib._ - - 37. Hæmatites: five remedies. Schistos: seven remedies _ib._ - - 38. Æthiopic hæmatites. Androdamas: two remedies. Arabian - hæmatites. Miltites or hepatites. Anthracites 363 - - 39. Aëtites. Taphiusian stone. Callimus 364 - - 40. Samian stone: eight remedies 365 - - 41. Arabian stone: six remedies _ib._ - - 42. Pumice: nine remedies 366 - - 43. Stones for mortars used for medicinal and other purposes. - Etesian stone. Thebaic stone. Chalazian stone 367 - - 44. Stone of Siphnos. Soft stones 368 - - 45. Specular stones _ib._ - - 46. Phengites 369 - - 47. Whetstones 370 - - 48. Tophus 371 - - 49. The various kinds of silex _ib._ - - 50. Other stones used for building 372 - - 51. The various methods of building _ib._ - - 52. Cisterns 373 - - 53. Quick-lime _ib._ - - 54. The various kinds of sand. The combinations of sand with - lime _ib._ - - 55. Defects in building. Plasters for walls 374 - - 56. Columns. The several kinds of columns _ib._ - - 57. Five remedies derived from lime 375 - - 58. Maltha _ib._ - - 59. Gypsum 376 - - 60. Pavements. The Asarotos œcos _ib._ - - 61. The first pavements in use at Rome 377 - - 62. Terrace-roof pavements _ib._ - - 63. Græcanic pavements 378 - - 64. At what period mosaic pavements were first invented. At - what period arched roofs were first decorated with - glass _ib._ - - 65. The origin of glass 379 - - 66. The various kinds of glass, and the mode of making it 380 - - 67. Obsian glass and Obsian stone 381 - - 68. Marvellous facts connected with fire 383 - - 69. Three remedies derived from fire and from ashes _ib._ - - 70. Prodigies connected with the hearth 384 - - - BOOK XXXVII. - - THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PRECIOUS STONES. - - 1. The first use of precious stones 386 - - 2. The jewel of Polycrates _ib._ - - 3. The jewel of Pyrrhus 387 - - 4. Who were the most skilful lapidaries. The finest specimens - of engraving on precious stones 389 - - 5. The first dactyliothecæ at Rome 390 - - 6. Jewels displayed at Rome in the triumph of Pompeius - Magnus _ib._ - - 7. At what period murrhine vessels were first introduced at - Rome. Instances of luxury in reference to them 392 - - 8. The nature of murrhine vessels 393 - - 9. The nature of crystal 394 - - 10. Luxury displayed in the use of crystal. Remedies derived - from crystal 395 - - 11. Amber: the many falsehoods that have been told about it 397 - - 12. The several kinds of amber: the remedies derived from it 402 - - 13. Lyncurium: two asserted remedies 404 - - 14. The various precious stones, classified according to their - principal colours 405 - - 15. Adamas: six varieties of it. Two remedies _ib._ - - 16. Smaragdus 408 - - 17. Twelve varieties of the smaragdus 410 - - 18. Defects in the smaragdus 411 - - 19. The precious stone called tanos. Chalcosmaragdos 413 - - 20. Beryls: eight varieties of them. Defects in beryls 414 - - 21. Opals: seven varieties of them 415 - - 22. Defects in opals: the modes of testing them 416 - - 23. Sardonyx; the several varieties of it. Defects in the - sardonyx 417 - - 24. Onyx: the several varieties of it 419 - - 25. Carbunculus: twelve varieties of it 420 - - 26. Defects in carbunculus, and the mode of testing it 422 - - 27. Anthracitis 423 - - 28. Sandastros. Sandaresos _ib._ - - 29. Lychnis: four varieties of it 424 - - 30. Carchedonia 425 - - 31. Sarda: five varieties of it _ib._ - - 32. Topazos: two varieties of it 426 - - 33. Callaina 427 - - 34. Prasius: three varieties of it 429 - - 35. Nilion _ib._ - - 36. Molochitis _ib._ - - 37. Iaspis: fourteen varieties of it. Defects found in iaspis 430 - - 38. Cyanos: the several varieties of it 432 - - 39. Sapphiros _ib._ - - 40. Amethystos: four varieties of it. Socondion. Sapenos. - Pharanitis. Aphrodites blepharon, anteros, or hæderos _ib._ - - 41. Hyacinthos 434 - - 42. Chrysolithos: seven varieties of it _ib._ - - 43. Chryselectrum 435 - - 44. Leucochrysos: four varieties of it _ib._ - - 45. Melichrysos. Xuthon 436 - - 46. Pæderos, sangenon, or tenites _ib._ - - 47. Asteria 437 - - 48. Astrion _ib._ - - 49. Astriotes _ib._ - - 50. Astrobolos 438 - - 51. Ceraunia: four varieties of it _ib._ - - 52. Iris: two varieties of it _ib._ - - 53. Leros 439 - - 54. Achates: the several varieties of it. Acopos: the remedies - derived from it. Alabastritis: the remedies derived from - it. Alectoria. Androdamas. Argyrodamas. Antipathes. - Arabica. Aromatitis. Asbestos. Aspisatis. Atizöe. - Augetis. Amphidanes or chrysocolla. Aphrodisiaca. - Apsyctos. Ægyptilla _ib._ - - 55. Balanites. Batrachitis. Baptes. Beli oculus. Belus. - Baroptenus or barippe. Botryitis. Bostrychitis. - Bucardia. Brontea. Bolos 443 - - 56. Cadmitis. Callais. Capnitis. Cappadocia. Callaica. - Catochitis. Catoptritis. Cepitis or Cepolatitis. - Ceramitis. Cinædia. Ceritis. Circos. Corsoïdes. - Coralloachates. Corallis. Crateritis. Crocallis. - Cyitis. Chalcophonos. Chelidonia. Chelonia. Chelonitis. - Chloritis. Choaspitis. Chrysolampis. Chrysopis. Ceponides 444 - - 57. Daphnea. Diadochos. Diphyes. Dionysias. Draconitis 447 - - 58. Encardia or ariste. Enorchis. Exebenus. Erythallis. - Erotylos, amphicomos, or hieromnemon. Eumeces. Enmithres. - Eupetalos. Eureos. Eurotias. Eusebes. Epimelas 448 - - 59. Galaxias. Galactitis, leucogæa, leucographitis, or - synnephitis. Gallaica. Gassinade. Glossopetra. Gorgonia. - Goniæa 449 - - 60. Heliotropium. Hephæstitis. Hermuaidoion. Hexecontalithos. - Hieracitis. Hammitis. Hammonis cornu. Hormiscion. - Hyænia. Hæmatitis 450 - - 61. Idæi dactyli. Icterias. Jovis gemma. Indica. Ion 452 - - 62. Lepidotis. Lesbias. Leucophthalmos. Leucopœcilos. - Libanochrus. Limoniatis. Liparea. Lysimachos. - Leucochrysos _ib._ - - 63. Memnonia. Media. Meconitis. Mithrax. Morochthos. - Mormorion or promnion. Murrhitis. Myrmecias. Myrsinitis. - Mesoleucos. Mesomelas 453 - - 64. Nasamonitis. Nebritis. Nipparene 454 - - 65. Oica. Ombria or notia. Onocardia. Oritis or sideritis. - Ostracias. Ostritis. Ophicardelon. Obsian stone _ib._ - - 66. Panchrus. Pangonus. Paneros or panerastos. Pontica: four - varieties of it. Phloginos or chrysitis. Phœnicitis. - Phycitis. Perileucos. Pæanitis or gæanis 455 - - 67. Solis gemma. Sagda. Samothracia. Sauritis. Sarcitis. - Selenitis. Sideritis. Sideropœcilos. Spongitis. - Synodontitis. Syrtitis. Syringitis 456 - - 68. Trichrus. Thelyrrhizos. Thelycardios or mule. Thracia: - three varieties of it. Tephritis. Tecolithos 457 - - 69. Veneris crines. Veientana 458 - - 70. Zathene. Zmilampis. Zoraniscæa _ib._ - - 71. Precious stones which derive their names from various parts - of the human body. Hepatitis. Steatitis. Adadunephros. - Adaduophthalmos. Adadudactylos. Triophthalmos _ib._ - - 72. Precious stones which derive their names from animals. - Carcinias. Echitis. Scorpitis. Scaritis. Triglitis. - Ægophthalmos. Hyophthalmos. Geranitis. Hieracitis. - Aëtitis. Myrmecitis. Cantharias. Lycophthalmos. Taos. - Timictonia 459 - - 73. Precious stones which derive their names from other objects. - Hammochrysos. Cenchritis. Dryitis. Cissitis. Narcissitis. - Cyamias. Pyren. Phœnicitis. Chalazias. Pyritis. - Polyzonos Astrapæa. Phlogitis. Anthracitis. Enhygros. - Polythrix. Leontios. Pardalios. Drosolithos. Melichrus. - Melichloros. Crocias. Polias. Spartopolias. Rhoditis. - Chalcitis. Sycitis. Bostrychitis. Chernitie. Anancitis. - Synochitis. Dendritis _ib._ - - 74. Precious stones that suddenly make their appearance. - Cochlides 461 - - 75. The various forms of precious stones 462 - - 76. The methods of testing precious stones 463 - - 77. A comparative view of Nature as she appears in different - countries. The comparative values of things 464 - - - GENERAL INDEX 469 - - - - -NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY. - - - - -BOOK XXXII.[1] - -REMEDIES DERIVED FROM AQUATIC ANIMALS. - - - - -CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE POWER OF NATURE AS MANIFESTED IN ANTIPATHIES. THE -ECHENEÏS: TWO REMEDIES. - - -Following the proper order of things, we have now arrived at the -culminating point of the wonders manifested to us by the operations of -Nature. And even at the very outset, we find spontaneously presented -to us an incomparable illustration of her mysterious powers: so -much so, in fact, that beyond it we feel ourselves bound to forbear -extending our enquiries, there being nothing to be found either equal -or analogous to an element in which Nature quite triumphs over herself, -and that, too, in such numberless ways. For what is there more unruly -than the sea, with its winds, its tornadoes, and its tempests? And yet -in what department of her works has Nature been more seconded by the -ingenuity of man, than in this, by his inventions of sails and of oars? -In addition to this, we are struck with the ineffable might displayed -by the Ocean’s tides, as they constantly ebb and flow, and so regulate -the currents of the sea as though they were the waters of one vast -river. - -And yet all these forces, though acting in unison, and impelling in the -same direction, a single fish, and that of a very diminutive size—the -fish known as the “echeneïs”[2]—possesses the power of counteracting. -Winds may blow and storms may rage, and yet the echeneïs controls their -fury, restrains their mighty force, and bids ships stand still in their -career; a result which no cables, no anchors, from their ponderousness -quite incapable of being weighed, could ever have produced! A fish -bridles the impetuous violence of the deep, and subdues the frantic -rage of the universe—and all this by no effort of its own, no act of -resistance on its part, no act at all, in fact, but that of adhering -to the bark! Trifling as this object would appear, it suffices to -counteract all these forces combined, and to forbid the ship to pass -onward in its way! Fleets, armed for war, pile up towers and bulwarks -on their decks, in order that, upon the deep even, men may fight from -behind ramparts as it were. But alas for human vanity!—when their -prows, beaked as they are with brass and with iron,[3] and armed for -the onset, can thus be arrested and rivetted to the spot by a little -fish, no more than some half foot in length! - -At the battle of Actium, it is said, a fish of this kind stopped the -prætorian ship[4] of Antonius in its course, at the moment that he was -hastening from ship to ship to encourage and exhort his men, and so -compelled him to leave it and go on board another. Hence it was, that -the fleet of Cæsar gained the advantage[5] in the onset, and charged -with a redoubled impetuosity. In our own time, too, one of these fish -arrested the ship of the Emperor[6] Caius in its course, when he was -returning from Astura to Antium:[7] and thus, as the result proved, -did an insignificant fish give presage of great events; for no sooner -had the emperor returned to Rome than he was pierced by the weapons -of his own soldiers. Nor did this sudden stoppage of the ship long -remain a mystery, the cause being perceived upon finding that, out of -the whole fleet, the emperor’s five-banked galley was the only one -that was making no way. The moment this was discovered, some of the -sailors plunged into the sea, and, on making search about the ship’s -sides, they found an echeneïs adhering to the rudder. Upon its being -shown to the emperor, he strongly expressed his indignation that such -an obstacle as this should have impeded his progress, and have rendered -powerless the hearty endeavours of some four hundred men. One thing, -too, it is well known, more particularly surprised[8] him, how it was -possible that the fish, while adhering to the ship, should arrest its -progress, and yet should have no such power when brought on board. - -According to the persons who examined it on that occasion, and who -have seen it since, the echeneïs bears a strong resemblance to a -large slug.[9] The various opinions entertained respecting it we -have already[10] noticed, when speaking of it in the Natural History -of Fishes. There is no doubt, too, that all fish of this kind are -possessed of a similar power; witness, for example, the well-known -instance of the shells[11] which are still preserved and consecrated -in the Temple of Venus at Cnidos, and which, we are bound to believe, -once gave such striking evidence of the possession of similar -properties. Some of our own authors have given this fish the Latin -name of “mora.”[12] It is a singular thing, but among the Greeks we -find writers who state that, worn as an amulet, the echeneïs has the -property,[13] as already mentioned, of preventing miscarriage, and of -reducing procidence of the uterus, and so permitting the fœtus to reach -maturity: while others, again, assert that, if it is preserved in salt -and worn as an amulet, it will facilitate parturition; a fact to which -it is indebted for another name which it bears, “odinolytes.”[14] Be -all this as it may, considering this most remarkable fact of a ship -being thus stopped in its course, who can entertain a doubt as to the -possibility of any manifestation of her power by Nature, or as to -the effectual operation of the remedies which she has centred in her -spontaneous productions? - - - - -CHAP. 2.—THE TORPEDO: NINE REMEDIES. - - -And then, besides, even if we had not this illustration by the agency -of the echeneïs, would it not have been quite sufficient only to cite -the instance of the torpedo,[15] another inhabitant also of the sea, -as a manifestation of the mighty powers of Nature? From a considerable -distance even, and if only touched with the end of a spear or staff, -this fish has the property of benumbing even the most vigorous arm, and -of rivetting the feet of the runner, however swift he may be in the -race. If, upon considering this fresh illustration, we find ourselves -compelled to admit that there is in existence a certain power which, -by the very exhalations[16] and, as it were, emanations therefrom, is -enabled to affect the members of the human body,[17] what are we not to -hope for from the remedial influences which Nature has centred in all -animated beings? - - - - -CHAP. 3.—THE SEA HARE: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -No less wonderful, too, are the particulars which we find stated -relative to the sea-hare.[18] Taken with the food or drink, it is a -poison to some persons; while to others, again, the very sight of it -is venomous.[19] Indeed, if a woman in a state of pregnancy so much -as looks upon one of these fishes, she is immediately seized with -nausea and vomiting—a proof that the injury has reached the stomach—and -abortion is the ultimate result. The proper preservative against these -baneful effects is the male fish, which is kept dried for the purpose -in salt, and worn in a bracelet upon the arm. And yet this same fish, -while in the sea, is not injurious, by its contact even. The only -animal that eats it without fatal consequences, is the mullet;[20] the -sole perceptible result being that its flesh is rendered more tender -thereby, but deteriorated in flavour, and consequently not so highly -esteemed. - -Persons when poisoned[21] by the sea-hare smell strongly of the -fish—the first sign, indeed, by which the fact of their having been so -poisoned is detected. Death also ensues at the end of as many days as -the fish has lived: hence it is that, as Licinius Macer informs us, -this is one of those poisons which have no definite time for their -operation. In India,[22] we are assured, the sea-hare is never taken -alive; and, we are told that, in those parts of the world, man, in his -turn, acts as a poison upon the fish, which dies instantly in the sea, -if it is only touched with the human finger. There, like the rest of -the animals, it attains a much larger size than it does with us. - - - - -CHAP. 4.—MARVELS OF THE RED SEA. - - -Juba, in those books descriptive of Arabia, which he has dedicated to -Caius Cæsar, the son of Augustus, informs us that there are mussels[23] -on those coasts, the shells of which are capable of holding three -semisextarii; and that, on one occasion, a whale,[24] six hundred feet -in length and three hundred and sixty feet broad,[25] made its way up a -river of Arabia, the blubber of which was bought up by the merchants -there. He tells us, too, that in those parts they anoint their camels -with the grease of all kinds of fish, for the purpose of keeping off -the gad-flies[26] by the smell. - - - - -CHAP. 5. (2.)—THE INSTINCTS OF FISHES. - - -The statements which Ovid has made as to the instincts of fish, in the -work[27] of his known as the “Halieuticon,”[28] appear to me truly -marvellous. The scarus,[29] for instance, when enclosed in the wicker -kype, makes no effort to escape with its head, nor does it attempt to -thrust its muzzle between the oziers; but turning its tail towards -them, it enlarges the orifices with repeated blows therefrom, and so -makes its escape backwards. Should,[30] too, another scarus, from -without, chance to see it thus struggling within the kype, it will take -the tail of the other in its mouth, and so aid it in its efforts to -escape. The lupus,[31] again, when surrounded with the net, furrows[32] -the sand with its tail, and so conceals itself, until the net has -passed over it. The muræna,[33] trusting in the slippery smoothness[34] -of its rounded back, boldly faces the meshes of the net, and by -repeatedly wriggling its body, makes its escape. The polyp[35] makes -for the hooks, and, without swallowing the bait, clasps it with its -feelers; nor does it quit its hold until it has eaten off the bait, or -perceives itself being drawn out of the water by the rod. - -The mullet,[36] too, is aware[37] that within the bait there is a hook -concealed, and is on its guard against the ambush; still however, -so great is its voracity, that it beats the hook with its tail, and -strikes away from it the bait. The lupus,[38] again, shows less -foresight and address, but repentance at its imprudence arms it with -mighty strength; for, when caught by the hook, it flounders from side -to side, and so widens the wound, till at last the insidious hook falls -from its mouth. The muræna[39] not only swallows the hook, but catches -at the line with its teeth, and so gnaws it asunder. The anthias,[40] -Ovid says, the moment it finds itself caught by the hook, turns its -body with its back downwards, upon which there is a sharp knife-like -fin, and so cuts the line asunder. - -According to Licinius Macer, the muræna is of the female sex only, and -is impregnated by serpents, as already[41] mentioned; and hence it is -that the fishermen, to entice it from its retreat, and catch it, make -a hissing noise in imitation of the hissing of a serpent. He states, -also, that by frequently beating the water it is made to grow fat, that -a blow with a stout stick will not kill it, but that a touch with a -stalk of fennel-giant[42] is instantly fatal. That in the case of this -animal, the life is centred in the tail, there can be no doubt, as -also that it dies immediately on that part of the body being struck; -while, on the other hand, there is considerable difficulty in killing -it with a blow upon the head. Persons who have come in contact with the -razor-fish[43] smell of iron.[44] The hardest of all fishes, beyond a -doubt, is that known as the “orbis:”[45] it is spherical, destitute[46] -of scales, and all head.[47] - - - - -CHAP. 6.—MARVELLOUS PROPERTIES BELONGING TO CERTAIN FISHES. - - -Trebius Niger informs us that whenever the loligo[48] is seen darting -above the surface of the water, it portends a change of weather: that -the xiphias,[49] or, in other words, the swordfish, has a sharp-pointed -muzzle, with which it is able to pierce the sides of a ship and send -it to the bottom: instances of which have been known near a place in -Mauritania, known as Cotte, not far from the river Lixus.[50] He says, -too, that the loligo sometimes darts above the surface, in such vast -numbers, as to sink the ships upon which they fall. - - - - -CHAP. 7.—PLACES WHERE FISH EAT FROM THE HAND. - - -At many of the country-seats belonging to the Emperor the fish -eat[51] from the hand: but the stories of this nature, told with such -admiration by the ancients, bear reference to lakes formed by Nature, -and not to fish-preserves; that at Elorus, a fortified place in -Sicily, for instance, not far from Syracuse. In the fountain, too, of -Jupiter, at Labranda,[52] there are eels which eat from the hand, and -wear ear-rings,[53] it is said. The same, too, at Chios, near the Old -Men’s Temple[54] there; and at the Fountain of Chabura in Mesopotamia, -already mentioned.[55] - - - - -CHAP. 8.—PLACES WHERE FISH RECOGNIZE THE HUMAN VOICE. ORACULAR -RESPONSES GIVEN BY FISH. - - -At Myra, too, in Lycia, the fish in the Fountain of Apollo, known -as Surium, appear and give oracular presages, when thrice summoned -by the sound of a flute. If they seize the flesh thrown to them with -avidity, it is a good omen for the person who consults them; but if, -on the other hand, they flap at it with their tails, it is considered -an evil presage. At Hierapolis[56] in Syria, the fish in the Lake of -Venus there obey the voice of the officers of the temple: bedecked -with ornaments of gold, they come at their call, fawn upon them while -they are scratched, and open their mouths so wide as to admit of the -insertion of the hands. - -Off the Rock of Hercules, in the territory of Stabiæ[57] in Campania, -the melanuri[58] seize with avidity bread that is thrown to them in the -sea, but they will never approach any bait in which there is a hook -concealed. - - - - -CHAP. 9.—PLACES WHERE BITTER FISH ARE FOUND, SALT, OR SWEET. - - -Nor is it by any means the least surprising fact, that off the island -of Pele,[59] the town of Clazomenæ,[60] the rock[61] [of Scylla] -in Sicily, and in the vicinity of Leptis in Africa,[62] Eubœa, -and Dyrrhachium,[63] the fish are bitter. In the neighbourhood of -Cephallenia, Ampelos, Paros, and the rocks of Delos, the fish are so -salt by nature that they might easily be taken to have been pickled in -brine. In the harbour, again, of the last-mentioned island, the fish -are sweet: differences, all of them, resulting, no doubt, from the -diversity[64] of their food. - -Apion says that the largest among the fishes is the sea-pig,[65] known -to the Lacedæmonians as the “orthagoriscos;” he states also that it -grunts[66] like a hog when taken. These accidental varieties in the -natural flavour of fish—a thing that is still more surprising—may, -in some cases, be owing to the nature of the locality; an apposite -illustration of which is, the well-known fact that, at Beneventum[67] -in Italy, salted provisions of all kinds require[68] to be salted over -again. - - - - -CHAP. 10.—WHEN SEA-FISH WERE FIRST EATEN BY THE PEOPLE OF ROME. THE -ORDINANCE OF KING NUMA AS TO FISH. - - -Cassius Hemina informs us that sea-fish have been in use at Rome from -the time of its foundation. I will give his own words, however, upon -the subject:—“Numa ordained that fish without[69] scales should not -be served up at the Festivals of the Gods; a piece of frugality, the -intention of which was, that the banquets, both public and private, as -well as the repasts laid before the couches[70] of the gods, might be -provided at a smaller expense than formerly: it being also his wish to -preclude the risk that the caterers for the sacred banquets would spare -no expense in buying provisions, and so forestall the market.” - - - - -CHAP. 11.—CORAL: FORTY-THREE REMEDIES AND OBSERVATIONS. - - -In the same degree that people in our part of the world set a value -upon the pearls of India—a subject on which we have already spoken[71] -on the appropriate occasion at sufficient length—do the people of India -prize coral: it being the prevailing taste in each nation respectively -that constitutes the value of things. Coral is produced in the Red Sea -also, but of a more swarthy hue than ours. It is to be found also in -the Persian Gulf, where it is known by the name of “iace.” But the -most highly-esteemed of all, is that produced in the vicinity of the -islands called Stœchades,[72] in the Gallic Gulf, and near the Æolian -Islands and the town of Drepana in the Sea of Sicily. Coral is to be -found growing, too, at Graviscæ, and off the coast of Neapolis in -Campania: as also at Erythræ, where it is intensely red, but soft, and -consequently little valued. - -Its form is that of a shrub,[73] and its colour green: its berries are -white and soft while under water, but the moment they are removed from -it, they become hard and red, resembling the berries of cultivated -cornel in size and appearance. They say that, while alive, if it is -only touched by a person, it will immediately become as hard as stone; -and hence it is that the greatest pains are taken to prevent this, by -tearing it up from the bottom with nets, or else cutting it short with -a sharp-edged instrument of iron: from which last circumstance it is -generally supposed to have received its name of “curalium.”[74] The -reddest coral and the most branchy is held in the highest esteem; but, -at the same time, it must not be rough or hard like stone; nor yet, on -the other hand, should it be full of holes or hollow. - -The berries of coral are no less esteemed by the men in India than are -the pearls of that country by the females among us: their soothsayers, -too, and diviners look upon coral as an amulet endowed with sacred -properties,[75] and a sure preservative against all dangers: hence -it is that they equally value it as an ornament and as an object of -devotion. Before it was known in what estimation coral was held by -the people of India, the Gauls were in the habit of adorning their -swords, shields, and helmets with it; but at the present day, owing to -the value set upon it as an article of exportation, it has become so -extremely rare, that it is seldom to be seen even in the regions that -produce it. Branches of coral, hung at the neck of infants,[76] are -thought to act as a preservative against danger. Calcined, pulverized, -and taken in water, coral gives relief to patients suffering from -griping pains in the bowels, affections of the bladder, and urinary -calculi. Similarly taken in wine, or, if there are symptoms of fever, -in water, it acts as a soporific. It resists the action of fire a -considerable time before it is calcined. - -There is also a statement made that if this medicament is frequently -taken internally, the spleen will be gradually consumed. Powdered -coral, too, is on excellent remedy for patients who bring up or spit -blood. Calcined coral is used as an ingredient in compositions for the -eyes, being productive of certain astringent and cooling effects: it -makes flesh, also, in the cavities left by ulcers, and effaces scars -upon the skin. - - - - -CHAP. 12.—THE ANTIPATHIES AND SYMPATHIES WHICH EXIST BETWEEN -CERTAIN OBJECTS. THE HATREDS MANIFESTED BY CERTAIN AQUATIC ANIMALS. -THE PASTINACA: EIGHT REMEDIES. THE GALEOS: FIFTEEN REMEDIES. THE -SUR-MULLET: FIFTEEN REMEDIES. - - -In reference to that repugnance which exists between certain things, -known to the Greeks as “antipathia,” there is nothing more venomous[77] -than the pastinaca, a sea-fish which kills trees even with its sting, -as already[78] stated. And yet, poisonous as it is, the galeos[79] -pursues it; a fish which, though it attacks other marine animals as -well, manifests an enmity to the pastinaca in particular, just as on -dry land the weasel does to serpents; with such avidity does it go in -pursuit of what is poisonous even! Persons stung by the pustinaca find -a remedy in the flesh of the galeos, as also in that of the sur-mullet -and the vegetable production known as laser.[80] - - - - -CHAP. 13. (3).—AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. CASTOREUM: SIXTY-SIX REMEDIES AND -OBSERVATIONS. - - -The might of Nature, too, is equally conspicuous in the animals -which live upon dry land as well;[81] the beaver, for instance, more -generally known as “castor,” and the testes[82] of which are called -in medicine “castorea.” Sextius, a most careful enquirer into the -nature and history of medicinal substances, assures us that it is not -the truth that this animal, when on the point of being taken, bites -off its testes: he informs us, also, that these substances are small, -tightly knit, and attached to the back-bone, and that it is impossible -to remove them without taking the animal’s life. We learn from him that -there is a mode of adulterating them by substituting the kidneys of the -beaver, which are of considerable size, whereas the genuine testes are -found to be extremely diminutive: in addition to which, he says that -they must not be taken to be bladders, as they are two in number, a -provision not to be found in any animal. Within these pouches,[83] he -says, there is a liquid found, which is preserved by being put in salt; -the genuine castoreum being easily known from the false, by the fact -of its being contained in two pouches, attached by a single ligament. -The genuine article, he says, is sometimes fraudulently sophisticated -by the admixture of gum and blood, or else hammoniacum:[84] as the -pouches, in fact, ought to be of the same colour as this last, covered -with thin coats full of a liquid of the consistency of honey mixed with -wax, possessed of a fetid smell, of a bitter, acrid taste, and friable -to the touch. - -The most efficacious castoreum is that which comes from Pontus and -Galatia, the next best being the produce of Africa. When inhaled, it -acts as a sternutatory. Mixed with oil of roses and peucedanum,[85] -and applied to the head, it is productive of narcotic effects—a result -which is equally produced by taking it in water; for which reason -it is employed in the treatment of phrenitis. Used as a fumigation, -it acts as an excitant upon patients suffering from lethargy: and -similarly employed, or used in the form of a suppository, it dispels -hysterical[86] suffocations. It acts also as an emmenagogue and as an -expellent of the afterbirth, being taken by the patient, in doses of -two drachmæ, with pennyroyal,[87] in water. It is employed also for the -cure of vertigo, opisthotony, fits of trembling, spasms, affections -of the sinews, sciatica, stomachic complaints, and paralysis, the -patient either being rubbed with it all over, or else taking it as an -electuary, bruised and incorporated with seed of vitex,[88] vinegar, -and oil of roses, to the consistency of honey. In the last form, -too, it is taken for the cure of epilepsy, and in a potion, for the -purpose of dispelling flatulency and gripings in the bowels, and for -counteracting the effects of poison. - -When taken as a potion, the only difference is in the mode of mixing -it, according to the poison that it is intended to neutralize; thus, -for example, when it is taken for the sting of the scorpion, wine is -used as the medium; and when for injuries inflicted by spiders or by -the phalangium,[89] honied wine where it is intended to be brought -up again, and rue where it is desirable that it should remain upon -the stomach. For injuries inflicted by the chalcis,[90] it is taken -with myrtle wine; for the sting of the cerastes[91] or prester[92] -with panax[93] or rue in wine; and for those of other serpents, with -wine only. In all these cases two drachmæ of castoreum is the proper -dose, to one of the other ingredients respectively. It is particularly -useful, also, in combination with vinegar, in cases where viscus[94] -has been taken internally, and, with milk or water, as a neutralizer of -aconite: as an antidote to white hellebore it is taken with hydromel -and nitre.[95] It is curative, also, of tooth-ache, for which purpose -it is beaten up with oil and injected into the ear, on the side -affected. For the cure of ear-ache, the best plan is to mix it with -meconium.[96] Applied with Attic honey in the form of an ointment, it -improves the eyesight, and taken with vinegar it arrests hiccup. - -The urine, too, of the beaver, is a neutralizer of poisons, and for -this reason is used as an ingredient in antidotes. The best way of -keeping it, some think, is in the bladder of the animal. - - - - -CHAP. 14. (4.)—THE TORTOISE: SIXTY-SIX REMEDIES AND OBSERVATIONS. - - -The tortoise,[97] too, is an animal that is equally amphibious with the -beaver, and possessed of medicinal properties as strongly developed; -in addition to which, it claims an equal degree of notice for the -high price which luxury sets upon its shell,[98] and the singularity -of its conformation. Of tortoises, there are various kinds, land -tortoises,[99] sea tortoises,[100] tortoises[101] which live in muddy -waters, and tortoises[101] which live in fresh; these last being -known to some Greek authors by the name of “emydes.” The flesh of -the land-tortoise is employed for fumigations more particularly, and -we find it asserted that it is highly salutary for repelling the -malpractices of magic, and for neutralizing poisons. These tortoises -are found in the greatest numbers in Africa; where the head and feet -being first cut off, it is said, they are given to persons by way of -antidote. Eaten, too, in a broth made from them, they are thought to -disperse scrofula, diminish the volume of the spleen, and effect the -cure of epilepsy. The blood of the land-tortoise improves the eyesight, -and removes cataract: it is kept also, made up with meal into pills, -which are given with wine when necessary, to neutralize the poison of -all kinds of serpents, frogs, spiders, and similar venomous animals. It -is found a useful plan, too, in cases of glaucoma, to anoint the eyes -with gall of tortoises, mixed with Attic honey, and, for the cure of -injuries inflicted by scorpions, to drop the gall into the wound. - -Ashes of tortoiseshell, kneaded up with wine and oil, are used for the -cure of chaps upon the feet, and of ulcerations. The shavings of the -surface of the shell, administered in drink, act as an antaphrodisiac: -a thing that is the more surprising, from the fact that a powder -prepared from the whole of the shell has the reputation of being a -strong aphrodisiac. As to the urine of the land-tortoise, I do not -think that it can be obtained otherwise than by opening it and taking -out the bladder; this being one of those substances to which the adepts -in magic attribute such marvellous properties. For the sting of the -asp, they say, it is wonderfully effectual; and even more so, if bugs -are mixed with it. The eggs of the tortoise, hardened by keeping, are -applied to scrofulous sores and ulcers arising from burns or cold: they -are taken also for pains in the stomach. - -The flesh of the sea-tortoise,[102] mixed with that of frogs, is an -excellent remedy for injuries caused by the salamander;[103] indeed -there is nothing that is a better neutralizer of the secretions of the -salamander than the sea-tortoise. The blood of this animal reproduces -the hair when lost through alopecy, and is curative of porrigo and all -kinds of ulcerations of the head; the proper method of using it being -to let it dry, and then gently wash it off. For the cure of ear-ache, -this blood is injected with woman’s milk, and for epilepsy it is eaten -with fine wheaten flour, three heminæ of the blood being mixed with one -hemina of vinegar. It is prescribed also for the cure of asthma; but -in this case in combination with one hemina of wine. Sometimes, too, -it is taken by asthmatic patients, with barley-meal and vinegar, in -pieces about the size of a bean; one of these pieces being taken each -morning and evening at first, but after some days, two in the evening. -In cases of epilepsy, the mouth of the patient is opened and this blood -introduced. For spasmodic affections, when not of a violent nature, it -is injected, in combination with castoreum, as a clyster. If a person -rinses his teeth three times a year with blood of tortoises, he will be -always exempt from tooth-ache. This blood is also a cure for asthmatic -affections, and for the malady called “orthopnœa,” being administered -for these purposes in polenta. - -The gall of the tortoise improves the eye-sight, effaces scars, and -cures affections of the tonsillary glands, quinsy, and all kinds of -diseases of the mouth, cancers of that part more particularly, as well -as cancer of the testes. Applied to the nostrils it dispels epilepsy, -and sets the patient on his feet: incorporated in vinegar with the -slough of a snake, it is a sovereign remedy for purulent discharges -from the ears. Some persons add ox-gall and the broth of boiled -tortoise-flesh, with an equal proportion of snake’s slough; but in -such case, care must be taken to boil the tortoise in wine. Applied -with honey, this gall is curative of all diseases of the eyes; and for -the cure of cataract, gall of the sea-tortoise is used, in combination -with blood of the river-tortoise and milk. The hair, too, of females, -is dyed[104] with this gall. For the cure of injuries inflicted by the -salamander, it will be quite sufficient to drink the broth of boiled -tortoise-flesh. - -There is, again, a third[105] kind of tortoise, which inhabits mud -and swampy localities: the shell on its back is flat and broad, like -that upon the breast, and the callipash is not arched and rounded, the -creature being altogether of a repulsive appearance. However, there -are some remedial medicaments to be derived even from this animal. -Thus, for instance, three of them are thrown into a fire made with -wood cuttings, and the moment their shells begin to separate they are -taken off: the flesh is then removed, and boiled with a little salt, -in one congius of water. When the water has boiled down to one third, -the broth is used, being taken by persons apprehensive of paralysis -or of diseases of the joints. The gall, too, is found very useful for -carrying off pituitous humours and corrupt blood: taken in cold water, -it has an astringent effect upon the bowels. - -There is a fourth kind of tortoise, which frequents rivers. When used -for its remedial properties, the shell of the animal is removed, -and the fat separated from the flesh and beaten up with the plant -aizoüm,[106] in combination with unguent and lily seed: a preparation -highly effectual, it is said, for the cure of quartan fevers, the -patient being rubbed with it all over, the head excepted, just before -the paroxysms come on, and then well wrapped up and made to drink hot -water. It is stated also, that to obtain as much fat as possible, the -tortoise should be taken on the fifteenth day of the moon, the patient -being anointed on the sixteenth. The blood of this tortoise, dropt, by -way of embrocation, upon the region of the brain, allays head-ache; -it is curative also of scrofulous sores. Some persons recommend that -the tortoise should be laid[107] upon its back and its head cut off -with a copper knife, the blood being received in a new earthen vessel; -and they assure us that the blood of any kind of tortoise, when thus -obtained, will be an excellent liniment for the cure of erysipelas, -running ulcers upon the head, and warts. Upon the same authority, too, -we are assured that the dung of any kind of tortoise is good for the -removal of inflammatory tumours. Incredible also as the statement is, -we find it asserted by some, that ships[108] make way more slowly when -they have the right foot of a tortoise on board. - - - - -CHAP. 15.—REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE AQUATIC ANIMALS, CLASSIFIED -ACCORDING TO THE RESPECTIVE DISEASES. - - -We will now proceed to classify the various remedies derived from the -aquatic animals, according to the several diseases; not that we are -by any means unaware that an exposition of all the properties of each -animal at once, would be more to the reader’s taste, and more likely -to excite his admiration; but because we consider it more conducive -to the practical benefit of mankind to have the various recipes thus -grouped and classified; seeing that this thing may be good for one -patient, that for another, and that some of these remedies may be more -easily met with in one place and some in another. - - - - -CHAP. 16. (5.)—REMEDIES FOR POISONS, AND FOR NOXIOUS SPELLS. THE -DORADE: FOUR REMEDIES. THE SEA-STAR: SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -We have already[109] stated in what country the honey is venomous: the -fish known as the dorade[110] is an antidote to its effects. Honey, -even in a pure state, is sometimes productive of surfeit, and of -fits of indigestion, remarkable for their severity; the best remedy -in such case, according to Pelops, is to cut off the feet, head, and -tail, of a tortoise, and boil and eat the body; in place, however, of -the tortoise, Apelles mentions the scincus, an animal which has been -described elsewhere.[111] We have already mentioned too, on several -occasions,[112] how highly venomous is the menstruous fluid: the -surmullet, as already[113] stated, entirely neutralizes its effects. -This last fish, too, either applied topically or taken as food, acts -as an antidote to the venom[114] of the pastinaca, the land and sea -scorpion, the dragon,[115] and the phalangium.[116] The head of this -fish, taken fresh and reduced to ashes, is an active neutralizer of all -poisons, that of fungi more particularly. - -It is asserted also, that if the fish called the sea-star[117] is -smeared with a fox’s blood, and then nailed to the upper lintel of the -door, or to the door itself, with a copper nail, no noxious spells will -be able to obtain admittance, or, at all events, to be productive of -any ill effects. - - - - -CHAP. 17.—REMEDIES FOR THE STINGS OF SERPENTS, FOR THE BITES OF DOGS, -AND FOR INJURIES INFLICTED BY VENOMOUS ANIMALS. THE SEA-DRAGON: THREE -REMEDIES. TWENTY-FIVE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM SALTED FISH. THE SARDA: ONE -REMEDY. ELEVEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM CYBIUM. - - -Stings inflicted by the sea-dragon[118] or by the sea-scorpion, are -cured by an application[119] of the flesh of those animals to the -wound; the bites, too, of spiders are healed by the same means. In -fine, as an antidote to every kind of poison, whether taken internally -or acting through the agency of a sting or bite, there is considered -to be nothing in existence more effectual than a decoction of the -sea-dragon and sea-scorpion. - -There are also certain remedies of this nature derived from preserved -fish. Persons, for instance, who have received injuries from serpents, -or have been bitten by other venomous animals, are recommended to eat -salt fish, and to drink undiluted wine every now and then, so as, -through its agency, to bring up the whole of the food again by vomit: -this method being particularly good in cases where injuries have been -received from the lizard called “chalcis,”[120] the cerastes,[121] the -reptile known as the “seps,”[122] the elops,[123] or the dipsas.[124] -For the sting of the scorpion, salted fish should be taken in larger -quantities, but not brought up again, the patient submitting to any -amount of thirst it may create: salt fish, too, should be applied, by -way of plaster, to the wound. For the bite of the crocodile there is -no more efficient remedy known. For the sting of the serpent called -“prester,” the sarda[125] is particularly good. Salt fish is employed -also as a topical application for the bite of the mad dog; and even in -cases where the wound has not been cauterized with hot iron, this is -found to be sufficiently effectual as a remedy. For injuries, also, -inflicted by the sea-dragon,[126] an application is made of salt fish -steeped in vinegar. Cybium,[127] too, is productive of similar effects. -As a cure for the venomous sting inflicted with its stickle by the -sea-dragon, the fish itself is applied topically to the wound, or else -its brain, extracted whole. - - - - -CHAP. 18.—THE SEA-FROG: SIX REMEDIES. THE RIVER-FROG: FIFTY-TWO -REMEDIES. THE BRAMBLE-FROG: ONE REMEDY. THIRTY-TWO OBSERVATIONS ON -THESE ANIMALS. - - -The broth prepared from sea-frogs,[128] boiled in wine and vinegar, -is taken internally as a neutralizer of poisons and of the venom -of the bramble-frog,[129] as also for injuries inflicted by the -salamander.[130] For the cure of injuries caused by the sea-hare -and the various serpents above mentioned, it is a good plan to eat -the flesh of river-frogs, or to drink the liquor in which they have -been boiled: as a neutralizer, too, of the venom of the scorpion, -river-frogs are taken in wine. Democritus assures us that if the -tongue is extracted from a live frog, with no other part of the body -adhering to it, and is then applied—the frog being first replaced in -the water—to a woman while asleep, just at the spot where the heart is -felt to palpitate, she will be sure to give a truthful answer to any -question that may be put to her. - -To this the Magi[131] add some other particulars, which, if there is -any truth in them, would lead us to believe that frogs ought to be -considered much more useful to society than laws.[132] They say, for -instance, that if a man takes a frog and transfixes it with a reed, -entering the body at the sexual parts and coming out at the mouth, and -then dips the reed in the menstrual discharge of his wife, she will -be sure to conceive an aversion for all paramours. That the flesh of -frogs, attached to the kype or hook, as the case may be, makes a most -excellent bait, for purples more particularly, is a well-known fact. -Frogs, they say, have a double[133] liver; and of this liver, when -exposed to the attacks of ants, the part that is most eaten away is -thought to be an effectual antidote to every kind of poison. - -There are some frogs, again, which live only among brakes and thickets, -for which reason they have received the name of “rubetæ,”[134] -or “bramble-frogs,” as already[135] stated. The Greeks call them -“phryni:” they are the largest in size of all the frogs, have two -protuberances[136] like horns, and are full[137] of poison. Authors -quite vie with one another in relating marvellous stories about them; -such, for instance, as that if they are brought into the midst of a -concourse of people, silence will instantly prevail; as also that by -throwing into boiling water a small bone that is found in their right -side, the vessel will immediately cool, and the water refuse to boil -again until it has been removed. This bone, they say, may be found by -exposing a dead bramble-frog to ants, and letting them eat away the -flesh: after which the bones must be put into the vessel,[138] one by -one. - -On the other hand, again, in the left side of this reptile there -is another bone, they say, which, thrown into water, has all the -appearance of making it boil, and the name given to which is -“apocynon.”[139] This bone, it is said, has the property of assuaging -the fury of dogs, and, if put into the drink, of conciliating love -and ending discord and strife. Worn, too, as an amulet, it acts as an -aphrodisiac, we are told. The bone, on the contrary, which is taken -from the right side, acts powerfully as a refrigerative upon boiling -liquids, it is said: attached to the patient in a piece of fresh -lamb’s-skin, it has the repute of assuaging quartan and other fevers, -and of checking amorous propensities. The spleen of these frogs is used -as an antidote to the various poisons that are prepared from them; and -for all these purposes the liver is considered still more efficacious. - - - - -CHAP. 19.—THE ENHYDRIS: SIX REMEDIES. THE RIVER-CRAB: FOURTEEN -REMEDIES. THE SEA-CRAB: SEVEN REMEDIES. THE RIVER-SNAIL: SEVEN -REMEDIES. THE CORACINUS: FOUR REMEDIES. THE SEA-PIG: TWO REMEDIES. - - -There is also a snake[140] which lives in the water, the fat and -gall of which, carried about them by persons when in pursuit of -the crocodile, are said to be marvellously efficacious, the beast -not venturing, in such case, to make an attack upon them. As such -preservative, they are still more effectual if mixed with the -herbaceous plant known as potamogiton.[141] River-crabs,[142] taken -fresh and beaten up and drunk in water, or the ashes of them, kept for -the purpose, are useful in all cases of poisoning, as a counter-poison: -taken with asses’ milk they are particularly serviceable as a -neutralizer of the venom of the scorpion; goats’ milk or any other -kind of milk being substituted where asses’ milk cannot be procured. -Wine, too, should also be used in all such cases. River-crabs, beaten -up with ocimum,[143] and applied to scorpions, are fatal to them. They -are possessed of similar virtues, also, for the bites of all other -kinds of venomous animals, the scytale[144] in particular, adders, the -sea-hare, and the bramble-frog. The ashes of them, preserved, are good -for persons who give symptoms of hydrophobia after being bitten by a -mad dog, some adding gentian as well, and administering the mixture -in wine. In cases, too, where hydrophobia has already appeared, it is -recommended that these ashes should be kneaded up into boluses with -wine, and swallowed. If ten of these crabs are tied together with a -handful of ocimum,[145] all the scorpions in the neighbourhood, the -magicians say, will be attracted to the spot. They recommend, also, -that to wounds inflicted by the scorpion, these crabs, or the ashes of -them, should be applied, with ocimum. For all these purposes, however, -sea-crabs, it should be remembered, are not so useful. Thrasyllus -informs us that there is nothing so antagonistic to serpents as crabs; -that swine, when stung by a serpent, cure themselves by eating them; -and that, while the sun is in the sign of Cancer,[146] serpents suffer -the greatest tortures. - -The flesh, too, of river-snails, eaten either raw or boiled, is an -excellent antidote to the venom of the scorpion, some persons keeping -them salted for the purpose. These snails are applied, also, topically -to the wound. - -The coracinus[147] is a fish peculiar to the river Nilus, it is true, -but the particulars we are here relating are for the benefit of all -parts of the world: the flesh of it is most excellent as an application -for the cure of wounds inflicted by scorpions. In the number of the -poisonous fishes we ought to reckon the sea-pig,[148] a fish which -causes great suffering to those who have been pierced with the pointed -fin upon its back: the proper remedy in such case is the slime taken -from the other parts of the body of the fish. - - - - -CHAP. 20.—THE SEA-CALF: TEN REMEDIES. THE MURÆNA: ONE REMEDY. THE -HIPPOCAMPUS: NINE REMEDIES. THE SEA-URCHIN: ELEVEN REMEDIES. - - -In cases of hydrophobia resulting from the bite of the mad dog, the -practice is to rub the patient’s face with the fat of the sea-calf; an -application rendered still more efficacious by the admixture of hyæna’s -marrow, oil of mastich, and wax. Bites inflicted by the muræna are -cured by an application of the head of that fish, reduced to ashes. The -pastinaca,[149] also, is remedial for its own bite, the ashes of the -same fish, or of another of the same genus, being applied to the wound -with vinegar. When this fish is intended for food, every portion of the -back that is of a saffron colour should be removed, as well as the -whole of the head: care, too, should be taken not to wash it over much; -an observation equally applicable to all kinds of shell-fish, when -intended for food, the flavour being deteriorated[150] thereby. - -The hippocampus,[151] taken in drink, neutralizes the poison of the -sea-hare. As a counter-poison to dorycnium,[152] sea-urchins are -remarkably useful; as also in cases where persons have taken juice of -carpathum[153] internally; more particularly if the urchins are used -with the liquor in which they are boiled. Boiled sea-crabs, too, are -looked upon as highly efficacious in cases of poisoning by dorycnium; -and as a neutralizer of the venom of the sea-hare they are particularly -good. - - - - -CHAP. 21. (6.)—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF OYSTERS: FIFTY-EIGHT REMEDIES AND -OBSERVATIONS. PURPLES: NINE REMEDIES. - - -Oysters, too, neutralize the venom of the sea-hare—and now that we -are speaking of oysters, it may possibly be thought that I have not -treated of this subject at sufficient length in the former part[154] -of my work, seeing that for this long time past the palm has been -awarded to them at our tables as a most exquisite dish. Oysters love -fresh water and spots[155] where numerous rivers discharge themselves -into the sea; hence it is that the pelagia[156] are of such small size -and so few in number. Still, however, we do find them breeding among -rocks and in places far remote from the contact of fresh water, as in -the neighbourhood of Grynium[157] and of Myrina,[158] for example. -Generally speaking, they increase in size with the increase of the -moon, as already stated by us when[159] treating of the aquatic -animals: but it is at the beginning of summer, more particularly, and -when the rays of the sun penetrate the shallow waters, that they are -swollen with an abundance of milk.[160] This, too, would appear to be -the reason why they are so small when found out at sea; the opacity of -the water tending to arrest their growth, and the moping consequent -thereon producing a comparative indisposition for food. - -Oysters are of various colours; in Spain they are red, in Illyricum of -a tawny hue, and at Circeii[161] black, both in meat and shell. But -in every country, those oysters are the most highly esteemed that are -compact without being slimy from their secretions, and are remarkable -more for their thickness than their breadth. They should never be taken -in either muddy or sandy spots, but from a firm, hard bottom; the -meat[162] should be compressed, and not of a fleshy consistence; and -the oyster should be free from fringed edges, and lying wholly in the -cavity of the shell. Persons of experience in these matters add another -characteristic; a fine purple thread, they say, should run round the -margins of the beard, this being looked upon as a sign of superior -quality, and obtaining for them their name of “calliblephara.”[163] - -Oysters are all the better for travelling and being removed to new -waters; thus, for example, the oysters of Brundisium, it is thought, -when fed in the waters of Avernus, both retain their own native juices -and acquire the flavour of those of Lake Lucrinus.[164] Thus much with -reference to the meat of the oyster; we will now turn to the various -countries which produce it, so that no coast may be deprived of the -honours which properly belong to it. But in giving this description -we will speak in the language of another, using the words of a writer -who has evinced more careful discernment in treating of this subject -than any of the other authors of our day. These then are the words of -Mucianus, in reference to the oyster:—“The oysters of Cyzicus[165] are -larger than those of Lake Lucrinus,[166] fresher[167] than those of -the British coasts,[168] sweeter[169] than those of Medulæ,[170] more -tasty[171] than those of Ephesus, more plump than those of Lucus,[172] -less slimy than those of Coryphas,[173] more delicate than those of -Istria,[174] and whiter than those of Circeii.”[175] For all this, -however, it is a fact well ascertained that there are no oysters -fresher or more delicate than those of Circeii, last mentioned. - -According to the historians of the expedition of Alexander, there -were oysters found in the Indian Sea a foot[176] in diameter: among -ourselves, too, the nomenclature of some spendthrift and gourmand has -found for certain oysters the name of “tridacna,”[177] wishing it to -be understood thereby, that they are so large as to require three -bites in eating them. We will take the present opportunity of stating -all the medicinal properties that are attributed to oysters. They are -singularly refreshing[178] to the stomach, and tend to restore the -appetite. Luxury, too, has imparted to them an additional coolness by -burying them in snow, thus making a medley of the produce of the tops -of mountains and the bottom of the sea. Oysters are slightly laxative -to the bowels; and boiled in honied wine, they relieve tenesmus, in -cases where it is unattended with ulceration. They act detergently also -upon ulcerations of the bladder.[179] Boiled in their shells, unopened -just as they come to hand, oysters are marvellously efficacious for -rheumatic defluxions. Calcined oyster-shells, mixed with honey, -allay affections of the uvula and of the tonsillary glands: they are -similarly used for imposthumes of the parotid glands, inflamed tumours, -and indurations of the mamillæ. Applied with water, these ashes are -good for ulcerations of the head, and impart a plumpness to the skin in -females. They are sprinkled, too, upon burns, and are highly esteemed -as a dentifrice. Applied with vinegar, they are good for the removal of -prurigo and of pituitous eruptions. Beaten up in a raw state, they are -curative of scrofula and of chilblains upon the feet. - -Purples, too, are useful[180] as a counterpoison. - - - - -CHAP. 22.—SEA-WEED: TWO REMEDIES. - - -According to Nicander, sea-weed is also a theriac.[181] There are -numerous varieties of it, as already[182] stated; one, for instance, -with an elongated leaf, another red, another again with a broader leaf, -and another crisped. The most esteemed kind of all is that which grows -off the shores of Crete, upon the rocks there, close to the ground: -it being used also for dyeing wool, as it has the property[183] of -so fixing the colours as never to allow of their being washed out. -Nicander recommends it to be taken with wine. - - - - -CHAP. 23. (7.)—REMEDIES FOR ALOPECY, CHANGE OF COLOUR IN THE HAIR, AND -ULCERATIONS OF THE HEAD. THE SEA-MOUSE: TWO REMEDIES, THE SEA-SCORPION: -TWELVE REMEDIES. THE LEECH: SEVEN REMEDIES. THE MUREX: THIRTEEN -REMEDIES. THE CONCHYLIUM: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -Ashes of the hippocampus,[184] mixed with nitre[185] and hog’s lard, or -else used solely with vinegar, are curative of alopecy; the skin being -first prepared for the reception of the necessary medicaments by an -application of powdered bone of sæpia.[186] Alopecy is cured also with -ashes of the sea-mouse,[187] mixed with oil; ashes of the sea-urchin, -burnt, flesh and all together; the gall of the sea-scorpion;[188] or -else ashes of three frogs burnt alive in an earthen pot, applied with -honey, or what is still better, in combination with tar. Leeches left -to putrefy for forty days in red wine stain the hair black. Others, -again, recommend one sextarius of leeches to be left to putrefy the -same number of days in a leaden vessel, with two sextarii of vinegar, -the hair to be well rubbed with the mixture in the sun. According -to Sornatius, this preparation is naturally so penetrating, that if -females, when they apply it, do not take the precaution of keeping -some oil in the mouth, the teeth even will become blackened thereby. -Ashes of burnt shells of the murex or purple are used as a liniment, -with honey, for ulcerations of the head; the shells, too, of other -shell-fish,[189] powdered merely, and not calcined, are very useful -for the same purpose, applied with water. For the cure of head-ache, -castoreum is employed, in combination with peucedanum[190] and oil of -roses. - - - - -CHAP. 24.—REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE EYES AND EYELIDS. TWO REMEDIES -DERIVED FROM THE FAT OF FISHES. THE CALLIONYMUS: THREE REMEDIES. THE -GALL OF THE CORACINUS: ONE REMEDY. THE SÆPIA: TWENTY-FOUR REMEDIES. -ICHTHYOCOLLA: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -The fat of all kinds of fish, both fresh-water as well as sea fish, -melted in the sun and incorporated with honey, is an excellent -improver of the eye-sight;[191] the same, too, with castoreum,[192] in -combination with honey. The gall of the callionymus[193] heals marks -upon the eyes and cauterizes fleshy excrescences about those organs: -indeed, there is no fish with a larger quantity of gall than this, an -opinion expressed too by Menander in his Comedies.[194] This fish is -known also as the “uranoscopos,”[195] from the eyes being situate in -the upper part of the head.[196] The gall, too, of the coracinus[197] -has the effect of sharpening the eyesight. - -The gall of the red sea-scorpion,[198] used with stale oil or Attic -honey, disperses incipient cataract; for which purpose, the application -should be made three times, on alternate days. A similar method is -also employed for removing indurations[199] of the membrane of the -eyes. The surmullet, used as a diet, weakens the eyesight, it is said. -The sea-hare is poisonous itself, but the ashes of it are useful as -an application for preventing superfluous hairs on the eyelids from -growing again, when they have been once pulled out by the roots. For -this purpose, however, the smaller the fish is, the better. Small -scallops, too, are salted and beaten up with cedar resin for a similar -purpose, or else the frogs known as “diopetes”[200] and “calamitæ,” -are used; the blood of them being applied with vine gum to the eyelids, -after the hairs have been removed. - -Powdered shell[201] of sæpia, applied with woman’s milk, allays -swellings and inflammations of the eyes; employed by itself it removes -eruptions of the eyelids. When this remedy is used, it is the practice -to turn up the eyelids, and to leave the medicament there a few moments -only; after which, the part is anointed with oil of roses, and the -inflammation modified by the application of a bread-poultice. Powdered -bone of sæpia is used also for the treatment of nyctalopy, being -applied to the eyes with vinegar. Reduced to ashes, this substance -removes scales upon the eyes: applied with honey, it effaces marks upon -those organs: and used with salt and cadmia,[202] one drachma of each, -it disperses webs which impede the eyesight, as also albugo in the eyes -of cattle. They say, too, that if the eyelids are rubbed with the small -bone[203] taken from this fish, a perfect cure will be experienced. - -Sea-urchins, applied with vinegar, cause epinyctis to disappear. -According to what the magicians say, they should be burnt with vipers’ -skins and frogs, and the ashes sprinkled in the drink; a great -improvement of the eyesight being guaranteed as the sure result. - -“Ichthyocolla”[204] is the name given to a fish with a glutinous skin; -the glue made from which is also known by the same name, and is highly -useful for the removal of epinyctis. Some persons, however, assert that -it is from the belly of the fish, and not the skin—as in the case of -bull glue—that the ichthyocolla is prepared. That of Pontus[205] is -highly esteemed: it is white, free from veins or scales, and dissolves -with the greatest rapidity. The proper way of using it, is to cut it -into small pieces, and then to leave it to soak in water or vinegar -a night and a day, after which it should be pounded with sea-shore -pebbles, to make it melt the more easily. It is generally asserted that -this substance is good for pains in the head and for tetanus. - -The right eye of a frog, suspended from the neck in a piece of cloth -made from wool of the natural colour,[206] is a cure for ophthalmia in -the right eye; and the left eye of a frog, similarly suspended, for -ophthalmia in the left. If the eyes, too, of a frog are taken out at -the time of the moon’s conjunction, and similarly worn by the patient, -enclosed in an eggshell, they will effectually remove indurations of -the membrane of the eyes. The rest of the flesh applied topically, -removes all marks resulting from blows. The eyes, too, of a crab, worn -attached to the neck, by way of amulet, are a cure for ophthalmia, it -is said. There is a small frog[207] which lives in reed-beds and among -grass more particularly, never croaks, being quite destitute of voice, -is of a green colour, and is apt to cause tympanitis in cattle, if -they should happen to swallow it. The slimy moisture on this reptile’s -body, scraped off with a spatula and applied to the eyes, greatly -improves the sight, they say: the flesh, too, is employed as a topical -application for the removal of pains in the eyes. - -Some persons take fifteen frogs, and after spitting them upon as many -bulrushes, put them into a new earthen vessel: they then mix the juices -which flow from them, with gum of the white vine,[208] and use it as -an application for the eye-lids; first pulling out such eye-lashes -as are in the way, and then dropping the preparation with the point -of a needle into the places from which the hairs have been removed. -Meges[209] used to prepare a depilatory for the eyelids, by killing -frogs in vinegar, and leaving them to putrefy; for which purpose -he employed the spotted frogs which make their appearance in vast -numbers[210] during the rains of autumn. Ashes of burnt leeches, it -is thought, applied in vinegar, are productive of a similar effect; -care must be taken, however, to burn them in a new earthen vessel. -Dried liver, too, of the tunny,[211] made up into an ointment, in -the proportion of four denarii, with oil of cedar, and applied as -a depilatory for nine months together, is considered to be highly -effectual for this purpose. - - - - -CHAP. 25.—REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE EARS. THE BATIA: ONE REMEDY. THE -BACCHUS OR MYXON: TWO REMEDIES. THE SEA-LOUSE: TWO REMEDIES. - - -For diseases of the ears, fresh gall of the fish called “batia”[212] -is remarkably good; the same, too, when it has been kept in wine. The -gall, also, of the bacchus,[213] by some known as the “myxon,” is -equally good; as also that of the callionymus,[214] injected into the -ears with oil of roses, or else castoreum,[215] used with poppy-juice. -There are certain animals too, known as “sea-lice,”[216] which are -recommended as an injection for the ears, beaten up with vinegar. -Wool, too, that has been dyed with the juice of the murex, employed -by itself, is highly useful for this purpose; some persons, however -moisten it with vinegar and nitre.[217] - -Others, again, more particularly recommend for all affections of the -ears one cyathus of the best garum,[218] with one cyathus and a half -of honey, and one cyathus of vinegar, the whole gently boiled in a new -pot over a slow fire, and skimmed with a feather every now and then: -when it has become wholly free from scum, it is injected lukewarm into -the ears. In cases where the ears are swollen, the same authorities -recommend that the swellings should be first reduced with juice of -coriander. The fat of frogs, injected into the ears, instantly removes -all pains in these organs. The juice of river-crabs, kneaded up with -barley-meal, is a most effectual remedy for wounds in the ears. Shells -of the murex, reduced to ashes, and applied with honey, or the burnt -shells of other shell-fish,[219] used with honied wine, are curative of -imposthumes of the parotid glands. - - - - -CHAP. 26.—REMEDIES FOR TOOTH-ACHE. THE DOG-FISH: FOUR REMEDIES. WHALE’S -FLESH. - - -Tooth-ache is alleviated by scarifying the gums with bones of the -sea-dragon, or by rubbing the teeth once a year with the brains of a -dog-fish[220] boiled in oil, and kept for the purpose. It is a very -good plan too, for the cure of tooth-ache, to lance the gums with -the sting of the pastinaca[221] in some cases. This sting, too, is -pounded, and applied to the teeth with white hellebore, having the -effect of extracting them without the slightest difficulty. Another of -these remedies is, ashes of salted fish calcined in an earthen vessel, -mixed with powdered marble. Stale cybium,[222] rinsed in a new earthen -vessel, and then pounded, is very useful for the cure of tooth-ache. -Equally good, it is said, are the back-bones of all kinds of salt fish, -pounded and applied in a liniment. A decoction is made of a single frog -boiled in one hemina of vinegar, and the teeth are rinsed with it, the -decoction being retained in the mouth. In cases where a repugnance -existed to making use of this remedy, Sallustius Dionysius[223] used -to suspend frogs over boiling vinegar by the hind legs, so as to make -them discharge their humours into the vinegar by the mouth, using -considerable numbers of frogs for the purpose: to those, however, who -had a stronger stomach, he prescribed the frogs themselves, eaten with -their broth. It is generally thought, too, that this recipe applies -more particularly to the double teeth, and that the vinegar prepared as -above-mentioned, is remarkably useful for strengthening them when loose. - -For this last purpose, some persons cut off the legs of two frogs, -and then macerate the bodies in two heminæ of wine, recommending this -preparation as a collutory for strengthening loose teeth. Others attach -the frogs, whole, to the exterior of the jaws:[224] and with some it is -the practice to boil ten frogs, in three sextarii of vinegar, down to -one-third, and to use the decoction as a strengthener of loose teeth. -By certain authorities, too, it has been recommended to boil the hearts -of six-and-thirty frogs beneath a copper vessel, in one sextarius of -old oil, and then to inject the decoction into the ear on the same side -of the jaw as the part affected: while others again have used, as an -application for the teeth, a frog’s liver, boiled, and beaten up with -honey. All the preparations above described will be found still more -efficacious if made from the sea-frog.[225] In cases where the teeth -are carious and emit an offensive smell, it is recommended to dry some -whale’s[226] flesh in an oven for a night, and then to add an equal -quantity of salt, and use the mixture as a dentifrice. “Enhydris”[227] -is the name given by the Greeks to a snake that lives in the water. -With the four upper teeth of this reptile, it is the practice, for the -cure of aching in the upper teeth, to lance the upper gums, and with -the four lower teeth, for aching in the lower. Some persons, however, -content themselves with using an eyetooth only. Ashes, too, of burnt -crabs are used for this purpose; and the murex, reduced to ashes, makes -an excellent dentifrice. - - - - -CHAP. 27.—REMEDIES FOR LICHENS, AND FOR SPOTS UPON THE FACE. THE -DOLPHIN: NINE REMEDIES. COLUTHIA OR CORYPHIA: THREE REMEDIES. -HALCYONEUM: SEVEN REMEDIES. THE TUNNY: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -Lichens and leprous spots are removed by applying the fat of the -sea-calf,[228] ashes of the mæna[229] in combination with three oboli -of honey, liver of the pastinaca[230] boiled in oil, or ashes of the -dolphin or hippocampus[231] mixed with water. After the parts have -been duly excoriated, a cicatrizing treatment ought to be pursued. -Some persons bake dolphin’s liver in an earthen vessel, till a grease -flows therefrom like oil[232] in appearance: this they use by way of -ointment for these diseases. - -Burnt shells of the murex or purple, applied with honey, have a -detergent effect upon spots on the face in females: used as an -application for seven consecutive days, a fomentation made of white -of eggs being substituted on the eighth, they efface wrinkles, and -plump out the skin. To the genus “murex” belong the shell-fish known -by the Greeks as “coluthia” or “coryphia,” equally turbinated, but -considerably smaller: for all the above purposes they are still more -efficacious, and the use of them tends to preserve the sweetness of -the breath. Fish-glue[233] effaces wrinkles and plumps out the skin; -being boiled for the purpose in water some four hours, and then -pounded and kneaded up till it attains a thin consistency, like that -of honey. After being thus prepared, it is put by in a new vessel for -keeping; and, when wanted for use, is mixed, in the proportion of four -drachmæ, with two drachmæ of sulphur, two of alkanet, and eight of -litharge; the whole being sprinkled with water and beaten up together. -The preparation is then applied to the face, and is washed off at the -end of four hours. For the cure of freckles and other affections of -the face, calcined bones of cuttle-fish are also used; an application -which is equally good for the removal of fleshy excrescences and the -dispersion of running sores. - -(8.) For the cure of itch-scab, a frog is boiled in five semisextarii -of sea-water, the decoction being reduced to the consistency of honey. -There is a sea production called “halcyoneum,” composed, as some -think, of the nests[234] of the birds known as the “halcyon”[235] and -“ceyx,” or, according to others, of the concretion of sea-foam, or of -some slime of the sea, or a certain lanuginous inflorescence thrown -up by it. Of this halcyoneum there are four different kinds; the -first, of an ashy colour, of a compact substance, and possessed of a -pungent odour; the second, soft, of a milder nature, and with a smell -almost identical with that of sea-weed; the third, whiter, and with -a variegated surface; the fourth, more like pumice in appearance, and -closely resembling rotten sponge. The best of all is that which nearly -borders upon a purple hue, and is known as the “Milesian” kind: the -whiter it is, the less highly it is esteemed. - -The properties of halcyoneum are ulcerative and detergent: when -required for use, it is parched and applied without oil. It is quite -marvellous how efficiently it removes leprous sores, lichens, and -freckles, used in combination with lupines and two oboli of sulphur. -It is employed, also, for the removal of marks upon the eyes.[236] -Andreas[237] has recommended for the cure of leprosy ashes of burnt -crabs, with oil; and Attalus,[238] fresh fat of tunny. - - - - -CHAP. 28.—REMEDIES FOR SCROFULA, IMPOSTHUMES OF THE PAROTID GLANDS, -QUINSY, AND DISEASES OF THE FAUCES. THE MÆNA: THIRTEEN REMEDIES. THE -SEA-SCOLOPENDRA: TWO REMEDIES. THE SAURUS: ONE REMEDY. SHELL-FISH: ONE -REMEDY. THE SILURUS: FIFTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Ulcerations of the mouth are cured by an application of brine in -which mænæ[239] have been pickled, in combination with calcined heads -of the fish, and honey. For the cure of scrofula, it is a good plan -to prick the sores with the small bone that is found in the tail -of the fish known as the sea-frog;[240] care being taken to avoid -making a wound, and to repeat the operation daily, until a perfect -cure is effected. The same property, too, belongs to the sting of the -pastinaca, and to the sea-hare, applied topically to the sores: but in -both cases due care must be taken to remove them in an instant. Shells -of sea-urchins are bruised, also, and applied with vinegar; shells -also of sea-scolopendræ,[241] applied with honey; and river-crabs -pounded or calcined, and applied with honey. Bones, too, of the sæpia, -triturated and applied with stale axle-grease, are marvellously useful -for this purpose. This last preparation is used, also, for the cure of -imposthumes of the parotid glands; a purpose for which the liver of the -sea-fish known as the “saurus”[242] is employed. Nay, even more than -this, fragments of earthen vessels in which salt fish have been kept -are pounded with stale axle-grease, and applied to scrofulous sores and -imposthumes of the parotid glands; as also calcined murex, incorporated -with oil. Stiffness in the neck is allayed by taking what are known as -sea-lice,[243] in doses of one drachma in drink, taking castoreum[244] -mixed with pepper in honied wine, or making a decoction of frogs in oil -and salt, and taking the liquor. - -Opisthotony, too, and tetanus are treated in a similar manner; and -spasms, with the addition of pepper. Ashes of burnt heads of salted -mænæ are applied externally, with honey, for the cure of quinsy; as -also a decoction of frogs, boiled in vinegar, a preparation which is -equally good for affections of the tonsillary glands. River-crabs, -pounded, one to each hemina of water, are used as a gargle for the cure -of quinsy; or else they are taken with wine and hot water. Garum,[245] -put beneath the uvula with a spoon, effectually cures diseases of that -part. The silurus,[246] used as food, either fresh or salted, improves -the voice. - - - - -CHAP. 29.—REMEDIES FOR COUGH AND DISEASES OF THE CHEST. - - -Surmullets act as an emetic, dried and pounded, and taken in drink. -Castoreum, taken fasting, with a small quantity of hammoniacum[247] -in oxymel, is extremely good for asthma: spasms, too, in the stomach -are assuaged by taking a similar potion with warm oxymel. Frogs stewed -in their own liquor in the saucepan, the same way in fact that fish -are dressed, are good for a cough, it is said. In some cases, also, -frogs are suspended by the legs, and after their juices[248] have been -received in a platter, it is recommended to gut them, and the entrails -being first carefully removed, to preserve them for the above purpose. -There is a small frog,[249] also, which ascends trees, and croaks aloud -there: if a person suffering from cough spits into its mouth and then -lets it go, he will experience a cure, it is said. For cough attended -with spitting of blood, it is recommended to beat up the raw flesh of a -snail, and to drink it in hot water. - - - - -CHAP. 30. (9.)—REMEDIES FOR PAINS IN THE LIVER AND SIDE. THE ELONGATED -CONCH: SIX REMEDIES. THE TETHEA: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -For pains in the liver, a sea-scorpion is killed in wine, and the -liquid is taken. The meat, too, of the elongated conch[250] is taken -with honied wine and water, in equal quantities, or, if there are -symptoms of fever, with hydromel. Pains in the side are assuaged -by taking the flesh of the hippocampus,[251] grilled, or else the -tethea,[252] very similar to the oyster, with the ordinary food. For -sciatica, the pickle of the silurus is injected, by way of clyster. -The flesh of conchs, too, is prescribed, for fifteen days, in doses of -three oboli soaked in two sextarii of wine. - - - - -CHAP. 31.—REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. SEA-WORT: ONE REMEDY. -THE MYAX: TWENTY-FIVE REMEDIES. THE MITULUS: EIGHT REMEDIES. PELORIDES: -ONE REMEDY. SERIPHUM: TWO REMEDIES. THE ERYTHINUS: TWO REMEDIES. - - -The silurus,[253] taken in its broth, or the torpedo,[254] used as -food, acts as a laxative upon the bowels. There is a sea-wort,[255] -also, similar in appearance to the cultivated cabbage: it is injurious -to the stomach, but acts most efficiently as a purgative, requiring -to be cooked with fat meat for the purpose, in consequence of its -extreme acridity. The broth, too, of all boiled fish is good for -this purpose; it acting, also, as a strong diuretic, taken with wine -more particularly. The best kind of all is that prepared from the -sea-scorpion, the iulis,[256] and rock-fish in general, as they are -destitute of all rankness and are free from fat. The proper way of -cooking them is with dill, parsley, coriander, and leeks, with the -addition of oil and salt. Stale cybium,[257] too, acts as a purgative, -and is particularly useful for carrying off crudities, pituitous -humours, and bile. - -The myax[258] is of a purgative nature, a shell-fish of which we shall -take this opportunity of giving the natural history at length. These -fish collect together in masses, like the murex,[259] and are found -in spots covered with sea-weed. They are the finest eating in autumn, -and are found in the greatest perfection in places where fresh-water -streams discharge themselves into the sea; for which reason it is that -those of Egypt are held in such high esteem. As the winter advances, -they contract a bitter flavour, and assume a reddish hue. The liquor -of these fish, it is said, acts as a purgative upon the bowels and -bladder, has a detergent effect upon the intestines, acts aperiently -upon all the passages, purges the kidneys, and diminishes the blood -and adipose secretions. Hence it is that these shell-fish are found of -the greatest use for the treatment of dropsy, for the regulation of -the catamenia, and for the removal of jaundice, all diseases of the -joints, and flatulency. They are very good, also, for the reduction -of obesity, for diseases of the bile and of the pituitous secretions, -for affections of the lungs, liver, and spleen, and for rheumatic -defluxions. The only inconvenience resulting from them is, that they -irritate the throat and impede the articulation. They have, also, a -healing effect upon ulcers of a serpiginous nature, or which stand in -need of detergents, as also upon carcinomatous sores. Calcined, the -same way as the murex, and employed with honey, they are curative of -bites inflicted either by dogs or human beings, and of leprous spots or -freckles. The ashes of them, rinsed, are good for the removal of films -upon the eyes, granulations of those organs and indurations of the -membrane, as also for diseases of the gums and teeth, and for pituitous -eruptions. They serve, also, as an antidote to dorycnium[260] and to -opocarpathon.[261] There are two species of this shell-fish, of a -degenerate kind: the mitulus,[262] which has a strong flavour, and a -saltish taste; and the myisca,[263] which differs from the former in -the roundness of its shell, is somewhat smaller, and is covered with -filaments, the shell being thinner, and the meat of a sweeter flavour. -The ashes, also, of the mitulus, like those of the murex, are possessed -of certain caustic properties, and are very useful for the removal of -leprous spots, freckles, and blemishes of the skin. They are rinsed, -too, in the same manner as lead,[264] for the removal of swellings -of the eyelids, of indurations of the membranes, and of films upon -the eyes, as also of sordid ulcers upon other parts of the body, and -of pustules upon the head. The meat of them, also, is employed as an -application for bites inflicted by dogs. - -As to pelorides,[265] they act as a gentle laxative upon the bowels, an -effect equally produced by castoreum, taken in doses of two drachmæ, -in hydromel: where, however, a more drastic purgative is required, -one drachma of dried garden-cucumber root is added, and two drachmæ -of aphronitrum.[266] The tethea[267] is good for griping pains in the -bowels and for attacks of flatulency: they are generally found adhering -to the leaves of marine plants, sucking their nutriment therefrom, and -may be rather looked upon as a sort of fungus than as a fish. They -are useful, also, for the removal of tenesmus and of diseases of the -kidneys. - -There grows also in the sea a kind of absinthium, known by some persons -as “seriphum,”[268] and found in the vicinity of Taposiris,[269] in -Egypt, more particularly. It is of a more slender form than the land -absinthium, acts as a purgative upon the bowels, and effectually -removes intestinal worms. The sæpia, too, is a laxative; for which -purpose these fish are administered[270] with the food, boiled with a -mixture of oil, salt, and meal. Salted mænæ,[271] applied with bull’s -gall to the navel, acts as a purgative upon the bowels. - -The liquor of fish, boiled in the saucepan with lettuces, dispels -tenesmus. River-crabs,[272] beaten up and taken with water, act -astringently upon the bowels, and they have a diuretic effect, if -taken with white wine. Deprived of the legs, and taken in doses of -three oboli with myrrh and iris, one drachma of each, they disperse -urinary calculi. For the cure of the iliac passion and of attacks of -flatulency, castoreum[273] should be taken, with seed of daucus[274] -and of parsley, a pinch in three fingers of each, the whole being mixed -with four cyathi of warm honied wine. Griping pains in the bowels -should be treated with castoreum and a mixture of dill and wine. The -fish called “erythinus,”[275] used as food, acts astringently upon the -bowels. Dysentery is cured by taking frogs boiled with squills, and -prepared in the form of boluses, or else hearts of frogs beaten up with -honey, as Niceratus[276] recommends. For the cure of jaundice, salt -fish should be taken with pepper, the patient abstaining from all other -kinds of meat. - - - - -CHAP. 32.—-REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE SPLEEN, FOR URINARY CALCULI, -AND FOR AFFECTIONS OF THE BLADDER. THE SOLE: ONE REMEDY. THE TURBOT: -ONE REMEDY. THE BLENDIUS: ONE REMEDY. THE SEA-NETTLE: SEVEN REMEDIES. -THE PULMO MARINUS: SIX REMEDIES. ONYCHES: FOUR REMEDIES. - - -For the cure of spleen diseases, the fish known as the sole[277] -is applied to that part; the torpedo,[278] also, or else a -live turbot;[279] it being then set at liberty in the sea. The -sea-scorpion,[280] killed in wine, is a cure for diseases of the -bladder and for urinary calculi; the stone, also, that is found in the -tail[281] of this last fish, taken in drink, in doses of one obolus; -the liver of the enhydris;[282] and the ashes of the fish called -“blendius;”[283] taken with rue. In the head, too, of the fish called -“bacchus,”[284] there are found certain small stones, as it were: -these, taken in water, six in number, are an excellent cure for urinary -calculi. They say, too, that the sea-nettle,[285] taken in wine, is -very useful for this purpose, as also the pulmo marinus,[286] boiled -in water. The eggs of the sæpia have a diuretic effect, and carry off -pituitous humours from the kidneys. Ruptures and convulsions are very -effectually treated by taking river-crabs,[287] bruised in asses’ milk -more particularly; and urinary calculi by drinking sea-urchins pounded, -spines and all, in wine; the due proportion being one semisextarius of -wine for each urchin, and the treatment being continued till its good -effects are visible. The flesh, too, of the sea-urchin, taken as food, -is very useful as a remedy for the same malady. - -Scallops[288] also, taken as food, act detergently upon the bladder: -the male fish is by some persons called “donax,” and by others “aulos,” -the female being known as “onyx.”[289] The male scallop has a diuretic -effect: the flesh of the female is sweeter than that of the male, and -of an uniform colour. The eggs, too, of the sæpia promote the urinary -secretions, and act detergently upon the kidneys. - - - - -CHAP. 33.—REMEDIES FOR INTESTINAL HERNIA, AND FOR DISEASES OF THE -RECTUM. THE WATER-SNAKE: ONE REMEDY. THE HYDRUS: ONE REMEDY. THE -MULLET: ONE REMEDY. THE PELAMIS: THREE REMEDIES. - - -For the cure of intestinal hernia the sea-hare is applied, bruised with -honey. The liver of the water-snake,[290] and that of the hydrus,[291] -bruised and taken in drink, are remedial for urinary calculi. Sciatica -is cured by using the pickle of the silurus[292] as a clyster, the -bowels being first thoroughly purged. For chafing of the fundament, -an application is made of heads of mullets and surmullets, reduced -to ashes; for which purpose they are calcined in an earthen vessel, -and must be applied in combination with honey. Calcined heads, too, -of the fish known as mænæ[293] are useful for the cure of chaps and -condylomata; as also heads of salted pelamides,[294] reduced to ashes, -or calcined cybium,[295] applied with honey. - -The torpedo,[296] applied topically, reduces procidence of the rectum. -River-crabs,[297] reduced to ashes, and applied with oil and wax, are -curative of chaps of the fundament: sea-crabs, too, are equally useful -for the purpose. - - - - -CHAP. 34.—-REMEDIES FOR INFLAMED TUMOURS, AND FOR DISEASES OF THE -GENERATIVE ORGANS. THE SCIÆNA: ONE REMEDY. THE PERCH: FOUR REMEDIES. -THE SQUATINA: THREE REMEDIES. THE SMARIS: THREE REMEDIES. - - -The pickle of the coracinus[298] disperses inflammatory tumours; an -effect which is equally produced by using the calcined intestines -and scales of the sciæna.[299] The sea-scorpion,[300] too, is used -for the same purpose, boiled in wine, and applied as a fomentation to -the part affected. Shells of sea-urchins, bruised and applied with -water, act as a check upon incipient inflammatory tumours. Ashes of -the murex, or of the purple, are employed in either case, whether it -is wanted to disperse inflammatory tumours in an incipient state, or -to bring them to a head and break them. Some authorities prescribe -the following preparation: of wax and frankincense twenty drachmæ, of -litharge forty drachmæ, of calcined murex ten drachmæ, and of old oil, -one semisextarius. Salt fish, boiled and applied by itself, is highly -useful for the above purposes. - -River crabs, bruised and applied, disperse pustules on the generative -organs: the same, too, with calcined heads of mænæ,[301] or the flesh -of that fish, boiled and applied. Heads of salted perch,[302] reduced -to ashes, and applied with honey, are equally useful for the purpose; -or else calcined heads of pelamides,[303] or skin of the squatina -reduced to ashes.[304] It is the skin of this fish that is used, as -already[305] stated, for giving a polish to wood; for the sea even, we -find, furnishes its aid to our artificers. For a similar purpose the -fishes called “smarides”[306] are applied topically; as also ashes of -the shell of the murex or of the purple, applied with honey; which last -are still more efficacious when the flesh has been burnt with the shell. - -Salt fish, boiled with honey, is particularly good for the cure of -carbuncles upon the generative organs. For relaxation of the testes, -the slime[307] of snails is recommended, applied in the form of a -liniment. - - - - -CHAP. 35.—REMEDIES FOR INCONTINENCE OF URINE. THE OPHIDION: ONE REMEDY. - - -The flesh of hippocampi,[308] grilled and taken frequently as food, -is a cure for incontinence of urine; the ophidion,[309] too, a little -fish similar to the conger in appearance, eaten with a lily root; or -the small fry found in the bellies of larger fish that have swallowed -them, reduced to ashes and taken in water. It is recommended, too, to -burn[310] African snails, both shells and flesh, and to administer the -ashes with wine[311] of Signia. - - - - -CHAP. 36.—REMEDIES FOR GOUT, AND FOR PAINS IN THE FEET. THE BEAVER: -FOUR REMEDIES. BRYON: ONE REMEDY. - - -For the cure of gout and of diseases of the joints, oil is useful -in which the intestines of frogs have been boiled. Ashes, too, of -burnt bramble-frogs[312] are similarly employed, with stale grease; -in addition to which, some persons use calcined barley, the three -ingredients being mixed in equal proportions. It is recommended too, -in cases of gout, to rub the parts affected with a sea-hare,[313] -fresh caught, and to wear shoes made of beaver’s skin, Pontic beaver -more particularly, or else of sea-calf’s[314] skin, an animal the fat -of which is very useful for the purpose: the same being the case also -with bryon, a plant of which we have already spoken,[315] similar to -the lettuce in appearance, but with more wrinkled leaves, and destitute -of stem. This plant is of a styptic nature, and, applied topically, it -tends to modify the paroxysms of gout. The same, too, with sea-weed, of -which we have also spoken already;[316] due precaution being taken not -to apply it dry. - -Chilblains are cured by applying the pulmo marinus;[317] ashes of -sea-crabs with oil; river crabs,[318] bruised and burnt to ashes and -kneaded up with oil; or else fat of the silurus.[319] In diseases of -the joints, the paroxysms are modified by applying fresh frogs every -now and then: some authorities recommend that they should be split -asunder before being applied. The liquor from mussels[320] and other -shell-fish has a tendency to make flesh. - - - - -CHAP. 37.—REMEDIES FOR EPILEPSY. - - -Epileptic patients, as already[321] stated, are recommended to drink -the rennet of the sea-calf,[322] mixed with mares’ milk or asses’ -milk, or else with pomegranate juice, or, in some cases, with oxymel: -some persons, too, swallow the rennet by itself, in the form of -pills. Castoreum[323] is sometimes administered, in three cyathi of -oxymel, to the patient fasting; but where the attacks are frequent, -it is employed in the form of a clyster, with marvellous effect. The -proper proportions, in this last case, are two drachmæ of castoreum, -one sextarius of oil and honey, and the same quantity of water. At -the moment that the patient is seized with a fit, it is a good plan -to give him castoreum, with vinegar, to smell. The liver, too, of -the sea-weasel[324] is given to epileptic patients, or else that of -sea-mice,[325] or the blood of tortoises. - - - - -CHAP. 38. (10.)—REMEDIES FOR FEVERS. THE FISH CALLED ASELLUS: ONE -REMEDY. THE PHAGRUS: ONE REMEDY. THE BALÆNA: ONE REMEDY. - - -Recurrent fevers are effectually checked by making the patient -taste the liver of a dolphin, just before the paroxysm comes on. -Hippocampi[326] are stifled in oil of roses, and the patients are -rubbed therewith in cold agues, the fish, also, being worn as an amulet -by the patient. In the same way, too, the small stones that are found -at full moon in the head of the fish called “asellus”[327] are worn, -attached in a piece of linen cloth to the patient’s body. A similar -virtue is attributed to the longest tooth of the river-fish called -phagrus,[328] attached to the patient with a hair, provided he does not -see the person who attaches it to him for five days. Frogs are boiled -in oil in a spot where three roads meet, and, the flesh being first -thrown away, the patients are rubbed with the decoction, by way of cure -for quartan fever. Some persons, again, suffocate frogs in oil, and, -after attaching them to the patient without his knowing it, anoint him -with the oil. The heart of a frog, worn as an amulet, modifies the -cold chills in fevers; the same, too, with oil in which the intestines -of frogs have been boiled. But the best remedy for quartan fevers, is -to wear attached to the body either frogs from which the claws have -been[329] removed, or else the liver or heart of a bramble-frog,[330] -attached in a piece of russet-coloured cloth. - -River-crabs,[331] bruised in oil and water, are highly beneficial in -fevers, the patient being anointed with the preparation just before -the paroxysms come on: some authorities recommend the addition of -pepper to the mixture. Others prescribe for quartan fevers a decoction -of river-crabs in wine, boiled down to one fourth, the patient taking -it at the moment of leaving the bath: by some, too, it is recommended -to swallow the left eye of a river-crab. The magicians engage to -cure a tertian fever, by attaching as an amulet to the patient, -before sunrise, the eyes of river-crabs, the crabs when thus blinded -being set at liberty in the water. They say, too, that these eyes, -attached to the body in a piece of deer’s hide, with the flesh of a -nightingale,[332] will dispel sleep and promote watchfulness. In cases -where there are symptoms of lethargy, the rennet of the balæna[333] or -of the sea-calf[334] is given to the patient to smell; some persons, -too, use the blood of tortoises as a liniment for lethargic patients. - -Tertian fevers, it is said, may be cured by wearing one of the -vertebræ[335] of a perch attached to the body, and quartan fevers by -using fresh river snails, as an aliment. Some persons preserve these -snails in salt for this purpose, and give them, pounded, in drink. - - - - -CHAP. 39.—REMEDIES FOR LETHARGY, CACHEXY, AND DROPSY. - - -Strombi,[336] left to putrefy in vinegar, act as an excitant upon -lethargic patients by their smell; they are very useful, too, for the -cure of cardiac diseases. For cachectic patients, where the body is -wasting with consumption, tetheæ[337] are considered beneficial, mixed -with rue and honey. For the cure of dropsy, dolphin’s fat is melted and -taken with wine, the repulsive taste of it being neutralized by first -touching the nostrils with unguent or some other odoriferous substance, -or else by plugging the nostrils in some way or other. The flesh of -strombi, pounded and given in three heminæ of honied wine and the same -quantity of water, or, if there is fever, in hydromel, is very useful -for dropsy: the same, too, with the juice of river-crabs, administered -with honey. Water frogs, too, are boiled with old wine and spelt,[338] -and taken as food, the liquor in which they have been boiled being -drunk from the same vessel: or else the feet, head, and tail of a -tortoise are cut off, and the intestines removed, the rest of the flesh -being seasoned in such a manner as to allow of its being taken without -loathing. River-crabs, too, eaten with their broth, are said to be very -good for the cure of phthisis. - - - - -CHAP. 40.—REMEDIES FOR BURNS AND FOR ERYSIPELAS. - - -Burns are cured by applying ashes of calcined sea-crabs or river-crabs -with oil: fish-glue, too, and calcined frogs are used as an application -for scalds produced by boiling water. The same treatment also restores -the hair, provided the ashes are those of river-crabs: it is generally -thought, too, that the preparation should be applied with wax and -bears’ grease. Ashes, too, of burnt beaver-skin are very useful for -these purposes. Live frogs act as a check upon erysipelas, the belly -side being applied to the part affected: it is recommended, too, to -attach them lengthwise by the hinder legs, so as to render them more -beneficial by reason of their increased respiration.[339] Heads, too, -of salted siluri[340] are reduced to ashes and applied with vinegar. - -Prurigo and itch-scab, not only in man but in quadrupeds as well, are -most efficaciously treated with the liver of the pastinaca[341] boiled -in oil. - - - - -CHAP. 41.—REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE SINEWS. - - -The exterior callosity with which the flesh of purples is covered, -beaten up, unites the sinews, even when they have been severed -asunder. It is a good plan, for patients suffering from tetanus, -to take sea-calf’s rennet in wine, in doses of one obolus, as also -fish-glue.[342] Persons affected with fits of trembling find much -relief from castoreum,[343] provided they are well anointed with oil. -I find it stated that the surmullet,[344] used as an article of diet, -acts injuriously upon the sinews. - - - - -CHAP. 42.—METHODS OF ARRESTING HÆMORRHAGE AND OF LETTING BLOOD. THE -POLYP: ONE REMEDY. - - -Fish, used as an aliment, it is generally thought, make blood. The -polyp,[345] bruised and applied, arrests hæmorrhage, it is thought: in -addition to which we find stated the following particulars respecting -it—that of itself it emits a sort of brine, in consequence of which, -there is no necessity to use any in cooking it—that it should always -be sliced with a reed—and that it is spoilt by using an iron knife, -becoming tainted thereby, owing to the antipathy[346] which naturally -exists [between it and iron]. For the purpose also of arresting -hæmorrhage, ashes of burnt frogs are applied topically, or else the -dried blood of those animals. Some authorities recommend the frog to -be used, that is known by the Greeks as “calamites,”[347] from the -fact that it lives among reeds[348] and shrubs; it is the smallest -and greenest of all the frogs, and either the blood or the ashes -of it are recommended to be employed. Others, again, prescribe, in -cases of bleeding at the nostrils, an injection of the ashes of young -water-frogs, in the tadpole state, calcined in a new earthen vessel. - -On the other hand, again, in cases where it is required to let blood, -the kind of leech is used which is known among us by the name of -“sanguisuga.[349]” Indeed, the action of these leeches is looked upon -as pretty much the same as that of the cupping-glasses[350] used in -medicine, their effect being to relieve the body of superfluous blood, -and to open the pores of the skin. Still, however, there is this -inconvenience attending them—when they have been once applied, they -create a necessity[351] for having recourse to the same treatment at -about the same period in every succeeding year. Many physicians have -been of opinion also, that leeches may be successfully applied in cases -of gout. When gorged, they fall off in consequence of losing their hold -through the weight of the blood, but if not, they must be sprinkled -with salt[352] for the purpose. - -Leeches are apt, however, to leave their heads buried in the flesh; -the consequence of which is an incurable wound, which has caused death -in many cases, that of Messalinus,[353] for example, a patrician of -consular rank, after an application of leeches to his knee. When this -is the case, that which was intended as a remedy is turned into an -active poison;[354] a result which is to be apprehended in using the -red leeches more particularly. Hence it is that when these last are -employed, it is the practice to snip them with a pair of scissors while -sucking; the consequence of which is, that the blood oozes forth, -through a siphon, as it were, and the head, gradually contracting as -the animal dies, is not left behind in the wound. There is a natural -antipathy[355] existing between leeches and bugs, and hence it is that -the latter are killed by the aid of a fumigation made with leeches. -Ashes of beaver-skin burnt with tar, kneaded up with leek-juice, arrest -bleeding at the nostrils. - - - - -CHAP. 43.—METHODS OF EXTRACTING FOREIGN BODIES FROM THE FLESH. - - -To extract pointed weapons which have pierced the flesh, ashes of -calcined shells of the sæpia are used, as also of the purple, the meat -of salted fish, bruised river-crabs, or flesh of the silurus[356] (a -river-fish that is found in other streams as well as the Nilus[357]), -applied either fresh or salted. The ashes also of this fish, as -well as the fat, have the property of extracting pointed bodies, -and the back-bone, in a calcined state, is used as a substitute for -spodium.[358] - - - - -CHAP. 44.—REMEDIES FOR ULCERS, CARCINOMATA, AND CARBUNCLES. - - -Ulcers of a serpiginous nature, as also the fleshy excrescences which -make their appearance in them, are kept in check by applying ashes -of calcined heads of mænæ,[359] or else ashes of the silurus.[360] -Carcinomata, too, are treated with heads of salted perch, their -efficacy being considerably increased by using some salt along -with the ashes, and kneading them up with heads of cunila[361] and -olive-oil. Ashes of sea-crabs, calcined with lead, arrest the progress -of carcinomatous sores; a purpose for which ashes of river-crabs, in -combination with honey and fine lint, are equally useful: though there -are some authorities which prefer mixing alum and barley with the -ashes. Phagedænic ulcers are cured by an application of dried silurus -pounded with sandarach;[362] malignant cancers, corrosive ulcers, and -putrid sores, by the agency of stale cybium.[363] - -Maggots that breed in sores are removed by applying frogs’ gall; and -fistulas are opened and dried by introducing a tent made of salt fish, -with a dossil of lint. Salt fish, kneaded up and applied in the form -of a plaster, will remove all proud flesh in the course of a day, and -will arrest the further progress of putrid and serpiginous ulcers. -Alex,[364] applied in lint, acts detergently, also, upon ulcers; the -same, too, with the ashes of calcined shells of sea-urchins. Salted -slices of the coracinus[365] disperse carbuncles, an effect equally -produced by the ashes of salted surmullets.[366] Some persons, however, -use the head only of the surmullet, in combination with honey or -with the flesh of the coracinus. Ashes of the murex, applied with -oil, disperse tumours, and the gall of the sea-scorpion makes scars -disappear. - - - - -CHAP. 45.—REMEDIES FOR WARTS, AND FOR MALFORMED NAILS. THE GLANIS: ONE -REMEDY. - - -To remove warts, the liver of the glanis[367] is applied to the part; -ashes also of heads of mæmæ[368] bruised with garlic—substances which -should be used raw where it is thyme-warts[369] that require to be -removed—the gall of the red sea-scorpion,[370] smarides[371] pounded -and applied, or alex[372] thoroughly boiled. Ashes of calcined heads of -mænæ[373] are used to rectify malformed nails. - - - - -CHAP. 46.—REMEDIES FOR FEMALE DISEASES. THE GLAUCISCUS: ONE REMEDY. - - -The milk is increased in females by eating the glauciscus[374] in its -own liquor, or else smarides[375] with a ptisan, or boiled with fennel. -Ashes of calcined shells of the murex or purple, applied with honey, -are an effectual cure for affections of the mamillæ; river-crabs, -too, and sea-crabs, applied topically, are equally good. The meat -of the murex, applied to the mamillæ, removes hairs[376] growing -upon those parts. The squatina,[377] applied topically, prevents the -mamillæ from becoming too distended. Lint greased with dolphin’s[378] -fat, and then ignited, produces a smoke which acts as an excitant -upon females suffering from hysterical suffocations; the same, too, -with strombi,[379] left to putrefy in vinegar. Heads of perch or -of mænæ,[380] calcined and mixed with salt, oil, and cunila,[381] -are curative of diseases of the uterus: used as a fumigation, they -bring away the afterbirth. Fat,[382] too, of the sea-calf, melted by -the agency of fire, is introduced into the nostrils of females when -swooning from hysterical suffocations; and for a similar purpose, the -rennet of that animal is applied as a pessary, in wool. - -The pulmo marinus,[383] attached to the body as an amulet, is an -excellent promoter of menstruation; an effect which is equally -produced by pounding live sea-urchins, and taking them in sweet wine. -River-crabs,[384] bruised in wine, and taken internally, arrest -menstruation. The silurus,[385] that of Africa[386] more particularly, -used as a fumigation, facilitates parturition, it is said. Crabs, taken -in water, arrest menstruation; but used with hyssop, they act as an -emmenagogue, we are told. In cases, too, where the infant is in danger -of suffocation at the moment of delivery, a similar drink, administered -to the mother, is highly efficacious. Crabs, too, either fresh or -dried, are taken in drink, for the purpose of preventing abortion. -Hippocrates[387] prescribes them as a promoter of menstruation, and -as an expellent of the dead fœtus, beaten up with five[388] roots of -lapathum and rue and some soot, and administered in honied wine. Crabs, -boiled and taken in their liquor, with lapathum[389] and parsley, -promote the menstrual discharge, and increase the milk. In cases of -fever, attended with pains in the head and throbbing of the eyes, crabs -are said to be highly beneficial to females, given in astringent wine. - -Castoreum,[390] taken in honied wine, is useful as a promoter of -menstruation: in cases of hysterical suffocation, it is given to the -patient to smell at with pitch and vinegar, or else it is made up into -tablets and used as a pessary. For the purpose also of bringing away -the afterbirth it is found a useful plan to employ castoreum with -panax,[391] in four cyathi of wine; and in cases where the patient is -suffering from cold, in doses of three oboli. If, however, a female in -a state of pregnancy should happen to step over castoreum, or over the -beaver itself, abortion, it is said, will be the sure result: so, too, -if castoreum is only held over a pregnant woman’s head, there will be -great danger of miscarriage. - -There is a very marvellous fact, too, that I find stated in reference -to the torpedo:[392] if it is caught at the time that the moon is -in Libra, and kept in the open air for three days, it will always -facilitate parturition, as often as it is introduced into the apartment -of a woman in labour. The sting, too, of the pastinaca,[393] attached -to the navel, is generally thought to have the property of facilitating -delivery: it must be taken, however, from the fish while alive; which -done, the fish must be returned to the sea. I find it stated by some -authorities that there is a substance called “ostraceum,” which is also -spoken of as “onyx”[394] by others; that, used as a fumigation, it is -wonderfully beneficial for suffocations of the uterus; that in smell it -resembles castoreum, and is still more efficacious, if burnt with this -last substance; and that in a calcined state it has the property of -healing inveterate ulcers, and cancerous sores of a malignant nature. -As to carbuncles and carcinomatous sores upon the secret parts of -females, there is nothing more efficacious, it is said, than a female -crab beaten up, just after full moon, with flower of salt[395] and -applied with water. - - - - -CHAP. 47.—METHODS OF REMOVING SUPERFLUOUS HAIR. DEPILATORIES. - - -Depilatories are prepared from the blood, gall, and liver of the tunny, -either fresh or preserved; as also from pounded liver of the same fish, -preserved with cedar resin[396] in a leaden box; a recipe which we -find given by the midwife Salpe[397] for disguising the age of boys on -sale for slaves. A similar property belongs to the pulmo marinus,[398] -to the blood and gall of the sea-hare, and to the sea-hare itself, -stifled in oil. The same, too, with ashes of burnt crabs or sea -scolopendræ,[399] mixed with oil; sea-nettles,[400] bruised in squill -vinegar; and brains of the torpedo[401] applied with alum on the -sixteenth day of the moon. The thick matter emitted by the small frogs, -which we have described when treating[402] of eye-diseases, is a most -efficient depilatory, if applied fresh: the same, too, with the frog -itself, dried and pounded, and then boiled down to one-third in three -heminæ of water, or else boiled in a copper vessel with oil in a like -proportion. Others, again, prepare a depilatory from fifteen frogs, in -manner already[403] stated under the head of remedies for the eyes. -Leeches, also, grilled in an earthen vessel, and applied with vinegar, -have the same property as a depilatory; the very odour, too, which -attaches to the persons who thus burn them is singularly efficacious -for killing bugs.[404] Cases are to be found, too, where persons have -used castoreum with honey, for many days together, as a depilatory. -In the case, however, of every depilatory, the hairs should always be -removed before it is applied. - - - - -CHAP. 48.—REMEDIES FOR THE DISEASES OF INFANTS. - - -Dentition in infants is promoted, and the gums greatly relieved, by -rubbing them with ashes of a dolphin’s teeth, mixed with honey, or -else by touching the gums with the tooth itself of that fish. One of -these teeth, worn as an amulet, is a preventive of sudden frights;[405] -the tooth of the dog-fish[406] being also possessed of a similar -property. As to ulcers which make their appearance in the ears, or in -any other parts of the body, they may be cured by applying the liquor -of river-crabs,[407] with barley-meal. These crabs, too, bruised in -oil and employed as a friction, are very useful for other kinds of -maladies. A sponge moistened with cold water from time to time,[408] -or a frog applied, the back part to the head, is a most efficacious -cure for siriasis[409] in infants. When the frog is removed, it will be -found quite dry, they say. - - - - -CHAP. 49.—METHODS OF PREVENTING INTOXICATION. THE FISH CALLED RUBELLIO: -ONE REMEDY. THE EEL: ONE REMEDY. THE GRAPE-FISH: ONE REMEDY. - - -A surmullet[410] stifled in wine; the fish called “rubellio;”[411] or a -couple of eels similarly treated; or a grapefish,[412] left to putrefy -in wine, all of them, produce an aversion to wine in those who drink -thereof. - - - - -CHAP. 50.—ANTAPHRODISIACS AND APHRODISIACS. THE HIPPOPOTAMUS: ONE -REMEDY. THE CROCODILE: ONE REMEDY. - - -In the number of antaphrodisiacs, we have the echeneïs;[413] the skin -from the left side of the forehead of the hippopotamus,[414] attached -to the body in lamb-skin; and the gall of a live torpedo,[415] applied -to the generative organs. - -The following substances act as aphrodisiacs—the flesh of river-snails, -preserved in salt and given to drink in wine; the erythinus[416] taken -as food; the liver of the frog called “diopetes” or “calamites”[417] -attached to the body in a small piece of crane’s skin; the eye-tooth -of a crocodile, attached to the arm; the hippocampus;[418] and the -sinews of a bramble-frog,[419] worn as an amulet upon the right arm. -A bramble-frog, attached to the body in a piece of fresh sheep-skin, -effectually puts an end to love. - - - - -CHAP. 51.—REMEDIES FOR THE DISEASES OF ANIMALS. - - -A decoction of frogs in water, reduced to the form of a liniment, is -curative of itch-scab in horses; indeed, it is said, that a horse, when -once treated in this manner, will never again be attacked with the -disease. Salpe says that if a live frog is given to dogs in their mess, -they will lose the power of barking. - - - - -CHAP. 52.—OTHER AQUATIC PRODUCTIONS. ADARCA OR CALAMOCHNOS: THREE -REMEDIES. REEDS: EIGHT REMEDIES. THE INK OF THE SÆPIA. - - -Among the aquatic productions ought also to be mentioned calamochnos, -in Latin known as “adarca,”[420] a substance which collects about -small reeds, from a mixture of the foam of fresh and of sea water. -It possesses certain caustic properties, and hence it is that it is -so useful as an ingredient in “acopa”[421] and as a remedy for cold -shiverings; it is used too, for removing freckles upon the face of -females. And now we are speaking of adarca, the reed ought equally to -be mentioned. The root of that known as the “phragmites,”[422] pounded -fresh, is curative of sprains, and, applied topically with vinegar, -removes pains in the spine. The calcined bark, too, of the Cyprian[423] -reed, known as the “donax,” is curative of alopecy and inveterate -ulcers; and its leaves are good for the extraction of foreign bodies -adhering to the flesh, and for the cure of erysipelas: should, however, -the flower of the panicle happen to enter the ears, deafness[424] is -the consequence. - -The ink of the sæpia[425] is possessed of such remarkable potency, -that if it is put into a lamp, Anaxilaüs tells us, the light will -become entirely changed,[426] and all present will look as black as -Æthiopians. The bramble-frog, boiled in water, and given to swine with -their drink, is curative of the maladies with which they are affected; -an effect equally produced by the ashes of any other kind of frog. -If wood is rubbed with the pulmo marinus,[427] it will have all the -appearance of being on fire; so much so, indeed, that a walking-stick, -thus treated, will light the way like a torch.[428] - - - - -CHAP. 53. (11.)—THE NAMES OF ALL THE ANIMALS THAT EXIST IN THE SEA, ONE -HUNDRED AND SEVENTY-SIX IN NUMBER. - - -Having now completed our exposition of the properties which belong to -the aquatic productions, it would appear by no means foreign to my -purpose to give a list of the various animated beings which inhabit -the seas; so many as these are in number, of such vast extent, and not -only making their way into the interior of the land to a distance of so -many miles, but also surrounding the exterior of it to an extent almost -equal to that of the world itself. These animals, it is generally -considered, embrace one hundred and seventy-six different[429] species, -and it will be my object to set them forth, each by its distinct name, -a thing that cannot possibly be done in reference to the terrestrial -animals and the birds. - -For, in fact, we are by no means acquainted with all the wild beasts -or all the birds that are to be found in India, Æthiopia, Scythia, or -the desert regions of the earth; and even of man himself there are -numerous varieties, which as yet we have been unable[430] to make -ourselves acquainted with. In addition, too, to the various countries -above mentioned, we have Taprobane[431] and other isles of the Ocean, -about which so many fabulous stories are related. Surely then, every -one must allow that it is quite impossible to comprise every species -of animal in one general view for the information of mankind. And yet, -by Hercules! in the sea and in the Ocean, vast as it is, there exists -nothing that is unknown to us,[432] and, a truly marvellous fact, it is -with those things which Nature has concealed in the deep that we are -the best acquainted! - -To begin then with the monsters[433] that are found in this -element. We here find sea-trees,[434] physeters,[435] balænæ,[436] -pistrices,[437] tritons,[438] nereids,[439] elephants,[440] the -creatures known as sea-men,[441] sea-wheels,[442] orcæ,[443] -sea-rams,[444] musculi,[445] other fish too with the form of rams,[446] -dolphins,[447] sea-calves,[448] so celebrated by Homer,[449] -tortoises[450] to minister to our luxury, and beavers, so extensively -employed in medicine,[451] to which class belongs the otter,[452] an -animal which we nowhere find frequenting the sea, it being only of -the marine animals that we are speaking. There are dog-fish,[453] -also, drinones,[454] cornutæ,[455] swordfish,[456] saw-fish,[457] -hippopotami[458] and crocodiles,[459] common to the sea, the land, and -the rivers; tunnies[460] also, thynnides, siluri,[461] coracini,[462] -and perch,[463] common to the sea only and to rivers. - -To the sea only, belong also the acipenser,[464] the dorade,[465] -the asellus,[466] the acharne,[467] the aphye,[468] the alopex,[469] -the eel,[470] the araneus,[471] the boca,[472] the batia,[473] the -bacchus,[474] the batrachus,[475] the belonæ,[476] known to us as -“aculeati,”[477] the balanus,[478] the corvus,[479] the citharus, the -least esteemed of all the turbots, the chalcis,[480] the cobio,[481] -the callarias,[482] which would belong to the genus of the aselli[483] -were it not smaller; the colias,[484] otherwise known as the fish of -Parium[485] or of Sexita,[486] this last from a place of that name -in Bætica its native region, the smallest, too, of the lacerti;[487] -the colias of the Mæotis, the next smallest of the lacerti; the -cybium,[488] (the name given, when cut into pieces, to the pelamis[489] -which returns at the end of forty days from the Euxine to the Palus -Mæotis); the cordyla[490]—which is also a small pelamis, so called -at the time when it enters the Euxine from the Palus Mæotis—the -cantharus,[491] the callionymus[492] or uranoscopus, the cinædus, the -only[493] fish that is of a yellow colour; the cnide, known to us as -the sea-nettle;[494] the different kinds of crabs,[495] the striated -chemæ,[496] the smooth chemæ, the chemæ belonging to the genus of -pelorides,[497] all differing in the variety of their colours and -in the roundness of the shells; the chemæ glycymarides,[498] still -larger than the pelorides; the coluthia or coryphia;[499] the various -kinds of shellfish, among which we find the pearl oysters,[500] the -cochleæ,[501] (belonging to which class are the pentadactyli,[502]) the -helices,[503] by some known as actinophori, the spokes[504] on whose -shells are used for musical purposes;[505] and, in addition to these, -the round cochleæ, the shells of which are used in measuring oil, as -also the sea-cucumber,[506] the cynopos,[507] the cammarus,[508] and -the cynosdexia.[509] - -Next to these we have the sea-dragon,[510] a fish which, according -to some, is altogether distinct from the dracunculus,[511] and -resembles the gerricula in appearance, it having on the gills a -stickle which points towards the tail and inflicts a wound like that -of the scorpion[512] when the fish is handled—the erythinus,[513] the -echeneïs,[514] the sea-urchin,[515] the sea-elephant, a black kind of -crayfish, with four forked legs, in addition to two arms with double -joints, and furnished, each of them, with a pair of claws, indented -at the edge; the faber,[516] also, or zæus, the glauciscus,[517] the -glanis,[518] the gonger,[519] the gerres,[520] the galeos,[521] the -garos,[522] the hippos,[523] the hippuros,[524] the hirundo,[525] -the halipleumon,[526] the hippocampus,[527] the hepar,[528] the -ictinus[529] and the iulis.[530] There are various kinds also of -lacerti,[531] the springing loligo,[532] the crayfish,[533] the -lantern-fish,[534] the lepas,[535] the larinus, the sea-hare,[536] and -the sea-lion,[537] with arms like those of the crab, and in the other -parts of the body like the cray-fish. - -We have the surmullet[538] also, the sea black-bird,[539] highly -esteemed among the rock-fish; the mullet,[540] the melanurus,[541] -the mæna,[542] the mæotis,[543] the muræna,[544] the mys,[545] the -mitulus,[546] the myiscus,[547] the murex,[548] the oculata,[549] the -ophidion,[550] the oyster,[551] the otia,[552] the orcynus—the largest -of all the pelamides[553] and one that never returns to the Palus -Mæotis, like the tritomus[554] in appearance, and best when old—the -orbis,[555] the orthagoriscus,[556] the phager,[557] the phycis[558] -a rock-fish, the pelamis,[559] (the largest kind of which is called -“apolectum,”[560] and is tougher than the tritomus) the sea-pig,[561] -the phthir,[562] the sea-sparrow,[563] the pastinaca,[564] the several -varieties of the polyp,[565] the scallop,[566] which is larger and more -swarthy in summer than at other times, and the most esteemed of which -are those of Mitylene,[567] Tyndaris,[568] Salonæ,[569] Altinum,[570] -the island of Chios, and Alexandria in Egypt; the small scallop,[571] -the purple,[572] the pegris,[573] the pinna,[574] the pinnotheres,[575] -the rhine[576] or squalus of the Latins, the turbot,[577] the -scarus,[578] a fish which holds the first rank at the present day; -the sole,[579] the sargus,[580] the squilla,[581] the sarda[582]—such -being the name of an elongated pelamis[583] which comes from the Ocean; -the scomber,[584] the salpa,[585] the sorus,[586] the scorpæna,[587] -the sea-scorpion,[588] the solas,[589] the sciæna,[590] the -sciadeus,[591] the scolopendra,[592] the smyrus,[593] the sæpia,[594] -the strombus,[595] the solen,[596] otherwise known as the aulos, -donax, onyx or dactylus; the spondylus,[597] the smaris,[598] the -starfish,[599] and the sponges.[600] There is the sea-thrush[601] also, -famous among the rock-fish, the thynnis,[602] the thranis, by some -writers known as the xiphias;[603] the thrissa,[604] the torpedo,[605] -the tethea,[606] the tritomus, a large kind of pelamis,[607] which -admits of being cut into three cybia;[608] the shells of Venus,[609] -the grape-fish,[610] and the xiphias.[611] - - - - -CHAP. 54.—ADDITIONAL NAMES OF FISHES FOUND IN THE POEM OF OVID. - - -To the above enumeration we will add some names given in the poem of -Ovid,[612] which are not to be found in any other writer: species, -however, which are probably peculiar to the Euxine, on the shores[613] -of which he commenced that work towards the close of his life. The -fishes thus mentioned by him are the sea-ox, the cercyrus, that -dwells among the rocks, the orphus,[614] the red erythinus,[615] the -iulus,[616] the tinted mormyr, the chrysophrys[617] a fish of a golden -colour, the parus,[618] the tragus,[619] the melanurus[620] remarkable -for the beauty of its tail, and the epodes,[621] a flat fish. - -In addition to these remarkable kinds of fishes, the same poet tells -us that the channes[622] conceives of itself, that the glaucus[623] -never makes its appearance in summer, that the pompilus[624] always -accompanies vessels in their course, and that the chromis[625] makes -its nest in the water. The helops, he says, is unknown to our waters; -from which it would appear that those are in error who look upon it -as identical with our acipenser.[626] Many persons have given the -preference to the helops before all other fish, in point of flavour. - -There are several fishes also, which have been mentioned by no author; -such, for instance, as the one called “sudis” by the Latins, and -“sphyrene” by the Greeks, names which indicate the peculiar form of its -muzzle.[627] It is one of the very largest kinds, but rarely found, -and by no means of inferior flavour. “Perna,” too, is the name given -to a kind of shell-fish, found in vast numbers in the vicinity of the -islands of the Euxine. These fish are found firmly planted in the sand, -resembling in appearance the long shank[628] of a hog. Opening wide -their shells, where there is sufficient space, they lie in wait for -their prey; this opening being not less than a foot in breadth, and the -edges of it garnished around with teeth closely set, much resembling -the teeth of a comb in form. Within the shell, the meat consists of a -vast lump of flesh. I once saw, too, a fish called the “hyæna,”[629] -which had been caught off the island of Ænaria.[630] - -In addition to these animals, there are certain excretions thrown up -by the sea, which do not merit any further notice, and indeed ought to -be reckoned among the sea-weeds, rather than looked upon as animated -beings. - -SUMMARY.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, nine hundred and -ninety. - -ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Licinius Macer,[631] Trebius Niger,[632] Sextius -Niger[633] who wrote in Greek, the Poet Ovid,[634] Cassius Hemina,[635] -Mæcenas,[636] Iacchus,[637] Sornatius.[638] - -FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Juba,[639] Andreas,[640] Salpe,[641] -Apion,[642] Pelops,[643] Apelles,[644] Thrasyllus,[645] Nicander.[646] - - - - -BOOK XXXIII. - -THE NATURAL HISTORY OF METALS.[647] - - - - -CHAP. 1. (1.)—METALS. - - -We are now about to speak of metals, of actual wealth,[648] the -standard of comparative value, objects for which we diligently search, -within the earth, in numerous ways. In one place, for instance, we -undermine it for the purpose of obtaining riches, to supply the -exigencies of life, searching for either gold or silver, electrum[649] -or copper.[650] In another place, to satisfy the requirements of -luxury, our researches extend to gems and pigments, with which to adorn -our fingers[651] and the walls of our houses: while in a third place, -we gratify our rash propensities by a search for iron, which, amid wars -and carnage, is deemed more acceptable even than gold. We trace out -all the veins of the earth, and yet, living upon it, undermined as it -is beneath our feet, are astonished that it should occasionally cleave -asunder or tremble: as though, forsooth, these signs could be any -other than expressions of the indignation felt by our sacred parent! -We penetrate into her entrails, and seek for treasures in the abodes -even of the Manes,[652] as though each spot we tread upon were not -sufficiently bounteous and fertile for us! - -And yet, amid all this, we are far from making remedies the object of -our researches: and how few in thus delving into the earth have in -view the promotion of medicinal knowledge! For it is upon her surface, -in fact, that she has presented us with these substances, equally -with the cereals, bounteous and ever ready, as she is, in supplying -us with all things for our benefit! It is what is concealed from our -view, what is sunk far beneath her surface, objects, in fact, of no -rapid formation,[653] that urge us to our ruin, that send us to the -very depths of hell. As the mind ranges in vague speculation, let us -only consider, proceeding through all ages, as these operations are, -when will be the end of thus exhausting the earth, and to what point -will avarice finally penetrate! How innocent, how happy, how truly -delightful even would life be, if we were to desire nothing but what is -to be found upon the face of the earth; in a word, nothing but what is -provided ready to our hands! - - - - -CHAP. 2.—GOLD. - - -Gold is dug out of the earth, and, in close proximity to it, -chrysocolla,[654] a substance which, that it may appear all the more -precious, still retains the name[655] which it has borrowed from -gold.[656] It was not enough for us to have discovered one bane for -the human race, but we must set a value too upon the very humours -of gold.[657] While avarice, too, was on the search for silver, it -congratulated itself upon the discovery of minium,[658] and devised a -use to be made of this red earth. - -Alas for the prodigal inventions of man! in how many ways have we -augmented the value of things![659] In addition to the standard value -of these metals, the art of painting lends its aid, and we have -rendered gold and silver still more costly by the art of chasing them. -Man has learned how to challenge both Nature and art to become the -incitements to vice! His very cups he has delighted to engrave with -libidinous subjects, and he takes pleasure in drinking from vessels -of obscene form![660] But in lapse of time, the metals passed out of -fashion, and men began to make no account of them; gold and silver, in -fact, became too common. From this same earth we have extracted vessels -of murrhine[661] and vases of crystal,[662] objects the very fragility -of which is considered to enhance their value. In fact, it has come -to be looked upon as a proof of opulence, and as quite the glory of -luxury, to possess that which may be irremediably destroyed in an -instant. Nor was even this enough;—we now drink from out of a mass of -gems,[663] and we set our goblets with smaragdi;[664] we take delight -in possessing the wealth of India, as the promoter of intoxication, and -gold is now nothing more than a mere accessory.[665] - - - - -CHAP. 3.—WHAT WAS THE FIRST RECOMMENDATION OF GOLD. - - -Would that gold could have been banished for ever from the earth, -accursed by universal report,[666] as some of the most celebrated -writers have expressed themselves, reviled by the reproaches of the -best of men, and looked upon as discovered only for the ruin of -mankind. How much more happy the age when things themselves were -bartered for one another; as was the case in the times of the Trojan -war, if we are to believe what Homer says. For, in this way, in my -opinion, was commerce then carried on for the supply of the necessaries -of life. Some, he tells us, would make their purchases by bartering -ox-hides, and others by bartering iron or the spoil which they had -taken from the enemy:[667] and yet he himself, already an admirer of -gold, was so far aware of the relative value of things, that Glaucus, -he informs us, exchanged his arms of gold, valued at one hundred oxen, -for those of Diomedes, which were worth but nine.[668] Proceeding upon -the same system of barter, many of the fines imposed by ancient laws, -at Rome even, were levied in cattle,[669] [and not in money]. - - - - -CHAP. 4.—THE ORIGIN OF GOLD RINGS. - - -The worst crime against mankind was committed by him who was the -first to put a ring upon his fingers: and yet we are not informed, by -tradition, who it was that first did so. For as to all the stories told -about Prometheus, I look upon them as utterly fabulous, although I am -aware that the ancients used to represent him with a ring of iron: it -was their intention, however, to signify a chain thereby, and not an -ornament. As to the ring of Midas,[670] which, upon the collet being -turned inwards, conferred invisibility upon the wearer, who is there -that must not admit, perforce, that this story is even still more -fabulous? It was the hand, and a sinister[671] hand, too, in every -sense, that first brought gold into such high repute: not a Roman hand, -however, for upon that it was the practice to wear a ring of iron only, -and solely as an indication of warlike prowess. - -As to the usage followed by the Roman kings, it is not easy to -pronounce an opinion: the statue of Romulus in the Capitol wears no -ring, nor does any other statue—not that of L. Brutus even—with the -sole exception of those of Numa and Servius Tullius. I am surprised -at this absence of the ring, in the case of the Tarquinii more -particularly, seeing that they were originally from Greece,[672] a -country from which the use of gold rings was first introduced; though -even at the present day the people of Lacedæmon are in the habit of -wearing rings made of iron. Tarquinius Priscus, however, it is well -known, was the first who presented his son with the golden bulla,[673] -on the occasion of his slaying an enemy before he had laid aside the -prætexta;[674] from which period the custom of wearing the bulla has -been continued, a distinction confined to the children of those who -have served in the cavalry, those of other persons simply wearing a -leather thong.[675] Such being the case, I am the more surprised that -the statue of this Tarquinius should be without a ring. - -And yet, with reference to the very name of the ring, I find that there -has been considerable uncertainty. That given to it originally by the -Greeks is derived from the finger;[676] while our ancestors styled it -“ungulus;”[677] and in later times both Greeks and Latins have given -it the name of “symbolum.”[678] For a great length of time, it is -quite clear, not even the Roman senators wore rings of gold: for rings -were given, and at the public expense, to those only who were about to -proceed on an embassy to foreign nations, the reason being, I suppose, -because men of highest rank among foreign nations were perceived to -be thus distinguished. Nor was it the practice for any person to wear -these rings, except those who for this reason had received them at the -public expense; and in most instances, it was without this distinction -that the Roman generals celebrated their public triumphs.[679] For -whereas an Etruscan crown[680] of gold was supported from behind over -the head of the victor, he himself, equally with the slave probably, -who was so supporting the crown, had nothing but a ring of iron upon -his finger.[681] It was in this manner that C. Marius celebrated his -triumph over Jugurtha; and he never assumed[682] the golden ring, it -is said, until the period of his third consulship.[683] Those, too, -who had received golden rings on the occasion of an embassy, only wore -them when in public, resuming the ring of iron when in their houses. It -is in pursuance of this custom that even at the present day, an iron -ring[684] is sent by way of present to a woman when betrothed, and -that, too, without any stone in it. - -For my own part, I do not find that any rings were used in the days of -the Trojan War; at all events, Homer nowhere makes mention of them; -for although he speaks of the practice of sending tablets[685] by way -of letter,[686] of clothes and gold and silver plate being kept laid -up in chests,[687] still he gives us to understand that they were kept -secure by the aid of a knot tied fast, and not under a seal impressed -by a ring. He does not inform us too, that when the chiefs drew lots -to ascertain which one of them should reply to the challenge[688] of -the enemy, they made any use of rings[689] for the purpose; and when -he enumerates the articles that were manufactured at the forge[690] of -the gods, he speaks of this as being the origin[691] of fibulæ[692] and -other articles of female ornament, such as ear-rings for example, but -does not make any mention of rings. [693] Whoever it was that first -introduced the use of rings, he did so not without hesitation; for he -placed this ornament on the left hand, the hand which is generally -concealed,[694] whereas, if he had been sure of its being an honourable -distinction, it would have been made more conspicuous upon the right. -And if any one should raise the objection that this would have acted -as an impediment to the right hand, I can only say that the usage in -more recent times fortifies my opinion, and that the inconvenience of -wearing rings on the left hand would have been still greater, seeing -that it is with the left hand that the shield is held. We find mention -made too, in Homer,[695] of men wearing gold plaited with the hair; -and hence it is that I am at a loss to say whether the practice first -originated with females. - - - - -CHAP. 5.—THE QUANTITY OF GOLD POSSESSED BY THE ANCIENTS. - - -At Rome, for a long period of time, the quantity of gold was but very -small. At all events, after the capture of the City by the Gauls, when -peace was about to be purchased, not more than one thousand pounds’ -weight of gold could be collected. I am by no means unaware of the -fact that in the third[696] consulship of Pompeius there was lost from -the throne of Jupiter Capitolinus two thousand pounds’ weight of gold, -originally placed there by Camillus; a circumstance which has led most -persons to suppose, that two thousand pounds’ weight was the quantity -then collected. But in reality, this excess of one thousand pounds was -contributed from the spoil taken from the Gauls, amplified as it was by -the gold of which they had stripped the temples, in that part of the -City which they had captured. - -The story of Torquatus,[697] too, is a proof that the Gauls were in the -habit of wearing ornaments of gold when engaged in combat;[698] from -which it would appear that the sum taken from the Gauls themselves, and -the amount of which they had pillaged the temples, were only equal to -the amount of gold collected for the ransom, and no more; and this is -what was really meant by the response given by the augurs, that Jupiter -Capitolinus had rendered again the ransom twofold.[699] As we were -just now speaking on the subject of rings, it may be as well to add, -by way of passing remark, that upon the officer[700] in charge of the -Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus being arrested, he broke the stone of his -ring between his teeth,[701] and expired upon the spot, thus putting an -end to all possibility of discovering the perpetrator of the theft. - -It appears, therefore, that in the year of the City 364, when Rome was -captured by the Gauls, there was but two thousand pounds’ weight of -gold, at the very most; and this, too, at a period when, according to -the returns of the census, there were already one hundred and fifty-two -thousand five hundred and seventy-three free citizens in it. In this -same city, too, three hundred and seven years later, the gold which -C. Marius the younger[702] conveyed to Præsneste from the Temple of -the Capitol when in flames, and all the other shrines, amounted to -thirteen thousand pounds’ weight, such being the sum that figured in -the inscriptions at the triumph of Sylla; on which occasion it was -displayed in the procession, as well as six thousand pounds’ weight of -silver. The same Sylla had, the day before, displayed in his triumph -fifteen thousand pounds’ weight of gold, and one hundred and fifteen -thousand pounds’ weight of silver, the fruit of all his other victories. - - - - -CHAP. 6.—THE RIGHT OF WEARING GOLD RINGS. - - -It does not appear that rings were in common use before the time of -Cneius Flavius, the son of Annius. This Flavius was the first to -publish a table[703] of the days for pleading,[704] which till then the -populace had to ascertain each day from a few great personages.[705] -The son of a freedman only, and secretary to Appius Cæcus,[706] (at -whose request, by dint of natural shrewdness and continual observation, -he had selected these days and made them public),[707] he obtained -such high favour with the people, that he was created curule ædile; in -conjunction with Quintus Anicius Prænestinus, who a few years before -had been an enemy to Rome,[708] and to the exclusion of C. Pœtilius and -Domitius, whose fathers respectively were of consular rank.[709] The -additional honour was also conferred on Flavius, of making him tribune -of the people at the same time, a thing which occasioned such a degree -of indignation, that, as we find stated in the more ancient Annals, -“the rings[710] were laid aside!” - -Most persons, however, are mistaken in the supposition that on this -occasion the members of the equestrian order did the same: for it is -in consequence of these additional words, “the phaleræ,[711] too, -were laid aside as well,” that the name of the equestrian order was -added. These rings, too, as the Annals tell us, were laid aside by the -nobility, and not[712] by the whole body of the senate. This event -took place in the consulship of P. Sempronius and P. Sulpicius.[713] -Flavius made a vow that he would consecrate a temple to Concord, -if he should succeed in reconciling the privileged orders with the -plebeians: and as no part of the public funds could be voted for the -purpose, he accordingly built a small shrine of brass[714] in the -Græcostasis,[715] then situate above the Comitium,[716] with the fines -which had been exacted for usury. Here, too, he had an inscription -engraved upon a tablet of brass, to the effect that the shrine was -dedicated two hundred and three years after the consecration of the -Capitol. Such were the events that happened four hundred and forty-nine -years after the foundation of the City, this being the earliest period -at which we find any traces of the common use of rings. - -A second occasion, however, that of the Second Punic War, shows that -rings must have been at that period in very general use; for if such -had not been the case, it would have been impossible for Hannibal -to send the three[717] modii of rings, which we find so much spoken -of, to Carthage. It was through a dispute, too, at an auction about -the possession of a ring, that the feud first commenced between -Cæpio[718] and Drusus,[719] a dispute which gave rise to the Social -War,[720] and the public disasters which thence ensued. Not even in -those days, however, did all the senators possess gold rings, seeing -that, in the memory of our grandsires, many personages who had even -filled the prætorship, wore rings of iron to the end of their lives; -Calpurnius,[721] for example, as Fenestella tells us, and Manilius, who -had been legatus to Caius Marius in the Jugurthine War. Many historians -also state the same of L. Fufidius, he to whom Scaurus dedicated the -history of his life. - -In the family of the Quintii,[722] it is the usage for no one, not the -females even, ever to wear a ring; and even at the present day, the -greater part of the nations known to us, peoples who are living under -the Roman sway, are not in the habit of wearing rings. Neither in the -countries of the East,[723] nor in Egypt, is any use made of seals, the -people being content with simple writing only.[724] - -In this, as in every other case, luxury has introduced various -fashions, either by adding to rings gems of exquisite brilliancy, and -so loading the fingers with whole revenues, as we shall have further -occasion to mention in our Book on Gems;[725] or else by engraving them -with various devices: so that it is in one instance the workmanship, -in another the material, that constitutes the real value of the ring. -Then again, in the case of other gems, luxury has deemed it no less -than sacrilege to make a mark[726] even upon them, and has caused -them to be set whole, that no one may suppose that the ring was ever -intended to be employed as a signet. In other instances, luxury has -willed that certain stones, on the side even that is concealed by the -finger, should not[727] be closed in with gold, thus making gold of -less account than thousands of tiny pebbles. On the other hand again, -many persons will admit of no gems being set in their rings, but -impress their seal with the gold[728] itself, an invention which dates -from the reign of Claudius Cæsar. At the present day, too, the very -slaves even, incase their iron rings with gold (while other articles -belonging to them, they decorate with pure gold),[729] a licence which -first originated in the Isle of Samothrace,[730] as the name given to -the invention clearly shows. - -It was the custom at first to wear rings on a single finger[731] only, -the one, namely, that is next to the little finger; and this we see the -case in the statues of Numa and Servius Tullius. In later times, it -became the practice to put rings on the finger next to the thumb, even -in the case of the statues of the gods; and more recently, again, it -has been the fashion to wear them upon the little finger[732] as well. -Among the peoples of Gallia and Britannia, the middle finger, it is -said, is used for this purpose. At the present day, however, among us, -this is the only finger that is excepted, all the others being loaded -with rings, smaller rings even being separately adapted for the smaller -joints of the fingers. Some there are who heap several rings upon the -little finger alone; while others, again, wear but one ring upon this -finger, the ring that sets a seal upon the signet-ring itself, this -last being kept carefully shut up as an object of rarity, too precious -to be worn in common use, and only to be taken from the cabinet[733] -as from a sanctuary. And thus is the wearing of a single ring upon the -little finger no more than an ostentatious advertisement that the owner -has property of a more precious nature under seal at home! - -Some, too, make a parade of the weight of their rings, while to others -it is quite a labour[734] to wear more than one at a time: some, -in their solicitude for the safety of their gems, make the hoop of -gold tinsel, and fill it with a lighter material than gold, thinking -thereby to diminish the risks of a fall.[735] Others, again, are in -the habit of inclosing poisons beneath the stones of their rings, and -so wear them as instruments of death; Demosthenes, for instance, that -greatest of the orators of Greece.[736] And then, besides, how many -of the crimes that are stimulated by cupidity, are committed through -the instrumentality of rings![737] How happy the times, how truly -innocent, in which no seal was ever put to anything! At the present -day, on the contrary, our very food even and our drink have to be -preserved from theft[738] through the agency of the ring: a result -owing to those legions of slaves, those throngs of foreigners which are -introduced into our houses, multitudes so numerous that we require the -services of a nomenclator[739] even, to tell us the names of our own -servants. Very different was it in the times of our forefathers, when -each person possessed a single servant only, one of his master’s own -lineage, called Marcipor or Lucipor,[740] from his master’s name, as -the case might be, and taking all his meals with him in common; when, -too, there was no occasion for taking precautions at home by keeping a -watch upon the domestics. But at the present day, we not only procure -dainties which are sure to be pilfered, but hands to pilfer them as -well; and so far is it from being sufficient to have the very keys -sealed, that the signet-ring is often taken from off the owner’s finger -while he is overpowered with sleep or lying on his death-bed.[741] - -Indeed the most important transactions of life are now made to depend -upon this instrument, though at what period this first began to be -the case, I am at a loss to say. It would appear, however, so far -as foreign nations are concerned, that we may admit the importance -attached to it, from the days of Polycrates,[742] the tyrant of Samos, -whose favourite ring, after being thrown in the sea, was recovered -from a fish that was caught; and this Polycrates, we know, was put -to death[743] about the year of our City, 230. The use of the ring -must, of necessity, have become greatly extended with the increase of -usury; one proof of which is, the usage still prevalent among the lower -classes, of whipping off the ring[744] the moment a simple contract is -made; a practice which takes its date, no doubt, from a period when -there was no more expeditious method of giving an earnest on closing a -bargain. We may therefore very safely conclude, that though money was -first introduced among us, the use of rings was introduced very shortly -after. Of money, I shall shortly have occasion to speak further.[745] - - - - -CHAP. 7.—THE DECURIES OF THE JUDGES. - - -Rings, as soon as they began to be commonly worn, distinguished the -second order from the plebeians, in the same manner as the use of the -tunic[746] distinguished the senate from those who only wore the ring. -Still, however, this last distinction was introduced at a later period -only, and we find it stated by writers that the public heralds[747] -even were formerly in the habit of wearing the tunic with the purple -laticlave; the father of Lucius Ælius Stilo,[748] for instance, from -whom his son received the cognomen of “Præconinus,” in consequence -of his father’s occupation as a herald. But the use of rings, no -doubt, was the distinguishing mark of a third and intermediate order, -between the plebeians and the senators; and the title of “eques,” -originally derived from the possession of a war-horse,[749] is given -at the present day as an indication of a certain amount of income. -This, however, is of comparatively recent introduction; for when the -late Emperor Augustus made his regulations for the decuries,[750] the -greater part of the members thereof were persons who wore iron rings, -and these bore the name, not of “equites,” but of “judices,” the -former name being reserved solely for the members of the squadrons[751] -furnished with war-horses at the public charge. - -Of these judices, too, there were at first but four[752] decuries only, -and in each of these decuries there was hardly one thousand men to be -found, the provinces not having been hitherto admitted to the office; -an observance which is still in force at the present day, no one newly -admitted to the rights of citizenship being allowed to perform the -duties of judex as a member of the decuries. - -(2.) These decuries, too, were themselves distinguished by several -denominations—“tribunes[753] of the treasury,” “selecti,”[754] and -“judices:” in addition to whom, there were the persons styled the “nine -hundred,”[755] chosen from all the decuries for the purpose of keeping -the voting-boxes at the comitia. From the ambitious adoption, however, -of some one of these names, great divisions ensued in this order, one -person styling himself a member of the nine hundred, another one of the -selecti, and a third a tribune of the treasury. - - - - -CHAP. 8.—PARTICULARS CONNECTED WITH THE EQUESTRIAN ORDER. - - -At length, however, in the ninth[756] year of the reign of the Emperor -Tiberius, the equestrian order was united in a single body; and a -decree was passed, establishing to whom belonged the right of wearing -the ring, in the consulship of C. Asinius Pollio and C. Antistius -Vetus, the year from the foundation of the City, 775. It is a matter -for surprise, how almost futile, we may say, was the cause which led -to this change. C. Sulpicius Galba,[757] desirous in his youth to -establish his credit with the Emperor by hunting[758] out grounds for -prosecuting[759] the keepers of victualling-houses, made complaint in -the senate that the proprietors of those places were in the habit of -protecting themselves from the consequences of their guilt by their -plea of wearing the golden ring.[760] For this reason, an ordinance -was made that no person whatsoever should have this right of wearing -the ring, unless, freeborn himself as regarded his father and paternal -grandfather, he should be assessed by the censors at four hundred -thousand sesterces, and entitled, under the Julian Law,[761] to sit in -the fourteen tiers of seats at the theatre. In later times, however, -people began to apply in whole crowds for this mark of rank; and -in consequence of the diversities of opinion which were occasioned -thereby, the Emperor Caius[762] added a fifth decury to the number. -Indeed to such a pitch has conceit now arisen, that whereas, under the -late Emperor Augustus, the decuries could not be completed, at the -present day they will not suffice to receive all the members of the -equestrian order, and we see in every quarter persons even who have -been but just liberated from slavery, making a leap all at once to the -distinction of the golden ring: a thing that never used to happen in -former days, as it was by the ring of iron that the equites and the -judices were then to be recognized. - -Indeed, so promiscuously was this privilege at last conferred, that -Flavius Proculus, one of the equites, informed against four hundred -persons on this ground, before the Emperor Claudius, who was then -censor:[763] and thus we see, an order, which was established as a mark -of distinction from other private individuals of free birth, has been -shared in common with slaves! - -The Gracchi were the first to attach to this order the separate -appellation of “judices,” their object being at the same moment a -seditious popularity and the humiliation of the senate. After the -fall of these men, in consequence of the varying results of seditious -movements, the name and influence of the equestrian order were lost, -and became merged in those of the publicani,[764] who, for some time, -were the men that constituted the third class in the state. At last, -however, Marcus Cicero, during his consulship, and at the period of the -Catilinarian troubles, re-established the equestrian name, it being his -vaunt that he himself had sprung from that order, and he, by certain -acts of popularity peculiar to himself, having conciliated its support. -Since that period, it is very clear that the equites have formed the -third body in the state, and the name of the equestrian order has been -added to the formula—“The Senate and People of Rome.” Hence[765] it is, -too, that at the present day even, the name of this order is written -after that of the people, it being the one that was the last instituted. - - - - -CHAP. 9.—HOW OFTEN THE NAME OF THE EQUESTRIAN ORDER HAS BEEN CHANGED. - - -Indeed, the name itself of the equites even, has been frequently -changed, and that too, in the case of those who only owed their name -to the fact of their service on horseback. Under Romulus and the -other kings, the equites were known as “Celeres,”[766] then again as -“Flexuntes,”[767] and after that as “Trossuli,”[768] from the fact of -their having taken a certain town of Etruria, situate nine miles on -this side of Volsinii, without any assistance from the infantry; a name -too which survived till after the death of C. Gracchus. - -At all events, in the writings left by Junius, who, from his affection -for C. Gracchus, took the name of Gracchanus,[769] we find the -following words—“As regards the equestrian order, its members were -formerly called ‘Trossuli,’ but at the present day they have the -name of ‘Equites;’ because it is not understood what the appellation -‘Trossuli’ really means, and many feel ashamed at being called by -that name.”[770]—He[771] then goes on to explain the reason, as above -mentioned, and adds that, though much against their will, those persons -are still called “Trossuli.” - - - - -CHAP. 10.—GIFTS FOR MILITARY SERVICES, IN GOLD AND SILVER. - - -There are also some other distinctions connected with gold, the -mention of which ought not to be omitted. Our ancestors, for -instance, presented torcs[772] of gold to the auxiliaries and foreign -troops, while to Roman citizens they only granted silver[773] ones: -bracelets[774] too, were given by them to citizens, but never to -foreigners. - - - - -CHAP. 11.—AT WHAT PERIOD THE FIRST CROWN OF GOLD WAS PRESENTED. - - -But, a thing that is more surprising still, crowns[775] of gold were -given to the citizens as well. As to the person who was first presented -with one, so far as I have enquired, I have not been able to ascertain -his name: L. Piso says, however, that the Dictator[776] A. Posthumius -was the first who conferred one: on taking the camp of the Latins at -Lake Regillus,[777] he gave a crown of gold, made from the spoil, to -the soldier whose valour had mainly contributed to this success. L. -Lentulus, also, when consul,[778] presented one to Servius Cornelius -Merenda, on taking a town of the Samnites; but in his case it was five -pounds in weight. Piso Frugi, too, presented his son with a golden -crown, at his own private expense, making[779] it a specific legacy in -his will. - - - - -CHAP. 12. (3.)—OTHER USES MADE OF GOLD, BY FEMALES. - - -To honour the gods at their sacrifices, no greater mark of honour has -been thought of than to gild the horns of the animals sacrificed—that -is, of the larger victims[780] only. But in warfare, this species of -luxury made such rapid advances, that in the Epistles of M. Brutus -from the Plains of Philippi, we find expressions of indignation at the -fibulæ[781] of gold that were worn by the tribunes. Yes, so it is, by -Hercules! and yet you, the same Brutus, have not said a word about -women wearing gold upon their feet; while we, on the other hand, charge -him with criminality[782] who was the first to confer dignity upon gold -by wearing the ring. Let men even, at the present day, wear gold upon -the arms in form of bracelets—known as “dardania,” because the practice -first originated in Dardania, and called “viriolæ” in the language of -the Celts, “viriæ”[783] in that of Celtiberia, let women wear gold upon -their arms[784] and all their fingers, their necks, their ears, the -tresses of their hair; let chains of gold run meandering along their -sides; and in the still hours of the night let sachets filled with -pearls hang suspended from the necks of their mistresses, all bedizened -with gold, so that in their very sleep even they may still retain the -consciousness that they are the possessors of such gems: but are -they to cover their feet[785] as well with gold, and so, between the -stola[786] of the matrons and the garb of the plebeians, establish -an intermediate[787] or equestrian[788] order of females? Much more -becomingly do we accord this distinction to our pages,[789] and the -adorned beauty of these youths has quite changed the features of our -public baths. - -At the present day, too, a fashion has been introduced among the -men even, of wearing effigies upon their fingers representing -Harpocrates[790] and other divinities of Egypt. In the reign of -Claudius, also, there was introduced another unusual distinction, in -the case of those to whom was granted the right of free admission,[791] -that, namely, of wearing the likeness of the emperor engraved in -gold upon a ring: a circumstance that gave rise to vast numbers of -informations, until the timely elevation of the Emperor Vespasianus -rendered them impossible, by proclaiming that the right of admission to -the emperor belonged equally to all. Let these particulars suffice on -the subject of golden rings and the use of them. - - - - -CHAP. 13.—COINS OF GOLD. AT WHAT PERIODS COPPER, GOLD, AND SILVER -WERE FIRST IMPRESSED. HOW COPPER WAS USED BEFORE GOLD AND SILVER WERE -COINED. WHAT WAS THE LARGEST SUM OF MONEY POSSESSED BY ANY ONE AT THE -TIME OF OUR FIRST CENSUS. HOW OFTEN, AND AT WHAT PERIODS, THE VALUE OF -COPPER AND OF COINED MONEY HAS BEEN CHANGED. - - -The next[792] crime committed against the welfare of mankind was on the -part of him who was the first to coin a denarius[793] of gold, a crime -the author of which is equally unknown. The Roman people made no use -of impressed silver even before the period of the defeat[794] of King -Pyrrhus. The “as” of copper weighed exactly one libra; and hence it is -that we still use the terms “libella”[795] and “dupondius.”[796] Hence -it is, too, that fines and penalties are inflicted under the name of -“æs grave,”[797] and that the words still used in keeping accounts are -“expensa,”[798] “impendia,”[799] and “dependere.”[800] Hence, too, the -word “stipendium,” meaning the pay of the soldiers, which is nothing -more than “stipis pondera;[801] and from the same source those other -words, “dispensatores”[802] and “libripendes.”[803] It is also from -this circumstance that in sales of slaves, at the present day even, the -formality of using the balance is introduced. - -King Servius was the first to make an impress upon copper. Before his -time, according to Timæus, at Rome the raw metal only was used. The -form of a sheep was the first figure impressed upon money, and to this -fact it owes its name, “pecunia.”[804] The highest figure at which one -man’s property was assessed in the reign of that king was one hundred -and twenty thousand asses, and consequently that amount of property -was considered the standard of the first class. - -Silver was not impressed with a mark until the year of the City 485, -the year of the consulship of Q. Ogulnius and C. Fabius, five years -before the First Punic War; at which time it was ordained that the -value of the denarius should be ten libræ[805] of copper, that of the -quinarius five libræ, and that of the sestertius two libræ and a half. -The weight, however, of the libra of copper was diminished during the -First Punic War, the republic not having means to meet its expenditure: -in consequence of which, an ordinance was made that the as should in -future be struck of two ounces weight. By this contrivance a saving -of five-sixths was effected, and the public debt was liquidated. The -impression upon these copper coins was a two-faced Janus on one side, -and the beak of a ship of war on the other: the triens,[806] however, -and the quadrans,[807] bore the impression of a ship. The quadrans, -too, had, previously to this, been called “teruncius,” as being three -unciæ[808] in weight. At a later period again, when Hannibal was -pressing hard upon Rome, in the dictatorship of Q. Fabius Maximus, -asses of one ounce weight were struck, and it was ordained that the -value of the denarius should be sixteen asses, that of the quinarius -eight asses, and that of the sestertius four asses; by which last -reduction of the weight of the as the republic made a clear gain of one -half. Still, however, so far as the pay of the soldiers is concerned, -one denarius has always been given for every ten asses. The impressions -upon the coins of silver were two-horse and four-horse chariots, and -hence it is that they received the names of “bigati” and “quadrigati.” - -Shortly after, in accordance with the Law of Papirius, asses were -coined weighing half an ounce only. Livius Drusus, when[809] tribune -of the people, alloyed the silver with one-eighth part of copper. The -coin that is known at the present day as the “victoriatus,”[810] was -first struck in accordance with the Clodian Law: before which period, -a coin of this name was imported from Illyricum, but was only looked -upon as an article of merchandize. The impression upon it is a figure -of Victory, and hence its name. - -The first golden coin was struck sixty-two years after that of silver, -the scruple of gold being valued at twenty sesterces; a computation -which gave, according to the value of the sesterce then in use, nine -hundred sesterces to each libra of gold.[811] In later times, again, an -ordinance was made, that denarii of gold should be struck, at the rate -of forty denarii[812] to each libra of gold; after which period, the -emperors gradually curtailed the weight of the golden denarius, until -at last, in the reign of Nero, it was coined at the rate of forty-five -to the libra. - - - - -CHAP. 14.—CONSIDERATIONS ON MAN’S CUPIDITY FOR GOLD. - - -But the invention of money opened a new field to human avarice, by -giving rise to usury and the practice of lending money at interest, -while the owner passes a life of idleness: and it was with no slow -advances that, not mere avarice only, but a perfect hunger[813] for -gold became inflamed with a sort of rage for acquiring: to such a -degree, in fact, that Septimuleius, the familiar friend of Caius -Gracchus, not only cut off his head, upon which a price had been set -of its weight in gold, but, before[814] bringing it to Opimius,[815] -poured molten lead into the mouth, and so not only was guilty of the -crime of parricide, but added to his criminality by cheating the state. -Nor was it now any individual citizen, but the universal Roman name, -that had been rendered infamous by avarice, when King Mithridates -caused molten gold to be poured into the mouth of Aquilius[816] the -Roman general, whom he had taken prisoner: such were the results of -cupidity. - -One cannot but feel ashamed, on looking at those new-fangled names -which are invented every now and then, from the Greek language, by -which to designate vessels of silver filagreed[817] or inlaid with -gold, and the various other practices by which such articles of luxury, -when only gilded,[818] are made to sell at a higher price than they -would have done if made of solid gold: and this, too, when we know that -Spartacus[819] forbade any one of his followers to introduce either -gold or silver into the camp—so much more nobleness of mind was there -in those days, even in our runaway slaves. - -The orator Messala has informed us that Antonius the triumvir made -use of golden vessels when satisfying the most humiliating wants of -nature, a piece of criminality that would have reflected disgrace upon -Cleopatra even! Till then, the most consummate instances of a similar -licentiousness had been found among strangers only—that of King Philip, -namely, who was in the habit of sleeping with a golden goblet placed -beneath his pillows, and that of Hagnon of Teos, a commander under -Alexander the Great, who used to fasten the soles of his sandals with -nails of gold.[820] It was reserved for Antonius to be the only one -thus to impart a certain utility to gold, by putting an insult upon -Nature. Oh how righteously would he himself have been proscribed! but -then the proscription should have been made by Spartacus.[821] - - - - -CHAP. 15.—THE PERSONS WHO HAVE POSSESSED THE GREATEST QUANTITY OF GOLD -AND SILVER. - - -For my own part, I am much surprised that the Roman people has always -imposed upon conquered nations a tribute in silver, and not in gold; -Carthage, for instance, from which, upon its conquest under Hannibal, -a ransom was exacted in the shape of a yearly[822] payment, for fifty -years, of eight hundred thousand pounds’ weight of silver, but no -gold. And yet it does not appear that this could have arisen from -there being so little gold then in use throughout the world. Midas and -Crœsus, before this, had possessed gold to an endless amount: Cyrus, -already, on his conquest of Asia,[823] had found a booty consisting of -twenty-four thousand pounds’ weight of gold, in addition to vessels -and other articles of wrought gold, as well as leaves[824] of trees, a -plane-tree, and a vine, all made of that metal. - -It was through this conquest too, that he carried off five hundred -thousand[825] talents of silver, as well as the vase of Semiramis,[826] -the weight of which alone amounted to fifteen talents, the Egyptian -talent being equal, according to Varro, to eighty of our pounds. -Before this time too, Saulaces, the descendant of Æëtes, had reigned -in Colchis,[827] who, on finding a tract of virgin earth, in the -country of the Suani,[828] extracted from it a large amount of gold -and silver, it is said, and whose kingdom besides, had been famed -for the possession of the Golden Fleece. The golden arches, too, of -his palace, we find spoken of, the silver supports and columns, and -pilasters, all of which he had come into possession of on the conquest -of Sesostris,[829] king of Egypt; a monarch so haughty, that every -year, it is said, it was his practice to select one of his vassal kings -by lot, and yoking him to his car, celebrate his triumph afresh. - - - - -CHAP. 16.—AT WHAT PERIOD SILVER FIRST MADE ITS APPEARANCE UPON THE -ARENA AND UPON THE STAGE. - - -We, too, have done things that posterity may probably look upon as -fabulous. Cæsar, who was afterwards dictator, but at that time ædile, -was the first person, on the occasion of the funeral games in honour of -his father, to employ all the apparatus of the arena[830] in silver; -and it was on the same occasion that for the first time criminals -encountered wild beasts with implements of silver, a practice imitated -at the present day in our municipal towns even. - -At the games celebrated by C. Antonius the stage was made of[831] -silver; and the same was the case at those celebrated by L. Muræna. -The Emperor Caius had a scaffold[832] introduced into the Circus, upon -which there were one hundred and twenty-four thousand pounds’ weight -of silver. His successor Claudius, on the occasion of his triumph over -Britain, announced by the inscriptions that among the coronets of gold, -there was one weighing seven thousand[833] pounds’ weight, contributed -by Nearer Spain, and another of nine thousand pounds, presented by -Gallia Comata.[834] Nero, who succeeded him, covered the Theatre of -Pompeius with gold for one day,[835] the occasion on which he displayed -it to Tiridates, king of Armenia. And yet how small was this theatre in -comparison with that Golden Palace[836] of his, with which he environed -our city. - - - - -CHAP. 17.—AT WHAT PERIODS THERE WAS THE GREATEST QUANTITY OF GOLD AND -SILVER IN THE TREASURY OF THE ROMAN PEOPLE. - - -In the consulship of Sextus Julius and Lucius Aurelius,[837] seven -years before the commencement of the Third Punic War, there was in -the treasury of the Roman people seventeen thousand four hundred and -ten pounds’ weight of uncoined gold, twenty-two thousand and seventy -pounds’ weight of silver, and in specie, six million one hundred and -thirty-five thousand four hundred sesterces. - -In the consulship of Sextus Julius and Lucius Marcius, that is to say, -at the commencement of the Social War,[838] there was in the public -treasury one million[839] six hundred and twenty thousand eight hundred -and thirty-one pounds’ weight of gold. Caius Cæsar, at his first entry -into Rome, during the civil war which bears his name, withdrew from -the treasury fifteen thousand pounds’ weight in gold ingots, thirty -thousand pounds’ weight in uncoined silver, and in specie, three -hundred thousand sesterces: indeed, at no[840] period was the republic -more wealthy. Æmilius Paulus, too, after the defeat of King Perseus, -paid into the public treasury, from the spoil obtained in Macedonia, -three hundred millions[841] of sesterces, and from this period the -Roman people ceased to pay tribute. - - - - -CHAP. 18.—AT WHAT PERIOD CEILINGS WERE FIRST GILDED. - - -The ceilings which, at the present day, in private houses even, we -see covered with gold, were first gilded in the Capitol, after -the destruction of Carthage, and during the censorship of Lucius -Mummius.[842] From the ceilings this luxuriousness has been since -transferred to the arched roofs of buildings, and the party-walls even, -which at the present day are gilded like so many articles of plate: -very different from the times when Catulus[843] was far from being -unanimously approved of for having gilded the brazen tiles of the -Capitol! - - - - -CHAP. 19.—FOR WHAT REASONS THE HIGHEST VALUE IS SET UPON GOLD. - - -We have already stated, in the Seventh[844] Book, who were the first -discoverers of gold, as well as nearly all the other metals. The -highest rank has been accorded to this substance, not, in my opinion, -for its colour, (which in silver is clearer[845] and more like the -light of day, for which reason silver is preferred for our military -ensigns, its brightness being seen at a greater distance); and those -persons are manifestly in error who think that it is the resemblance -of its colour to the stars[846] that is so prized in gold, seeing that -the various gems[847] and other things of the same tint, are in no such -particular request. Nor yet is it for its weight or malleability[848] -that gold has been preferred to other metals, it being inferior in -both these respects to lead—but it is because gold is the only[849] -substance in nature that suffers[850] no loss from the action of fire, -and passes unscathed through conflagrations and the flames of the -funeral pile. Nay, even more than this, the oftener gold is subjected -to the action of fire, the more refined in quality it becomes; indeed, -fire is one test of its goodness, as, when submitted to intense heat, -gold ought to assume a similar colour, and turn red and igneous in -appearance; a mode of testing which is known as “obrussa.”[851] - -The first great proof, however, of the goodness of gold, is its melting -with the greatest difficulty: in addition to which, it is a fact truly -marvellous, that though proof against the most intense fire, if made -with wood charcoal, it will melt with the greatest readiness upon a -fire made with chaff;[852] and that, for the purpose of purifying it, -it is fused with lead.[853] There is another reason too, which still -more tends to enhance its value, the fact that it wears the least -of all metals by continual use: whereas with silver, copper, and -lead, lines may be traced,[854] and the hands become soiled with the -substance that comes from off them. Nor is there any material more -malleable than this, none that admits of a more extended division, -seeing that a single ounce of it admits of being beaten out into seven -hundred and fifty[855] leaves, or more, four fingers in length by the -same in breadth. The thickest kind of gold-leaf is known as “leaf of -Præneste,” it still retaining that name from the excellence of the -gilding upon the statue of Fortune[856] there. The next in thickness -is known as the “quæstorian leaf.” In Spain, small pieces of gold are -known by the name of “striges.”[857] - -A thing that is not the case with any other metal, gold is found pure -in masses[858] or in the form of dust;[859] and whereas all other -metals, when found in the ore, require to be brought to perfection by -the aid of fire, this gold that I am speaking of is gold the moment -it is found, and has all its component parts already in a state of -perfection. This, however, is only such gold as is found in the native -state, the other kinds that we shall have to speak of, being refined -by art. And then, more than anything else, gold is subject to no rust, -no verdigris,[860] no emanation whatever from it, either to alter its -quality or to lessen its weight. In addition to this, gold steadily -resists the corrosive action of salt and vinegar,[861] things which -obtain the mastery over all other substances: it admits, too, beyond -all other metals, of being spun out and woven[862] like wool.[863] -Verrius tells us that Tarquinius Priscus celebrated a triumph, clad -in a tunic of gold; and I myself have seen Agrippina, the wife of the -Emperor Claudius, on the occasion of a naval combat which he exhibited, -seated by him, attired in a military scarf[864] made entirely of woven -gold without any other material. For this long time past, gold has been -interwoven in the Attalic[865] textures, an invention of the kings of -Asia. - - - - -CHAP. 20.—THE METHOD OF GILDING. - - -On marble and other substances which do not admit of being brought to -a white heat, gilt is laid with glair of egg, and on wood by the aid -of a glutinous composition,[866] known as “leucophoron:” what this -last is, and how it is prepared, we shall state on the appropriate -occasion.[867] The most convenient method for gilding copper would be -to employ quicksilver, or, at all events, hydrargyros;[868] but with -reference to these substances, as we shall have occasion to say when -describing the nature[869] of them, methods of adulteration have been -devised. To effect this mode of gilding, the copper is first well -hammered, after which it is subjected to the action of fire, and then -cooled with a mixture of salt, vinegar, and alum.[870] It is then -cleansed of all extraneous substances, it being known by its brightness -when it has been sufficiently purified. This done, it is again heated -by fire, in order to enable it, when thus prepared, with the aid of an -amalgam of pumice, alum, and quicksilver, to receive the gold leaf when -applied. Alum has the same property of purifying copper, that we have -already[871] mentioned us belonging to lead with reference to gold. - - - - -CHAP. 21. (4.)—HOW GOLD IS FOUND. - - -Gold is found in our own part of the world; not to mention the gold -extracted from the earth in India by the ants,[872] and in Scythia by -the Griffins.[873] Among us it is procured in three different ways; the -first of which is, in the shape of dust, found in running streams, the -Tagus[874] in Spain, for instance, the Padus in Italy, the Hebrus in -Thracia, the Pactolus in Asia, and the Ganges in India; indeed, there -is no gold found in a more perfect state than this, thoroughly polished -as it is by the continual attrition of the current. - -A second mode of obtaining gold is by sinking shafts or seeking it -among the debris of mountains; both of which methods it will be as well -to describe. The persons in search of gold in the first place remove -the “segutilum,”[875] such being the name of the earth which gives -indication of the presence of gold. This done, a bed is made, the sand -of which is washed, and, according to the residue found after washing, -a conjecture is formed as to the richness of the vein. Sometimes, -indeed, gold is found at once in the surface earth, a success, however, -but rarely experienced. Recently, for instance, in the reign of Nero, a -vein was discovered in Dalmatia, which yielded daily as much as fifty -pounds’ weight of gold. The gold that is thus found in the surface -crust is known as “talutium,”[876] in cases where there is auriferous -earth beneath. The mountains of Spain,[877] in other respects arid and -sterile, and productive of nothing whatever, are thus constrained by -man to be fertile, in supplying him with this precious commodity. - -The gold that is extracted from shafts is known by some persons as -“canalicium,” and by others as “canaliense;”[878] it is found adhering -to the gritty crust of marble,[879] and, altogether different from the -form in which it sparkles in the sapphirus[880] of the East, and in -the stone of Thebais[881] and other gems, it is seen interlaced with -the molecules of the marble. The channels of these veins are found -running in various directions along the sides of the shafts, and hence -the name of the gold they yield—“canalicium.”[882] In these shafts, -too, the superincumbent earth is kept from falling in by means of -wooden pillars. The substance that is extracted is first broken up, -and then washed; after which it is subjected to the action of fire, -and ground to a fine powder. This powder is known as “apitascudes,” -while the silver which becomes disengaged in the furnace[883] has the -name of “sudor”[884] given to it. The impurities that escape by the -chimney, as in the case of all other metals, are known by the name of -“scoria.” In the case of gold, this scoria is broken up a second time, -and melted over again. The crucibles used for this purpose are made of -“tasconium,”[885] a white earth similar to potter’s clay in appearance; -there being no other substance capable of withstanding the strong -current of air, the action of the fire, and the intense heat of the -melted metal. - -The third method of obtaining gold surpasses the labours of the -Giants[886] even: by the aid of galleries driven to a long distance, -mountains are excavated by the light of torches, the duration of which -forms the set times for work, the workmen never seeing the light of day -for many months together. These mines are known as “arrugiæ;”[887] and -not unfrequently clefts are formed on a sudden, the earth sinks in, -and the workmen are crushed beneath; so that it would really appear -less rash to go in search of pearls and purples at the bottom of the -sea, so much more dangerous to ourselves have we made the earth than -the water! Hence it is, that in this kind of mining, arches are left -at frequent intervals for the purpose of supporting the weight of the -mountain above. In mining either by shaft or by gallery, barriers of -silex are met with, which have to be driven asunder by the aid of -fire and vinegar;[888] or more frequently, as this method fills the -galleries with suffocating vapours and smoke, to be broken to pieces -with bruising-machines shod with pieces of iron weighing one hundred -and fifty pounds: which done, the fragments are carried out on the -workmen’s shoulders, night and day, each man passing them on to his -neighbour in the dark, it being only those at the pit’s mouth that -ever see the light. In cases where the bed of silex appears too thick -to admit of being penetrated, the miner traces along the sides of it, -and so turns it. And yet, after all, the labour entailed by this silex -is looked upon as comparatively easy, there being an earth—a kind of -potter’s clay mixed with gravel, “gangadia” by name, which it is almost -impossible to overcome. This earth has to be attacked with iron wedges -and hammers like those previously mentioned,[889] and it is generally -considered that there is nothing more stubborn in existence—except -indeed the greed for gold, which is the most stubborn of all things. - -When these operations are all completed, beginning at the last, they -cut away[890] the wooden pillars at the point where they support the -roof: the coming downfall gives warning, which is instantly perceived -by the sentinel, and by him only, who is set to watch upon a peak -of the same mountain. By voice as well as by signals, he orders the -workmen to be immediately summoned from their labours, and at the same -moment takes to flight himself. The mountain, rent to pieces, is cleft -asunder, hurling its debris to a distance with a crash which it is -impossible for the human imagination to conceive; and from the midst of -a cloud of dust, of a density quite incredible, the victorious miners -gaze upon this downfall of Nature. Nor yet even then are they sure of -gold, nor indeed were they by any means certain that there was any to -be found when they first began to excavate, it being quite sufficient, -as an inducement to undergo such perils and to incur such vast expense, -to entertain the hope that they shall obtain what they so eagerly -desire. - -Another labour, too, quite equal to this, and one which entails -even greater expense, is that of bringing rivers[891] from the more -elevated mountain heights, a distance in many instances of one hundred -miles perhaps, for the purpose of washing these debris. The channels -thus formed are called “corrugi,” from our word “corrivatio,”[892] I -suppose; and even when these are once made, they entail a thousand -fresh labours. The fall, for instance, must be steep, that the water -may be precipitated, so to say, rather than flow; and it is in this -manner that it is brought from the most elevated points. Then, too, -vallies and crevasses have to be united by the aid of aqueducts, and -in another place impassable rocks have to be hewn away, and forced to -make room for hollowed troughs of wood; the person hewing them hanging -suspended all the time with ropes, so that to a spectator who views the -operations from a distance, the workmen have all the appearance, not -so much of wild beasts, as of birds upon the wing.[893] Hanging thus -suspended in most instances, they take the levels, and trace with lines -the course the water is to take; and thus, where there is no room even -for man to plant a footstep, are rivers traced out by the hand of man. -The water, too, is considered in an unfit state for washing, if the -current of the river carries any mud along with it. The kind of earth -that yields this mud is known as “urium;”[894] and hence it is that in -tracing out these channels, they carry the water over beds of silex or -pebbles, and carefully avoid this urium. When they have reached the -head of the fall, at the very brow of the mountain, reservoirs are -hollowed out, a couple of hundred feet in length and breadth, and some -ten feet in depth. In these reservoirs there are generally five sluices -left, about three feet square; so that, the moment the reservoir is -filled, the floodgates are struck away, and the torrent bursts forth -with such a degree of violence as to roll onwards any fragments of rock -which may obstruct its passage. - -When they have reached the level ground, too, there is still another -labour that awaits them. Trenches—known as “agogæ”[895]—have to be -dug for the passage of the water; and these, at regular intervals, -have a layer of ulex placed at the bottom. This ulex[896] is a plant -like rosemary in appearance, rough and prickly, and well-adapted for -arresting any pieces of gold that may be carried along. The sides, too, -are closed in with planks, and are supported by arches when carried -over steep and precipitous spots. The earth, carried onwards in the -stream, arrives at the sea at last, and thus is the shattered mountain -washed away; causes which have greatly tended to extend the shores of -Spain by these encroachments upon the deep. It is also by the agency of -canals of this description that the material, excavated at the cost of -such immense labour by the process previously described,[897] is washed -and carried away; for otherwise the shafts would soon be choked up by -it. - -The gold found by excavating with galleries does not require to be -melted, but is pure gold at once. In these excavations, too, it is -found in lumps, as also in the shafts which are sunk, sometimes -exceeding ten pounds even. The names given to these lumps are “palagæ,” -and “palacurnæ,”[898] while the gold found in small grains is known -as “baluce.” The ulex that is used for the above purpose is dried and -burnt, after which the ashes of it are washed upon a bed of grassy -turf, in order that the gold may be deposited thereupon. - -Asturia, Gallæcia, and Lusitania furnish in this manner, yearly, -according to some authorities, twenty thousand pounds’ weight of gold, -the produce of Asturia forming the major part. Indeed, there is no -part of the world that for centuries has maintained such a continuous -fertility in gold. I have already[899] mentioned that by an ancient -decree of the senate, the soil of Italy has been protected from these -researches; otherwise, there would be no land more fertile in metals. -There is extant also a censorial law relative to the gold mines of -Victumulæ, in the territory of Vercellæ,[900] by which the farmers of -the revenue were forbidden to employ more than five thousand men at the -works. - - - - -CHAP. 22.—ORPIMENT. - - -There is also one other method of procuring gold; by making it from -orpiment,[901] a mineral dug from the surface of the earth in Syria, -and much used by painters. It is just the colour of gold, but brittle, -like mirror-stone,[902] in fact. This substance greatly excited the -hopes of the Emperor Caius,[903] a prince who was most greedy for gold. -He accordingly had a large quantity of it melted, and really did obtain -some excellent gold;[904] but then the proportion was so extremely -small, that he found himself a loser thereby. Such was the result of -an experiment prompted solely by avarice: and this too, although the -price of the orpiment itself was no more than four denarii per pound. -Since his time, the experiment has never been repeated. - - - - -CHAP. 23.—ELECTRUM. - - -In all[905] gold ore there is some silver, in varying proportions; a -tenth part in some instances, an eighth in others. In one mine, and -that only, the one known as the mine of Albucrara, in Gallæcia,[906] -the proportion of silver is but one thirty-sixth: hence it is that the -ore of this mine is so much more valuable than that of others. Whenever -the proportion of silver is one-fifth, the ore is known also by the -name of “electrum;”[907] grains, too, of this metal are often found -in the gold known as “canaliense.”[908] An artificial[909] electrum, -too, is made, by mixing silver with gold. If the proportion of silver -exceeds one-fifth, the metal offers no resistance on the anvil. - -Electrum, too, was highly esteemed in ancient times, as we learn from -the testimony of Homer, who represents[910] the palace of Menelaüs as -refulgent with gold and electrum, silver and ivory. At Lindos, in the -island of Rhodes, there is a temple dedicated to Minerva, in which -there is a goblet of electrum, consecrated by Helena: history states -also that it was moulded after the proportions of her bosom. One -peculiar advantage of electrum is, its superior brilliancy to silver by -lamp-light. Native electrum has also the property of detecting poisons; -for in such case, semicircles, resembling the rainbow in appearance, -will form upon the surface of the goblet, and emit a crackling noise, -like that of flame, thus giving a twofold indication of the presence of -poison.[911] - - - - -CHAP. 24.—THE FIRST STATUES OF GOLD. - - -The first statue of massive gold, without any hollowness within, and -anterior to any of those statues of bronze even, which are known as -“holosphyratæ,”[912] is said to have been erected in the Temple of -the goddess Anaïtis. To what particular region this name belongs, we -have already[913] stated, it being that of a divinity[914] held in -the highest veneration by the nations in that part of the world. This -statue was carried off during the wars of Antonius with the people of -Parthia; and a witty saying is told, with reference to it, of one of -the veterans of the Roman army, a native of Bononia. Entertaining on -one occasion the late Emperor Augustus at dinner, he was asked by that -prince whether he was aware that the person who was the first to commit -this violence upon the statue, had been struck with blindness and -paralysis, and then expired. To this he made answer, that at that very -moment Augustus was making his dinner off of one of her legs, for that -he himself was the very man, and to that bit of plunder he had been -indebted for all his fortune.[915] - -As regards statues of human beings, Gorgias of Leontini[916] was the -first to erect a solid statue of gold, in the Temple at Delphi, in -honour of himself, about the seventieth[917] Olympiad: so great were -the fortunes then made by teaching the art of oratory! - - - - -CHAP. 25.—EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM GOLD. - - -Gold is efficacious as a remedy in many ways, being applied to -wounded persons and to infants, to render any malpractices of sorcery -comparatively innocuous that may be directed against them. Gold, -however, itself is mischievous in its effects if carried over the -head, in the case of chickens and lambs more particularly. The proper -remedy in such case is to wash the gold, and to sprinkle the water upon -the objects which it is wished to preserve. Gold, too, is melted with -twice its weight of salt, and three times its weight of misy;[918] -after which it is again melted with two parts of salt and one of the -stone called “schistos.”[919] Employed in this manner, it withdraws -the natural acridity from the substances torrefied with it in the -crucible, while at the same time it remains pure and incorrupt; the -residue forming an ash which is preserved in an earthen vessel, and is -applied with water for the cure of lichens on the face: the best method -of washing it off is with bean-meal. These ashes have the property also -of curing fistulas and the discharges known as “hæmorrhoides:” with the -addition, too, of powdered pumice, they are a cure for putrid ulcers -and sores which emit an offensive smell. - -Gold, boiled in honey with melanthium[920] and applied as a liniment to -the navel, acts as a gentle purgative upon the bowels. M. Varro assures -us that gold is a cure for warts.[921] - - - - -CHAP. 26. (5.)—CHRYSOCOLLA. - - -Chrysocolla[922] is a liquid which is found in the shafts already -mentioned,[923] flowing through the veins of gold; a kind of slime -which becomes indurated by the cold of winter till it has attained the -hardness even of pumice. The most esteemed kind of it, it has been -ascertained, is found in copper-mines, the next best being the produce -of silver-mines: it is found also in lead-mines, but that found in -combination with gold ore is much inferior. - -In all these mines, too, an artificial chrysocolla is manufactured; -much inferior, however, to the native chrysocolla. The method of -preparing it consists in introducing water gradually into a vein of -metal, throughout the winter and until the month of June; after which, -it is left to dry up during the months of June and July: so that, in -fact, it is quite evident that chrysocolla is nothing else but the -putrefaction of a metallic vein. Native chrysocolla, known as “uva,” -differs from the other in its hardness more particularly; and yet, -hard as it is, it admits of being coloured with the plant known as -“lutum.”[924] Like flax and wool, it is of a nature which imbibes -liquids. For the purpose of dyeing it, it is first bruised in a mortar, -after which, it is passed through a fine sieve. This done, it is -ground, and then passed through a still finer sieve; all that refuses -to pass being replaced in the mortar, and subjected once more to the -mill. The finest part of the powder is from time to time measured out -into a crucible, where it is macerated in vinegar, so that all the -hard particles may be dissolved; after which, it is pounded again, -and then rinsed in shell-shaped vessels, and left to dry. This done, -the chrysocolla is dyed by the agency of schist alum[925] and the -plant above-mentioned; and thus is it painted itself before it serves -to paint. It is of considerable importance, too, that it should be -absorbent and readily take the dye: indeed, if it does not speedily -take the colour, scytanum and turbistum[926] are added to the dye; such -being the name of two drugs which compel it to absorb the colouring -matter. - - - - -CHAP. 27.—THE USE MADE OF CHRYSOCOLLA IN PAINTING. - - -When chrysocolla has been thus dyed, painters call it “orobitis,” and -distinguish two kinds of it, the cleansed[927] orobitis,[928] which -is kept for making lomentum,[929] and the liquid, the balls being -dissolved for use by evaporation.[930] Both these kinds are prepared -in Cyprus,[931] but the most esteemed is that made in Armenia, the -next best being that of Macedonia: it is Spain, however, that produces -the most. The great point of its excellence consists in its producing -exactly the tint of corn when in a state of the freshest verdure.[932] -Before now, we have seen, at the spectacles exhibited by the Emperor -Nero, the arena of the Circus entirely sanded with chrysocolla, when -the prince himself, clad in a dress of the same colour, was about to -exhibit as a charioteer.[933] - -The unlearned multitude of artisans distinguish three kinds of -chrysocolla; the rough chrysocolla, which is valued at seven denarii -per pound; the middling, worth five denarii; and the bruised, also -known as the “herbaceous” chrysocolla, worth three denarii per pound. -Before laying on the sanded[934] chrysocolla, they underlay coats of -atramentum[935] and parætonium,[936] substances which make it hold, and -impart a softness to the colours. The parætonium, as it is naturally -very unctuous, and, from its smoothness, extremely tenacious, is laid -on first, and is then covered with a coat of atramentum, lest the -parætonium, from its extreme whiteness, should impart a paleness to -the chrysocolla. The kind known as “lutea,” derives its name, it is -thought, from the plant called “lutum;” which itself is often pounded -with cæruleum[937] instead of real chrysocolla, and used for painting, -making a very inferior kind of green and extremely deceptive.[938] - - - - -CHAP. 28.—SEVEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM CHRYSOCOLLA. - - -Chroysocolla, too, is made use of in medicine. In combination with -wax and oil, it is used as a detergent for wounds; and used by itself -in the form of a powder, it acts as a desiccative, and heals them. -In cases, too, of quinsy and hardness of breathing, chrysocolla is -prescribed, in the form of an electuary, with honey. It acts as an -emetic also, and is used as an ingredient in eye-salves, for the -purpose of effacing cicatrizations upon the eyes. In green plasters -too, it is used, for soothing pain and making scars disappear. This -kind of chrysocolla[939] is known by medical men as “acesis,” and is -altogether different from orobitis. - - - - -CHAP. 29.—THE CHRYSOCOLLA OF THE GOLDSMITHS, KNOWN ALSO AS SANTERNA. - - -The goldsmiths also employ a chrysocolla[940] of their own, for the -purpose of soldering gold; and it is from this chrysocolla, they say, -that all the other substances, which present a similar green, have -received their name. This preparation is made from verdigris of Cyprian -copper, the urine of a youth who has not arrived at puberty, and a -portion of nitre.[941] It is then pounded with a pestle of Cyprian -copper, in a copper mortar, and the name given to the mixture is -“santerna.” It is in this way that the gold known as “silvery”[942] -gold is soldered; one sign of its being so alloyed being its additional -brilliancy on the application of santerna. If, on the other hand, -the gold is impregnated with copper, it will contract, on coming in -contact with the santerna, become dull, and only be soldered with the -greatest difficulty: indeed, for this last kind of gold, there is a -peculiar solder employed, made of gold and one-seventh part of silver, -in addition to the materials above-mentioned, the whole beaten up -together. - - - - -CHAP. 30.—THE MARVELLOUS OPERATIONS OF NATURE IN SOLDERING METALLIC -SUBSTANCES, AND BRINGING THEM TO A STATE OF PERFECTION. - - -While speaking on this subject, it will be as well to annex the -remaining particulars, that our admiration may here be drawn to all the -marvels presented by Nature in connection therewith. The proper solder -for gold is that above described; for iron, potter’s clay; for copper, -when in masses, cadmia,[943] and in sheets, alum; for lead and marble, -resin. Lead is also united by the aid of white lead;[944] white lead -with white lead, by the agency of oil; stannum, with copper file-dust; -and silver, with stannum.[945] - -For smelting copper and iron, pine-wood is the best, Egyptian papyrus -being also very good for the purpose. Gold is melted most easily with a -fire made of chaff.[946] Limestone and Thracian stone[947] are ignited -by the agency of water, this last being extinguished by the application -of oil. Fire, however, is extinguished most readily by the application -of vinegar, viscus,[948] and unboiled eggs. Earth will under no -circumstance ignite. When charcoal has been once quenched, and then -again ignited, it gives out a greater heat than before. - - - - -CHAP. 31. (6.)—SILVER. - - -After stating these facts, we come to speak of silver ore, the -next[949] folly of mankind. Silver is never found but in shafts sunk -deep in the ground, there being no indications to raise hopes of its -existence, no shining sparkles, as in the case of gold. The earth in -which it is found is sometimes red, sometimes of an ashy hue. It is -impossible, too, to melt[950] it, except in combination with lead[951] -or with galena,[952] this last being the name given to the vein of lead -that is mostly found running near the veins of the silver ore. When -submitted, too, to the action of fire, part of the ore precipitates -itself in the form of lead,[953] while the silver is left floating on -the surface,[954] like oil on water. - -Silver is found in nearly all our provinces, but the finest of all is -that of Spain; where it is found, like gold, in uncultivated soils, -and in the mountains even. Wherever, too, one vein of silver has been -met with, another is sure to be found not far off: a thing that has -been remarked, in fact, in the case of nearly all the metals, which -would appear from this circumstance to have derived their Greek name -of “metalla.”[955] It is a remarkable fact, that the shafts opened by -Hannibal[956] in the Spanish provinces are still worked, their names -being derived from the persons who were the first to discover them. -One of these mines, which at the present day is still called Bæbelo, -furnished Hannibal with three hundred pounds’ weight of silver per -day. The mountain is already excavated for a distance of fifteen -hundred[957] paces; and throughout the whole of this distance there -are water-bearers[958] standing night and day, baling out the water in -turns, regulated by the light of torches, and so forming quite a river. - -The vein of silver that is found nearest the surface is known by the -name of “crudaria.”[959] In ancient times, the excavations used to be -abandoned the moment alum[960] was met with, and no further[961] search -was made. Of late, however, the discovery of a vein of copper beneath -alum, has withdrawn any such limits to man’s hopes. The exhalations -from silver-mines are dangerous to all animals, but to dogs more -particularly. The softer they are, the more beautiful gold and silver -are considered. It is a matter of surprise with most persons, that -lines traced[962] with silver should be black. - - - - -CHAP. 32.—QUICKSILVER. - - -There is a mineral also found in these veins of silver, which yields a -humour that is always[963] liquid, and is known as “quicksilver.”[964] -It acts as a poison[965] upon everything, and pierces vessels -even, making its way through them by the agency of its malignant -properties.[966] All substances float upon the surface of quicksilver, -with the exception of gold,[967] this being the only substance that -it attracts to itself.[968] Hence it is, that it is such an excellent -refiner of gold; for, on being briskly shaken in an earthen vessel with -gold, it rejects all the impurities that are mixed with it. When once -it has thus expelled these superfluities, there is nothing to do but to -separate it from the gold; to effect which, it is poured out upon skins -that have been well tawed, and so, exuding through them like a sort of -perspiration, it leaves the gold in a state of purity behind.[969] - -Hence it is, too, that when copper has to be gilded,[970] a coat of -quicksilver is laid beneath the gold leaf, which it retains in its -place with the greatest tenacity: in cases, however, where the leaf -is single, or very thin, the presence of the quicksilver is detected -by the paleness of the colour.[971] For this reason, persons, when -meditating a piece of fraud, have been in the habit of substituting -glair of egg for quicksilver, and then laying upon it a coat of -hydrargyros, a substance of which we shall make further mention in the -appropriate place.[972] Generally speaking, quicksilver has not been -found in any large quantities. - - - - -CHAP. 33.—STIMMI, STIBI, ALABASTRUM, LARBASIS, OR PLATYOPHTHALMON. - - -In the same mines in which silver is found, there is also found -a substance which, properly speaking, may be called a stone -made of concrete froth.[973] It is white and shining, without -being transparent, and has the several names of stimmi, stibi, -alabastrum,[974] and larbasis. There are two kinds of it, the male and -the female.[975] The latter kind is the more approved of, the male[976] -stimmi being more uneven, rougher to the touch, less ponderous, not so -radiant, and more gritty. The female kind, on the other hand, is bright -and friable, and separates in laminæ, and not in globules.[977] - - - - -CHAP. 34.—SEVEN REMEDIES DERIVED PROM STIMMI. - - -Stimmi is possessed of certain astringent and refrigerative properties, -its principal use, in medicine, being for the eyes. Hence it is that -most persons call it “platyophthalmon,”[978] it being extensively -employed in the calliblepharic[979] preparations of females, for the -purpose of dilating the eyes. It acts also as a check upon fluxes of -the eyes and ulcerations of those organs; being used, as a powder, with -pounded frankincense and gum. It has the property, too, of arresting -discharges of blood from the brain; and, sprinkled in the form of a -powder, it is extremely efficacious for the cure of recent wounds and -bites of dogs which have been some time inflicted. For the cure of -burns it is remarkably good, mixed with grease, litharge,[980] ceruse, -and wax. - -The method of preparing it, is to burn it, enclosed in a coat of -cow-dung, in a furnace; which done, it is quenched with woman’s milk, -and pounded with rain-water in a mortar.[981] While this is doing, -the thick and turbid part is poured off from time to time into a -copper vessel, and purified with nitre.[982] The lees of it, which are -rejected, are recognized by their being full of lead and falling to -the bottom. The vessel into which the turbid part has been poured off, -is then covered with a linen cloth and left untouched for a night; -the portion that lies upon the surface being poured off the following -day, or else removed with a sponge. The part that has fallen to the -bottom of the vessel is regarded as the choicest[983] part, and is -left, covered with a linen cloth, to dry in the sun, but not to become -parched. This done, it is again pounded in a mortar, and then divided -into tablets. But the main thing of all is, to observe such a degree of -nicety in heating it, as not to let it become lead.[984] Some persons, -when preparing it on the fire, use grease[985] instead of dung. Others, -again, bruise it in water and then pass it through a triple strainer -of linen cloth; after which, they reject the lees, and pour off the -remainder of the liquid, collecting all that is deposited at the -bottom, and using it as an ingredient in plasters and eye-salves. - - - - -CHAP. 35.—THE SCORIA OF SILVER. SIX REMEDIES DERIVED FROM IT. - - -The scoria of silver is called by the Greeks “helcysma.”[986] It has -certain restringent and refrigerative effects upon bodies, and, like -molybdæna, of which we shall make further mention when speaking[987] -of lead, is used as an ingredient in making plasters, those more -particularly which are to promote the cicatrization of wounds. It is -employed also for the cure of tenesmus and dysentery, being injected -in the form of a clyster with myrtle-oil. It forms an ingredient, too, -in the medicaments known as “liparæ,”[988] for the removal of fleshy -excrescences in sores, ulcerations arising from chafing, or running -ulcers on the head. - -The same mines also furnish us with the preparation known as “scum of -silver.”[989] There are three[990] varieties of it; the best, known as -“chrysitis;” the second best, the name of which is “argyritis;” and a -third kind, which is called “molybditis.” In most instances, too, all -these tints are to be found in the same cake.[991] - -The most approved kind is that of Attica; the next being that which -comes from Spain. Chrysitis is the produce of the metallic vein,[992] -argyritis is obtained from the silver itself, and molybditis is the -result of the smelting of lead,[993] a work that is done at Puteoli; to -which last circumstance, in fact, molybditis owes its name.[994] All -these substances are prepared in the following manner: the metal is -first melted, and then allowed to flow from a more elevated receiver -into a lower. From this last it is lifted by the aid of iron spits, -and is then twirled round at the end of the spit in the midst of the -flames, in order to make it all the lighter. Thus, as may be easily -perceived from the name, it is in reality the scum of a substance in -a state of fusion—of the future metal, in fact. It differs from scoria -in the same way that the scum of a liquid differs from the lees, the -one[995] being an excretion thrown out by the metal while purifying -itself, the other[996] an excretion of the metal when purified. - -Some persons distinguish two kinds of scum of silver, and give them -the names of “scirerytis” and “peumene;”[997] a third variety being -molybdæna, of which we shall have to make further mention when treating -of lead.[998] To make this scum fit for use, the cakes are again broken -into pieces the size of a hazel-nut, and then melted, the fire being -briskly blown with the bellows. For the purpose of separating the -charcoal and ashes from it, it is then rinsed with vinegar or with -wine, and is so quenched. In the case of argyritis, it is recommended, -in order to blanch it, to break it into pieces the size of a bean, and -then to boil it with water in an earthen vessel, first putting with -it, wrapped in linen cloths, some new wheat and barley, which are left -there till they have lost the outer coat. This done, they bruise the -whole in mortars for six consecutive days, taking care to rinse the -mixture in cold water three times a day, and after that, in an infusion -of hot water and fossil salt, one obolus of the latter to every pound -of scum: at the end of the six days it is put away for keeping in a -vessel of lead. - -Some persons boil it with white beans and a ptisan[999] of barley, and -then dry it in the sun; others, again, with white wool and beans, till -such time as it imparts no darkness to the wool; after which, first -adding fossil[1000] salt, they change the water from time to time, and -then dry it during the forty hottest days of summer. In some instances -the practice is, to boil it in water in a swine’s paunch, and then to -take it out and rub it with nitre; after which, following the preceding -method, they pound it in a mortar with salt. Some again never boil it, -but pound it only with salt, and then rinse it with water. - -Scum of silver is used as an ingredient in eye-salves, and, in the -form of a liniment, by females, for the purpose of removing spots -and blemishes caused by scars, as also in washes for the hair. Its -properties are desiccative, emollient, refrigerative, temperative, and -detergent. It fills up cavities in the flesh produced by ulceration, -and reduces tumours. For all these purposes it is employed as an -ingredient in plaster, and in the liparæ previously mentioned.[1001] In -combination with rue, myrtle, and vinegar, it removes erysipelas: and, -with myrtle and wax, it is a cure for chilblains. - - - - -CHAP. 36. (7.)—MINIUM: FOR WHAT RELIGIOUS PURPOSES IT WAS USED BY THE -ANCIENTS. - - -It is also in silver-mines that minium[1002] is found, a pigment held -at the present day in very high estimation; and by the Romans in former -times not only held in the highest estimation, but used for sacred -purposes as well. Verrius enumerates certain authors, upon whose -testimony we find it satisfactorily established that it was the custom -upon festivals to colour the face of the statue of Jupiter even with -minium, as well as the bodies[1003] of triumphant generals; and that it -was in this guise that Camillus celebrated his triumph. We find, too, -that it is through the same religious motives that it is employed at -the present day for colouring the unguents used at triumphal banquets, -and that it is the first duty of the censors to make a contract for -painting the statue of Jupiter[1004] with this colour. - -For my own part, I am quite at a loss for the origin of this usage; but -it is a well-known fact, that at the present day even, minium is in -great esteem with the nations of Æthiopia, their nobles being in the -habit of staining the body all over with it, and this being the colour -appropriated to the statues of their gods. I shall therefore use all -the more diligence in enquiring into all the known facts respecting it. - - - - -CHAP. 37.—THE DISCOVERY AND ORIGIN OF MINIUM. - - -Theophrastus states that, ninety years before the magistracy of -Praxibulus at Athens—a date which answers to the year of our City, -439—minium was discovered by Callias the Athenian, who was in hopes to -extract gold, by submitting to the action of fire the red sand that -was found in the silver-mines. This, he says, was the first discovery -of minium. He states, also, that in his own time, it was already found -in Spain, but of a harsh and sandy nature; as also in Colchis, upon -a certain inaccessible rock there, from which it was brought down by -the agency of darts. This, however, he says, was only an adulterated -kind of minium, the best of all being that procured in the Cilbian -Plains,[1005] above Ephesus, the sand of which has just the colour -of the kermes berry.[1006] This sand, he informs us, is first ground -to powder and then washed, the portion that settles at the bottom -being subjected to a second washing. From this circumstance, he says, -arises a difference in the article; some persons being in the habit -of preparing their minium with a single washing, while with others it -is more diluted. The best kind, however, he says, is that which has -undergone a second washing. - - - - -CHAP. 38.—CINNABARIS. - - -I am not surprised that this colour should have been held in such high -esteem; for already, in the days of the Trojan War, rubrica[1007] was -highly valued, as appears from the testimony of Homer, who particularly -notices the ships that were coloured with it, whereas, in reference -to other colours and paintings, he but rarely notices them. The -Greeks call this red earth “miltos,” and give to minium the name of -“cinnabaris,” and hence the error[1008] caused by the two meanings -of the same word; this being properly the name given to the thick -matter which issues from the dragon when crushed beneath the weight of -the dying elephant, mixed with the blood of either animal, as already -described.[1009] Indeed this last is the only colour that in painting -gives a proper representation of blood. This cinnabaris, too, is -extremely useful as an ingredient in antidotes and various medicaments. -But, by Hercules! our physicians, because minium also has the name of -“cinnabaris,” use it as a substitute for the other, and so employ a -poison, as we shall shortly[1010] show it to be. - - - - -CHAP. 39.—THE EMPLOYMENT OF CINNABARIS IN PAINTING. - - -The ancients used to paint with cinnabaris[1011] those pictures of one -colour, which are still known among us as “monochromata.”[1012] They -painted also with the minium of Ephesus:[1013] but the use of this last -has been abandoned, from the vast trouble which the proper keeping of -the picture entailed. And then besides, both these colours were thought -to be too harsh; the consequence of which is, that painters have now -adopted the use of rubrica[1014] and of sinopis, substances of which I -shall make further mention in the appropriate places.[1015] - -Cinnabaris[1016] is adulterated by the agency of goats’ blood, or of -bruised sorb-apples. The price of genuine cinnabaris is fifty sesterces -per pound. - - - - -CHAP. 40.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF MINIUM. THE USE MADE OF IT IN PAINTING. - - -According to Juba minium is also a production of Carmania,[1017] and -Timagenes says that it is found in Æthiopia. But from neither of -those regions is it imported to Rome, nor, indeed, from hardly any -other quarter but Spain; that of most note coming from Sisapo,[1018] -a territory of Bætica, the mine of minium there forming a part of the -revenues of the Roman people. Indeed there is nothing guarded with a -more constant circumspection; for it is not allowable to reduce and -refine the ore upon the spot, it being brought to Rome in a crude state -and under seal, to the amount of about two thousand pounds per annum. -At Rome, the process of washing is performed, and, in the sale of it, -the price is regulated by statute; it not being allowed to exceed[1019] -seventy sesterces per pound. There are numerous ways, however, of -adulterating it, a source of considerable plunder to the company.[1020] - -For there is, in fact, another kind[1021] of minium, found in most -silver-mines as well as lead-mines, and prepared by the calcination -of certain stones that are found mixed with the metallic vein—not the -minerals, however, to the fluid humours of which we have given[1022] -the name of quicksilver; for if those are subjected to the action of -fire they will yield silver—but another kind of stone[1023] that is -found with them. These barren[1024] stones, too, may be recognized -by their uniform leaden colour, and it is only when in the furnace -that they turn red. After being duly calcined they are pulverized, -and thus form a minium of second-rate quality, known to but very -few, and far inferior to the produce of the native sand that we have -mentioned.[1025] It is with this substance, then, as also with syricum, -that the genuine minium is adulterated in the manufactories of the -company. How syricum is prepared we shall describe in the appropriate -place.[1026] One motive, however, for giving an under-coat of syricum -to minium, is the evident saving of expense that results therefrom. -Minium, too, in another way affords a very convenient opportunity to -painters for pilfering, by washing their brushes,[1027] filled with -the colouring matter, every now and then. The minium of course falls to -the bottom, and is thus so much gained by the thief. - -Genuine minium ought to have the brilliant colour of the kermes -berry;[1028] but when that of inferior quality is used for walls, the -brightness of it is sure to be tarnished by the moisture, and this -too, although the substance itself is a sort of metallic mildew. In -the mines of Sisapo, the veins are composed exclusively of the sandy -particles of minium, without the intermixture of any silver whatever; -the practice being to melt it like gold. Minium is assayed by the -agency of gold in a state of incandescence: if it has been adulterated, -it will turn black, but if genuine, it retains its colour. I find it -stated also that minium is adulterated with lime; the proper mode of -detecting which, is similarly to employ a sheet of red hot iron, if -there should happen to be no gold at hand. - -To objects painted with minium the action of the sun and moon is highly -injurious. The proper method of avoiding this inconvenience, is to dry -the wall, and then to apply, with, a hair brush, hot Punic wax, melted -with oil; after which, the varnish must be heated, with an application -of gall-nuts, burnt to a red heat, till it quite perspires. This done, -it must be smoothed down with rollers[1029] made of wax, and then -polished with clean linen cloths, like marble, when made to shine. -Persons employed in the manufactories in preparing minium protect the -face with masks of loose bladder-skin, in order to avoid inhaling the -dust, which is highly pernicious; the covering being at the same time -sufficiently transparent to admit of being seen through. - -Minium is employed also for writing[1030] in books; and the letters -made with it being more distinct, even on gold or marble, it is used -for the inscriptions upon tombs. - - - - -CHAP. 41. (8.)—HYDRARGYROS. REMEDIES DERIVED FROM MINIUM. - - -Human industry has also discovered a method of extracting -hydrargyros[1031] from the inferior minium, a substitute for -quicksilver, the further mention of which was deferred, a few pages -before,[1032] to the present occasion. There are two methods of -preparing this substance; either by pounding minium and vinegar with a -brazen pestle and mortar, or else by putting minium into flat earthen -pans, covered with a lid, and then enclosed in an iron seething-pot -well luted with potter’s clay. A fire is then lighted under the pans, -and the flame kept continually burning by the aid of the bellows; which -done, the steam is carefully removed, that is found adhering to the -lid, being like silver in colour, and similar to water in its fluidity. -This liquid, too, is easily made to separate in globules, which, from -their fluid nature, readily unite.[1033] - -As it is a fact generally admitted, that minium is a poison,[1034] I -look upon all the recipes given as highly dangerous which recommend -its employment for medicinal purposes; with the exception, perhaps, -of those cases in which it is applied to the head or abdomen, for the -purpose of arresting hæmorrhage, due care being taken that it is not -allowed to penetrate to the viscera, or to touch any sore. Beyond such -cases as these, for my own part, I should never recommend it to be used -in medicine. - - - - -CHAP. 42.—THE METHOD OF GILDING SILVER. - - -At the present day silver is gilded almost exclusively by the agency -of hydrargyros;[1035] and a similar method should always be employed -in laying gold leaf upon copper. But the same fraud which ever shows -itself so extremely ingenious in all departments of human industry, -has devised a plan of substituting an inferior material, as already -mentioned.[1036] - - - - -CHAP. 43.—TOUCHSTONES FOR TESTING GOLD. - - -A description of gold and silver is necessarily accompanied by that -of the stone known as “coticula.”[1037] In former times, according -to Theophrastus, this stone was nowhere to be found, except in the -river Tmolus,[1038] but at the present day it is found in numerous -places. By some persons it is known as the “Heraclian,” and by others -as the “Lydian” stone. It is found in pieces of moderate size, and -never exceeding four inches in length by two in breadth. The side -that has lain facing the sun is superior[1039] to that which has lain -next to the ground. Persons of experience in these matters, when they -have scraped a particle off the ore with this stone, as with a file, -can tell in a moment the proportion of gold there is in it, how much -silver, or how much copper; and this to a scruple, their accuracy being -so marvellous that they are never mistaken. - - - - -CHAP. 44.—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILVER, AND THE MODES OF TESTING IT. - - -There are two kinds of silver. On placing a piece of it upon an iron -fire-shovel at a white heat, if the metal remains perfectly white, it -is of the best quality: if again it turns of a reddish colour, it is -inferior; but if it becomes black, it is worthless. Fraud, however, -has devised means of stultifying this test even; for by keeping the -shovel immersed in men’s urine, the piece of silver absorbs it as it -burns, and so displays a fictitious whiteness. There is also a kind of -test with reference to polished silver: when the human breath comes in -contact with it, it should immediately be covered with steam,[1040] the -cloudiness disappearing at once. - - - - -CHAP. 45. (9.)—MIRRORS. - - -It is generally supposed among us that it is only the very finest -silver that admits of being laminated, and so converted into mirrors. -Pure silver was formerly used for the purpose, but, at the present -day, this too has been corrupted by the devices of fraud. But, really, -it is a very marvellous property that this metal has, of reflecting -objects; a property which, it is generally agreed, results from the -repercussion of the air,[1041] thrown back as it is from the metal -upon the eyes. The same too is the action that takes place when we use -a mirror. If, again, a thick plate of this metal is highly polished, -and is rendered slightly concave,[1042] the image or object reflected -is enlarged to an immense extent; so vast is the difference between -a surface receiving,[1043] and throwing back the air. Even more than -this—drinking-cups are now made in such a manner, as to be filled -inside with numerous[1044] concave facets, like so many mirrors; so -that if but one person looks into the interior, he sees reflected a -whole multitude of persons. - -Mirrors, too, have been invented to reflect monstrous[1045] forms; -those, for instance, which have been consecrated in the Temple at -Smyrna. This, however, all results from the configuration given to -the metal; and it makes all the difference whether the surface has -a concave form like the section of a drinking cup, or whether it is -[convex] like a Thracian[1046] buckler; whether it is depressed in -the middle or elevated; whether the surface has a direction[1047] -transversely or obliquely; or whether it runs horizontally or -vertically; the peculiar configuration of the surface which receives -the shadows, causing them to undergo corresponding distortions: -for, in fact, the image is nothing else but the shadow of the object -collected upon the bright surface of the metal. - -However, to finish our description of mirrors on the present[1048] -occasion—the best, in the times of our ancestors, were those of -Brundisium,[1049] composed of a mixture of[1050] stannum and copper: -at a later period, however, those made of silver were preferred, -Pasiteles[1051] being the first who made them, in the time[1052] of -Pompeius Magnus. More recently,[1053] a notion has arisen that the -object is reflected with greater distinctness, by the application to -the back of the mirror of a layer of gold.[1054] - - - - -CHAP. 46.—EGYPTIAN SILVER. - - -The people of Egypt stain their silver vessels, that they may see -represented in them their god Anubis;[1055] and it is the custom -with them to paint,[1056] and not to chase, their silver. This usage -has now passed to our own triumphal statues even; and, a truly -marvellous fact, the value of silver has been enhanced by deadening its -brilliancy.[1057] The following is the method adopted: with the silver -are mixed two-thirds of the very finest Cyprian copper, that known as -“coronarium,”[1058] and a proportion of live sulphur equal to that of -the silver. The whole of these are then melted in an earthen vessel -well luted with potter’s clay, the operation being completed when the -cover becomes detached from the vessel. Silver admits also of being -blackened with the yolk of a hard-boiled egg; a tint, however, which is -removed by the application of vinegar and chalk. - -The Triumvir Antonius alloyed the silver denarius with iron: and in -spurious coin there is an alloy of copper employed. Some, again, -curtail[1059] the proper weight of our denarii, the legitimate -proportion being eighty-four denarii to a pound of silver. It was in -consequence of these frauds that a method was devised of assaying the -denarius: the law ordaining which was so much to the taste of the -plebeians, that in every quarter of the City there was a full-length -statue erected[1060] in honour of Marius Gratidianus. It is truly -marvellous, that in this art, and in this only, the various methods -of falsification should be made a study:[1061] for the sample of the -false denarius is now an object of careful examination, and people -absolutely buy the counterfeit coin at the price of many genuine ones! - - - - -CHAP. 47. (10.)—INSTANCES OF IMMENSE WEALTH. PERSONS WHO HAVE POSSESSED -THE GREATEST SUMS OF MONEY. - - -The ancients bad no number whereby to express a larger sum than one -hundred thousand; and hence it is that, at the present day, we reckon -by multiples of that number, as, for instance, ten times one hundred -thousand, and so on.[1062] For these multiplications we are indebted -to usury and the use of coined money; and hence, too, the expression -“æs alienum,” or “another man’s money,” which we still use.[1063] In -later times, again, the surname “Dives”[1064] was given to some: only -be it known to all, that the man who first received this surname became -a bankrupt and so bubbled his creditors.[1065] M. Crassus,[1066] a -member of the same family, used to say that no man was rich, who could -not maintain a legion upon his yearly income. He possessed in land two -hundred millions[1067] of sesterces, being the richest Roman citizen -next to Sylla. Nor was even this enough for him, but he must want to -possess all the gold of the Parthians too![1068] And yet, although he -was the first to become memorable for his opulence—so pleasant is the -task of stigmatizing this insatiate cupidity—we have known of many -manumitted slaves, since his time, much more wealthy than he ever was; -three for example, all at the same time, in the reign of the Emperor -Claudius, Pallas,[1069] Callistus,[1070] and Narcissus.[1071] - -But to omit all further mention of these men, as though they were -still[1072] the rulers of the empire, let us turn to C. Cæcilius -Claudius Isidorus, who, in the consulship of C. Asinius Gallus and -C. Marcius Censorinus,[1073] upon the sixth day before the calends -of February, declared by his will, that though he had suffered great -losses through the civil wars, he was still able to leave behind him -four thousand one hundred and sixteen slaves, three thousand six -hundred pairs of oxen, and two hundred and fifty-seven thousand heads -of other kind of cattle, besides, in ready money, sixty millions of -sesterces. Upon his funeral, also, he ordered eleven hundred thousand -sesterces to be expended. - -And yet, supposing all these enormous riches to be added together, -how small a proportion will they bear to the wealth of Ptolemæus; the -person who, according to Varro, when Pompeius was on his expedition -in the countries adjoining Judæa, entertained eight thousand horsemen -at his own expense, and gave a repast to one thousand guests, setting -before every one of them a drinking-cup of gold, and changing these -vessels at every course! And then, again, how insignificant would his -wealth have been by the side of that of Pythius the Bithynian[1074]—for -I here make no mention of kings, be it remarked. He it was who gave -the celebrated plane-tree and vine of gold to King Darius, and who -entertained at a banquet the troops of Xerxes, seven hundred and -eighty-eight thousand men in all; with a promise of pay and corn for -the whole of them during the next five months, on condition that one at -least of his five children, who had been drawn for service, should be -left to him as the solace of his old age. And yet, let any one compare -the wealth of Pythius to that possessed by King Crœsus! - -In the name of all that is unfortunate, what madness it is for human -nature to centre its desires upon a thing that has either fallen to the -lot of slaves, or else has reached no known limit in the aspirations -even of kings! - - - - -CHAP. 48.—AT WHAT PERIOD THE ROMAN PEOPLE FIRST MADE VOLUNTARY -CONTRIBUTIONS. - - -The Roman people first began to make voluntary contributions[1075] in -the consulship of Spurius Posthumius and Quintus Marcius.[1076] So -abundant was money at that period, that the people assessed themselves -for a contribution to L. Scipio, to defray the expenses of the games -which he celebrated.[1077] As to the contribution of the sixth part of -an as, for the purpose of defraying the funeral expenses of Agrippa -Menenius, I look upon that to have been a mark of respect paid to him, -an honour, too, that was rendered necessary by his poverty, rather than -in the light of a largess. - - - - -CHAP. 49. (11.)—INSTANCES OF LUXURY IN SILVER PLATE. - - -The caprice of the human mind is marvellously exemplified in the -varying fashions of silver plate; the work of no individual manufactory -being for any long time in vogue. At one period, the Furnian plate, -at another the Clodian, and at another the Gratian,[1078] is all the -rage—for we borrow the shop even at our tables.[1079]—Now again, it -is embossed plate[1080] that we are in search of, and silver deeply -chiselled around the marginal lines of the figures painted[1081] upon -it; and now we are building up on our sideboards fresh tiers[1082] of -tables for supporting the various dishes. Other articles of plate we -nicely pare away,[1083] it being an object that the file may remove as -much of the metal as possible. - -We find the orator Calvus complaining that the saucepans are made of -silver; but it has been left for us to invent a plan of covering our -very carriages[1084] with chased silver, and it was in our own age that -Poppæa, the wife of the Emperor Nero, ordered her favourite mules to be -shod even with gold! - - - - -CHAP. 50.—INSTANCES OF THE FRUGALITY OF THE ANCIENTS IN REFERENCE TO -SILVER PLATE. - - -The younger Scipio Africanus left to his heir thirty-two pounds’ weight -of silver; the same person who, on his triumph over the Carthaginians, -displayed four thousand three hundred and seventy pounds’ weight of -that metal. Such was the sum total of the silver possessed by the -whole of the inhabitants of Carthage, that rival of Rome for the -empire of the world! How many a Roman since then has surpassed her -in his display of plate for a single table! After the destruction -of Numantia, the same Africanus gave to his soldiers, on the day of -his triumph, a largess of seven denarii each—and right worthy were -they of such a general, when satisfied with such a sum! His brother, -Scipio Allobrogicus,[1085] was the very first who possessed one -thousand pounds’ weight of silver, but Drusus Livius, when he was -tribune of the people, possessed ten thousand. As to the fact that an -ancient warrior,[1086] a man, too, who had enjoyed a triumph, should -have incurred the notice of the censor for being in possession of -five pounds’ weight of silver, it is a thing that would appear quite -fabulous at the present day.[1087] The same, too, with the instance of -Catus Ælius,[1088] who, when consul, after being found by the Ætolian -ambassadors taking his morning meal[1089] off of common earthenware, -refused to receive the silver vessels which they sent him; and, -indeed, was never in possession, to the last day of his life, of any -silver at all, with the exception of two drinking-cups, which had been -presented to him as the reward of his valour, by L. Paulus,[1090] his -father-in-law, on the conquest of King Perseus. - -We read, too, that the Carthaginian ambassadors declared that no people -lived on more amicable terms among themselves than the Romans, for that -wherever they had dined they had always met with the same[1091] silver -plate. And yet, by Hercules! to my own knowledge, Pompeius Paulinus, -son of a Roman of equestrian rank at Arelate,[1092] a member, too, of a -family, on the paternal side, that was graced with the fur,[1093] had -with him, when serving with the army, and that, too, in a war against -the most savage nations, a service of silver plate that weighed twelve -thousand pounds! - - - - -CHAP. 51.—AT WHAT PERIOD SILVER WAS FIRST USED AS AN ORNAMENT FOR -COUCHES. - - -For this long time past, however, it has been the fashion to plate the -couches of our women, as well as some of our banquetting-couches,[1094] -entirely with silver. Carvilius Pollio,[1095] a Roman of equestrian -rank, was the first, it is said, to adorn these last with silver; not, -I mean, to plate them all over, nor yet to make them after the Delian -pattern; the Punic[1096] fashion being the one he adopted. It was -after this last pattern too, that he had them ornamented with gold as -well: and it was not long after his time that silver couches came into -fashion, in imitation of the couches of Delos. All this extravagance, -however, was fully expiated by the civil wars of Sulla. - - - - -CHAP. 52.—AT WHAT PERIOD SILVER CHARGERS OF ENORMOUS SIZE WERE FIRST -MADE. WHEN SILVER WAS FIRST USED AS A MATERIAL FOR SIDEBOARDS. WHEN THE -SIDEBOARDS CALLED TYMPANA WERE FIRST INTRODUCED. - - -In fact, it was but very shortly before that period that these couches -were invented, as well as chargers[1097] of silver, one hundred pounds -in weight: of which last, it is a well-known fact, that there were then -upwards of one hundred and fifty in Rome, and that many persons were -proscribed through the devices of others who were desirous to gain -possession thereof. Well may our Annals be put to the blush for having -to impute those civil wars to the existence of such vices as these! - -Our own age, however, has waxed even stronger in this respect. In -the reign of Claudius, his slave Drusillanus, surnamed Rotundus, who -acted as his steward[1098] in Nearer Spain, possessed a silver charger -weighing five hundred pounds, for the manufacture of which a workshop -had had to be expressly built. This charger was accompanied also by -eight other dishes, each two hundred and fifty pounds in weight. How -many of his fellow-slaves,[1099] pray, would it have taken to introduce -these dishes, or who[1100] were to be the guests served therefrom? - -Cornelius Nepos says that before the victory gained[1101] by Sylla, -there were but two banquetting couches adorned with silver at Rome, -and that in his own recollection, silver was first used for adorning -sideboards. Fenestella, who died at the end of the reign of Tiberius -Cæsar, informs us that at that period sideboards, inlaid even with -tortoiseshell,[1102] had come into fashion; whereas, a little before -his time, they had been made of solid wood, of a round shape, and -not much larger than our tables. He says, however, that when he -was quite a boy, they had begun to make the sideboards square, and -of different[1103] pieces of wood, or else veneered with maple or -citrus:[1104] and that at a later period the fashion was introduced -of overlaying the corners and the seams at the joinings with silver. -The name given to them in his youth, he says, was “tympana;”[1105] and -it was at this period, too, that the chargers which had been known as -“magides” by the ancients, first received the name of “lances,” from -their resemblance[1106] to the scales of a balance. - - - - -CHAP. 53.—THE ENORMOUS PRICE OF SILVER PLATE. - - -It is not, however, only for vast quantities of plate that there is -such a rage among mankind, but even more so, if possible, for the plate -of peculiar artists: and this too, to the exculpation of our own age, -has long been the case. C. Gracchus possessed some silver dolphins, -for which he paid five thousand sesterces per pound. Lucius Crassus, -the orator, paid for two goblets chased by the hand of the artist -Mentor,[1107] one hundred thousand sesterces: but he confessed that for -very shame he never dared use them, as also that he had other articles -of plate in his possession, for which he had paid at the rate of six -thousand sesterces per pound. It was the conquest of Asia[1108] that -first introduced luxury into Italy; for we find that Lucius Scipio, -in his triumphal procession, exhibited one thousand four hundred -pounds’ weight of chased silver, with golden vessels, the weight of -which amounted to one thousand five hundred pounds. This[1109] took -place in the year from the foundation of the City, 565. But that which -inflicted a still more severe blow upon the Roman morals, was the -legacy of Asia,[1110] which King Attalus[1111] left to the state at -his decease, a legacy which was even more disadvantageous than the -victory of Scipio,[1112] in its results. For, upon this occasion, all -scruple was entirely removed, by the eagerness which existed at Rome, -for making purchases at the auction of the king’s effects. This took -place in the year of the City, 622, the people having learned, during -the fifty-seven years that had intervened, not only to admire, but to -covet even, the opulence of foreign nations. The tastes of the Roman -people had received, too, an immense impulse from the conquest of -Achaia,[1113] which, during this interval, in the year of the City, -608, that nothing might be wanting, had introduced both statues and -pictures. The same epoch, too, that saw the birth of luxury, witnessed -the downfall of Carthage; so that, by a fatal coincidence, the Roman -people, at the same moment, both acquired a taste for vice and obtained -a license for gratifying it. - -Some, too, of the ancients sought to recommend themselves by this love -of excess; for Caius Marius, after his victory over the Cimbri, drank -from a cantharus,[1114] it is said, in imitation of Father Liber;[1115] -Marius, that ploughman[1116] of Arpinum, a general who had risen from -the ranks![1117] - - - - -CHAP. 54. (12.)—STATUES OF SILVER. - - -It is generally believed, but erroneously, that silver was first -employed for making statues of the deified Emperor Augustus, at a -period when adulation was all the fashion: for I find it stated, that -in the triumph celebrated by Pompeius Magnus there was a silver statue -exhibited of Pharnaces, the first[1118] king of Pontus, as also one of -Mithridates Eupator,[1119] besides chariots of gold and silver. - -Silver, too, has in some instances even supplanted gold; for the -luxurious tastes of the female plebeians having gone so far as -to adopt the use of shoe-buckles of gold,[1120] it is considered -old-fashioned to wear them made of that metal.[1121] I myself, too, -have seen Arellius Fuscus[1122]—the person whose name was erased -from the equestrian order on a singularly calumnious charge,[1123] -when his school was so thronged by our youth, attracted thither by -his celebrity—wearing rings made of silver. But of what use is it to -collect all these instances, when our very soldiers, holding ivory even -in contempt, have the hilts of their swords made of chased silver? -when, too, their scabbards are heard to jingle with their silver -chains, and their belts with the plates of silver with which they are -inlaid? - -At the present day, too, the continence of our very pages is secured -by the aid of silver:[1124] our women, when bathing, quite despise any -sitting-bath that is not made of silver: while for serving up food at -table, as well as for the most unseemly purposes, the same metal must -be equally employed! Would that Fabricius could behold these instances -of luxuriousness, the baths of our women—bathing as they do in company -with the men—paved with silver to such an extent that there is not room -left for the sole of the foot even! Fabricius, I say, who would allow -of no general of an army having any other plate than a patera and a -salt-cellar of silver.—Oh that he could see how that the rewards of -valour in our day are either composed of these objects of luxury, or -else are broken up to make them![1125] Alas for the morals of our age! -Fabricius puts us to the blush. - - - - -CHAP. 55.—THE MOST REMARKABLE WORKS IN SILVER, AND THE NAMES OF THE -MOST FAMOUS ARTISTS IN SILVER. - - -It is a remarkable fact that the art of chasing gold should have -conferred no celebrity upon any person, while that of embossing silver -has rendered many illustrious. The greatest renown, however, has been -acquired by Mentor, of whom mention has been made already.[1126] Four -pairs [of vases] were all that were ever[1127] made by him; and at the -present day, not one of these, it is said, is any longer in existence, -owing to the conflagrations of the Temple of Diana at Ephesus and -of that in the Capitol.[1128] Varro informs us in his writings that -he also was in possession of a bronze statue, the work of this -artist. Next to Mentor, the most admired artists were Acragas,[1129] -Boëthus,[1130] and Mys.[1131] Works of all these artists are still -extant in the Isle of Rhodes; of Boëthus, in the Temple of Minerva, -at Lindus; of Acragas, in the Temple of Father Liber, at Rhodes, -consisting of cups engraved with figures in relief of Centaurs and -Bacchantes; and of Mys, in the same temple, figures of Sileni and -Cupids. Representations also of the chase by Acragas on drinking cups -were held in high estimation. - -Next to these in repute comes Calamis.[1132] Antipater[1133] too, it -has been said, laid, rather than engraved,[1134] a Sleeping Satyr -upon a drinking-bowl.[1135] Next to these come Stratonicus[1136] of -Cyzicus, and Tauriscus:[1137] Ariston[1138] also, and Eunicus,[1139] -of Mytilene are highly praised; Hecatæus[1140] also, and, about the -age of Pompeius Magnus, Pasiteles,[1141] Posidonius[1142] of Ephesus, -Hedystratides[1143] who engraved battle-scenes and armed warriors, -and Zopyrus,[1144] who represented the Court of the Areopagus and -the trial of Orestes,[1145] upon two cups valued at twelve thousand -sesterces. There was Pytheas[1146] also, a work of whose sold at the -rate of ten thousand denarii for two ounces: it was a drinking-bowl, -the figures on which represented Ulysses and Diomedes stealing the -Palladium.[1147] The same artist engraved also, upon some small -drinking-vessels, kitchen scenes,[1148] known as “magiriscia;”[1149] -of such remarkably fine workmanship and so liable to injury, that it -was quite impossible to take copies[1150] of them. Teucer too, the -inlayer,[1151] enjoyed a great reputation. - -All at once, however, this art became so lost in point of excellence, -that at the present day ancient specimens are the only ones at all -valued; and only those pieces of plate are held in esteem the designs -on which are so much worn that the figures cannot be distinguished. - -Silver becomes tainted by the contact of mineral waters, and of the -salt exhalations from them, as in the interior of Spain, for instance. - - - - -CHAP. 56.—SIL: THE PERSONS WHO FIRST USED IT IN PAINTING, AND THE -METHOD THEY ADOPTED. - - -In the mines of gold and silver there are some other pigments also -found, sil[1152] and cæruleum. Sil is, properly speaking, a sort of -slime.[1153] The best kind is that known as Attic sil; the price of -which is two denarii per pound. The next best kind is the marbled[1154] -sil, the price of which is half that of the Attic kind. A third sort -is the compressed sil, known to some persons as Scyric sil, it coming -from the Isle of Scyros. Then, too, there is the sil of Achaia, which -painters make use of for shadow-painting, and the price of which is two -sesterces per pound. At a price of two asses less per pound, is sold -the clear[1155] sil, which comes from Gaul. This last kind, as well -as the Attic sil, is used for painting strong lights: but the marbled -sil only is employed for colouring compartitions,[1156] the marble in -it offering a resistance to the natural acridity of the lime. This last -kind is extracted also from some mountains twenty miles distant from -the City. When thus extracted, it is submitted to the action of fire; -in which form it is adulterated by some, and sold for compressed sil. -That it has been burnt, however, and adulterated, may be very easily -detected by its acridity, and the fact that it very soon crumbles into -dust. - -Polygnotus[1157] and Micon[1158] were the first to employ sil in -painting, but that of Attica solely. The succeeding age used this last -kind for strong lights only, and employed the Scyric and Lydian kinds -for shadow painting. The Lydian sil used to be bought at Sardes; but at -the present day we hear nothing of it. - - - - -CHAP. 57. (13.)—CÆRULEUM. - - -Cæruleum[1159] is a kind of sand. In former times there were three -kinds of it; the Egyptian, which was the most esteemed of all; the -Scythian, which is easily dissolved, and which produces four colours -when pounded, one of a lighter blue and one of a darker blue, one of a -thicker consistency and one comparatively thin;[1160] and the Cyprian, -which is now preferred as a colour to the preceding. Since then, the -kinds imported from Puteoli and Spain have been added to the list, this -sand having of late been prepared there. Every kind,[1161] however, -is submitted to a dyeing process, it being boiled with a plant[1162] -used particularly for this purpose,[1163] and imbibing its juices. -In other respects, the mode of preparing it is similar to that of -chrysocolla. From cæruleum, too, is prepared the substance known as -“lomentum,”[1164] it being washed and ground for the purpose. Lomentum -is of a paler tint than cæruleum; the price of it is ten denarii per -pound, and that of cæruleum but eight. Cæruleum is used upon a surface -of clay, for upon lime it will not hold. A more recent invention is -the Vestorian[1165] cæruleum, so called from the person who first -manufactured it: it is prepared from the finer parts of Egyptian -cæruleum, and the price of it is eleven denarii per pound. That of -Puteoli is used in a similar manner,[1166] as also for windows:[1167] -it is known as “cylon.” - -It is not so long since that indicum[1168] was first imported to Rome, -the price being seventeen[1169] denarii per pound. Painters make use -of it for incisures, or in other words, the division of shadows from -light. There is also a lomentum of very inferior quality, known to us -as “ground” lomentum, and valued at only five asses per pound. - -The mode of testing the genuineness of cæruleum, is to see whether -it emits a flame, on being laid upon burning coals. One method of -adulterating it is to boil dried violets in water, and then to strain -the liquor through linen into Eretrian[1170] clay. - - - - -CHAP. 58.—TWO REMEDIES DERIVED FROM CÆRULEUM. - - -Cæruleum has the medicinal property of acting as a detergent upon -ulcers. Hence it is, that it is used as an ingredient in plasters, -as also in cauteries. As to sil, it is pounded with the greatest -difficulty: viewed as a medicament, it is slightly mordent and -astringent, and fills up the cavities left by ulcers. To make it the -more serviceable, it is burnt in earthen vessels. - -The prices of things, which I have in different places annexed, -vary, I am well aware, according to the locality, and experience a -change almost every year: variations dependent upon the opportunities -afforded for navigation, and the terms upon which the merchant may -have purchased the article. It may so happen, too, that some wealthy -dealer has engrossed the market, and so enhanced the price: for I am -by no means forgetful of the case of Demetrius, who in the reign of -the Emperor Nero was accused before the consuls by the whole community -of the Seplasia.[1171] Still, however, I have thought it necessary to -annex the usual price of each commodity at Rome, in order to give some -idea of their relative values. - -SUMMARY.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, one thousand one -hundred and twenty-five. - -ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Domitianus Cæsar,[1172] Junius Gracchanus,[1173] -L. Piso,[1174] Verrius,[1175] M. Varro,[1176] Corvinus,[1177] Atticus -Pomponius,[1178] Calvus Licinius,[1179] Cornelius Nepos,[1180] -Mucianus,[1181] Bocchus,[1182] Fetialis,[1183] Fenestella,[1184] -Valerius Maximus,[1185] Julius Bassus[1186] who wrote on Medicine in -Greek, Sextius Niger[1187] who did the same. - -FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Theophrastus,[1188] Democritus,[1189] -Juba,[1190] Timæus[1191] the historian, who wrote on Metallic -Medicines, Heraclides,[1192] Andreas,[1193] Diagoras,[1194] -Botrys,[1195] Archidemus,[1196] Dionysius,[1197] Aristogenes,[1198] -Democles,[1199] Mnesides,[1200] Attalus[1201] the physician, -Xenocrates[1202] the son of Zeno, Theomnestus,[1203] Nymphodorus,[1204] -Iollas,[1205] Apollodorus,[1206] Pasiteles[1207] who wrote on Wonderful -Works, Antigonus[1208] who wrote on the Toreutic art, Menæchmus[1209] -who did the same, Xenocrates[1210] who did the same, Duris[1211] who -did the same, Menander[1212] who wrote on Toreutics, Heliodorus[1213] -who wrote on the Votive Offerings of the Athenians, Metrodorus[1214] of -Scepsis. - - - - -BOOK XXXIV. - -THE NATURAL HISTORY OF METALS. - - - - -CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE ORES OF BRASS.[1215] - - -We must, in the next place, give an account of the ores of brass,[1216] -a metal which, in respect of utility, is next in value; indeed the -Corinthian brass comes before silver, not to say almost before gold -itself. It is also, as I have stated above,[1217] the standard of -monetary value;[1218] hence the terms “æra militum,” “tribuni ærarii,” -“ærarium,” “obærati,” and “ære diruti.”[1219] I have already mentioned -for what length of time the Roman people employed no coin except -brass;[1220] and there is another ancient fact which proves that the -esteem in which it was held was of equal antiquity with that of the -City itself, the circumstance that the third associated body[1221] -which Numa established, was that of the braziers. - - - - -CHAP. 2.—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF COPPER. - - -The ore is extracted in the mode that has been described above,[1222] -and is then purified by fusion. The metal is also obtained from a -coppery stone called “cadmia.”[1223] The most highly esteemed copper is -procured from beyond seas: it was formerly obtained in Campania also, -and at present is found in the country of the Bergomates,[1224] at the -extremity of Italy. It is said to have been lately discovered also in -the province of Germany. - -(2.) In Cyprus, where copper was first discovered, it is also procured -from another stone, which is called “chalcitis.”[1225] This, however, -was afterwards considered of little value, a better kind having been -found in other regions, especially that called “aurichalcum,”[1226] -which was long in high request, on account of its excellent -quality; but none of it has been found for this long time, the -earth having been quite exhausted. The kind which was next in value -was the Sallustian,[1227] procured from the Alpine district of the -Centrones;[1228] but this did not last long, and was succeeded by the -Livian, in Gaul. They both took their names from the owners of the -mines; the former a friend of the Emperor Augustus, the latter that -emperor’s wife.[1229] They soon failed, however, and in the Livian even -there is now found but a very small quantity of ore. That which is at -present held in the highest estimation is the Marian, likewise known as -the Corduban;[1230] next to the Livian, this kind most readily absorbs -cadmia, and becomes almost as excellent as aurichalcum[1231] for making -sesterces and double asses,[1232] the Cyprian copper being thought good -enough for the as. Thus much concerning the natural qualities of this -metal. - - - - -CHAP. 3.—THE CORINTHIAN BRASS. - - -The other kinds are made artificially, all of which will be described -in the appropriate places, the more celebrated kinds first coming -under our notice. Formerly a mixture was made of copper fused with -gold and silver, and the workmanship in this metal was considered even -more valuable than the material itself; but, at the present day, it -is difficult to say whether the workmanship in it, or the material, -is the worst. Indeed, it is wonderful, that while the value of these -works[1233] has so infinitely increased, the reputation of the art -itself[1234] is nearly extinct. But it would appear, that in this, as -in every thing else, what was formerly done for the sake of reputation, -is now undertaken for the mere purpose of gain. For whereas this art -was ascribed to the gods[1235] themselves, and men of rank in all -countries endeavoured to acquire fame by the practice of it, we have -now so entirely lost the method of making this valuable compound by -fusion, that, for this long time past, not even chance itself has -assumed, in this department, the privilege which formerly belonged to -art.[1236] - -Next after the above compound, so celebrated in antiquity, the -Corinthian metal has been the most highly esteemed. This was a -compound produced by accident, when Corinth was burnt at the time of -its capture.[1237] There has been a wonderful mania with many for -gaining possession of this metal. It is even said, that Verres, whom M. -Cicero caused to be condemned, was proscribed by Antonius, along with -Cicero, for no other reason than his refusal to give up some specimens -of Corinthian metal, which were in his possession. But most of these -people seem to me to make a pretence of their discernment in reference -to this metal, rather for the purpose of distinguishing themselves from -the multitude, than from any real knowledge which they possess; and -this I will briefly show. - -Corinth was captured in the third year of the 158th Olympiad, being -the year of the City, 608,[1238] some ages after the period when those -artists flourished, who produced all the specimens of what these -persons now call Corinthian metal. It is in order, therefore, to -refute this opinion, that I shall state the age when these different -artists lived; for, if we reckon according to the above-mentioned era -of the Olympiads, it will be easy to compare their dates with the -corresponding years of our City. The only genuine Corinthian vessels, -then, are those which these men of taste metamorphose, sometimes -into dishes, sometimes into lamps, or even into washing-basins,[1239] -without any regard to decency. They are of three kinds; the white -variety, approaching very nearly to the splendour of silver, and in -which that metal forms a large proportion of the compound; a second -kind, in which the yellow colour of gold predominates; and a third, in -which all the metals are mixed in equal proportions. Besides these, -there is another mixture, the composition of which it is impossible -to describe, for although it has been formed into images and statues -by the hand of man, it is chance that rules in the formation of the -compound. This last is highly prized for its colour, which approaches -to that of liver, and it is on this account that it is called -“hepatizon:”[1240] it is far inferior to the Corinthian metal, but much -superior to the Æginetan and Delian, which long held the first rank. - - - - -CHAP. 4.—THE DELIAN BRASS. - - -The Delian brass was the first[1241] that became famous, all the -world coming to Delos to purchase it; and hence the attention paid -to the manufacture of it. It was in this island that brass first -obtained celebrity for the manufacture of the feet and supports of -dining-couches. After some time it came to be employed for the statues -of the gods, and the effigies of men and other animated beings. - - - - -CHAP. 5.—THE ÆGINETAN BRASS. - - -The next most esteemed brass was the Æginetan; the island itself -being rendered famous for its brass—not indeed that the metal was -produced there, but because the annealing of the Æginetan manufactories -was so excellent. A brazen Ox, which was taken from this island, -now stands in the Forum Boarium[1242] at Rome. This is a specimen -of the Æginetan metal, as the Jupiter in the Temple of Jupiter -Tonans, in the Capitol, is of the Delian. Myron[1243] used the former -metal and Polycletus[1244] the latter; they were contemporaries and -fellow-pupils, but there was great rivalry between them as to their -materials. - - - - -CHAP. 6. (3.)—STANDS FOR LAMPS. - - -Ægina was particularly famous for the manufacture of sockets only for -lamp-stands, as Tarentum was for that of the branches;[1245] the most -complete articles were, therefore, produced by the union of the two. -There are persons, too, who are not ashamed to give for one a sum -equal to the salary of a military tribune,[1246] although, as its name -indicates, its only use is to hold a lighted candle. On the sale of -one of these lamp-stands, Theon the public crier announced, that the -purchaser must also take, as part of the lot, one Clesippus, a fuller, -who was hump-backed, and in other respects, of a hideous aspect. The -purchase was made by a female named[1247] Gegania, for fifty thousand -sesterces. Upon her exhibiting these purchases at an entertainment -which she gave, the slave, for the amusement of her guests, was brought -in naked. Conceiving an infamous passion for him, she first admitted -him to her bed, and finally left him all her estate. Having thus become -excessively rich, he adored the lamp-stand as much as any divinity, and -the story became a sort of pendant to the celebrity of the Corinthian -lamp-stands. Still, however, good morals were vindicated in the end, -for he erected a splendid monument to her memory, and so kept alive -the eternal remembrance of the misconduct of Gegania. But although it -is well known that there are no lamp-stands in existence made of the -Corinthian metal, yet this name is very generally attached to them, -because, in consequence of the victory of Mummius,[1248] Corinth was -destroyed: at the same time, however, it should be remembered that this -victory dispersed a number of bronzes which originally came from many -other cities of Achaia. - - - - -CHAP. 7.—ORNAMENTS OF THE TEMPLES MADE OF BRASS. - - -The ancients were in the habit of making the door-sills and even the -doors of the temples of brass. I find it stated, also, that Cneius -Octavius, who obtained a naval triumph over King Perseus,[1249] -erected the double portico to the Flaminian Circus, which was called -the “Corinthian” from the brazen capitals of the pillars.[1250] It is -stated also, that an ordinance was made that the Temple of Vesta[1251] -should be covered with a coating of Syracusan metal. The capitals, too, -of the pillars, which were placed by M. Agrippa in the Pantheon, are -made of similar metal. Even the opulence, too, of private individuals -has been wrested to similar purposes. Spurius Carvilius, the quæstor, -among the other charges which he brought against Camillus,[1252] -accused him of having brazen doors in his house. - - - - -CHAP. 8.—COUCHES OF BRASS. - - -We learn from L. Piso,[1253] that Cneius Manlius was the first who -introduced brazen banquetting-couches, buffets, and tables with -single feet,[1254] when he entered the City in triumph, in the -year of Rome 567, after his conquests in Asia. We also learn from -Antias,[1255] that the heirs of L. Crassus, the orator, sold a number -of banquetting-couches adorned with brass. The tripods,[1256] which -were called Delphian, because they were devoted more particularly to -receiving the offerings that were presented to the Delphian Apollo, -were usually made of brass: also the pendant lamps,[1257] so much -admired, which were placed in the temples, or gave their light in the -form of trees loaded with fruit; such as the one, for instance, in the -Temple of the Palatine Apollo,[1258] which Alexander the Great, at the -sacking of Thebes, brought to Cyme,[1259] and dedicated to that god. - - - - -CHAP. 9. (4.)—WHICH WAS THE FIRST STATUE OF A GOD MADE OF BRASS AT -ROME. THE ORIGIN OF STATUES, AND THE RESPECT PAID TO THEM. - - -But after some time the artists everywhere applied themselves to -representations of the gods. I find that the first brass image, which -was made at Rome, was that of Ceres; and that the expenses were -defrayed out of the property that belonged to Spurius Cassius, who was -put to death by his own father, for aspiring to the regal office.[1260] -The practice, however, soon passed from the gods to the statues and -representations of men, and this in various forms. The ancients stained -their statues with bitumen, which makes it the more remarkable that -they were afterwards fond of covering them with gold. I do not know -whether this was a Roman invention; but it certainly has the repute of -being an ancient practice at Rome. - -It was not the custom in former times to give the likeness of -individuals, except of such as deserved to be held in lasting -remembrance on account of some illustrious deed; in the first instance, -for a victory at the sacred games, and more particularly the Olympic -Games, where it was the usage for the victors always to have their -statues consecrated. And if any one was so fortunate as to obtain -the prize there three times, his statue was made with the exact -resemblance of every individual limb; from which circumstance they were -called “iconicæ.”[1261] I do not know whether the first public statues -were not erected by the Athenians, and in honour of Harmodius and -Aristogiton, who slew the tyrant;[1262] an event which took place in -the same year in which the kings were expelled from Rome. This custom, -from a most praiseworthy emulation, was afterwards adopted by all other -nations; so that statues were erected as ornaments in the public places -of municipal towns, and the memory of individuals was thus preserved, -their various honours being inscribed on the pedestals, to be read -there by posterity, and not on their tombs alone. After some time, a -kind of forum or public place came to be made in private houses and in -our halls, the clients adopting this method of doing honour to their -patrons. - - - - -CHAP. 10. (5.)—THE DIFFERENT KINDS AND FORMS OF STATUES. STATUES AT -ROME WITH CUIRASSES. - - -In former times the statues that were thus dedicated were clad in the -toga.[1263] Naked statues also, brandishing a spear, after the manner -of the youths at their gymnastic exercises, were much admired; these -were called “Achillean.” The Greek practice is, not to cover any part -of the body; while, on the contrary, the Roman and the military statues -have the addition of a cuirass. Cæsar, the Dictator, permitted a statue -with a cuirass to be erected in honour of him in his Forum.[1264] -As to the statues which are made in the garb of the Luperci,[1265] -they are of no older date than those which have been lately erected, -covered with a cloak.[1266] Mancinus gave directions, that he should -be represented in the dress which he wore when he was surrendered -to the enemy.[1267] It has been remarked by some authors, that L. -Attius,[1268] the poet, had a statue of himself erected in the Temple -of the Muses,[1269] which was extremely large, although he himself was -very short. - -Equestrian statues are also held in esteem in Rome; but they are of -Greek origin, no doubt. Among the Greeks, those persons only were -honoured with equestrian statues who were victors on horseback[1270] in -the sacred games; though afterwards the same distinction was bestowed -on those who were successful in the races with chariots with two or -four horses: hence the use of chariots with us in the statues of those -who have triumphed. But this did not take place until a late period; -and it was not until the time of the late Emperor Augustus, that we had -chariots represented with six horses,[1271] as also with elephants. - - - - -CHAP. 11.—IN HONOUR OF WHOM PUBLIC STATUES WERE FIRST ERECTED: IN -HONOUR OF WHOM THEY WERE FIRST PLACED ON PILLARS: WHEN THE ROSTRA WERE -FIRST ERECTED. - - -The custom of erecting chariots with two horses in honour of those who -had discharged the office of prætor, and had passed round the Circus in -a chariot, is not of ancient date. That of placing statues on pillars -is older, as it was done in honour of C. Mænius,[1272] who conquered -the ancient Latins, to whom the Romans by treaty gave one third of the -spoil which they had obtained. It was in the same consulship also, -that the “rostra” or beaks of the ships, which had been taken from -the Antiates when vanquished, were fixed to the tribunal; it being -the year of the City, 416.[1273] The same thing was done also by -Caius Duillius, who was the first to obtain a naval triumph over the -Carthaginians: his column still remains in the Forum.[1274] I am not -certain whether this honour was not first conferred by the people on L. -Minutius, the præfect of the markets; whose statue was erected without -the Trigeminian Gate,[1275] by means of a tax of the twelfth of an -as[1276] per head: the same thing, however, had been previously done -by the senate, and it would have been a more distinguished honour had -it not had its origin on such frivolous occasions. The statue of Attus -Navius,[1277] for example, was erected before the senate-house, the -pedestal of which was consumed when the senate-house itself was burnt -at the funeral of Publius Clodius.[1278] The statue of Hermodorus also, -the Ephesian,[1279] the interpreter of the laws which were transcribed -by the Decemvirs, was erected by the public in the Comitium.[1280] - -It was for a very different, and more important reason, that the statue -of Horatius Cocles was erected, he having singly prevented the enemy -from passing the Sublician bridge:[1281] a statue which remains to this -day. I am not at all surprized, too, that statues of the Sibyl should -have been erected near the Rostra, even though three in number; one of -which was repaired by Sextus Pacuvius Taurus, ædile of the people, and -the other two by M. Messala. I should have considered these and that of -Attus Navius to have been the oldest, as having been placed there in -the time of Tarquinius Priscus, had there not been in the Capitol the -statues of the preceding kings.[1282] - -(6.) Among these we have the statues of Romulus and Tatius without -the tunic; as also that of Camillus, near the Rostra. The equestrian -statue of Marcius Tremulus, clad in the toga, stood before the -Temple of the Castors;[1283] him who twice subdued the Samnites, -and by the capture of Anagnia delivered the people from their -tribute.[1284] Among the most ancient are those of Tullus Clœlius, -Lucius Roscius, Spurius Nautius, and C. Fulcinus, near the Rostra, all -of whom were assassinated by the Fidenates, when on their mission as -ambassadors.[1285] It was the custom with the republic to confer this -honour on those who had been unjustly put to death; such as P. Junius, -also, and Titus Coruncanius, who were slain by Teuta, queen of the -Illyrians.[1286] It would be wrong not to mention what is stated in the -Annals, that their statues, erected in the Forum, were three feet in -height; whence it would appear that such were the dimensions of these -marks of honour in those times. - -Nor must I forget to mention Cneius Octavius, on account of the -language used by the Senate.[1287] When King Antiochus said, that -he would give him an answer at another time, Octavius drew a line -round him with a stick, which he happened to have in his hand, and -compelled him to give an answer before he allowed him to step beyond -the circle. Octavius being slain[1288] while on this embassy, the -senate ordered his statue to be placed in the most conspicuous[1289] -spot; and that spot was the Rostra. A statue appears also to have been -decreed to Taracia Caia, or Furetia, a Vestal Virgin, the same, too, -to be placed wherever she might think fit; an additional honour, no -less remarkable, it is thought, than the grant itself of a statue to a -female. I will state her merits in the words of the Annals: “Because -she had gratuitously presented to the public the field bordering on the -Tiber.”[1290] - - - - -CHAP. 12.—IN HONOUR OF WHAT FOREIGNERS PUBLIC STATUES WERE ERECTED AT -ROME. - - -I find also, that statues were erected in honour of Pythagoras and of -Alcibiades, in the corners of the Comitium; in obedience to the command -of the Pythian Apollo, who, in the Samnite War,[1291] had directed -that statues of the bravest and the wisest of the Greeks should be -erected in some conspicuous spot: and here they remained until Sylla, -the Dictator, built the senate-house on the site. It is wonderful -that the senate should then have preferred Pythagoras to Socrates, -who, in consequence of his wisdom, had been preferred to all other -men[1292] by the god himself; as, also, that they should have preferred -Alcibiades for valour to so many other heroes; or, indeed, any one to -Themistocles, who so greatly excelled in both qualities. The reason of -the statues being raised on columns, was, that the persons represented -might be elevated above other mortals; the same thing being signified -by the use of arches, a new invention which had its origin among the -Greeks. I am of opinion that there is no one to whom more statues were -erected than to Demetrius Phalercus[1293] at Athens: for there were -three hundred and sixty erected in his honour, there being reckoned at -that period no more days in the year: these, however, were soon broken -to pieces. The different tribes erected statues, in all the quarters -of Rome, in honour of Marius Gratidianus, as already stated;[1294] but -they were all thrown down by Sylla, when he entered Rome. - - - - -CHAP. 13.—THE FIRST EQUESTRIAN STATUES PUBLICLY ERECTED AT ROME, AND IN -HONOUR OF WHAT FEMALES STATUES WERE PUBLICLY ERECTED THERE. - - -Pedestrian statues have been, undoubtedly, for a long time in -estimation at Rome: equestrian statues are, however, of considerable -antiquity, and females even have participated in this honour; for the -statue of Clælia is equestrian,[1295] as if it had not been thought -sufficient to have her clad in the toga; and this, although statues -were not decreed to Lucretia, or to Brutus, who had expelled the kings, -and through both of whom Clælia had been given as a hostage.[1296] I -should have thought that this statue, and that of Cocles, were the -first that were erected at the public expense—for it is most likely -that the statues of Attus and the Sibyl were erected by Tarquinius, and -those of each of the other kings by themselves respectively—had not -Piso stated that the statue of Clælia was erected by those who had been -hostages with her, when they were given up by Porsena, as a mark of -honour. - -But Annius Fetialis[1297] states, on the other hand, that the -equestrian statue, which stood opposite the Temple of Jupiter Stator, -in the vestibule of the house of Tarquinius Superbus, was that of -Valeria,[1298] the daughter of the consul Publicola; and that she was -the only person that escaped and swam across the Tiber; the rest of -the hostages that had been sent to Porsena having been destroyed by a -stratagem of Tarquinius. - - - - -CHAP. 14.—AT WHAT PERIOD ALL THE STATUES ERECTED BY PRIVATE INDIVIDUALS -WERE REMOVED FROM THE PUBLIC PLACES. - - -We are informed by L. Piso, that when M. Æmilius and C. Popilius were -consuls, for the second time,[1299] the censors, P. Cornelius Scipio -and M. Popilius, caused all the statues erected round the Forum in -honour of those who had borne the office of magistrates, to be removed; -with the exception of those which had been placed there, either by -order of the people or of the senate. The statue also which Spurius -Cassius,[1300] who had aspired to the supreme authority, had erected -in honour of himself, before the Temple of Tellus, was melted down by -order of the censors; for even in this respect, the men of those days -took precautions against ambition. - -There are still extant some declamations by Cato, during his -censorship, against the practice of erecting statues of women in the -Roman provinces. However, he could not prevent these statues being -erected at Rome even; to Cornelia, for instance, the mother of the -Gracchi, and daughter of the elder Scipio Africanus. She is represented -in a sitting posture, and the statue is remarkable for having no straps -to the shoes. This statue, which was formerly in the public Portico of -Metellus, is now in the Buildings of Octavia.[1301] - - - - -CHAP. 15.—THE FIRST STATUES PUBLICLY ERECTED BY FOREIGNERS. - - -The first statue that was erected at Rome at the expense of a foreigner -was that of C. Ælius, the tribune of the people, who had introduced -a law against Sthennius Statilius Lucanus,[1302] for having twice -attacked Thurii: on which account the inhabitants of that place -presented Ælius with a statue and a golden crown. At a later period, -the same people erected a statue to Fabricius,[1303] who had delivered -their city from a state of siege. From time to time various nations -thus placed themselves under the protection of the Romans; and all -distinctions were thereby so effectually removed, that statues of -Hannibal even are to be seen in three different places in that city, -within the walls of which, he alone of all its enemies, had hurled his -spear.[1304] - - - - -CHAP. 16. (7.)—THAT THERE WERE STATUARIES IN ITALY ALSO AT AN EARLY -PERIOD. - - -Various circumstances prove, that the art of making statues was -commonly practised in Italy at an early period. The statue in the -Cattle Market[1305] is said to have been consecrated to Hercules by -Evander; it is called the triumphal Hercules, and, on the occasion of -triumphal processions, is arrayed in triumphal vestments. And then -besides, King Numa dedicated the statue of the two-faced Janus;[1306] -a deity who is worshipped as presiding over both peace and war. The -fingers, too, are so formed as to indicate three hundred and sixty-five -days,[1307] or in other words, the year; thus denoting that he is the -god of time and duration. - -There are also Etruscan statues dispersed in various parts of the -world, which beyond a doubt were originally made in Etruria. I should -have supposed that these had been the statues only of divinities, -had not Metrodorus[1308] of Scepsis, who had his surname from his -hatred to the Roman name,[1309] reproached us with having pillaged the -city of Volsinii for the sake of the two thousand statues which it -contained. It appears to me a singular fact, that although the origin -of statues was of such great antiquity in Italy, the images of the -gods, which were consecrated to them in their temples, should have -been formed either of wood or of earthenware,[1310] until the conquest -of Asia, which introduced luxury among us. It will be the best plan -to enlarge upon the origin of the art of expressing likenesses, when -we come to speak of what the Greeks call “plastice;”[1311] for the -art of modelling was prior to that of statuary. This last, however, -has flourished to such an extraordinary degree, that an account of it -would fill many volumes, if we were desirous of making an extensive -acquaintance with the subject: but as to learning everything connected -with it, who could do it? - - - - -CHAP. 17.—THE IMMODERATE PRICES OF STATUES. - - -In the ædileship of M. Scaurus, there were three thousand statues -erected on the stage of what was a temporary theatre[1312] only. -Mummius, the conqueror of Achaia, filled the City with statues; he who -at his death was destined not to leave a dowry to his daughter,[1313] -for why not mention this as an apology for him? The Luculli[1314] also -introduced many articles from abroad. Yet we learn from Mucianus,[1315] -who was thrice consul, that there are still three thousand statues in -Rhodes, and it is supposed that there are no fewer in existence at -Athens, at Olympia, and at Delphi. What living mortal could enumerate -them all? or of what utility would be such information? Still, however, -I may, perhaps, afford amusement by giving some slight account of such -of those works of art as are in any way remarkable, and stating the -names of the more celebrated artists. Of each of these it would be -impossible to enumerate all the productions, for Lysippus[1316] alone -is said to have executed no less than fifteen hundred[1317] works of -art, all of which were of such excellence that any one of them might -have immortalized him. The number was ascertained by his heir, upon -opening his coffers after his death, it having been his practice to lay -up one golden denarius[1318] out of the sum which he had received as -the price of each statue. - -This art has arrived at incredible perfection, both in successfulness -and in boldness of design. As a proof of successfulness, I will adduce -one example, and that of a figure which represented neither god nor -man. We have seen in our own time, in the Capitol, before it was last -burnt by the party[1319] of Vitellius, in the shrine of Juno there, a -bronze figure of a dog licking its wounds. Its miraculous excellence -and its perfect truthfulness were not only proved by the circumstance -of its having been consecrated there, but also by the novel kind of -security that was taken for its safety; for, no sum appearing equal to -its value, it was publicly enacted that the keepers of it should be -answerable for its safety with their lives. - - - - -CHAP. 18.—THE MOST CELEBRATED COLOSSAL STATUES IN THE CITY. - - -As to boldness of design, the examples are innumerable; for we see -designed, statues of enormous bulk, known as colossal statues and -equal to towers in size. Such, for instance, is the Apollo in the -Capitol, which was brought by M. Lucullus from Apollonia, a city of -Pontus,[1320] thirty cubits in height, and which cost five hundred -talents: such, too, is the statue of Jupiter, in the Campus Martius, -dedicated by the late Emperor Claudius, but which appears small -in comparison from its vicinity to the Theatre of Pompeius: and -such is that at Tarentum, forty cubits in height, and the work of -Lysippus.[1321] It is a remarkable circumstance in this statue, that -though, as it is stated, it is so nicely balanced as to be moveable -by the hand, it has never been thrown down by a tempest. This indeed, -the artist, it is said, has guarded against, by a column erected at a -short distance from it, upon the side on which the violence of the wind -required to be broken. On account, therefore, of its magnitude, and the -great difficulty of moving it, Fabius Verrucosus[1322] did not touch -it, when he transferred the Hercules from that place to the Capitol, -where it now stands. - -But that which is by far the most worthy of our admiration, is the -colossal statue of the Sun, which stood formerly at Rhodes, and was the -work of Chares the Lindian, a pupil of the above-named Lysippus;[1323] -no less than seventy cubits in height. This statue, fifty-six years -after it was erected, was thrown down by an earthquake; but even as it -lies, it excites our wonder and admiration.[1324] Few men can clasp -the thumb in their arms, and its fingers are larger than most statues. -Where the limbs are broken asunder, vast caverns are seen yawning in -the interior. Within it, too, are to be seen large masses of rock, by -the weight of which the artist steadied it while erecting it. It is -said that it was twelve years before this statue was completed, and -that three hundred talents were expended upon it; a sum raised from the -engines of warfare which had been abandoned by King Demetrius,[1325] -when tired of the long-protracted siege of Rhodes. In the same city -there are other colossal statues, one hundred in number; but though -smaller than the one already mentioned, wherever erected, they would, -any one of them, have ennobled the place. In addition to these, there -are five colossal statues of the gods, which were made by Bryaxis.[1326] - -Colossal statues used also to be made in Italy. At all events, we see -the Tuscan Apollo, in the library of the Temple of Augustus,[1327] -fifty feet in height from the toe; and it is a question whether it is -more remarkable for the quality of the metal, or for the beauty of the -workmanship. Spurius Carvilius also erected the statue of Jupiter which -is seen in the Capitol, after he had conquered the Samnites,[1328] who -fought in obedience to a most solemn oath; it being formed out of their -breast-plates, greaves, and helmets, and of such large dimensions that -it may be seen from the statue of Jupiter Latiaris.[1329] He made his -own statue, which is at the feet of the other one, out of the filings -of the metal. There are also, in the Capitol, two heads which are very -much admired, and which were dedicated by the Consul P. Lentulus, one -of them executed by the above-mentioned Chares,[1330] the other by -Decius;[1331] but this last is so greatly excelled by the former, as -to have all the appearance of being the work of one of the poorest of -artists. - -But all these gigantic statues of this kind have been surpassed in our -own age by that of Mercury, made by Zenodotus[1332] for the city of -the Arverni in Gaul,[1333] which was ten years in being completed, and -the making of which cost four hundred thousand sesterces. Having given -sufficient proof there of his artistic skill, he was sent for by Nero -to Rome, where he made a colossal statue intended to represent that -prince, one hundred and ten feet in height. In consequence, however, of -the public detestation of Nero’s crimes, this statue was consecrated to -the Sun.[1334] We used to admire in his studio, not only the accurate -likeness in the model of clay, but in the small sketches[1335] also, -which served as the first foundation of the work. This statue proves -that the art of fusing [precious] brass was then lost, for Nero was -prepared to furnish the requisite gold and silver, and Zenodotus -was inferior to none of the ancients, either as a designer or as an -engraver.[1336] At the time that he was working at the statue for -the Arverni, he copied for Dubius Avitus, the then governor of the -province, two drinking-cups, chased by the hand of Calamis,[1337] which -had been highly prized by Germanicus Cæsar, and had been given by him -to his preceptor Cassius Silanus, the uncle of Avitus; and this with -such exactness, that they could scarcely be distinguished from the -originals. The greater, then, the superiority of Zenodotus, the more -certainly it may be concluded that the secret of fusing [precious] -brass is lost. - -(8.) Persons who possess what are called Corinthian bronzes,[1338] -are generally so much enamoured of them, as to carry them about with -them from place to place; Hortensius, the orator, for instance, who -possessed a Sphinx, which he had made Verres give him, when accused. -It was to this figure that Cicero alluded, in an altercation which -took place at the trial: when, upon Hortensius saying that he could -not understand enigmas, Cicero made answer that he ought to understand -them, as he had got a Sphinx[1339] at home. The Emperor Nero, also, -used to carry about with him the figure of an Amazon, of which I shall -speak further hereafter;[1340] and, shortly before this, C. Cestius, a -person of consular[1341] rank, had possessed a figure, which he carried -with him even in battle. The tent, too, of Alexander the Great was -usually supported, it is said, by statues, two of which are consecrated -before the Temple of Mars Ultor,[1342] and a similar number before the -Palace.[1343] - - - - -CHAP. 19.—AN ACCOUNT OF THE MOST CELEBRATED WORKS IN BRASS, AND OF THE -ARTISTS, 366 IN NUMBER. - - -An almost innumerable multitude of artists have been rendered famous -by their statues and figures of smaller size. Before all others is -Phidias,[1344] the Athenian, who executed the Jupiter at Olympia, in -ivory and gold,[1345] but who also made figures in brass as well. -He flourished in the eighty-third Olympiad, about the year of our -City, 300. To the same age belong also his rivals Alcamenes,[1346] -Critias,[1347] Nesiotes,[1348] and Hegias.[1349] Afterwards, in the -eighty-seventh Olympiad, there were Agelades,[1350] Callon,[1351] -and Gorgias the Laconian. In the ninetieth Olympiad there were -Polycletus,[1352] Phradmon,[1353] Myron,[1354] Pythagoras,[1355] -Scopas,[1356] and Perellus.[1357] Of these, Polycletus had for pupils, -Argius,[1358] Asopodorus, Alexis, Aristides,[1359] Phrynon, Dinon, -Athenodorus,[1360] and Demeas[1361] the Clitorian: Lycius,[1362] -too, was the pupil of Myron. In the ninety-fifth Olympiad flourished -Naucsydes,[1363] Dinomenes,[1364] Canachus,[1365] and Patroclus.[1366] -In the hundred and second Olympiad there were Polycles,[1367] -Cephisodotus,[1368] Leochares,[1369] and Hypatodorus.[1370] In -the hundred and fourth Olympiad, flourished Praxiteles[1371] and -Euphranor;[1372] in the hundred and seventh, Aëtion[1373] and -Therimachus;[1374] in the hundred and thirteenth, Lysippus,[1375] -who was the contemporary of Alexander the Great, his brother -Lysistratus,[1376] Sthennis,[1377] Euphron, Eucles, Sostratus,[1378] -Ion, and Silanion,[1379] who was remarkable for having acquired -great celebrity without any instructor: Zeuxis[1380] was his pupil. -In the hundred and twenty-first Olympiad were Eutychides,[1381] -Euthycrates,[1382] Laïppus,[1383] Cephisodotus,[1384] Timarchus,[1385] -and Pyromachus.[1386] - -The practice of this art then ceased for some time, but revived in -the hundred and fifty-sixth Olympiad, when there were some artists, -who, though far inferior to those already mentioned, were still highly -esteemed; Antæus, Callistratus,[1387] Polycles,[1388] Athenæus,[1389] -Callixenus, Pythocles, Pythias, and Timocles.[1390] - -The ages of the most celebrated artists being thus distinguished, I -shall cursorily review the more eminent of them, the greater part being -mentioned in a desultory manner. The most celebrated of these artists, -though born at different epochs, have joined in a trial of skill in -the Amazons which they have respectively made. When these statues -were dedicated in the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, it was agreed, in -order to ascertain which was the best, that it should be left to the -judgment of the artists themselves who were then present: upon which, -it was evident that that was the best, which all the artists agreed -in considering as the next best to his own. Accordingly, the first -rank was assigned to Polycletus, the second to Phidias, the third to -Cresilas, the fourth to Cydon, and the fifth to Phradmon.[1391] - -Phidias, besides the Olympian Jupiter, which no one has ever equalled, -also executed in ivory the erect statue of Minerva, which is in the -Parthenon at Athens.[1392] He also made in brass, beside the Amazon -above mentioned,[1393] a Minerva, of such exquisite beauty, that it -received its name from its fine proportions.[1394] He also made the -Cliduchus,[1395] and another Minerva, which Paulus Æmilius dedicated at -Rome in the Temple of Fortune[1396] of the passing day. Also the two -statues, draped with the pallium, which Catulus erected in the same -temple; and a nude colossal statue. Phidias is deservedly considered to -have discovered and developed the toreutic art.[1397] - -Polycletus of Sicyon,[1398] the pupil of Agelades, executed the -Diadumenos,[1399] the statue of an effeminate youth, and remarkable for -having cost one hundred talents; as also the statue of a youth full of -manly vigour, and called the Doryphoros.[1400] He also made what the -artists have called the Model statue,[1401] and from which, as from a -sort of standard, they study the lineaments: so that he, of all men, -is thought in one work of art to have exhausted all the resources of -art. He also made statues of a man using the body-scraper,[1402] and -of a naked man challenging to play at dice;[1403] as also of two naked -boys playing at dice, and known as the Astragalizontes;[1404] they are -now in the atrium of the Emperor Titus, and it is generally considered, -that there can be no work more perfect than this. He also executed a -Mercury, which was formerly at Lysimachia; a Hercules Ageter,[1405] -seizing his arms, which is now at Rome; and an Artemon, which has -received the name of Periphoretos.[1406] Polycletus is generally -considered as having attained the highest excellence in statuary, and -as having perfected the toreutic[1407] art, which Phidias invented. A -discovery which was entirely his own, was the art of placing statues on -one leg. It is remarked, however, by Varro, that his statues are all -square-built,[1408] and made very much after the same model.[1409] - -Myron of Eleutheræ,[1410] who was also the pupil of Agelades, was -rendered more particularly famous by his statue of a heifer,[1411] -celebrated in many well-known lines: so true is it, that most men -owe their renown more to the genius of others, than to their own. -He also made the figure of a dog,[1412] a Discobolus,[1413] a -Perseus,[1414] the Pristæ,[1415] a Satyr[1416] admiring a flute, and -a Minerva, the Delphic Pentathletes,[1417] the Pancratiastæ,[1418] -and a Hercules,[1419] which is at the Circus Maximus, in the house -of Pompeius Magnus. Erinna,[1420] in her poems,[1421] makes allusion -to a monument which he erected to a cricket and a locust. He also -executed the Apollo, which, after being taken from the Ephesians by -the Triumvir Antonius, was restored by the Emperor Augustus, he having -been admonished to do so in a dream. Myron appears to have been the -first to give a varied development to the art,[1422] having made a -greater number of designs than Polycletus, and shewn more attention to -symmetry. And yet, though he was very accurate in the proportions of -his figures, he has neglected to give expression; besides which, he has -not treated the hair and the pubes with any greater attention than is -observed in the rude figures of more ancient times. - -Pythagoras of Rhegium, in Italy, excelled him in the figure of the -Pancratiast[1423] which is now at Delphi, and in which he also -surpassed Leontiscus.[1424] Pythagoras also executed the statue of -Astylos,[1425] the runner, which is exhibited at Olympia; that of a -Libyan boy holding a tablet, also in the same place; and a nude male -figure holding fruit. There is at Syracuse a figure of a lame man by -him: persons, when looking at it, seem to feel the very pain of his -wound. He also made an Apollo, with the serpent[1426] pierced by his -arrows; and a Player on the Lyre, known as the Dicæus,[1427] from the -fact that, when Thebes was taken by Alexander the Great, a fugitive -successfully concealed in its bosom a sum of gold. He was the first -artist who gave expression to the sinews and the veins, and paid more -attention to the hair. - -There was also another Pythagoras, a Samian,[1428] who was originally -a painter, seven of whose nude figures, in the Temple of Fortune of -the passing day,[1429] and one of an aged man, are very much admired. -He is said to have resembled the last-mentioned artist so much in his -features, that they could not be distinguished. Sostratus, it is said, -was the pupil of Pythagoras of Rhegium, and his sister’s son. - -According to Duris,[1430] Lysippus the Sicyonian was not the -pupil[1431] of any one, but was originally a worker in brass, and was -first prompted to venture upon statuary by an answer that was given by -Eupompus the painter; who, upon being asked which of his predecessors -he proposed to take for his model, pointed to a crowd of men, and -replied that it was Nature herself, and no artist, that he proposed -to imitate. As already mentioned,[1432] Lysippus was most prolific -in his works, and made more statues than any other artist. Among -these, is the Man using the Body-scraper[1433], which Marcus Agrippa -had erected in front of his Warm Baths,[1434] and which wonderfully -pleased the Emperor Tiberius. This prince, although in the beginning -of his reign he imposed some restraint upon himself, could not resist -the temptation, and had this statue removed to his bed-chamber, having -substituted another for it at the baths: the people, however, were -so resolutely opposed to this, that at the theatre they clamourously -demanded the Apoxyomenos[1435] to be replaced; and the prince, -notwithstanding his attachment to it, was obliged to restore it. - -Lysippus is also celebrated for his statue of the intoxicated Female -Flute-player, his dogs and huntsmen, and, more particularly, for -his Chariot with the Sun, as represented by the Rhodians.[1436] He -also executed a numerous series of statues of Alexander the Great, -commencing from his childhood.[1437] The Emperor Nero was so delighted -with his statue of the infant Alexander, that he had it gilt: this -addition, however, to its value, so detracted from its artistic beauty -that the gold was removed, and in this state it was looked upon as -still more precious, though disfigured by the scratches and seams which -remained upon it, and in which the gold was still to be seen.[1438] -He also made the statue of Hephæstion, the friend of Alexander the -Great, which some persons attribute to Polycletus, whereas that artist -lived nearly a century before his time.[1439] Also, the statue of -Alexander at the chase, now consecrated at Delphi, the figure of a -Satyr, now at Athens, and the Squadron of Alexander,[1440] all of -whom he represented with the greatest accuracy. This last work of art, -after his conquest of Macedonia,[1441] Metellus conveyed to Rome. -Lysippus also executed chariots of various kinds. He is considered to -have contributed very greatly to the art of statuary by expressing the -details of the hair,[1442] and by making the head smaller than had -been done by the ancients, and the body more graceful and less bulky, -a method by which his statues were made to appear taller. The Latin -language has no appropriate name for that “symmetry,”[1443] which he -so attentively observed in his new and hitherto untried method of -modifying the squareness observable in the ancient statues. Indeed, -it was a common saying of his, that other artists made men as they -actually were, while he made them as they appeared to be. One peculiar -characteristic of his work, is the finish and minuteness which are -observed in even the smallest details. Lysippus left three sons, who -were also his pupils, and became celebrated as artists, Laippus, Bœdas, -and, more particularly, Euthycrates; though this last-named artist -rivalled his father in precision rather than in elegance, and preferred -scrupulous correctness to gracefulness. Nothing can be more expressive -than his Hercules at Delphi, his Alexander, his Hunter at Thespiæ, and -his Equestrian Combat. Equally good, too, are his statue of Trophonius, -erected in the oracular cave[1444] of that divinity, his numerous -chariots, his Horse with the Panniers,[1445] and his hounds. - -Tisicrates, also a native of Sicyon, was a pupil of Euthycrates, but -more nearly approaching the style of Lysippus; so much so, that several -of his statues can scarcely be distinguished from those of Lysippus; -his aged Theban, for example, his King Demetrius, and his Peucestes, -who saved the life of Alexander the Great, and so rendered himself -deserving of this honour.[1446] - -Artists, who have transmitted these details in their works, bestow -wonderful encomiums upon Telephanes, the Phocæan, a statuary but little -known, they say, because he lived in Thessaly, where his works remained -concealed; according to their account, however, he is quite equal to -Polycletus, Myron, and Pythagoras. They more particularly commend his -Larissa, his Spintharus, the pentathlete,[1447] and his Apollo. Others, -however, assign another reason for his being so little known; it -being owing, they think, to his having devoted himself to the studios -established by Kings Xerxes and Darius. - -Praxiteles, who excelled more particularly in marble, and thence -acquired his chief celebrity, also executed some very beautiful -works in brass, the Rape of Proserpine, the Catagusa,[1448] a Father -Liber,[1449] a figure of Drunkenness, and the celebrated Satyr,[1450] -to the Greeks known as “Periboetos.”[1451] He also executed the -statues, which were formerly before the Temple[1452] of Good Fortune, -and the Venus, which was destroyed by fire, with the Temple of -that goddess, in the reign of Claudius, and was considered equal -to his marble statue of Venus,[1453] so celebrated throughout the -world. He also executed a Stephanusa,[1454] a Spilumene,[1455] an -Œnophorus,[1456] and two figures of Harmodius and Aristogiton, who slew -the tyrants; which last, having been taken away from Greece by Xerxes, -were restored to the Athenians on the conquest of Persia by Alexander -the Great.[1457] He also made the youthful Apollo, known as the -“Sauroctonos,”[1458] because he is aiming an arrow at a lizard which is -stealing towards him. There are greatly admired, also, two statues of -his, expressive of contrary emotions—a Matron in tears, and a Courtesan -full of gaiety: this last is supposed to be a likeness of Phryne, and -it is said that we can detect in her figure the love of the artist, and -in the countenance of the courtesan the promised reward.[1459] - -His kindness of heart, too, is witnessed by another figure; for in a -chariot and horses which had been executed by Calamis,[1460] he himself -made the charioteer, in order that the artist, who excelled in the -representation of horses, might not be considered deficient in the -human figure. This last-mentioned artist has executed other chariots -also, some with four horses, and some with two; and in his horses he -is always unrivalled. But that it may not be supposed that he was so -greatly inferior in his human figures, it is as well to remark that his -Alcmena[1461] is equal to any that was ever produced. - -Alcamenes,[1462] who was a pupil of Phidias, worked in marble and -executed a Pentathlete in brass, known as the “Encrinomenos.”[1463] -Aristides, too, who was the scholar of Polycletus, executed chariots in -metal with four and two horses. The Leæna[1464] of Amphicrates[1465] -is highly commended. The courtesan[1466] Leæna, who was a skilful -performer on the lyre, and had so become acquainted with Harmodius -and Aristogiton, submitted to be tortured till she expired, rather -than betray their plot for the extermination of the tyrants.[1467] -The Athenians, being desirous of honouring her memory, without at the -same time rendering homage to a courtesan, had her represented under -the figure of the animal whose name she bore;[1468] and, in order to -indicate the cause of the honour thus paid her, ordered the artist to -represent the animal without a tongue.[1469] - -Bryaxis executed in brass statues of Æsculapius and Seleucus;[1470] -Bœdas[1471] a figure in adoration; Baton, an Apollo and a Juno, which -are in the Temple of Concord[1472] at Rome. - -Ctesilaüs[1473] executed a statue of a man fainting from his wounds, in -the expression of which may be seen how little life remains;[1474] as -also the Olympian Pericles,[1475] well worthy of its title: indeed, it -is one of the marvellous adjuncts of this art, that it renders men who -are already celebrated even more so. - -Cephisodotus[1476] is the artist of an admirable Minerva, now erected -in the port of Athens; as also of the altar before the Temple of -Jupiter Servator,[1477] at the same place, to which, indeed, few works -are comparable. - -Canachus[1478] executed a nude Apollo, which is known as the -“Philesian:”[1479] it is at Didymi,[1480] and is composed of bronze -that was fused at Ægina. He also made a stag with it, so nicely poised -on its hoofs, as to admit of a thread being passed beneath. One[1481] -fore-foot, too, and the alternate hind-foot are so made as firmly to -grip the base, the socket being[1482] so indented on either side, as -to admit of the figure being thrown at pleasure upon alternate feet. -Another work of his was the boys known as the “Celetizontes.”[1483] - -Chæreas made statues of Alexander the Great and of his father Philip. -Desilaüs[1484] made a Doryphoros[1485] and a wounded Amazon; and -Demetrius[1486] a statue of Lysimache, who was priestess of Minerva -sixty-four years. This statuary also made the Minerva, which has the -name of Musica,[1487] and so called because the dragons on its Gorgon’s -head vibrate at the sound of the lyre; also an equestrian statue of -Simon, the first writer on the art of equitation.[1488] Dædalus,[1489] -who is highly esteemed as a modeller in clay, made two brazen figures -of youths using the body-scraper;[1490] and Dinomenes executed figures -of Protesilaüs[1491] and Pythodemus the wrestler. - -The statue of Alexander Paris is the work of Euphranor:[1492] it is -much admired, because we recognize in it, at the same moment, all these -characteristics; we see him as the umpire between the goddesses, the -paramour of Helen, and yet the slayer of Achilles. We have a Minerva, -too, by Euphranor, at Rome, known as the “Catulina,” and dedicated -below the Capitol, by Q. Lutatius;[1493] also a figure of Good -Success,[1494] holding in the right hand a patera, and in the left an -ear of corn and a poppy. There is also a Latona by him, in the Temple -of Concord,[1495] with the new-born infants Apollo and Diana in her -arms. He also executed some brazen chariots with four and two horses, -and a Cliduchus[1496] of beautiful proportions; as also two colossal -statues, one representing Virtue, the other Greece;[1497] and a figure -of a female lost in wonder and adoration: with statues of Alexander and -Philip in chariots with four horses. Eutychides executed an emblematic -figure of the Eurotas,[1498] of which it has been frequently remarked, -that the work of the artist appears more flowing than the waters even -of the river.[1499] - -Hegias[1500] is celebrated for his Minerva and his King Pyrrhus, his -youthful Celetizontes,[1501] and his statues of Castor and Pollux, -before the Temple of Jupiter Tonans:[1502] Hegesias,[1503] for his -Hercules, which is at our colony of Parium.[1504] Of Isidotus we have -the Buthytes.[1505] - -Lycius was the pupil[1506] of Myron: he made a figure representing a -boy blowing a nearly extinguished fire, well worthy of his master, as -also figures of the Argonauts. Leochares made a bronze representing the -eagle carrying off Ganymede: the eagle has all the appearance of being -sensible of the importance of his burden, and for whom he is carrying -it, being careful not to injure the youth with his talons, even through -the garments.[1507] He executed a figure, also, of Autolycus,[1508] who -had been victorious in the contests of the Pancratium, and for whom -Xenophon wrote his Symposium;[1509] the figure, also, of Jupiter Tonans -in the Capitol, the most admired of all his works; and a statue of -Apollo crowned with a diadem. He executed, also, a figure of Lyciscus, -and one of the boy Lagon,[1510] full of the archness and low-bred -cunning of the slave. Lycius also made a figure of a boy burning -perfumes. - -We have a young bull by Menæchmus,[1511] pressed down beneath a man’s -knee, with its neck bent back:[1512] this Menæchmus has also written -a treatise on his art. Naucydes[1513] is admired for a Mercury, -a Discobolus,[1514] and a Man sacrificing a Ram. Naucerus made a -figure of a wrestler panting for breath; Niceratus, an Æsculapius and -Hygeia,[1515] which are in the Temple of Concord at Rome. Pyromachus -represented Alcibiades, managing a chariot with four horses: -Polycles made a splendid statue of Hermaphroditus; Pyrrhus, statues -of Hygeia and Minerva; and Phanis, who was a pupil of Lysippus, an -Epithyusa.[1516] - -Stypax of Cyprus acquired his celebrity by a single work, the statue -of the Splanchnoptes;[1517] which represents a slave of the Olympian -Pericles, roasting entrails and kindling the fire with his breath. -Silanion made a statue in metal of Apollodorus, who was himself a -modeller, and not only the most diligent of all in the study of this -art, but a most severe criticizer of his own works, frequently breaking -his statues to pieces when he had finished them, and never able to -satisfy his intense passion for the art—a circumstance which procured -him the surname of “the Madman.” Indeed, it is this expression which -he has given to his works, which represent in metal embodied anger -rather than the lineaments of a human being. The Achilles, also, of -Silanion is very excellent, and his Epistates[1518] exercising the -Athletes. Strongylion[1519] made a figure of an Amazon, which, from the -beauty of the legs, was known as the “Eucnemos,”[1520] and which Nero -used to have carried about with him in his travels. Strongylion was -the artist, also, of a youthful figure, which was so much admired by -Brutus of Philippi, that it received from him its surname.[1521] - -Theodorus of Samos,[1522] who constructed the Labyrinth,[1523] cast -his own statue in brass; which was greatly admired, not only for its -resemblance, but for the extreme delicacy of the work. In the right -hand he holds a file, and with three fingers of the left, a little -model of a four-horse chariot, which has since been transferred to -Præneste:[1524] it is so extremely minute, that the whole piece, both -chariot and charioteer, may be covered by the wings of a fly, which he -also made with it. - -Xenocrates[1525] was the pupil of Ticrates, or, as some say, of -Euthycrates: he surpassed them both, however, in the number of his -statues, and was the author of some treatises on his art. - -Several artists have represented the battles fought by Attalus and -Eumenes with the Galli;[1526] Isigonus, for instance, Pyromachus, -Stratonicus, and Antigonus,[1527] who also wrote some works in -reference to his art. Boëthus,[1528] although more celebrated for his -works in silver, has executed a beautiful figure of a child strangling -a goose. The most celebrated of all the works, of which I have here -spoken, have been dedicated, for some time past, by the Emperor -Vespasianus in the Temple of Peace,[1529] and other public buildings -of his. They had before been forcibly carried off by Nero,[1530] and -brought to Rome, and arranged by him in the reception-rooms of his -Golden Palace.[1531] - -In addition to these, there are several other artists, of about equal -celebrity, but none of whom have produced any first-rate works; -Ariston,[1532] who was principally employed in chasing silver, -Callides, Ctesias, Cantharus of Sicyon,[1533] Diodorus, a pupil of -Critias, Deliades, Euphorion, Eunicus,[1534] and Hecatæus,[1535] all -of them chasers in silver; Lesbocles, also, Prodorus, Pythodicus, and -Polygnotus,[1536] one of the most celebrated painters; also two other -chasers in silver, Stratonicus,[1537] and Scymnus, a pupil of Critias. - -I shall now enumerate those artists who have executed works of the same -class:— Apollodorus,[1538] for example, Antrobulus, Asclepiodorus, and -Aleuas, who have executed statues of philosophers. Apellas[1539] has -left us some figures of females in the act of adoration; Antignotus, a -Perixyomenos,[1540] and figures of the Tyrannicides, already mentioned. -Antimachus and Athenodorus made some statues of females of noble birth; -Aristodemus[1541] executed figures of wrestlers, two-horse chariots -with the charioteers, philosophers, aged women, and a statue of King -Seleucus:[1542] his Doryphoros,[1543] too, possesses his characteristic -gracefulness. - -There were two artists of the name of Cephisodotus:[1544] the earlier -of them made a figure of Mercury nursing Father Liber[1545] when an -infant; also of a man haranguing, with the hand elevated, the original -of which is now unknown. The younger Cephisodotus executed statues -of philosophers. Colotes,[1546] who assisted Phidias in the Olympian -Jupiter, also executed statues of philosophers; the same, too, with -Cleon,[1547] Cenchramis, Callicles,[1548] and Cepis. Chalcosthenes -made statues of comedians and athletes. Daïppus[1549] executed a -Perixyomenos.[1550] Daïphron, Democritus,[1551] and Dæmon made statues -of philosophers. - -Epigonus, who has attempted nearly all the above-named classes of -works, has distinguished himself more particularly by his Trumpeter, -and his Child in Tears, caressing its murdered mother. The Woman in -Admiration, of Eubulus, is highly praised; and so is the Man, by -Eubulides,[1552] reckoning on his Fingers. Micon[1553] is admired for -his athletes; Menogenes, for his four-horse chariots. Niceratus,[1554] -too, who attempted every kind of work that had been executed by -any other artist, made statues of Alcibiades and of his mother -Demarate,[1555] who is represented sacrificing by the light of torches. - -Tisicrates[1556] executed a two-horse chariot in brass, in which Piston -afterwards placed the figure of a female. Piston also made the statues -of Mars and Mercury, which are in the Temple of Concord at Rome. -No one can commend Perillus;[1557] more cruel even than the tyrant -Phalaris[1558] himself, he made for him a brazen bull, asserting that -when a man was enclosed in it, and fire applied beneath, the cries of -the man would resemble the roaring of a bull: however, with a cruelty -in this instance marked by justice, the experiment of this torture was -first tried upon himself. To such a degree did this man degrade the art -of representing gods and men, an art more adapted than any other to -refine the feelings! Surely so many persons had not toiled to perfect -it in order to make it an instrument of torture! Hence it is that the -works of Perillus are only preserved, in order that whoever sees them, -may detest the hands that made them. - -Sthennis[1559] made the statues of Ceres, Jupiter, and Minerva, which -are now in the Temple of Concord; also figures of matrons weeping, -adoring, and offering sacrifice; Simon[1560] executed figures of a -dog and an archer. Stratonicus,[1561] the chaser in silver, made -some figures of philosophers; and so did both of the artists named -Scopas.[1562] - -The following artists have made statues of athletes, armed -men, hunters, and sacrifices—Baton,[1563] Euchir,[1564] -Glaucides,[1565] Heliodorus,[1566] Hicanus, Leophon, Lyson,[1567] -Leon, Menodorus,[1568] Myagrus,[1569] Polycrates, Polyidus,[1570] -Pythocritus, Protogenes, a famous painter, whom we shall -have occasion to mention hereafter;[1571] Patrocles, Pollis, -Posidonius[1572] the Ephesian, who was also a celebrated chaser in -silver; Periclymenus,[1573] Philon,[1574] Symenus, Timotheus,[1575] -Theomnestus,[1576] Timarchides,[1577] Timon, Tisias, and Thrason.[1578] - -But of all these, Callimachus is the most remarkable, on account of -his surname. Being always dissatisfied with himself, and continually -correcting his works, he obtained the name of “Catatexitechnos;”[1579] -thus affording a memorable example of the necessity of observing -moderation even in carefulness. His Laconian Female Dancers, for -instance, is a most correct performance, but one in which, by extreme -correctness, he has effaced all gracefulness. It has been said, too, -that Callimachus was a painter also. Cato, in his expedition against -Cyprus,[1580] sold all the statues that he found there, with the -exception of one of Zeno; in which case he was influenced, neither by -the value of the metal nor by its excellence as a work of art, but by -the fact that it was the statue of a philosopher. I only mention this -circumstance casually, that an example[1581] so little followed, may be -known. - -While speaking of statues, there is one other that should not be -omitted, although its author is unknown, that of Hercules clothed in -a tunic,[1582] the only one represented in that costume in Rome: it -stands near the Rostra, and the countenance is stern and expressive of -his last agonies, caused by that dress. There are three inscriptions -on it; the first of which states that it had formed part of the spoil -obtained by L. Lucullus[1583] the general; the second, that his son, -while still a minor, dedicated in accordance with a decree of the -Senate; the third, that T. Septimius Sabinus, the curule ædile, had it -restored to the public from the hands of a private individual. So vast -has been the rivalry caused by this statue, and so high the value set -upon it. - - - - -CHAP. 20.—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF COPPER AND ITS COMBINATIONS. PYROPUS. -CAMPANIAN COPPER. - - -We will now return to the different kinds of copper, and its -several combinations. In Cyprian copper we have the kind known as -“coronarium,”[1584] and that called “regulare,”[1585] both of them -ductile. The former is made into thin leaves, and, after being coloured -with ox-gall,[1586] is used for what has all the appearance of gilding -on the coronets worn upon the stage. The same substance, if mixed -with gold, in the proportion of six scruples of gold to the ounce, -and reduced into thin plates, acquires a fiery red colour, and is -termed “pyropus.”[1587] In other mines again, they prepare the kind -known as “regulare,” as also that which is called “caldarium.”[1588] -These differ from each other in this respect, that, in the latter, the -metal is only fused, and breaks when struck with the hammer, whereas -the “regulare” is malleable, or ductile,[1589] as some call it, a -property which belongs naturally to all the copper of Cyprus. In the -case, however, of all the other mines, this difference between bar -copper and cast brass is produced by artificial means. All the ores, -in fact, will produce bar or malleable copper when sufficiently melted -and purified by heat. Among the other kinds of copper, the palm of -excellence is awarded to that of Campania,[1590] which is the most -esteemed for vessels and utensils. This last is prepared several ways. -At Capua it is melted upon fires made with wood, and not coals, after -which it is sprinkled with cold water and cleansed through a sieve made -of oak. After being thus smelted a number of times, Spanish silver-lead -is added to it, in the proportion of ten pounds of lead to one hundred -pounds of copper; a method by which it is rendered pliable, and made -to assume that agreeable colour which is imparted to other kinds of -copper by the application of oil and the action of the sun. Many parts, -however, of Italy, and the provinces, produce a similar kind of metal; -but there they add only eight pounds of lead, and, in consequence of -the scarcity of wood, melt it several times over upon coals. It is in -Gaul more particularly, where the ore is melted between red-hot stones, -that the difference is to be seen that is produced by these variations -in the method of smelting. Indeed, this last method scorches the metal, -and renders it black and friable. Besides, they only melt it twice; -whereas, the oftener this operation is repeated, the better in quality -it becomes. - -(9.) It is also as well to remark that all copper fuses best when the -weather is intensely cold. The proper combination for making statues -and tablets is as follows: the ore is first melted; after which there -is added to the molten metal one third part of second-hand[1591] -copper, or in other words, copper that has been in use and bought up -for the purpose. For it is a peculiarity of this metal that when it has -been some time in use, and has been subject to long-continued friction, -it becomes seasoned, and subdued, as it were, to a high polish. Twelve -pounds and a half of silver-lead are then added to every hundred pounds -of the fused metal. There is also a combination of copper, of a most -delicate nature, “mould-copper,”[1592] as it is called; there being -added to the metal one tenth part of lead[1593] and one twentieth -of silver-lead, this combination being the best adapted for taking -the colour known as “Græcænicus.”[1594] The last kind is that known -as “ollaria,”[1595] from the vessels that are made of it: in this -combination three or four pounds of silver-lead[1596] are added to -every hundred pounds of copper. By the addition of lead to Cyprian -copper, the purple tint is produced that we see upon the drapery of -statues. - - - - -CHAP. 21.—THE METHOD OF PRESERVING COPPER. - - -Copper becomes covered with verdigris more quickly when cleaned than -when neglected, unless it is well rubbed with oil. It is said that -the best method of preserving it is with a coating of tar. The custom -of making use of copper for monuments, which are intended to be -perpetuated, is of very ancient date: it is upon tablets of brass that -our public enactments are engraved. - - - - -CHAP. 22. (10.)—CADMIA. - - -The ores of copper furnish a number of resources[1597] that are -employed in medicine; indeed, all kinds of ulcers are healed -thereby with great rapidity. Of these, however, the most useful is -cadmia.[1598] This substance is formed artificially, beyond a doubt, -in the furnaces, also, where they smelt silver, but it is whiter and -not so heavy, and by no means to be compared with that from copper. -There are several kinds of it. For, as the mineral itself, from which -it is prepared artificially, so necessary in fusing copper ore, and so -useful in medicine, has the name of “cadmia,”[1599] so also is it found -in the smelting-furnaces, where it receives other names, according -to the way in which it is formed. By the action of the flame and the -blast, the more attenuated parts of the metal are separated, and become -attached, in proportion to their lightness, to the arched top and -sides of the furnace. These flakes are the thinnest near the exterior -opening of the furnace, where the flame finds a vent, the substance -being called “capnitis;”[1600] from its burnt appearance and its -extreme lightness it resembles white ashes. The best is that which is -found in the interior, hanging from the arches of the chimney, and from -its form and position named “botryitis.”[1601] It is heavier than the -first-mentioned kind, but lighter than those which follow. It is of two -different colours: the least valuable is ash-coloured, the better kind -being red, friable, and extremely useful as a remedy for affections of -the eyes. - -A third kind of cadmia is that found on the sides of the furnace, -and which, in consequence of its weight, could not reach the arched -vaults of the chimney. This species is called “placitis,”[1602] in -reference to its solid appearance, it presenting a plane surface more -like a solid crust than pumice, and mottled within. Its great use -is, for the cure of itch-scab, and for making wounds cicatrize. Of -this last there are two varieties, the “onychitis,” which is almost -entirely blue on the exterior, and spotted like an onyx within; and -the “ostracitis,”[1603] which is quite black and more dirty than the -others, but particularly useful for healing wounds. All the species of -cadmia are of the best quality from the furnaces of Cyprus. When used -in medicine it is heated a second time upon a fire of pure charcoal, -and when duly incinerated, is quenched in Aminean[1604] wine, if -required for making plasters, but in vinegar, if wanted for the cure -of itch-scab. Some persons first pound it, and then burn it in earthen -pots; which done, they wash it in mortars and then dry it. - -Nymphodorus[1605] recommends that the most heavy and dense pieces of -mineral cadmia that can be procured, should be burnt upon hot coals and -quenched in Chian wine; after which, it must be pounded and then sifted -through a linen cloth. It is then pulverized in a mortar and macerated -in rain water, the sediment being again pounded until it is reduced to -the consistency of ceruse, and presents no grittiness to the teeth. -Iollas[1606] recommends the same process; except that he selects the -purest specimens of native cadmia. - - - - -CHAP. 23.—FIFTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM CADMIA. TEN MEDICINAL EFFECTS -OF CALCINED COPPER. - - -Cadmia[1607] acts as a desiccative, heals wounds, arrests discharges, -acts detergently upon webs and foul incrustations of the eyes, removes -eruptions, and produces, in fact, all the good effects which we shall -have occasion to mention when speaking of lead. Copper too, itself, -when calcined, is employed for all these purposes; in addition to which -it is used for white spots and cicatrizations upon the eyes. Mixed with -milk, it is curative also of ulcers upon the eyes; for which purpose, -the people in Egypt make a kind of eye-salve by grinding it upon whet -stones. Taken with honey, it acts as an emetic. For these purposes, -Cyprian copper is calcined in unbaked earthen pots, with an equal -quantity of sulphur; the apertures of the vessel being well luted, -and it being left in the furnace until the vessel itself has become -completely hardened. Some persons add salt, and others substitute -alum[1608] for sulphur; others, again, add nothing, but merely sprinkle -the copper with vinegar. When calcined, it is pounded in a mortar of -Thebaic stone,[1609] after which it is washed with rain water, and -then pounded with a large quantity of water, and left to settle. -This process is repeated until the deposit has gained the appearance -of minium;[1610] after which it is dried in the sun, and put by for -keeping in a box made of copper. - - - - -CHAP. 24. (11.)—THE SCORIA OF COPPER. - - -The scoria, too, of copper is washed in the same manner; but the action -of it is less efficacious than that of copper itself. The flower, -too, of copper[1611] is also used in medicine; a substance which is -procured by fusing copper, and then removing it into another furnace, -where the repeated action of the bellows makes the metal separate -into small scales, like the husks of millet, and known as “flower of -copper.” These scales are also separated, when the cakes of metal are -plunged into water: they become red, too, like the scales of copper -known as “lepis,”[1612] by means of which the genuine flower of copper -is adulterated, it being also sold under that name. This last is made -by hammering nails that are forged from the cakes of metal. All these -processes are principally carried on in the furnaces of Cyprus; the -great difference between these substances being, that this lepis is -detached from the cakes by hammering, whereas the flower falls off -spontaneously. - - - - -CHAP. 25.—STOMOMA OF COPPER; FORTY-SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -There is another finer kind of scale which is detached from the surface -of the metal, like a very fine down, and known as “stomoma.”[1613] But -of all these substances, and even of their names, the physicians, if -I may venture so to say, are quite ignorant, as appears by the names -they give them; so unacquainted are they with the preparation of -medicaments, a thing that was formerly considered the most essential -part of their profession.[1614] At the present day, whenever they -happen to find a book of recipes, if they wish to make any composition -from these substances, or, in other words, to make trial of the -prescription at the expense of their unhappy patients, they trust -entirely to the druggists,[1615] who spoil everything by their -fraudulent adulterations. For this long time past, they have even -purchased their plasters and eye-salves ready made, and the consequence -is, that the spoiled or adulterated wares in the druggists’ shops are -thus got rid of. - -Both lepis and flower of copper are calcined in shallow earthen or -brazen pans; after which they are washed, as described above,[1616] and -employed for the same purposes; in addition to which, they are used -for excrescences in the nostrils and in the anus, as also for dullness -of the hearing, being forcibly blown into the ears through a tube. -Incorporated with meal, they are applied to swellings of the uvula, -and, with honey, to swellings of the tonsils. The scales prepared from -white copper are much less efficacious than those from Cyprian copper. -Sometimes they first macerate the nails and cakes of copper in a boy’s -urine; and in some instances, they pound the scales, when detached, and -wash them in rain water. They are then given to dropsical patients, in -doses of two drachmæ, with one semisextarius of honied wine: they are -also made into a liniment with fine flour. - - - - -CHAP. 26.—VERDIGRIS; EIGHTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Verdigris[1617] is also applied to many purposes, and is prepared -in numerous ways. Sometimes it is detached already formed, from the -mineral from which copper is smelted: and sometimes it is made by -piercing holes in white copper, and suspending it over strong vinegar -in casks, which are closed with covers; it being much superior if -scales of copper are used for the purpose. Some persons plunge -vessels themselves, made of white copper, into earthen pots filled -with vinegar, and scrape them at the end of ten days. Others, again, -cover the vessels with husks of grapes,[1618] and scrape them in -the same way, at the end of ten days. Others sprinkle vinegar upon -copper filings, and stir them frequently with a spatula in the course -of the day, until they are completely dissolved. Others prefer -triturating these filings with vinegar in a brazen mortar: but the most -expeditious method of all is to add to the vinegar shavings of coronet -copper.[1619] Rhodian verdigris, more particularly, is adulterated with -pounded marble; some persons use pumice-stone or gum. - -The adulteration, however, which is the most difficult to detect, is -made with copperas;[1620] the other sophistications being detected by -the crackling of the substance when bitten with the teeth. The best -mode of testing it is by using an iron fire-shovel; for when thus -subjected to the fire, if pure, the verdigris retains its colour, but -if mixed with copperas, it becomes red. The fraud may also be detected -by using a leaf of papyrus, which has been steeped in an infusion of -nut-galls; for it becomes black immediately upon the genuine verdigris -being applied. It may also be detected by the eye; the green colour -being unpleasant to the sight. But whether it is pure or adulterated, -the best method is first to wash and dry it, and then to burn it -in a new earthen vessel, turning it over until it is reduced to an -ash;[1621] after which it is pounded and put by for use. Some persons -calcine it in raw earthen vessels, until the earthenware becomes -thoroughly baked: others again add to it male frankincense.[1622] -Verdigris is washed, too, in the same manner as cadmia. - -It affords a most useful ingredient for eye-salves, and from its -mordent action is highly beneficial for watery humours of the eyes. It -is necessary, however, to wash the part with warm water, applied with a -fine sponge, until its mordency is no longer felt. - - - - -CHAP. 27.—HIERACIUM. - - -“Hieracium”[1623] is the name given to an eye-salve, which is -essentially composed of the following ingredients; four ounces of sal -ammoniac, two of Cyprian verdigris, the same quantity of the kind of -copperas which is called “chalcanthum,”[1624] one ounce of misy[1625] -and six of saffron; all these substances being pounded together with -Thasian vinegar and made up into pills. It is an excellent remedy for -incipient glaucoma and cataract, as also for films upon the eyes, -eruptions, albugo, and diseases of the eye-lids. Verdigris, in a -crude state, is also used as an ingredient in plasters for wounds. In -combination with oil, it is wonderfully efficacious for ulcerations of -the mouth and gums, and for sore lips. Used in the form of a cerate, -it acts detergently upon ulcers, and promotes their cicatrization. -Verdigris also consumes the callosities of fistulas and excrescences -about the anus, either used by itself, applied with sal ammoniac, or -inserted in the fistula in the form of a salve. The same substance, -kneaded with one third part of resin of turpentine, removes leprosy. - - - - -CHAP. 28. (12.)—SCOLEX OF COPPER; EIGHTEEN REMEDIES. - - -There is another kind of verdigris also, which is called -“scolex.”[1626] It is prepared by triturating in a mortar of Cyprian -copper, alum and salt, or an equal quantity of nitre, with the very -strongest white vinegar. This preparation is only made during the -hottest days of the year, about the rising of the Dog-star. The whole -is triturated until it becomes green, and assumes the appearance -of small worms, to which it owes its name. This repulsive form is -corrected by mixing the urine of a young child, with twice the quantity -of vinegar. Scolex is used for the same medicinal purposes as santerna, -which we have described as being used for soldering gold,[1627] and -they have, both of them, the same properties as verdigris. Native -scolex is also procured by scraping the copper ore of which we are -about to speak. - - - - -CHAP. 29.—CHALCITIS: SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -Chalcitis[1628] is the name of a mineral, from which, as well as -cadmia, copper is extracted by heat. It differs from cadmia in this -respect, that this last is procured from beds below the surface, -while chalcitis is detached from rocks that are exposed to the air. -Chalcitis also becomes immediately friable, being naturally so soft -as to have the appearance of a compressed mass of down. There is also -this other distinction between them, that chalcitis is a composition -of three other substances, copper, misy, and sory,[1629] of which last -we shall speak in their appropriate places.[1630] The veins of copper -which it contains are oblong. The most approved kind is of the colour -of honey; it is streaked with fine sinuous veins, and is friable and -not stony. It is generally thought to be most valuable when fresh, -as, when old, it becomes converted into sory. It is highly useful for -removing fleshy excrescences in ulcers, for arresting hæmorrhage, -and, in the form of a powder, for acting astringently upon the gums, -the uvula, and the tonsillary glands.[1631] It is applied in wool, as -a pessary, for affections of the uterus; and with leek juice it is -formed into plasters for diseases of the genitals. This substance is -macerated for forty days in vinegar, in an earthen vessel luted with -dung; after which it acquires a saffron colour. When this composition -is mixed with an equal proportion of cadmia, it forms the medicament -known as “psoricon.”[1632] If two parts of chalcitis are combined with -one of cadmia, the medicament becomes more active; and it is rendered -still more powerful if vinegar is used instead of wine. For all these -purposes, calcined chalcitis is the most efficacious. - - - - -CHAP. 30.—SORY: THREE REMEDIES. - - -The sory[1633] of Egypt is the most esteemed, being considered much -superior to that of Cyprus, Spain, and Africa; although some prefer the -sory from Cyprus for affections of the eyes. But from whatever place -it comes, the best is that which has the strongest odour, and which, -when triturated, becomes greasy, black, and spongy. It is a substance -so unpleasant to the stomach, that some persons are made sick merely by -its smell. This is the case more particularly with the sory from Egypt. -That from other countries, by trituration, acquires the lustre of misy, -and is of a more gritty consistency. Held in the mouth, and used as a -collutory, it is good for toothache. It is also useful for malignant -ulcers of a serpiginous nature. It is calcined upon charcoal, like -chalcitis. - - - - -CHAP. 31.—MISY: THIRTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Some persons have stated, that misy[1634] is formed by the calcination -of the mineral, in trenches;[1635] its fine yellow powder becoming -mixed with the ashes of the burnt fire-wood. The fact is, however, that -though obtained from the mineral, it is already formed, and in compact -masses, which require force to detach them. The best is that which -comes from the manufactories of Cyprus, its characteristics being, that -when broken, it sparkles like gold, and when triturated, it presents a -sandy or earthy appearance, like chalcitis. Misy is used in the process -of refining gold. Mixed with oil of roses, it is used as an injection -for suppurations of the ears, and, in combination with wool, it is -applied to ulcers of the head. It also removes inveterate granulations -of the eye-lids, and is particularly useful for affections of the -tonsils, quinsy, and suppurations. For these maladies, sixteen drachmæ -should be mixed with one semisextarius of vinegar, and boiled with the -addition of some honey, until it becomes of a viscous consistency; in -which state it is applicable to the different purposes above mentioned. -When its action is wanted to be modified, a sprinkling of honey is -added. A fomentation of misy and vinegar removes the callosities of -fistulous ulcers; it also enters into the composition of eye-salves. It -arrests hæmorrhage, prevents the spreading of serpiginous and putrid -ulcers, and consumes fleshy excrescences. It is particularly useful -for diseases of the male generative organs, and acts as a check upon -menstruation. - - - - -CHAP. 32.—CHALCANTHUM, OR SHOEMAKERS’ BLACK: SIXTEEN REMEDIES. - - -The Greeks, by the name[1636] which they have given to it, have -indicated the relation between shoemakers’ black[1637] and copper; for -they call it “chalcanthum.”[1638] Indeed there is no substance[1639] -so singular in its nature. It is prepared in Spain, from the water of -wells or pits which contain it in dissolution. This water is boiled -with an equal quantity of pure water, and is then poured into large -wooden reservoirs. Across these reservoirs there are a number of -immovable beams, to which cords are fastened, and then sunk into the -water beneath by means of stones; upon which, a slimy sediment attaches -itself to the cords, in drops of a vitreous[1640] appearance, somewhat -resembling a bunch of grapes. Upon being removed, it is dried for -thirty days. It is of an azure colour, and of a brilliant lustre, and -is often taken for glass. When dissolved, it forms the black dye that -is used for colouring leather. - -Chalcanthum is also prepared in various other ways: the earth which -contains it being sometimes excavated into trenches, from the sides of -which globules exude, which become concrete when exposed to the action -of the winter frosts. This kind is called “stalagmia,”[1641] and there -is none more pure. When its colour is nearly white, with a slight tinge -of violet, it is called “lonchoton.”[1642] It is also prepared in pans -hollowed out in the rocks; the rain water carrying the slime into -them, where it settles and becomes hardened. It is also formed in the -same way in which we prepare salt;[1643] the intense heat of the sun -separating the fresh water from it. Hence it is that some distinguish -two kinds of chalcanthum, the fossil and the artificial; the latter -being paler than the former, and as much inferior to it in quality as -it is in colour. - -The chalcitis which comes from Cyprus is the most highly esteemed for -the purposes of medicine, being taken in doses of one drachma with -honey, as an expellent of intestinal worms. Diluted and injected into -the nostrils, it acts detergently upon the brain, and, taken with -honey or with hydromel, it acts as a purgative upon the stomach. It -removes granulations upon the eye-lids, and is good for pains and -films upon the eyes; it is curative also of ulcerations of the mouth. -It arrests bleeding at the nostrils, and hæmorrhoidal discharges. In -combination with seed of hyoscyamus, it brings away splinters of broken -bones. Applied to the forehead with a sponge, it acts as a check upon -defluxions of the eyes. Made up into plasters, it is very efficacious -as a detergent for sores and fleshy excrescences in ulcers. The -decoction of it, by the contact solely, is curative of swellings of -the uvula. It is laid with linseed upon plasters which are used for -relieving pains. The whitish kind is preferred to the violet in one -instance only, for the purpose of being blown into the ears, through -a tube, to relieve deafness. Applied topically by itself, it heals -wounds; but it leaves a discoloration upon the scars. It has been -lately discovered, that if it is sprinkled upon the mouths of bears and -lions in the arena, its astringent action is so powerful as to deprive -the animals of the power of biting. - - - - -CHAP. 33. (13.)—POMPHOLYX. - - -The substances called pompholyx[1644] and spodos[1645] are also found -in the furnaces of copper-smelting works; the difference between them -being, that pompholyx is disengaged by washing, while spodos is not -washed. Some persons have called the part which is white and very light -“pompholyx,” and say that it is the ashes of copper and cadmia; whereas -spodos is darker and heavier, being a substance scraped from the walls -of the furnace, mixed with extinguished sparks from the metal, and -sometimes with the residue of coals. When vinegar is combined with -it, pompholyx emits a coppery smell, and if it is touched with the -tongue, the taste is most abominable. It is useful as an ingredient in -ophthalmic preparations for all diseases of the eyes, as also for all -the purposes for which spodos is used; this last only differing from it -in its action being less powerful. It is also used for plasters, when -required to be gently cooling and desiccative. For all these purposes -it is more efficacious when it has been moistened with wine. - - - - -CHAP. 34.—SPODOS: FIVE REMEDIES. - - -The Cyprian spodos[1646] is the best. It is formed by fusing cadmia -with copper ore. This substance, which is the lightest part of the -metal disengaged by fusion, escapes from the furnace, and adheres to -the roof, being distinguished from the soot by the whiteness of its -colour. Such parts of it as are less white are indicative of incomplete -combustion, and it is this which some persons call “pompholyx.” Such -portions of it as are of a more reddish colour are possessed of a -more energetic power, and are found to be so corrosive, that if it -touches the eyes, while being washed, it will cause blindness. There -is also a spodos of a honey colour, an indication that it contains -a large proportion of copper. All the different kinds, however, are -improved by washing; it being first skimmed with a feather,[1647] -and afterwards submitted to a more substantial washing, the harder -grains being removed with the finger. That, too, which has been washed -with wine is more modified in its effects; there being also some -difference according to the kind of wine that is used. When it has -been washed with weak wine the spodos is considered not so beneficial -as an ingredient in medicaments for the eyes; but the same kind of -preparation is more efficacious for running sores, and for ulcers of -the mouth attended with a discharge of matter, as well as in all those -remedies which are used for gangrene. - -There is also a kind of spodos, called “lauriotis,”[1648] which is -made in the furnaces where silver is smelted. The kind, however, that -is best for the eyes, it is said, is that produced in the furnaces -for smelting gold. Indeed there is no department of art in which the -ingenuity of man is more to be admired; for it has discovered among the -very commonest objects, a substance that is in every way possessed of -similar properties. - - - - -CHAP. 35.—FIFTEEN VARIETIES OF ANTISPODOS. - - -The substance called “antispodos”[1649] is produced from the ashes -of the fig-tree or wild fig, or of leaves of myrtle, together with -the more tender shoots of the branches. The leaves, too, of the -wild olive[1650] furnish it, the cultivated olive, the quince-tree, -and the lentisk; unripe mulberries also, before they have changed -their colour, dried in the sun; and the foliage of the box, -pseudo-cypirus,[1651] bramble, terebinth and œnanthe.[1652] The same -virtues have also been found in the ashes of bull-glue[1653] and of -linen cloth. All these substances are burnt in a pot of raw earth, -which is heated in a furnace, until the earthenware is thoroughly baked. - - - - -CHAP. 36.—SMEGMA. - - -In the copper forges also smegma[1654] is prepared. When the metal is -liquefied and thoroughly smelted, charcoal is added to it and gradually -kindled; after which, upon it being suddenly acted upon by a powerful -pair of bellows, a substance is disengaged like a sort of copper chaff. -The floor on which it is received ought to be prepared with a stratum -of coal-dust. - - - - -CHAP. 37.—DIPHRYX. - - -There is another product of these furnaces, which is easily -distinguished from smegma, and which the Greeks call “diphryx,”[1655] -from its being twice calcined. This substance is prepared from three -different sources. It is prepared, they say, from a mineral pyrites, -which is heated in the furnace until it is converted by calcination -into a red earth. It is also made in Cyprus, from a slimy substance -extracted from a certain cavern there, which is first dried and then -gradually heated, by a fire made of twigs. A third way of making it, is -from the residue in the copper-furnaces that falls to the bottom. The -difference between the component parts of the ore is this: the copper -itself runs into the receivers, the scoriæ make their escape from the -furnace, the flower becomes sublimated, and the diphryx remains behind. - -Some say that there are certain globules in the ore, while being -smelted, which become soldered together; and that the rest of the metal -is fused around it, the mass itself not becoming liquefied, unless it -is transferred to another furnace, and forming a sort of knot, as it -were, in the metal. That which remains after the fusion, they say, -is called “diphryx.” Its use in medicine is similar to that of the -substances mentioned above;[1656] it is desiccative, removes morbid -excrescenses, and acts as a detergent. It is tested by placing it -on the tongue, which ought to be instantly parched by it, a coppery -flavour being perceptible. - - - - -CHAP. 38.—PARTICULARS RELATIVE TO THE SERVILIAN TRIENS. - - -We must not neglect to mention one other very remarkable fact -relative to copper. The Servilian family, so illustrious in our -annals, nourishes with gold and silver a copper triens,[1657] which -devours them both. The origin and nature of this coin is to me -incomprehensible;[1658] but I will quote the very words of the story, -as given by old Messala[1659] himself—“The family of the Servilii is -in possession of a sacred triens, to which they offer every year a -sacrifice, with the greatest care and magnificence; the triens itself, -they say, appears sometimes to increase in size and sometimes to -diminish; changes which indicate the coming advancement or decadence of -the family.” - - - - -CHAP. 39 (14).—IRON ORES. - - -Next to copper we must give an account of the metal known as iron, at -the same time the most useful and the most fatal instrument in the hand -of mankind. For by the aid of iron we lay open the ground, we plant -trees, we prepare our vineyard-trees,[1660] and we force our vines each -year to resume their youthful state, by cutting away their decayed -branches. It is by the aid of iron that we construct houses, cleave -rocks, and perform so many other useful offices of life. But it is with -iron also that wars, murders, and robberies are effected, and this, not -only hand to hand, but from a distance even, by the aid of missiles -and winged weapons, now launched from engines, now hurled by the human -arm, and now furnished with feathery wings. This last I regard as the -most criminal artifice that has been devised by the human mind; for, as -if to bring death upon man with still greater rapidity, we have given -wings to iron and taught it to fly.[1661] Let us therefore acquit -Nature of a charge that here belongs to man himself.[1662] - -Indeed there have been some instances in which it has been proved that -iron might be solely used for innocent purposes. In the treaty which -Porsena granted to the Roman people, after the expulsion of the kings, -we find it expressly stipulated, that iron shall be only employed for -the cultivation of the fields; and our oldest authors inform us, that -in those days it was considered unsafe to write with an iron pen.[1663] -There is an edict extant, published in the third consulship of Pompeius -Magnus, during the tumults that ensued upon the death of Clodius, -prohibiting any weapon from being retained in the City. - - - - -CHAP. 40.—STATUES OF IRON; CHASED WORKS IN IRON. - - -Still, however, human industry has not failed to employ iron -for perpetuating the honours of more civilized life. The artist -Aristonidas, wishing to express the fury of Athamas subsiding into -repentance, after he had thrown his son Learchus from the rock,[1664] -blended copper and iron, in order that the blush of shame might be -more exactly expressed, by the rust of the iron making its appearance -through the shining substance of the copper; a statue which still -exists at Rhodes. There is also, in the same city, a Hercules of -iron, executed by Alcon,[1665] the endurance displayed in his labours -by the god having suggested the idea. We see too, at Rome, cups of -iron consecrated in the Temple of Mars the Avenger.[1666] Nature, in -conformity with her usual benevolence, has limited the power of iron, -by inflicting upon it the punishment of rust; and has thus displayed -her usual foresight in rendering nothing in existence more perishable, -than the substance which brings the greatest dangers upon perishable -mortality. - - - - -CHAP. 41.—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF IRON, AND THE MODE OF TEMPERING IT. - - -Iron ores are to be found almost everywhere; for they exist even in -the Italian island of Ilva,[1667] being easily distinguished by the -ferruginous colour of the earth. The method of working the ore is the -same as that employed in the case of copper. In Cappadocia, however, -it is peculiarly questionable whether this metal is present due to the -water or to the earth; because, when the latter has been saturated with -the water of a certain river, it yields, and then only, an iron that -may be obtained by smelting. - -There are numerous varieties of iron ore; the chief causes of which -arise from differences in the soil and in the climate. Some earths -produce a metal that is soft, and nearly akin to lead; others an iron -that is brittle and coppery, the use of which must be particularly -avoided in making wheels or nails, the former kind being better for -these purposes. There is another kind, again, which is only esteemed -when cut into short lengths, and is used for making hobnails;[1668] and -another which is more particularly liable to rust. All these varieties -are known by the name of “strictura,”[1669] an appellation which is not -used with reference to the other metals, and is derived from the steel -that is used for giving an edge.[1670] There is a great difference, -too, in the smelting; some kinds producing knurrs of metal, which are -especially adapted for hardening into steel, or else, prepared in -another manner, for making thick anvils or heads of hammers. But the -main difference results from the quality of the water into which the -red-hot metal is plunged from time to time. The water, which is in -some places better for this purpose than in others, has quite ennobled -some localities for the excellence of their iron, Bilbilis,[1671] for -example, and Turiasso[1672] in Spain, and Comum[1673] in Italy; and -this, although there are no iron mines in these spots. - -But of all the different kinds of iron, the palm of excellence is -awarded to that which is made by the Seres,[1674] who send it to us -with their tissues and skins;[1675] next to which, in quality, is the -Parthian[1676] iron. Indeed, none of the other kinds of iron are made -of the pure hard metal, a softer alloy being welded with them all. In -our part of the world, a vein of ore is occasionally found to yield -a metal of this high quality, as in Noricum[1677] for instance; but, -in other cases, it derives its value from the mode of working it, -as at Sulmo,[1678] for example, a result owing to the nature of its -water, as already stated. It is to be observed also, that in giving an -edge to iron, there is a great difference between oil-whetstones and -water-whetstones,[1679] the use of oil producing a much finer edge. It -is a remarkable fact, that when the ore is fused, the metal becomes -liquefied like water, and afterwards acquires a spongy, brittle -texture. It is the practice to quench smaller articles made of iron -with oil, lest by being hardened in water they should be rendered -brittle. Human blood revenges itself upon iron; for if the metal has -been once touched by this blood it is much more apt to become rusty. - - - - -CHAP. 42.—THE METAL CALLED LIVE IRON. - - -We shall speak of the loadstone in its proper place,[1680] and of the -sympathy which it has with iron. This is the only metal that acquires -the properties of that stone, retaining them for a length of time, -and attracting other iron, so that we may sometimes see a whole chain -formed of these rings. The lower classes, in their ignorance, call this -“live iron,” and the wounds that are made by it are much more severe. -This mineral is also found in Cantabria, not in continuous strata, -like the genuine loadstone, but in scattered fragments, which they -call “bullationes.”[1681] I do not know whether this species of ore -is proper also for the fusion of glass,[1682] as no one has hitherto -tried it; but it certainly imparts the same property as the magnet to -iron. The architect Timochares,[1683] began to erect a vaulted roof of -loadstone, in the Temple of Arsinoë,[1684] at Alexandria, in order that -the iron statue of that princess might have the appearance of hanging -suspended in the air:[1685] his death, however, and that of King -Ptolemæus, who had ordered this monument to be erected in honour of his -sister, prevented the completion of the project. - - - - -CHAP. 43. (15.)—METHODS OE PREVENTING RUST. - - -Of all metals, the ores of iron are found in the greatest abundance. In -the maritime parts of Cantabria[1686] which are washed by the Ocean, -there is a steep and lofty mountain, which, however incredible it may -appear, is entirely composed of this metal, as already stated in our -description of the parts bordering upon the Ocean.[1687] - -Iron which has been acted upon by fire is spoiled, unless it is forged -with the hammer. It is not in a fit state for being hammered when it -is red-hot, nor, indeed, until it has begun to assume a white heat. -By sprinkling vinegar or alum upon it, it acquires the appearance of -copper. It is protected from rust by an application of ceruse, gypsum, -and tar; a property of iron known by the Greeks as “antipathia.”[1688] -Some pretend, too, that this may be ensured by the performance of -certain religious ceremonies, and that there is in existence at the -city of Zeugma,[1689] upon the Euphrates, an iron chain, by means of -which Alexander the Great constructed a bridge across the river; the -links of which that have been replaced are attacked with rust, while -the original links are totally exempt from it.[1690] - - - - -CHAP. 44.—SEVEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM IRON. - - -Iron is employed in medicine for other purposes besides that of making -incisions. For if a circle is traced with iron, or a pointed weapon -is carried three times round them, it will preserve both infant and -adult from all noxious influences: if nails, too, that have been -extracted from a tomb, are driven into the threshold of a door, they -will prevent night-mare.[1691] A slight puncture with the point of a -weapon, with which a man has been wounded, will relieve sudden pains, -attended with stitches in the sides or chest. Some affections are -cured by cauterization with red-hot iron, the bite of the mad dog more -particularly; for even if the malady has been fully developed, and -hydrophobia has made its appearance, the patient is instantly relieved -on the wound being cauterized.[1692] Water in which iron has been -plunged at a white heat, is useful, as a potion, in many diseases, -dysentery[1693] more particularly. - - - - -CHAP. 45.—FOURTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM RUST. - - -Rust itself, too, is classed among the remedial substances; for it was -by means of it that Achilles cured Telephus, it is said, whether it -was an iron weapon or a brazen one that he used for the purpose. So it -is, however, that he is represented in paintings detaching the rust -with his sword.[1694] The rust of iron is usually obtained for these -purposes by scraping old nails with a piece of moistened iron. It has -the effect of uniting wounds, and is possessed of certain desiccative -and astringent properties. Applied in the form of a liniment, it is -curative of alopecy. Mixed with wax and myrtle-oil, it is applied to -granulations of the eyelids, and pustules in all parts of the body; -with vinegar it is used for the cure of erysipelas; and, applied with -lint, it is curative of itch, whitlows on the fingers, and hang-nails. -Used as a pessary with wool, it arrests female discharges. Diluted in -wine, and kneaded with myrrh, it is applied to recent wounds, and, -with vinegar, to condylomatous swellings. Employed in the form of a -liniment, it alleviates gout.[1695] - - - - -CHAP. 46.—SEVENTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE SCALES OF IRON. -HYGREMPLASTRUM. - - -The scales of iron,[1696] which are procured from a fine point or a -sharp edge, are also made use of, being very similar in effect to rust, -but more active; for which reason they are employed for defluxions of -the eyes. They arrest bleeding, also, more particularly from wounds -inflicted with iron; and they act as a check upon female discharges. -They are applied, too, for diseases of the spleen, and they arrest -hæmorrhoidal swellings and serpiginous ulcers. They are useful also -for affections of the eyelids, gradually applied in the form of a fine -powder. But their chief recommendation is, their great utility in the -form of a hygremplastrum[1697] or wet plaster, for cleansing wounds and -fistulous sores, consuming all kinds of callosities, and making new -flesh on bones that are denuded. The following are the ingredients: of -pitch, six oboli, of Cimolian chalk,[1698] six drachmæ, two drachmæ of -pounded copper, the same quantity of scales of iron, six drachmæ of -wax, and one sextarius of oil. To these is added some cerate, when it -is wanted to cleanse or fill up wounds. - - - - -CHAP. 47. (16.)—THE ORES OF LEAD. - - -The nature of lead next comes to be considered. There are two kinds of -it, the black and the white.[1699] The white is the most valuable: it -was called by the Greeks “cassiteros,”[1700] and there is a fabulous -story told of their going in quest of it to the islands of the -Atlantic, and of its being brought in barks made of osiers, covered -with hides.[1701] It is now known that it is a production of Lusitania -and Gallæcia.[1702] It is a sand found on the surface of the earth, -and of a black colour, and is only to be detected by its weight. It is -mingled with small pebbles, particularly in the dried beds of rivers. -The miners wash this sand, and calcine the deposit in the furnace. It -is also found in the gold mines that are known as “alutiæ,”[1703] the -stream of water which is passed through them detaching certain black -pebbles, mottled with small white spots and of the same weight[1704] -as gold. Hence it is that they remain with the gold in the baskets in -which it is collected; and being separated in the furnace, are then -melted, and become converted into white lead.[1705] - -Black lead is not procured in Gallæcia, although it is so greatly -abundant in the neighbouring province of Cantabria; nor is silver -procured from white lead, although it is from black.[1706] Pieces of -black lead cannot be soldered without the intervention of white lead, -nor can this be done without employing oil;[1707] nor can white lead, -on the other hand, be united without the aid of black lead. White lead -was held in estimation in the days even of the Trojan War, a fact that -is attested by Homer, who calls it “cassiteros.”[1708] There are two -different sources of black lead: it being procured either from its own -native ore, where it is produced without the intermixture of any other -substance, or else from an ore which contains it in common with silver, -the two metals being fused together. The metal which first becomes -liquid in the furnace, is called “stannum;”[1709] the next that melts -is silver; and the metal that remains behind is galena,[1710] the third -constituent part of the mineral. On this last being again submitted to -fusion black lead is produced, with a deduction of two-ninths. - - - - -CHAP. 48. (17.)—STANNUM. ARGENTARIUM. - - -When copper vessels are coated with stannum,[1711] they produce a less -disagreeable flavour, and the formation of verdigris is prevented; it -is also remarkable, that the weight of the vessel is not increased. -As already mentioned,[1712] the finest mirrors were formerly prepared -from it at Brundisium, until everybody, our maid-servants even, began -to use silver ones. At the present day a counterfeit stannum is made, -by adding one-third of white copper to two-thirds of white lead.[1713] -It is also counterfeited in another way, by mixing together equal -parts of white lead and black lead; this last being what is called -“argentarium.”[1714] There is also a composition called “tertiarium,” -a mixture of two parts of black lead and one of white: its price is -twenty denarii per pound, and it is used for soldering pipes. Persons -still more dishonest mix together[1715] equal parts of tertiarium and -white lead, and, calling the compound “argentarium,” coat articles with -it melted. This last sells at sixty denarii per ten pounds, the price -of the pure unmixed white lead being eighty denarii, and of the black -seven.[1716] - -White lead is naturally more dry; while the black, on the contrary, is -always moist; consequently the white, without being mixed with another -metal, is of no use[1717] for anything. Silver too, cannot be soldered -with it, because the silver becomes fused before the white lead. It is -confidently stated, also, that if too small a proportion of black lead -is mixed with the white, this last will corrode the silver. It was in -the Gallic provinces that the method was discovered of coating articles -of copper with white lead, so as to be scarcely distinguishable from -silver: articles thus plated are known as “incoctilia.”[1718] At a -later period, the people of the town of Alesia[1719] began to use a -similar process for plating articles with silver, more particularly -ornaments for horses, beasts of burden, and yokes of oxen: the merit, -however, of this invention belongs to the Bituriges.[1720] After this, -they began to ornament their esseda, colisata, and petorita[1721] in a -similar manner; and luxury has at last arrived at such a pitch, that -not only are their decorations made of silver, but of gold even, and -what was formerly a marvel to behold on a cup, is now subjected to the -wear and tear of a carriage, and this in obedience to what they call -fashion! - -White lead is tested, by pouring it, melted,[1722] upon paper, which -ought to have the appearance of being torn rather by the weight than by -the heat of the metal. India has neither copper nor lead,[1723] but she -procures them in exchange for her precious stones and pearls. - - - - -CHAP. 49.—BLACK LEAD. - - -Black lead[1724] is used in the form of pipes and sheets: it is -extracted with great labour in Spain, and throughout all the Gallic -provinces; but in Britannia[1725] it is found in the upper stratum of -the earth, in such abundance, that a law has been spontaneously made, -prohibiting any one from working more than a certain quantity of it. -The various kinds of black lead are known by the following names—the -Ovetanian,[1726] the Caprariensian,[1727] and the Oleastrensian.[1728] -There is no difference whatever in them, when the scoria has been -carefully removed by calcination. It is a marvellous fact, that these -mines, and these only, when they have been abandoned for some time, -become replenished, and are more prolific than before. This would -appear to be effected by the air, infusing itself at liberty through -the open orifices, just as some women become more prolific after -abortion. This was lately found to be the case with the Santarensian -mine in Bætica;[1729] which, after being farmed at an annual rental -of two hundred thousand denarii, and then abandoned, is now rented at -two hundred and fifty-five thousand per annum. In the same manner, the -Antonian mine in the same province has had the rent raised to four -hundred thousand sesterces per annum. - -It is a remarkable fact, that if we pour water into a vessel of lead, -it will not melt; but that if we throw into the water a pebble or a -copper quadrans,[1730] the vessel will be penetrated by the fire. - - - - -CHAP. 50. (18.)—FIFTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM LEAD. - - -Lead is used in medicine, without any addition, for the removal of -scars; if it is applied, too, in plates, to the region of the loins -and kidneys, in consequence of its cold nature it will restrain the -venereal passions, and put an end to libidinous dreams at night, -attended with spontaneous emissions, and assuming all the form of a -disease. The orator Calvus, it is said, effected a cure for himself by -means of these plates, and so preserved his bodily energies for labour -and study. The Emperor Nero—for so the gods willed it—could never sing -to the full pitch of his voice, unless he had a plate of lead upon -his chest; thus showing us one method of preserving the voice.[1731] -For medicinal purposes the lead is melted in earthen vessels; a layer -of finely powdered sulphur being placed beneath, very thin plates -of lead are laid upon it, and are then covered with a mixture of -sulphur and iron. While it is being melted, all the apertures in the -vessel should be closed, otherwise a noxious vapour is discharged -from the furnace, of a deadly nature, to dogs in particular. Indeed, -the vapours from all metals destroy flies and gnats; and hence it is -that in mines there are none of those annoyances.[1732] Some persons, -during the process, mix lead-filings with the sulphur, while others -substitute ceruse for sulphur. By washing, a preparation is made from -lead, that is much employed in medicine: for this purpose, a leaden -mortar, containing rain water, is beaten with a pestle of lead, until -the water has assumed a thick consistency; which done, the water that -floats on the surface is removed with a sponge, and the thicker part -of the sediment is left to dry, and is then divided into tablets. Some -persons triturate lead-filings in this way, and some mix with it lead -ore, or else vinegar, wine, grease, or rose-leaves. Others, again, -prefer triturating the lead in a stone mortar, one of Thebaic stone -more particularly, with a pestle of lead; by which process a whiter -preparation is obtained. - -As to calcined lead, it is washed, like stibi[1733] and cadmia. -Its action is astringent and repressive, and it is promotive of -cicatrization. The same substance is also employed in preparations for -the eyes, cases of procidence[1734] of those organs more particularly; -also for filling up the cavities left by ulcers, and for removing -excrescences and fissures of the anus, as well as hæmorrhoidal and -condylomatous tumours. For all these purposes the lotion of lead -is particularly useful; but for serpiginous or sordid ulcers it is -the ashes of calcined lead that are used, these producing the same -advantageous effects as ashes of burnt papyrus.[1735] - -The lead is calcined in thin plates, laid with sulphur in shallow -vessels, the mixture being stirred with iron rods or stalks of -fennel-giant, until the melted metal becomes calcined; when cold, it is -pulverized. Some persons calcine lead-filings in a vessel of raw earth, -which they leave in the furnace, until the earthenware is completely -baked. Others, again, mix with it an equal quantity of ceruse or of -barley, and triturate it in the way mentioned for raw lead; indeed, -the lead which has been prepared this way is preferred to the spodium -of Cyprus. - - - - -CHAP. 51.—FIFTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE SCORIA OF LEAD. - - -The scoria[1736] of lead is also made use of; the best kind being that -which approaches nearest to a yellow colour, without any vestiges of -lead, or which has the appearance of sulphur without any terreous -particles. It is broken into small pieces and washed in a mortar, -until the mortar assumes a yellow colour; after which, it is poured -off into a clean vessel, the process being repeated until it deposits -a sediment, which is a substance of the greatest utility. It possesses -the same properties as lead, but of a more active nature. How truly -wonderful is the knowledge which we gain by experiment, when even the -very dregs and foul residues of substances have in so many ways been -tested by mankind! - - - - -CHAP. 52.—SPODIUM OF LEAD. - - -A spodium[1737] of lead is also prepared in the same manner as that -extracted from Cyprian copper.[1738] It is washed with rain water, -in linen of a loose texture, and the earthy parts are separated by -pouring it off; after which it is sifted, and then pounded. Some prefer -removing the fine powder with a feather, and then triturating it with -aromatic wine. - - - - -CHAP. 53.—MOLYBDÆNA: FIFTEEN REMEDIES. - - -Molybdæna,[1739] which in another place I have called “galena,”[1740] -is a mineral compounded of silver and lead. It is considered better in -quality the nearer it approaches to a golden colour and the less lead -it contains; it is also friable, and of moderate weight. When it is -melted with oil, it acquires the colour of liver. It is found adhering -also to the furnaces in which gold and silver have been smelted; -and in this case it is called “metallic.” The most esteemed kind is -that prepared at Zephyrium.[1741] Those kinds, too, are considered -the best that are the least earthy and the least stony. It is used in -preparing liparæ,[1742] as also for soothing or cooling ulcers, and as -an ingredient in plasters, which are applied without ligatures, but -are used only as a liniment for producing cicatrization on the bodies -of delicate persons and the more tender parts. The composition is made -of three pounds of molybdæna, one pound of wax, and three heminæ of -oil; to which are added lees of olives, in the case of aged persons. -Combined with scum of silver[1743] and scoria of lead, it is employed -warm in fomentations for dysentery and tenesmus. - - - - -CHAP. 54.—PSIMITHIUM, OR CERUSE; SIX REMEDIES. - - -Psimithium,[1744] which is also known as ceruse, is another production -of the lead-works. The most esteemed comes from Rhodes. It is made -from very fine shavings of lead, placed over a vessel filled with -the strongest vinegar; by which means the shavings become dissolved. -That which falls into the vinegar is first dried, and then pounded -and sifted, after which it is again mixed with vinegar, and is then -divided into tablets and dried in the sun, during summer. It is also -made in another way; the lead is thrown into jars filled with vinegar, -which are kept closed for ten days; the sort of mould that forms upon -the surface is then scraped off, and the lead is again put into the -vinegar, until the whole of the metal is consumed. The part that has -been scraped off is triturated and sifted, and then melted in shallow -vessels, being stirred with ladles, until the substance becomes red, -and assumes the appearance of sandarach. It is then washed with fresh -water, until all the cloudy impurities have disappeared, after which it -is dried as before, and divided into tablets. - -Its properties are the same as those of the substances above -mentioned.[1745] It is, however, the mildest of all the preparations of -lead; in addition to which, it is also used by females to whiten the -complexion.[1746] It is, however, like scum of silver, a deadly poison. -Melted a second time, ceruse becomes red. - - - - -CHAP. 55.—SANDARACH; ELEVEN REMEDIES. - - -We have already mentioned nearly all the properties of sandarach.[1747] -It is found both in gold-mines and in silver-mines. The redder it is, -the more pure and friable, and the more powerful its odour, the better -it is in quality. It is detergent, astringent, heating, and corrosive, -but is most remarkable for its septic properties. Applied topically -with vinegar, it is curative of alopecy. It is also employed as an -ingredient in ophthalmic preparations. Used with honey, it cleanses the -fauces and makes the voice more clear and harmonious. Taken with the -food, in combination with turpentine, it is a pleasant cure for cough -and asthma. In the form of a fumigation also, with cedar, it has a -remedial effect upon those complaints.[1748] - - - - -CHAP. 56.—ARRHENICUM. - - -Arrhenicum,[1749] too, is procured from the same sources. The best in -quality is of the colour of the finest gold; that which is of a paler -hue, or resembling sandarach, being less esteemed. There is a third -kind also, the colour of which is a mixture of that of gold and of -sandarach. The last two kinds are both of them scaly, but the other -is dry and pure, and divides into delicate long veins.[1750] This -substance has the same virtues as the one last mentioned, but is more -active in its effects. Hence it is that it enters into the composition -of cauteries and depilatory preparations. It is also used for the -removal of hangnails, polypi of the nostrils, condylomatous tumours, -and other kinds of excrescences. For the purpose of increasing its -energies, it is heated in a new earthen vessel, until it changes its -colour.[1751] - -SUMMARY.—Remedies, one hundred and fifty-eight. Facts, narratives, and -observations, nine hundred and fifteen. - -ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—L. Piso,[1752] Antias,[1753] Verrius,[1754] -M. Varro,[1755] Cornelius Nepos,[1756] Messala,[1757] Rufus,[1758] -the Poet Marsus,[1759] Bocchus,[1760] Julius Bassus[1761] who wrote -in Greek on Medicine, Sextus Niger[1762] who did the same, Fabius -Vestalis.[1763] - -FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Democritus,[1764] Metrodorus[1765] of Scepsis, -Menæchmus[1766] who wrote on the Toreutic art, Xenocrates[1767] who -did the same, Antigonus[1768] who did the same, Duris[1769] who did -the same, Heliodorus[1770] who wrote on the Votive Offerings of the -Athenians, Pasiteles[1771] who wrote on Wonderful Works, Timæus[1772] -who wrote on the Medicines derived from Metals, Nymphodorus,[1773] -Iollas,[1774] Apollodorus,[1775] Andreas,[1776] Heraclides,[1777] -Diagoras,[1778] Botrys,[1779] Archidemus,[1780] Dionysius,[1781] -Aristogenes,[1782] Democles,[1783] Mnesides,[1784] Xenocrates[1785] the -son of Zeno, Theomnestus.[1786] - - - - -BOOK XXXV. - -AN ACCOUNT OF PAINTINGS AND COLOURS. - - - - -CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE HONOUR ATTACHED TO PAINTING. - - -I have now given at considerable length an account of the nature of -metals, which constitute our wealth, and of the substances that are -derived from them; so connecting my various subjects, as, at the -same time, to describe an immense number of medicinal compositions -which they furnish, the mysteries[1787] thrown upon them by the -druggists, and the tedious minutiæ of the arts of chasing,[1788] and -statuary,[1789] and of dyeing.[1790] It remains for me to describe -the various kinds of earths and stones; a still more extensive series -of subjects, each of which has been treated of, by the Greeks more -particularly, in a great number of volumes. For my own part, I propose -to employ a due degree of brevity, at the same time omitting nothing -that is necessary or that is a product of Nature. - -I shall begin then with what still remains to be said with reference to -painting, an art which was formerly illustrious, when it was held in -esteem both by kings and peoples, and ennobling those whom it deigned -to transmit to posterity. But at the present day, it is completely -banished in favour of marble, and even gold. For not only are whole -walls now covered with marble, but the marble itself is carved out or -else marqueted so as to represent objects and animals of various kinds. -No longer now are we satisfied with formal compartitions of marble, -or with slabs extended like so many mountains in our chambers, but we -must begin to paint the very stone itself! This art was invented in the -reign of Claudius, but it was in the time of Nero that we discovered -the method of inserting in marble spots that do not belong to it, and -so varying its uniformity; and this, for the purpose of representing -the marble of Numidia[1791] variegated with ovals, and that of -Synnada[1792] veined with purple; just, in fact, as luxury might have -willed that Nature should produce them. Such are our resources when the -quarries fail us, and luxury ceases not to busy itself, in order that -as much as possible may be lost whenever a conflagration happens. - - - - -CHAP. 2. (2.)—THE HONOUR ATTACHED TO PORTRAITS. - - -Correct portraits of individuals were formerly transmitted to future -ages by painting; but this has now completely fallen into desuetude. -Brazen shields are now set up, and silver faces, with only some obscure -traces of the countenance;[1793] the very heads, too, of statues are -changed,[1794] a thing that has given rise before now to many a current -sarcastic line; so true it is that people prefer showing off the -valuable material, to having a faithful likeness. And yet, at the same -time, we tapestry the walls of our galleries with old pictures, and we -prize the portraits of strangers; while as to those made in honour of -ourselves, we esteem them only for the value of the material, for some -heir to break up and melt, and so forestall the noose and slip-knot of -the thief.[1795] Thus it is that we possess the portraits of no living -individuals, and leave behind us the pictures of our wealth, not of our -persons. - -And yet the very same persons adorn the palæstra and the -anointing-room[1796] with portraits of athletes, and both hang up -in their chamber and carry about them a likeness of Epicurus.[1797] -On the twentieth day of each moon they celebrate his birthday[1798] -by a sacrifice, and keep his festival, known as the “Icas,”[1799] -every month: and these too, people who wish to live without being -known![1800] So it is, most assuredly, our indolence has lost sight -of the arts, and since our minds are destitute of any characteristic -features, those of our bodies are neglected also. - -But on the contrary, in the days of our ancestors, it was these that -were to be seen in their halls, and not statues made by foreign -artists, or works in bronze or marble: portraits modelled in wax[1801] -were arranged, each in its separate niche, to be always in readiness -to accompany the funeral processions of the family;[1802] occasions -on which every member of the family that had ever existed was always -present. The pedigree, too, of the individual was traced in lines upon -each of these coloured portraits. Their muniment-rooms,[1803] too, -were filled with archives and memoirs, stating what each had done -when holding the magistracy. On the outside, again, of their houses, -and around the thresholds of their doors, were placed other statues -of those mighty spirits, in the spoils of the enemy there affixed, -memorials which a purchaser even was not allowed to displace; so that -the very house continued to triumph even after it had changed its -master. A powerful stimulus to emulation this, when the walls each -day reproached an unwarlike owner for having thus intruded upon the -triumphs of another! There is still extant an address by the orator -Messala, full of indignation, in which he forbids that there should be -inserted among the images of his family any of those of the stranger -race of the Lævini.[1804] It was the same feeling, too, that extorted -from old Messala those compilations of his “On the Families of Rome;” -when, upon passing through the hall of Scipio Pomponianus,[1805] -he observed that, in consequence of a testamentary adoption, the -Salvittos[1806]—for that had been their surname—to the disgrace of -the Africani, had surreptitiously contrived to assume the name of the -Scipios. But the Messalas must pardon me if I remark, that to lay a -claim, though an untruthful one, to the statues of illustrious men, -shows some love for their virtues, and is much more honourable than to -have such a character as to merit that no one should wish to claim them. - -There is a new invention too, which we must not omit to notice. Not -only do we consecrate in our libraries, in gold or silver, or at all -events, in bronze, those whose immortal spirits hold converse with -us in those places, but we even go so far as to reproduce the ideal -of features, all remembrance of which has ceased to exist; and our -regrets give existence to likenesses that have not been transmitted -to us, as in the case of Homer, for example.[1807] And indeed, it is -my opinion, that nothing can be a greater proof of having achieved -success in life, than a lasting desire on the part of one’s fellow-men, -to know what one’s features were. This practice of grouping portraits -was first introduced at Rome by Asinius Pollio, who was also the -first to establish a public library, and so make the works of genius -the property of the public. Whether the kings of Alexandria and of -Pergamus, who had so energetically rivalled each other in forming -libraries, had previously introduced this practice, I cannot so easily -say. - -That a strong passion for portraits formerly existed, is attested -both by Atticus, the friend of Cicero, who wrote a work on this -subject,[1808] and by M. Varro, who conceived the very liberal idea of -inserting, by some means[1809] or other, in his numerous volumes, the -portraits of seven hundred individuals; as he could not bear the idea -that all traces of their features should be lost, or that the lapse of -centuries should get the better of mankind. Thus was he the inventor -of a benefit to his fellow-men, that might have been envied by the gods -themselves; for not only did he confer upon them immortality, but he -transmitted them, too, to all parts of the earth; so that everywhere -it might be possible for them to be present, and for each to occupy -his niche. This service, too, Varro conferred upon persons who were no -members of his own family. - - - - -CHAP. 3. (3.)—WHEN SHIELDS WERE FIRST INVENTED WITH PORTRAITS UPON -THEM; AND WHEN THEY WERE FIRST ERECTED IN PUBLIC. - - -So far as I can learn, Appius Claudius, who was consul with P. -Servilius, in the year of the City, 259, was the first to dedicate -shields[1810] in honour of his own family in a sacred or public -place.[1811] For he placed representations of his ancestors in the -Temple of Bellona, and desired that they might be erected in an -elevated spot, so as to be seen, and the inscriptions reciting their -honours read. A truly graceful device; more particularly when a -multitude of children, represented by so many tiny figures, displays -those germs, as it were, which are destined to continue the line: -shields such as these, no one can look at without a feeling of pleasure -and lively interest. - - - - -CHAP. 4.—WHEN THESE SHIELDS WERE FIRST PLACED IN PRIVATE HOUSES. - - -More recently, M. Æmilius, who was consul[1812] with Quintus Lutatius, -not only erected these shields in the Æmilian Basilica,[1813] but in -his own house as well; in doing which he followed a truly warlike -example. For, in fact, these portraits were represented on bucklers, -similar to those used in the Trojan War;[1814] and hence it is that -these shields received their present name of “clypei,” and not, as -the perverse subtleties of the grammarians will have it, from the -word “cluo.”[1815] It was an abundant motive for valour, when upon -each shield was represented the features of him who had borne it. The -Carthaginians used to make both their bucklers and their portraits -of gold, and to carry them with them in the camp: at all events, -Marcius, the avenger of the Scipios[1816] in Spain, found one of this -kind on capturing the camp of Hasdrubal, and it was this same buckler -that remained suspended over the gate of the Capitoline Temple until -the time when it was first burnt.[1817] Indeed, in the days of our -ancestors, so assured was the safety of these shields, that it has -been a subject of remark, that in the consulship of L. Manlius and -Q. Fulvius, in the year of the City, 575, M. Aufidius, who had given -security for the safety of the Capitol, informed the senate that the -bucklers there which for some lustra[1818] had been assessed as copper, -were in reality made of silver. - - - - -CHAP. 5.—THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE ART OF PAINTING. MONOCHROME PAINTINGS. -THE EARLIEST PAINTERS. - - -We have no certain knowledge as to the commencement of the art -of painting, nor does this enquiry fall under our consideration. -The Egyptians assert that it was invented among themselves, six -thousand years before it passed into Greece; a vain boast, it is very -evident.[1819] As to the Greeks, some say that it was invented at -Sicyon, others at Corinth; but they all agree that it originated in -tracing lines round the human shadow.[1820] The first stage of the -art, they say, was this, the second stage being the employment of -single colours; a process known as “monochromaton,”[1821] after it -had become more complicated, and which is still in use at the present -day. The invention of line-drawing has been assigned to Philocles, the -Egyptian, or to Cleanthes[1822] of Corinth. The first who practised -this line-drawing were Aridices, the Corinthian, and Telephanes, the -Sicyonian, artists who, without making use of any colours, shaded -the interior of the outline by drawing lines;[1823] hence, it was -the custom with them to add to the picture the name of the person -represented. Ecphantus, the Corinthian, was the first to employ colours -upon these pictures, made, it is said, of broken earthenware, reduced -to powder. We shall show on a future[1824] occasion, that it was a -different artist of the same name, who, according to Cornelius Nepos, -came to Italy with Demaratus, the father of the Roman king, Tarquinius -Priscus, on his flight from Corinth to escape the violence of the -tyrant Cypselus. - - - - -CHAP. 6.—THE ANTIQUITY OF PAINTING IN ITALY. - - -But already, in fact, had the art of painting been perfectly developed -in Italy.[1825] At all events, there are extant in the temples at -Ardea, at this day, paintings of greater antiquity than Rome itself; -in which, in my opinion, nothing is more marvellous, than that they -should have remained so long unprotected by a roof, and yet preserving -their freshness.[1826] At Lanuvium, too, it is the same, where we -see an Atalanta and a Helena, without drapery, close together, and -painted by the same artist. They are both of the greatest beauty, the -former being evidently the figure of a virgin, and they still remain -uninjured, though the temple is in ruins. The Emperor Caius,[1827] -inflamed with lustfulness, attempted to have them removed, but the -nature of the plaster would not admit of it. There are in existence -at Cære,[1828] some paintings of a still higher antiquity. Whoever -carefully examines them, will be forced to admit that no art has -arrived more speedily at perfection, seeing that it evidently was not -in existence at the time of the Trojan War.[1829] - - - - -CHAP. 7. (4.)—ROMAN PAINTERS. - - -Among the Romans, too, this art very soon rose into esteem, for it -was from it that the Fabii, a most illustrious family, derived their -surname of “Pictor;” indeed the first of the family who bore it, -himself painted the Temple of Salus,[1830] in the year of the City, -450; a work which lasted to our own times, but was destroyed when the -temple was burnt, in the reign of Claudius. Next in celebrity were the -paintings of the poet Pacuvius, in the Temple of Hercules, situate in -the Cattle Market:[1831] he was a son of the sister of Ennius, and the -fame of the art was enhanced at Rome by the success of the artist on -the stage. After this period, the art was no longer practised by men of -rank; unless, indeed, we would make reference to Turpilius, in our own -times, a native of Venetia, and of equestrian rank, several of whose -beautiful works are still in existence at Verona. He painted, too, -with his left hand, a thing never known to have been done by any one -before.[1832] - -Titidius Labeo, a person of prætorian rank, who had been formerly -proconsul of the province of Gallia Narbonensis, and who lately died -at a very advanced age, used to pride himself upon the little pictures -which he executed, but it only caused him to be ridiculed and sneered -at. I must not omit, too, to mention a celebrated consultation upon -the subject of painting, which was held by some persons of the highest -rank. Q. Pedius,[1833] who had been honoured with the consulship and a -triumph, and who had been named by the Dictator Cæsar as co-heir with -Augustus, had a grandson, who being dumb from his birth, the orator -Messala, to whose family his grandmother belonged, recommended that he -should be brought up as a painter, a proposal which was also approved -of by the late Emperor Augustus. He died, however, in his youth, after -having made great progress in the art. But the high estimation in -which painting came to be held at Rome, was principally due, in my -opinion, to M. Valerius Maximus Messala, who, in the year of the City, -490, was the first to exhibit a painting to the public; a picture, -namely, of the battle in which he had defeated the Carthaginians and -Hiero in Sicily, upon one side of the Curia Hostilia.[1834] The same -thing was done, too, by L. Scipio,[1835] who placed in the Capitol a -painting of the victory which he had gained in Asia; but his brother -Africanus, it is said, was offended at it, and not without reason, for -his son had been taken prisoner in the battle.[1836] Lucius Hostilius -Mancinus,[1837] too, who had been the first to enter Carthage at the -final attack, gave a very similar offence to Æmilianus,[1838] by -exposing in the Forum a painting of that city and the attack upon it, -he himself standing near the picture, and describing to the spectators -the various details of the siege; a piece of complaisance which secured -him the consulship at the ensuing Comitia. - -The stage, too, which was erected for the games celebrated by Claudius -Pulcher,[1839] brought the art of painting into great admiration, it -being observed that the ravens were so deceived by the resemblance, as -to light upon the decorations which were painted in imitation of tiles. - - - - -CHAP. 8.—AT WHAT PERIOD FOREIGN PAINTINGS WERE FIRST INTRODUCED AT ROME. - - -The high estimation in which the paintings of foreigners were held at -Rome commenced with Lucius Mummius, who, from his victories, acquired -the surname of “Achaicus.” For upon the sale of the spoil on that -occasion, King Attalus having purchased, at the price of six thousand -denarii, a painting of Father Liber by Aristides,[1840] Mummius, -feeling surprised at the price, and suspecting that there might be -some merit in it of which he himself was unaware,[1841] in spite of -the complaints of Attalus, broke off the bargain, and had the picture -placed in the Temple of Ceres;[1842] the first instance, I conceive, of -a foreign painting being publicly exhibited at Rome. - -After this, I find, it became a common practice to exhibit foreign -pictures in the Forum; for it was to this circumstance that we are -indebted for a joke of the orator Crassus. While pleading below the Old -Shops,[1843] he was interrupted by a witness who had been summoned, -with the question, “Tell me then, Crassus, what do you take me to be?” -“Very much like him,” answered he, pointing to the figure of a Gaul in -a picture, thrusting out his tongue in a very unbecoming manner.[1844] -It was in the Forum, too, that was placed the picture of the Old -Shepherd leaning on his staff; respecting which, when the envoy of the -Teutones was asked what he thought was the value of it, he made answer -that he would rather not have the original even, at a gift. - - - - -CHAP. 9.—AT WHAT PERIOD PAINTING WAS FIRST HELD IN HIGH ESTEEM AT ROME, -AND FROM WHAT CAUSES. - - -But it was the Dictator Cæsar that first brought the public exhibition -of pictures into such high estimation, by consecrating an Ajax and -a Medea[1845] before the Temple of Venus Genetrix.[1846] After him -there was M. Agrippa, a man who was naturally more attached to rustic -simplicity than to refinement. Still, however, we have a magnificent -oration of his, and one well worthy of the greatest of our citizens, -on the advantage of exhibiting in public all pictures and statues; a -practice which would have been far preferable to sending them into -banishment at our country-houses. Severe as he was in his tastes, he -paid the people of Cyzicus twelve hundred thousand sesterces for two -paintings, an Ajax and a Venus. He also ordered small paintings to be -set in marble in the very hottest part of his Warm Baths;[1847] where -they remained until they were removed a short time since, when the -building was repaired. - - - - -CHAP. 10.—WHAT PICTURES THE EMPERORS HAVE EXHIBITED IN PUBLIC. - - -The late Emperor Augustus did more than all the others; for he -placed in the most conspicuous part of his Forum, two pictures, -representing War and Triumph.[1848] He also placed in the Temple of -his father,[1849] Cæsar, a picture of the Castors,[1850] and one of -Victory, in addition to those which we shall mention in our account -of the works of the different artists.[1851] He also inserted two -pictures in the wall of the Curia[1852] which he consecrated in the -Comitium;[1853] one of which was a Nemea[1854] seated upon a lion, -and bearing a palm in her hand. Close to her is an Old Man, standing -with a staff, and above his head hangs the picture of a chariot -with two horses. Nicias[1855] has written upon this picture that he -“inburned”[1856] it, such being the word he has employed. - -In the second picture the thing to be chiefly admired, is the -resemblance that the youth bears to the old man his father, allowing, -of course, for the difference in age; above them soars an eagle, which -grasps a dragon in its talons. Philochares[1857] attests that he is the -author of this work, an instance, if we only consider it, of the mighty -power wielded by the pictorial art; for here, thanks to Philochares, -the senate of the Roman people, age after age, has before its eyes -Glaucion and his son Aristippus, persons who would otherwise have been -altogether unknown. The Emperor Tiberius, too, a prince who was by no -means very gracious, has exhibited in the temple dedicated by him, -in his turn, to Augustus, several pictures which we shall describe -hereafter.[1858] - - - - -CHAP. 11. (5.)—THE ART OF PAINTING. - - -Thus much then with reference to the dignity of this now expiring art. -We have already[1859] stated with what single colours the earlier -artists painted, when speaking of these pigments under the head of -metals. The new modes of painting which were afterwards discovered, -and are known as “neogrammatea,”[1860] the names of the artists, their -different inventions, and the periods at which these inventions were -adopted, will all be described when we come to enumerate the painters: -for the present, however, the proposed plan of this work requires, -that I should enlarge upon the nature of the several colours that are -employed. - -The art of painting at last became developed, in the invention of -light and shade, the alternating contrast of the colours serving to -heighten the effect of each. At a later period, again, lustre[1861] was -added, a thing altogether different from light. The gradation between -lustre and light on the one hand and shade on the other, was called -“tonos;” while the blending of the various tints, and their passing -into one another, was known as “harmoge.”[1862] - - - - -CHAP. 12. (6.)—PIGMENTS OTHER THAN THOSE OF A METALLIC ORIGIN. -ARTIFICIAL COLOURS. - - -Colours are either[1863] sombre or florid, these qualities arising -either from the nature, of the substances or their mode of combination. -The florid colours are those which the employer supplies[1864] to -the painter at his own expense; minium,[1865] namely, armenium, -cinnabaris,[1866] chrysocolla,[1867] indicum, and purpurissum. The -others are the sombre colours. Taking both kinds together, some -are native colours, and others are artificial. Sinopis, rubrica, -parætonium, melinum, eretria and orpiment, are native colours. The -others are artificial, more particularly those described by us when -speaking of metals; in addition to which there are, among the more -common colours, ochra, usta or burnt ceruse, sandarach, sandyx, -syricum, and atramentum. - - - - -CHAP. 13.—SINOPIS: ELEVEN REMEDIES. - - -Sinopis[1868] was discovered in Pontus; and hence its name, from the -city of Sinope there. It is produced also in Egypt, the Balearic -islands, and Africa; but the best is found in Lemnos and Cappadocia, -being extracted from quarries there. That part is considered the best -which has been found adhering to the rock. In the native mass, it has -its own proper colour within, but is spotted on the exterior; the -ancients made use of it for tone.[1869] - -There are three kinds of sinopis, the red, the pale red, and the -intermediate. The price of the best is twelve denarii per pound; it -is used both for painting with the brush, and for colouring wood. The -kind which comes from Africa sells at eight asses per pound; the name -given to it is “cicerculum.”[1870] That[1871] which is of the deepest -red is the most in use for colouring compartitions. The sinopis known -as the dull[1872] kind, being of a very tawny complexion, sells also -at the price of eight asses per pound; it is used principally for the -lower[1873] parts of compartitions. - -Used medicinally, sinopis is of a soothing nature, and is employed as -an ingredient in plasters and emollient poultices. It admits of being -easily used, whether in the form of a dry or of a liquid composition, -for the cure of ulcers situate in the humid parts of the body, the -mouth and the rectum, for instance. Used as an injection, it arrests -looseness of the bowels, and, taken in doses of one denarius, it acts -as a check upon female discharges. Applied in a burnt state, with wine -in particular, it has a desiccative effect upon granulations of the -eyelids. - - - - -CHAP. 14.—RUBRICA; LEMNIAN EARTH: FOUR REMEDIES. - - -Some persons have wished to make out that sinopis is nothing else but -a kind of rubrica[1874] of second-rate quality, looking upon earth -of Lemnos as a rubrics of the highest quality. This last approaches -very nearly to minium,[1875] and was as highly esteemed among the -ancients as the island that produces it: it was never sold except -in sealed packages, a circumstance to which it was indebted for its -additional name of “sphragis.” It is with this material that they give -the under-coating to minium, in the adulteration of which it is also -extensively employed. - -In medicine it is very highly esteemed. Applied to the eyes in the form -of a liniment, it allays defluxions and pains in those organs, and -arrests the discharges from lachrymal fistulas. To persons vomiting -blood, it is administered with vinegar to drink. It is taken also -internally for affections of the spleen and kidneys; and by females for -the purpose of arresting flooding. It is employed too, to counteract -the effects of poisons, and of stings inflicted by sea or land -serpents; hence it is that it is so commonly used as an ingredient in -antidotes. - - - - -CHAP. 15.—EGYPTIAN EARTH. - - -Of the other kinds of rubrica, those of Egypt and Africa are of the -greatest utility to workers in wood, from the fact of their being -absorbed with the greatest rapidity. They are used also for painting, -and are found in a native state in iron-mines.[1876] - - - - -CHAP. 16.—OCHRA: REMEDIES DERIVED FROM RUBRICA. - - -It is from rubrica also, that ochra[1877] is prepared, the rubrica -being burnt[1878] in new earthen pots well luted with clay. The more -highly it is calcined in the furnace, the better the colour is. All -kinds of rubrica are of a desiccative nature, and hence it is that they -are so useful for plasters, and as an application even for erysipelas. - - - - -CHAP. 17.—LEUCOPHORON. - - -Half a pound of Pontic sinopis, ten pounds of bright sil,[1879] and -two pounds of Greek melinum,[1880] well mixed and triturated together -for twelve successive days, produce “leucophoron,”[1881] a cement used -for applying gold-leaf to wood. - - - - -CHAP. 18.—PARÆTONIUM. - - -Parætonium[1882] is so called from the place[1883] of that name in -Egypt. It is sea-foam,[1884] they say, solidified with slime, and -hence it is that minute shells are often found in it. It is prepared -also in the Isle of Crete, and at Cyrenæ. At Rome, it is adulterated -with Cimolian[1885] earth, boiled and thickened. The price of that of -the highest quality is fifty denarii per six pounds. This is the most -unctuous of all the white colours, and the most tenacious as a coating -for plaster, the result of its smoothness. - - - - -CHAP. 19.—MELINUM: SIX REMEDIES. CERUSE. - - -Melinum, too, is a white colour, the best being the produce of the Isle -of Melos.[1886] It is found also in Samos; but this last kind is never -used by painters, in consequence of its being too unctuous. The persons -employed in extracting it, lie at full length upon the ground, and -search for the veins among the rocks. In medicine it is employed for -much the same purposes as eretria;[1887] in addition to which, it dries -the tongue, acts as a depilatory, and has a soothing effect. The price -of it is one sestertius per pound. - -The third of the white pigments is ceruse, the nature of which we -have already[1888] explained when speaking of the ores of lead; there -was also a native ceruse, formerly found on the lands of Theodotus -at Smyrna, which the ancients made use of for painting ships. At -the present day, all ceruse is prepared artificially, from lead and -vinegar,[1889] as already stated. - - - - -CHAP. 20.—USTA. - - -Usta[1890] was accidentally discovered at a fire in the Piræus, -some ceruse having been burnt in the jars there. Nicias, the artist -above-mentioned,[1891] was the first to use it. At the present day, -that of Asia, known also as “purpurea,” is considered the best. The -price of it is six denarii per pound. It is prepared also at Rome by -calcining marbled sil,[1892] and quenching it with vinegar. Without the -use of usta shadows cannot be made.[1893] - - - - -CHAP. 21.—ERETRIA. - - -Eretria takes its name from the territory[1894] which produces it. -Nicomachus[1895] and Parrhasius made use of it. In a medicinal point -of view, it is cooling and emollient. In a calcined state, it promotes -the cicatrization of wounds, is very useful as a desiccative, and -is particularly good for pains in the head, and for the detection -of internal suppurations. If the earth, when applied[1896] with -water, does not dry with rapidity, the presence of purulent matter is -apprehended. - - - - -CHAP. 22.—SANDARACH. - - -According to Juba, sandarach and ochra are both of them productions of -the island of Topazus,[1897] in the Red Sea; but neither of them are -imported to us from that place. The mode of preparing sandarach we -have described[1898] already: there is a spurious kind also, prepared -by calcining ceruse in the furnace. This substance, to be good, ought -to be of a flame colour; the price of it is five asses per pound. - - - - -CHAP. 23.—SANDYX. - - -Calcined with an equal proportion of rubrica, sandarach forms -sandyx;[1899] although I perceive that Virgil, in the following -line,[1900] has taken sandyx to be a plant— - - “Sandyx itself shall clothe the feeding lambs.” - -The price of sandyx[1901] is one half that of sandarach; these two -colours being the heaviest of all in weight. - - - - -CHAP. 24.—SYRICUM. - - -Among the artificial colours, too, is syricum, which is used as an -under-coating for minium, as already[1902] stated. It is prepared from -a combination of sinopis with sandyx. - - - - -CHAP. 25.—ATRAMENTUM. - - -Atramentum,[1903] too, must be reckoned among the artificial colours, -although it is also derived in two ways from the earth. For sometimes -it is found exuding from the earth like the brine of salt-pits, while -at other times an earth itself of a sulphurous colour is sought for -the purpose. Painters, too, have been known to go so far as to dig up -half-charred bones[1904] from the sepulchres for this purpose. - -All these plans, however, are new-fangled and troublesome; for this -substance may be prepared, in numerous ways, from the soot that is -yielded by the combustion of resin or pitch; so much so, indeed, -that manufactories have been built on the principle of not allowing -an escape for the smoke evolved by the process. The most esteemed -black,[1905] however, that is made in this way, is prepared from the -wood of the torch-pine. - -It is adulterated by mixing it with the ordinary soot from furnaces and -baths, a substance which is also employed for the purpose of writing. -Others, again, calcine dried wine-lees, and assure us that if the wine -was originally of good quality from which the colour is made, it will -bear comparison with that of indicum.[1906] Polygnotus and Micon, the -most celebrated painters of Athens, made their black from grape-husks, -and called it “tryginon.”[1907] Apelles invented a method of preparing -it from burnt ivory, the name given to it being “elephantinon.” - -We have indicum also, a substance imported from India, the composition -of which is at present unknown to me.[1908] Dyers, too, prepare an -atramentum from the black inflorescence which adheres to the brazen -dye-pans. It is made also from logs of torch-pine, burnt to charcoal -and pounded in a mortar. The sæpia, too, has a wonderful property of -secreting a black liquid;[1909] but from this liquid no colour is -prepared. The preparation of every kind of atramentum is completed by -exposure to the sun; the black, for writing, having an admixture of -gum, and that for coating walls, an admixture of glue. Black pigment -that has been dissolved in vinegar is not easily effaced by washing. - - - - -CHAP. 26.—PURPURISSUM. - - -Among the remaining colours which, as already stated,[1910] owing to -their dearness are furnished by the employer, purpurissum holds the -highest rank. For the purpose of preparing it, argentaria or silver -chalk[1911] is dyed along with purple[1912] cloth, it imbibing the -colour more speedily than the wool. The best of all is that which, -being thrown the very first into the boiling cauldron, becomes -saturated with the dye in its primitive state. The next best in quality -is that which has been put into the same liquor, after the first -has been removed. Each time that this is done, the quality becomes -proportionally deteriorated, owing, of course, to the comparative -thinness of the liquid. The reason that the purpurissum of Puteoli is -more highly esteemed than that of Tyre, Gætulia, or Laconia, places -which produce the most precious kinds of purple, is the fact that it -combines more readily with hysginum,[1913] and that it is made to -absorb the colouring liquid of madder. The worst purpurissum is that of -Lanuvium.[1914] - -The price of purpurissum is from one to thirty denarii per pound. -Persons who use it in painting, place a coat of sandyx beneath; a layer -on which of purpurissum with glair of egg, produces all the brilliant -tints of minium. If, on the other hand, it is their object to make a -purple, they lay a coat of cæruleum[1915] beneath, and purpurissum, -with egg,[1916] upon it. - - - - -CHAP. 27.—INDICUM. - - -Next in esteem to this is indicum,[1917] a production of India, being -a slime[1918] which adheres to the scum upon the reeds there. When -powdered, it is black in appearance, but when diluted in water it -yields a marvellous combination of purple and cæruleum. There is -another[1919] kind, also, which floats upon the surface of the pans in -the purple dye-houses, being the scum which rises upon the purple dye. -Persons who adulterate it, stain pigeons’ dung with genuine indicum, or -else colour Selinusian[1920] earth, or anularian[1921] chalk with woad. - -The proper way of testing indicum is by laying it on hot coals, that -which is genuine producing a fine purple flame, and emitting a smell -like that of sea-water while it smokes: hence it is that some are of -opinion that it is gathered from the rocks on the sea-shore. The price -of indicum is twenty denarii per pound. Used medicinally, it alleviates -cold shiverings and defluxions, and acts as a desiccative upon sores. - - - - -CHAP. 28.—ARMENIUM; ONE REMEDY. - - -Armenia sends us the colouring substance which is known to us by its -name.[1922] This also is a mineral, which admits of being dyed, like -chrysocolla,[1923] and is best when it most closely resembles that -substance, the colour being pretty much that of cæruleum. In former -times it was sold at thirty sesterces per pound; but there has been -found of late in the Spanish provinces a sand which admits of a similar -preparation, and consequently armenium has come to be sold so low as -at six denarii per pound. It differs from cæruleum in a certain degree -of whiteness, which causes the colour it yields to be thinner in -comparison. The only use made of it in medicine is for the purpose of -giving nourishment to the hair, that of the eyelids in particular. - - - - -CHAP. 29.—APPIANUM. - - -There are also two colours of very inferior quality, which have -been recently discovered. One of these is the green known as -“appianum,”[1924] a fair imitation of chrysocolla; just as though, we -had not had to mention sufficient of these counterfeits already. This -colour, too, is prepared from a green chalk, the usual price of it -being one sesterce per pound. - - - - -CHAP. 30.—ANULARIAN WHITE. - - -The other colour is that known as “anularian[1925] white;” being used -for giving a brilliant whiteness to the figures of females.[1926] This, -too, is prepared from a kind of chalk, combined with the glassy paste -which the lower classes wear in their rings:[1927] hence it is, that it -has the name “anulare.” - - - - -CHAP. 31. (7.)—WHICH COLOURS DO NOT ADMIT OF BEING LAID ON A WET -COATING. - - -Those among the colours which require a dry, cretaceous, coating,[1928] -and refuse to adhere to a wet surface, are purpurissum, indicum, -cæruleum,[1929] melinum, orpiment, appianum, and ceruse. Wax, -too, is stained with all these colouring substances for encaustic -painting;[1930] a process which does not admit of being applied to -walls, but is in common use[1931] by way of ornament for ships of -war, and, indeed, merchant-ships at the present day. As we go so far -as to paint these vehicles of danger, no one can be surprised if we -paint our funeral piles as well, or if we have our gladiators conveyed -in handsome carriages to the scene of death, or, at all events, of -carnage. When we only contemplate this extensive variety of colours, we -cannot but admire the ingenuity displayed by the men of former days. - - - - -CHAP. 32.—WHAT COLOURS WERE USED BY THE ANCIENTS IN PAINTING. - - -It was with four colours only,[1932] that Apelles,[1933] Echion, -Melanthius, and Nicomachus, those most illustrous painters, executed -their immortal works; melinum[1934] for the white, Attic sil[1935] -for the yellow, Pontic sinopis for the red, and atramentum for the -black;[1936] and yet a single picture of theirs has sold before now -for the treasures of whole cities. But at the present day, when purple -is employed for colouring walls even, and when India sends to us the -slime[1937] of her rivers, and the corrupt blood of her dragons[1938] -and her elephants, there is no such thing as a picture of high quality -produced. Everything, in fact, was superior at a time when the -resources of art were so much fewer than they now are. Yes, so it is; -and the reason is, as we have already stated,[1939] that it is the -material, and not the efforts of genius, that is now the object of -research. - - - - -CHAP. 33.—AT WHAT TIME COMBATS OF GLADIATORS WERE FIRST PAINTED AND -PUBLICLY EXHIBITED. - - -One folly, too, of this age of ours, in reference to painting, I must -not omit. The Emperor Nero ordered a painting of himself to be executed -upon canvass, of colossal proportions, one hundred and twenty feet -in height; a thing till then unknown.[1940] This picture was just -completed when it was burnt by lightning, with the greater part of the -gardens of Maius, in which it was exhibited. - -A freedman of the same prince, on the occasion of his exhibiting a show -of gladiators at Antium, had the public porticos hung, as everybody -knows, with paintings, in which were represented genuine portraits of -the gladiators and all the other assistants. Indeed, at this place, -there has been a very prevailing taste for paintings for many ages -past. C. Terentius Lucanus was the first who had combats of gladiators -painted for public exhibition: in honour of his grandfather, who had -adopted him, he provided thirty pairs of gladiators in the Forum, for -three consecutive days, and exhibited a painting of their combats in -the Grove of Diana.[1941] - - - - -CHAP. 34. (8.)—THE AGE OF PAINTING; WITH THE NAMES OF THE MORE -CELEBRATED WORKS AND ARTISTS, FOUR HUNDRED AND FIVE IN NUMBER. - - -I shall now proceed to enumerate, as briefly as possible, the -more eminent among the painters; it not being consistent with the -plan of this work to go into any great lengths of detail. It must -suffice therefore, in some cases, to name the artist in a cursory -manner only, and with reference to the account given of others; with -the exception, of course, of the more famous productions of the -pictorial art, whether still in existence or now lost, all of which -it will be only right to take some notice of. In this department, -the ordinary exactness of the Greeks has been somewhat inconsistent, -in placing the painters so many Olympiads after the statuaries and -toreutic[1942] artists, and the very first of them so late as the -ninetieth Olympiad; seeing that Phidias himself is said to have been -originally a painter, and that there was a shield at Athens which had -been painted by him; in addition to which, it is universally agreed -that in the eighty-third Olympiad, his brother Panænus[1943] painted, -at Elis,[1944] the interior of the shield of Minerva, which had been -executed by Colotes,[1945] a disciple of Phidias and his assistant in -the statue of the Olympian Jupiter.[1946] And then besides, is it not -equally admitted that Candaules, the last Lydian king of the race of -the Heraclidæ, very generally known also by the name of Myrsilus, paid -its weight in gold for a picture by the painter Bularchus,[1947] which -represented the battle fought by him with the Magnetes? so great was -the estimation in which the art was already held. This circumstance -must of necessity have happened about the period of our Romulus; for -it was in the eighteenth Olympiad that Candaules perished, or, as some -writers say, in the same year as the death of Romulus: a thing which -clearly demonstrates that even at that early period the art had already -become famous, and had arrived at a state of great perfection. - -If, then, we are bound to admit this conclusion, it must be equally -evident that the commencement of the art is of much earlier date, and -that those artists who painted in monochrome,[1948] and whose dates -have not been handed down to us, must have flourished at even an -anterior period; Hygiænon, namely, Dinias, Charmadas,[1949] Eumarus, of -Athens, the first who distinguished the sexes[1950] in painting, and -attempted to imitate every kind of figure; and Cimon[1951] of Cleonæ, -who improved upon the inventions of Eumarus. - -It was this Cimon, too, who first invented foreshortenings,[1952] or in -other words, oblique views of the figure, and who first learned to vary -the features by representing them in the various attitudes of looking -backwards, upwards, or downwards. It was he, too, who first marked the -articulations of the limbs, indicated the veins, and gave the natural -folds and sinuosities to drapery. Panænus, too, the brother of Phidias, -even executed a painting[1953] of the battle fought by the Athenians -with the Persians at Marathon: so common, indeed, had the employment of -colours become, and to such a state of perfection had the art arrived, -that he was able to represent, it is said, the portraits of the -various generals who commanded at that battle, Miltiades, Callimachus, -and Cynægirus, on the side of the Athenians, and, on that of the -barbarians, Datis and Artaphernes. - - - - -CHAP. 35. (9.)—THE FIRST CONTEST FOR EXCELLENCE IN THE PICTORIAL ART. - - -And not only this, but, during the time that Panænus flourished, -there were contests in the pictorial art instituted at Corinth and -Delphi. On the first occasion, Panænus himself entered the lists, -at the Pythian Games, with Timagoras of Chalcis, by whom he was -defeated; a circumstance which is recorded in some ancient lines by -Timagoras himself, and an undoubted proof that the chroniclers are in -error as to the date of the origin of painting. After these, and yet -before the ninetieth Olympiad, there were other celebrated painters, -Polygnotus of Thasos,[1954] for instance, who was the first to paint -females in transparent drapery, and to represent the head covered with -a parti-coloured head-dress. He, too, was the first to contribute -many other improvements to the art of painting, opening the mouth, -for example, showing the teeth, and throwing expression into the -countenance, in place of the ancient rigidity of the features. - -There is a picture by this artist in the Portico[1955] of Pompeius, -before the Curia that was built by him; with reference to which, there -is some doubt whether the man represented with a shield is in the act -of ascending or descending. He also embellished the Temple[1956] at -Delphi, and at Athens the Portico known as the Pœcile;[1957] at which -last he worked gratuitously, in conjunction with Micon,[1958] who -received pay for his labours. Indeed Polygnotus was held in the higher -esteem of the two; for the Amphictyons,[1959] who form the general -Council of Greece, decreed that he should have his lodging furnished -him at the public expense. - -There was also another Micon, distinguished from the first Micon by -the surname of “the younger,” and whose daughter Timarete[1960] also -practised the art of painting. - - - - -CHAP. 36.—ARTISTS WHO PAINTED WITH THE PENCIL. - - -In the ninetieth Olympiad lived Aglaophon,[1961] Cephisodorus, Erillus, -and Evenor, the father of Parrhasius, one of the greatest of painters, -and of whom we shall have to speak when we come to the period at which -he flourished. All these were artists of note, but not sufficiently -so to detain us by any further details, in our haste to arrive at the -luminaries of the art; first among whom shone Apollodorus of Athens, -in the ninety-third Olympiad. He was the first to paint objects as -they really appeared; the first too, we may justly say, to confer -glory[1962] by the aid of the pencil.[1963] Of this artist there is a -Priest in Adoration, and an Ajax struck by Lightning, a work to be seen -at Pergamus at the present day: before him, there is no painting of any -artist now to be seen which has the power of rivetting the eye. - -The gates of art being now thrown open by Apollodorus, Zeuxis of -Heraclea[1964] entered upon the scene, in the fourth year of the -ninety-fifth Olympiad, destined to lead the pencil—for it is of the -pencil that we are still speaking—a pencil for which there was nothing -too arduous, to a very high pitch of glory. By some writers he is -erroneously placed in the eighty-ninth Olympiad, a date that must of -necessity be reserved for Demophilus of Himera and Neseus of Thasos, -of one of whom, it is uncertain which, Zeuxis was the pupil. It was in -reference to him that Apollodorus, above-mentioned, wrote a verse to -the effect, that Zeuxis had stolen the art from others and had taken -it all to himself.[1965] Zeuxis also acquired such a vast amount of -wealth, that, in a spirit of ostentation, he went so far as to parade -himself at Olympia with his name embroidered on the checked pattern of -his garments in letters of gold. At a later period, he came to the -determination to give away his works, there being no price high enough -to pay for them, he said. Thus, for instance, he gave an Alcmena to the -people of Agrigentum, and a Pan to Archelaüs.[1966] He also painted a -Penelope, in which the peculiar character of that matron appears to be -delineated to the very life; and a figure of an athlete, with which -he was so highly pleased, that he wrote beneath it the line which has -since become so famous, to the effect that it would be easier to find -fault with him than to imitate him.[1967] His Jupiter seated on the -throne, with the other Deities standing around him, is a magnificent -production: the same, too, with his Infant Hercules strangling the -Dragons, in presence of Amphitryon and his mother Alcmena, who is -struck with horror. Still, however, Zeuxis is generally censured for -making the heads and articulations of his figures out of proportion. -And yet, so scrupulously careful was he, that on one occasion, when he -was about to execute a painting for the people of Agrigentum,[1968] to -be consecrated in the Temple of the Lacinian Juno there, he had the -young maidens of the place stripped for examination, and selected five -of them, in order to adopt in his picture the most commendable points -in the form of each. He also painted some monochromes in white.[1969] - -The contemporaries and rivals of Zeuxis were Timanthes, Androcydes, -Eupompus, and Parrhasius. (10.) This last, it is said, entered into a -pictorial contest with Zeuxis, who represented some grapes, painted so -naturally that the birds flew towards the spot where the picture was -exhibited. Parrhasius, on the other hand, exhibited a curtain, drawn -with such singular truthfulness, that Zeuxis, elated with the judgment -which had been passed upon his work by the birds, haughtily demanded -that the curtain should be drawn aside to let the picture be seen. -Upon finding his mistake, with a great degree of ingenuous candour he -admitted that he had been surpassed, for that whereas he himself had -only deceived the birds, Parrhasius had deceived him, an artist. - -There is a story, too, that at a later period, Zeuxis having painted -a child carrying grapes, the birds came to peck at them; upon which, -with a similar degree of candour, he expressed himself vexed with his -work, and exclaimed—“I have surely painted the grapes better than the -child, for if I had fully succeeded in the last, the birds would have -been in fear of it.” Zeuxis executed some figures also in clay,[1970] -the only works of art that were left behind at Ambracia, when Fulvius -Nobilior[1971] transported the Muses from that city to Rome. There is -at Rome a Helena by Zeuxis, in the Porticos of Philippus,[1972] and a -Marsyas Bound, in the Temple of Concord[1973] there. - -Parrhasius of Ephesus also contributed greatly to the progress of -painting, being the first to give symmetry to his figures, the first -to give play and expression to the features, elegance to the hair, -and gracefulness to the mouth: indeed, for contour, it is universally -admitted by artists that he bore away the palm. This, in painting, is -the very highest point of skill. To paint substantial bodies and the -interior of objects is a great thing, no doubt, but at the same time -it is a point in which many have excelled: but to make the extreme -outline of the figure, to give the finishing touches to the painting -in rounding off the contour, this is a point of success in the art -which is but rarely attained. For the extreme outline, to be properly -executed, requires to be nicely rounded, and so to terminate as to -prove the existence of something more behind it, and thereby disclose -that which it also serves to hide. - -Such is the merit conceded to Parrhasius by Antigonus[1974] and -Xenocrates,[1975] who have written on the art of painting; and in this -as well as in other points, not only do they admit his excellence, -but enlarge upon it in terms of the highest commendation. There are -many pen sketches by him still in existence, both upon panel and on -parchment, from the study of which, even artists, it is said, may -greatly profit. - -Notwithstanding these points of excellence, however, Parrhasius seems -comparatively inferior to himself in giving the proper expression to -the middle of the body. In his allegorical picture of the People of -Athens, he has displayed singular ingenuity in the treatment of his -subject; for in representing it, he had to depict it as at once fickle, -choleric, unjust, and versatile; while, again, he had equally to show -its attributes of implacability[1976] and clemency, compassionateness -and pride, loftiness and humility, fierceness and timidity—and all -these at once. He painted a Theseus also, which was formerly in the -Capitol at Rome, a Naval Commander[1977] wearing a cuirass, and, in one -picture, now at Rhodes, figures of Meleager, Hercules, and Perseus. -This last painting, though it has been thrice struck by lightning, -has escaped being effaced, a circumstance which tends to augment the -admiration which it naturally excites. He painted an Archigallus[1978] -also, a picture which the Emperor Tiberius greatly admired. According -to Deculo,[1979] that prince had it shut up in his chamber, the price -at which it was valued being six hundred thousand sesterces. - -Parrhasius also painted a Thracian Nurse, with an Infant in her arms, a -Philiscus,[1980] a Father Liber[1981] attended by Virtue, Two Children, -in which we see pourtrayed the careless simplicity of childhood, and -a Priest attended by a Boy, with a censer and chaplet. There are also -two most noble pictures by him; one of which represents a Runner[1982] -contending for the prize, completely armed, so naturally depicted that -he has all the appearance of sweating. In the other we see the Runner -taking off his armour, and can fancy that we hear him panting aloud -for breath. His Æneas, Castor, and Pollux, all represented in the same -picture, are highly praised; his Telephus also, and his Achilles, -Agamemnon, and Ulysses. - -Parrhasius was a most prolific artist, but at the same time there -was no one who enjoyed the glory conferred upon him by his talent -with greater insolence and arrogance. It was in this spirit, that -he went so far as to assume certain surnames, and to call himself -“Habrodiætus;”[1983] while in some other verses he declared himself -to be the “prince of painters,” and asserted that in him the art had -arrived at perfection. But above all things, it was a boast with him -that he had sprung from the lineage of Apollo, and that he had painted -his Hercules, a picture now at Lindos, just as he had often seen him -in his sleep. It was in this spirit, too, that upon being defeated by -Timanthes, at Samos, by a great majority of votes, the subject of the -picture being Ajax and the Award of the Arms,[1984] he declared, in the -name of his hero, that he felt himself quite disgraced on thus seeing -himself a second time defeated by an unworthy opponent. He painted also -some smaller pictures of an immodest nature, indulging his leisure in -such prurient fancies as these.[1985] - -As to Timanthes,[1986] he was an artist highly gifted with genius, -and loud have some of the orators[1987] been in their commendations -of his Iphigenia, represented as she stands at the altar awaiting her -doom. Upon the countenance of all present, that of her uncle[1988] in -particular, grief was depicted; but having already exhausted all the -characteristic features of sorrow, the artist adopted the device of -veiling the features of the victim’s father,[1989] finding himself -unable adequately to give expression to his feelings. There are also -some other proofs of his genius, a Sleeping Cyclops, for instance, -which he has painted upon a small panel; but, being desirous to convey -an idea of his gigantic stature, he has painted some Satyrs near him -measuring his thumb with a thyrsus. Indeed, Timanthes is the only one -among the artists in whose works there is always something more implied -by the pencil than is expressed, and whose execution, though of the -very highest quality, is always surpassed by the inventiveness of his -genius. He has also painted the figure of a Hero, a master-piece of -skill, in which he has carried the art to the very highest pitch of -perfection, in the delineation of the warrior: this last-mentioned -work is now at Rome, in the Temple of Pence.[1990] - -It was at this period, too, that Euxinidas had for his pupil -Aristides,[1991] who became a most illustrious artist; and that -Eupompus instructed Pamphilus, who afterwards became the instructor of -Apelles. There is by Eupompus, a Victor in a gymnastic contest, holding -a palm. So high was the reputation of this artist, that he established -a school of painting, and so divided the art into three styles; -whereas till then there had been but two, known respectively as the -Helladic[1992] and the Asiatic. In honour of him, a native of Sicyon by -birth, the Helladic school was divided into two, and from this period -there were three distinct styles recognized, the Ionic, the Sicyonian, -and the Attic. - -We have, by Pamphilus,[1993] a picture representing the Alliance and -the Battle that was fought at Phlius;[1994] the Victory[1995] also -that was gained by the Athenians, and a representation of Ulysses in -his ship. He was a Macedonian by birth, but was the first painter who -was also skilled in all the other sciences, arithmetic and geometry -more particularly, without the aid of which he maintained that the -pictorial art could not attain perfection. He gave instruction to no -one for a smaller sum than one talent, at the rate of five hundred -denarii per annum,[1996] and this fee both Apelles and Melanthius -paid. It was through his influence that, first at Sicyon, and then -throughout the whole of Greece, all children of free birth were taught -the graphic[1997] art, or in other words, the art of depicting upon -boxwood, before all others; in consequence of which this came to be -looked upon as the first step in the liberal arts. It is the fact, -however, that this art has always been held in high estimation, and -cultivated by persons of free birth, and that, at a more recent period, -men of rank even began to pursue it; it having always been forbidden -that slaves should receive instruction in it. Hence it is, that neither -in painting nor in the toreutic[1998] art has there been any celebrated -work executed by a slave. - -In the hundred and seventh Olympiad, flourished Aëtion and -Therimachus.[1999] By the former we have some fine pictures; a Father -Liber,[2000] Tragedy and Comedy, Semiramis from the rank of a slave -elevated to the throne, an Old Woman bearing torches, and a New-made -Bride, remarkable for the air of modesty with which she is pourtrayed. - -But it was Apelles[2001] of Cos, in the hundred and twelfth Olympiad, -who surpassed all the other painters who either preceded or succeeded -him. Single-handed, he contributed more to painting than all the others -together, and even went so far as to publish some treatises on the -principles of the art. The great point of artistic merit with him was -his singular charm of gracefulness,[2002] and this too, though the -greatest of painters were his contemporaries. In admiring their works -and bestowing high eulogiums upon them, he used to say that there -was still wanting in them that ideal of beauty[2003] so peculiar to -himself, and known to the Greeks as “Charis;”[2004] others, he said, -had acquired all the other requisites of perfection, but in this one -point he himself had no equal. He also asserted his claim to another -great point of merit: admiring a picture by Protogenes, which bore -evident marks of unbounded laboriousness and the most minute finish, -he remarked that in every respect Protogenes was fully his equal, or -perhaps his superior, except in this, that he himself knew when to -take his hand off a picture—a memorable lesson, which teaches us that -overcarefulness may be productive of bad results. His candour too, was -equal to his talent; he acknowledged the superiority of Melanthius in -his grouping, and of Asclepiodorus in the niceness of his measurements, -or, in other words, the distances that ought to be left between the -objects represented. - -A circumstance that happened to him in connection with Protogenes -is worthy of notice. The latter was living at Rhodes, when Apelles -disembarked there, desirous of seeing the works of a man whom he had -hitherto only known by reputation. Accordingly, he repaired at once -to the studio; Protogenes was not at home, but there happened to be a -large panel upon the easel ready for painting, with an old woman who -was left in charge. To his enquiries she made answer, that Protogenes -was not at home, and then asked whom she should name as the visitor. -“Here he is,” was the reply of Apelles, and seizing a brush, he traced -with colour upon the panel an outline of a singularly minute fineness. -Upon his return, the old woman mentioned to Protogenes what had -happened. The artist, it is said, upon remarking the delicacy of the -touch, instantly exclaimed that Apelles must have been the visitor, for -that no other person was capable of executing anything so exquisitely -perfect. So saying, he traced within the same outline a still finer -outline, but with another colour, and then took his departure, with -instructions to the woman to show it to the stranger, if he returned, -and to let him know that this was the person whom he had come to see. -It happened as he anticipated; Apelles returned, and vexed at finding -himself thus surpassed, he took up another colour and split[2005] -both of the outlines, leaving no possibility of anything finer being -executed. Upon seeing this, Protogenes admitted that he was defeated, -and at once flew to the harbour to look for his guest. He thought -proper, too, to transmit the panel to posterity, just as it was, and it -always continued to be held in the highest admiration by all, artists -in particular. I am told that it was burnt in the first fire which -took place at Cæsar’s palace on the Palatine Hill; but in former times -I have often stopped to admire it. Upon its vast surface it contained -nothing whatever except the three outlines, so remarkably fine as to -escape the sight: among the most elaborate works of numerous other -artists it had all the appearance of a blank space; and yet by that -very fact it attracted the notice of every one, and was held in higher -estimation than any other painting there. - -It was a custom with Apelles, to which he most tenaciously adhered, -never to let any day pass, however busy he might be, without exercising -himself by tracing some outline or other; a practice which has now -passed into a proverb.[2006] It was also a practice with him, when -he had completed a work, to exhibit it to the view of the passers-by -in some exposed place;[2007] while he himself, concealed behind the -picture, would listen to the criticisms that were passed upon it; it -being his opinion that the judgment of the public was preferable to -his own, as being the more discerning of the two. It was under these -circumstances, they say, that he was censured by a shoemaker for having -represented the shoes with one shoe-string too little. The next day, -the shoemaker, quite proud at seeing the former error corrected, thanks -to his advice, began to criticize the leg; upon which Apelles, full of -indignation, popped his head out, and reminded him that a shoemaker -should give no opinion beyond the shoes, a piece of advice which has -equally passed into a proverbial saying.[2008] In fact, Apelles was -a person of great amenity of manners, a circumstance which rendered -him particularly agreeable to Alexander the Great, who would often -come to his studio. He had forbidden himself, by public edict, as -already stated,[2009] to be represented by any other artist. On one -occasion, however, when the prince was in his studio, talking a great -deal about painting without knowing anything about it, Apelles quietly -begged that he would quit the subject, telling him that he would -get laughed at by the boys who were there grinding the colours: so -great was the influence which he rightfully possessed over a monarch, -who was otherwise of an irascible temperament. And yet, irascible as -he was, Alexander conferred upon him a very signal mark of the high -estimation in which he held him; for having, in his admiration of her -extraordinary beauty, engaged Apelles to paint Pancaste undraped,[2010] -the most beloved of all his concubines, the artist while so engaged, -fell in love with her; upon which, Alexander, perceiving this to be -the case, made him a present of her, thus showing himself, though a -great king in courage, a still greater one in self-command, this action -redounding no less to his honour than any of his victories. For in thus -conquering himself, not only did he sacrifice his passions in favour -of the artist, but even his affections as well; uninfluenced, too, by -the feelings which must have possessed his favourite in thus passing at -once from the arms of a monarch to those of a painter. Some persons are -of opinion that Pancaste was the model of Apelles in his painting of -Venus Anadyomene.[2011] - -It was Apelles too, who, courteous even to his rivals, first -established the reputation of Protogenes at Rhodes. Held as he was -in little estimation by his own fellow-countrymen, a thing that -generally[2012] is the case, Apelles enquired of him what price he -set upon certain finished works of his, which he had on hand. Upon -Protogenes mentioning some very trifling sum or other, Apelles made -him an offer of fifty talents, and then circulated a report that he -was buying these works in order to sell them as his own. By this -contrivance, he aroused the Rhodians to a better appreciation of the -merits of their artist, and only consented to leave the pictures with -them upon their offering a still larger price. - -He painted portraits, too, so exactly to the life, that a fact with -which we are made acquainted by the writings of Apion the grammarian -seems altogether incredible. One of those persons, he says, who -divine events by the traits of the features, and are known as -“metoposcopi,”[2013] was enabled, by an examination of his portraits, -to tell the year of their death, whether past or future, of each person -represented. Apelles had been on bad terms with Ptolemæus in former -times, when they formed part of the suite of Alexander. After Ptolemæus -had become king of Egypt, it so happened that Apelles was driven by -the violence of a tempest to Alexandria. Upon this, some of his rivals -fraudulently suborned a jester, who was attached to the court, to carry -him an invitation to dine with the king. Accordingly, Apelles attended; -upon which Ptolemæus was highly indignant, and, summoning before him -his stewards[2014] of the household, requested that the artist would -point out the one that had given him the invitation. Thus challenged, -Apelles seized a piece of quenched charcoal that lay in the fire-place, -and traced a likeness upon the wall, with such exactness, that the -king, the moment he began it, recognized the features as those of the -jester. He also painted a portrait of King Antigonus;[2015] and as -that monarch was blind of one eye, he invented a method of concealing -the defect. With this object, he painted him in profile, in order that -what in reality was wanting to the person might have the semblance of -being wanting to the picture rather, he making it his care to show that -side of the face only which he could show without any defect. Among his -works, too, there are some figures representing persons at the point of -death; but it is not easy to say which of his productions are of the -highest order of excellence. - -His Venus Rising from the Sea, known as the Venus Anadyomene,[2016] was -consecrated by the late Emperor Augustus in the Temple[2017] of his -father[2018] Cæsar; a work which has been celebrated in certain Greek -lines,[2019] which, though they have outlived it, have perpetuated its -fame.[2020] The lower part of the picture having become damaged, no -one could be found to repair it; and thus did the very injury which -the picture had sustained, redound to the glory of the artist. Time, -however, and damp at last effaced the painting, and Nero, in his reign, -had it replaced by a copy, painted by the hand of Dorotheus.[2021] -Apelles also commenced another Venus for the people of Cos,[2022] -which would have outshone even the former one; but death invidiously -prevented its completion, nor could any one be found to complete the -work in conformity with the sketches of the outline. He painted also, -in the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, Alexander the Great wielding the -Thunderbolts, a picture for which he received twenty talents of gold. -The fingers have all the appearance of projecting from the surface, -and the lightning seems to be darting from the picture. And then, too, -let the reader bear in mind that all these works were executed by the -aid of four[2023] colours only. The price paid in golden coin for this -picture was ascertained by weight,[2024] there being no specific sum -agreed upon. - -He also painted a Procession of the Megabyzus,[2025] the priest of -Diana at Ephesus; and a Clitus[2026] on Horseback, hastening to the -combat, his Armour-bearer handing him his helmet at his command. -How many times he painted Alexander and Philip, it would be quite -superfluous to attempt to enumerate. At Samos, there is a Habron[2027] -by him, that is greatly admired; at Rhodes a Menander,[2028] king -of Caria, and an Ancæus;[2029] at Alexandria, a Gorgosthenes, the -Tragedian; and at Rome, a Castor and Pollux, with figures of Victory -and Alexander the Great, and an emblematical figure of War with her -hands tied behind her, and Alexander seated in a triumphal car; both -of which pictures the late Emperor Augustus, with a great degree of -moderation[2030] and good taste, consecrated in the most frequented -parts of his Forum: the Emperor Claudius, however, thought it advisable -to efface the head of Alexander in both pictures, and substitute -likenesses of his predecessor Augustus. It is by his hand too, it is -generally supposed, that the Hercules, with the face averted, now in -the Temple of Anna,[2031] was painted; a picture in which, one of the -greatest difficulties in the art, the face, though hidden, may be -said to be seen rather than left to the imagination. He also painted -a figure of a naked[2032] Hero,[2033] a picture in which he has -challenged Nature herself. - -There exists too, or did exist, a Horse that was painted by him for a -pictorial contest; as to the merits of which, Apelles appealed from -the judgment of his fellow-men to that of the dumb quadrupeds. For, -finding that by their intrigues his rivals were likely to get the -better of him, he had some horses brought, and the picture of each -artist successively shown to them. Accordingly, it was only at the -sight of the horse painted by Apelles that they began to neigh; a -thing that has always been the case since, whenever this test of his -artistic skill has been employed. He also painted a Neoptolemus[2034] -on horse-back, fighting with the Persians; an Archeläus,[2035] with his -Wife and Daughter; and an Antigonus on foot, with a cuirass on, and -his horse led by his side. Connoisseurs in the art give the preference, -before all other works of his, to his paintings of King Archeläus on -horseback, and of Diana in the midst of a throng of Virgins performing -a sacrifice; a work in which he would appear to have surpassed the -lines[2036] of Homer descriptive of the same subject. He also portrayed -some things, which in reality do not admit of being portrayed—thunder, -lightning, and thunderbolts, in pictures which are known by the -respective names of Bronte, Astrape, and Ceraunobolia. - -His inventions, too, in the art of painting, have been highly -serviceable to others; but one thing there was in which no one could -imitate him. When his works were finished, he used to cover them -with a black varnish, of such remarkable thinness, that while by the -reflection it gave more vivacity to the colours, and preserved them -from the contact of dust and dirt, its existence could only be detected -by a person when close enough to touch it.[2037] In addition to this, -there was also this other great advantage attending it: the brightness -of the colours was softened thereby, and harmonized to the sight, -looking as though they had been viewed from a distance, and through a -medium of specular-stone;[2038] the contrivance, by some indescribable -means, giving a sombreness to colours which would otherwise have been -too florid. - -One of the contemporaries of Apelles was Aristides[2039] of Thebes; the -first of all the painters to give full expression to the mind[2040] -and passions of man, known to the Greeks as ἤθη, as well -as to the mental perturbations which we experience: he was somewhat -harsh, however, in his colours. There is a picture by him of a Captured -City, in which is represented an infant crawling toward the breast of -its wounded mother, who, though at the point of death, has all the -appearance of being aware of it, and of being in dread lest the child -should suck blood in place of milk from her exhausted breast: this -picture Alexander the Great ordered to be transferred to Pella, his -native place. Aristides also painted a Battle with the Persians, a -picture which contained one hundred figures, for each of which he was -paid at the rate of ten minæ by Mnason, the tyrant of Elatea.[2041] He -also painted Chariots with four horses in full career; a Suppliant, -which almost speaks, Huntsmen with game; Leontion, the mistress of -Epicurus; the Anapauomene,[2042] a damsel pining to death from love -for her brother; a Father Liber[2043] also, and an Artamene, two -fine pictures now to be seen in the Temple of Ceres[2044] at Rome; a -Tragedian and a Child, in the Temple of Apollo,[2045] a picture which -has lost its beauty, owing to the unskilfulness of the painter to -whom M. Junius, the prætor, entrusted the cleaning of it, about the -period of the Apollinarian Games.[2046] There was also to be seen, in -the Temple of Faith, in the Capitol, a picture of his, representing -an Aged Man giving instructions to a Child on the lyre. He executed -also a painting of an Invalid, upon which endless encomiums have been -lavished. Indeed, so great was the excellence of this artist, that King -Attalus, it is said, purchased one picture of his at the price of one -hundred talents. - -At the same period[2047] flourished Protogenes, as already stated. -He was a native of Caunus,[2048] a place held in subjection by the -Rhodians. Great poverty in his early days, and extreme application to -his art, were the causes of his comparative unproductiveness. It is -not known with certainty from whom he received his instruction in the -art: indeed some say that he was only a ship-decorator down to his -fiftieth year; a proof of which, it is asserted, is the fact, that in -decorating the Propylæum[2049] of the Temple of Minerva, situate in one -of the most celebrated spots in Athens, where he has painted the fine -picture[2050] of Paralus and Hammonias, known by some as the Nausicaa, -he has added in the side pieces of the picture, by painters called -“parerga,” several small ships of war;[2051] wishing thereby to show -in what department that skill had first manifested itself which had -thus reached the citadel of Athens, the scene of his glory. Of all his -compositions, however, the palm has been awarded to his Ialysus,[2052] -now at Rome, consecrated in the Temple of Peace there. So long as he -was at work upon it, he lived, it is said, upon nothing but soaked -lupines; by which means he at once appeased both hunger and thirst, and -avoided all risk of blunting his perception by too delicate a diet. -In order to protect this picture against the effects of ill-usage and -old age, he painted it over four times,[2053] so that when an upper -coat might fail, there would be an under one to succeed it. There is -in this picture the figure of a dog, which was completed in a very -remarkable manner, inasmuch as accident had an equal share with design -in the execution of it. The painter was of opinion that he had not -given the proper expression to the foam at the mouth of the animal, -panting for breath, as it was represented; while, with all other parts -of the picture, a thing extremely difficult with him, he was perfectly -satisfied. The thing that displeased him was, the evident traces of art -in the execution of it, touches which did not admit of any diminution, -and yet had all the appearance of being too laboured, the effect -produced being far removed from his conception of the reality: the -foam, in fact, bore the marks of being painted, and not of being the -natural secretion of the animal’s mouth. Vexed and tormented by this -dilemma, it being his wish to depict truth itself, and not something -that only bore a semblance of truth, he effaced it again and again, -changed his pencil for another, and yet by no possibility could satisfy -himself. At last, quite out of temper with an art, which, in spite -of him, would still obtrude itself, he dashed his sponge against the -vexatious spot; when behold! the sponge replaced the colours that it -had just removed, exactly in accordance with his utmost wishes, and -thus did chance represent Nature in a painting. - -Following his example, Nealces,[2054] it is said, succeeded in -representing the foam at a horse’s mouth; for on one occasion, when -engaged in painting a man holding in a pair of horses and soothing them -with his voice,[2055] he also dashed his sponge against the picture, -with the view of producing a like effect. - -It was on account of this Ialysus, which he was apprehensive of -destroying, that King Demetrius[2056] forbore to set fire to the only -side of the city of Rhodes by which it was capable of being taken; -and thus, in his anxiety to spare a picture, did he lose his only -opportunity of gaining a victory. The dwelling of Protogenes at this -period was situate in a little garden in the suburbs, or in other -words, in the midst of the camp of Demetrius. The combats that were -taking place made no difference whatever to the artist, and in no way -interrupted his proceeding with the works which he had commenced; until -at last he was summoned before the king, who enquired how he could have -the assurance thus to remain without the walls. “Because I know,” was -his answer, “that you are waging war with the Rhodians, and not with -the arts.” Upon this, the king, delighted at having the opportunity -of protecting the hand which he had thus spared, ordered a guard to -be placed at his disposal for the especial purpose of his protection. -In order, too, that he might not distract the artist’s attention by -sending for him too often, he would often go, an enemy albeit, to pay -him a visit, and, abandoning his aspirations for victory, in the midst -of arms and the battering down of walls, would attentively examine the -compositions of the painter. Even to this day, the story is still -attached to the picture which he was then engaged upon, to the effect, -that Protogenes painted it beneath the sword. It is his Satyr, known as -the “Anapauomenos;”[2057] in whose hand, to mark the sense of security -that he felt, the painter has placed a pair of pipes. - -Protogenes executed also, a Cydippe; a Tlepolemus; a portrait of -Philiscus, the tragic poet, in an attitude of meditation; an Athlete; a -portrait of King Antigonus, and one of the mother of Aristotle.[2058] -It was this philosopher too, who advised him to paint the exploits -of Alexander the Great, as being certain to be held in everlasting -remembrance. The impulse, however, of his natural disposition, combined -with a certain artistic caprice, led him in preference to adopt the -various subjects which have just been mentioned. His last works were -representations of Alexander and the god Pan. He also executed some -figures in bronze, as already[2059] stated. - -At the same period also, lived Asclepiodorus,[2060] who was greatly -admired by Apelles for his proportions. The tyrant Mnason[2061] paid -him, for his picture of the Twelve Gods, at the rate of thirty minæ for -each divinity. This same Mnason also paid Theomnestus twenty minæ for -each of his Heroes. - -In addition to these, it is only proper to mention Nicomachus,[2062] -the son and disciple of Aristiæus. He painted a Rape of Proserpina, -a picture that was formerly in the Temple of Minerva in the Capitol, -above the shrine of Juventas.[2063] Another picture of his was to -be seen also in the Capitol, placed there by the Roman general -Plancus,[2064] a Victory soaring aloft in a chariot: he was the -first painter who represented Ulysses wearing the pileus.[2065] -He painted also an Apollo and Diana; the Mother[2066] of the Gods -seated on a Lion; the fine picture of the Bacchantes, with Satyrs -moving stealthily towards them; and a Scylla, now at Rome in the -Temple of Peace. No painter ever worked with greater rapidity than -Nicomachus; indeed it is said, that on one occasion having entered -into an engagement with Aristratus,[2067] the tyrant of Sicyon, to -paint within a given time the monument which he was raising to the -memory of the poet Telestis,[2068] the artist only arrived a few days -before the expiration of the term; upon which, the tyrant was so angry -that he threatened to punish him: however, in the few days that were -left, Nicomachus, to the admiration of all, completed the work, with -equal promptitude and success. Among his pupils, were his brother -Ariston, his son Aristides, and Philoxenus of Eretria, who painted -for King Cassander a picture representing one of the battles between -Alexander and Darius, a work which may bear comparison with any. He -also painted a picture in grotesque, representing Three Sileni at -their revels. Imitating the celerity of execution displayed by his -master, he introduced a more sketchy style of painting, executed in a -comparatively off-hand manner.[2069] - -To these artists Nicophanes[2070] has also been added, an elegant and -finished painter, to whom for gracefulness few can be compared, but for -a severe and tragic style far inferior to Zeuxis or Apelles. Perseus -also belongs to this period, a pupil of Apelles, who dedicated to him -his work on painting. Aristides of Thebes had for pupils his sons -Niceros and Ariston. By the latter of these artists, there is a Satyr -crowned with a chaplet and holding a goblet: two of his pupils were -Antorides and Euphranor, of the latter of whom we shall have to make -mention again.[2071] - - - - -CHAP. 37.—VARIOUS OTHER KINDS OF PAINTING. - - -We must now, however, make some mention of those artists who acquired -fame by the pencil in an inferior style of painting. Among these -was Piræicus, inferior to few of the painters in skill. I am not -sure that he did not do injustice to himself by the choice of his -subjects,[2072] seeing that, although he adopted an humble walk, he -still attained in that walk the highest reputation. His subjects were -barbers’ shops, cobblers’ stalls, jackasses, eatables, and the like, -and to these he was indebted for his epithet of “Rhyparographos.”[2073] -His paintings, however, are exquisitely pleasing, and have sold at -higher prices than the very largest works of many masters. - -On the other hand again, as Varro tells us, a single picture by -Serapio covered the whole space of the balustrades,[2074] beneath -the Old Shops,[2075] where it was exhibited. This artist was very -successful in painting stage-scenery, but was unable to depict the -human form. Dionysius,[2076] on the contrary, painted nothing but men, -and hence it was that he had the surname of “Anthropographos.”[2077] -Callicles[2078] also painted some small pictures, and Calates -executed some small works in the comic style. Both of these styles -were adopted by Antiphilus;[2079] who painted a very fine Hesione, -and a Philip and Alexander with Minerva, now in the School of the -Porticos[2080] of Octavia. In the Portico of Philippus,[2081] also, -there is a Father Liber[2082] by him; an Alexander when a child; and -an Hippolytus alarmed at the Bull, which is rushing upon him:[2083] -and in the Portico of Pompeius[2084] we have his Cadmus and Europa. On -the other hand, again, he painted a figure in a ridiculous costume, -known jocosely as the Gryllus; and hence it is that pictures of this -class[2085] are generally known as “Grylli.” Antiphilus was a native of -Egypt, and received instruction in the art from Ctesidemus.[2086] - -It would not be right to pass in silence the painter of the Temple -at Ardea,[2087] the more particularly as he was honoured with the -citizenship at that place, and with the following inscription in verse -upon one of the paintings which he executed there: - - “These paintings, worthy of this worthy place, - Temple of Juno, queen, and wife of Jove, - Plautius Marcus,[2088] from Alalia, made. - May Ardea now and ever praise him for his skill.” - -These lines are written in ancient Latin characters. - -Ludius too, who lived in the time of the late Emperor Augustus, must -not be allowed to pass without some notice; for he was the first -to introduce the fashion of covering the walls of our houses with -most pleasing landscapes, representing villas, porticos, ornamental -gardening, woods, groves, hills, fishponds, canals,[2089] rivers, -sea-shores, and anything else one could desire; varied with figures of -persons walking, sailing, or proceeding to their villas, on asses or -in carriages. Then, too, there are others to be seen fishing, fowling, -or gathering in the vintage. In some of his decorations there are -fine villas to be seen, and roads to them across the marshes, with -women making[2090] bargains to be carried across on men’s shoulders, -who move along slipping at every step and tottering beneath their -load; with numberless other subjects of a similar nature, redolent of -mirth and of the most amusing ingenuity. It was this artist, too, who -first decorated our uncovered[2091] edifices with representations of -maritime cities, a subject which produces a most pleasing effect, and -at a very trifling expense. - -But as for fame, that has been reserved solely for the artists who -have painted pictures; a thing that gives us all the more reason to -venerate the prudence displayed by the men of ancient times. For with -them, it was not the practice to decorate the walls of houses, for -the gratification of the owners only; nor did they lavish all their -resources upon a dwelling which must of necessity always remain a -fixture in one spot, and admits of no removal in case of conflagration. -Protogenes was content with a cottage in his little garden; Apelles -had no paintings on the plaster of his walls; it not being the fashion -in their day to colour the party-walls of houses from top to bottom. -With all those artists, art was ever watchful for the benefit of whole -cities only, and in those times a painter was regarded as the common -property of all. - -Shortly before the time of the late Emperor Augustus, Arellius was in -high esteem at Rome; and with fair reason, had he not profaned the art -by a disgraceful piece of profanity; for, being always in love with -some woman or other, it was his practice, in painting goddesses, to -give them the features of his mistresses; hence it is, that there were -always some figures of prostitutes to be seen in his pictures. More -recently, lived Amulius,[2092] a grave and serious personage, but a -painter in the florid style. By this artist there was a Minerva, which -had the appearance of always looking at the spectators, from whatever -point it was viewed. He only painted a few hours each day, and then -with the greatest gravity, for he always kept the toga on, even when in -the midst of his implements. The Golden Palace[2093] of Nero was the -prison-house of this artist’s productions, and hence it is that there -are so few of them to be be seen elsewhere. - -Next in repute to him were Cornelius Pinus and Attius Priscus, who -painted the Temple of Honour and that of Virtue,[2094] on their -restoration by the Emperor Vespasianus Augustus. Priscus approaches -more closely to the ancient masters. - - - - -CHAP. 38. (11.)—AN EFFECTUAL WAY OF PUTTING A STOP TO THE SINGING OF -BIRDS. - - -I must not omit here, in reference to painting, a celebrated story that -is told about Lepidus. During the Triumvirate, when he was entertained -by the magistrates of a certain place, he had lodgings given him -in a house that was wholly surrounded with trees. The next day, he -complained to them in a threatening tone, that he had been unable to -sleep for the singing of the birds there. Accordingly, they had a -dragon painted, on pieces of parchment of the greatest length that -could possibly be obtained, and surrounded the grove with it; a thing -that so terrified the birds, it is said, that they became silent at -once; and hence it was that it first became known how this object could -be attained. - - - - -CHAP. 39.—ARTISTS WHO HAVE PAINTED IN ENCAUSTICS OR WAX, WITH EITHER -THE CESTRUM OR THE PENCIL. - - -It is not agreed who was the inventor of the art of painting in wax and -in encaustic.[2095] Some think that it was a discovery of the painter -Aristides,[2096] and that it was afterwards brought to perfection -by Praxiteles: but there are encaustic paintings in existence, of a -somewhat prior date to them, those by Polygnotus,[2097] for example, -and by Nicanor and Arcesilaüs,[2098] natives of Paros. Elasippus too, -has inscribed upon a picture of his at Ægina, the word ἐνέκαεν;[2099] -a thing that he certainly could not have done, if the art of encaustic -painting had not been then invented. - - - - -CHAP. 40.—THE FIRST INVENTORS OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAINTING. THE -GREATEST DIFFICULTIES IN THE ART OF PAINTING. THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF -PAINTING. THE FIRST ARTIST THAT PAINTED CEILINGS. WHEN ARCHED ROOFS -WERE FIRST PAINTED. THE MARVELLOUS PRICE OF SOME PICTURES. - - -It is said, too, that Pamphilus,[2100] the instructor of Apelles, -not only painted in encaustic, but also instructed Pausias[2101] of -Sicyon in the art, the first who rendered himself distinguished in -this branch. Pausias was the son of Bryetes, by whom he was originally -instructed in the art of painting. He retouched also with the -pencil[2102] some walls at Thespiæ, then undergoing repair, which had -formerly been painted by Polygnotus. Upon instituting a comparison, -however, it was considered that he was greatly inferior, this kind -of painting not being in his line. It was he, too, who first thought -of painting ceilings: nor had it been the practice before his day to -use this kind of decoration for arched roofs. He painted many small -pictures also, miniatures of children more particularly; a thing which, -according to the interpretation put upon it by his rivals, was owing -to the peculiarly slow process of encaustic painting. The consequence -was, that being determined to give a memorable proof of his celerity of -execution, he completed a picture in the space of a single day, which -was thence called the “Hemeresios,”[2103] representing the portrait of -a child. - -In his youth, he was enamoured of Glycera,[2104] his fellow-townswoman, -the first inventor of chaplets; and in his rivalry of the skill -shown by her, he achieved so much success in the encaustic art, -as to reproduce the almost numberless tints displayed by flowers. -At a later period, he painted her, seated, with a chaplet on, and -thus produced one of the very finest of his pictures; known as the -“Stephaneplocos”[2105] by some, and as the “Stephanopolis”[2106] by -others; from the circumstance that Glycera had supported herself in -her poverty by selling these chaplets. A copy of this picture, usually -known as an “apographon,”[2107] was purchased by L. Lucullus at Athens, -during the festival of the Dionysia, at the price of two talents. - -Pausias also painted some large pictures, a Sacrifice of Oxen, for -instance, which used to be seen in the Portico of Pompeius. In this -painting he invented several improvements, which many artists have -since imitated, but none with the same success. Although in the picture -it was particularly his desire to give an impression of the length of -the ox, he painted it with a front view and not sideways, and still -has caused the large dimensions of the animal to be fully understood. -And then too, whereas all other painters colour in white such parts as -they wish to have the appearance of being prominent, and in black such -portions as are intended to remain in the back-ground, he has painted -the whole of the ox of a black colour, and has shown the dimensions of -the body which throws the shadow by the medium of the shadow itself; -thus evincing a wonderful degree of skill in showing relief upon a coat -painted with a single colour, and conveying an impression of uniform -solidity upon a broken ground.[2108] It was at Sicyon also that Pausias -passed his life, a city which for a long time continued to be the -native place of painting. Ultimately, all the paintings belonging to -that place were sold by public auction for the discharge of the debts -owing by the city, and were transferred to Rome in the ædileship of -Scaurus.[2109] - -Next to him, in the hundred and fourth Olympiad, Euphranor,[2110] -the Isthmian, distinguished himself far beyond all others, an artist -who has been already mentioned in our account of the statuaries. He -executed some colossal figures also, and some statues in marble, and -he chased some drinking-vessels; being studious and laborious in the -highest degree, excellent in every branch, and at all times equal -to himself. This artist seems to have been the first to represent -heroes with becoming dignity, and to have paid particular attention to -symmetry. Still, however, in the generality of instances, he has made -the body slight in proportion to the head and limbs. He composed some -treatises also upon symmetry and colours. His works are, an Equestrian -Combat;[2111] the Twelve Gods; and a Theseus; with reference to which -he remarked that the Theseus of Parrhasius had been fed upon roses, but -his own upon beef.[2112] There are also at Ephesus some famous pictures -by him; an Ulysses, in his feigned madness, yoking together an ox and -a horse; Men, in an attitude of meditation, wearing the pallium;[2113] -and a Warrior, sheathing his sword. - -At the same time, also, flourished Cydias;[2114] for whose picture of -the Argonautæ the orator Hortensius paid one hundred and forty-four -thousand sesterces, and had a shrine constructed expressly for its -reception on his estate at Tusculum.[2115] There was also Antidotus, -a pupil of Euphranor, by whom there is, at Athens, a Combatant armed -with a shield; a Wrestler, also; and a Trumpeter, a work which has been -considered a most exquisite production. - -Antidotus, as a painter, was more careful in his works than prolific, -and his colouring was of a severe style. His principal glory was -his having been the instructor of Nicias[2116] of Athens; who was a -most careful painter of female portraits, and a strict observer of -light and shade,[2117] making it his especial care that the figures -in his pictures should appear in the boldest relief. His works are, -a Nemea, which was brought from Asia to Rome by Silanus, and was -placed in the Curia, as already stated;[2118] a Father Liber,[2119] -in the Temple[2120] of Concord; a Hyacinthus,[2121] which the Emperor -Augustus was so delighted with, that he took it away with him after -the capture of Alexandria; for which reason also it was consecrated -in the Temple[2122] of Augustus by the Emperor Tiberius; and a -Danaë. At Ephesus, there is a tomb by him of a megabyzus,[2123] or -priest of the Ephesian Diana; and at Athens a representation of the -Necyomantea[2124] of Homer; which last he declined to sell to King -Attalus for sixty talents, and in preference, so rich was he, made a -present of it to his own native place. He also executed some large -pictures, among which there are a Calypso, an Io, an Andromeda, a very -fine Alexander, in the Porticos[2125] of Pompeius, and a Calypso, -seated. To this painter also there are some pictures of cattle -attributed, and in his dogs he has been remarkably successful. It -was this Nicias, with reference to whom, Praxiteles, when asked with -which of all his works in marble he was the best pleased, made answer, -“Those to which Nicias has set his hand,” so highly did he esteem the -colouring of that artist. It has not been satisfactorily ascertained -whether it is this artist or another of the same name that some writers -have placed in the hundred and twelfth Olympiad. - -With Nicias has been compared, and indeed sometimes preferred to -him, Athenion of Maronea,[2126] a pupil of Glaucion of Corinth. In -his colouring he is more sombre than Nicias, and yet, with all his -sombreness, more pleasing; so much so indeed, that in his paintings -shines forth the extensive knowledge which he possessed of the art. He -painted, in the Temple at Eleusis, a Phylarchus;[2127] and at Athens, -a family group, which has been known as the “Syngenicon;”[2128] an -Achilles also, concealed in a female dress, and Ulysses detecting him; -a group of six whole-length figures, in one picture; and, a work which -has contributed to his fame more than any other, a Groom leading a -Horse. Indeed, if he had not died young, there would have been no one -comparable to Athenion in painting. - -Heraclides, too, of Macedon, had some repute as an artist. At first -he was a painter of ships, but afterwards, on the capture of King -Perseus, he removed to Athens; where at the same period was also -Metrodorus,[2129] who was both a painter and a philosopher, and of -considerable celebrity in both branches. Hence it was, that when L. -Paulus Æmilius, after the conquest of Perseus,[2130] requested the -Athenians to send him the most esteemed philosopher for the education -of his children, and a painter to represent his triumph, they made -choice of Metrodorus, declaring that he was eminently suited for either -purpose; a thing which Paulus admitted to be the case. - -Timomachus of Byzantium, in the time of the Dictator Cæsar, painted an -Ajax[2131] and a Medea, which were placed by Cæsar in the Temple of -Venus Genetrix, having been purchased at the price of eighty talents; -the value of the Attic talent being, according to M. Varro, equivalent -to six thousand denarii. An Orestes, also by Timomachus, an Iphigenia -in Tauris, and a Lecythion, a teacher of gymnastics, are equally -praised; a Noble Family also; and Two Men clothed in the pallium,[2132] -and about to enter into conversation, the one standing, the other in -a sitting posture. It is in his picture, however of the Gorgon,[2133] -that the art appears to have favoured him most highly. - -Aristolaüs, the son and pupil of Pausias, was one of the painters in -a more severe style: there are by him an Epaminondas, a Pericles, a -Medea, a Theseus, an emblematical picture of the Athenian People, -and a Sacrifice of Oxen. Some persons, too, are pleased with the -careful style of Nicophanes,[2134] who was also a pupil of Pausias; a -carefulness, however, which only artists can appreciate, as in other -respects he was harsh in his colours, and too lavish of sil;[2135] -as in his picture, for example, of Æsculapius with his daughters, -Hygia,[2136] Ægle, and Panacea, his Jason, and his Sluggard, known as -the “Ocnos,”[2137] a man twisting a rope at one end as an ass gnaws it -at the other. As to Socrates,[2138] his pictures are, with good reason, -universally esteemed. - -Having now mentioned the principal painters in either branch,[2139] I -must not pass in silence those who occupy the next rank. Aristoclides -decorated the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Antiphilus[2140] is highly -praised for his picture of a Boy blowing a Fire, which illumines -an apartment handsomely furnished, and throws a light[2141] upon -the features of the youth; a Spinning-room, with women plying their -respective tasks; and a King Ptolemæus hunting. But his most famous -picture is his Satyr, clad in a panther’s skin, and known as the -“Aposcopeuon.”[2142] Aristophon[2143] has painted an Ancæus[2144] -wounded by the Boar, with Astypale, the sharer of his grief; and a -picture with numerous figures, representing Priam, Helena, Credulity, -Ulysses, Deiphobus, and Guile.[2145] Androbius has painted a -Scyllus[2146] cutting away the anchors of the Persian fleet: and -Artemon a Danaë, with Robbers in admiration; a Queen Stratonice;[2147] -and a Hercules and Deianira. But the finest of all this artist’s works -are those now in the buildings of Octavia; a Hercules ascending to -heaven, with the sanction of the gods, from his funeral pile upon Mount -Œta in Doris; and the story of Laomedon and his bargain[2148] with -Hercules and Neptune. Alcimachus has painted Dioxippus,[2149] who was -victorious in the pancratium at Olympia, without raising the dust; a -victory known to the Greeks as being gained “aconiti.”[2150] Cœnus -painted pedigrees.[2151] - -Ctesilochus, a pupil[2152] of Apelles, was famous for a burlesque -picture of his representing Jupiter in labour with Bacchus,[2153] with -a mitra[2154] on his head, and crying like a woman in the midst of the -goddesses, who are acting as midwives. Cleon distinguished himself by -his Cadmus; and Ctesidemus, by his Capture of Œchalia[2155] and his -Laodamia. - -Ctesicles became notorious for the insult which he offered to Queen -Stratonice;[2156] for, upon failing to meet with an honourable -reception from her, he painted her, romping with a fisherman, for -whom, according to common report, she had conceived an ardent -affection. After exhibiting this picture in the harbour at Ephesus, -he at once set sail and escaped: the queen, however, would not allow -of its removal, the likenesses of the two figures being so admirably -expressed. Cratinus,[2157] the comic writer, painted at Athens, in the -Pompeion[2158] there. - -Of Eutychides, there is a Victory guiding a chariot drawn by two -horses. Eudorus is famous for his dramatic scenery; he executed some -statues in bronze also. By Hippys there is a Neptune and Victory. -Habron painted a picture of Friendship and Concord, and several -figures of divinities; Leontiscus, an Aratus with the trophies of -victory,[2159] and a Singing-girl; Leon, a portrait of Sappho; and -Nearchus, a Venus attended by Cupids and Graces, and a Hercules, -sorrowing and repentant at the sad results of his madness.[2160] -Nealces,[2161] a remarkably ingenious and inventive artist, painted a -Venus. On one occasion, when he had to represent a naval engagement -between the Persians and Egyptians, wishing it to be understood that -it took place on the river Nilus, the waters of which are similar in -appearance to those of the sea, he employed an emblem to disclose that -which would not admit of expression by art; for he painted an ass -drinking on the shore, and a crocodile lying in wait for him.[2162] - -Œnias has painted a Family Group; Philiscus, a Painter’s Studio, with -a boy blowing the fire; Phalerion, a Scylla; Simonides, an Agatharchus -and a Mnemosyne; Simus, a youth reposing, a Fuller’s Shop, a person -celebrating the Quinquatria,[2163] and a Nemesis of great merit. By -Theorus[2164] there is a Man Anointing himself; a picture of the -Murder of Ægisthus and Clytæmnestra by Orestes; and a representation -of the Trojan War, in a series of paintings, now at Rome, in the -Porticos[2165] of Philippus: a Cassandra[2166] also, in the Temple -of Concord; a Leontium, the mistress of Epicurus, in an attitude of -meditation; and a King Demetrius.[2167] Theon[2168] has painted the -Frenzy[2169] of Orestes, and a Thamyras[2170] playing on the lyre; -Tauriscus, a Discobolus,[2171] a Clytæmnestra, a Pan in miniature, a -Polynices claiming[2172] the sovereignty, and a Capaneus.[2173] - -In speaking of these artists, I must not omit to mention one memorable -circumstance: Erigonus, who was colour-grinder to the painter Nealces, -himself made such progress in the art as to leave a very celebrated -pupil, Pasias, the brother of Ægineta, the modeller. It is also a -very singular fact, and one well deserving of remark, that the last -works of these artists, their unfinished paintings, in fact, are -held in greater admiration than their completed works; the Iris of -Aristides, for instance, the Tyndaridæ[2174] of Nicomachus, the Medea -of Timomachus,[2175] and the Venus of Apelles,[2176] already mentioned. -For in such works as these, we not only see the outline depicted, and -the very thoughts of the artist expressed, but have the composition -additionally commended to our notice by the regrets which we must -necessarily feel on finding the hand that commenced it arrested by -death. - -There are still some other artists, who, though by no means without -reputation, can only be noticed here in a summary manner: Aristocydes; -Anaxander; Aristobulus of Syria; Arcesilas,[2177] son of Tisicrates; -Corœbos, a pupil of Nicomachus; Charmantides, a pupil of Euphranor; -Dionysodorus of Colophon; Dicæogenes, a contemporary of King -Demetrius;[2178] Euthymides; Heraclides[2179] of Macedon; Milo of Soli, -a pupil of the statuary Pyromachus; Mnasitheus of Sicyon; Mnasitimus, -the son and pupil of Aristonidas;[2180] Nessus, son of Habron;[2181] -Polemon of Alexandria; Theodorus of Samos, and Stadieus, pupils of -Nicosthenes; and Xeno of Sicyon, a pupil of Neocles. - -There have been some female painters also. Timarete, the daughter -of Micon,[2182] painted a Diana at Ephesus, one of the very oldest -panel-paintings known. Irene, daughter and pupil of the artist -Cratinus,[2183] painted a figure of a girl, now at Eleusis, a Calypso, -an Aged Man, the juggler Theodorus, and Alcisthenes the dancer. -Aristarete, daughter and pupil of Nearchus, painted an Æsculapius. -Iaia of Cyzicus, who always remained single, painted at Rome, in the -youth of M. Varro, both with the brush, and with the graver,[2184] upon -ivory, her subjects being female portraits mostly. At Naples, there -is a large picture by her, the portrait of an Old Woman; as also a -portrait of herself, taken by the aid of a mirror. There was no painter -superior to her for expedition; while at the same time her artistic -skill was such, that her works sold at much higher prices than those -of the most celebrated portrait-painters of her day, Sopolis namely, -and Dionysius,[2185] with whose pictures our galleries are filled. One -Olympias painted also, but nothing is known relative to her, except -that she had Autobulus for a pupil. - - - - -CHAP. 41.—ENCAUSTIC PAINTING. - - -In ancient times there were but two methods of encaustic[2186] -painting, in wax and on ivory,[2187] with the cestrum or pointed -graver. When, however, this art came to be applied to the painting -of ships of war, a third method was adopted, that of melting the wax -colours and laying them on with a brush, while hot.[2188] Painting of -this nature,[2189] applied to vessels, will never spoil from the action -of the sun, winds, or salt water. - - - - -CHAP. 42.—THE COLOURING OF TISSUES. - - -In Egypt, too, they employ a very remarkable process for the colouring -of tissues. After pressing the material, which is white at first, they -saturate it, not with colours, but with mordents that are calculated to -absorb colour. This done, the tissues, still unchanged in appearance, -are plunged into a cauldron of boiling dye, and are removed the next -moment fully coloured. It is a singular fact, too, that although the -dye in the pan is of one uniform colour, the material when taken out of -it is of various colours, according to the nature of the mordents that -have been respectively applied to it: these colours, too, will never -wash out. Thus the dye-pan, which under ordinary circumstances, no -doubt, would have made but one colour of several, if coloured tissues -had been put into it, is here made to yield several colours from a -single dye. At the same moment that it dyes the tissues, it boils in -the colour; and it is the fact, that material which has been thus -submitted to the action of fire becomes stouter and more serviceable -for wear, than it would have been if it had not been subjected to the -process. - - - - -CHAP. 43. (12.)—THE INVENTORS OF THE ART OF MODELLING. - - -On painting we have now said enough, and more than enough; but it will -be only proper to append some accounts of the plastic art. Butades, a -potter of Sicyon, was the first who invented, at Corinth, the art of -modelling portraits in the earth which he used in his trade. It was -through his daughter that he made the discovery; who, being deeply in -love with a young man about to depart on a long journey, traced the -profile of his face, as thrown upon the wall by the light of the lamp. -Upon seeing this, her father filled in the outline, by compressing clay -upon the surface, and so made a face in relief, which he then hardened -by fire along with other articles of pottery. This model, it is said, -was preserved in the Nymphæum[2190] at Corinth, until the destruction -of that city by Mummius.[2191] Others, again, assert that the first -inventors of the plastic art were Rhœcus[2192] and Theodorus,[2193] at -Samos, a considerable period before the expulsion of the Bacchiadæ from -Corinth: and that Damaratus,[2194] on taking to flight from that place -and settling in Etruria, where he became father of Tarquinius, who was -ultimately king of the Roman people, was accompanied thither by the -modellers Euchir,[2195] Diopus, and Eugrammus, by whose agency the art -was first introduced into Italy. - -Butades first invented the method of colouring plastic compositions, by -adding red earth to the material, or else modelling them in red chalk: -he, too, was the first to make masks on the outer edges of gutter-tiles -upon the roofs of buildings; in low relief, and known as “prostypa” -at first, but afterwards in high relief, or “ectypa.” It was in these -designs,[2196] too, that the ornaments on the pediments of temples -originated; and from this invention modellers first had their name of -“plastæ.” - - - - -CHAP. 44.—WHO WAS THE FIRST TO MOULD FIGURES IN IMITATION OF THE -FEATURES OF LIVING PERSONS, OR OF STATUES. - - -The first person who expressed the human features by fitting a mould of -plaster upon the face, and then improving it by pouring melted wax into -the cast, was Lysistratus[2197] of Sicyon, brother of Lysippus, already -mentioned. It was he, in fact, who first made it his study to give a -faithful likeness; for before his time, artists only thought how to -make their portraits as handsome as possible. The same artist, too, was -the first who thought of making models for his statues; a method which -afterwards became so universally adopted, that there could be neither -figure nor statue made without its model in clay. Hence it would -appear, that the art of modelling in clay is more ancient than that of -moulding in bronze.[2198] - - - - -CHAP. 45.—THE MOST FAMOUS MODELLERS. - - -The most celebrated modellers were Damophilus and Gorgasus, who were -painters as well. These artists adorned with their works, in both -kinds, the Temple of Ceres,[2199] in the Circus Maximus at Rome; with -an inscription in Greek, which stated that the decorations on the -right-hand were the workmanship of Damophilus, and those on the left, -of Gorgasus. Varro says that, before the construction of this temple, -everything was Tuscan[2200] in the temples; and that, when the temple -was afterwards repaired, the painted coatings of the walls were cut -away in tablets and enclosed in frames, but that the figures on the -pediments were dispersed. Chalcosthenes,[2201] too,[2202] executed -at Athens some works in unbaked earth, on the spot which, from his -manufactory, has since obtained the name of “Ceramicus.”[2203] - -M. Varro states that he knew an artist at Rome, Possis by name, who -executed fruit, grapes, and fish, with such exactness, that it was -quite impossible, by only looking at them, to distinguish them from -the reality. He speaks very highly also of Arcesilaüs,[2204] who was -on terms of intimacy with Lucius Lucullus,[2205] and whose models in -plaster used to sell at a higher rate, among artists themselves, than -the works of others. He informs us, also, that it was by this modeller -that the Venus Genetrix in the Forum of Cæsar was executed, it having -been erected before completion, in the great haste that there was to -consecrate it; that the same artist had made an agreement with Lucullus -to execute a figure of Felicity, at the price of sixty thousand -sesterces, the completion of which was prevented by their death; and -that Octavius, a Roman of equestrian rank, being desirous of a model -for a mixing-bowl,[2206] Arcesilaüs made him one in plaster, at the -price of one talent. - -Varro praises Pasiteles[2207] also, who used to say, that the plastic -art was the mother of chasing, statuary, and sculpture, and who, -excellent as he was in each of these branches, never executed any work -without first modelling it. In addition to these particulars, he states -that the art of modelling was anciently cultivated in Italy, Etruria in -particular; and that Volcanius was summoned from Veii, and entrusted by -Tarquinius Priscus with making the figure of Jupiter, which he intended -to consecrate in the Capitol; that this Jupiter was made of clay, and -that hence arose the custom of painting it with minium;[2208] and that -the four-horse chariot, so often[2209] mentioned, upon the pediment -of the temple, was made of clay as well. We learn also from him, that -it was by the same artist that the Hercules was executed, which, even -to this day, is named[2210] at Rome from the material of which it is -composed. Such, in those times, were the most esteemed statues of the -gods; and small reason have we to complain of our forefathers for -worshipping such divinities as these; for in their day there was no -working of gold and silver—no, not even in the service of the gods. - - - - -CHAP. 46.—WORKS IN POTTERY. - - -Statues of this nature are still in existence at various places. At -Rome, in fact, and in our municipal towns, we still see many such -pediments of temples; wonderful too, for their workmanship, and, from -their artistic merit and long duration, more deserving of our respect -than gold, and certainly far less baneful. At the present day even, in -the midst of such wealth as we possess, we make our first libation at -the sacrifice, not from murrhine[2211] vases or vessels of crystal, but -from ladles[2212] made of earthenware. - -Bounteous beyond expression is the earth, if we only consider in -detail her various gifts. To omit all mention of the cereals, wine, -fruits, herbs, shrubs, medicaments, and metals, bounties which she has -lavished upon us, and which have already passed under our notice, her -productions in the shape of pottery alone, would more than suffice, in -their variety, to satisfy our domestic wants; what with gutter-tiles of -earthenware, vats for receiving wine, pipes[2213] for conveying water, -conduits[2214] for supplying baths, baked tiles for roofs, bricks for -foundations, the productions, too, of the potter’s wheel; results, all -of them, of an art, which induced King Numa to establish, as a seventh -company,[2215] that of the makers of earthenware. - -Even more than this, many persons have chosen to be buried in -coffins[2216] made of earthenware; M. Varro, for instance, who was -interred, in true Pythagorean style, in the midst of leaves of myrtle, -olive, and black poplar; indeed, the greater part of mankind make use -of earthen vases for this purpose. For the service of the table, the -Samian pottery is even yet held in high esteem; that, too, of Arretium -in Italy, still maintains its high character; while for their cups, -and for those only, the manufactories of Surrentum, Asta, Pollentia, -Saguntum in Spain, and Pergamus in Asia,[2217] are greatly esteemed. - -The city of Tralles, too, in Asia, and that of Mutina in Italy, have -their respective manufactures of earthenware, and even by this branch -of art are localities rendered famous; their productions, by the aid of -the potter’s wheel, becoming known to all countries, and conveyed by -sea and by land to every quarter of the earth. At Erythræ, there are -still shown, in a temple there, two amphoræ, that were consecrated in -consequence of the singular thinness of the material: they originated -in a contest between a master and his pupil, which of the two could -make earthenware of the greatest thinness. The vessels of Cos are the -most highly celebrated for their beauty, hut those of Adria[2218] are -considered the most substantial. - -In relation to these productions of art, there are some instances of -severity mentioned: Q. Coponius, we find, was condemned for bribery, -because he made present of an amphora of wine to a person who had -the right of voting. To make luxury, too, conduce in some degree to -enhance our estimation of earthenware, “tripatinium,”[2219] as we learn -from Fenestella, was the name given to the most exquisite course of -dishes that was served up at the Roman banquets. It consisted of one -dish of murænæ,[2220] one of lupi,[2221] and a third of a mixture of -fish. It is clear that the public manners were then already on the -decline; though we still have a right to hold them preferable to those -of the philosophers even of Greece, seeing that the representatives -of Aristotle, it is said, sold, at the auction of his goods, as many -as seventy dishes of earthenware. It has been already[2222] stated by -us, when on the subject of birds, that a single dish cost the tragic -actor Æsopus one hundred thousand sesterces; much to the reader’s -indignation, no doubt; but, by Hercules! Vitellius, when emperor, -ordered a dish to be made, which was to cost a million of sesterces, -and for the preparation of which a furnace had to be erected out in the -fields! luxury having thus arrived at such a pitch of excess as to make -earthenware even sell at higher prices than murrhine[2223] vessels. It -was in reference to this circumstance, that Mucianus, in his second -consulship, when pronouncing one of his perorations, reproached the -memory of Vitellius with his dishes as broad as the Pomptine Marsh; -not less deserving to be execrated than the poisoned dish of Asprenas, -which, according to the accusation brought against him by Cassius -Severus, caused the death of one hundred and thirty guests.[2224] - -These works of artistic merit have conferred celebrity on some cities -even, Rhegium for example, and Cumæ. The priests of the Mother of -the gods, known as the Galli, deprive themselves of their virility -with a piece of Samian[2225] pottery, the only means, if we believe -M. Cælius,[2226] of avoiding dangerous results. He it was, too, who -recommended, when inveighing against certain abominable practices, -that the person guilty of them should have his tongue cut out, in a -similar manner; a reproach which would appear to have been levelled by -anticipation against this same Vitellius. - -What is there that human industry will not devise? Even broken pottery -has been utilized; it being found that, beaten to powder, and tempered -with lime, it becomes more solid and durable than other substances -of a similar nature; forming the cement known as the “Signine”[2227] -composition, so extensively employed for even making the pavements of -houses.[2228] - - - - -CHAP. 47. (13.)—VARIOUS KINDS OF EARTH, THE PUTEOLAN DUST, AND OTHER -EARTHS OF WHICH CEMENTS LIKE STONE ARE MADE. - - -But there are other resources also, which are derived immediately -from the earth. Who, indeed, cannot but be surprised at finding the -most inferior constituent parts of it, known as “dust”[2229] only, -on the hills about Puteoli, forming a barrier against the waves of -the sea, becoming changed into stone the moment of its immersion, and -increasing in hardness from day to day—more particularly when mixed -with the cement of Cumæ? There is an earth too, of a similar nature -found in the districts about Cyzicus; but there, it is not a dust, -but a solid earth, which is cut away in blocks of all sizes, and -which, after being immersed in the sea, is taken out transformed into -stone. The same thing may be seen also, it is said, in the vicinity of -Cassandrea;[2230] and at Cnidos, there is a spring of fresh water which -has the property of causing earth to petrify within the space of eight -months. Between Oropus and Aulis, every portion of the land upon which -the sea encroaches becomes transformed into solid rock. - -The finer portion of the sand of the river Nilus is not very different -in its properties from the dust of Puteoli; not, indeed, that it is -used for breaking the force of the sea and withstanding the waves, -but only for the purpose, forsooth, of subduing[2231] the body for -the exercises of the palestra! At all events, it was for this purpose -that it used to be brought over for Patrobius,[2232] a freedman of the -Emperor Nero. I find it stated also, that Craterus, Leonnatus, and -Meleager, generals of Alexander the Great, had this sand transported -along with their munitions of war. But I forbear to enlarge any further -upon this subject; or indeed, by Hercules! upon those preparations of -earth and wax of which the ceromata are made, so much employed by our -youth in their exercises of the body, at the cost of all vigour of the -mind. - - - - -CHAP. 48. (14.)—FORMACEAN WALLS. - - -And then, besides, have we not in Africa and in Spain walls[2233] of -earth, known as “formacean” walls? from the fact that they are moulded, -rather than built, by enclosing earth within a frame of boards, -constructed on either side. These walls will last for centuries, are -proof against rain, wind, and fire, and are superior in solidity to -any cement. Even at this day, Spain still beholds watch-towers that -were erected by Hannibal, and turrets of earth[2234] placed on the -very summits of her mountains. It is from the same source, too, that -we derive the substantial materials so well adapted for forming the -earth-works of our camps and embankments against the impetuous violence -of rivers. What person, too, is unacquainted with the fact, that -partitions are made of hurdles coated with clay, and that walls are -constructed of unbaked bricks? - - - - -CHAP. 49.—WALLS OF BRICK. THE METHOD OF MAKING BRICKS. - - -Earth for making bricks should never be extracted from a sandy or -gravelly soil, and still less from one that is stony; but from a -stratum that is white and cretaceous, or else impregnated with red -earth.[2235] If a sandy soil must be employed for the purpose, it -should at least be male[2236] sand, and no other. The spring is the -best season for making bricks, as at midsummer they are very apt to -crack. For building, bricks two years old are the only ones that are -approved of; and the wrought material of them should be well macerated -before they are made. - -There are three different kinds of bricks; the Lydian, which is in -use with us, a foot-and-a-half in length by a foot in breadth; the -tetradoron; and the pentadoron; the word “doron” being used by the -ancient Greeks to signify the palm[2237]—hence, too, their word “doron” -meaning a gift, because it is the hand that gives.—These last two -kinds, therefore, are named respectively from their being four and five -palms in length, the breadth being the same. The smaller kind is used -in Greece for private buildings, the larger for the construction of -public edifices. At Pitane,[2238] in Asia, and in the cities of Muxilua -and Calentum in Farther Spain, there are bricks[2239] made, which -float in water, when dry; the material being a sort of pumice-earth, -extremely good for the purpose when it can be made to unite. The -Greeks have always preferred walls of brick, except in those cases -where they could find silicious stone for the purposes of building: -for walls of this nature will last for ever, if they are only built -on the perpendicular. Hence it is, that the Greeks have built their -public edifices and the palaces of their kings of brick; the wall at -Athens, for example, which faces Mount Hymettus; the Temples of Jupiter -and Hercules at Patræ,[2240] although the columns and architraves in -the interior are of stone; the palace of King Attalus at Tralles; the -palace of Crœsus at Sardes, now converted into an asylum[2241] for aged -persons; and that of King Mausolus at Halicarnassus; edifices, all of -them, still in existence. - -Muræna and Varro, in their ædileship, had a fine fresco painting, on -the plaster of a wall at Lacedæmon, cut away from the bricks, and -transported in wooden frames to Rome, for the purpose of adorning -the Comitium. Admirable as the work was of itself, it was still more -admired after being thus transferred. In Italy also there are walls of -brick, at Arretium and Mevania.[2242] At Rome, there are no buildings -of this description, because a wall only a foot-and-a-half in thickness -would not support more than a single story; and by public ordinance it -has been enacted that no partition should exceed that thickness; nor, -indeed, does the peculiar construction of our party-walls admit of it. - - - - -CHAP. 50. (15.)—SULPHUR, AND THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT: FOURTEEN -REMEDIES. - - -Let thus much be deemed sufficient on the subject of bricks. Among the -other kinds of earth, the one of the most singular nature, perhaps, -is sulphur, an agent of great power upon other substances. Sulphur -is found in the Æolian Islands, between Sicily and Italy, which are -volcanic, as already[2243] stated. But the finest sulphur of all, is -that which comes from the Isle of Melos. It is obtained also in Italy, -upon the range of hills in the territories of Neapolis and Campania, -known as the Leucogæi:[2244] when extracted from the mines there, it is -purified by the agency of fire. - -There are four kinds of sulphur; the first of which is “live” sulphur, -known as “apyron”[2245] by the Greeks, and found in solid masses, or -in other words, in blocks. This, too, is the only sulphur that is -extracted in its native state, the others being found in a state of -liquescence, and requiring to be purified by being boiled in oil. This -kind is green and transparent, and is the only sulphur that is used for -medicinal purposes. A second kind is known as the “glebaceous”[2246] -sulphur, and is solely employed in the workshops of the fullers. The -third kind, also, is only used for a single purpose, that of fumigating -wool, a process which contributes very greatly to making the wool white -and soft; “egula”[2246] is the name given to it. The fourth kind is -used in the preparation of matches more particularly. - -In addition to these several uses, sulphur is of such remarkable -virtue, that if it is thrown upon the fire it will at once detect, by -the smell, whether or not a person is subject to epilepsy. Anaxilaüs -used to employ this substance by way of pastime: putting sulphur in a -cup of wine, with some hot coals beneath, he would hand it round to -the guests, the light given by it, while burning, throwing a ghastly -paleness like that of death upon the face of each. Its properties are -calorific and maturative, in addition to which, it disperses abscesses -on the body: hence it is that it is used as an ingredient in plasters -and emollient poultices. Applied to the loins and kidneys, with grease, -when there are pains in those parts, it is marvellously effectual as -a remedy. In combination with turpentine, it removes lichens on the -face, and leprosy,[2247] the preparation being known as “harpax,”[2248] -from the celerity with which it acts upon the skin; for which reason -it ought to be removed every now and then. Employed as an electuary, -it is good for asthma, purulent expectorations, and stings inflicted -by scorpions. Live sulphur, mixed with nitre, and then bruised with -vinegar and applied, causes morphew to disappear, and destroys nits in -the hair; in combination, too, with sandarach and vinegar, it is good -for diseases of the eyelids. - -Sulphur has its place among our religious ceremonies, being used as -a fumigation for purifying houses.[2249] Its virtues are also to -be perceived in certain hot mineral waters;[2250] and there is no -substance that ignites more readily, a proof that there is in it -a great affinity to fire. Lightning and thunder are attended with -a strong smell of sulphur, and the light produced by them is of a -sulphureous complexion. - - - - -CHAP. 51.—BITUMEN, AND THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT; TWENTY-SEVEN -REMEDIES. - - -Nearly approaching to the nature of sulphur is that of bitumen,[2251] -which in some places assumes the form of a slime, and in others that -of an earth; a slime, thrown up, as already[2252] stated, by a certain -lake in Judæa, and an earth, found in the vicinity of Sidon, a maritime -town of Syria. In both these states, it admits of being thickened and -condensed. There is also a liquid[2253] bitumen, that of Zacynthus, -for example, and the bitumen that is imported from Babylon; which last -kind is also white: the bitumen, too, of Apollonia is liquid. All these -kinds, in Greek, have the one general name of “pissasphaltos,”[2254] -from their strong resemblance to a compound of pitch and bitumen. There -is also found an unctuous liquid bitumen, resembling oil, in a spring -at Agrigentum, in Sicily, the waters of which are tainted by it. The -inhabitants of the spot collect it on the panicles of reeds, to which -it very readily adheres, and make use of it for burning in lamps, as -a substitute for oil, as also for the cure of itch-scab in beasts of -burden. - -Some authorities include among the bitumens, naphtha, a substance which -we have already mentioned in the Second Book;[2255] but the burning -properties which it possesses, and its susceptibility of igniting, -render it quite unfit for use. Bitumen, to be of good quality, -should be extremely brilliant, heavy, and massive; it should also -be moderately smooth, it being very much the practice to adulterate -it with pitch. Its medicinal properties are similar to those of -sulphur, it being naturally astringent, dispersive, contractive, -and agglutinating: ignited, it drives away serpents by the smell. -Babylonian bitumen is very efficacious, it is said, for the cure of -cataract and albugo, as also of leprosy, lichens, and pruriginous -affections. Bitumen is employed, too, in the form of a liniment, for -gout; and every variety of it is useful for making bandolines for -eye-lashes that are refractory and impede the sight. Applied topically -with nitre,[2256] it is curative of tooth-ache, and, taken internally, -with wine, it alleviates chronic coughs and difficulty of respiration. -It is administered in a similar manner for dysentery, and is very good -for arresting looseness of the bowels. Taken internally with vinegar, -it dissolves and brings away coagulated blood. It modifies pains also -in the loins and joints, and, applied with barley-meal, it forms a -peculiar kind of plaster, to which it has given its name.[2257] It -stanches blood also, heals wounds, and unites the sinews when severed. -Bitumen is administered for quartan fevers, in doses of one drachma -to an equal quantity of hedyosmos,[2258] the whole kneaded up with -one obolus of myrrh. The smell of burnt bitumen detects a tendency to -epilepsy, and, applied to the nostrils with wine and castoreum,[2259] -it dispels suffocations of the uterus. Employed as a fumigation, it -acts as a check upon procidence of the uterus, and, taken internally -with wine, it has the effect of an emmenagogue. - -Another use that is made of it, is for coating the inside of copper -vessels, it rendering them proof against the action of fire. It has -been already[2260] stated that bitumen was formerly employed for -staining copper and coating statues. It has been used, too, as a -substitute for lime; the walls of Babylon, for instance, which are -cemented with it. In the smithies they are in the habit of varnishing -iron and heads of nails with it, and of using it for many other -purposes as well. - - - - -CHAP. 52.—ALUMEN, AND THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT; THIRTY-EIGHT -REMEDIES. - - -Not less important, or indeed very dissimilar, are the uses that are -made of alumen;[2261] by which name is understood a sort of brine[2262] -which exudes from the earth. Of this, too, there are several kinds. In -Cyprus there is a white alumen, and another kind of a darker colour. -The difference, however, in their colour is but trifling in reality, -though the uses made of them are very dissimilar; the white liquid -alumen being employed for dyeing[2263] wool of bright colours, and the -black, on the other hand, for giving wool a tawny or a sombre tint. -Gold, too, is purified[2264] by the agency of black alumen. Every kind -of alumen is a compound of slime and water, or in other words, is a -liquid product exuding from the earth; the concretion of it commencing -in winter, and being completed by the action of the summer sun. That -portion of it which is the first matured, is the whitest in appearance. - -The countries which produce this substance, are Spain, Ægypt, Armenia, -Macedonia, Pontus, Africa,[2265] and the islands of Sardinia, Melos, -Lipara, and Strongyle:[2266] the most esteemed, however, is that of -Egypt,[2267] the next best being the produce of Melos. Of this last -kind there are also two varieties, the liquid alumen, and the solid. -Liquid alumen, to be good, should be of a limpid, milky, appearance: -when rubbed between the fingers it should be free from grit, and -productive of a slight sensation of heat. The name given to it is -“phorimon.”[2268] The mode of detecting whether or not it has been -adulterated, is by the application of pomegranate-juice; for if -genuine, it will turn black on combining with the juice. The other, or -solid alumen, is pale and rough in appearance, and turns black on the -application of nut-galls; for which reason it is known by the name of -“paraphoron.”[2269] - -Liquid alumen is naturally astringent, indurative, and corrosive: used -in combination with honey, it heals ulcerations of the mouth, pimples, -and pruriginous eruptions. The remedy, when thus used, is employed in -the bath, the proportions being two parts of honey to one of alumen. -It has the effect, also, of checking and dispersing perspiration, and -of neutralizing offensive odours of the arm-pits. It is taken too, in -the form of pills, for affections of the spleen, and for the purpose -of carrying off blood by the urine: incorporated with nitre and -melanthium,[2270] it is curative of itch-scab. - -There is one kind of solid alumen, known to the Greeks as -“schiston,”[2271] which splits into filaments of a whitish colour; -for which reason some have preferred giving it the name of -“trichitis.”[2272] It is produced from the mineral ore known to us -as “chalcitis,”[2273] from which copper is also produced, it being a -sort of exudation from that mineral, coagulated into the form of scum. -This kind of alumen is less desiccative than the others, and is not so -useful as a check upon bad humours of the body. Used, however, either -in the form of a liniment or of an injection, it is highly beneficial -to the ears; as also for ulcerations of the mouth, and for tooth-ache, -if retained with the saliva in the mouth. It is employed also as a -serviceable ingredient in compositions for the eyes, and for the -generative organs in either sex. The mode of preparing it is to roast -it in crucibles, until it has quite lost its liquid form. - -There is another variety of alumen also, of a less active nature, and -known as “strongyle;”[2274] which is again subdivided into two kinds; -the fungous, which easily dissolves in any liquid, and is looked -upon as altogether worthless; and the porous, which is full of small -holes like a sponge, and in pieces of a globular form, more nearly -approaching white alumen in appearance. It has a certain degree, too, -of unctuousness, is free from grit, friable, and not apt to blacken -the fingers. This last kind is calcined by itself upon hot coals, -unmixed with any other substance, until it is entirely reduced to ashes. - -The best kind of all, however, is that called “molinum,”[2275] as -coming from the Isle of Melos, as already mentioned; none being more -effectual for acting as an astringent, staining black, and indurating, -and none assuming a closer consistency. It removes granulations of -the eye-lids, and, in a calcined state, is still more efficacious for -checking defluxions of the eyes: in this last form, too, it is employed -for the cure of pruriginous eruptions on the body. Whether taken -internally, or employed externally, it arrests discharges of blood; and -if it is applied with vinegar to a part from which the hair has been -first removed, it will change into a soft down the hair which replaces -it. The leading property of every kind of alumen is its remarkable -astringency, to which, in fact, it is indebted for its name[2276] with -the Greeks. It is for this property that the various kinds are, all of -them, so remarkably good for the eyes. In combination with grease, they -arrest discharges of blood; and they are employed in a similar manner -for checking the spread of putrid ulcers, and for removing sores upon -the bodies of infants. - -Alumen has a desiccative effect upon dropsical eruptions; and, in -combination with pomegranate juice, it removes diseases of the ears, -malformed nails, indurations resulting from cicatrization, hangnails, -and chilblains. Calcined, with vinegar or nut-galls, in equal -proportions, it is curative of phagedænic ulcers; and, in combination -with extracted juice of cabbage, of leprosy. Used in the proportion -of one part of alumen to two of salt, it arrests the progress of -serpiginous eruptions; and an infusion of it in water destroys lice and -other parasitical insects that infest the hair. Employed in a similar -manner, it is good for burns; and, in combination with the serous[2277] -part of pitch, for furfuraceous eruptions on the body. It is used also -as an injection for dysentery, and, employed in the form of a gargle, -it braces the uvula and tonsillary glands. For all those maladies which -we have mentioned as being treated with the other kinds of alumen, -that imported from Melos, be it understood, is still more efficacious. -As to the other uses that are made of it for industrial purposes, such -as preparing hides and wool, for example, they have been mentioned -already.[2278] - - - - -CHAP. 53. (16.)—SAMIAN EARTH: THREE REMEDIES. - - -In succession to these, we shall now have to speak of various other -kinds of earth[2279] which are made use of in medicine. - -Of Samian earth there are two varieties; one known as -“collyrium,”[2280] the other by the name of “aster.”[2281] To be in -perfection, the first kind should be fresh, remarkably smooth, and -glutinous to the tongue; the second being of a more solid consistency, -and white. They are both prepared for use by being calcined and then -rinsed in water, some persons giving the preference to the first. They -are both of them useful for discharges of blood from the mouth, and are -employed as an ingredient in plasters of a desiccative nature. They are -used also in the preparation of ophthalmic compositions. - - - - -CHAP. 54.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF ERETRIA. - - -Of eretria, or Eretrian[2282] earth, there are also the same number -of varieties; one white, and the other of an ashy colour, this last -being preferred in medicine. To be good, this earth should be of a soft -consistency, and when rubbed upon copper it should leave a violet tint. -The virtues of eretria in a medicinal point of view, and the methods of -using it, have been already mentioned[2283] in our description of the -pigments. - - - - -CHAP. 55.—THE METHOD OF WASHING EARTHS FOR MEDICINAL PURPOSES. - - -All these earths—for we will take the present opportunity of mentioning -it—are well washed in water, and then dried in the sun; after which, -they are again triturated in water, and left to settle: this done, they -are divided into tablets. They are usually boiled in earthen vessels, -which are well shaken every now and then. - - - - -CHAP. 56.—CHIAN EARTH; THREE REMEDIES. SELINUSIAN EARTH; THREE -REMEDIES. PNIGITIS; NINE REMEDIES. AMPELITIS; FOUR REMEDIES. - - -Among the medicinal substances, there is the white earth of Chios -also, the properties of which are the same as those of Samian earth. -It is used more particularly as a cosmetic for the skin of females; -the Selinusian[2284] earth being also employed for a similar purpose. -This last is of a milk-white colour, and melts very rapidly in water: -dissolved in milk, it is employed for whitening the plaster coats on -walls. Pnigitis[2285] is very similar to Eretrian earth, only that -it is found in larger masses, and is of a glutinous consistency. Its -effects are similar to those produced by Cimolian[2286] earth, but are -not so energetic. - -Ampelitis[2287] is an earth which bears a strong resemblance to -bitumen. The test of its goodness is its dissolving in oil, like wax, -and preserving its black colour when submitted to the action of fire. -Its properties are emollient and repercussive; for which reason, it is -used in medicinal compositions, those known as “calliblephara,”[2288] -more particularly, and in preparations for dyeing the hair. - - - - -CHAP. 57. (17.)—CRETACEOUS EARTHS USER FOR SCOURING CLOTH. CIMOLIAN -EARTH; NINE REMEDIES. SARDINIAN EARTH. UMBRIAN EARTH. SAXUM. - - -Of cretaceous[2289] earths there are several varieties; and among -them, two kinds of Cimolian earth, employed in medicine, the one white -and the other inclining to the tint of purpurissum.[2290] Both kinds, -moistened with vinegar, have the effect of dispersing tumours and -arresting defluxions. They are curative also of inflammatory swellings -and imposthumes of the parotid glands; and, applied topically, they -are good for affections of the spleen and pustules on the body. With -the addition of aphronitrum,[2291] oil of cypros,[2292] and vinegar, -they reduce swellings of the feet, care being taken to apply the lotion -in the sun, and at the end of six hours to wash it off with salt and -water. In combination with wax and oil of cypros, Cimolian earth is -good for swellings of the testes. - -Cretaceous earths, too, are of a cooling tendency, and, applied to the -body in the form of a liniment, they act as a check upon excessive -perspiration: taken with wine, in the bath, they remove pimples on the -body. The most esteemed of all these earths is that of Thessaly: it is -found also in the vicinity of Bubon[2293] in Lycia. - -Cimolian earth is used also for another purpose, that of scouring -cloth. As to the kind which is brought from Sardinia, and is known as -“sarda,” it is used for white tissues only, and is never employed for -coloured cloths. Indeed, this last is held in the lowest estimation -of all the Cimolian earths; whereas, that of Umbria is more highly -esteemed, as also the kind generally known as “saxum.”[2294] It is a -property of this last to increase in weight[2295] by maceration, and -it is by weight that it is usually sold, Sardinian earth being sold by -measure. Umbrian earth is only used for giving lustre to cloths. - -It will not be deemed out of place to give some further account here -of this process, there being still in existence the Metilian Law, -relative to fullers; an enactment which C. Flaminius and L. Æmilius, in -their censorship,[2296] had passed by the people,[2297] so attentive -to everything were our ancestors. The following then is the method -employed in preparing cloth: it is first washed in an infusion of -Sardinian earth, and is then exposed to a fumigation with sulphur. This -done, it is scoured[2298] with Cimolian earth, when the cloth has been -found to be of a genuine colour; it being very soon detected when it -has been coloured with spurious materials, by its turning black and the -colours becoming dispersed[2299] by the action of the sulphur. Where -the colours are genuine and rich, they are softened by the application -of Cimolian earth; which brightens and freshens them also when they -have been rendered sombre by the action of the sulphur. Saxum is better -for white tissues, after the application of sulphur, but to coloured -cloths it is highly injurious.[2300] In Greece they use Tymphæan[2301] -gypsum in place of Cimolian earth. - - - - -CHAP. 58.—ARGENTARIA. NAMES OF FREEDMEN WHO HAVE EITHER RISEN TO POWER -THEMSELVES, OR HAVE BELONGED TO MEN OF INFLUENCE. - - -There is another cretaceous earth, known as “argentaria,”[2302] from -the brightness[2303] which it imparts to silver. There is also the most -inferior kind of chalk; which was used by the ancients for tracing the -line of victory[2304] in the Circus, and for marking the feet of slaves -on sale, that were brought from beyond sea. Such, for instance, were -Publilius[2305] Lochius, the founder of our mimic scenes; his cousin, -Manilius Antiochus,[2306] the first cultivator of astronomy; and -Staberius Eros, our first grammarian; all three of whom our ancestors -saw brought over in the same ship.[2307] - -(18.) But why mention these names, recommended as they are by the -literary honours which they acquired? Other instances too, Rome has -beheld of persons rising to high positions from the slave-market;[2308] -Chrysogonus, for example, the freedman of Sylla; Amphion, the freedman -of Q. Catulus; the man who was the keeper[2309] of Lucullus; Demetrius, -the freedman of Pompeius, and Auge, the freedwoman of Demetrius,[2310] -or else of Pompeius himself, as some have supposed; Hipparchus, the -freedman of M. Antonius; as also, Menas[2311] and Menecrates,[2312] -freedmen of Sextus Pompeius, and many others as well, whom it would be -superfluous to enumerate, and who have enriched themselves at the cost -of Roman blood, and the licence that results from proscription. - -Such is the mark that is set upon those droves of slaves which we see -on sale, such the opprobrium thrown upon them by a capricious fortune! -And yet, some of these very men have we beheld in the enjoyment of -such power and influence, that the senate itself has decreed them—at -the command of Agrippina,[2313] wife of the Emperor Claudius—the -decorations even of the prætorship: all but honoured with the fasces -and their laurels, in fact, and sent back in state to the very place -from which they originally came, with their feet whitened with the -slave-dealer’s chalk! - - - - -CHAP. 59. (19.)—THE EARTH OF GALATA; OF CLYPEA; OF THE BALEARES; AND OF -EBUSUS. - - -In addition to these, there are various other kinds of earth, endowed -with peculiar properties of their own, and which have been already -mentioned on former occasions.[2314] We may, however, take the present -opportunity of again remarking the following properties. The earth of -the island of Galata and of the vicinity of Clypea, in Africa, is fatal -to scorpions; and that of the Balearic Islands and of Ebusus kills -serpents. - -SUMMARY.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, nine hundred and -fifty-six. - -ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Messala[2315] the Orator, the Elder -Messala,[2316] Fenestella,[2317] Atticus,[2318] M. Varro,[2319] -Verrius,[2320] Cornelius Nepos,[2321] Deculo,[2322] Mucianus,[2323] -Melissus,[2324] Vitruvius,[2325] Cassius Severus Longulanus,[2326] -Fabius Vestalis,[2327] who wrote on Painting. - -FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Pasiteles,[2328] Apelles,[2329] -Melanthius,[2330] Asclepiodorus,[2331] Euphranor,[2332] -Heliodorus,[2333] who wrote on the Votive Offerings of the Athenians, -Metrodorus,[2334] who wrote on Architecture, Democritus,[2335] -Theophrastus,[2336] Apion[2337] the grammarian, who wrote on the -Medicines derived from Metals, Nymphodorus,[2338] Iollas,[2339] -Apollodorus,[2340] Andreas,[2341] Heraclides,[2342] Diagoras,[2343] -Botrys,[2344] Archidemus,[2345] Dionysius,[2346] Aristogenes,[2347] -Democles,[2348] Mnesides,[2349] Xenocrates[2350] the son of Zeno, -Theomnestus.[2351] - - - - -BOOK XXXVI. - -THE NATURAL HISTORY OF STONES. - - - - -CHAP. 1. (1.)—LUXURY DISPLAYED IN THE USE OF VARIOUS KINDS OF MARBLE. - - -It now remains for us to speak of stones, or, in other words, the -leading folly of the day; to say nothing at all of our taste for gems -and amber, crystal and murrhine vases.[2352] For everything of which -we have previously treated, down to the present Book, may, by some -possibility or other, have the appearance of having been created for -the sake of man: but as to the mountains, Nature has made those for -herself, as a kind of bulwark for keeping together the bowels of the -earth; as also for the purpose of curbing the violence of the rivers, -of breaking the waves of the sea, and so, by opposing to them the very -hardest of her materials, putting a check upon those elements which -are never at rest. And yet we must hew down these mountains, forsooth, -and carry them off; and this, for no other reason than to gratify our -luxurious inclinations: heights which in former days it was reckoned a -miracle even to have crossed! - -Our forefathers regarded as a prodigy the passage of the Alps, first by -Hannibal,[2353] and, more recently, by the Cimbri: but at the present -day, these very mountains are cut asunder to yield us a thousand -different marbles, promontories are thrown open to the sea, and the -face of Nature is being everywhere reduced to a level. We now carry -away the barriers that were destined for the separation of one nation -from another; we construct ships for the transport of our marbles; -and, amid the waves, the most boisterous element of Nature, we convey -the summits of the mountains to and fro: a thing, however, that is -even less unpardonable than to go on the search amid the regions of -the clouds for vessels[2354] with which to cool our draughts, and to -excavate rocks, towering to the very heavens, in order that we may -have the satisfaction of drinking from ice! Let each reflect, when he -hears of the high prices set upon these things, when he sees these -ponderous masses carted and carried away, how many there are whose life -is passed far more happily without them. For what utility or for what -so-called pleasure do mortals make themselves the agents, or, more -truly speaking, the victims of such undertakings, except in order that -others may take their repose in the midst of variegated stones? Just as -though too, the shades of night, which occupy one half of each man’s -existence, would forbear to curtail these imaginary delights. - - - - -CHAP. 2.—WHO WAS THE FIRST TO EMPLOY MARBLE IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS. - - -Indeed, while making these reflections, one cannot but feel ashamed -of the men of ancient times even. There are still in existence -censorial[2355] laws, which forbid the kernels[2356] in the neck of -swine to be served at table, dormice too, and other things too trifling -to mention: and yet there has been no law passed, forbidding marble to -be imported, or the seas to be traversed in search of it! - -(2.) It may possibly be observed, that this was, because marble was not -then introduced. Such, however, is not the fact; for in the ædileship -of M. Scaurus,[2357] three hundred and sixty columns were to be seen -imported; for the decorations of a temporary theatre, too, one that was -destined to be in use for barely a single month. And yet the laws were -silent thereon; in a spirit of indulgence for the amusements of the -public, no doubt. But then, why such indulgence or how do vices more -insidiously steal upon us than under the plea of serving the public? By -what other way, in fact, did ivory, gold, and precious stones, first -come into use with private individuals? - -Can we say that there is now anything that we have reserved for the -exclusive use of the gods? However, be it so, let us admit of this -indulgence for the amusements of the public; but still, why did the -laws maintain their silence when the largest of these columns, pillars -of Lucullan[2358] marble, as much as eight-and-thirty feet in height, -were erected in the atrium of Scaurus? a thing, too, that was not -done privately or in secret; for the contractor for the public sewers -compelled him to give security for the possible damage that might be -done in the carriage of them to the Palatium.[2359] When so bad an -example as this was set, would it not have been advisable to take some -precautions for the preservation of the public morals? And yet the laws -still preserved their silence, when such enormous masses as these were -being carried past the earthenware[2360] pediments of the temples of -the gods, to the house of a private individual! - - - - -CHAP. 3. (3.)—WHO WAS THE FIRST TO ERECT COLUMNS OF FOREIGN MARBLE AT -ROME. - - -And yet it cannot be said that Scaurus, by way of a first essay in -vice, took the City by surprise, in a state of ignorance and totally -unguarded against such evils as these. Already had L. Crassus,[2361] -the orator, he who was the first to possess pillars of foreign marble, -and in this same Palatium too, received from M. Brutus, on the occasion -of a dispute, the nickname of the “Palatine Venus,” for his indulgence -in this kind of luxury. The material, I should remark, was Hymettian -marble, and the pillars were but six in number, and not exceeding some -twelve feet in height. Our forefathers were guilty of this omission, -no doubt, because morals were universally contaminated; and, seeing -that things which had been interdicted had been forbidden in vain, they -preferred the absence of laws to laws that were no better than a dead -letter. These particulars and others in the sequel will show that we -are so far improved; for who is there at the present day that has, in -his atrium, any such massive columns as these of Scaurus? - -But before proceeding to treat of the several varieties of this -material, it will be as well to mention the various artists, and the -degrees of estimation in which they are held, who have worked in -marble. We will, therefore, proceed to review the sculptors who have -flourished at different periods. - - - - -CHAP. 4. (4.)—THE FIRST ARTISTS WHO EXCELLED IN THE SCULPTURE OF -MARBLE, AND THE VARIOUS PERIODS AT WHICH THEY FLOURISHED. THE MAUSOLEUM -IN CARIA. THE MOST CELEBRATED SCULPTORS AND WORKS IN MARBLE, TWO -HUNDRED AND TWENTY-FIVE IN NUMBER. - - -The first artists who distinguished themselves in the sculpture of -marble, were Dipœnus[2362] and Scyllis, natives of the Isle of Crete. -At this period the Medians were still in power, and Cyrus had not begun -to reign in Persia; their date being about the fiftieth Olympiad. -They afterwards repaired to Sicyon, a state which for a length of -time[2363] was the adopted country of all such pursuits as these. -The people of Sicyon had made a contract with them for the execution -of certain statues of the gods; but, before completing the work, the -artists complained of some injustice being done them, and retired to -Ætolia. Immediately upon this, the state was afflicted with sterility -and famine, and dreadful consternation was the result. Upon enquiry -being made as to a remedy for these evils, the Pythian Apollo made -answer, that Dipœnus and Scyllis must complete the statues of the gods; -an object which was attained at the cost of great concessions and -considerable sums of money. The statues were those of Apollo,[2364] -Diana, Hercules, and Minerva; the last of which was afterwards struck -by lightning. - -(5.) Before these artists were in existence, there had already appeared -Melas, a sculptor of the Isle of Chios; and, in succession to him, his -son Micciades, and his grandson Archermus;[2365] whose sons, Bupalus -and Athenis, afterwards attained the highest eminence in the art. -These last were contemporaries of the poet Hipponax, who, it is well -known, lived in the sixtieth Olympiad. Now, if a person only reckons, -going upwards from their time to that of their great-grandfather, he -will find that the art of sculpture must have necessarily originated -about the commencement of the era of the Olympiads. Hipponax being a -man notorious for his ugliness, the two artists, by way of joke,[2366] -exhibited a statue of him for the ridicule of the public. Indignant at -this, the poet emptied upon them all the bitterness of his verses; to -such an extent indeed, that, as some believe, they were driven to hang -themselves in despair. This, however, is not the fact; for, at a later -period, these artists executed a number of statues in the neighbouring -islands; at Delos for example, with an inscription subjoined to the -effect, that Chios was rendered famous not only by its vines[2367] -but by the works of the sons of Archermus as well. The people of -Lasos[2368] still show a Diana that was made by them; and we find -mention also made of a Diana at Chios, the work of their hands: it is -erected on an elevated spot, and the features appear stern to a person -as he enters, and joyous as he departs. At Rome, there are some statues -by these artists on the summit of the Temple[2369] of the Palatine -Apollo, and, indeed, in most of the buildings that were erected by the -late Emperor Augustus. At Delos and in the Isle of Lesbos there were -formerly some sculptures by their father to be seen. Ambracia too, -Argos, and Cleonæ, were filled with productions of the sculptor Dipœnus. - -All these artists, however, used nothing but the white marble -of the Isle of Paros, a stone which was known as “lychnites” at -first, because, according to Varro, it was cut in the quarries by -lamplight.[2370] Since their time, many other whiter marbles have been -discovered, and very recently that of the quarries of Luna.[2371] -With reference to the marble of Paros, there is one very marvellous -circumstance related; in a single block that was split with wedges, a -figure[2372] of Silenus made its appearance. - -We must not omit to remark, that the art of sculpture is of much more -ancient[2373] date than those of painting and of statuary in bronze; -both of which commenced with Phidias, in the eighty-third Olympiad, -or in other words, about three hundred and thirty-two years later. -Indeed, it is said, that Phidias himself worked in marble, and that -there is a Venus of his at Rome, a work of extraordinary beauty, in -the buildings of Octavia.[2374] A thing, however, that is universally -admitted, is the fact that he was the instructor of Alcamenes,[2375] -the Athenian, one of the most famous among the sculptors. By this -last artist, there are numerous statues in the temples at Athens; as -also, without the walls there, the celebrated Venus, known as the -Aphrodite ἐν κήποις,[2376] work to which Phidias himself, -it is said, put the finishing hand. Another disciple also of Phidias -was Agoracritus[2377] of Paros, a great favourite with his master, on -account of his extremely youthful age; and for which reason, it is -said, Phidias gave his own name to many of that artist’s works. The two -pupils entering into a contest as to the superior execution of a statue -of Venus, Alcamenes was successful; not that his work was superior, -but because his fellow-citizens chose to give their suffrages in his -favour in preference to a stranger. It was for this reason, it is -said, that Agoracritus sold his statue, on the express condition that -it should never be taken to Athens, and changed its name to that of -Nemesis.[2378] It was accordingly erected at Rhamnus,[2379] a borough -of Attica, and M. Varro has considered it superior to every other -statue. There is also to be seen in the Temple of the Great Mother, in -the same city, another work[2380] by Agoracritus. - -Among all nations which the fame of the Olympian Jupiter has reached, -Phidias is looked upon, beyond all doubt, as the most famous of -artists: but to let those who have never even seen his works, know how -deservedly he is esteemed, we will take this opportunity of adducing -a few slight proofs of the genius which he displayed. In doing this, -we shall not appeal to the beauty of his Olympian Jupiter, nor yet to -the vast proportions of his Athenian Minerva, six and twenty cubits in -height, and composed of ivory and gold; but it is to the shield of this -last statue that we shall draw attention; upon the convex face of which -he has chased a combat of the Amazons, while, upon the concave side -of it, he has represented the battle between the Gods and the Giants. -Upon the sandals again, we see the wars of the Lapithæ and Centaurs, -so careful has he been to fill every smallest portion of his work with -some proof or other of his artistic skill. To the story chased upon -the pedestal of the statue, the name of the “Birth of Pandora”[2381] -has been given; and the figures of new-born[2382] gods to be seen -upon it are no less than twenty in number. The figure of Victory, in -particular, is most admirable, and connoisseurs are greatly struck with -the serpent and the sphinx in bronze lying beneath the point of the -spear. Let thus much be said incidentally in reference to an artist who -can never be sufficiently praised; if only to let it be understood that -the richness of his genius was always equal to itself, even in the very -smallest details. - -When speaking[2383] of the statuaries, we have already given the period -at which Praxiteles flourished; an artist, who, in the glory which he -acquired by his works in marble, surpassed even himself. There are -some works of his in the Ceramicus[2384] at Athens; but, superior to -all the statues, not only of Praxiteles, but of any other artist that -ever existed, is his Cnidian Venus; for the inspection of which, many -persons before now have purposely undertaken a voyage to Cnidos. The -artist made two statues of the goddess, and offered them both for sale: -one of them was represented with drapery,[2385] and for this reason was -preferred[2386] by the people of Cos, who had the choice; the second -was offered them at the same price, but, on the grounds of propriety -and modesty, they thought fit to choose the other. Upon this, the -Cnidians purchased the rejected statue,[2387] and immensely superior -has it always been held in general estimation. At a later period, King -Nicomedes wished to purchase this statue of the Cnidians, and made -them an offer to pay off the whole of their public debt, which was -very large. They preferred, however, to submit to any extremity rather -than part with it; and with good reason, for by this statue Praxiteles -has perpetuated the glory of Cnidos. The little temple in which it is -placed is open on all sides, so that the beauties[2388] of the statue -admit of being seen from every point of view; an arrangement which -was favoured by the goddess herself, it is generally believed. Indeed, -from whatever point it is viewed, its execution is equally worthy of -admiration. A certain individual, it is said, became enamoured of -this statue, and, concealing himself in the temple during the night, -gratified his lustful passion upon it, traces of which are to be seen -in a stain left upon the marble.[2389] - -There are also at Cnidos some other statues in marble, the productions -of illustrious artists; a Father Liber[2390] by Bryaxis,[2391] another -by Scopas,[2392] and a Minerva by the same hand: indeed, there is no -greater proof of the supreme excellence of the Venus of Praxiteles -than the fact that, amid such productions as these, it is the only one -that we generally find noticed. By Praxiteles, too, there is a Cupid, -a statue which occasioned[2393] one of the charges brought by Cicero -against Verres, and for the sake of seeing which persons used to visit -Thespiæ: at the present day, it is to be seen in the Schools[2394] -of Octavia. By the same artist there is also another Cupid, without -drapery, at Parium, a colony of the Propontis; equal to the Cnidian -Venus in the fineness of its execution, and said to have been the -object of a similar outrage. For one Alcetas, a Rhodian, becoming -deeply enamoured of it, left upon the marble similar traces of the -violence of his passion. - -At Rome there are, by Praxiteles, a Flora, a Triptolemus, and a Ceres, -in the Gardens of Servilius; statues of Good Success[2395] and Good -Fortune, in the Capitol; as also some Mænades,[2396] and figures known -as Thyiades[2397] and Caryatides;[2398] some Sileni,[2399] to be seen -in the memorial buildings of Asinius Pollio, and statues of Apollo and -Neptune. - -Cephisodotus,[2400] the son of Praxiteles, inherited his father’s -talent. There is, by him, at Pergamus, a splendid Group[2401] of -Wrestlers, a work that has been highly praised, and in which the -fingers have all the appearance of being impressed upon real flesh -rather than upon marble. At Rome there are by him, a Latona, in the -Temple of the Palatium; a Venus, in the buildings that are memorials of -Asinius Pollio; and an Æsculapius, and a Diana, in the Temple of Juno -situate within the Porticos of Octavia. - -Scopas[2402] rivals these artists in fame: there are by him, a -Venus[2403] and a Pothos,[2404] statues which are venerated at -Samothrace with the most august ceremonials. He was also the sculptor -of the Palatine Apollo; a Vesta seated, in the Gardens of Servilius, -and represented with two Bends[2405] around her, a work that has been -highly praised; two similar Bends, to be seen upon the buildings of -Asinius Pollio; and some figures of Canephori[2406] in the same place. -But the most highly esteemed of all his works, are those in the Temple -erected by Cneius Domitius,[2407] in the Flaminian Circus; a figure of -Neptune himself, a Thetis and Achilles, Nereids seated upon dolphins, -cetaceous fishes, and[2408] sea-horses,[2409] Tritons, the train of -Phorcus,[2410] whales,[2411] and numerous other sea-monsters, all by -the same hand; an admirable piece of workmanship, even if it had taken -a whole life to complete it. In addition to the works by him already -mentioned, and others of the existence of which we are ignorant, there -is still to be seen a colossal Mars of his, seated, in the Temple -erected by Brutus Callæcus,[2412] also in the Flaminian Circus; as -also, a naked Venus, of anterior date to that by Praxiteles, and a -production that would be quite sufficient to establish the renown of -any other place. - -At Rome, it is true, it is quite lost sight of amid such a vast -multitude of similar works of art: and then besides, the inattention -to these matters that is induced by such vast numbers of duties and so -many items of business, quite precludes the generality of persons from -devoting their thoughts to the subject. For, in fact, the admiration -that is due to this art, not only demands an abundance of leisure, but -requires that profound silence should reign upon the spot. Hence it -is, that the artist is now forgotten, who executed the statue of Venus -that was dedicated by the Emperor Vespasianus in his Temple of Peace, a -work well worthy of the high repute of ancient times. With reference, -too, to the Dying Children of Niobe, in the Temple of the Sosian[2413] -Apollo, there is an equal degree of uncertainty, whether it is the -work[2414] of Scopas or of Praxiteles. So, too, as to the Father Janus, -a work that was brought from Egypt and dedicated in his Temple[2415] -by Augustus, it is a question by which of these two artists[2416] it -was made: at the present day, however, it is quite hidden from us by -the quantity of gold that covers it. The same question, too, arises -with reference to the Cupid brandishing a Thunderbolt, now to be seen -in the Curia of Octavia: the only thing, in fact, that is affirmed -with any degree of certainty respecting it, is, that it is a likeness -of Alcibiades, who was the handsomest man of his day. There are, too, -in the Schools[2417] of Octavia, many other highly attractive works, -the authors of which are now unknown: four Satyrs, for example, one of -which carries in his arms a Father Liber, robed in the palla;[2418] -another similarly supports the Goddess Libera;[2419] a third is -pacifying a child who is crying; and a fourth is giving a child some -water to drink, from a cup; two Zephyrs also, who agitate their flowing -drapery with their breath. No less is the uncertainty that prevails as -to the authors of the statues now to be seen in the Septa;[2420] an -Olympus[2421] and Pan, and a Charon and Achilles;[2422] and yet their -high reputation has caused them to be deemed valuable enough for their -keepers to be made answerable for their safety at the cost of their -lives. - -Scopas had for rivals and contemporaries, Bryaxis,[2423] -Timotheus,[2424] and Leochares,[2425] artists whom we are bound to -mention together, from the fact that they worked together at the -Mausoleum; such being the name of the tomb that was erected by his -wife Artemisia in honour of Mausolus, a petty king of Caria, who -died in the second year of the hundred and seventh Olympiad. It was -through the exertions of these artists more particularly, that this -work came to be reckoned one of the Seven Wonders of the World.[2426] -The circumference[2427] of this building is, in all, four hundred and -forty feet, and the breadth from north to south sixty-three, the two -fronts[2428] being not so wide in extent. It is twenty-five cubits -in height, and is surrounded with six-and-thirty columns, the outer -circumference being known as the “Pteron.”[2429] The east side was -sculptured by Scopas, the north by Bryaxis, the south by Timotheus, -and the west by Leochares; but, before their task was completed, Queen -Artemisia died.[2430] They did not leave their work, however, until it -was finished, considering that it was at once a memorial of their own -fame and of the sculptor’s art: and, to this day even, it is undecided -which of them has excelled. A fifth artist also took part in the work; -for above the Pteron there is a pyramid erected, equal in height -to the building below, and formed of four and twenty steps, which -gradually taper upwards towards the summit; a platform, crowned with a -representation of a four-horse chariot by Pythis. This addition makes -the total height of the work one hundred and forty feet.[2431] - -There is at Rome, by Timotheus, a Diana, in the Temple of Apollo -in the Palatium, the head of which has been replaced by Avianius -Evander.[2432] A Hercules, too, by Menestratus,[2433] is greatly -admired; and there is a Hecate of his at Ephesus, in the Temple of -Diana there, behind the sanctuary. The keepers of the temple recommend -persons, when viewing it, to be careful of their eyes, so remarkably -radiant is the marble. No less esteemed, too, are the statues of the -Graces,[2434] in the Propylæum[2435] at Athens; the workmanship of -Socrates the sculptor, a different person from the painter[2436] of -that name, though identical with him in the opinion of some. As to -Myron,[2437] who is so highly praised for his works in bronze, there is -by him at Smyrna, An Old Woman Intoxicated, a work that is held in high -estimation. - -Asinius Pollio, a man of a warm and ardent temperament, was -determined that the buildings which he erected as memorials of -himself should be made as attractive as possible; for here we see -groups representing, Nymphs carried off by Centaurs, a work of -Arcesilas:[2438] the Thespiades,[2439] by Cleomenes:[2440] Oceanus and -Jupiter, by Heniochus:[2441] the Appiades,[2442] by Stephanus:[2443] -Hermerotes,[2444] by Tauriscus, not the chaser in silver, already[2445] -mentioned, but a native of Tralles:[2446] a Jupiter Hospitalis[2447] -by Papylus, a pupil of Praxiteles: Zethus and Amphion, with Dirce, -the Bull,[2448] and the halter, all sculptured from a single block -of marble, the work of Apollonius and Tauriscus, and brought to Rome -from Rhodes. These two artists made it a sort of rivalry as to their -parentage, for they declared that, although Apollodorus was their -natural progenitor, Menecrates[2449] would appear to have been their -father. In the same place, too, there is a Father Liber,[2450] by -Eutychides,[2451] highly praised. Near the Portico of Octavia, there -is an Apollo, by Philiscus[2452] of Rhodes, placed in the Temple of -that God; a Latona and Diana also; the Nine Muses; and another Apollo, -without drapery. The Apollo holding the Lyre, in the same temple, -was executed by Timarchides.[2453] In the Temple of Juno, within the -Porticos of Octavia, there is a figure of that goddess, executed -by Dionysius,[2454] and another by Polycles,[2455] as also other -statues by Praxiteles.[2456] This Polycles, too, in conjunction with -Dionysius,[2457] the son of Timarchides, made the statue of Jupiter, -which is to be seen in the adjoining temple.[2458] The figures of Pan -and Olympus Wrestling, in the same place, are by Heliodorus;[2459] and -they are considered to be the next finest group[2460] of this nature in -all the world. The same artist also executed a Venus at the Bath, and -Polycharmus another Venus, in an erect[2461] posture. - -By the honourable place which the work of Lysias occupies, we may see -in what high esteem it was held by the late Emperor Augustus, who -consecrated it in honour of his father Octavius, in the Palatium, -placing it on an arch within a small temple, adorned with columns: -it is the figure of a four-horse chariot, with an Apollo and Diana, -all sculptured from a single block. I find it stated, also, that the -Apollo by Calamis, the chaser already[2462] mentioned, the Pugilists -by Dercylides, and the statue of Callisthenes the historian, by -Amphistratus,[2463] all of them now in the Gardens of Servilius, are -works highly esteemed. - -Beyond these, there are not many sculptors of high repute; for, in the -case of several works of very great excellence, the number of artists -that have been engaged upon them has proved a considerable obstacle -to the fame of each, no individual being able to engross the whole -of the credit, and it being impossible to award it in due proportion -to the names of the several artists combined. Such is the case with -the Laocoön, for example, in the palace of the Emperor Titus, a work -that may be looked upon as preferable to any other production of -the art of painting or of statuary. It is sculptured from a single -block, both the main figure as well as the children, and the serpents -with their marvellous folds. This group was made in concert by three -most eminent artists,[2464] Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus, -natives of Rhodes. In similar manner also, the palaces of the Cæsars, -in the Palatium, have been filled with most splendid statuary, the -work of Craterus, in conjunction with Pythodorus, of Polydeuces with -Hermoläus, and of another Pythodorus with Artemon; some of the statues, -also, are by Aphrodisius of Tralles, who worked alone. The Pantheon of -Agrippa has been decorated by Diogenes of Athens, and the Caryatides, -by him, which form the columns of that temple, are looked upon as -master-pieces of excellence: the same, too, with the statues that are -placed upon the roof, though, in consequence of the height, they have -not had an opportunity of being so well appreciated. - -Without glory, and excluded from every temple, is the statue of -Hercules,[2465] in honour of whom the Carthaginians were accustomed to -sacrifice human victims every year: it stands upon the ground before -the entrance of the Portico of the Nations.[2466] There were erected, -too, near the Temple of Felicity, the statues of the Thespian[2467] -Muses; of one of which, according to Varro, Junius Pisciculus, a Roman -of equestrian rank, became enamoured. Pasiteles,[2468] too, speaks -in terms of high admiration of them, the artist who wrote five Books -on the most celebrated works throughout the world. Born upon the -Grecian[2469] shores of Italy, and presented with the Roman citizenship -granted to the cities of those parts, Pasiteles constructed the ivory -statue of Jupiter which is now in the Temple of Metellus,[2470] on the -road to the Campus Martius. It so happened, that being one day at the -Docks,[2471] where there were some wild beasts from Africa, while he -was viewing through the bars of a cage a lion which he was engaged in -drawing, a panther made its escape from another cage, to the no small -danger of this most careful artist. He executed many other works, it is -said, but we do not find the names of them specifically mentioned. - -Arcesilaüs,[2472] also, is an artist highly extolled by Varro; who -states that he had in his possession a Lioness in marble of his, -and Winged Cupids playing with it, some holding it with cords, and -others making it drink from a horn, the whole sculptured from a single -block: he says, also, that the fourteen figures around the Theatre -of Pompeius,[2473] representing different Nations, are the work of -Coponius. - -I find it stated that Canachus,[2474] an artist highly praised -among the statuaries in bronze, executed some works also in marble. -Saurus,[2475] too, and Batrachus must not be forgotten, Lacedæmonians -by birth, who built the temples[2476] enclosed by the Porticos of -Octavia. Some are of opinion that these artists were very wealthy -men, and that they erected these buildings at their own expense, -expecting to be allowed to inscribe their names thereon; but that, this -indulgence being refused them, they adopted another method of attaining -their object. At all events, there are still to be seen, at the present -day, on the spirals[2477] of the columns, the figures of a lizard and -a frog,[2478] emblematical of their names. In the Temple of Jupiter by -the same artists, the paintings, as well as all the other ornaments, -bear reference to the worship of a goddess. The[2479] fact is, that -when the temple of Juno was completed, the porters, as it is said, -who were entrusted with the carriage of the statues, made an exchange -of them; and, on religious grounds, the mistake was left uncorrected, -from an impression that it had been by the intervention of the -divinities themselves, that this seat of worship had been thus shared -between them. Hence it is that we see in the Temple of Juno, also, the -ornaments which properly pertain to the worship of Jupiter. - -Some minute works in marble have also gained reputation for their -artists: by Myrmecides,[2480] there was a four-horse chariot, so small -that it could be covered, driver and all, by the wings of a fly; and by -Callicrates,[2481] some ants, in marble, the feet and other limbs of -which were so fine as to escape the sight. - - - - -CHAP. 5. (6.)—AT WHAT PERIOD MARBLE WAS FIRST USED IN BUILDINGS. - - -This must suffice for the sculptors in marble, and the works that have -gained the highest repute; with reference to which subject it occurs to -me to remark, that spotted marbles were not then in fashion. In making -their statues, these artists used the marble of Thasos also,[2482] one -of the Cyclades, and of Lesbos, this last being rather more livid than -the other. The poet Menander, in fact, who was a very careful enquirer -into all matters of luxury, is the first who has spoken, and that but -rarely, of variegated marbles, and, indeed, of the employment of marble -in general. Columns of this material were at first employed in temples, -not on grounds of superior elegance, (for that was not thought of, as -yet), but because no material could be found of a more substantial -nature. It was under these circumstances, that the Temple[2483] of the -Olympian Jupiter was commenced at Athens, the columns of which were -brought by Sylla to Rome, for the buildings in the Capitol. - -Still, however, there had been a distinction drawn between ordinary -stone and marble, in the days of Homer even. The poet speaks in one -passage of a person[2484] being struck down with a huge mass of marble; -but that is all; and when he describes the abodes of royalty adorned -with every elegance, besides brass, gold, electrum,[2485] and silver, -he only mentions ivory. Variegated marbles, in my opinion, were first -discovered in the quarries of Chios, when the inhabitants were building -the walls of their city; a circumstance which gave rise to a facetious -repartee on the part of M. Cicero. It being the practice with them to -show these walls to everybody, as something magnificent; “I should -admire them much more,” said he, “if you had built them of the stone -used at Tibur.”[2486] And, by Hercules! the art of painting[2487] never -would have been held in such esteem, or, indeed, in any esteem at all, -if variegated marbles had been held in admiration. - - - - -CHAP. 6.—WHO WERE THE FIRST TO CUT MARBLE INTO SLABS, AND AT WHAT -PERIOD. - - -I am not sure whether the art of cutting marble into slabs, is not an -invention for which we are indebted to the people of Caria. The most -ancient instance of this practice, so far as I know of, is found in the -palace of Mausolus, at Halicarnassus, the walls of which, in brick, are -covered with marble of Proconnesus. Mausolus died in the second year of -the hundred and seventh[2488] Olympiad, being the year of Rome, 403. - - - - -CHAP. 7.—WHO WAS THE FIRST TO ENCRUST THE WALLS OF HOUSES AT ROME WITH -MARBLE. - - -The first person at Rome who covered the whole of the walls of -his house with marble, according to Cornelius Nepos,[2489] was -Mamurra,[2490] who dwelt upon the Cælian Hill, a member of the -equestrian order, and a native of Formiæ, who had been præfect of -the engineers under C. Cæsar in Gaul. Such was the individual, that -nothing may be wanting to the indignity of the example, who first -adopted this practice; the same Mamurra, in fact, who has been so torn -to pieces in the verses of Catullus of Verona. Indeed, his own house -proclaimed more loudly than Catullus could proclaim it, that he had -come into possession of all that Gallia Comata had had to possess. For -Nepos adds, as well, that he was the first to have all the columns of -his house made of nothing but solid marble, and that, too, marble of -Carystus[2491] or of Luna.[2492] - - - - -CHAP. 8.—AT WHAT PERIOD THE VARIOUS KINDS OF MARBLE CAME INTO USE AT -ROME. - - -M. Lepidus, who was consul with Q. Catulus, was the first to have the -lintels of his house made of Numidian marble, a thing for which he -was greatly censured: he was consul in the year of Rome, 676. This is -the earliest instance that I can find of the introduction of Numidian -marble; not in the form of pillars, however, or of slabs, as was the -case with the marble of Carystus, above-mentioned, but in blocks, -and that too, for the comparatively ignoble purpose of making the -thresholds of doors. Four-years after this Lepidus, L. Lucullus was -consul; the same person who gave its name, it is very evident, to the -Lucullan marble; for, taking a great fancy to it, he introduced it at -Rome. While other kinds of marble are valued for their spots or their -colours, this marble is entirely black.[2493] It is found in the island -of Melos,[2494] and is pretty nearly the only marble that has taken its -name from the person who first introduced it. Among these personages, -Scaurus, in my opinion, was the first to build a theatre with walls of -marble: but whether they were only coated with slabs of marble or were -made of solid blocks highly polished, such as we now see in the Temple -of Jupiter Tonans,[2495] in the Capitol, I cannot exactly say: for, up -to this period, I cannot find any vestiges of the use of marble slabs -in Italy. - - - - -CHAP. 9.—THE METHOD OF CUTTING MARBLE INTO SLABS. THE SAND USED IN -CUTTING MARBLE. - - -But whoever it was that first invented the art of thus cutting marble, -and so multiplying the appliances of luxury, he displayed considerable -ingenuity, though to little purpose. This division, though apparently -effected by the aid of iron, is in reality effected by sand; the saw -acting only by pressing upon the sand within a very fine cleft in the -stone, as it is moved to and fro. - -The[2496] sand of Æthiopia is the most highly esteemed for this -purpose; for, to add to the trouble that is entailed, we have to send -to Æthiopia for the purpose of preparing our marble—aye, and as far as -India even; whereas in former times, the severity of the Roman manners -thought it beneath them to repair thither in search of such costly -things even as pearls! This Indian sand is held in the next highest -degree of estimation, the Æthiopian being of a softer nature, and -better adapted for dividing the stone without leaving any roughness -on the surface; whereas the sand from India does not leave so smooth -a face upon it. Still, however, for polishing marble, we find it -recommended[2497] to rub it with Indian sand calcined. The sand of -Naxos has the same defect; as also that from Coptos, generally known as -“Egyptian” sand. - -The above were the several varieties of sand used by the ancients -in dividing marble. More recently, a sand has been discovered that -is equally approved of for this purpose; in a certain creek of the -Adriatic Sea, which is left dry at low water only; a thing that -renders it not very easy to be found. At the present day, however, the -fraudulent tendencies of our workers in marble have emboldened them to -use any kind of river-sand for the purpose; a mischief which very few -employers rightly appreciate. For, the coarser the sand, the wider is -the division made in the stone, the greater the quantity of material -consumed, and the more extensive the labour required for polishing the -rough surface that is left; a result of which is that the slabs lose -so much more in thickness. For giving the last polish to marble,[2498] -Thebaic stone[2499] is considered well adapted, as also porous stone, -or pumice, powdered fine. - - - - -CHAP. 10. (7.)—STONE OF NAXOS. STONE OF ARMENIA. - - -For polishing marble statues, as also for cutting and giving a polish -to precious stones, the preference was long given to the stone of -Naxos,[2500] such being the name of a kind of touchstone[2501] that -is found in the Isle of Cyprus. More recently, however, the stones -imported from Armenia for this purpose have displaced those of Naxos. - - - - -CHAP. 11.—THE MARBLES OF ALEXANDRIA. - - -The marbles are too well known to make it necessary for me to enumerate -their several colours and varieties; and, indeed, so numerous are they, -that it would be no easy task to do so. For what place is there, in -fact, that has not a marble of its own? In addition to which, in our -description of the earth and its various peoples,[2502] we have already -made it our care to mention the more celebrated kinds of marble. Still, -however, they are not all of them produced from quarries, but in many -instances lie scattered just beneath the surface of the earth; some -of them the most precious even, the green Lacedæmonian marble, for -example, more brilliant in colour than any other; the Augustan also; -and, more recently, the Tiberian; which were first discovered, in the -reigns respectively of Augustus and Tiberius, in Egypt. These two -marbles differ from ophites[2503] in the circumstance that the latter -is marked with streaks which resemble serpents[2504] in appearance, -whence its name. There is also this difference between the two marbles -themselves, in the arrangement of their spots: the Augustan marble has -them undulated and curling to a point; whereas in the Tiberian the -streaks are white,[2505] not involved, but lying wide asunder. - -Of ophites, there are only some very small pillars known to have -been made. There are two varieties of it, one white and soft, the -other inclining to black, and hard. Both kinds, it is said, worn as -an amulet, are a cure for head-ache, and for wounds inflicted by -serpents.[2506] Some, too, recommend the white ophites as an amulet for -phrenitis and lethargy. As a counter-poison to serpents, some persons -speak more particularly in praise of the ophites that is known as -“tephrias,”[2507] from its ashy colour. There is also a marble known as -“memphites,” from the place[2508] where it is found, and of a nature -somewhat analogous to the precious stones. For medicinal purposes, it -is triturated and applied in the form of a liniment, with vinegar, to -such parts of the body as require cauterizing or incision; the flesh -becoming quite benumbed, and thereby rendered insensible to pain. - -Porphyrites,[2509] which is another production of Egypt, is of a -red colour: the kind that is mottled with white blotches is known -as “leptospsephos.”[2510] The quarries there are able to furnish -blocks[2511] of any dimensions, however large. Vitrasius Pollio, who -was steward[2512] in Egypt for the Emperor Claudius, brought to Rome -from Egypt some statues made of this stone; a novelty which was not -very highly approved of, as no one has since followed his example. -The Egyptians, too, have discovered in Æthiopia the stone known as -“basanites;”[2513] which in colour and hardness resembles iron, -whence the name[2514] that has been given to it. A larger block of it -has never been known than the one forming the group which has been -dedicated by the Emperor Vespasianus Augustus in the Temple of Peace. -It represents the river Nilus with sixteen children sporting around -it,[2515] symbolical of the sixteen cubits, the extreme height[2516] -to which, in the most favourable seasons, that river should rise. It -is stated, too, that in the Temple of Serapis at Thebes, there is a -block not unlike it, which forms the statue of Memnon[2517] there; -remarkable, it is said, for emitting a sound each morning when first -touched by the rays of the rising sun. - - - - -CHAP. 12.—ONYX AND ALABASTRITES; SIX REMEDIES. - - -Our forefathers imagined that onyx[2518] was only to be found in the -mountains of Arabia, and nowhere else; but Sudines[2519] was aware that -it is also found in Carmania.[2520] Drinking-vessels were made of it at -first, and then the feet of beds and chairs. Cornelius Nepos relates -that great was the astonishment, when P. Lentulus Spinther exhibited -amphoræ made of this material, as large as Chian wine-vessels in size; -“and yet, five years after,” says he, “I saw columns of this material, -no less than two-and-thirty feet in height.” At a more recent period -again, some change took place[2521] with reference to this stone; for -four[2522] small pillars of it were erected by Cornelius Balbus in -his Theatre[2523] as something quite marvellous: and I myself have -seen thirty columns, of larger size, in the banquetting-room which -Callistus[2524] erected, the freedman of Claudius, so well known for -the influence which he possessed. - -(8.) This[2525] stone is called “alabastrites”[2526] by some, and -is hollowed out into vessels for holding unguents, it having the -reputation of preserving them from corruption[2527] better than -anything else. In a calcined state, it is a good ingredient for -plaisters.[2528] It is found in the vicinity of Thebes in Egypt and -of Damascus in Syria, that of Damascus being whiter than the others. -The most esteemed kind, however, is that of Carmania, the next being -the produce of India, and then, those of Syria and Asia. The worst in -quality is that of Cappadocia, it being utterly destitute of lustre. -That which is of a honey colour is the most esteemed, covered with -spots curling in whirls,[2529] and not transparent. Alabastrites -is considered defective, when it is of a white or horn colour, or -approaching to glass in appearance. - - - - -CHAP. 13.—LYGDINUS; CORALLITIC STONE; STONE OF ALABANDA; STONE OF -THEBAIS; STONE OF SYENE. - - -Little inferior to it for the preservation of unguents, in the opinion -of many, is the stone, called “lygdinus,”[2530] that is found in Paros, -and never of a larger size than to admit of a dish or goblet being -made of it. In former times, it was only imported from Arabia, being -remarkable for its extreme whiteness. - -Great value is placed also upon two other kinds of stone, of quite a -contrary nature; corallitic[2531] stone, found in Asia, in blocks not -more than two cubits in thickness, and of a white somewhat approaching -that of ivory, and in some degree resembling it; and Alabandic -stone, which, on the other hand, is black, and is so called from the -district[2532] which produces it: though it is also to be found at -Miletus, where, however, it verges somewhat more upon the purple. It -admits of being melted by the action of fire, and is fused for the -preparation of glass. - -Thebaic stone, which is sprinkled all over with spots like gold, is -found in Africa, on the side of it which lies adjacent to Egypt; the -small hones which it supplies being peculiarly adapted, from their -natural properties, for grinding the ingredients used in preparations -for the eyes. In the neighbourhood of Syene, too, in Thebais, there is -a stone found that is now known as “syenites,”[2533] but was formerly -called “pyrrhopœcilon.”[2534] - - - - -CHAP. 14.—OBELISKS. - - -Monarchs, too, have entered into a sort of rivalry with one another -in forming elongated blocks of this stone, known as “obelisks,”[2535] -and consecrated to the divinity of the Sun. The blocks had this form -given to them in resemblance to the rays of that luminary, which are so -called[2536] in the Egyptian language. - -Mesphres,[2537] who reigned in the City of the Sun,[2538] was the first -who erected one of these obelisks, being warned to do so in a dream; -indeed, there is an inscription upon the obelisk to this effect; for -the sculptures and figures which we still see engraved thereon are no -other than Egyptian letters.[2539] - -At a later period other kings had these obelisks hewn. Sesosthes[2540] -erected four of them in the above-named city, forty-eight cubits in -height. Rhamsesis,[2541] too, who was reigning at the time of the -capture of Troy, erected one, a hundred and forty cubits high. Having -quitted the spot where the palace of Mnevis[2542] stood, this monarch -erected another obelisk,[2543] one hundred and twenty cubits in height, -but of prodigious thickness, the sides being no less than eleven cubits -in breadth. (9.) It is said that one hundred and twenty thousand men -were employed upon this work;[2543] and that the king, when it was on -the point of being elevated, being apprehensive that the machinery -employed might not prove strong enough for the weight, with the view of -increasing the peril that might be entailed by due want of precaution -on the part of the workmen, had his own son fastened to the summit; in -order that the safety of the prince might at the same time ensure the -safety of the mass of stone. It was in his admiration of this work, -that, when King Cambyses took the city by storm, and the conflagration -had already reached the very foot of the obelisk, he ordered the fire -to be extinguished; he entertaining a respect for this stupendous -erection which he had not entertained for the city itself. - -There are also two other obelisks, one of them erected by -Zmarres,[2544] and the other by Phius;[2545] both of them without -inscriptions, and forty-eight cubits in height. Ptolemæus Philadelphus -had one erected at Alexandria, eighty cubits high, which had been -prepared by order of King Necthebis:[2546] it was without any -inscription, and cost far more trouble in its carriage and elevation, -than had been originally expended in quarrying it. Some writers -inform us that it was conveyed on a raft, under the inspection of the -architect Satyrus; but Callixenus[2547] gives the name of Phœnix. -For this purpose, a canal was dug from the river Nilus to the spot -where the obelisk lay; and two broad vessels, laden with blocks of -similar stone a foot square, the cargo of each amounting to double -the size, and consequently double the weight, of the obelisk, were -brought beneath it; the extremities, of the obelisk remaining supported -by the opposite sides of the canal. The blocks of stone were then -removed, and the vessels, being thus gradually lightened, received -their burden. It was erected upon a basis of six square blocks, -quarried from the same mountain, and the artist was rewarded with -the sum of fifty talents.[2548] This obelisk was placed by the king -above-mentioned in the Arsinoœum,[2549] in testimony of his affection -for his wife and sister Arsinoë. At a later period, as it was found to -be an inconvenience to the docks, Maximus, the then præfect of Egypt, -had it transferred to the Forum there, after removing the summit for -the purpose of substituting a gilded point; an intention which was -ultimately abandoned. - -There are two other obelisks, which were in Cæsar’s Temple at -Alexandria, near the harbour there, forty-two cubits in height, and -originally hewn by order of King Mesphres. But the most difficult -enterprise of all, was the carriage of these obelisks by sea to Rome, -in vessels which excited the greatest admiration. Indeed, the late -Emperor Augustus consecrated the one which brought over the first -obelisk, as a lasting memorial of this marvellous undertaking, in -the docks at Puteoli; but it was destroyed by fire. As to the one in -which, by order of the Emperor Caius,[2550] the other obelisk had been -transported to Rome, after having been preserved for some years and -looked upon as the most wonderful construction ever beheld upon the -seas, it was brought to Ostia, by order of the late Emperor Claudius; -and towers of Puteolan[2551] earth being first erected upon it, it was -sunk for the construction of the harbour which he was making there. And -then, besides, there was the necessity of constructing other vessels -to carry these obelisks up the Tiber; by which it became practically -ascertained, that the depth of water in that river is not less than -that of the river Nilus. - -The obelisk that was erected by the late Emperor Augustus in the -Great Circus,[2552] was originally quarried by order of King -Semenpserteus,[2553] in whose reign it was that Pythagoras[2554] -visited Egypt. It is eighty-five feet[2555] and three quarters in -height, exclusive of the base, which is a part of the same stone. The -one that he erected in the Campus Martius, is nine feet less in height, -and was originally made by order of Sesothis. They are both of them -covered with inscriptions, which interpret the operations of Nature -according to the philosophy of the Egyptians. - - - - -CHAP. 15. (10.)—THE OBELISK WHICH SERVES AS A DIAL IN THE CAMPUS -MARTIUS. - - -The one that has been erected in the Campus Martius[2556] has been -applied to a singular purpose by the late Emperor Augustus; that of -marking the shadows projected by the sun, and so measuring the length -of the days and nights. With this object, a stone pavement was laid, -the extreme length of which corresponded exactly with the length of -the shadow thrown by the obelisk at the sixth hour[2557] on the day of -the winter solstice. After this period, the shadow would go on, day -by day, gradually decreasing, and then again[2558] would as gradually -increase, correspondingly with certain lines of brass that were -inserted in the stone; a device well deserving to be known, and due to -the ingenuity of Facundus Novus, the mathematician. Upon the apex of -the obelisk he placed a gilded ball, in order that the shadow of the -summit might be condensed and agglomerated, and so prevent the shadow -of the apex itself from running to a fine point of enormous extent; the -plan being first suggested to him, it is said, by the shadow that is -projected by the human head. For nearly the last thirty years, however, -the observations derived from this dial have been found not to agree: -whether it is that the sun itself has changed its course in consequence -of some derangement of the heavenly system; or whether that the whole -earth has been in some degree displaced from its centre, a thing that, -I have heard say, has been remarked in other places as well; or whether -that some earthquake, confined to this city only, has wrenched the dial -from its original position; or whether it is that in consequence of the -inundations of the Tiber, the foundations of the mass have subsided, -in spite of the general assertion that they are sunk as deep into the -earth as the obelisk erected upon them is high. - -(11.) The third[2559] obelisk[2560] at Rome is in the Vaticanian[2561] -Circus, which was constructed by the Emperors Caius[2562] and Nero; -this being the only one of them all that has been broken in the -carriage. Nuncoreus,[2563] the son of Sesoses, made it: and there -remains[2564] another by him, one hundred cubits in height, which, by -order of an oracle, he consecrated to the Sun, after having lost his -sight and recovered it. - - - - -CHAP. 16. (12.)—MARVELLOUS WORKS IN EGYPT. THE PYRAMIDS. - - -We must make some mention, too, however cursorily, of the Pyramids -of Egypt, so many idle[2565] and frivolous pieces of ostentation of -their resources, on the part of the monarchs of that country. Indeed, -it is asserted by most persons, that the only motive for constructing -them, was either a determination not to leave their treasures to their -successors or to rivals that might be plotting to supplant them, or to -prevent the lower classes from remaining unoccupied. There was great -vanity displayed by these men in constructions of this description, and -there are still the remains of many of them in an unfinished state. -There is one to be seen in the Nome of Arsinoïtes;[2566] two in that -of Memphites, not far from the Labyrinth, of which we shall shortly -have to speak;[2567] and two in the place where Lake Mœris[2568] was -excavated, an immense artificial piece of water, cited by the Egyptians -among their wondrous and memorable works: the summits of the pyramids, -it is said, are to be seen above the water. - -The other three pyramids, the renown of which has filled the whole -earth, and which are conspicuous from every quarter to persons -navigating the river, are situate on the African[2569] side of it, upon -a rocky sterile elevation. They lie between the city of Memphis and -what we have mentioned[2570] as the Delta, within four miles of the -river, and seven miles and a-half from Memphis, near a village known as -Busiris, the people of which are in the habit of ascending them. - - - - -CHAP. 17.—THE EGYPTIAN SPHINX. - - -In front of these pyramids is the Sphinx,[2571] a still more wondrous -object of art, but one upon which silence has been observed, as it is -looked upon as a divinity by the people of the neighbourhood. It is -their belief that King Harmaïs was buried in it, and they will have it -that it was brought there from a distance. The truth is, however, that -it was hewn from the solid rock; and, from a feeling of veneration, the -face of the monster is coloured red. The circumference of the head, -measured round the forehead, is one hundred and two feet, the length of -the feet being one hundred and forty-three, and the height, from the -belly to the summit of the asp on the head, sixty-two.[2572] - -The largest[2573] Pyramid is built of stone quarried in Arabia: -three hundred and sixty thousand men, it is said, were employed -upon it twenty years, and the three were completed in seventy-eight -years and four months. They are described by the following writers: -Herodotus,[2574] Euhemerus, Duris of Samos, Aristagoras, Dionysius, -Artemidorus, Alexander Polyhistor, Butoridas, Antisthenes, Demetrius, -Demoteles, and Apion. These authors, however, are disagreed as to -the persons by whom they were constructed; accident having, with -very considerable justice, consigned to oblivion the names of those -who erected such stupendous memorials of their vanity. Some of these -writers inform us that fifteen hundred talents were expended upon -radishes, garlic, and onions[2575] alone. - -The largest Pyramid occupies seven[2576] jugera of ground, and the -four angles are equidistant, the face of each side being eight hundred -and thirty-three[2577] feet in length. The total height from the -ground to the summit is seven hundred and twenty-five feet, and the -platform on the summit is sixteen feet and a-half in circuit. Of the -second Pyramid, the faces of the four sides are each seven hundred -and fifty-seven feet and a-half in length.[2578] The third is smaller -than the others, but far more prepossessing in appearance: it is built -of Æthiopian stone,[2579] and the face between the four corners is -three hundred and sixty-three feet in extent. In the vicinity of these -erections, there are no vestiges of any buildings left. Far and wide -there is nothing but sand to be seen, of a grain somewhat like a lentil -in appearance, similar to that of the greater part of Africa, in fact. - -The most difficult problem is, to know how the materials for -construction could possibly be carried to so vast a height. According -to some authorities, as the building gradually advanced, they heaped -up against it vast mounds of nitre[2580] and salt; which piles were -melted after its completion, by introducing beneath them the waters -of the river. Others, again, maintain, that bridges were constructed, -of bricks of clay, and that, when the pyramid was completed, these -bricks were distributed for erecting the houses of private individuals. -For[2581] the level of the river, they say, being so much lower, -water could never by any possibility have been brought there by the -medium of canals. In the interior of the largest Pyramid there is a -well, eighty-six cubits deep, which communicates with the river, it -is thought. The method of ascertaining the height of the Pyramids and -all similar edifices was discovered[2582] by Thales of Miletus; he -measuring the shadow at the hour of the day at which it is equal in -length to the body projecting it. - -Such are the marvellous Pyramids; but the crowning marvel of all -is, that the smallest, but most admired of them—that we may feel no -surprise at the opulence of the kings—was built by Rhodopis,[2583] -a courtesan! This woman was once the fellow-slave of Æsopus the -philosopher and fabulist, and the sharer of his bed; but what is much -more surprising is, that a courtesan should have been enabled, by her -vocation, to amass such enormous wealth. - - - - -CHAP. 18.—THE PHAROS. - - -There is another building, too, that is highly celebrated; the tower -that was built by a king of Egypt, on the island of Pharos, at the -entrance to the[2584] harbour of Alexandria. The cost of its erection -was eight hundred talents, they say; and, not to omit the magnanimity -that was shown by King Ptolemæus[2585] on this occasion, he gave -permission to the architect, Sostratus[2586] of Cnidos, to inscribe his -name upon the edifice itself. The object of it is, by the light of its -fires at night, to give warning to ships, of the neighbouring shoals, -and to point out to them the entrance of the harbour. At the present -day, there are similar fires lighted up in numerous places, Ostia and -Ravenna, for example. The only danger[2587] is, that when these fires -are thus kept burning without intermission, they may be mistaken for -stars, the flames having very much that appearance at a distance. This -architect is the first person that built a promenade upon arches; at -Cnidos, it is said. - - - - -CHAP. 19. (13.)—LABYRINTHS. - - -We must speak also of the Labyrinths, the most stupendous works, -perhaps, on which mankind has expended its labours; and not for -chimerical purposes, merely, as might possibly be supposed. - -There is still in Egypt, in the Nome of Heracleopolites,[2588] a -labyrinth,[2589] which was the first constructed, three thousand six -hundred years ago, they say, by King Petesuchis or Tithöes: although, -according to Herodotus, the entire work was the production of no less -than twelve kings, the last of whom was Psammetichus. As to the -purpose for which it was built, there are various opinions: Demoteles -says that it was the palace of King Moteris, and Lyceas that it was -the tomb of Mœris, while many others assert that it was a building -consecrated to the Sun, an opinion which mostly prevails. - -That Dædalus took this for the model of the Labyrinth which he -constructed in Crete, there can be no doubt; though he only reproduced -the hundredth part of it, that portion, namely, which encloses -circuitous passages, windings, and inextricable galleries which lead -to and fro. We must not, comparing this last to what we see delineated -on our mosaic pavements, or to the mazes[2590] formed in the fields -for the amusement of children, suppose it to be a narrow promenade -along which we may walk for many miles together; but we must picture -to ourselves a building filled with numerous doors, and galleries -which continually mislead the visitor, bringing him back, after all -his wanderings, to the spot from which he first set out. This[2591] -Labyrinth is the second, that of Egypt being the first. There is a -third in the Isle of Lemnos, and a fourth in Italy. - -They are all of them covered with arched roofs of polished stone; at -the entrance, too, of the Egyptian Labyrinth, a thing that surprises -me, the building is constructed of Parian marble, while throughout -the other parts of it the columns are of syenites.[2592] With such -solidity is this huge mass constructed, that the lapse of ages has been -totally unable to destroy it, seconded as it has been by the people of -Heracleopolites, who have marvellously ravaged a work which they have -always held in abhorrence. To detail the position of this work and -the various portions of it is quite impossible, it being subdivided -into regions and præfectures, which are styled nomes,[2593] thirty in -number, with a vast palace assigned to each. In addition to these, it -should contain temples of all the gods of Egypt, and forty statues of -Nemesis[2594] in as many sacred shrines; besides numerous pyramids, -forty ells[2595] in height, and covering six aruræ[2596] at the base. -Fatigued with wandering to and fro, the visitor is sure to arrive at -some inextricable crossing or other of the galleries. And then, too, -there are banquetting rooms situate at the summit of steep ascents; -porticos from which we descend by flights of ninety steps; columns in -the interior, made of porphyrites;[2597] figures of gods; statues of -kings; and effigies of hideous monsters. Some of the palaces are so -peculiarly constructed, that the moment the doors are opened a dreadful -sound like that of thunder reverberates within: the greater part, -too, of these edifices have to be traversed in total darkness. Then -again, without the walls of the Labyrinth, there rises another mass of -buildings known as the “Pteron;”[2598] beneath which there are passages -excavated leading to other subterranean palaces. One person, and only -one, has made some slight repairs to the Labyrinth; Chæremon,[2599] an -eunuch of King Necthebis, who lived five hundred years before the time -of Alexander the Great. It is asserted, also, that while the arched -roofs of squared stone were being raised, he had them supported by -beams of thorn[2600] boiled in oil. - -As for the Cretan Labyrinth, what I have already stated must suffice -for that. The Labyrinth of Lemnos[2601] is similar to it, only that -it is rendered more imposing by its hundred and fifty columns; the -shafts of which, when in the stone-yard, were so nicely balanced, that -a child was able to manage the wheel of the lathe in turning them. The -architects were, Smilis,[2602] Rhœcus,[2603] and Theodorus, natives -of the island, and there are still in existence some remains of it; -whereas of the Cretan Labyrinth and of that in Italy not a vestige is -left. - -As to this last, which Porsena, King of Etruria, erected as his -intended sepulchre, it is only proper that I should make some mention -of it, if only to show that the vanity displayed by foreign monarchs, -great as it is, has been surpassed. But as the fabulousness of the -story connected with it quite exceeds all bounds, I shall employ the -words given by M. Varro himself in his account of it:—“Porsena was -buried,” says he, “beneath the city of Clusium;[2604] in the spot -where he had had constructed a square monument, built of squared stone. -Each side of this monument was three hundred feet in length and fifty -in height, and beneath the base, which was also square, there was an -inextricable labyrinth, into which if any one entered without a clew -of thread, he could never find his way out. Above this square building -there stand five pyramids, one at each corner, and one in the middle, -seventy-five feet broad at the base, and one hundred and fifty feet in -height. These pyramids are so tapering in their form, that upon the -summit of all of them united there rests a brazen globe, and upon that -a petasus;[2605] from which there hang, suspended by chains, bells, -which make a tinkling when agitated by the wind, like what was done -at Dodona[2606] in former times. Upon this globe there are four other -pyramids, each one hundred feet in height; and above them is a single -platform, on which there are five more pyramids,”[2607]—the height of -which Varro has evidently felt ashamed to add; but, according to the -Etruscan fables, it was equal to that of the rest of the building. -What downright madness this, to attempt to seek glory at an outlay -which can never be of utility to any one; to say nothing of exhausting -the resources of the kingdom, and after all, that the artist may reap -the greater share of the praise! - - - - -CHAP. 20.—HANGING GARDENS. A HANGING CITY. - - -We read, too, of hanging gardens,[2608] and what is even more than -this, a hanging city,[2609] Thebes in Egypt: it being the practice -for the kings to lead forth their armies from beneath, while the -inhabitants were totally unconscious of it. This, too, is even less -surprising than the fact that a river flows through the middle of the -city. If, however, all this had really been the case, there is no doubt -that Homer would have mentioned it, he who has celebrated the hundred -gates of Thebes. - - - - -CHAP. 21. (14.)—THE TEMPLE OF DIANA AT EPHESUS. - - -The most wonderful monument of Græcian magnificence, and one that -merits our genuine admiration, is the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, which -took one hundred and twenty years in building, a work in which all -Asia[2610] joined. A marshy soil was selected for its site, in order -that it might not suffer from earthquakes, or the chasms which they -produce. On the other hand, again, that the foundations of so vast -a pile might not have to rest upon a loose and shifting bed, layers -of trodden charcoal were placed beneath, with fleeces[2611] covered -with wool upon the top of them. The entire length of the temple is -four hundred and twenty-five feet, and the breadth two hundred and -twenty-five. The columns are one hundred and twenty-seven in number, -and sixty feet in height, each of them presented by a different king. -Thirty-six of these columns are carved, and one of them by the hand of -Scopas.[2612] Chersiphron[2613] was the architect who presided over the -work. - -The great marvel in this building is, how such ponderous -architraves[2614] could possibly have been raised to so great a height. -This, however, the architect effected by means of bags filled with -sand, which he piled up upon an inclined plane until they reached -beyond the capitals of the columns; then, as he gradually emptied the -lower bags, the architraves[2615] insensibly settled in the places -assigned them. But the greatest difficulty of all was found, in laying -the lintel which he placed over the entrance-doors. It was an enormous -mass of stone, and by no possibility could it be brought to lie level -upon the jambs which formed its bed; in consequence of which, the -architect was driven to such a state of anxiety and desperation as to -contemplate suicide. Wearied and quite worn out by such thoughts as -these, during the night, they say, he beheld in a dream the goddess in -honour of whom the temple was being erected; who exhorted him to live -on, for that she herself had placed the stone in its proper position. -And such, in fact, next morning, was found to be the case, the stone -apparently having come to the proper level by dint of its own weight. -The other decorations of this work would suffice to fill many volumes, -but they do not tend in any way to illustrate the works of Nature. - - - - -CHAP. 22. (15.)—MARVELS CONNECTED WITH OTHER TEMPLES. - - -There still exists, too, at Cyzicus,[2616] a temple of polished stone, -between all the joints of which the artist has inserted a thread of -gold; it being his intention to erect an ivory statue of Jupiter -within, with Apollo in marble crowning him. The result is, that the -interstices quite glisten with their fine, hair-like threads; and the -reflection of the gold, obscured as it is, gently falling upon the -statues, besides proclaiming the genius of the artist, heightens their -effect, and so teaches us to appreciate the costliness of the work. - - - - -CHAP. 23.—THE FUGITIVE STONE. THE SEVEN-FOLD ECHO. BUILDINGS ERECTED -WITHOUT THE USE OF NAILS. - - -In the same city also, there is a stone, known as the “Fugitive -Stone;”[2617] the Argonautæ, who used it for the purposes of an anchor, -having left it there. This stone having repeatedly taken flight from -the Prytanæum,[2618] the place so called where it is kept, it has been -fastened down with lead. In this city also, near the gate which is -known as the “Trachia,”[2619] there are seven towers, which repeat a -number of times all sounds that are uttered in them. This phenomenon, -to which the name of “Echo,” has been given by the Greeks, depends upon -the peculiar conformation of localities, and is produced in valleys -more particularly. At Cyzicus, however, it is the effect of accident -only; while at Olympia, it is produced by artificial means, and in -a very marvellous manner; in a portico there, which is known as the -“Heptaphonon,”[2620] from the circumstance that it returns the sound of -the voice seven times. - -At Cyzicus, also, is the Buleuterium,[2621] a vast edifice, constructed -without a nail of iron; the raftering being so contrived as to admit -of the beams being removed and replaced without the use of stays. -A similar thing, too, is the case with the Sublician Bridge[2622] -at Rome; and this by enactment, on religious grounds, there having -been such difficulty experienced in breaking it down when Horatius -Cocles”[2623] defended it. - - - - -CHAP. 24.—MARVELLOUS BUILDINGS AT ROME, EIGHTEEN IN NUMBER. - - -But it is now time to pass on to the marvels in building displayed -by our own City, and to make some enquiry into the resources and -experience that we have gained in the lapse of eight hundred years; and -so prove that here, as well, the rest of the world has been outdone by -us: a thing which will appear, in fact, to have occurred almost as many -times as the marvels are in number which I shall have to enumerate. If, -indeed, all the buildings of our City are considered in the aggregate, -and supposing them, so to say, all thrown together in one vast mass, -the united grandeur of them would lead one to suppose that we were -describing another world, accumulated in a single spot. - -Not to mention among our great works, the Circus Maximus, that was -constructed by the Dictator Cæsar, one stadium in width and three in -length, and occupying, with the adjacent buildings, no less than four -jugera, with room for two hundred and sixty thousand spectators seated; -am I not to include in the number of our magnificent constructions, -the Basilica of Paulus,[2624] with its admirable Phrygian columns; -the Forum of the late Emperor Augustus; the Temple of Peace, erected -by the Emperor Vespasianus Augustus—some of the finest works that the -world has ever beheld—the roofing, too, of the Vote-Office,[2625] that -was built by Agrippa? not to forget that, before his time, Valerius of -Ostia, the architect, had covered in a theatre at Rome, at the time of -the public Games celebrated by Libo?[2626] - -We behold with admiration pyramids that were built by kings, when the -very ground alone, that was purchased by the Dictator Cæsar, for the -construction of his Forum, cost one hundred millions of sesterces! If, -too, an enormous expenditure has its attractions for any one whose mind -is influenced by monetary considerations, be it known to him that the -house in which Clodius dwelt, who was slain by Milo, was purchased by -him at the price of fourteen million eight hundred thousand sesterces! -a thing that, for my part, I look upon as no less astounding than the -monstrous follies that have been displayed by kings. And then, as -to Milo himself, the sums in which he was indebted, amounted to no -less than seventy millions of sesterces; a state of things, to be -considered, in my opinion, as one of the most portentous phænomena in -the history of the human mind. But it was in those days, too, that -old men still spoke in admiration of the vast proportions of the -Agger,[2627] and of the enormous foundations of the Capitol; of the -public sewers, too, a work more stupendous than any; as mountains had -to be pierced for their construction, and, like the hanging city[2628] -which we recently mentioned, navigation had to be carried on beneath -Rome; an event which happened in the ædileship[2629] of M. Agrippa, -after he had filled the office of consul. - -For this purpose, there are seven rivers, made, by artificial -channels, to flow beneath the city. Rushing onward, like so many -impetuous torrents, they are compelled to carry off and sweep away all -the sewerage; and swollen as they are by the vast accession of the -pluvial waters, they reverberate against the sides and bottom of their -channels. Occasionally, too, the Tiber, overflowing, is thrown backward -in its course, and discharges itself by these outlets: obstinate is -the contest that ensues within between the meeting tides, but so firm -and solid is the masonry, that it is enabled to offer an effectual -resistance. Enormous as are the accumulations that are carried along -above, the work of the channels never gives way. Houses falling -spontaneously to ruins, or levelled with the ground by conflagrations, -are continually battering against them; the ground, too, is shaken by -earthquakes every now and then; and yet, built as they were in the days -of Tarquinius Priscus, seven hundred years ago, these constructions -have survived, all but unharmed. We must not omit, too, to mention -one remarkable circumstance, and all the more remarkable from the -fact, that the most celebrated historians have omitted to mention it. -Tarquinius Priscus having commenced the sewers, and set the lower -classes to work upon them, the laboriousness and prolonged duration -of the employment became equally an object of dread to them; and the -consequence was, that suicide was a thing of common occurrence, the -citizens adopting this method of escaping their troubles. For this -evil, however, the king devised a singular remedy, and one that has -never[2630] been resorted to either before that time or since: for he -ordered the bodies of all who had been thus guilty of self-destruction, -to be fastened to a cross, and left there as a spectacle to their -fellow-citizens and a prey to birds and wild beasts. The result was, -that that sense of propriety which so peculiarly attaches itself to -the Roman name, and which more than once has gained a victory when the -battle was all but lost, came to the rescue on this occasion as well; -though for this once, the Romans were in reality its dupes, as they -forgot that, though they felt shocked at the thoughts of such ignominy -while alive, they would be quite insensible to any such disgrace when -dead. It is said that Tarquinius made these sewers of dimensions -sufficiently large to admit of a waggon laden with hay passing along -them. - -All that we have just described, however, is but trifling when placed -in comparison with one marvellous fact, which I must not omit to -mention before I pass on to other subjects. In the consulship[2631] of -M. Lepidus and Q. Catulus, there was not at Rome, as we learn from the -most trustworthy authors, a finer house than the one which belonged to -Lepidus himself: and yet, by Hercules! within five-and-thirty years -from that period, the very same house did not hold the hundredth -rank even in the City! Let a person, if he will, in taking this fact -into consideration, only calculate the vast masses of marble, the -productions of painters, the regal treasures that must have been -expended, in bringing these hundred mansions to vie with one that had -been in its day the most sumptuous and the most celebrated in all the -City; and then let him reflect how that, since that period, and down -to the present time, these houses have all of them been surpassed -by others without number. There can be no doubt that conflagrations -are a punishment inflicted upon us for our luxury; but such are our -habits, that in spite of such warnings as these, we cannot be made to -understand that there are things in existence more perishable even than -man himself. - -But there are still two other mansions by which all these edifices -have been eclipsed. Twice have we seen the whole City environed by -the palaces of the Emperors Caius[2632] and Nero; that of the last, -that nothing might be wanting to its magnificence, being coated with -gold.[2633] Surely such palaces as these must have been intended for -the abode of those who created this mighty empire, and who left the -plough or their native hearth to go forth to conquer nations, and -to return laden with triumphs! men, in fact, whose very fields even -occupied less space than the audience-chambers[2634] of these palaces. - -Indeed, one cannot but help reflecting how trifling a portion of these -palaces was equal to the sites which the republic granted to its -invincible generals, for the erection of their dwellings. The supreme -honour, too, attendant upon these grants—as in the case of P. Valerius -Publicola, the first consul with L. Brutus, for his many meritorious -services; and of his brother, who twice in one consulship defeated the -Sabines—was the permission granted, by the terms of the decree, to have -the doors of their houses opening from without, and the gates thrown -back upon the public street. Such was the most distinguished privilege -accorded in those days to triumphal mansions even! - -I will not permit, however, these two Caiuses,[2635] or two Neros, -to enjoy this glory even, such as it is; for I will prove that these -extravagant follies of theirs have been surpassed, in the use that was -made of his wealth by M. Scaurus, a private citizen. Indeed, I am by -no means certain that it was not the ædileship of this personage that -inflicted the first great blow upon the public manners, and that Sylla -was not guilty of a greater crime in giving such unlimited power to his -step-son,[2636] than in the proscription of so many thousands. During -his ædileship, and only for the temporary purposes of a few days, -Scaurus executed the greatest[2637] work that has ever been made by -the hands of man, even when intended to be of everlasting duration; -his Theatre, I mean. This building consisted of three storeys, -supported upon three hundred and sixty columns; and this, too, in a -city which had not allowed without some censure one of its greatest -citizens[2638] to erect six[2639] pillars of Hymettian marble. The -ground-storey was of marble, the second of glass, a species of luxury -which ever since that time has been quite unheard of, and the highest -of gilded wood. The lowermost columns, as previously[2640] stated, were -eight-and-thirty feet in height; and, placed between these columns, as -already[2641] mentioned, were brazen statues, three thousand in number. -The area[2642] of this theatre afforded accommodation for eighty -thousand spectators; and yet the Theatre of Pompeius, after the City -had so greatly increased, and the inhabitants had become so vastly more -numerous, was considered abundantly large, with its sittings for forty -thousand only. The rest of the fittings of it, what with Attalic[2643] -vestments, pictures, and the other stage-properties,[2644] were of such -enormous value that, after Scaurus had had conveyed to his Tusculan -villa such parts thereof as were not required for the enjoyment of -his daily luxuries, the loss was no less than three hundred millions -of sesterces, when the villa was burnt by his servants in a spirit of -revenge. - -The consideration of such prodigality as this quite distracts my -attention, and compels me to digress from my original purpose, in order -to mention a still greater instance of extravagance, in reference -to wood. C. Curio,[2645] who died during the civil wars, fighting -on the side of Cæsar, found, to his dismay, that he could not, when -celebrating the funeral games in honour of his father, surpass the -riches and magnificence of Scaurus—for where, in fact, was to be found -such a stepsire as Sylla, and such a mother as Metella, that bidder at -all auctions for the property of the proscribed? Where, too, was he to -find for his father, M. Scaurus, so long the principal man in the city, -and one who had acted, in his alliance with Marius, as a receptacle -for the plunder of whole provinces?—Indeed, Scaurus himself was now no -longer able to rival himself; and it was at least one advantage which -he derived from this destruction by fire of so many objects brought -from all parts of the earth, that no one could ever after be his equal -in this species of folly. Curio, consequently, found himself compelled -to fall back upon his own resources, and to think of some new device of -his own. It is really worth our while to know what this device was, if -only to congratulate ourselves upon the manners of the present day, and -to reverse the ordinary mode of expression, and term ourselves the men -of the olden time.[2646] - -He caused to be erected, close together, two theatres of very large -dimensions, and built of wood, each of them nicely poised, and turning -on a pivot. Before mid-day, a spectacle of games was exhibited in each; -the theatres being turned back to back, in order that the noise of -neither of them might interfere with what was going on in the other. -Then, in the latter part of the day, all on a sudden, the two theatres -were swung round, and, the corners uniting, brought face to face; the -outer frames,[2647] too, were removed, and thus an amphitheatre was -formed, in which combats of gladiators were presented to the view; men -whose safety was almost less compromised than was that of the Roman -people, in allowing itself to be thus whirled round from side to side. -Now, in this case, which have we most reason to admire, the inventor or -the invention? the artist, or the author of the project? him who first -dared to think of such an enterprize, or him who ventured to undertake -it? him who obeyed the order, or him who gave it? But the thing that -surpasses all is, the frenzy that must have possessed the public, -to take their seats in a place which must of necessity have been so -unsubstantial and so insecure. Lo and behold! here is a people that has -conquered the whole earth, that has subdued the universe, that divides -the spoils of kingdoms and of nations, that sends its laws to foreign -lands, that shares in some degree the attributes of the immortal gods -in common with mankind, suspended aloft in a machine, and showering -plaudits even upon its own peril! - -This is indeed holding life cheap; and can we, after this, complain -of our disasters at Cannæ? How vast the catastrophe that might have -ensued! When cities are swallowed up by an earthquake, it is looked -upon by mankind as a general calamity; and yet, here have we the -whole Roman people, embarked, so to say, in two ships, and sitting -suspended on a couple of pivots; the grand spectacle being its own -struggle with danger, and its liability to perish at any moment that -the overstrained machinery may give way! And then the object, too, of -all this—that public favour may be conciliated for the tribune’s[2648] -harangues at a future day, and that, at the Rostra, he may still have -the power of shaking the tribes, nicely balanced[2649] as they are! -And really, what may he not dare with those who, at his persuasion, -have braved such perils as these? Indeed, to confess the truth, at the -funeral games celebrated at the tomb of his father, it was no less than -the whole Roman people that shared the dangers of the gladiatorial -combats. When the pivots had now been sufficiently worked and wearied, -he gave another turn to his magnificent displays. For, upon the last -day, still preserving the form of the amphitheatre, he cut the stage -in two through the middle, and exhibited a spectacle of athletes; -after which, the stage being suddenly withdrawn on either side, he -exhibited a combat, upon the same day, between such of the gladiators -as had previously proved victorious. And yet, with all this, Curio -was no king, no ruler of the destinies of a nation, nor yet a person -remarkable for his opulence even; seeing that he possessed no resources -of his own, beyond what he could realize from the discord between the -leading men.[2650] - -But let us now turn our attention to some marvels which, justly -appreciated, may be truthfully pronounced to remain unsurpassed. Q. -Marcius Rex,[2651] upon being commanded by the senate to repair the -Appian[2652] Aqueduct, and those of the Anio[2653] and Tepula,[2654] -constructed during his prætorship a new aqueduct,[2655] which bore his -name, and was brought hither by a channel pierced through the sides of -mountains. Agrippa,[2656] in his ædileship, united the Marcian with -the Virgin[2657] Aqueduct, and repaired and strengthened the channels -of the others. He also formed seven hundred wells, in addition to five -hundred fountains, and one hundred and thirty reservoirs, many of them -magnificently adorned. Upon these works, too, he erected three hundred -statues of marble or bronze, and four hundred marble columns; and all -this in the space of a single year! In the work[2658] which he has -written in commemoration of his ædileship, he also informs us that -public games were celebrated for the space of fifty-nine days, and that -one hundred and seventy gratuitous baths were opened. The number of -these last at Rome, has increased to an infinite[2659] extent since his -time. - -The preceding aqueducts, however, have all been surpassed by the costly -work which was more recently commenced by the Emperor Caius,[2660] and -completed by Claudius. Under these princes, the Curtian and Cærulean -Waters, with the New Anio,[2661] were brought from a distance of forty -miles, and at so high a level that all the hills were supplied with -water, on which the City is built. The sum expended on these works was -three hundred and fifty millions of sesterces. If we only take into -consideration the abundant supply of water to the public, for baths, -ponds, canals, household purposes, gardens, places in the suburbs, and -country-houses; and then reflect upon the distances that are traversed, -the arches that have been constructed, the mountains that have been -pierced, the valleys that have been levelled, we must of necessity -admit that there is nothing to be found more worthy of our admiration -throughout the whole universe. - -Among the most memorable works, too, I, for my own part, should -include another undertaking of the Emperor Claudius, although it was -afterwards abandoned in consequence of the hatred borne him by his -successor;[2662] I mean the channel that was cut through a mountain as -an emissary for Lake Fucinus;[2663] a work which cost a sum beyond all -calculation, and employed a countless multitude of workmen for many -years. In those parts where the soil was found to be terreous, it was -necessary to pump up the water by the aid of machinery; in other parts, -again, the solid rock had to be hewn through. All this, too, had to be -done in the midst of darkness within; a series of operations which can -only be adequately conceived by those who were witnesses of them, and -which no human language can possibly describe. - -I pass in silence the harbour that has been formed at Ostia; the -various roads, too, that have been cut across mountains; the Tyrrhenian -Sea separated by an embankment from Lake Lucrinus;[2664] and vast -numbers of bridges constructed at an enormous expense. Among the many -other marvels, too, of Italy, we are informed by Papirius Fabianus, -a most diligent enquirer into the operations of Nature, that the -marble there grows in the quarries; and those who work in the quarries -assure us that the wounds thus inflicted upon the mountains fill up -spontaneously. If such is the fact, luxury has good grounds for hoping -that it will never be at a loss for a supply of materials for its -gratification. - - - - -CHAP. 25. (16.)—THE MAGNET: THREE REMEDIES - - -Upon quitting the marbles to pass on to the other more remarkable -stones, who can for a moment doubt that the magnet[2665] will be the -first to suggest itself? For what, in fact, is there endowed with -more marvellous properties than this? or in which of her departments -has Nature displayed a greater degree of waywardness? She had given a -voice to rocks, as already[2666] mentioned, and had enabled them to -answer man, or rather, I should say, to throw back his own words in -his teeth. What is there in existence more inert than a piece of rigid -stone? And yet, behold! Nature has here endowed stone with both sense -and hands. What is there more stubborn than hard iron? Nature has, in -this instance, bestowed upon it both feet and intelligence. It allows -itself, in fact, to be attracted by the magnet, and, itself a metal -which subdues all other elements, it precipitates itself towards the -source of an influence at once mysterious and unseen. The moment the -metal comes near it, it springs towards the magnet, and, as it clasps -it, is held fast in the magnet’s embraces. Hence it is that this stone -is sometimes known by the name of “sideritis;”[2667] another name given -to it being “heraclion.”[2668] It received its name “magnes,” Nicander -informs us, from the person who was the first to discover it, upon -Ida.[2669] It is found, too, in various other countries, as in Spain, -for example. Magnes, it is said, made this discovery, when, upon taking -his herds to pasture, he found that the nails of his shoes and the iron -ferrel of his staff adhered to the ground. - -Sotacus[2670] describes five[2671] different kinds of magnet; the -Æthiopian magnet; that of Magnesia, a country which borders on -Macedonia, and lies to the right of the road which leads from, the town -of Bœbe to Iolcos; a third, from Hyettus in Bœotia; a fourth, from -Alexandria in Troas; and a fifth, from Magnesia in Asia. The leading -distinction in magnets is the sex, male and female,[2672] and the next -great difference in them is the colour. Those of Magnesia, bordering on -Macedonia, are of a reddish black; those of Bœotia are more red than -black; and the kind that is found in Troas is black, of the female sex, -and consequently destitute of attractive power. The most inferior, -however, of all, are those of Magnesia in Asia: they are white, have no -attractive influence on iron, and resemble pumice in appearance. It has -been found by experience, that the more nearly the magnet approaches -to an azure colour, the better it is in quality. The Æthiopian magnet -is looked upon as the best of all, and is purchased at its weight in -silver: Zmiris in Æthiopia is the place where it is found, such being -the name of a region there, covered with sand. - -In the same country, too, the magnet called “hæmatites”[2673] is -found, a stone of a blood-red colour, and which, when bruised, yields -a tint like that of blood, as also of saffron. The hæmatites has not -the same property[2674] of attracting iron that the ordinary magnet -has. The Æthiopian magnet is recognized by this peculiarity, that it -has the property, also, of attracting other magnets to it.[2675] All -these minerals are useful as ingredients in ophthalmic preparations, -in certain proportions according to the nature of each: they are -particularly good, too, for arresting defluxions of the eyes. -Triturated in a calcined state, they have a healing effect upon burns. - -In Æthiopia, too, not far from Zmiris, there is a mountain in which the -stone called “theamedes”[2676] is found, a mineral which repels and -rejects all kinds of iron. Of the attractive and repulsive properties -of iron, we have spoken[2677] more than once. - - - - -CHAP. 26.—STONE OF SCYROS. - - -In the Isle of Scyros[2678] there is a stone,[2679] they say, which -floats upon water when whole, but which falls to the bottom when broken -into fragments. - - - - -CHAP. 27. (17.)—SARCOPHAGUS, OR STONE OF ASSOS: TEN REMEDIES. - - -At Assos in Troas, there is found a stone of a laminated texture, -called “sarcophagus.”[2680] It is a well-known fact, that dead bodies, -when buried in this stone, are consumed in the course of forty days, -with the sole exception of the teeth. According to Mucianus, too, -mirrors, body-scrapers, garments, and shoes, that have been buried with -the dead, become transformed into stone. In Lycia, and in the East, -there are certain stones of a similar nature, which, when attached to -the bodies of the living even, corrode the flesh. - - - - -CHAP. 28.—CHERNITES. - - -Less active in its properties is chernites,[2681] a stone which -preserves bodies without consuming them, and strongly resembles ivory -in appearance: the body of King Darius, they say, was buried in it. -The stone that is known as “porus,”[2681] is similar to Parian marble -in hardness and whiteness, but is not so heavy. Theophrastus mentions -also a transparent stone that is found in Egypt, and is similar to -stone of Chios in appearance; it is by no means improbable that it -may have existed in his time, for stones, we know, disappear, and new -kinds are discovered. The stone of Assos,[2682] which is saltish to the -taste, modifies the attacks of gout, the feet being placed in a vessel -made of it for the purpose; in addition to which, in the quarries of -this stone, all maladies of the legs disappear, whereas, in mines in -general, the legs become affected with disease. “Flower of stone of -Assos” is the name given to a soft stone which crumbles into dust, and -is found very efficacious in some cases; it resembles red pumice in -appearance. In combination with Cyprian wax, this stone is curative -of affections of the mamillæ; and, employed with pitch or resin, it -disperses scrofulous sores and inflammatory tumours. Used in the form -of an electuary, it is good for phthisis, and, with honey, it causes -old sores to cicatrize, and consumes proud flesh. It is used, also, for -the cure of wounds of an obstinate nature inflicted by animals, and -acts as a desiccative upon suppurations. Plaisters, too, are made of it -for gout, bean-meal being incorporated with it for the purpose. - - - - -CHAP. 29. (18.)—OSSEOUS STONES. PALM STONES. CORANI. BLACK STONES. - - -Theophrastus and Mucianus are of opinion that there are certain stones -which bring[2683] forth other stones. Theophrastus states, also, that -a fossil[2684] ivory is found, both white and black; that the earth, -too, produces bones, and that osseous[2685] stones are sometimes found. -In the vicinity of Munda in Spain, the place where the Dictator Cæsar -defeated Pompeius,[2686] there are stones found, which, when broken -asunder, bear the impression of palm leaves.[2687] - -There are some black stones, also, which are held in much the same -esteem as the marbles; the Tænarian[2688] stone, for example. Varro -says that the black stone of Africa is more durable than that of Italy; -while, on the other hand, the white corani[2689] are harder than Parian -marble. He states, also, that the silex of Luna admits of being cut -with a saw; that that of Tusculum decrepitates in the fire; that the -tawny silex of the Sabine districts, with the addition of oil, will -yield a flame even; and that, at Volsinii, molar stones[2690] for -grinding are found. Among the prodigies that have happened, I find -mention made of millstones that have moved of themselves, - - - - -CHAP. 30.—MOLAR STONES. PYRITES; SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -In no country are the molar stones[2691] superior to those of Italy; -stones, be it remembered, and not fragments of rock: there are some -provinces, too, where they are not to be found at all. Some stones of -this class are softer than others, and admit of being smoothed with -the whetstone, so as to present all the appearance, at a distance, of -ophites.[2692] There is no stone of a more durable nature than this; -for in general, stone, like wood, suffers from the action, more or -less, of rain, heat, and cold. Some kinds, again, become deteriorated -by the action of the moon, while others are apt to contract a rust in -lapse of time, or to change their white colour when steeped in oil. - -(19.) Some persons give this molar stone the name of “pyrites,”[2693] -from the circumstance that it has a great affinity to fire;[2694] but -there is also another kind of pyrites, of a more porous nature, and -another,[2695] again, which resembles copper. This last, it is said, -is found in the mines, near Acamas,[2696] in the Isle of Cyprus; one -variety of it being of a silver, another of a golden, colour. There -are various methods of melting these stones, some persons fusing -them twice, or three times even, in honey, till all the liquid has -evaporated; while others, again, calcine them upon hot coals, and, -after treating them with honey, wash them like copper. - -The medicinal properties which these minerals possess are of a -calorific, desiccative, dispersive, and resolvent nature, and, applied -topically, they case indurations to suppurate. They are employed also, -in a crude state and pulverized, for the cure of scrofulous sores -and boils. Some writers mention another kind of pyrites also. Those -among them have the greatest affinity to fire which we distinguish as -“live”[2697] pyrites. They are the most ponderous of all, and are found -remarkably useful for advance-guards when laying out encampments; for, -on being struck with a nail or any other kind of stone, they emit a -spark, which, received upon sulphur, dried fungus,[2698] or leaves, -produces a fire almost sooner than it could be named. - - - - -CHAP. 31.—OSTRACITES; FOUR REMEDIES. AMIANTHUS; TWO REMEDIES. - - -The several varieties of ostracites[2699] bear a resemblance to shells. -They are used by way of substitute for pumice-stone, for smoothing the -skin. Taken in drink, they arrest discharges of blood; and, applied -topically with honey, they are curative of ulcerations and pains in the -mamillæ. - -Amianthus[2700] resembles alumen[2701] in appearance, and suffers -no diminution from the action of fire. This substance effectually -counteracts all noxious spells, those wrought by magicians in -particular. - - - - -CHAP. 32.—GEODES; THREE REMEDIES. - - -Geodes[2702] is so called from its formation, it containing earth -within. It is remarkably beneficial for the eyes, and is used for the -cure of diseases of the testes and mamillæ. - - - - -CHAP. 33.—MELITINUS; SIX REMEDIES. - - -The stone called “melitinus”[2703] yields a liquid that is sweet, like -honey. Bruised and incorporated with wax, it is curative of pituitous -eruptions, spots upon the skin, and ulcerations of the fauces. It -removes epinyctis[2704] also, and, applied as a pessary, in wool, it -alleviates pains in the uterus. - - - - -CHAP. 34.—GAGATES: SIX REMEDIES. - - -Gagates[2705] is a stone, so called from Gages, the name of a town -and river in Lycia.[2706] It is asserted, too, that at Leucolla[2707] -the sea throws it up, and that it is found over a space twelve stadia -in extent. It is black, smooth, light, and porous, differs but little -from wood in appearance,[2708] is of a brittle texture, and emits a -disagreeable odour[2709] when rubbed. Marks made upon pottery with -this stone cannot be effaced. When burnt, it gives out a sulphureous -smell; and it is a singular fact, that the application of water ignites -it, while that of oil quenches it.[2710] The fumes of it, burnt, keep -serpents at a distance, and dispel hysterical affections: they detect a -tendency also to epilepsy,[2711] and act as a test of virginity.[2712] -A decoction of this stone in wine is curative of tooth-ache; and, -in combination with wax, it is good for scrofula. The magicians, -it is said, make use of gagates in the practice of what they call -axinomancy;[2713] and they assure us that it will be sure not to burn, -if the thing is about to happen as the party desires. - - - - -CHAP. 35.—SPONGITES: TWO REMEDIES. - - -The stone called “spongites” is found in sponges, and is a marine -formation. By some persons it is called “tecolithos,”[2714] from the -circumstance that it is curative of affections of the bladder. Taken in -wine, it breaks and disperses urinary calculi. - - - - -CHAP. 36.—PHRYGIAN STONE. - - -Phrygian stone is so called from the country which produces it, and -is a porous mass like pumice. It is first saturated with wine, and -then calcined, the fire being kept up with the bellows till the stone -is brought to a red heat; which done, it is quenched in sweet wine. -This operation is repeated three times. The only use made of it is for -dyeing cloths.[2715] - - - - -CHAP. 37. (20.)—HÆMATITES: FIVE REMEDIES. SCHISTOS: SEVEN REMEDIES. - - -Schistos and hæmatites[2716] have a certain affinity between them. The -latter is found in mines, and, when burnt, has just the colour[2717] -of minium.[2718] It is calcined in the same manner as Phrygian stone, -but is not quenched in wine. Adulterations of it are detected by the -appearance of red veins in it, and by its comparative friability. -It is marvellously useful as an application for bloodshot eyes, -and, taken internally, it acts as a check upon female discharges. -To patients vomiting blood, it is administered in combination with -pomegranate-juice. It is very efficacious also for affections of the -bladder; and it is taken with wine for the cure of wounds inflicted -by serpents. In all those cases the stone called “schistos”[2719] is -efficacious, though not in so high a degree as the other; the most -serviceable being that which resembles saffron in colour. Applied with -woman’s milk, it is particularly useful for arresting discharges from -the corners of the eyes,[2720] and it is also very serviceable for -reducing procidence of those organs. Such, at least, is the opinion of -the authors who have most recently written on the subject. - - - - -CHAP. 38.—ÆTHIOPIC HÆMATITES. ANDRODAMAS; TWO REMEDIES. ARABIAN -HÆMATITES. MILTITES OR HEPATITES. ANTHRACITES. - - -Sotacus, one of the most ancient writers, says, that there are five -kinds of hæmatites, in addition to the magnet[2721] so called. He -gives the preference among them to that of Æthiopia,[2722] a very -useful ingredient in ophthalmic preparations and the compositions -which he calls “panchresta,”[2723] and good for the cure of burns. -The second, he says, is called “androdamas,”[2724] of a black[2725] -colour, remarkable for its weight and hardness, to which it owes its -name, in fact, and found in Africa more particularly. It attracts -silver, he says, copper, and iron, and is tested with a touchstone -made of basanites.[2726] It yields a liquid the colour of blood, and -is an excellent remedy for diseases of the liver. The third kind that -he mentions is the hæmatites[2727] of Arabia, a mineral of equal -hardness, and which with difficulty yields, upon the water-whetstone, -a liquid sometimes approaching the tint of saffron. The fourth[2728] -kind, he says, is known as “hepatites,”[2729] while raw, and as -“miltites”[2730] when calcined; a substance good for burns, and more -efficacious than rubrica[2731] for all the purposes for which that -mineral is employed. The fifth[2732] variety is schistos; a substance -which, taken internally, arrests hæmorrhoidal discharges. Upon the same -authority, it is recommended to take any kind of hæmatites, fasting, -in doses of three drachmæ, triturated in oil, for affections of the -blood.[2733] - -The same author mentions also a kind of schistos which has no affinity -to hæmatites, and to which he gives the name of “anthracites.”[2734] It -is a native of Africa, he says, and is of a black colour. When rubbed -upon a water-whetstone, it yields a black colour on the side which has -adhered to the earth, and, on the opposite side, a saffron tint. He -states also that it is a useful ingredient in ophthalmic preparations. - - - - -CHAP. 39. (21)—AËTITES. TAPHIUSIAN STONE. CALLIMUS. - - -The stone called aëtites[2735] has a great reputation, in consequence -of the name which it bears. It is found in the nests of eagles, as -already mentioned in our Tenth Book.[2736] There are always two of -these stones found together, they say, a male stone and a female; and -without them, it is said, the various eagles that we have described -would be unable to propagate. Hence it is, too, that the young of the -eagle are never more than two in number. There are four varieties of -the aëtites: that of Africa is soft and diminutive, and contains in the -interior—in its bowels as it were—a sweet, white, argillaceous earth. -It is friable, and is generally thought to be of the female sex. The -male stone, on the other hand, which is found in Arabia, is hard, and -similar to a nut-gall in appearance; or else of a reddish hue, with a -hard stone in the interior. The third kind is a stone found in the Isle -of Cyprus, and resembles those of Africa in appearance, but is larger -and flat, while the others are of a globular form: it contains a sand -within, of a pleasing colour, and mixed with small stones; being so -soft itself as to admit of being crushed between the fingers. - -The fourth variety is known as the Taphiusian aëtites, and is found -near Leucas,[2737] at Taphiusa, a locality which lies to the right as -you sail from Ithaca towards Cape Leucas. It is met with in the beds -of rivers there, and is white and round; having another stone in the -interior, the name given to which is “callimus:” none of the varieties -of aëtites have a smoother surface than this. Attached to pregnant -women or to cattle, in the skins of animals that have been sacrificed, -these stones act as a preventive of abortion, care being taken not to -remove them till the moment of parturition; for otherwise procidence of -the uterus is the result. If, on the other hand, they are not removed -at the moment when parturition is about to ensue, that operation of -Nature cannot be effected. - - - - -CHAP. 40.—SAMIAN STONE: EIGHT REMEDIES. - - -Samian stone[2738] comes from the same island which produces the -earth in praise of which we have spoken already.[2739] It is useful -for giving a polish to gold, and it is employed medicinally for the -treatment of ulcerations of the eyes, combined with milk in manner -already[2740] described. It is good, too, for watery discharges of -a chronic nature, from the eyes. Taken internally, it is useful for -affections of the stomach, and it has the effect of dispelling vertigo -and restoring the spirits when depressed. Some writers are of opinion -that this stone may be administered with advantage for epilepsy and -strangury; and it is employed as an ingredient in the restoratives -known as “acopa.”[2741] The test of its purity is its weight and its -whiteness. Some persons will have it that, worn as an amulet, it acts -as a preventive of abortion. - - - - -CHAP. 41.—ARABIAN STONE; SIX REMEDIES. - - -Arabian[2742] stone resembles ivory in appearance; and in a calcined -state it is employed as a dentifrice.[2743] It is particularly useful -for the cure of hæmorrhoidal swellings, applied either in lint or by -the aid of linen pledgets. - - - - -CHAP. 42.—PUMICE; NINE REMEDIES. - - -And here, too, I must not omit to give some account of pumice.[2744] -This name is very generally given, it is true, to those porous -pieces of stone, which we see suspended in the erections known as -“musæa,”[2745] with the view of artificially giving them all the -appearance of caverns. But the genuine pumice-stones, that are in use -for imparting smoothness to the skin of females, and not females only, -but men as well, and, as Catullus[2746] says, for polishing books, are -found of the finest quality in the islands of Melos and Nisyros[2747] -and in the Æolian Isles. To be good, they should be white, as light as -possible, porous and dry in the extreme, friable, and free from sand -when rubbed. - -Considered medicinally, pumice is of a resolvent and desiccative -nature; for which purpose it is submitted to calcination, no less than -three times, on a fire of pure charcoal, it being quenched as often -in white wine. It is then washed, like cadmia,[2748] and, after being -dried, is put by for keeping, in a place as free from damp as possible. -In a powdered state, pumice is used in ophthalmic preparations more -particularly, and acts as a lenitive detergent upon ulcerations -of the eyes. It also makes new flesh upon cicatrizations of those -organs, and removes all traces of the marks. Some prefer, after the -third calcination, leaving the pumice to cool, and then triturating -it in wine. It is employed also as an ingredient in emollient -poultices, being extremely useful for ulcerations on the head and -generative organs; dentifrices, too, are prepared from it. According -to Theophrastus,[2749] persons when drinking for a wager are in the -habit[2750] of taking powdered pumice first; but they run great risk, -he says, if they fail to swallow the whole draught of wine at once; -it being of so refrigerative a nature that grape-juice[2751] will -absolutely cease to boil if pumice is put into it. - - - - -CHAP. 43. (22.)—STONES FOR MORTARS USED FOR MEDICINAL AND OTHER -PURPOSES. ETESIAN STONE. THEBAIC STONE. CHALAZIAN STONE. - - -Authors, too, have paid some attention to the stones in use for -mortars, not only those employed for the trituration of drugs and -pigments, but for other purposes as well. In this respect they have -given the preference to Etesian[2752] stone before all others, and, -next to that, to Thebaic stone, already mentioned[2753] as being -called “pyrrhopœcilon,” and known as “psaranus” by some. The third -rank has been assigned to chrysites,[2754] a stone nearly allied to -Chalazian[2755] stone. For medicinal purposes, however, basanites[2756] -has been preferred, this being a stone that remits no particles from -its surface.[2757] - -Those stones which yield a liquid, are generally looked upon as good -for the trituration of ophthalmic preparations; and hence it is, that -the Æthiopian stone is so much in request for the purpose. Tænarian -stone, they say, Phœnician stone, and hæmatites, are good for the -preparation of those medicinal compositions in which saffron forms -an ingredient; but they also speak of another Tænarian stone, of a -dark colour, which, like Parian[2758] stone, is not so well adapted -for medicinal purposes. We learn from them, too, that Egyptian -alabastrites,[2759] or white ophites,[2760] from the virtues inherent -in them, are considered still better adapted for these purposes than -the kinds last mentioned. It is this kind of ophites, too, from which -vessels, and casks even, are made. - - - - -CHAP. 44.—STONE OF SIPHNOS. SOFT STONES. - - -At Siphnos,[2761] there is a kind of stone[2762] which is hollowed -and turned in the lathe, for making cooking-utensils and vessels for -keeping provisions; a thing too, that, to my own knowledge,[2763] -is done with the green stone[2764] of Comum[2765] in Italy. With -reference, however, to the stone of Siphnos, it is a singular fact, -that, when heated in oil, though naturally very soft, it becomes hard -and black; so great a difference is there in the qualities of stone. - -There are some remarkable instances, too, beyond the Alps, of the -natural softness of some kinds of stone. In the province of the Belgæ, -there is a white stone[2766] which admits of being cut with the saw -that is used for wood, and with greater facility even. This stone is -used as a substitute for roof-tiles and gutter-tiles, and even for -the kind of roofing known as the pavonaceous[2767] style, if that is -preferred. Such are the stones that admit of being cut into thin slabs. - - - - -CHAP. 45.—SPECULAR STONES. - - -As to specular[2768] stone—for this, too, is ranked as one of the -stones—it admits of being divided with still greater facility, and can -be split into leaves as thin as may be desired. The province of Nearer -Spain used formerly to be the only one that furnished it—not, indeed, -the whole of that country, but a district extending for a hundred miles -around the city of Segobrica.[2769] But at the present day, Cyprus, -Cappadocia, and Sicily, supply us with it; and, still more recently, -it has been discovered in Africa: they are all, however, looked upon -as inferior to the stone which comes from Spain. The sheets from -Cappadocia are the largest in size; but then they are clouded. This -stone is to be found also in the territory of Bononia,[2770] in Italy; -but in small pieces only, covered with spots and encrusted in a bed of -silex, there being a considerable affinity, it would appear, in their -nature. - -In Spain, the specular-stone is extracted from shafts sunk in the -earth to a very considerable depth; though it is occasionally to -be found just beneath the surface, enclosed in the solid rock, and -extracted without difficulty, or else cut away from its bed. In most -cases, however, it admits of being dug up, being of an isolated -nature, and lying in pieces, like rag-stone, but never known as yet -to exceed five feet in length. It would appear that this substance -is originally a liquid, which, by an animating power in the earth, -becomes congealed like crystal; and it is very evident that it is the -result of petrifaction, from the fact that, when animals have fallen -into the shafts from which it is extracted, the marrow of their bones -becomes transformed into stone of a similar nature, by the end of a -single winter. In some cases, too, it is found of a black colour: but -the white stone has the marvellous property, soft as it is known to be, -of resisting the action of the sun and of cold. Nor will it, if it is -only protected from accidents, become deteriorated by lapse of time, a -thing that is so generally the case with many other kinds of stone that -are used for building purposes. The shavings, too, and scales of this -stone, have been used of late for another purpose; the Circus Maximus -having been strewed with them at the celebration of the games, with the -object of producing an agreeable whiteness. - - - - -CHAP. 46.—PHENGITES. - - -During the reign of Nero, there was a stone found in Cappadocia, as -hard as marble, white, and transparent even in those parts where red -veins were to be seen upon it; a property which has obtained for it -the name of “phengites.”[2771] It was with this stone[2772] that -Nero rebuilt the Temple of Fortune, surnamed Seia,[2773] originally -consecrated by King Servius, enclosing it within the precincts of -his Golden Palace.[2774] Hence it was that, even when the doors were -closed, there was light in the interior during the day; not transmitted -from without, as would be the case through a medium of specular-stone, -but having all the appearance of being enclosed within[2775] the -building. - -In Arabia, too, according to Juba, there is a stone, transparent like -glass, which is used for the same purposes as specular-stone. - - - - -CHAP. 47.—WHETSTONES. - - -We must now pass on to the stones that are employed for handicrafts, -and, first of all, whetstones for sharpening iron. Of these stones -there are numerous varieties; the Cretan stones having been long held -in the highest estimation, and the next best being those of Mount -Taygetus, in Laconia; both of which are used as hones, and require oil. -Among the water-whetstones, the first rank belonged to those of Naxos, -and the second to the stones of Armenia, both of them already[2776] -mentioned. The stones of Cilicia are of excellent quality, whether used -with oil or with water; those of Arsinöe,[2777] too, are very good, but -with water only. Whetstones have been found also in Italy, which with -water give a remarkably keen edge; and from the countries beyond the -Alps, we have the whetstones known as “passernices.”[2778] - -To the fourth class belong the hones which give an edge by the agency -of human saliva, and are much in use in barbers’ shops. They are -worthless, however, for all other purposes, in consequence of their -soft and brittle nature: those from the district of Laminium,[2779] in -Nearer Spain, are the best of the kind. - - - - -CHAP. 48.—TOPHUS. - - -Among the multitude of stones which still remain undescribed, there -is tophus;[2780] material totally unsuited for building purposes, in -consequence of its perishableness. Still, however, there are some -localities which have no other, Carthage, in Africa, for example. It -is eaten away by the emanations from the sea, crumbled to dust by the -wind, and shattered by the pelting of the rain: but human industry -has found the means of protecting walls of houses built of it, with -a coating of pitch, as a plaster of lime would corrode it. Hence it -is, that we have the well-known saying, “that the Carthaginians use -pitch[2781] for their houses and lime[2782] for their wines,” this last -being the method used by them in the preparation of their must. - -In the territories of Fidenæ and Alba, in the vicinity of Rome, we -find other soft kinds of stone; and, in Umbria and Venetia, there -is a stone[2783] which admits of being cut with the teeth of a saw. -These stones are easy to be worked, and are capable of supporting a -considerable weight, if they are only kept sheltered from the weather. -Rain, however, frost, and dew, split them to pieces, nor can they -resist the humidity of the sea-air. The stone[2784] of Tibur can stand -everything except heat, which makes it crack. - - - - -CHAP. 49.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF SILEX. - - -The black silex[2785] is in general the best; but in some localities, -it is the red, and occasionally the white; as in the Anician quarries -at Tarquinii, near Lake Volsinius,[2786] for example, and those at -Statonia,[2787] the stone of which is proof against fire even.[2788] -These stones, sculptured for monumental purposes, are subject to no -deterioration by lapse of time: moulds, too, are made from them, for -the purpose of fusing copper. There is a green silex, also, which -offers a most powerful resistance to the action of fire, but is never -found in any large quantities, and, in all cases, in an isolated form, -and not as a constituent part of solid rock. Of the other kinds, the -pale silex is but rarely used for erections: being of globular form, -it is not liable to injury, but at the same time it is insecure for -building purposes, unless it is well braced and tightly held together. -Nor yet does river silex offer any greater security, for it always has -the appearance of being wet. - - - - -CHAP. 50.—OTHER STONES USED FOR BUILDING. - - -When the nature of stone is doubtful, the proper precaution is, to -quarry it in summer, and not to use it for building before the end of a -couple of years, leaving it in the meantime to be well seasoned by the -weather. The slabs which have been damaged will be found to be better -suited for the foundations under ground: while those, on the other -hand, which have remained uninjured, may be employed with safety, and -exposed to the open air even. - - - - -CHAP. 51.—THE VARIOUS METHODS OF BUILDING. - - -The Greeks construct party-walls, resembling those of brickwork, of -hard stone or of silex, squared. This kind of stonework is what they -call “isodomon,”[2789] it being ” pseudisodomon”[2790] when the wall -is built of materials of unequal dimensions. A third kind of stonework -is called “emplecton,”[2791] the two exteriors only being made with -regularity, the rest of the material being thrown in at random. It is -necessary that the stones should lie over one another alternately, in -such a way that the middle of one stone meets the point of junction -of the two below it; and this, too, in the middle of the wall, if -possible; but if not, at all events, at the sides. When the middle -of the wall is filled up with broken stones, the work is known as -“diatoichon.”[2792] - -The reticulated[2793] kind of building, which is mostly in use at Rome, -is very liable to crack.[2794] All building should be done by line and -rule, and ought to be strictly on the perpendicular. - - - - -CHAP. 52. (23.)—CISTERNS. - - -Cisterns should be made of five parts of pure, gravelly, sand, two of -the very strongest quicklime, and fragments of silex not exceeding a -pound each in weight; when thus incorporated, the bottom and sides -should be well beaten with iron rammers. The best plan, too, is to have -the cisterns double; so that all superfluities may settle in the inner -cistern, and the water filter through, as pure as possible, into the -outer one. - - - - -CHAP. 53.—QUICK-LIME. - - -Cato[2795] the Censor disapproves of lime prepared from stones of -various colours: that made of white stone is the best. Lime prepared -from hard stone is the best for building purposes, and that from -porous stone for coats of plaster. For both these purposes, lime made -from silex is equally rejected. Stone that has been extracted from -quarries furnishes a better lime than that collected from the beds -of rivers; but the best of all is the lime that is obtained from the -molar-stone,[2796] that being of a more unctuous nature than the -others. It is something truly marvellous, that quick-lime, after the -stone has been subjected to fire, should ignite on the application of -water! - - - - -CHAP. 54.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF SAND. THE COMBINATIONS OF SAND WITH LIME. - - -There are three kinds of sand: fossil[2797] sand, to which one-fourth -part of lime should be added;[2798] river sand; and sea sand; to both -of which last, one third of lime should be added. If, too, one third -of the mortar is composed of bruised earthenware, it will be all the -better. Fossil sand is found in the districts that lie between the -Apennines and the Padus, but not in the parts beyond sea. - - - - -CHAP. 55.—DEFECTS IN BUILDING. PLASTERS FOR WALLS. - - -The great cause of the fall of so many buildings in our City, is, that -through a fraudulent abstraction of the lime, the rough work is laid -without anything to hold it together. The older, too, the mortar is, -the better it is in quality. In the ancient laws for the regulation of -building, no contractor was to use mortar less than three months old; -hence it is, that no cracks have disfigured the plaster coatings of -their walls. These stuccos will never present a sufficiently bright -surface, unless there have been three layers of sanded mortar, and -two of marbled[2799] mortar upon that. In damp localities and places -subject to exhalations from the sea, it is the best plan to substitute -ground earthenware mortar for sanded mortar. In Greece, it is the -practice, first to pound the lime and sand used for plastering, with -wooden pestles in a large trough. The test by which it is known that -marbled mortar has been properly blended, is its not adhering to the -trowel; whereas, if it is only wanted for white-washing, the lime, -after being well slaked with water, should stick like glue. For this -last purpose, however, the lime should only be slaked in lumps. - -At Elis, there is a Temple of Minerva, which was pargetted, they say, -by Panænus, the brother of Phidias, with a mortar that was blended with -milk and saffron:[2800] hence it is, that, even at the present day, -when rubbed with spittle on the finger, it yields the smell and flavour -of saffron. - - - - -CHAP. 56.—COLUMNS. THE SEVERAL KINDS OF COLUMNS. - - -The more closely columns are placed together, the thicker they appear -to be. There are four different kinds of pillars. Those of which the -diameter at the foot is one-sixth part of the height, are called -Doric. When the diameter is one-ninth, they are Ionic; and when it is -one-seventh, Tuscan. The proportions in the Corinthian are the same -as those of the Ionic; but they differ in the circumstance that the -Corinthian capitals are of the same height as the diameter at the -foot, a thing that gives them a more slender appearance; whereas, in -the Ionic column, the height of the capital is only one-third of the -diameter at the foot. In ancient times the rule was, that the columns -should be one-third of the breadth of the temple in height. - -It was in the Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, as originally built, that -spirals[2801] were first placed beneath, and capitals added: and it -was determined that the diameter of the shafts should be one-eighth of -their height, and that the spirals should be one-half of the diameter -in height, the upper extremity of the shaft being one-seventh less in -diameter than the foot. In addition to these columns, there are what -are called “Attic” columns, quadrangular, and with equal sides. - - - - -CHAP. 57. (24.)—FIVE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM LIME. - - -Lime is also employed very extensively in medicine. For this purpose, -fresh lime is selected, which has not been slaked with water. Its -properties are caustic, resolvent, and attractive; and it prevents -serpiginous ulcers from spreading, being incorporated with vinegar -and oil of roses, for the purpose. When this has been effected, -it is tempered with wax and oil of roses, and applied to promote -cicatrization. In combination with honey, and liquid resin, or hogs’ -lard, lime is curative of sprains and scrofulous sores. - - - - -CHAP. 58.—MALTHA. - - -Maltha[2802] is a cement prepared from fresh lime; lumps of which are -quenched in wine, and then pounded with hogs’ lard and figs, both of -them, mollifying substances.[2803] It is the most tenacious of all -cements, and surpasses stone in hardness. Before applying the maltha, -the substance upon which it is used must be well rubbed with oil. - - - - -CHAP. 59.—GYPSUM. - - -Gypsum[2804] has a close affinity with limestone, and there are -numerous varieties of it. One kind is prepared from a calcined[2805] -stone, as in Syria, and at Thurii, for example. In Cyprus and -at Perrhæbia,[2806] gypsum is dug out of the earth, and at -Tymphæa[2807] it is found just below the level of the soil. The -stone that is calcined for this purpose, ought to be very similar -to alabastrites,[2808] or else of a grain like that of marble. In -Syria, they select the hardest stones for the purpose, and calcine -them with cow-dung, to accelerate the process. Experience has -proved, however, that the best plaster of all is that prepared from -specular-stone,[2809] or any other stone that is similarly laminated. -Gypsum, when moistened, must be used immediately, as it hardens with -the greatest rapidity; it admits, however, of being triturated over -again, and so reduced to powder. It is very useful for pargetting, and -has a pleasing effect when used for ornamental figures and wreaths in -buildings. - -There is one remarkable fact connected with this substance; Caius -Proculeius,[2810] an intimate friend of the Emperor Augustus, suffering -from violent pains in the stomach, swallowed gypsum, and so put an end -to his existence.[2811] - - - - -CHAP. 60. (25.)—PAVEMENTS. THE ASAROTOS ŒCOS. - - -Pavements are an invention of the Greeks, who also practised the art of -painting them, till they were superseded by mosaics.[2812] In this last -branch of art, the highest excellence has been attained by Sosus,[2813] -who laid, at Pergamus, the mosaic pavement known as the “Asarotos -œcos;”[2814] from the fact that he there represented, in small -squares of different colours, the remnants of a banquet lying upon -the pavement, and other things which are usually swept away with the -broom, they having all the appearance of being left there by accident. -There is a dove also, greatly admired, in the act of drinking, and -throwing the shadow of its head upon the water; while other birds -are to be seen sunning and pluming themselves, on the margin of a -drinking-bowl. - - - - -CHAP. 61.—THE FIRST PAVEMENTS IN USE AT ROME. - - -The first pavements, in my opinion, were those now known to us as -barbaric and subtegulan[2815] pavements, a kind of work that was -beaten down with the rammer: at least if we may form a judgment from -the name[2816] that has been given to them. The first diamonded[2817] -pavement at Rome was laid in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, after -the commencement of the Third Punic War. That pavements had come into -common use before the Cimbric War, and that a taste for them was very -prevalent, is evident from the line of Lucilius— - - “With checquered emblems like a pavement marked.”[2818] - - - - -CHAP. 62.—TERRACE-ROOF PAVEMENTS. - - -The Greeks have also invented terrace-roof[2819] pavements, and have -covered their houses with them; a thing that may easily be done in the -hotter climates, but a great mistake in countries where the rain is -apt to become congealed. In making these pavements, the proper plan is -to begin with two layers of boards, running different ways, and nailed -at the extremities, to prevent them from warping. Upon this planking -a rough-work must be laid, one-fourth of which consists of pounded -pottery: and upon this, another bed of rough-work, two-fifths composed -of lime, a foot in thickness, and well beaten down with the rammer. -The nucleus[2820] is then laid down, a bed six fingers in depth; and -upon that, large square stones, not less than a couple of fingers in -thickness; an inclination being carefully observed, of an inch and a -half to every ten feet. This done, the surface is well rubbed down -with a polishing stone. The general opinion is, that oak[2821] should -never be used for the planking, it being so very liable to warp; and -it is considered a good plan to cover the boards with a layer of fern -or chaff, that they may be the better able to resist the action of -the lime. It is necessary, too, before putting down the planking, to -underset it with a bed of round pebbles. Wheat-ear[2822] tesselated -pavements are laid down in a similar manner. - - - - -CHAP. 63.—GRÆCANIC PAVEMENTS. - - -We must not omit here one other kind of pavement, that known as the -“Græcanic.” The ground is well rammed down, and a bed of rough work, -or else broken pottery, is then laid upon it. Upon the top of this, -a layer of charcoal is placed, well trodden down with a mixture of -sand, lime, and ashes; care being taken, by line and rule, to give -it a uniform thickness of half a foot. The surface then presents the -ordinary appearance of the ground; but if it is well rubbed with the -polishing-stone, it will have all the appearance of a black pavement. - - - - -CHAP. 64.—AT WHAT PERIOD MOSAIC PAVEMENTS WERE FIRST INVENTED. AT WHAT -PERIOD ARCHED ROOFS WERE FIRST DECORATED WITH GLASS. - - -Mosaic[2823] pavements were first introduced in the time of Sylla; at -all events, there is still in existence a pavement, formed of small -segments, which he ordered to be laid down in the Temple of Fortune, at -Præneste. Since his time, these mosaics have left the ground for the -arched roofs of houses, and they are now made of glass. This, however, -is but a recent invention; for there can be no doubt that, when Agrippa -ordered the earthenware walls of the hot baths, in the Thermæ which he -was building at Rome, to be painted in encaustic, and had the other -parts coated with pargetting, he would have had the arches decorated -with mosaics in glass, if the use of them had been known; or, at all -events, if from the walls of the Theatre of Scaurus, where it figured, -as already[2824] stated, glass had by that time come to be used for the -arched roofs of apartments. It will be as well, therefore, to give some -account, also, of glass. - - - - -CHAP. 65. (26.)—THE ORIGIN OF GLASS. - - -In Syria there is a region known as Phœnice,[2825] adjoining to Judæa, -and enclosing, between the lower ridges of Mount Carmelus, a marshy -district known by the name of Cendebia. In this district, it is -supposed, rises the river Belus,[2826] which, after a course of five -miles, empties itself into the sea near the colony of Ptolemaïs. The -tide of this river is sluggish, and the water unwholesome to drink, -but held sacred for the observance of certain religious ceremonials. -Full of slimy deposits, and very deep, it is only at the reflux of the -tide that the river discloses its sands; which, agitated by the waves, -separate themselves from their impurities, and so become cleansed. It -is generally thought that it is the acridity of the sea-water that has -this purgative effect upon the sand, and that without this action no -use could be made of it. The shore upon which this sand is gathered is -not more than half a mile in extent; and yet, for many ages, this was -the only spot that afforded the material for making glass. - -The story is, that a ship, laden with nitre,[2827] being moored upon -this spot, the merchants, while preparing their repast upon the -sea-shore, finding no stones at hand for supporting their cauldrons, -employed for the purpose some lumps of nitre which they had taken from -the vessel. Upon its being subjected to the action of the fire, in -combination with the sand of the sea-shore, they beheld transparent -streams flowing forth of a liquid hitherto unknown: this, it is said, -was the origin of glass.[2828] - - - - -CHAP. 66.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF GLASS, AND THE MODE OF MAKING IT. - - -In process of time, as human industry is ingenious in discovering, it -was not content with the combination of nitre, but magnet-stone[2829] -began to be added as well; from the impression that it attracts -liquefied[2830] glass as well as iron. In a similar manner, too, -brilliant stones of various descriptions came to be added in the -melting, and, at last, shells and fossil sand. Some authors tell -us, that the glass of India is made of broken crystal, and that, in -consequence, there is none that can be compared to it. - -In fusing it, light and dry wood is used for fuel, Cyprian copper -and nitre being added to the melting, nitre of Ophir[2831] more -particularly. It is melted, like copper, in contiguous furnaces, and -a swarthy mass of an unctuous appearance is the result. Of such a -penetrating nature is the molten glass, that it will cut to the very -bone any part of the body which “it may come near, and that, too, -before it is even felt. This mass is again subjected to fusion in the -furnace, for the purpose of colouring it; after which, the glass is -either blown into various forms, turned in a lathe, or engraved[2832] -like silver. Sidon was formerly famous for its glass-houses, for it was -this place that first invented[2833] mirrors. - -Such was the ancient method of making glass: but, at the present day, -there is found a very white sand for the purpose, at the mouth of the -river Volturnus, in Italy. It spreads over an extent of six miles, upon -the sea-shore that lies between Cumæ and Liternum, and is prepared -for use by pounding it with a pestle and mortar; which done, it is -mixed with three parts of nitre, either by weight or measure, and, -when fused, is transferred to another furnace. Here it forms a mass -of what is called “hammonitrum;” which is again submitted to fusion, -and becomes a mass of pure, white, glass. Indeed, at the present -day, throughout the Gallic and Spanish provinces even, we find sand -subjected to a similar process. In the reign of Tiberius, it is said, -a combination was devised which produced a flexible[2834] glass; but -the manufactory of the artist was totally destroyed, we are told, in -order to prevent the value of copper, silver, and gold, from becoming -depreciated.[2835] This story, however, was, for a long time, more -widely spread than well authenticated. But be it as it may, it is of -little consequence; for, in the time of the Emperor Nero, there was a -process discovered, by which two small glass cups were made, of the -kind called “petroti,”[2836] the price of which was no less than six -thousand sesterces! - - - - -CHAP. 67.—OBSIAN GLASS AND OBSIAN STONE. - - -Among the various kinds of glass, we may also reckon Obsian glass, -a substance very similar to the stone[2837] which Obsius discovered -in Æthiopia. This stone is of a very dark colour, and sometimes -transparent; but it is dull to the sight, and reflects, when attached -as a mirror to walls, the shadow of the object rather than the image. -Many persons use it[2838] for jewellery, and I myself have seen -solid statues[2839] in this material of the late Emperor Augustus, of -very considerable thickness. That prince consecrated, in the Temple -of Concord, as something marvellous, four figures of elephants made -of Obsian stone. Tiberius Cæsar, too, restored to the people of -Heliopolis, as an object of ceremonial worship, an image in this stone, -which had been found among the property left by one of the præfects -of Egypt. It was a figure of Menelaüs; a circumstance which goes far -towards proving that the use of this material is of more ancient date -than is generally supposed, confounded as it is at the present day -with glass, by reason of its resemblance. Xenocrates says that Obsian -stone is found in India also, and in Samnium in Italy; and that it -is a natural product of Spain, upon the coasts which border on the -Ocean.[2840] - -There is an artificial Obsian stone, made of coloured glass for -services for the table; and there is also a glass that is red all -through, and opaque, known as “hæmatinum.”[2841] A dead white glass, -too, is made, as also other kinds in imitation of murrhine[2842] -colour, hyacinthine, sapphire, and every other tint: indeed, there is -no material of a more pliable[2843] nature than this, or better suited -for colouring. Still, however, the highest value is set upon glass -that is entirely colourless and transparent, as nearly as possible -resembling crystal, in fact. For drinking-vessels, glass has quite -superseded the use of silver and gold; but it is unable to stand heat -unless a cold liquid is poured in first. And yet, we find that globular -glass vessels, filled with water, when brought in contact with the rays -of the sun,[2844] become heated to such a degree as to cause articles -of clothing to ignite. When broken, too, glass admits of being joined -by the agency of heat; but it cannot be wholly fused without being -pulverized into small fragments,[2845] as we see done in the process of -making the small checquers, known as “abaculi,” for mosaic work; some -of which are of variegated colours, and of different shapes. If glass -is fused with sulphur, it will become as hard as stone. - - - - -CHAP. 68. (27.)—MARVELLOUS FACTS CONNECTED WITH FIRE. - - -Having now described all the creations of human ingenuity, -reproductions, in fact, of Nature by the agency of art, it cannot but -recur to us, with a feeling of admiration, that there is hardly any -process which is not perfected through the intervention of fire. Submit -to its action some sandy soil, and in one place it will yield glass, in -another silver, in another minium, and in others, again, lead and its -several varieties, pigments, and numerous medicaments. It is through -the agency of fire that stones[2846] are melted into copper; by fire -that iron is produced, and subdued to our purposes; by fire that gold -is purified; by fire, too, that the stone is calcined, which is to hold -together the walls of our houses. - -Some materials, again, are all the better for being repeatedly -submitted to the action of fire; and the same substance will yield -one product at the first fusion, another at the second, and another -at the third.[2847] Charcoal, when it has passed through fire and -has been quenched, only begins to assume its active properties; and, -when it might be supposed to have been reduced to annihilation, it is -then that it has its greatest energies. An element this, of immense, -of boundless[2848] power, and, as to which, it is a matter of doubt -whether it does not create even more than it destroys! - - - - -CHAP. 69.—THREE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM FIRE AND FROM ASHES. - - -Fire even has certain medicinal virtues of its own. When pestilences -prevail, in consequence of the obscuration[2849] of the sun, it is a -well-known fact, that if fires are lighted, they are productive of -beneficial results in numerous ways. Empedocles and Hippocrates have -proved this in several passages. - -“For convulsions or contusions of the viscera,” says M. Varro—for it is -his own words that I use—“let the hearth be your medicine-box; for lie -of ashes,[2850] taken from thence, mixed with your drink, will effect -a cure. Witness the gladiators, for example, who, when disabled at the -Games, refresh themselves with this drink.” Carbuncle too, a kind of -disease which, as already[2851] stated, has recently carried off two -persons of consular rank, admits of being successfully treated with -oak-charcoal,[2852] triturated with honey. So true is it that things -which are despised even, and looked upon as so utterly destitute of all -virtues, have still their own remedial properties, charcoal and ashes -for example. - - - - -CHAP. 70.—PRODIGIES CONNECTED WITH THE HEARTH. - - -I must not omit too, one portentous fact connected with the hearth, -and famous in Roman history. In the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, it -is said, there appeared upon his hearth a resemblance of the male -generative organ in the midst of the ashes. The captive Ocrisia, a -servant of Queen Tanaquil, who happened to be sitting there, arose from -her seat in a state of pregnancy, and became the mother of Servius -Tullius, who eventually succeeded to the throne.[2853] It is stated, -too, that while the child was sleeping in the palace, a flame was seen -playing round his head; the consequence of which was, that it was -believed that the Lar of the household was his progenitor. It was owing -to this circumstance, we are informed, that the Compitalia,[2854] games -in honour of the Lares, were instituted. - -SUMMARY.—Remedies mentioned, eighty-nine. Facts and narratives, four -hundred and thirty-four. - -ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—M. Varro,[2855] Cælius,[2856] Galba,[2857] -Cincius,[2858] Mucianus,[2859] Nepos Cornelius,[2860] L. Piso,[2861] -Q. Tubero,[2862] Fabius Vestalis,[2863] Annius Fetialis,[2864] -Fabianus,[2865] Seneca,[2866] Cato the Censor,[2867] Vitruvius.[2868] - -FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Theophrastus,[2869] Pasiteles,[2870] -King Juba,[2871] Nicander,[2872] Sotacus,[2873] Sudines,[2874] -Alexander[2875] Polyhistor, Apion,[2876] Plistonicus,[2877] -Duris,[2878] Herodotus,[2879] Euhemerus,[2880] Aristagoras,[2881] -Dionysius,[2882] Artemidorus,[2883] Butoridas,[2884] Antisthenes,[2885] -Demetrius,[2886] Demoteles,[2887] Lyceas.[2888] - - - - -BOOK XXXVII. - -THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PRECIOUS STONES. - - - - -CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE FIRST USE OF PRECIOUS STONES. - - -That nothing may be wanting to the work which I have undertaken, it -still remains for me to speak of precious stones: a subject in which -the majestic might of Nature presents itself to us, contracted within a -very limited space, though, in the opinion of many, nowhere displayed -in a more admirable form. So great is the value that men attach to -the multiplied varieties of these gems, their numerous colours, their -constituent parts, and their singular beauty, that, in the case of some -of them, it is looked upon as no less than sacrilege to engrave them, -for signets even, the very purpose for which, in reality, they were -made. Others, again, are regarded as beyond all price, and could not -be valued at any known amount of human wealth; so much so that, in the -case of many, it is quite sufficient to have some single gem or other -before the eyes, there to behold the supreme and absolute perfection of -Nature’s work. - -We have already[2889] stated, to some extent, when speaking on the -subject of gold and rings, how the use of precious stones first -originated, and from what beginnings this admiration of them has -now increased to such an universal passion. According to fabulous -lore, the first use of them was suggested by the rocks of Caucasus, -in consequence of an unhappy interpretation which was given to the -story of the chains of Prometheus: for we are told by tradition, that -he enclosed a fragment of this stone in iron, and wore it upon his -finger;[2890] such being the first ring and the first jewel known. - - - - -CHAP. 2.—THE JEWEL OF POLYCRATES. - - -With a beginning such as this, the value set upon precious stones -increased to such a boundless extent, that Polycrates,[2891] the -tyrant of Samos, who ruled over the islands and the adjacent shores, -when he admitted that his good fortune had been too great, deemed it -a sufficient expiation for all this enjoyment of happiness, to make a -voluntary sacrifice of a single precious stone; thinking thereby to -balance accounts with the inconstancy of fortune, and, by this single -cause for regret, abundantly to buy off every ill-will she might -entertain. Weary, therefore, of his continued prosperity, he embarked -on board a ship, and, putting out to sea, threw the ring which he wore -into the waves. It so happened, however, that a fish of remarkable -size, one destined for the table of a king, swallowed the jewel, as -it would have done a bait; and then, to complete the portentous omen, -restored it again to the owner in the royal kitchen, by the ruling hand -of a treacherous[2892] fortune. - -The stone in this ring, it is generally agreed, was a sardonyx,[2893] -and they still show one at Rome, which, if we believe the story, -was this identical stone. It is enclosed in a horn of gold, and was -deposited, by the Emperor Augustus, in the Temple of Concord, where it -holds pretty nearly the lowest rank among a multitude of other jewels -that are preferable to it. - - - - -CHAP. 3.—THE JEWEL OF PYRRHUS. - - -Next in note after this ring, is the jewel that belonged to another -king, Pyrrhus, who was so long at war with the Romans. It is said that -there was in his possession an agate,[2894] upon which were to be seen -the Nine Muses and Apollo holding a lyre; not a work of art, but the -spontaneous produce of Nature,[2895] the veins in it being so arranged -that each of the Muses had her own peculiar attribute. - -With the exception of these two jewels, authors make no mention of -any others that have been rendered famous. We only find it recorded -by them, that Ismenias the flute-player[2896] was in the habit of -displaying great numbers of glittering stones, a piece of vanity, on -his part, which gave occasion to the following story. An emerald,[2897] -upon which was engraved a figure of Amymone,[2898] being offered for -sale in the Isle of Cyprus at the price of six golden denarii, he gave -orders to purchase it. The dealer however, reduced the price, and -returned two denarii; upon which, Ismenias remarked—“By Hercules! he -has done me but a bad turn in this, for the merit of the stone has been -greatly impaired by this reduction in price.” - -It seems to have been this Ismenias who introduced the universal -practice among musicians of proclaiming their artistic merit by this -kind of ostentation. Thus Dionysodorus, for instance, his contemporary -and rival, imitated his example, in order that he might not appear to -be his inferior in skill; whereas, in reality, he only held the third -rank among the musicians of that day. Nicomachus, too, it is said, was -the possessor of great numbers of precious stones, though selected with -but little taste. In mentioning these illustrations, by way of prelude -to this Book, it is by no means improbable that they may have the -appearance of being addressed to those, who, piquing themselves upon a -similar display, become puffed up with a vanity which is evidently much -more appropriate to a performer on the flute. - - - - -CHAP. 4.—WHO WERE THE MOST SKILFUL LAPIDARIES. THE FINEST SPECIMENS OF -ENGRAVING ON PRECIOUS STONES. - - -The stone of the ring[2899] which is now shown as that of Polycrates, -is untouched and without engraving. In the time of Ismenias, long[2900] -after his day, it would appear to have become the practice to engrave -smaragdi even; a fact which is established by an edict of Alexander -the Great, forbidding his portrait to be cut upon this stone by any -other engraver than Pyrgoteles,[2901] who, no doubt, was the most -famous adept in this art. Since his time, Apollonides and Cronius -have excelled in it; as also Dioscurides,[2902] who engraved a very -excellent likeness of the late Emperor Augustus upon a signet, -which, ever since, the Roman emperors have used. The Dictator Sylla, -it is said, always made use of a seal[2903] which represented the -surrender of Jugurtha. Authors inform us also, that the native of -Intercatia,[2904] whose father challenged Scipio Æmilianus,[2905] -and was slain by him, was in the habit of using a signet with a -representation of this combat engraved upon it; a circumstance which -gave rise to the well-known joke of Stilo Præconinus,[2906] who naively -enquired, what he would have done if Scipio had been the person slain? - -The late Emperor Augustus was in the habit, at first, of using the -figure of a Sphinx[2907] for his signet; having found two of them, -among the jewels of his mother, that were perfectly alike. During the -Civil Wars, his friends used to employ one of these signets, in his -absence, for sealing such letters and edicts as the circumstances of -the times required to be issued in his name; it being far from an -unmeaning pleasantry on the part of those who received these missives, -that the Sphinx always brought its enigmas[2908] with it. The frog, -too, on the seal of Mæcenas, was held in great terror, by reason of the -monetary imposts which it announced. At a later period, with the view -of avoiding the sarcasms relative to the Sphinx, Augustus made use of a -signet with a figure upon it of Alexander the Great. - - - - -CHAP. 5.—THE FIRST DACTYLIOTHECÆ AT ROME. - - -A collection of precious stones bears the foreign name of -“dactyliotheca.”[2909] The first person who possessed one at Rome -was Scaurus,[2910] the step-son of Sylla; and, for a long time, -there was no other such collection there, until at length Pompeius -Magnus consecrated in the Capitol, among other donations, one that -had belonged to King Mithridates; and which, as M. Varro and other -authors of that period assure us, was greatly superior to that of -Scaurus. Following his example, the Dictator Cæsar consecrated six -dactyliothecæ in the Temple of Venus Genetrix; and Marcellus, the son -of Octavia,[2911] presented one to the Temple of the Palatine Apollo. - - - - -CHAP. 6.—JEWELS DISPLAYED AT ROME IN THE TRIUMPH OF POMPEIUS MAGNUS. - - -But it was this conquest by Pompeius Magnus that first introduced -so general a taste for pearls and precious stones; just as the -victories, gained by L. Scipio[2912] and Cneius Manlius,[2913] had -first turned the public attention to chased silver, Attalic tissues, -and banquetting-couches decorated with bronze; and the conquests of L. -Mummius had brought Corinthian bronzes and pictures into notice. - -(2.) To prove more fully that this was the case, I will here give -the very words of the public Registers[2914] with reference to the -triumphs of Pompeius Magnus. On the occasion of his third triumph, -over the Pirates and over the Kings and nations of Asia and Pontus -that have been already enumerated in the Seventh Book[2915] of -this work, M. Fiso and M. Messala being consuls,[2916] on the day -before[2917] the calends of October, the anniversary of his birth, he -displayed in public, with its pieces, a chess-board,[2918] made of two -precious stones, three feet in width by two in length—and to leave no -doubt that the resources of Nature do become exhausted, I will here -observe, that no precious stones are to be found at the present day, -at all approaching such dimensions as these; as also that there was -upon this board a moon of solid gold, thirty pounds in weight!—three -banquetting-couches; vessels for nine waiters, in gold and precious -stones; three golden statues of Minerva, Mars, and Apollo; thirty-three -crowns adorned with pearls; a square mountain of gold, with stags upon -it, lions, and all kinds of fruit, and surrounded with a vine of gold; -as also a musæum,[2919] adorned with pearls, with an horologe[2920] -upon the top of it. - -There was a likeness also in pearls of Pompeius himself, his noble -countenance, with the hair thrown back from the forehead, delighting -the eye. Yes, I say, those frank features, so venerated throughout all -nations, were here displayed in pearls! the severity of our ancient -manners being thus subdued, and the display being more the triumph -of luxury than the triumph of conquest. Never, most assuredly, would -Pompeius have so long maintained his surname of “Magnus” among the -men of that day, if on the occasion of his first[2921] conquest his -triumph had been such as this. Thy portrait in pearls, O Magnus! those -resources of prodigality, that have been discovered for the sake of -females only! Thy portrait in pearls, refinements in luxury, which the -Roman laws would not have allowed thee to wear even! And was it in this -way that thy value must be appreciated? Would not that trophy have -given a more truthful likeness of thee which thou hadst erst erected -upon the Pyrenæan[2922] mountain heights? Assuredly such a portrait as -this had been no less than a downright ignominy and disgrace, were we -not bound to behold in it a menacing presage of the anger of the gods, -and to see foreshadowed thereby the time when that head, now laden -with the wealth of the East, was to be displayed, severed from the -body.[2923] - -But in other respects, how truly befitting the hero was this triumph! -To the state, he presented two thousand millions of sesterces; to -the legati and quæstors who had exerted themselves in defence of the -sea coast, he gave one thousand millions of sesterces; and to each -individual soldier, six thousand sesterces. He has rendered, however, -comparatively excusable the Emperor Caius,[2924] who, in addition to -other feminine luxuries, used to wear shoes adorned with pearls; as -also the Emperor Nero, who used to adorn his sceptres with masks worked -in pearls, and had the couches, destined for his pleasures, made of -the same costly materials. Nay, we have no longer any right, it would -seem, to censure the employment of drinking-cups adorned with precious -stones, of various other articles in daily use that are similarly -enriched, and of rings that sparkle with gems: for what species of -luxury can there be thought of, that was not more innocent in its -results than this on the part of Pompeius? - - - - -CHAP. 7.—AT WHAT PERIOD MURRHINE VESSELS WERE FIRST INTRODUCED AT ROME. -INSTANCES OF LUXURY IN REFERENCE TO THEM. - - -It was the same conquest, too, that first introduced murrhine[2925] -vessels at Rome; Pompeius being the first to dedicate, at the -conclusion of this triumph, vases and cups, made of this material, in -the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus: a circumstance which soon brought -them into private use, waiters, even, and eating-utensils made of -murrhine being in great request. This species of luxury, too, is daily -on the increase, a single cup, which would hold no more than three -sextarii, having been purchased at the price of seventy thousand -sesterces. A. person of consular rank, who some years[2926] ago used -to drink out of this cup, grew so passionately fond of it, as to gnaw -its edges even, an injury, however, which has only tended to enhance -its value: indeed there is now no vessel in murrhine that has ever -been estimated at a higher figure than this. We may form some opinion -how much money this same personage swallowed up in articles of this -description, from the fact that the number of them was so great, that, -when the Emperor Nero deprived his children of them, and they were -exposed to public view, they occupied a whole theatre to themselves, in -the gardens beyond the Tiber; a theatre which was found sufficiently -large even, for the audience that attended on the occasion when -Nero[2927] rehearsed his musical performances before his appearance in -the Theatre of Pompeius. It was at this exhibition, too, that I saw -counted the broken fragments of a single cup, which it was thought -proper to preserve in an urn and display, I suppose, with the view -of exciting the sorrows of the world, and of exposing the cruelty of -fortune; just as though it had been no less than the body of Alexander -the Great himself! - -T. Petronius,[2928] a personage of consular rank, intending, from -his hatred of Nero, to disinherit the table of that prince, broke a -murrhine basin, which had cost him no less than three hundred thousand -sesterces. But Nero himself, as it was only proper for a prince to do, -surpassed them all, by paying one million of sesterces for a single -cup: a fact well worthy of remembrance, that an emperor, the father of -his country, should have drunk from a vessel of such costly price! - - - - -CHAP. 8.—THE NATURE OF MURRHINE VESSELS. - - -Murrhine vessels come from the East, in numerous localities of which, -remarkable for nothing else, they are to be found. It is in the empire -of the Parthians, more particularly, that they are met with, though -those of the very finest quality come to us from Carmania.[2929] It is -generally thought that these vessels are formed of a moist substance, -which under ground becomes solidified by heat.[2930] In size they -never exceed a small waiter,[2931] and, as to thickness, they rarely -admit of being used as drinking-cups, so large as those already[2932] -mentioned. The brightness of them is destitute of strength, and it may -be said that they are rather shining than brilliant.[2933] But the -chief merit of them is the great variety of their colours, and the -wreathed veins, which, every here and there, present shades of purple -and white, with a mixture of the two; the purple gradually changing, -as it were, to a fiery red, and the milk-white assuming a ruddy hue. -Some persons praise the edges of these vessels more particularly, with -a kind of reflection in the colours, like those beheld in the rain-bow. -Others, again, are more pleased with them when quite opaque, it being -considered a demerit when they are at all transparent, or of a pallid -hue. The appearance, too, of crystals[2934] in them is highly prized, -and of spots that look like warts; not prominent, but depressed, as we -mostly see upon the human body. The perfume,[2935] too, of which they -smell, is looked upon as an additional recommendation. - - - - -CHAP. 9—THE NATURE OF CRYSTAL. - - -It is a diametrically opposite cause to this that produces -crystal,[2936] a substance which assumes a concrete form from excessive -congelation.[2937] At all events, crystal is only to be found in places -where the winter snow freezes with the greatest intensity; and it is -from the certainty that it is a kind of ice, that it has received the -name[2938] which it bears in Greek. The East, too, sends us crystal, -there being none preferred to the produce of India. It is to be found, -also, in Asia, that of the vicinity of Alabanda,[2939] Orthosia,[2940] -and the neighbouring mountains, being held in a very low degree of -esteem. In Cyprus, also, there is crystal, but that found upon the -Alpine heights in Europe is, in general, more highly valued. According -to Juba, there is crystal in a certain island of the Red Sea, opposite -the coast of Arabia, called “Necron;”[2941] as, also, in another -neighbouring island[2942] which produces the precious stone known as -the “topazus;” where a block of crystal was extracted, he says, by -Pythagoras, the præfect of King Ptolemæus, no less than a cubit in -length. - -Cornelius Bocchus informs us that in Lusitania, there have been blocks -of crystal found, of extraordinary weight, in sinking shafts in the -Ammiensian[2943] mountains there, to a water-level for the supply -of wells. It is a marvellous fact, stated by Xenocrates of Ephesus, -that in Asia and in the Isle of Cyprus, crystal is turned up by the -plough; it having been the general belief that it is never to be -found in terreous soils, and only in rocky localities. That is much -more probable which the same Xenocrates tells us, when he says that -the mountain streams often bring down with them fragments of crystal. -Sudines says, that crystal is only to be found in localities that -face the south, a thing that is known to be really the fact: indeed, -it is never found in humid spots, however cold the climate may be, -even though the rivers there freeze to the very bottom. Rain-water -and pure snow are absolutely necessary for its formation,[2944] and -hence it is, that it is unable to endure heat, being solely employed -for holding liquids that are taken cold. From the circumstance of its -being hexagonal[2945] and hexahedral, it is not easy to penetrate this -substance; and the more so, as the pyramidal terminations do not always -have the same appearance. The polish on its faces is so exquisite, that -no art can possibly equal it. - - - - -CHAP. 10.—LUXURY DISPLAYED IN THE USE OF CRYSTAL. REMEDIES DERIVED FROM -CRYSTAL. - - -The largest block of crystal that has ever been beheld by us, is -the one that was consecrated by Julia Augusta in the Capitol, and -which weighed about one hundred and fifty pounds.[2946] Xenocrates -speaks of having seen a vase of crystal, which held one amphora,[2947] -and we find other writers mentioning a vessel from India which held -four sextarii. For my own part, I can positively say, that there is -crystal amid the crags of the Alps, so difficult of access, that it is -usually found necessary to be suspended by ropes in order to extract -it. Persons who are experienced in the matter detect its presence by -certain signs and indications. - -Crystal is subject to numerous defects, sometimes presenting a rough, -solder-like, substance, or else clouded by spots upon it; while -occasionally it contains some hidden humour[2948] within, or is -traversed by hard and brittle knurrs,[2949] which are known as “salt -grains.”[2950] Some crystal, too, has a red rust upon it, while, in -other instances, it contains filaments that look like flaws, a defect -which artists conceal by engraving it. But where crystals are entirely -free from defect, they are preferred uncut; in which case, they are -known as “acenteta,”[2951] and have the colour, not of foam, but of -limpid water. In the last place, the weight of crystals is a point -which is taken into consideration. - -I find it stated by medical men that the very best cautery for -the human body is a ball of crystal acted upon by the rays of the -sun.[2952] This substance, too, has been made the object of a mania; -for, not many years ago, a mistress of a family, who was by no means -very rich, gave one hundred and fifty thousand sesterces for a single -basin made of crystal. Nero, on receiving tidings that all was lost, -in the excess of his fury, dashed two cups of crystal to pieces; this -being his last act of vengeance upon his fellow-creatures, preventing -any one from ever drinking again from these vessels. Crystal, when -broken, cannot by any possibility be mended. Vessels in glass have -been brought to a marvellous degree of resemblance to crystal; and -yet, wonderful to say, they have only tended to enhance the value of -crystal, and in no way to depreciate it. - - - - -CHAP. 11.—AMBER: THE MANY FALSEHOODS THAT HAVE BEEN TOLD ABOUT IT. - - -Next in rank among the objects of luxury, we have amber;[2953] -an article which, for the present, however, is in request among -women[2954] only. All these three last-mentioned substances hold the -same rank, no doubt, as precious stones; the two former for certain -fair reasons; crystal, because it is adapted for taking cool drinks, -and murrhine vessels, for taking drinks that are either hot or cold. -But as for amber, luxury has not been able, as yet, to devise any -justification for the use of it. This is a subject which affords us -an excellent opportunity of exposing some of the frivolities and -falsehoods of the Greeks; and I beg that my readers will only have -patience with me while I do so, it being really worth while, for our -own practical improvement, to become acquainted with the marvellous -stories which they have promulgated respecting amber. - -After Phaëthon had been struck by lightning, his sisters, they tell -us, became changed into poplars,[2955] which every year shed their -tears upon the banks of the Eridanus, a river known to us as the -“Padus.” To these tears was given the name of “electrum,”[2956] from -the circumstance that the Sun was usually called “elector.” Such is -the story, at all events, that is told by many of the poets, the first -of whom were, in my opinion, Æschylus, Philoxenus, Euripides, Satyrus, -and Nicander; and the falsity of which is abundantly proved upon the -testimony of Italy itself.[2957] Those among the Greeks who have -devoted more attention to the subject, have spoken of certain islands -in the Adriatic Sea, known as the “Electrides,” and to which the -Padus,[2958] they say, carries down electrum. It is the fact, however, -that there never were any islands there so called, nor, indeed, any -islands so situate as to allow of the Padus carrying down anything -in its course to their shores. As to Æschylus placing the Eridanus -in Iberia, or, in other words, in Spain, and giving it the name of -Rhodanus; and as to Euripides and Apollonius representing the Rhodanus -and the Padus as discharging themselves by one common mouth on the -shores of the Adriatic; we can forgive them all the more readily for -knowing nothing about amber when they betray such monstrous ignorance -of geography. - -Other writers, again, who are more guarded in their assertions, have -told us, though with an equal degree of untruthfulness, that, at the -extremity of the Adriatic Gulf, upon certain inaccessible rocks there, -there are certain trees[2959] which shed their gum at the rising of the -Dog-Star. Theophrastus[2960] has stated that amber is extracted from -the earth in Liguria;[2961] Chares, that Phaëthon died in the territory -of Hammon, in Æthiopia, where there is a temple of his and an oracle, -and where amber is produced; Philemon, that it is a fossil substance, -and that it is found in two different localities in Scythia, in one of -which it is of a white and waxen colour, and is known as “electrum;” -while in the other it is red, and is called “sualiternicum.” -Demostratus calls amber “lyncurion,”[2962] and he says that it -originates in the urine of the wild beast known as the “lynx;” that -voided by the male producing a red and fiery substance, and that by the -female an amber of a white and less pronounced colour: he also informs -us that by some persons it is called “langurium,” and that in Italy, -there are certain wild beasts known as “languri.” Zeuothemis, however, -calls these wild beasts “langæ,” and gives the banks of the river Padus -as their locality. Sudines says, that it is a tree in reality, that -produces amber, and that, in Etruria, this tree is known by the name -of “lynx;” an opinion which is also adopted by Metrodorus. Sotacus -expresses a belief that amber exudes from certain stones in Britannia, -to which he gives the name of “electrides.” Pytheas says that the -Gutones,[2963] a people of Germany, inhabit the shores of an estuary -of the Ocean called Mentonomon, their territory extending a distance -of six thousand stadia; that, at one day’s sail from this territory, -is the Isle of Abalus, upon the shores of which, amber is thrown up by -the waves in spring, it being an excretion of the sea in a concrete -form; as, also, that the inhabitants use this amber by way of fuel, and -sell it to their neighbours, the Teutones. Timæus, too, is of the same -belief, but he has given to the island the name of Basilia.[2964] - -Philemon says that electrum does not yield a flame.[2965] Nicias, -again, will have it, that it is a liquid produced by the rays of the -sun; and that these rays, at the moment of the sun’s setting, striking -with the greatest force upon the surface of the soil, leave upon it an -unctuous sweat, which is carried off by the tides of the Ocean, and -thrown up upon the shores of Germany. He states, also, that in Egypt -it is similarly produced, and is there called “sacal;”[2966] that it -is found in India, too, where it is held as a preferable substitute -for frankincense; and that in Syria the women make the whirls of their -spindles of this substance, and give it the name of “harpax,”[2967] -from the circumstance that it attracts leaves towards it, chaff, and -the light fringe of tissues. According to Theochrestus, amber is thrown -up by the tides of the Ocean, at the foot of the Pyrenæan range; an -opinion adopted also by Xenocrates. Asarubas, who has written the most -recently upon these subjects, and is still living, informs us, that -near the shores of the Atlantic is Lake Cephisis, known to the Mauri by -the name of “Electrum;” and that when this lake is dried up by the sun, -the slime of it produces amber, which floats upon the surface. Mnaseas -speaks of a locality in Africa called Sicyon, and of a river Crathis -there, which discharges itself from a lake into the Ocean, the banks of -which are frequented by birds which he calls “meleagrides”[2968] and -“penelopes:” it is here that, according to him, electrum is produced, -in manner above mentioned. Theomenes says that near the Greater Syrtis -are the Gardens of the Hesperides, and Lake Electrum: on the banks, he -says, are poplars, from the summits of which amber falls into the water -below, where it is gathered by the maidens of the Hesperides. - -Ctesias asserts that there is in India[2969] a river called Hypobarus, -a word which signifies “bearer of all good things;” that this river -flows from the north into the Eastern Ocean, where it discharges itself -near a mountain covered with trees which produce electrum; and that -these trees are called “siptachoræ,” the meaning of which is “intense -sweetness.” Mithridates says, that off the shores of Germany there -is an island called “Serita,”[2970] covered with a kind of cedar, -from which amber falls upon the rocks. According to Xenocrates, this -substance is called, in Italy, not only “succinum,” but “thieum” as -well, the Scythian name of it, for there also it is to be found, being -“sacrium:” others, he says, are of opinion that it is a product of -Numidia. But the one that has surpassed them all is Sophocles, the -tragic poet; a thing that indeed surprises me, when I only consider -the surpassing gravity of his lofty style, the high repute that he -enjoyed in life, his elevated position by birth at Athens, his various -exploits, and his high military command. According to him, amber is -produced in the countries beyond India, from the tears that are shed -for Meleager, by the birds called “meleagrides!”[2971] Who can be -otherwise than surprised that he should have believed such a thing as -this, or have hoped to persuade others to believe it? What child, too, -could possibly be found in such a state of ignorance as to believe that -birds weep once a year, that their tears are so prolific as this, or -that they go all the way from Greece, where Meleager died, to India to -weep? “But then,” it will be said, “do not the poets tell many other -stories that are quite as fabulous?” Such is the fact, no doubt, but -for a person seriously to advance such an absurdity with reference to -a thing so common as amber, which is imported every day and so easily -proves the mendacity of this assertion, is neither more nor less than -to evince a supreme contempt for the opinions of mankind, and to assert -with impunity an intolerable falsehood. - -(3.) There can be no doubt that amber is a product of the islands -of the Northern Ocean, and that it is the substance by the Germans -called “glæsum;”[2972] for which reason the Romans, when Germanicus -Cæsar commanded the fleet in those parts, gave to one of these -islands the name of Glæsaria,[2973] which by the barbarians was known -as Austeravia. Amber is produced from a marrow discharged by trees -belonging to the pine[2974] genus, like gum from the cherry, and resin -from the ordinary pine. It is a liquid at first, which issues forth in -considerable quantities, and is gradually hardened by heat or cold, or -else by the action of the sea, when the rise of the tide carries off -the fragments from the shores of these islands. At all events, it is -thrown up upon the coasts, in so light and voluble a form that in the -shallows it has all the appearance of hanging suspended in the water. -Our forefathers, too, were of opinion that it is the juice of a tree, -and for this reason gave it the name of “succinum:”[2975] and one great -proof that it is the produce of a tree of the pine genus, is the fact -that it emits a pine-like smell when rubbed, and that it burns, when -ignited, with the odour and appearance of torch-pine wood. - -Amber is imported by the Germans into Pannonia, more particularly; from -whence the Veneti, by the Greeks called Eneti, first brought it into -general notice, a people in the vicinity of Pannonia, and dwelling on -the shores of the Adriatic Sea. From this it is evident how the story -which connects it with the Padus first originated; and at the present -day we see the female peasantry in the countries that lie beyond that -river wearing necklaces of amber, principally as an ornament, no doubt, -but on account of its remedial virtues as well; for amber, it is -generally believed, is good for affections of the tonsillary glands -and fauces, the various kinds of water in the vicinity of the Alps -being apt to produce disease in the human throat.[2976] - -From Carnuntum in Pannonia, to the coasts of Germany from which the -amber is brought, is a distance of about six hundred miles, a fact -which has been only very recently ascertained; and there is still -living a member of the equestrian order, who was sent thither by -Julianus, the manager of the gladiatorial exhibitions for the Emperor -Nero, to procure a supply of this article. Traversing the coasts of -that country and visiting the various markets there, he brought back -amber, in such vast quantities, as to admit of the nets, which are -used for protecting the podium[2977] against the wild beasts, being -studded[2978] with amber. - -The arms too, the litters,[2979] and all the other apparatus, were, on -one day, decorated with nothing but amber, a different kind of display -being made each day that these spectacles were exhibited. The largest -piece of amber that this personage brought to Rome was thirteen pounds -in weight. - -That amber is found in India too, is a fact well ascertained. -Archelaüs, who reigned over Cappadocia, says that it is brought -from that country in the rough state, and with the fine bark still -adhering to it, it being the custom there to polish it by boiling it -in the grease of a sucking-pig. One great proof that amber must have -been originally in a liquid state, is the fact that, owing to its -transparency, certain objects are to be seen within, ants for example, -gnats, and lizards. These, no doubt, must have first adhered to it -while liquid, and then, upon its hardening, have remained enclosed -within.[2980] - - - - -CHAP. 12.—THE SEVERAL KINDS OF AMBER: THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM IT. - - -There are several kinds[2981] of amber. The white is the one that has -the finest odour;[2982] but neither this nor the wax-coloured amber -is held in very high esteem. The red amber is more highly valued; and -still more so, when it is transparent, without presenting too brilliant -and igneous an appearance. For amber, to be of high quality, should -present a brightness like that of fire, but not flakes resembling -those of flame. The most highly esteemed amber is that known as the -“Falernian,” from its resemblance to the colour of Falernian wine; it -is perfectly transparent, and has a softened, transparent, brightness. -Other kinds, again, are valued for their mellowed tints, like the -colour of boiled honey in appearance. It ought to be known, however, -that any colour can be imparted to amber that may be desired, it being -sometimes stained with kid-suet and root of alkanet; indeed, at the -present day, amber is dyed purple even. When a vivifying heat has been -imparted to it by rubbing it between the fingers, amber will attract -chaff, dried leaves, and thin bark, just in the same way that the -magnet attracts iron. Pieces of amber, steeped in oil, burn with a more -brilliant and more lasting flame than pith of flax.[2983] - -So highly valued is this as an object of luxury, that a very diminutive -human effigy, made of amber, has been known to sell at a higher price -than living men even, in stout and vigorous health. This single ground -for censure, however, is far from being sufficient; in Corinthian -objects of vertu, it is the copper that recommends them, combined with -silver and gold; and in embossed works it is the skill and genius of -the artist that is so highly esteemed. We have already said what it is -that recommends vessels of murrhine and of crystal; pearls, too, are of -use for wearing upon the head, and gems upon the fingers. In the case -of all other luxuries, in fact, it is either a spirit of ostentation or -some utility that has been discovered in them that pleads so strongly -in their behalf; but in that of amber we have solely the consciousness -that we are enjoying a luxury, and nothing more. Domitius Nero, among -the other portentous extravagances of his life, bestowed this name upon -the ringlets of his wife Poppæa, and, in certain verses of his, he has -even gone so far as to call them “succini.” As fine names, too, are -never wanting for bodily defects, a third tint has been introduced of -late for hair among our ladies, under the name of “amber-colour.” - -Amber, however, is not without its utility in a medicinal point of -view; though it is not for this reason that the women are so pleased -with it. It is beneficial for infants also, attached to the body in -the form of an amulet; and, according to Callistratus, it is good for -any age, as a preventive of delirium and as a cure for strangury, -either taken in drink or attached as an amulet to the body. This last -author, too, has invented a new variety of amber; giving the name -of “chryselectrum”[2984] to an amber of a golden colour, and which -presents the most beautiful tints in the morning. This last kind -attracts flame, too, with the greatest rapidity, and, the moment it -approaches the fire, it ignites. “Worn upon the neck, he says, it is a -cure for fevers and other diseases, and, triturated with honey and oil -of roses, it is good for maladies of the ears. Beaten up with Attic -honey, it is good for dimness of sight: and the powder of it, either -taken by itself or with gum mastich in water, is remedial for diseases -of the stomach. Amber, too, is greatly in request for the imitation -of the transparent precious stones, amethystos in particular: for, as -already stated, it admits of being dyed of every colour. - - - - -CHAP. 13.—LYNCURUIM: TWO ASSERTED REMEDIES. - - -The pertinacity that has been displayed by certain authors compels me -to speak of lyncurium[2985] next; for even those who maintain that -it is not a variety of amber, still assure us that it is a precious -stone. They assert, too, that it is a product of the urine of the lynx -and of a kind of earth, the animal covering up the urine the moment it -has voided it, from a jealousy that man should gain possession of it; -a combination which hardens into stone. The colour of it, they inform -us, like that of some kinds of amber, is of a fiery[2986] hue, and -it admits, they say, of being engraved. They assert, too, that this -substance attracts[2987] to itself not only leaves or straws, but thin -plates of copper even or of iron; a story which Theophrastus even -believes, on the faith of a certain Diocles. - -For my own part, I look upon the whole of these statements as untrue, -and I do not believe that in our time there has ever been a precious -stone seen with such a name as this. I regard, too, the assertions that -have been made as to its medicinal properties, as equally false; to the -effect that, taken in drink, it disperses urinary calculi, and that, -taken in wine, or only looked at, it is curative of jaundice. - - - - -CHAP. 14.—THE VARIOUS PRECIOUS STONES, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR -PRINCIPAL COLOURS. - - -We will now proceed to speak of the various kinds of precious stones, -the existence of which is generally admitted, beginning with those -which are the most highly esteemed. Nor shall we content ourselves -with doing this only; but, with the view of consulting the general -welfare of mankind, we shall also refute the infamous lies that -have been promulgated by the magicians: for it is with reference to -precious stones, more particularly, that they have circulated most of -their fabulous stories, stepping, under that most alluring guise of -ascertaining remedial virtues, beyond all bounds, and entering the -region of the marvellous. - - - - -CHAP. 15. (4.)—ADAMAS: SIX VARIETIES OF IT. TWO REMEDIES. - - -The substance that possesses the greatest value, not only among the -precious stones, but of all human possessions, is adamas;[2988] mineral -which, for a long time, was known to kings only, and to very few of -them. Such was the name given to a nodosity of gold,[2989] sometimes, -though but rarely, found in the mines, in close proximity with gold, -and only there to be found, it was thought. The ancients supposed -that adamas was only to be discovered in the mines of Æthiopia,[2990] -between the Temple of Mercury and the island of Meroë; and they have -informed us that it was never larger than a cucumber-seed, or differing -at all from it in colour. - -At the present day, for the first time, there are no less than six -different varieties of it recognized. The Indian adamas is found, -not in a stratum of gold, but in a substance of a kindred nature -to crystal; which it closely resembles in its transparency and its -highly polished hexangular and hexahedral[2991] form. In shape it -is turbinated, running to a point at either extremity, and closely -resembling, marvellous to think of, two cones united at the base. In -size, too, it is as large even as a hazel-nut. Resembling that of -India, is the adamas[2992] of Arabia, which is found in a similar -bed, but not so large in size. Other varieties have a pallid hue like -that of silver, and are only to be found in the midst of gold of the -very finest quality. These stones are tested upon the anvil, and will -resist the blow to such an extent, as to make the iron rebound and -the very anvil split asunder.[2993] Indeed its hardness is beyond all -expression, while at the same time it quite sets fire at defiance[2994] -and is incapable of being heated; owing to which indomitable powers it -is, that it has received the name which it derives from the Greek.[2995] - -One kind, about as large as a grain of millet in size, has been called -“cenchros,”[2996] and another,[2997] that is found in the gold mines -at Philippi, is known as the “Macedonian” adamas: this last is about -as large as a cucumber-seed in size. We next come to the Cyprian[2998] -adamas, so called from its being found in the Isle of Cyprus: it is of -a colour somewhat inclining to that of copper, but, in reference to its -medicinal virtues, of which we shall have to make further mention, it -is the most efficacious of them all. Next in succession to this we have -siderites,[2999] a stone which shines like iron, and is more ponderous -than any of the others, but differs in its properties from them all. -For it breaks when struck by the hammer, and admits of being perforated -by other kinds of adamas; a thing which is the case, also, with that of -Cyprus: in short, these two are degenerate stones, and only bear the -name of “adamas” for the purpose of enhancing their value. - -Now with reference to those affinities and repugnances which exist -between certain objects, known to the Greeks as “sympathia” and -“antipathia,” phænomena to which we have endeavoured[3000] to draw -attention throughout these books, they nowhere manifest themselves with -greater distinctness than here. This indomitable power, in fact, which -sets at nought the two most violent agents in Nature, fire, namely, and -iron, is made to yield before the blood of a he-goat.[3001] The blood, -however must be no otherwise than fresh and warm; the stone, too, must -be well steeped in it, and then subjected to repeated blows: and even -then, it is apt to break both anvils and hammers of iron, if they are -not of the very finest temper. To what spirit of research, or to what -accident, are we indebted for this discovery? or what conjecture can -it have been, that first led man to experiment upon a thing of such -extraordinary value as this, and that, too, with the most unclean[3002] -of all animals? Surely a discovery, such as this, must have been due -solely to the munificence of the gods, and we must look for the reason -of it in none of the elementary operations of Nature, but wholly in her -will. - -When, by good fortune, this stone does happen to be broken, it divides -into fragments so minute as to be almost imperceptible. These particles -are held in great request by engravers, who enclose them in iron, and -are enabled thereby, with the greatest facility, to cut[3003] the very -hardest substances known. So great is the antipathy borne by this -stone to the magnet, that when placed near, it will not allow of its -attracting iron; or if the magnet has already attracted the iron, it -will seize the metal and drag it away from the other.[3004] Adamas, -too, overcomes and neutralizes poisons, dispels delirium, and banishes -groundless perturbations of the mind; hence it is that some have given -it the name of “ananchites.”[3005] Metrodorus of Scepsis is the only -author, that I know of, who says that this stone is found also in -Germany, and in the island of Basilia,[3006] where amber is found. He -says, too, that this is preferable to the stone of Arabia; but can -there be any doubt that his statement is incorrect? - - - - -CHAP. 16.—-SMARAGDUS. - - -Next[3007] in esteem with us are the pearls of India and Arabia, of -which we have already spoken in the Ninth Book,[3008] when treating of -the marine productions. - -(5.) The third rank, for many reasons, has been given to the -smaragdus.[3009] Indeed there is no stone, the colour of which is more -delightful to the eye; for whereas the sight fixes itself with avidity -upon the green[3010] grass and the foliage of the trees, we have all -the more pleasure in looking upon the smaragdus, there being no green -in existence of a more intense colour[3011] than this. And then, -besides, of all the precious stones, this is the only one that feeds -the sight without satiating it. Even when the vision has been fatigued -with intently viewing other objects, it is refreshed by being turned -upon this stone; and lapidaries know of nothing that is more gratefully -soothing to the eyes, its soft green tints being wonderfully adapted -for assuaging lassitude, when felt in those organs. - -And then, besides, when viewed from a distance, these stones appear all -the larger to the sight, reflecting as they do, their green hues upon -the circumambient air. Neither sunshine, shade, nor artificial light -effects any change in their appearance; they have always a softened -and graduated brilliancy; and transmitting the light with facility, -they allow the vision to penetrate their interior; a property which is -so pleasing, also, with reference to water. In form they are mostly -concave, so as to re-unite the rays of light and the powers of vision: -and hence it is, that it is so universally agreed upon among mankind -to respect these stones, and to forbid their surface[3012] to be -engraved. In the case, however, of the stones of Scythia and Egypt, -their hardness is such, that it would be quite impossible to penetrate -them. When the surface of the smaragdus is flat, it reflects the image -of objects in the same manner as a mirror. The Emperor Nero used to -view[3013] the combats of the gladiators upon a smaragdus. - - - - -CHAP. 17.—TWELVE VARIETIES OF THE SMARAGDUS. - - -Of this stone there are no less than twelve different kinds; of -which the finest is the Scythian[3014] smaragdus, so called from the -country where it is found. None of them has a deeper colour than this, -or is more free from defects: indeed, in the same degree that the -smaragdus is superior to other precious stones, the Scythian smaragdus -is superior to the other varieties. Next in esteem to this, as also -in locality, is the smaragdus of Bactriana.[3015] These stones are -collected, it is said, in the fissures of rocks, when the Etesian[3016] -winds prevail; a period at which the earth that covers them is removed, -and the stones are detected by their brightness, the sands being -greatly agitated by the action of the winds. These last, however, are -much inferior, they say, to those of Scythia in size. The third rank is -held by the stones of Egypt,[3017] which are extracted from the hills -in the vicinity of Coptos, a city of Thebais. - -All the other kinds are found in copper-mines, and hence it is that, of -these varieties, the smaragdus of Cyprus holds the highest rank. The -merit of them consists in their clear colour, which has nothing thin -or diluted in it, but presents a rich and humid transparency, closely -resembling the tints of the sea, in fact. Hence it is that these stones -are at once diaphanous and shining, or, in other words, reflect their -colours and allow the vision to penetrate within. They say that in -this island, upon the tomb of a petty king named Hermias, near the -fisheries[3018] there, there was formerly a lion in marble, with eyes -made of smaragdi; the brilliancy of which penetrated the sea to such -a degree, as to alarm the tunnies and put them to flight: a novel -circumstance, which for a long time excited wonder in the fishermen, -till at last the stones in the statue were changed for others. - - - - -CHAP. 18.—DEFECTS IN THE SMARAGDUS. - - -It will be only proper, too, seeing that the prices of these stones -are so exorbitant, to point out their defects. Some defects, no doubt, -are common to all of them, while others, again, like those found in -the human race, are peculiar only to those of a certain country. Thus, -for example, the stones of Cyprus are not all green alike, and in the -same smaragdus some parts are more or less so than others, the stone -not always preserving that uniform deep tint which characterizes the -smaragdus of Scythia. In other instances, a shadow runs through the -stone, and the colour becomes dulled thereby; the consequence of which -is, that its value is depreciated; and even more so, when the colour is -thin and diluted. - -In consequence of the defects[3019] in these stones, they have been -divided into several classes. Some of them are obscure, and are then -known as “blind” stones; some have a certain density, which impairs -their transparency; others, again, are mottled, and others covered -with a cloud. This cloud, however, is altogether different from the -shadow above mentioned; for it is a defect which renders the stone of -a whitish hue, and not of a transparent green throughout; presenting, -as it does, in the interior or upon the surface, a certain degree of -whiteness which arrests the vision. Other defects, again, in these -stones, are filaments, salt-like[3020] grains, or traces of lead ore, -faults which are mostly common to them all. - -Next after the kinds above described, the smaragdus of Æthiopia is -held in high esteem; being found, as Juba tells us, at a distance -of twenty-five days’ journey from Coptos. These are of a bright -green, but are seldom to be met with perfectly clear or of an uniform -colour. Democritus includes in this class the stones that are known -as “herminei,” and as “Persian” stones; the former of which are of a -convex, massive shape, while the latter are destitute of transparency, -but have an agreeable, uniform colour, and satisfy the vision without -allowing it to penetrate them; strongly resembling, in this respect, -the eyes of cats and of panthers, which are radiant without being -diaphanous. In the sun, he says, they lose their brilliancy, but they -are radiant in the shade, the brightness of them being seen at a -greater distance than in the case of other stones. One other fault, -too, in all these stones is, that they often have a colour like that of -honey or rancid oil, or else are clear and transparent, but not green. - -These defects exist in the smaragdi of Attica,[3021] more particularly, -which are found in the silver-mines there, at a place known by the -name of Thoricos.[3022] These last are never so massive as the others, -and are always more pleasing to the sight when viewed from a distance: -lead ore, too, is often to be detected in them, or, in other words, -they have a leaden appearance when looked at in the sun.[3023] One -peculiarity in them is, that some of them become impaired by age, -gradually lose their green colour, and are even deteriorated by -exposure to the sun. Next to the stones of Attica come those of Media, -a variety which presents the most numerous tints of all, and sometimes -approaches sapphiros[3024] in colour. These stones are wavy,[3025] and -represent various natural objects, such as poppy-heads, for example, -birds, the young of animals, and feathers: all of them appear naturally -of a green colour, but become improved by the application of oil. No -stones of this species are of a larger size than these. - -I am not aware that any of these stones[3026] are still in existence -at Chalcedon, the copper mines of that locality being now exhausted: -but be this as it may, they were always the smallest in size and the -most inferior in value. Brittle, and of a colour far from distinctly -pronounced, they resembled in their tints the feathers that are seen -in the tail of the peacock or on the necks of pigeons.[3027] More or -less brilliant, too, according to the angle at which they were viewed, -they presented an appearance like that of veins and scales. There was -another defect, also, peculiar to these stones, known as “sarcion,” -from the circumstance that a kind of flesh[3028] appeared to attach -itself to the stone. The mountain near Chalcedon, where these stones -were gathered, is still known by the name of “Smaragdites.” Juba -informs us that a kind of smaragdus, known as “cloras,”[3029] is used -in Arabia as an ornament for buildings, as also the stone which by -the people of Egypt is called “alabastrites.” On the same authority, -too, we learn that there are several varieties of the smaragdus in the -neighbouring mountains, and that stones like those of Media are found -in Mount Taygetus,[3030] as also in Sicily. - - - - -CHAP. 19.—THE PRECIOUS STONE CALLED TANOS. CHALCOSMARAGDOS. - - -Among the smaragdi is also included the precious stone known as -“tanos.”[3031] It comes from Persia, and is of an unsightly green, and -of a soiled colour within. There is the chalcosmaragdos[3032] also, -a native of Cyprus, the face of which is mottled with coppery veins. -Theophrastus relates that he had found it stated in the Egyptian -histories, that a king of Babylon once sent to the king of Egypt a -smaragdus[3033] four cubits in length by three in breadth. He informs -us, also, that in a temple of Jupiter in Egypt there was an obelisk -made of four smaragdi, forty cubits in length, and four in breadth at -one extremity, and two at the other. He says, too, that at the period -at which he wrote, there was in the Temple of Hercules at Tyrus a -large column made of a single smaragdus;[3034] though very possibly -it might only be pseudo-smaragdus, a kind of stone not uncommonly -found in Cyprus, where a block had been discovered, composed, one -half of smaragdus, and one half of jasper,[3035] and the liquid in -which had not as yet been entirely transformed. Apion, surnamed -“Plistonices,”[3036] has left a very recent statement, that there was -still in existence, in his time, in the Labyrinth of Egypt, a colossal -statue of Serapis made of a single smaragdus, nine cubits in height. - - - - -CHAP. 20.—BERYLS: EIGHT VARIETIES OF THEM. DEFECTS IN BERYLS. - - -Beryls, it is thought, are of the same[3037] nature as the smaragdus, -or at least closely analogous. India[3038] produces them, and they -are rarely to be found elsewhere. The lapidaries cut all beryls of an -hexagonal[3039] form; because the colour, which is deadened by a dull -uniformity of surface, is heightened by the reflection resulting from -the angles. If they are cut in any other way, these stones have no -brilliancy whatever. The most esteemed beryls are those which in colour -resemble the pure green of the sea;[3040] the chrysoberyl[3041] being -next in value, a stone of a somewhat paler colour, but approaching a -golden tint. Closely allied to this last in its brilliancy, but of -a more pallid colour, and thought by some to constitute a separate -genus, is chrysoprasus.[3042] In the fourth rank are reckoned the -hyacinthine beryls; and in the fifth, those known as “aëroides.”[3043] -Next, we have the wax-coloured beryls, and, after them, the oleaginous -beryls, so called from the resemblance of their colour to that of oil. -Last of all, there are the stones which closely resemble crystal in -appearance; mostly disfigured by spots and filaments, and of a poor, -faint, colour as well; all of them so many imperfections in the stone. - -The people of India are marvellously fond of beryls of an -elongated[3044] form, and say that these are the only precious -stones they prefer wearing without the addition of gold: hence it is -that, after piercing them, they string them upon the bristles of the -elephant. It is generally agreed, however, that those stones should not -be perforated which are of the finest quality; and in this case they -only enclose the extremities of them in studs of gold. They prefer, -too, cutting the beryls in a cylindrical form, instead of setting -them as precious stones; an elongated shape being the one that is -most highly esteemed. Some are of opinion that beryls are naturally -angular,[3045] and that when pierced they become improved in colour; -the white substance being thus removed that lies within, and their -brilliancy heightened by the reflection of the gold in which they are -set; or, at all events, their transparency being increased by this -diminution in their thickness. In addition to the defects already[3046] -mentioned, and which are pretty nearly the same as those to which the -smaragdus is subject, beryls are affected with cloudy spots,[3047] like -those on the finger-nails in appearance. In our own part of the world, -it is thought that they are sometimes found in the countries that lie -in the vicinity of Pontus.[3048] The people of India, by colouring -crystal, have found a method of imitating various precious stones, -beryls in particular. - - - - -CHAP. 21. (6.)—OPALS: SEVEN VARIETIES OF THEM. - - -Opals[3049] are at once very similar to, and very different from, -beryls, and only yield to the smaragdus in value. India, too, is -the sole[3050] parent of these precious stones, thus completing -her glory as being the great producer of the most costly gems. -Of all precious stones, it is opal that presents the greatest -difficulties of description, it displaying at once the piercing fire -of carbunculus,[3051] the purple brilliancy of amethystos, and the -sea-green of smaragdus, the whole blended together and refulgent with -a brightness that is quite incredible. Some authors have compared the -effect of its refulgence to that of the colour known as Armenian[3052] -pigment, while others speak of it as resembling the flame of burning -sulphur, or of flame fed with oil. In size, the opal is about as large -as a hazel-nut,[3053] and, with reference to it, there is a remarkable -historical anecdote related. For there is still in existence a stone -of this class, on account of which Antonius proscribed the senator -Nonius, son of the Nonius Struma, whom the poet Catullus[3054] was -so displeased at seeing in the curule chair, and grandfather of the -Servilius Nonianus, who in our own times was consul.[3055] On being -thus proscribed, Nonius took to flight, carrying with him, out of all -his wealth, nothing but this ring, the value of which, it is well -known, was estimated at two millions of sesterces. How marvellous -must have been the cruelty, how marvellous the luxurious passion of -Antonius, thus to proscribe a man for the possession of a jewel! and -no less marvellous must have been the obstinacy of Nonius, who could -thus dote upon what had been the cause of his proscription; for we see -the very brutes even tear off the portion of their body for the sake of -which they know their existence to be imperilled,[3056] and so redeem -themselves by parting with it. - - - - -CHAP. 22.—DEFECTS IN OPALS: THE MODES OF TESTING THEM. - - -Defects in opal are, a colour inclining to that of the flower called -heliotropium,[3057] or to that of crystal or of hailstones; salt-like -grains intervening; roughness on the surface; or sharp points, -presenting themselves to the eye. There is no stone that is imitated -by fraudulent dealers with more exactness than this, in glass, the -only mode of detecting the imposition being by the light of the sun. -For when a false[3058] opal is held between the finger and thumb, and -exposed to the rays of that luminary, it presents but one and the -same transparent colour throughout, limited to the body of the stone: -whereas the genuine opal offers various refulgent tints in succession, -and reflects now one hue and now another, as it sheds its luminous -brilliancy upon the fingers. - -This stone, in consequence of its extraordinary beauty, has been called -“pæderos”[3059] by many authors; and some who make a distinct species -of it, say that it is the same as the stone that in India is called -“sangenon.” These last-mentioned stones, it is said, are found in -Egypt also, Arabia, and, of very inferior quality, in Pontus. Galatia, -too, is said to produce them, as also Thasos and Cyprus. The finest in -quality of them have all the beauty of opal, but they are of a softer -brilliancy, and are mostly rough on the surface. Their colour is a -mixture of sky-blue and purple, and the green hues of the smaragdus -are wanting: those, too, are preferred, which have their brilliancy -deepened by a vinous hue, rather than those which have their colours -diluted, as it were, with water. - - - - -CHAP. 23.—SARDONYX; THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT. DEFECTS IN THE -SARDONYX. - - -Thus far we have spoken in reference to the stones, which, it is -generally agreed, belong to the highest rank; in obedience, more -particularly, to a decree[3060] that has been passed by the ladies to -that effect. There is less certainty with respect to those upon which -the men as well have been left to form a judgment; seeing that the -value of each stone depends more particularly upon the caprice of the -individual and the rivalry that exists in reference thereto; as, for -example, when Claudius Cæsar was so much in the habit of wearing the -smaragdus and the sardonyx.[3061] The first Roman who wore a sardonyx, -according to Demostratus, was the elder Africanus, since whose time -this stone has been held in very high esteem at Rome: for which reason, -we shall give it the next place after the opal. By sardonyx, as the -name[3062] itself indicates, was formerly understood a sarda with a -white ground beneath it, like the flesh beneath the human finger-nail; -both parts of the stone being equally transparent. Such, according to -Ismenias, Demostratus, Zenothemis, and Sotacus, is the sardonyx of -India; the last two giving the name of “blind” sardonyx to all the -other stones of this class which are not transparent, and which have -now entirely appropriated the name to themselves. For, at the present -day, the Arabian sardonyx presents no traces whatever of the Indian -sarda,[3063] it being a stone that has been found to be characterized -by several different colours of late; black or azure for the base, and -vermilion, surrounded with a line of rich white, for the upper part, -not without a certain glimpse[3064] of purple as the white passes into -the red.[3065] - -We learn from Zenothemis that in his time these stones were not held -by the people of India in any high esteem, although they are found -there of so large a size as to admit of the hilts of swords being -made of them. It is well known, too, that in that country they are -exposed to view by the mountain-streams, and that in our part of the -world they were formerly valued from the fact that they are nearly the -only ones[3066] among the engraved precious stones that do not bring -away the wax when an impression is made. The consequence is, that our -example has at last taught the people of India to set a value upon -them, and the lower classes there now pierce them even, to wear them as -ornaments for the neck; the great proof, in fact, at the present day, -of a sardonyx being of Indian origin. Those of Arabia are remarkable -for their marginal line of brilliant white, of considerable breadth, -and not glistening in hollow fissures in the stone or upon the sides, -but shining upon the very surface, at the margin, and supported by a -ground intensely black beneath. In the stones of India, this ground -is like wax in colour,[3067] or else like cornel, with a circle also -of white around it. In some of these stones, too, there is a play of -colours like those of the rainbow, while the surface is redder even -than the shell of the sea-locust.[3068] - -Those stones which are like honey in appearance, or of a fæculent[3069] -colour—such being the name given to one defect in them—are generally -disapproved of. They are rejected also when the white zone blends -itself with the other colours, and its limits are not definitely -marked; or if, in like manner, it is irregularly intersected by any -other colour; it being looked upon as an imperfection if the regularity -of any one of the colours is interrupted by the interposition of -another. The sardonyx of Armenia is held in some esteem, but the zone -round it is of a pallid hue. - - - - -CHAP. 24.—ONYX: THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT. - - -We must give some account also of onyx,[3070] because of the name which -it partly shares in common with sardonyx. This name, though in some -places[3071] given to a marble, is here used to signify a precious -stone. Sudines says, that in this stone there is a white portion which -resembles the white of the human-finger nail, in addition to the -colours of chrysolithos, sarda, and iaspis. According to Zenothemis, -there are numerous varieties of the Indian onyx, the fiery-coloured, -the black, and the cornel, with white veins encircling them, like an -eye as it were, and in some cases running across them obliquely.[3072] -Sotacus mentions an Arabian onyx, which differs from the rest; that of -India, according to him, presenting small flames,[3073] each surrounded -by one or more white zones; in a manner altogether different from the -Indian sardonyx, which presents a series of white specks, while in this -case it is one continuous circle. The Arabian onyx, on the other hand, -is black, he says, with a white zone encircling it. - -Satyrus says, that there is an onyx in India of a flesh colour,[3074] -partly resembling carbunculus, and partly chrysolithos and amethystos; -a variety, however, which he altogether disapproves of. The real -onyx, according to him, has numerous veins of variegated colours, -interspersed with others of a milk-white hue; the shades of which, -as they pass into one another, produce a tint which surpasses all -description, and blends itself into one harmonious whole, of a most -beautiful appearance. - -Not unlike sardonyx, too, is sarda,[3075] a stone which also has, in -part, a kindred name with it; but before passing on to it, we must -first take some notice of all those precious stones which have a -brilliancy like that of flame. - - - - -CHAP. 25. (7.)—CARBUNCULUS: TWELVE VARIETIES OF IT. - - -In the first rank among these is carbunculus,[3076] so called from its -resemblance to fire; though in reality it is proof against the action -of that element:[3077] hence it is that some persons call these stones -“acaustoi.”[3078] There are various kinds of carbunculus, the Indian -and the Garamantic, for example, which last has been also called the -Carchedonian,[3079] in compliment to the former opulence of Great -Carthage.[3080] To these are added the Æthiopian and the Alabandic -stones, the latter of which are found at Orthosia[3081] in Caria, but -are cut and polished at Alabanda.[3082] In addition to this, each kind -is subdivided into the male carbunculus and the female, the former -of which is of a more striking brilliancy, the brightness of the -latter being not so strong. In the male varieties too, we see some in -which the fire is clearer than in others; while some, again, are of a -darker[3083] hue, or else have their brilliancy more deeply seated, and -shine with a more powerful lustre than others when viewed in the sun. - -The most highly esteemed, however, is the amethyst-coloured[3084] -stone, the fire at the extremity of which closely approaches the -violet tint of amethystos: next in value to which, are the stones -known as “syrtites,” radiant with a wavy, feathery,[3085] refulgence. -They are found more particularly, it is said, where the reflection -is most powerful of the rays of the sun. Satyrus says that the -carbunculus[3086] of India has no lustre, that it is mostly soiled, -and that in all cases its brilliancy is of a tawny complexion. The -Æthiopian stones, he says, are dense, emit no lustre, and burn with a -concentrated flame. According to Callistratus, the refulgence of this -stone should be of a whitish hue, and, when placed upon a table, it -should heighten by its lustre other stones placed near it that are -clouded at the edge. Hence it is, that many writers speak of this -stone as the white carbunculus, while the Indian stone, with its -comparatively feeble lustre, is known by the name of “lignyzon.”[3087] -The Carchedonian stones, they say, are of much smaller size than the -others; but those of India admit of being hollowed out, and making -vessels that will hold as much as one sextarius[3088] even. - -According to Archelaüs, the Carchedonian carbunculus is of a more -swarthy appearance than the others, but, when exposed to the light of -the fire or sun, and viewed obliquely, the brilliancy of it is much -more intense than that of the rest. He says, too, that this stone, when -overshadowed by a roof, has a purple tint; that when viewed in the open -air, it is of a flame colour; and that, when exposed to the rays of -the sun, it scintillates. He states also that wax, if sealed with these -stones, in the shade even, will melt. Many authors have asserted that -the Indian stones are paler than the Carchedonian, and that, quite the -converse of these last, they are all the less brilliant when viewed -obliquely; as also, that in the male Carchedonian stone there are -luminous points like stars within, while, in the case of the female -stone, the whole of its refulgence is thrown beyond it. The stones of -Alabanda too, it is said, are darker than the other kinds, and rough on -the surface. In the vicinity also of Miletus, there are stones of this -description found in the earth, resembling those of Alabanda in colour, -and proof against the action of fire. - -According to Theophrastus,[3089] these stones are to be found also at -Orchomenus in Arcadia and in the Isle of Chios;[3090] the former[3091] -of which are of a darker hue, and are used for making mirrors. He says -too, that at Trœzen they are found of various colours and mottled with -white spots, those found at Corinth being of a more pallid, whitish, -hue. He states also, that they are sometimes imported from Massilia. -Bocchus informs us in his writings, that these stones are extracted -from the ground at Olisipo;[3092] at the cost of great labour, however, -in consequence of the parched, argillaceous, nature of the soil. - - - - -CHAP. 26.—DEFECTS IN CARBUNCULUS, AND THE MODE OF TESTING IT. - - -Nothing is more difficult than to distinguish the several varieties of -this stone, so great an opportunity do they afford to artistic skill of -compelling them to reflect the colours of substances placed beneath. It -is possible, they say, to heighten the brilliancy of dull stones, by -steeping them for fourteen days in vinegar, this adventitious lustre -being retained by them as many months. They are counterfeited, too, -with great exactness in glass; but the difference may be detected with -the touchstone; the same being the case also with other artificial -stones, as the material is always of a softer nature and comparatively -brittle. When thus tested by the stone, hard knots, too, are detected -in them; and the weight of the glass counterfeit is always less. In -some cases, too, they present small blisters within, which shine like -silver. - - - - -CHAP. 27.—AHTHRACITIS.[3093] - - -There is also a fossil stone found in Thesprotia, known as -“anthracitis,”[3094] and resembling a burning coal[3095] in appearance. -Those who have stated that it is a native also of Liguria, are -mistaken, in my opinion, unless perhaps it was to be found there in -their time. Some of these stones, they say, are surrounded with a -vein of white. Like those which we have mentioned above, they have a -fiery colour, but there is this peculiarity in them, that when thrown -into the fire they have all the appearance of becoming quenched and -deadened; while, on the other hand, if they are drenched with water, -they become doubly glowing.[3096] - - - - -CHAP. 28.—SANDASTROS. SANDARESOS. - - -Of a kindred nature, too, is sandastros,[3097] known as “garamantites” -by some: it is found in India, at a place of that name, and is a -product also of the southern parts of Arabia. The great recommendation -of it is, that it has all the appearance of fire placed behind a -transparent substance, it burning with star-like scintillations -within, that resemble drops of gold, and are always to be seen in -the body of the stone, and never upon the surface. There are certain -religious associations, too, connected with this stone, in consequence -of the affinity which it is supposed to bear with the stars; these -scintillations being mostly, in number and arrangement, like the -constellations of the Pleiades and Hyades; a circumstance which had led -to the use of it by the Chaldæi in the ceremonials which they practise. - -Here, too, the male stones are distinguished from the female, by their -comparative depth of colour and the vigorousness of the tints which -they impart to objects near them: indeed the stones of India, it is -said, quite dim the sight by their brilliancy. The flame of the female -sandastros is of a more softened nature, and may be pronounced to be -lustrous rather than brilliant. Some prefer the stone of Arabia to that -of India, and say that this last bears a considerable resemblance to -a smoke-coloured chrysolithos. Ismenias asserts that sandastros, in -consequence of its extreme softness, will not admit of being polished, -a circumstance which makes it sell all[3098] the dearer: other writers, -again, call these stones “sandrisitæ.” One point upon which all the -authorities are agreed is, that the greater the number of stars upon -the stone, the more costly it is in price. - -The similarity of the name has sometimes caused this stone to be -confounded with that known as “sandaresos,” and which Nicander calls -“sandaserion,” and others “sandaseron.” Some, again, call this -last-mentioned stone “sandastros,” and the former one “sandaresos.” The -stone[3099] that is thus mentioned by Nicander, is a native of India as -well as the other, and likewise takes its name from the locality where -it is found. The colour of it is that of an apple, or of green oil, and -no one sets any value on it. - - - - -CHAP. 29.—LYCHNIS: FOUR VARIETIES OF IT. - - -To the same class of flame-coloured stones belongs that known as -“lychnis;”[3100] so called from its lustre being heightd by the light -of the lamp, under which circumstances its tints are particularly -pleasing. It is found in the vicinity of Orthosia, throughout the whole -of Caria, and in the neighbouring localities; but the most approved -stones are those that come from India. Some writers have given the -name of “deadened”[3101] carbunculus to a lychnis of second-rate -quality, and similar in colour to the flower known as the “flower of -Jove.”[3102] I find other varieties also mentioned, one with a purple -radiance, and another of a scarlet[3103] tint. It is asserted, too, -that these stones, when heated or rubbed between the fingers, will -attract[3104] chaff and filaments of paper. - - - - -CHAP. 30.—CARCHEDONIA. - - -Carchedonia,[3105] too, is said to have the same property, though far -inferior in value to the stones already mentioned. It is found in the -mountains among the Nasamones,[3106] being produced, the natives think, -by showers sent for the purpose from heaven. These stones are found -by the light of the moon, more particularly when at full: in former -days, Carthage was the entrepôt for them. Archelaüs speaks of a brittle -variety being found in the vicinity of Thebes also, in Egypt, full of -veins, and similar to dying embers in appearance. I find it stated, -too, that in former times, drinking-vessels used to be made of this -stone and of lychnis:[3107] all these kinds of stone, however, offer -the most obstinate resistance to the graver, and, if used for seals, -are apt to bring away a part of the wax. - - - - -CHAP. 31.—SARDA: FIVE VARIETIES OF IT. - - -Sarda,[3108] on the other hand, is remarkably useful for this purpose; -a stone which shares its name, in part, with sardonyx. It is a common -stone, and was first found at Sardes, but the most esteemed kind is -that of the vicinity of Babylon. When certain quarries are being -worked, these stones are found, adhering, like a kind of heart, to the -interior of the rock. This mineral, however, is said to be now extinct -in Persia; though it is to be found in numerous other localities, Paros -and Assos, for example. - -In India[3109] there are three varieties of this stone; the red sarda, -the one known as “pionia,” from its thickness, and a third kind, -beneath which they place a ground of silver tinsel. The Indian stones -are transparent, those of Arabia being more opaque. There are some -found also in the vicinity of Leucas in Epirus, and in Egypt, which -have a ground placed beneath them of leaf gold. In the case of this -stone, too, the male stone shines with a more attractive brilliancy -than the female, which is of a thicker substance, and more opaque. -Among the ancients there was no precious stone in more common use than -this; at all events, it is this stone that is made so much parade -of in the comedies of Menander and Philemon. No one, too, among the -transparent stones is tarnished more speedily by exposure to moisture -than this; though of all liquids, it is oil that acts the most readily -upon it. Those stones which are like honey in colour, are generally -disapproved of, and still more so, when they have the complexion of -earthenware.[3110] - - - - -CHAP. 32. (8.)—TOPAZOS: TWO VARIETIES OF IT. - - -Topazos[3111] is a stone that is still held in very high estimation -for its green tints: indeed, when it was first discovered, it was -preferred to every other kind of precious stone. It so happened that -some Troglodytic pirates, suffering from tempest and hunger, having -landed upon an island off the coast of Arabia known as Cytis,[3112] -when digging there for roots and grass, discovered this precious stone: -such, at least, is the opinion expressed by Archelaüs. Juba says that -there is an island in the Red Sea called “Topazos,”[3113] at a distance -of three hundred stadia from the main land; that it is surrounded by -fogs, and is often sought by navigators in consequence; and that, -owing to this, it received its present name,[3114] the word “topazin” -meaning “to seek,” in the language of the Troglodytæ. He states also, -that Philon, the king’s præfect, was the first to bring these stones -from this island; that, on his presenting them to Queen Berenice, the -mother of the second Ptolemæus, she was wonderfully pleased with them; -and that, at a later period, a statue, four cubits in height, was -made of this stone,[3115] in honour of Arsinoë, the wife of Ptolemæus -Philadelphus, it being consecrated in the temple known as the “Golden -Temple.” - -The most recent writers say that this stone is found also in the -vicinity of Alabastrum, a city of Thebais, and they distinguish two -varieties of it, the prasoïdes[3116] and the chrysopteron;[3117] which -last is similar to chrysoprasus,[3118] all the shades of it tending, -more or less, to resemble the colouring principle of the leek. Topazos -is the largest of all the precious stones, and is the only one among -those of high value that yields to the action of the file, the rest -being polished by the aid of stone of Naxos.[3119] It admits, too, of -being worn by use. - - - - -CHAP. 33.—CALLAINA. - - -With this stone we must also couple another, which resembles it -more closely in appearance than in value, the stone known as -“callaina,”[3120] and of a pale green colour. It is found in the -countries[3121] that lie at the back of India, among the Phycari, -namely, who inhabit Mount Caucasus, the Sacæ, and the Dahæ. It is -remarkable for its size, but is covered with holes and full of -extraneous matter; that, however, which is found in Carmania is of a -finer quality, and far superior. In both cases, however, it is only -amid frozen and inaccessible rocks that it is found, protruding from -the surface, like an eye in appearance, and slightly adhering to the -rock; not as though it formed an integral part of it, but with all -the appearance of having been attached to it. People so habituated as -they are to riding on horseback, cannot find the energy and dexterity -requisite for climbing the rocks to obtain the stones, while, at the -same time, they are quite terrified at the danger of doing so. Hence -it is, that they attack the stones with slings from a distance, and -so bring them down, moss and all. It is with this stone that the -people pay their tribute, and this the rich look upon as their most -graceful ornament for the neck.[3122] This constitutes the whole of -their wealth, with some, and it is their chief glory to recount how -many of these stones they have brought down from the mountain heights -since the days of their childhood. Their success, however, is extremely -variable;[3123] for while some, at the very first throw, have brought -down remarkably fine specimens, many have arrived at old age without -obtaining any. - -Such is the method of procuring these stones; their form being given -them by cutting, a thing that is easily effected. The best of them -have just the colour of smaragdus, a thing that proves that the most -pleasing property in them is one that belongs of right to another -stone. Their beauty is heightened by setting them in gold, and there -is no stone to which the contrast of the gold is more becoming. The -finest of them lose their colour by coming in contact with oil, -unguents, or undiluted wine even; whereas those of a poorer quality -preserve their colour better. There is no stone, too, that is more -easily counterfeited in glass. Some writers say, that this stone is -to be found in Arabia also, in the nest of the bird known as the -“melancoryphus.”[3124] - - - - -CHAP. 34.—PRASIUS; THREE VARIETIES OF IT. - - -There are numerous other kinds also of green stones. To the more common -class belongs prasius;[3125] one variety of which is disfigured with -spots[3126] like blood, while another kind is marked with three streaks -of white. To all these stones chrysoprasus[3127] is preferred, which is -also similar to the colouring matter of the leek, but varies in tint -between topazos and gold. This stone is found of so large a size as to -admit of drinking-boats[3128] even being made of it, and is cut into -cylinders very frequently. - - - - -CHAP. 35.—NILION. - - -India, which produces these stones, produces nilion[3129] also, a stone -that differs from the last in its dull, diminished lustre, which, when -steadily looked upon, soon fades from the sight. Sudines says that it -is to be found also in the Siberus, a river of Attica. In appearance it -resembles a smoke-coloured topazos, or, in some cases, a topazos with -a tint like honey. According to Juba, Æthiopia produces it, upon the -shores of the river known to us as the Nilus; to which circumstance, he -says, it owes its name. - - - - -CHAP. 36.—MOLOCHITIS. - - -Molochitis[3130] is not transparent, being of a deeper green, and more -opaque than smaragdus; its name is derived from the mallow,[3131] which -it resembles in colour. It is highly esteemed for making seals, and -it is endowed by Nature with medicinal properties which render it a -preservative for infants against certain dangers which menace them. -This stone is a native of Arabia.[3132] - - - - -CHAP. 37.—IASPIS; FOURTEEN VARIETIES OF IT. DEFECTS FOUND IN IASPIS. - - -Iaspis,[3133] too, is green, and often transparent; a stone which, if -surpassed by many others, still retains the renown which it acquired in -former times. Many countries produce this stone: that of India is like -smaragdus in colour; that of Cyprus is hard, and of a full sea-green; -and that of Persia is sky-blue, whence its name, “aërizusa.”[3134] -Similar to this last is the Caspian iaspis. On the banks of the river -Thermodon the iaspis is of an azure colour; in Phrygia, it is purple; -and in Cappadocia of an azure purple, sombre, and not refulgent. -Amisos[3135] sends us an iaspis like that of India in colour, and -Chalcedon,[3136] a stone of a turbid hue. - -But it is of less consequence to distinguish the several localities -that furnish it, than it is to remark upon the degrees of excellence -which they present. The best kind is that which has a shade of purple, -the next best being the rose-coloured, and the next the stone with -the green colour of the smaragdus; to each of which the Greeks have -given names[3137] according to their respective tints. A fourth kind, -which is called by them “boria,”[3138] resembles in colour the sky -of a morning in autumn; this, too, will be the same that is known as -“aërizusa.”[3139] There is an iaspis also which resembles sarda[3140] -in appearance, and another with a violet tint. Not less numerous, too, -are the other kinds that are left undescribed; but they are all blue to -a fault,[3141] or else resemble crystal in appearance, or the tints of -the myxa[3142] plum. There is the terebenthine[3143]-coloured iaspis -also; improperly so called, in my opinion, as it has all the appearance -of being a composition of numerous gems of this description. - -The best of these stones are set in an open bezel, the gold of which -only embraces the margins of the stone, leaving the upper and lower -surfaces uncovered. One great defect in them is a subdued lustre, -and a want of refulgence when viewed from a distance. Grains also -like salt appear within the stone, and all the other defects which -are common[3144] to precious stones in general. Sometimes they are -imitated in glass; a fraud, however, which may be easily detected, from -the material throwing out its refulgence, instead of concentrating -it within itself. To this class also belongs the stone called -“sphragis,”[3145] which is only reckoned as belonging to the domain of -precious stones, from the circumstance that it is the best of all for -making signets.[3146] - -(9.) Throughout all the East, it is the custom, it is said, to wear -iaspis by way of amulet. The variety of this stone which resembles -smaragdus in colour is often found with a white line running -transversely through the middle; in which case it is known as -“monogrammos:”[3147] when it is streaked with several lines, it is -called “polygrammos.”[3148] Here, too, I may take the opportunity of -exposing the falsehoods[3149] of the magicians, who pretend that this -stone is beneficial for persons when speaking in public. There is a -stone also that is formed of iaspis and onyx combined, and is known -as “iasponyx.”[3150] Sometimes this stone has a clouded appearance; -sometimes it has spots upon the surface like snow;[3151] and sometimes -it is stellated with red spots.[3152] One kind resembles salt of -Megara[3153] in appearance, and another is known as capnias,[3154] -and looks as if it had been smoked. We have seen in our day an -iaspis[3155] fifteen inches in length, of which a figure of Nero was -made, armed with a cuirass. - - - - -CHAP. 38.—CYANOS; THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT. - - -We must also give a separate account of cyanos,[3156] a name which, -until very recently, was given to a species of iaspis, on account of -its cærulean colour. The best kind is that of Scythia,[3157] the next -best being the produce of Cyprus, and, last of all, that of Egypt. -An artificial[3158] kind is much in use, that is prepared by dyeing -other substances; and this invention is looked upon as one of the -great glories of the kings of Egypt, the name of the king who first -discovered it being still preserved in their annals. This stone, too, -is divided into male and female, and sometimes it has the appearance of -being powdered with a golden dust, in much the same way as sapphiros. - - - - -CHAP. 39.—SAPPHIROS. - - -For sapphiros,[3159] too, is refulgent with spots[3160] like gold. It -is also of an azure colour, though sometimes, but rarely, it is purple; -the best kind being that which comes from Media. In no case, however, -is this stone diaphanous; in addition to which, it is not suited for -engraving when intersected with hard particles of a crystalline[3161] -nature. Those among them that have the colour of cyanos are generally -thought to be the male stones. - - - - -CHAP. 40.—AMETHYSTOS; FOUR VARIETIES OF IT. SOCONDION. SAPENOS. -PHARANITIS. APHRODITES BLEPHARON, ANTEROS, OR PÆDEROS. - - -We will now commence with another class of precious stones, those of -a purple colour, or whose tints are derived from purple. To the first -rank belongs the amethystos[3162] of India; a stone which is also found -in the part of Arabia that adjoins Syria and is known as Petra, as also -in Lesser Armenia, Egypt, and Galatia; the very worst of all, and the -least valued, being those of Thasos and Cyprus. The name which these -stones bear, originates, it is said, in the peculiar tint of their -brilliancy, which, after closely approaching the colour of wine, passes -off into a violet without being fully pronounced; or else, according to -some authorities, in the fact that in their purple there is something -that falls short of a fiery colour, the tints fading off and inclining -to the colour of wine. - -All these stones are transparent and of an agreeable violet colour, -and are easy[3163] to engrave. Those of India have in perfection the -very richest shades of purple, and it is to attain this colour that the -dyers[3164] in purple direct all their endeavours; it presenting a fine -mellowed appearance to the eye, and not dazzling the sight, as in the -case with the colours of the carbunculus. Another variety approaches -more nearly the hyacinth in colour: the people of India call this tint -“socon,” and the stone itself “socondion.” A third stone of this class -is of a more diluted colour, and is known as “sapenos,” being identical -with “pharanitis,” so called from a country[3165] on the frontiers of -Arabia that produces it. Of a fourth kind, the colour is like that of -wine; and in a fifth it borders very closely upon that of crystal, -the purple gradually passing off into white. This last kind is but -little valued; for a fine amethyst should always have, when viewed -sideways[3166] and held up to the light, a certain purple refulgence, -like that of carbunculus, slightly inclining to a tint of rose. - -Some prefer giving these stones the name of “pæderos”[3167] or of -“anteros,”[3168] while to many they are known as “Venus’[3169] eyelid,” -a name which would seem to be particularly appropriate to the colour -and general appearance of the gem. The falsehoods of the magicians -would persuade us that these stones are preventive of inebriety, and -that it is from this that they have derived[3170] their name. They tell -us also, that if we inscribe the names of the sun and moon upon this -stone, and then wear it suspended from the neck, with some hair of -the cynocephalus[3171] and feathers of the swallow, it will act as a -preservative against all noxious spells. It is said too, that worn in -any manner, this stone will ensure access to the presence of kings; and -that it will avert hail and the attacks of locusts, if a certain prayer -is also repeated which they mention. They make similar promises, too, -in reference to the smaragdus, if graven with the figure of an eagle -or of a scarabæus: statements which, in my opinion, they cannot have -committed to writing without a feeling of contempt and derision for the -rest of mankind. - - - - -CHAP. 41.—HYACINTHOS. - - -Very different from this stone is hyacinthos,[3172] though partaking -of a colour that closely borders upon it. The great difference between -them is, that the brilliant violet which is so refulgent in the -amethystos, is diluted in the other stone. Though pleasing at first -sight, its beauty fades before the eye is satiated; indeed, so far is -it from satisfying the sight, that it almost wholly fails to attract -the eye, its lustre disappearing more rapidly than the tints of the -flower[3173] known by the same name. - - - - -CHAP. 42.—CHRYSOLITHOS: SEVEN VARIETIES OF IT. - - -Æthiopia, which produces hyacinthos, produces chrysolithos[3174] also, -a transparent stone with a refulgence like that of gold. The stones -of India are the most highly esteemed, as also those found among the -Tibareni,[3175] provided these last are not of a mottled hue. The worst -in quality are those of Arabia, the colour of them being turbid and -mottled, and their brilliancy interrupted by cloudy spots: even too, -when they happen to be limpid, they have all the appearance of being -full, as it were, of a peculiar dust. The best stones are those which, -when placed by the side of gold, impart to it a sort of whitish hue, -and so give it the appearance of silver. When this is the case, they -are set in a bezel that is open on either side; but when the stone is -of inferior quality, a ground of aurichalcum[3176] is placed beneath. - - - - -CHAP. 43.—CHRYSELECTRUM. - - -Though it has now altogether gone out of use for jewellery, there -is a precious stone known as “chryselectrum,”[3177] the colour of -which inclines to that of amber;[3178] but only when viewed by a -morning[3179] light. The stones of Pontus are known by their lightness. -Some of them are hard and reddish, while others, again, are soft and -of a soiled appearance. According to Bocchus, these stones are found -in Spain as well; in a spot where, according to him, fossil crystal -has been discovered, in sinking to the water-level for wells.[3180] He -tells us also that he once saw a chrysolithos twelve[3181] pounds in -weight. - - - - -CHAP. 44.—LEUCOCHRYSOS: FOUR VARIETIES OF IT. - - -There is also a stone known as “leucochrysos,”[3182] with a white vein -running across it. To this class, too, belongs capnias;[3183] a stone -also which resembles glass in appearance; and another which reflects -a tint like that of saffron. These stones are imitated in glass, to -such a degree of perfection, that it is impossible to distinguish them -by the eye. The touch, however, detects the difference, the imitation -being not so cold as the real stone. - - - - -CHAP. 45.—MELICHRYSOS. XUTHON. - - -To this class also belongs melichrysos,[3184] a stone which has all the -appearance of pure honey, seen through transparent gold. India produces -these stones, and, although hard, they are very brittle, but not -unpleasing to the sight. The same country, too, produces xuthon,[3185] -a stone much used by the lower classes there. - - - - -CHAP. 46.—PÆDEROS, SANGENON, OR TENITES. - - -At the very head of the white stones is pæderos;[3186] though it may -still be questionable to which of the colours it in reality belongs. -As to the name, it has been so much bandied about among other precious -stones of conspicuous beauty, that it has quite assumed the privilege -of being a synonymous term[3187] for all that is charming to the eye. -Still, however, there is one[3188] stone in particular which fully -merits all the commendation that might be expected for a stone with so -prepossessing a name: for in itself it reunites the transparency of -crystal, the peculiar green of the sky, the deep tints of purple, and a -sort of bright reflex, like that of a golden-coloured wine; a reflex, -indeed, that is always the last to meet the eye, but is always crowned -with the lustrous hues of purple. The stone, in fact, has all the -appearance of having been bathed in each of these tints, individually, -and yet in the whole of them at once. There is no precious stone either -that has a clearer water than this, or that presents a more pleasing -sweetness to the eye. - -Pæderos of the finest quality comes from India, where it is known -as “sangenon;” the next best being that of Egypt, called “tenites.” -That of third-rate quality is found in Arabia, but it is rough upon -the surface. Next, we have the stone of Pontus, the radiance of which -is softer than in that of Thasos, which, in its turn, is of a more -mellowed colour than the stones of Galatia, Thrace, and Cyprus. The -defects commonly found in these stones are, a want of brilliancy, a -confusion with colours which do not properly belong to them, and the -other imperfections which are found in stones in general.[3189] - - - - -CHAP. 47.—ASTERIA. - - -Next among the white stones is “asteria,”[3190] a gem which holds its -high rank on account of a certain peculiarity in its nature, it having -a light enclosed within, in the pupil of an eye as it were. This light, -which has all the appearance of moving within the stone, it transmits -according to the angle of inclination at which it is held; now in one -direction, and now in another. When held facing the sun, it emits -white rays like those of a star, and to this, in fact, it owes its -name.[3191] The stones of India are very difficult to engrave, those of -Carmania being preferred. - - - - -CHAP. 48.—ASTRION. - - -Of a similar white radiance is the stone that is known as -“astrion,”[3192] closely resembling crystal in its nature, and found -in India and upon the coasts of Pallene.[3193] In the centre of it -there shines internally a brilliant star, with a refulgence like that -of the moon when full. Some will have it that this stone receives its -name from the fact that, when held opposite to the stars, it absorbs -the light they emit and then returns it. The finest stones, they say, -are those of Carmania, there being none more entirely free from all -defects. They add, also, that a stone of inferior quality is known as -“ceraunia,”[3194] and that, in the worst of all, the light is very -similar to that given by a lamp. - - - - -CHAP. 49.—ASTRIOTES. - - -Astriotes,[3195] too, is a stone that is highly esteemed, and -Zoroaster, they say, has sung its wondrous praises as an adjunct of the -magic art. - - - - -CHAP. 50.—ASTROBOLOS. - - -Sudines says, that astrobolos[3196] resembles the eye of a fish in -appearance, and that it has a radiant white refulgence when viewed in -the sun. - - - - -CHAP. 51.—CERAUNIA; FOUR VARIETIES OF IT. - - -Among the white stones also, there is one known as “ceraunia,”[3197] -which absorbs the brilliancy of the stars. It is of a crystalline -formation, of a lustrous azure colour, and is a native of Carmania. -Zenothemis admits that it is white, but asserts that it has the figure -of a blazing star within. Some of them, he says, are dull, in which -case it is the custom to steep them for some days in a mixture of nitre -and vinegar; at the end of which period the star makes its appearance, -but gradually dies away by the end of as many months. - -Sotacus mentions also two other varieties of ceraunia, one black and -the other red; and he says that they resemble axes in shape. Those -which are black and round,[3198] he says, are looked upon as sacred, -and by their assistance cities and fleets are attacked and taken: the -name given to them is “bætyli,” those of an elongated form being known -as “cerauniæ.”[3199] They make out also that there is another kind, -rarely to be met with, and much in request for the practices of magic, -it never being found in any place but one that has been struck by -lightning.[3200] - - - - -CHAP. 52.—IRIS; TWO VARIETIES OF IT. - - -The next name mentioned by these authors is that of the stone called -“iris;”[3201] which is found, in a fossil state, in a certain island -of the Red Sea, forty miles distant from the city of Berenice. It is -partly composed of crystal, and hence it is that some have called it -“root of crystal.” It takes its name “iris” from the properties which -it possesses; for, when struck by the rays of the sun in a covered -spot, it projects upon the nearest walls the form and diversified -colours of the rainbow; continually changing its tints, and exciting -admiration by the great variety of colours which it presents. That it -is hexahedral in form, like crystal, is generally agreed; but some say -that it is rough on the sides and of unequal angles; and that, when -exposed to a full sun, it disperses the rays that are thrown upon it, -while at the same time, by throwing out a certain brightness[3202] -before it, it illumines all objects that may happen to be adjacent. The -stone, however, as already stated, only presents these colours when -under cover; not as though they were in the body of the stone itself, -but, to all appearance, as if they were the result of the reflected -light upon the surface of the wall. The best kind is the one that -produces the largest arcs, with the closest resemblance to the rainbow. - -“Iritis” is the name of another stone, similar to the last in all other -respects, but remarkable for its extreme hardness. Horus says, in his -writings, that this stone, calcined and triturated, is a remedy for the -bite of the ichneumon, and that it is a native of Persia. - - - - -CHAP. 53.—LEROS. - - -The stone called “leros”[3203] is similar in appearance, but does not -produce the same effects. It is a crystal, with streaks of white and -black running across it. - - - - -CHAP. 54.—ACHATES; THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT. ACOPOS; THE REMEDIES -DERIVED FROM IT. ALABASTRITIS; THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM IT. ALECTORIA. -ANDRODAMAS. ARGYRODAMAS. ANTIPATHES. ARABICA. AROMATITIS. ASBESTOS. -ASPISATIS. ATIZÖE. AUGETIS. AMPHIDANES OR CHRYSOCOLLA. APHRODISIACA. -APSYCTOS. ÆGYPTILLA. - - -Having now described the principal precious stones, classified -according to their respective colours, I shall proceed to mention the -rest of them in their alphabetical order. - -(10.) Achates[3204] was a stone formerly in high esteem, but now -held in none. It was first found in Sicily, near a river of that -name; but has since been discovered in numerous other localities. In -size it exceeds any other stones of this class, and the varieties of -it are numerous, the name varying accordingly. Thus, for example, -we have iaspachates,[3205] cerachates,[3206] smaragdachates,[3207] -hæmachates,[3208] leucachates,[3209] dendrachates,[3210] marked with -small shrubs, as it were; autachates,[3211] which when burnt has a -smell like that of myrrh; and coralloachates,[3212] spotted all over, -like sapphiros, with drops of gold, and commonly found in Crete, where -it is also known as “sacred” achates. This last, it is thought, is good -for wounds inflicted by spiders and scorpions; a property which I could -really believe to belong to the stones of Sicily, for, the moment they -breathe the air of that province, scorpions lose their venom. - -The stones, too, that are found in India are possessed of similar -properties, and of other great and marvellous properties as well; for -they present the appearance in them of rivers,[3213] woods,[3214] -beasts of burden, and forms even, like ivy[3215] and the trappings of -horses. Medical men, too, make grinding-hones[3216] of these stones, -and indeed the very sight of them is beneficial for the eyes: held -in the mouth, they allay thirst. Those found in Phrygia have no -green in them, and those of Thebes in Egypt are destitute of red and -white veins. These last are good as a counterpoison to the venom of -the scorpion, and the stones of Cyprus are held in similar repute. -Some persons set the highest value upon those stones which present a -transparency like that of glass. They are found also in Trachinia, in -the vicinity of Mount Œta, upon Mount Parnassus, in the Isle of Lesbos, -in Messene, where they resemble the flowers that grow in the hedges, -and at Rhodes. - -The magicians make other distinctions in reference to these stones: -those, they tell us, which have spots upon them like the spots on the -lion’s skin, are efficacious as a protection against scorpions; and -in Persia, they say, these stones are used, by way of fumigation, -for arresting tempests and hurricanes, and for stopping the course -of rivers, the proof of their efficacy being their turning the water -cold, if thrown into a boiling cauldron. To be duly efficacious, they -must be attached to the body with hairs from a lion’s mane. The hair, -however, of the hyæna is held in abomination for this purpose, as being -a promoter of discord in families. The stone that is of an uniform -colour renders athletes invincible, they say: the way of testing it is -to throw it, along with colouring matter, into a pot full of oil; after -being kept for a couple of hours gently on the boil, if genuine, it -will impart an uniform colour of vermilion to the mixture. - -Acopos[3217] is a stone like nitre[3218] in appearance, porous, -and starred with drops of gold: gently boiled with oil and applied -as an unguent, it relieves lassitude, if we choose to believe it. -Alabastritis[3219] is a stone which comes from Alabastron in Egypt -and Damascus in Syria: it is of a white colour, spotted with various -other tints. Calcined with fossil salt and pulverized, it is a cure -for affections of the mouth and teeth, it is said. Alectoria[3220] -is the name given to a stone that is found in the crop of poultry, -like crystal in appearance, and about as large as a bean in size: -Milo[3221] of Crotona, some will have it, was thought to be in the -habit of carrying this stone about him, a thing that rendered him -invincible in his athletic contests. Androdamas[3222] has the shining -colour of silver, like adamas;[3223] it is always quadrangular, like -small cubes in shape. The magicians are of opinion that it was thus -named from the fact that it subdues anger and violence in man. Whether -argyrodamas[3224] is the same stone or not, authors do not inform us. -Antipathes[3225] is a black stone, and not transparent: the mode of -testing it, is by boiling it in milk, to which, if genuine, it imparts -a colour like that of myrrh. A person might probably expect to find -some extraordinary virtues in this stone, seeing that, among so many -other substances possessed of antipathetic properties, it is the only -one that bears this name. The magicians will have it that it possesses -the power of counteracting fascinations. - -Arabica[3226] is a stone which closely resembles ivory in appearance, -and, indeed, might easily be taken for it, were it not for its superior -hardness: persons who have this stone about them, it is thought, will -experience a cure of diseases of the sinews. Aromatitis,[3227] too, is -a stone that is found in Arabia, as also in the vicinity of Phiræ in -Egypt: it is always full of small stones, and like myrrh in colour and -smell, a thing that makes it much in request with ladies of rank.[3228] -Asbestos[3229] is found in the mountains of Arcadia, and is of an iron -colour. Democritus informs us that aspisatis[3230] is a native of -Arabia, that it is of a fiery colour, and that patients should wear -it attached to the body with camels’ dung; he says, too, that it is -found in the nests of certain birds[3231] in Arabia. The same writer -also mentions another stone of this name, that is found at Leucopetra -in the same country, of a silver colour, radiant, and an excellent -preservative against delirium. In India, he says, and on Mount Acidane -in Persia, there is a stone found that is known as “atizoë,”[3232] -of a silver lustre, three fingers in length, like a lentil in shape, -possessed of a pleasant smell, and considered necessary by the Magi -at the consecration of a king. Augetis[3233] is thought by many to be -identical with callaina.[3234] Amphidanes,[3235] which is also known as -“chrysocolla,”[3236] is a stone found in that part of India where the -ants[3237] throw up gold, and in it there are certain square pieces, -like gold in appearance. The nature of this stone, it is asserted, is -similar to that of the magnet; in addition to which, it is said to have -the property of increasing gold. - -Aphrodisiaca[3238] is a stone of a reddish white colour. -Apsyctos,[3239] when heated by fire, retains the warmth so long as -seven days; it is black and ponderous, and is streaked with red -veins. It is good too, it is thought, as a preservative against cold. -According to Iacchus, Ægyptilla[3240] is a kind of white and black -sarda, intersected with veins; but the stone commonly known by that -name is black at the lower part, and azure on the surface. It takes its -name from the country that produces it. - - - - -CHAP. 55.—BALANITES. BATRACHITIS. BAPTES. BELI OCULUS. BELUS. -BAROPTENUS OR BARIPPE. BOTRYITIS. BOSTRYCHITIS. BUCARDIA. BRONTEA. -BOLOS. - - -Of balanites[3241] there are two kinds, the one of a greenish hue, -and the other like Corinthian bronze in appearance; the former comes -from Coptos, and the latter from Troglodytica. They are both of them -intersected by a flame-like vein, which runs through the middle. -Coptos, too, sends us batrachitis;[3242] one kind of which is like a -frog in colour, another has the tint of ebony, and a third is blackish -inclining to red. Baptes[3243] is a soft stone, and of a most excellent -smell. Beli oculus[3244] is a stone of a whitish hue, surrounding a -black pupil in the middle, which shines amid a lustre like that of -gold. This stone, in consequence of its singular beauty, has been -consecrated to the deity[3245] held in the highest veneration by the -people of Assyria. According to Democritus, there is also a stone -called belus, and found at Arbela; it is about the size of a walnut, -and looks[3246] like glass. Baroptenus or barippe is black, and -covered with knots of a white and blood-red colour: the use of it as -an amulet is avoided, as being apt to produce monstrosities. - -Botryitis[3247] is sometimes black and sometimes purple-red,[3248] -and resembles a bunch of grapes[3249] in form, when making its first -appearance. Zoroaster says, that bostrychitis[3250] is a stone which -is more like the hair of females than anything else. Bucardia[3251] -resembles an ox-heart in appearance, and is only found at Babylon. -Brontea[3252] is a stone like the head of a tortoise, which falls with -thunder, it is supposed: if too, we are to believe what is said, it has -the property of quenching the fire in objects that have been struck by -lightning. Bolos[3253] is the name of a stone found in Iberia,[3254] -similar to a clod of earth in appearance. - - - - -CHAP. 56.—CADMITIS. CALLAIS. CAPNITIS. CAPPADOCIA. CALLAICA. -CATOCHITIS. CATOPTRITIS. CEPITIS OR CEPOLATITIS. CERAMITIS. CINÆDIA. -CERITIS. CIRCOS. CORSOÏDES. CORALLOACHATES. CORALLIS. CRATERITIS. -CROCALLIS. CYITIS. CHALCOPHONOS. CHELIDONIA. CHELONIA. CHELONITIS. -CHLORITIS. CHOASPITIS. CHRYSOLAMPIS. CHRYSOPIS. CEPONIDES. - - -Cadmitis differs only from the stone that is known as ostracitis[3255] -in being sometimes surrounded with blisters of an azure colour. -Callais[3256] is like sapphiros[3257] in colour, only that it is -paler and more closely resembles the tint of the water near the -sea-shore in appearance. Capnitis,[3258] in the opinion of some, -is a peculiar species of stone: it is covered with numerous spiral -streaks, of a smoky colour, as already[3259] stated in the appropriate -place. Cappadocia[3260] is a native of Phrygia, and resembles ivory -in appearance. Callaica[3261] is the name given to a stone like a -clouded callaina;[3262] a number of them are always found united, it -is said. Catochitis[3263] is a stone found in Corsica, of larger size -than the other precious stones; and of a more wonderful nature, if the -story is true, that it retains the hand like gum, when placed upon it. -Catoptritis[3264] is found in Cappadocia, and, from its whiteness, -reflects figures like a mirror. Cepitis[3265] or cepolatitis is a white -stone, with veins upon it uniting together. Ceramitis[3266] has a -colour like that of earthenware. - -Cinædia[3267] is a stone found in the brain of a fish[3268] of a -corresponding name. It is white and oblong, and possessed of marvellous -virtues, if we are to put faith in what is said, that it announces -before-hand whether the sea will be tranquil or stormy.[3269] -Ceritis[3270] is a stone like wax: circos[3271] resembles the plumage -of the hawk: corsoides[3272] is like white hair in appearance. -Coralloachates[3273] is very similar to coral, marked with drops of -gold; and corallis, a native of India and Syene, resembles minium[3274] -in appearance. Crateritis[3275] is in colour a medium between -chrysolithos[3276] and amber, and is remarkable for its hardness. -Crocallis[3277] is a gem like the cherry in its tints. Cyitis[3278] -is a stone found in the vicinity of Coptos; it is white, and to all -appearance has an embryo stone within, the rattling of which may be -heard on shaking it. Chalcophonos[3279] is a black stone, but when -struck it clinks like brass: tragic actors are recommended to carry -it about them. Of chelidonia[3280] there are two varieties, both -resembling the swallow in colour: one of them is purple on one side, -and the other is purple besprinkled with black spots. Chelonia[3281] -is the eye of the Indian tortoise, and is the most marvellous of all -the stones, if we believe the lying stories told by the magicians. For, -according to them, this stone, placed upon the tongue after rinsing -the mouth with honey, will ensure power of divination, if this is done -at full moon or new moon, for one whole day. If, however, this plan -is adopted while the moon is on the increase, the power of divination -will be acquired before sun-rise only, and if upon other days, from the -first[3282] hour to the sixth. - -Chelonitis,[3283] too, is a stone that resembles the tortoise[3284] in -appearance, and the many virtues of which are talked of for calming -storms and tempests. As to the one that has all the appearance of -being sprinkled with spots of gold, if thrown with a scarabæus into -boiling water, it will raise a tempest, they say. Chloritis[3285] is a -stone of a grass-green colour: according to the magicians, it is found -in the crop of the motacilla,[3286] being engendered with the bird. -They recommend also that it should be set in iron, for the purpose -of working certain portentous marvels which they promise, as usual. -Choaspitis is a stone so called from the river Choaspes,[3287] of a -brilliant, golden colour mixed with green. Chrysolampis[3288] is a -native of Æthiopia, and is pale by day, but of a fiery lustre by night. -Chrysopis[3289] has all the appearance of gold.[3290] Ceponides[3291] -is found at Atarna, a borough, and once a city, of Æolis. It is -transparent, presents numerous tints, and has sometimes the appearance -of glass, sometimes of crystal, and sometimes of iaspis. Indeed, the -stones of this kind that are tarnished even, are possessed of such -singular brilliancy as to reflect objects like a mirror. - - - - -CHAP. 57.—DAPHNEA. DIADOCHOS. DIPHYES. DIONYSIAS. DRACONITIS. - - -Daphnea[3292] is mentioned by Zoroaster as curative of epilepsy. -Diadochos[3293] is a stone that resembles the beryl. Of diphyes[3294] -there are two kinds, the white and the black, male and female, with a -line dividing the characteristics of either sex. Dionysias[3295] is -hard and black, and covered with red spots. Triturated in water, this -stone imparts to it the flavour of wine, and it is generally thought to -be a preservative against intoxication. Draconitis[3296] or dracontia -is a stone produced from the brain of the dragon;[3297] but unless the -head of the animal is cut off while it is alive, the stone will not -assume the form of a gem, through spite on the part of the serpent, -when finding itself at the point of death: hence it is that, for this -purpose, the head is cut off when it is asleep.[3298] - -Sotacus, who tells us that he once saw a stone of this kind in the -possession of a king, says that persons go in search of it in a chariot -drawn by two horses; and that, the moment they see the serpent, they -strew narcotic drugs in its way, and then cut off its head when asleep. -According to him, this stone is white and pellucid, and admits of no -polishing or engraving. - - - - -CHAP. 58.—ENCARDIA OR ARISTE. ENORCHIS. EXEBENUS. ERYTHALLIS. EROTYLOS. -AMPHICOMOS, OR HIEROMNEMON. EUMECES. EUMITHRES. EUPETALOS. EUREOS. -EUROTIAS. EUSEBES. EPIMELAS. - - -The stone encardia[3299] is also called “ariste.”[3300] There are -three varieties of it; one of a black colour, with a figure in relief -upon it like a heart; a second of a green colour, and like a heart in -shape; and a third, with a black heart upon it, the rest of the stone -being white. Enorchis[3301] is a white stone, the fragments of which, -when it is split asunder, resemble the testes in shape. Exebenus, -Zoroaster tells us, is a white, handsome stone, employed by goldsmiths -for polishing gold. Erythallis,[3302] though a white stone, assumes a -red hue when viewed at an inclined angle. Erotylos,[3303] also known -as “amphicomos”[3304] and “hieromnemon,”[3305] is highly praised by -Democritus for its use in the art of divination. - -Eumeces[3306] is a stone of Bactriana, like silex in appearance; -placed beneath the head, it produces visions in the night of an -oracular description. Eumithres[3307] is called by the Assyrians -“gem of Belus,”[3308] the most sacred of all their gods; it is of a -leek-green colour, and greatly in request for superstitious purposes. -Eupetalos[3309] is a stone that has four different tints, azure, fiery, -vermilion, and apple-colour. Eureos[3310] is similar to an olive-stone -in form, streaked like a shell, and moderately white. Eurotias[3311] -has all the appearance of concealing its black colour beneath a coat -of mould. Eusebes[3312] is the stone, it is said, of which the seat was -made in the Temple of Hercules at Tyrus, from which the pious [only] -could raise themselves without difficulty. Epimelas[3313] is a white -gem, with a black hue reflected from its surface. - - - - -CHAP. 59.—GALAXIAS. GALACTITIS, LEUCOGÆA, LEUCOGRAPHITIS, OR -SYNNEPHITIS. GALLAICA. GASSINADE. GLOSSOPETRA. GORGONIA. GONIÆA. - - -Galaxias,[3314] by some called “galactitis,”[3315] is a stone that -closely resembles those next mentioned, but is interspersed with -veins of blood-red or white. Galactitis[3316] is of the uniform -colour of milk; other names given to it are, leucogæa,[3317] -leucographitis,[3318] and synnephitis,[3319] and, when pounded in -water, both in taste and colour it marvellously resembles milk. -This stone promotes the secretion of the milk in nursing women, it -is said; in addition to which, attached to the neck of infants, it -produces saliva, and it dissolves when put into the mouth. They say, -too, that it deprives persons of their memory: it is in the rivers -Nilus and Acheloüs that it is produced. Some persons give the name of -“galactitis” to a smaragdus surrounded with veins of white. Gallaica -is a stone like argyrodamas,[3320] but of a somewhat more soiled -appearance; these stones are found in twos and threes clustered -together. The people of Media send us gassinade,[3321] a stone like -orobus in colour, and sprinkled with flowers, as it were: it is found -at Arbela. This stone, too, conceives,[3322] it is said; a fact which -it admits when shaken; the conception lasting for a period of three -months. Glossopetra,[3323] which resembles the human tongue, is not -engendered, it is said, in the earth, but falls from the heavens -during the moon’s eclipse; it is considered highly necessary for the -purposes of selenomancy.[3324] To render all this however, still -more incredible, we have the evident untruthfulness of one assertion -made about it, that it has the property of silencing the winds. -Gorgonia[3325] is nothing but a coral, which has been thus named -from the circumstance that, though soft in the sea, it afterwards -assumes the hardness of stone: it has the property of counteracting -fascinations,[3326] it is said. Goniæa,[3327] it is asserted, and with -the same degree of untruthfulness, ensures vengeance upon our enemies. - - - - -CHAP. 60.—HELIOTROPIUM. HEPHÆSTITIS. HERMUAIDOION. HEXECONTALITHOS. -HIERACITIS. HAMMITIS. HAMMONIS CORNU. HORMISCION. HYÆNIA. HÆMATITIS. - - -Heliotropium[3328] is found in Æthiopia, Africa, and Cyprus: it is -of a leek-green colour, streaked with blood-red veins. It has been -thus named,[3329] from the circumstance that, if placed in a vessel -of water and exposed to the full light of the sun, it changes to a -reflected colour like that of blood; this being the case with the stone -of Æthiopia more particularly. Out of the water, too, it reflects the -figure of the sun like a mirror, and it discovers eclipses of that -luminary by showing the moon passing over its disk. In the use of -this stone, also, we have a most glaring illustration of the impudent -effrontery of the adepts in magic, for they say that, if it is combined -with the plant[3330] heliotropium, and certain incantations are then -repeated over it, it will render the person invisible who carries it -about him. - -Hephæstitis[3331] also, though a radiant stone, partakes of the -properties of a mirror in reflecting objects. The mode of testing -it is to put it into boiling water, which should immediately become -cold. If exposed to the rays of the sun, it should instantly cause -dry fuel to ignite:[3332] Corycus[3333] is the place where it is -found. Hermuaidoion[3334] is so called from the resemblance to -the male organs which it presents, on a ground that is sometimes -white, sometimes black, and sometimes of a pallid hue, with a circle -surrounding it of a golden colour. Hexecontalithos[3335] receives -its name from the numerous variety of colours which, small as it is, -it presents: it is found in Troglodytica.[3336] Hieracitis[3337] is -entirely covered with mottled streaks, resembling a kite’s feathers -alternately with black. Hammitis[3338] is similar in appearance to -the spawn of fish: there is also one variety of it which has all -the appearance of being composed of nitre,[3339] except that it is -remarkably hard. Hammonis cornu[3340] is reckoned among the most sacred -gems of Æthiopia; it is of a golden colour, like a ram’s horn in shape, -and ensures prophetic dreams, it is said. - -Hormiscion[3341] is one of the most pleasing stones to the sight; -it is of a fiery colour, and emits rays like gold, tipped at the -extremity with a whitish light. Hyænia[3342] is derived from the eyes -of the hyæna, it is said, the animal being hunted to obtain it; placed -beneath the tongue, if we believe the story, it will enable a person -to prophesy the future. Hæmatitis,[3343] of the very finest quality, -comes from Æthiopia, but it is found in Arabia and Africa as well. -It is a stone of a blood-red colour, and we must not omit to mention -the assurance given [by the magicians], that the possession of it -reveals treacherous designs on the part of the barbarians. Zachalias -of Babylon, in the books which he dedicated to King Mithridates, -attributing the destinies of man to certain properties innate in -precious stones, is not content with vaunting the merits of this stone -as curative of diseases of the eyes and liver, but recommends it also -as ensuring success to petitions addressed to kings. He also makes it -play its part in lawsuits and judgments, and even goes so far as to -say that it is highly beneficial to be rubbed with it on the field of -battle. There is another stone of the same class, called “menui” by the -people of India, and “xanthos”[3344] by the Greeks: it is of a whitish, -tawny colour. - - - - -CHAP. 61.—IDÆI DACTYLI. ICTERIAS. JOVIS GEMMA. INDICA. ION. - - -The stones called Idæi dactyli,[3345] and found in Crete, are of an -iron colour, and resemble the human thumb in shape. The colour of -icterias[3346] resembles that of livid skin, and hence it is that it -has been thought so excellent a remedy for jaundice. There is also -another stone of this name, of a still more livid colour; while a -third has all the appearance of a leaf. This last is broader than the -others, almost imponderous, and streaked with livid veins. A fourth -kind again is of the same colour, but blacker, and marked all over with -livid veins. Jovis gemma[3347] is a white stone, very light, and soft: -another name given to it is “drosolithos.”[3348] Indica[3349] retains -the name of the country that produces it: it is a stone of a reddish -colour, and yields a purple liquid[3350] when rubbed. There is another -stone also of this name, white, and of a dusty appearance. Ion[3351] is -an Indian stone, of a violet tint: it is but rarely, however, that it -is found of a deep, full, colour. - - - - -CHAP. 62.—LEPIDOTIS. LESBIAS. LEUCOPHTHALMOS. LEUCOPŒCILOS. -LIBANOCHRUS. LIMONIATIS. LIPAREA. LYSIMACHOS. LEUCOCHRYSOS. - - -Lepidotis[3352] is a stone of various colours, and resembles the -scales of fish in appearance. Lesbias, so called from Lesbos which -produces it, is a stone found in India as well. Leucophthalmos,[3353] -which in other respects is of a reddish hue, presents all the -appearance of an eye, in white and black. Leucopœcilos[3354] is white, -variegated with drops of vermilion of a golden hue. Libanochrus[3355] -strongly resembles frankincense, and yields a liquid like honey. -Limoniatis[3356] would appear to be the same as smaragdus; and all -that we find said about liparea[3357] is, that employed in the form -of a fumigation, it allures all kinds of wild beasts. Lysimachos -resembles Rhodian marble, with veins of gold: in polishing it, it is -reduced very considerably in size, in order to remove all defects. -Leucochrysos[3358] is a kind of chrysolithos interspersed with white. - - - - -CHAP. 63.—MEMNONIA. MEDIA. MECONITIS. MITHRAX. MOROCHTHOS. MORMORION OR -PROMNION. MURRHITIS. MYRMECIAS. MYRSINITIS. MESOLEUCOS. MESOMELAS. - - -What kind of stone memnonia[3359] is, we do not find mentioned. -Medea[3360] is a black stone, said to have been discovered by -the Medea[3361] of fable: it has veins of a golden lustre, and -yields a liquid like saffron in colour and with a vinous flavour. -Meconitis[3362] strongly resembles poppies. Mithrax[3363] comes -from Persia and the mountains of the Red Sea: it is of numerous -colours, and reflects various tints when exposed to the sun.[3364] -Morochthos[3365] is a stone of a leek-green colour, from which a milk -exudes. Mormorion[3366] is a transparent stone from India, of a deep -black colour, and known also as “promnion.” When it has a mixture of -the colour[3367] of carbunculus, it is from Alexandria; and when it -shares that of sarda,[3368] it is a native of Cyprus. It is found also -at Tyrus and in Galatia; and, according to Xenocrates, it has been -discovered at the foot of the Alps. These stones are well adapted for -cutting in relief.[3369] Murrhitis[3370] has just the colour of myrrh, -and very little of the appearance of a gem: it has the odour also of an -unguent, and smells like nard when rubbed. Myrmecias[3371] is black, -and has excrescences upon it like warts. Myrsinitis[3372] has a colour -like that of honey, and the smell of myrtle. “Mesoleucos”[3373] is -the name given to a stone when a white line runs through the middle; -and when a black vein intersects any other colour, it is called -“mesomelas.”[3374] - - - - -CHAP. 64.—NASAMONITIS. NEBRITIS. NIPPARENE. - - -Nasamonitis is a blood-red stone, marked with black veins. Nebritis, -a stone sacred to Father Liber,[3375] has received its name from its -resemblance to a nebris.[3376] There is also another stone of this -kind, that is black. Nipparene[3377] bears the name of a city and -people of Persia, and resembles the teeth of the hippopotamus. - - - - -CHAP. 65.—OICA. OMBRIA OR NOTIA. ONOCARDIA. ORITIS OR SIDERITIS. -OSTRACIAS. OSTRITIS. OPHICARDELON. OBSIAN STONE. - - -Oica is the barbarian name given to a stone which is pleasing for its -colours, black, reddish yellow, green, and white. Ombria,[3378] by -some called “notia,”[3379] falls with showers and lightning, much in -the same manner as ceraunia[3380] and brontea,[3381] the properties -of which it is said to possess. There is a statement also, that if -this stone is placed upon altars it will prevent the offerings from -being consumed. Onocardia[3382] is like kermesberry in appearance, -but nothing further is said about it. Oritis,[3383] by some called -“sideritis,”[3384] is a stone of globular form, and proof against -the action of fire. Ostracias,[3385] or ostracitis, is a testaceous -stone, harder than ceramitis,[3386] and similar in all respects to -achates,[3387] except that the latter has an unctuous appearance when -polished: indeed, so remarkably hard is ostracitis, that with fragments -of it other gems are engraved. Ostritis[3388] receives its name from -its resemblance to an oyster-shell. Ophicardelon is the barbarian name -for a stone of a black colour, terminated by a white line on either -side. Of Obsian[3389] stone we have already spoken in the preceding -Book. There are gems, too, of the same name and colour, found not only -in Æthiopia and India, but in Samnium as well, and, in the opinion of -some, upon the Spanish shores that lie towards the Ocean. - - - - -CHAP. 66.—PANCHRUS. PANGONUS. PANEROS OR PANERASTOS. PONTICA; FOUR -VARIETIES OF IT. PHLOGINOS OR CHRYSITIS. PHŒNICITIS. PHYCITIS. -PERILEUCOS. PÆNITIS OR GÆANIS. - - -Panchrus[3390] is a stone which displays nearly every colour. -Pangonus[3391] is no longer than the finger: the only thing that -prevents it from being taken for a crystal, is, its greater number of -angles. What kind of stone paneros[3392] is, Metrodorus does not inform -us; but he gives some lines, by no means without elegance, that were -written upon this stone by Queen Timaris, and dedicated to Venus; from -which we have reason to conclude that certain fecundating virtues were -attributed to it. By some writers it is called panerastos.[3393] Of -the stone called “pontica”[3394] there are numerous varieties: one is -stellated, and presents either blood-red spots, or drops like gold, -being reckoned in the number of the sacred stones. Another, in place of -stars, has streaks of the same colour, and a fourth presents all the -appearance of mountains and valleys. - -Phloginos,[3395] also called “chrysitis,”[3396] strongly resembles -Attic ochre,[3397] and is found in Egypt. Phœnicitis[3398] is a stone -so called from its resemblance to a date. Phycitis receives its name -from its resemblance to sea-weed.[3399] Perileucos[3400] is the name -given to a gem, in which a white colour runs down from the margin of -the stone to the base. Pæanitis,[3401] by some called “gæanis,”[3402] -conceives, it is said, and is good for females at the time of -parturition: this stone is found in Macedonia, near the monument[3403] -of Tiresias there, and has all the appearance of congealed water. - - - - -CHAP. 67.—SOLIS GEMMA. SAGDA. SAMOTHRACIA. SAURITIS. SARCITIS. -SELENITIS. SIDERITIS. SIDEROPŒCILOS. SPONGITIS. SYNODONTITIS. SYRTITIS. -SYRINGITIS. - - -Solis gemma[3404] is white, and, like the luminary from which it takes -its name, emits brilliant rays in a circular form. Sagda is found -by the people of Chaldæa adhering to ships, and is of a leek-green -colour. The Isle of Samothrace gives its name to a stone[3405] which -it produces, black and imponderous, and similar to wood in appearance. -Sauritis[3406] is found, they say, in the belly of the green lizard, -cut asunder with a reed. Sarcitis[3407] is a stone, like beef in -appearance. Selenitis[3408] is white and transparent, with a reflected -colour like that of honey. It has a figure within it like that of the -moon, and reflects the face of that luminary, if what we are told -is true, according to its phases, day by day, whether on the wane -or whether on the increase: this stone is a native of Arabia, it is -thought. Sideritis[3409] is a stone like iron, the presence of which -in lawsuits creates discord. Sideropœcilos,[3410] which is a variety of -the same stone, is a native of Æthiopia, and is covered with variegated -spots. - -Spongitis has its name from its resemblance to sponge. Synodontitis -is a stone found in the brain of the fish known as “synodus.”[3411] -Syrtitis is a stone that used formerly to be found on the shores of the -Syrtes,[3412] though now it is found on the coasts of Lucania as well: -it is of a honey colour, with a reflected tint of saffron, and contains -stars of a feeble lustre within. Syringitis[3413] is hollow throughout, -like the space between the two joints in a straw. - - - - -CHAP. 68.—TRICHRUS. THELYRRHIZOS. THELYCARDIOS OR MULC. THRACIA; THREE -VARIETIES OF IT. TEPHRITIS. TECOLITHOS. - - -Trichrus[3414] comes from Africa: it is of a black colour, but yields -three different liquids, black at the lower part, blood-red in the -middle, and of an ochre colour at the top. Thelyrrhizos[3415] is of an -ashy or russet colour, but white at the lower part. Thelycardios[3416] -is like a heart in colour, and is held in high esteem by the people -of Persia, in which country it is found: the name given to it by them -is “mulc.” Of thracia[3417] there are three varieties; a green stone, -one of a more pallid colour, and a third with spots like drops of -blood. Tephritis[3418] is crescent-shaped, with horns like those of the -new moon, but it is of an ashy colour. Tecolithos[3419] has all the -appearance of an olive stone: it is held in no estimation as a gem, but -a solution of it will break and expel urinary calculi. - - - - -CHAP. 69.—VENERIS CRINES. VEIENTANA. - - -Veneris crines[3420] is the name given to a stone that is remarkably -black and shining, with an appearance like red hair within. Veientana -is an Italian stone, found at Veii: it is black, divided by a line of -white. - - - - -CHAP. 70.—ZATHENE. ZMILAMPIS. ZORANISCÆA. - - -Zathene, according to Democritus, is a native of Media. It is like -amber in colour, and, if beaten up with palm-wine and saffron, it will -become soft like wax, yielding a very fragrant smell. Zmilampis is -found in the river Euphrates: it resembles marble of Proconnesus in -appearance, and is of a sea-green colour within. Zoraniscæa is found -in the river Indus: it is a stone used by magicians, it is said, but I -find no further particulars relative to it. - - - - -CHAP. 71. (11.)—PRECIOUS STONES WHICH DERIVE THEIR NAMES FROM -VARIOUS PARTS OF THE HUMAN BODY. HEPATITIS. STEATITIS. ADADUNEPHROS. -ADADUOPHTHALMOS. ADADUDACTYLOS. TRIOPHTHALMOS. - - -There is also another method of classifying stones; according to -the resemblance which they bear to various other objects. Thus, -for example, the different parts of the body give the following -names to stones:—Hepatitis[3421] is so called from the liver; and -steatitis[3422] from its resemblance to the fat of various animals. -Adadunephros, adaduophthalmos, and adadudactylos, mean “kidney of -Adad,” “eye of Adad,” and “finger of Adad,” a god[3423] of the Syrians -so called. Triophthalmos[3424] is a stone found in conjunction with -onyx, which resembles three human eyes at once. - - - - -CHAP. 72.—PRECIOUS STONES WHICH DERIVE THEIR NAMES FROM ANIMALS. -CARCINIAS. ECHITIS. SCORPITIS. SCARITIS. TRIGLITIS. ÆGOPHTHALMOS. -HYOPHTHALMOS. GERANITIS. HIERACITIS. AETITIS. MYRMECITIS. CANTHARIAS. -LYCOPHTHALMOS. TAOS. TIMICTONIA. - - -Other stones, again, derive their names from various animals. -Carcinias[3425] is so called from the colour of the sea-crab; -echitis,[3426] from the colour of the viper; scorpitis,[3427] from -either the colour or the shape of the scorpion; scaritis, from the -fish called scarus;[3428] triglitis, from the sur-mullet;[3429] -ægophthalmos, from the eye of the goat; hyophthalmos, from the eye of -the swine; geranitis, from the neck of the crane; hieracitis, from the -neck of the hawk; and aëtitis, from the colour of the white-tailed -eagle. Myrmecitis[3430] presents the appearance of an ant crawling -within, and cantharias,[3431] of a scarabæus. Lycophthalmos[3432] is -a stone of four different colours; on the exterior it is ruddy and -blood-red, and within it is black, surrounded with a line of white, -closely resembling the eye of the wolf in every respect. Taos[3433] is -a stone with colours like those of the peacock. Timictonia, I find, is -the name of a stone, like the asp in colour. - - - - -CHAP. 73.—PRECIOUS STONES WHICH DERIVE THEIR NAMES PROM OTHER OBJECTS. -HAMMOCHRYSOS. CENCHRITIS. DRYITIS. CISSITIS. NARCISSITIS. CYAMIAS. -PYREN. PHŒNICITIS. CHALAZIAS. PYRITIS. POLYZONOS. ASTRAPÆA. PHLOGITIS. -ANTHRACITIS. ENHYGROS. POLYTHRIX. LEONTIOS. PARDALIOS. DROSOLITHOS. -MELICHRUS. MELICHLOROS. CROCIAS. POLIAS. SPARTOPOLIAS. RHODITIS. -CHALCITIS. SYCITIS. BOSTRYCHITIS. CHERNITIS. ANANCITIS. SYNOCHITIS. -DENDRITIS. - - -Hammochrysos[3434] resembles sand in appearance, but sand mixed with -gold. Cenchritis[3435] has all the appearance of grains of millet -scattered here and there. Dryitis[3436] resembles the trunk of a -tree, and burns like wood. Cissitis,[3437] upon a white, transparent -surface, has leaves of ivy running all over it. Narcissitis[3438] is -distinguished by veins on the surface, and has a smell like that of the -narcissus. Cyamias[3439] is a black stone, but when broken, produces a -bean to all appearance. Pyren[3440] is so called from its resemblance -to an olive-stone: in some cases it would appear to contain the -back-bone[3441] of a fish. Phœnicitis[3442] resembles a palm-date in -form. Chalazias[3443] resembles a hailstone, both in form and colour: -it is as hard as adamant, so much so, indeed, that in the fire even it -retains its coolness, it is said. Pyritis,[3444] though a black stone, -burns the fingers when rubbed by them. Polyzonos[3445] is a black stone -traversed by numerous zones of white. - -Astrapæa[3446] has rays like flashes of lightning, running across the -middle on a ground of white or blue. In phlogitis,[3447] there is, to -all appearance, a flame burning within, but not reaching the surface -of the stone. In anthracitis,[3448] there are sometimes sparks, to -all appearance, flying to and fro. Enhygros[3449] is always perfectly -round, smooth, and white; but when it is shaken a liquid is heard to -move within, just like the yolk within an egg. Polythrix[3450] presents -the appearance of hair upon a green surface; but it causes the hair to -fall off, it is said. Leontios and pardalios[3451] are names given to -stones, from their resemblance to the skin of the lion and panther. -Drosolithos[3452] has received its name from its colour. Melichrus -is a honey-coloured stone, of which there are several varieties. -Melichloros[3453] is a stone of two colours, partly honey-coloured, -partly yellow. Crocias[3454] is the name given to a stone which -reflects a colour like that of saffron; polias, to a stone resembling -white hair in colour; and spartopolias, to a stone more thinly -sprinkled with white. - -Rhoditis is like the rose in colour, chalcitis resembles copper, -and sycitis[3455] is in colour like a fig. Bostrychitis[3456] is -covered with branches of a white or blood-red colour, upon a ground -of black; and chernitis[3457] has, on a stony surface, a figure like -that of two hands grasping each other. Anancitis[3458] is used in -hydromancy, they say, for summoning the gods to make their appearance; -and synochitis,[3459] for detaining the shades from below when they -have appeared. If white dendritis[3460] is buried beneath a tree -that is being felled, the edge of the axe will never be blunted, -it is asserted. There are many other stones also, of a still more -outrageously marvellous nature, to which, admitted as it is that they -are stones, barbarous names have been given: we have refuted, however, -a quite sufficient number of these portentous lies already. - - - - -CHAP. 74. (12.)—PRECIOUS STONES THAT SUDDENLY MAKE THEIR APPEARANCE. -COCHLIDES. - - -New species of precious stones are repeatedly brought into existence, -and fresh ones are found all at once, destitute of names. Thus, for -example, there was a stone formerly discovered in the gold-mines of -Lampsacus, which, on account of its extraordinary beauty, was sent to -King Alexander, as we learn from Theophrastus.[3461] Cochlides,[3462] -too, which are now so common, are rather artificial productions than -natural, and in Arabia there have been found vast masses of them; which -are boiled, it is said, in honey, for seven days and nights without -intermission. By doing this, all earthy and faulty particles are -removed; after which, the mass, thus cleansed and purified, is adorned -by the ingenuity of artists with variegated veins and spots, and cut -into such shapes as may be most to the taste of purchasers. Indeed, -these articles, in former times, were made of so large a size, that -they were employed in the East as frontals for the horses of kings, and -as pendants for their trappings.[3463] - -All precious stones in general are improved in brilliancy by being -boiled in honey, Corsican honey more particularly; but acrid substances -are in every respect injurious to them. As to the stones which are -variegated, and to which new colours are imparted by the inventive -ingenuity of man, as they have no name in common use, they are usually -known by that of “physis;”[3464] a name which claims for them, as it -were, that admiration which we are more ready to bestow upon the works -of Nature. But really, these artificial stones have names without end, -and I could never think of recounting the infinite series of them, -coined as they have been by the frivolous tendencies of the Greeks. - -Having already described the more noble gems, and indeed those of -inferior quality which are found among the stones that are held in -high esteem, I must content myself with knowing that I have pointed -out those kinds which are the most deserving of mention. It will be -as well, however, for the reader to bear in mind, that, according to -the varying number of the spots and inequalities on their surface, -according to the numerous intersections of lines and their multiplied -tints and shades, the names of precious stones are subject to repeated -changes; the material itself, for the most part, remaining just the -same. - - - - -CHAP. 75.—THE VARIOUS FORMS OF PRECIOUS STONES. - - -We will now make some observations in reference to precious stones in -general, following therein the opinions that have been expressed by -various authors. Stones with a level surface are preferred to those -which are concave or protuberant on the face. An oblong shape is the -one that is most approved of, and, next to that, the lenticular[3465] -form, as it is called. After this, the stone with a plane surface and -circular is admired, those which are angular being held in the least -esteem. There is considerable difficulty in distinguishing genuine -stones from false; the more so, as there has been discovered a method -of transforming genuine stones of one kind into false stones of -another.[3466] Sardonyx, for example, is imitated by cementing together -three other precious stones, in such a way that no skill can detect the -fraud; a black stone being used for the purpose, a white stone, and one -of a vermilion[3467] colour, each of them, in its own way, a stone of -high repute. Nay, even more than this, there are books in existence, -the authors of which I forbear to name,[3468] which give instructions -how to stain crystal in such a way as to imitate smaragdus and other -transparent stones, how to make sardonyx of sarda, and other gems in a -similar manner. Indeed, there is no kind of fraud practised, by which -larger profits are made. - - - - -CHAP. 76. (13.)—THE METHODS OF TESTING PRECIOUS STONES. - - -On the contrary, we will make it our business to point out the methods -of detecting these false stones, seeing that it is only proper to put -luxury even on its guard against fraud. In addition to the particulars -which we have already given, when treating of each individual kind -of precious stone, it is generally agreed that transparent stones -should be tested by a morning light, or even, if necessary, so late -as the fourth[3469] hour, but never after that hour. The modes of -testing[3470] stones are numerous: first, by their weight, the genuine -stone being the heavier of the two; next, by their comparative -coolness, the genuine stone being cooler than the other to the mouth; -and, next to that, by their substance; there being blisters perceptible -in the body of the fictitious stone, as well as a certain roughness on -the surface; filaments, too, an unequal brilliancy, and a brightness -that falls short before it reaches the eye. The best[3471] mode of -testing is to strike off a fragment with an iron saw; but this is a -thing not allowed by the dealers, who equally refuse to let their gems -be tested by the file. Dust of Obsian[3472] stone will not leave a mark -upon the surface of a genuine stone: but where the gem is artificial, -every mark that is made will leave a white scratch upon it. In -addition to this, there is such a vast diversity in their degrees of -hardness, that some stones do not admit of being engraved with iron, -and others can only be cut with a graver blunted at the edge. In all -cases, however, precious stones may be cut and polished by the aid -of adamas[3473] an operation which may be considerably expedited by -heating the graver. The rivers which produce precious stones, are the -Acesinus[3474] and the Ganges; and, of all countries, India is the most -prolific of them. - - - - -CHAP. 77.—A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF NATURE AS SHE APPEARS IN DIFFERENT -COUNTRIES. THE COMPARATIVE VALUES OF THINGS. - - -Having now treated of all the works of Nature, it will be as well to -take a sort of comparative view of her several productions, as well -as the countries which supply them. Throughout the whole earth, then, -and wherever the vault of heaven extends, there is no country so -beautiful, or which, for the productions of Nature, merits so high a -rank as Italy, that ruler and second parent of the world; recommended -as she is by her men, her women, her generals, her soldiers, her -slaves, her superiority in the arts, and the illustrious examples of -genius which she has produced. Her situation, too, is equally in her -favour; the salubrity and mildness of her climate; the easy access -which she offers to all nations; her coasts indented with so many -harbours; the propitious breezes, too, that always prevail on her -shores; advantages, all of them, due to her situation, lying, as she -does, midway between the East and the West, and extended in the most -favourable of all positions. Add to this, the abundant supply of her -waters, the salubrity of her groves, the repeated intersections of her -mountain ranges, the comparative innocuousness of her wild animals, the -fertility of her soil, and the singular richness of her pastures. - -Whatever there is that the life of man ought not to feel in want of, is -nowhere to be found in greater perfection than here; the cereals, for -example, wine, oil, wool, flax, tissues, and oxen. As to horses, there -are none, I find, preferred to those of Italy for the course;[3475] -while, for mines of gold, silver, copper, and iron, so long as it -was deemed lawful to work them,[3476] Italy was held inferior to no -country whatsoever. At the present day, teeming as she is with these -treasures, she contents herself with lavishing upon us, as the whole -of her bounties, her various liquids, and the numerous flavours -yielded by her cereals and her fruits. Next to Italy, if we except the -fabulous regions of India, I would rank Spain, for my own part, those -districts, at least, that lie in the vicinity of the sea.[3477] She is -parched and sterile in one part, it is true; but where she is at all -productive, she yields the cereals in abundance, oil, wine, horses, -and metals of every kind. In all these respects, Gaul is her equal, no -doubt; but Spain, on the other hand, outdoes the Gallic provinces in -her spartum[3478] and her specular stone,[3479] the products of her -desert tracts, in her pigments that minister to our luxuries, in the -ardour displayed by her people in laborious employments, in the perfect -training of her slaves, in the robustness of body of her men, and in -their general resoluteness of character. - -As to the productions themselves, the greatest value of all, among -the products of the sea, is attached to pearls: of objects that lie -upon the surface of the earth, it is crystals that are most highly -esteemed: and of those derived from the interior, adamas,[3480] -smaragdus,[3481] precious stones, and murrhine,[3482] are the things -upon which the highest value is placed. The most costly things that are -matured by the earth, are the kermes-berry[3483] and laser;[3484] that -are gathered from trees, nard[3485] and Seric tissues;[3486] that are -derived from the trunks of trees, logs of citrus[3487]-wood; that are -produced by shrubs, cinnamon,[3488] cassia,[3489] and amomum;[3490] -that are yielded by the juices of trees or of shrubs, amber,[3491] -opobalsamum,[3492] myrrh,[3493] and frankincense;[3494] that are found -in the roots of trees, the perfumes derived from costus.[3495] The most -valuable products furnished by living animals, on land, are the teeth -of elephants; by animals in the sea, tortoise-shell; by the coverings -of animals, the skins which the Seres[3496] dye, and the substance -gathered from the hair of the she-goats of Arabia, which we have spoken -of under the name of “ladanum;”[3497] by creatures that are common to -both land and sea, the purple[3498] of the murex. With reference to -the birds, beyond plumes for warriors’ helmets, and the grease that is -derived from the geese of Commagene,[3499] I find no remarkable product -mentioned. We must not omit, too, to observe, that gold, for which -there is such a mania with all mankind, hardly holds the tenth rank as -an object of value, and silver, with which we purchase gold, hardly the -twentieth! - -HAIL to thee, Nature, thou parent of all things! and do thou deign to -show thy favour unto me, who, alone of all the citizens of Rome, have, -in thy every department,[3500] thus made known thy praise.[3501] - -SUMMARY.—Facts, narratives, and observations, one thousand three -hundred. - -ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—M. Varro,[3502] the Register of the -Triumphs,[3503] Mæcenas,[3504] Iacchus,[3505] Cornelius Bocchus.[3506] - -FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—King Juba,[3507] Xenocrates[3508] the son of -Zeno, Sudines,[3509] Æschylus,[3510] Philoxenus,[3511] Euripides,[3512] -Nicander,[3513] Satyrus,[3514] Theophrastus,[3515] Chares,[3516] -Philemon,[3517] Demostratus,[3518] Zenothemis,[3519] Metrodorus,[3520] -Sotacus,[3521] Pytheas,[3522] Timæus[3523] the Sicilian, Nicias,[3524] -Theochrestus,[3525] Asarubas,[3526] Mnaseas,[3527] Theomenes,[3528] -Ctesias,[3529] Mithridates,[3530] Sophocles,[3531] King -Archelaüs,[3532] Callistratus,[3533] Democritus,[3534] Ismenias,[3535] -Olympicus,[3536] Alexander[3537] Polyhistor, Apion,[3538] Horus,[3539] -Zoroaster,[3540] Zachalias.[3541] - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - - -[1] It is in the last six Books of Pliny, and those only, we regret -to say, that we are enabled to avail ourselves of the new readings of -the Bamberg MS., which has been so admirably collated by M. Ian. In a -vast number of passages previously looked upon as hopelessly corrupt, -or else not at all suspected of being in a mutilated state, this MS. -supplies words and clauses, the existence of which in the original was -hitherto unknown; indeed by its aid the indefatigable Sillig has been -enabled, if we may be allowed the term, almost to _rewrite_ the last -six Books of Pliny. From a perusal of these new readings, as Dr. Smith -has justly remarked, we have reason to infer “that the text of the -earlier Books is still in a very defective state, and that much of the -obscurity of Pliny may be traced to this cause.” - -[2] The Echeneis remora of Linnæus. See B. ix. c. 41. - -[3] He alludes to the “rostra,” or metal beaks, with which the prows of -the ships of war were furnished. - -[4] An absurd tradition, no doubt, invented, probably, to palliate the -disgrace of his defeat. - -[5] From the delay caused by the stoppage of the prætorian ship. - -[6] Caligula. - -[7] For Astura and Antium, see B. iii. c. 9. - -[8] And well it might surprise him. If there was any foundation at all -for the story, there can be little doubt that a trick was played for -the purpose of imposing upon Caligula’s superstitious credulity, and -that the rowers as well as the diving sailors were privy to it. - -[9] “Limax.” A singular comparison, apparently. - -[10] In B. ix. c. 41. - -[11] See B. ix. c. 41, where he is speaking of a murex, a fish which -bears no such affinity to the remora as to warrant our author’s -expression, “Idem valere omnia ea genera.” - -[12] Properly meaning “delay.” “Remora” is another reading, and perhaps -a better one, as the word is found in Plautus. - -[13] In B. ix. c. 41. - -[14] From λύειν τὰς ὠδίνας, “to release from the pains of childbirth.” - -[15] See B. ix. c. 67. - -[16] Ajasson remarks that it was owing probably to this opinion that -it was formerly the belief, that by holding the breath a person could -render himself proof against the shock of the torpedo; a precaution -recommended by Kæmpfer, in his “Amenitates Exoticæ,” p. 514. Ed. 1712. - -[17] “Quâdam aurâ sui corporis adficiat membra” seems a preferable -reading to “Quâdam aurâ corporis sui adficiat membra,” as given by the -Bamberg MS., and adopted by Sillig. - -[18] See B. ix. c. 72, and the Note. - -[19] A fabulous story, Ajasson remarks, but one that was commonly -believed in the 16th and 17th centuries. Gessner, however, a -conscientious enquirer into the mysteries of Nature, asserts (_de -Aquatilibus_, p. 563) that, to his own knowledge, the sight of this -fish was productive of the symptoms here mentioned. Beckmann reckons -the Aplysia depilans (with which the Sea-hare of the ancients is -identified) in the number of the animal poisons, and remarks that (as -we find stated by Cœlius Rhodiginus, B. xxvi. c. 30) the Emperor Titus -was dispatched by the agency of this poison, administered to him by the -direction of his brother Domitian. _Hist. Inv._ vol. I. p. 51. _Bohn’s -Ed._ - -[20] Athenæus says, B. viii., that the Scarus pursues it and devours it. - -[21] “Quibus impactus est.” A curious expression; if indeed it is the -correct reading. - -[22] See B. ix. c. 72. - -[23] Mituli. See B. ix. c. 74. - -[24] “Cetos.” - -[25] Ajasson remarks, in confutation of this story, that there are few -rivers in Arabia of such a breadth. - -[26] See B. xi. c. 34. - -[27] Of this work, began by Ovid during his banishment in Pontus, and -probably never completed, only a fragment of one hundred and thirty-two -lines has come down to us. Pliny again makes reference to it, in the -last Chapter of the present Book. - -[28] Or “Treatise on Fishes.” - -[29] See B. ix. c. 69, and B. xi. c. 61. - -[30] Quoted from the Halieuticon. - -[31] The wolf fish. The Perca labrax of Linnæus. See B. ix. cc. 24, 28, -74, 79, and B. x. c. 89. - -[32] From the Halieuticon of Ovid. - -[33] See B. ix. cc. 14, 35, 39, 48, 74, 79, 81. - -[34] From the Halieuticon. - -[35] From the Halieuticon. - -[36] See B. ix. cc. 21, 26, 67. - -[37] From the Halieuticon. - -[38] From the Halieuticon. See Note 31 above, if indeed the same fish -is meant. See also B. xxxi. c. 44, and the Note. - -[39] From the Halieuticon. - -[40] See B. ix. c. 85. - -[41] In B. ix. c. 39. Aristotle, however, as there stated, was not of -the same opinion. - -[42] See B. xx. c. 98. - -[43] “Novacula piscis.” Pliny is the only ancient author that mentions -this fish. There are numerous varieties of it, among which the -best known are the Coryphæna novacula of Linnæus, the Rason of the -Mediterranean, highly esteemed as an article of food, and the Coryphæna -pentedactyle of Bloch, identical with the _Hemiptéronote à cinq -taches_, of Lacépède. - -[44] An absurdity, owing, no doubt, to its name. - -[45] Or “globe-fish.” The Mola, orbis marinus, or sun-fish of modern -Natural History, the _Lune de mer_, or _poisson-lune_ of the French. -Though the skin is harsh and tough, there is no firmness in its flesh, -which is of a gluey consistency. - -[46] In reality it _has_ scales, but they are almost imperceptible, -from their minuteness. - -[47] Or rather, as Dalechamps observes, “all belly.” - -[48] See B. ix. cc. 44, 45, and B. xviii. c. 87. - -[49] See B. ix. cc. 1, 21 and c. 53 of the present Book. There are two -varieties of it, the Xiphias gladius of Bloch and Lacépède, and the -Xiphias machæra of Shaw. - -[50] See B. v. c. 1. - -[51] Martial, B. iv. Ep. 30, speaks of this being the case at the -fishponds of Baiæ, where the Emperor’s fish were in the habit of making -their appearance when called by name. - -[52] A village of Caria, celebrated for its sanctuary of Zeus Stratios. -Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. xii. c. 30, says that there was a spring of clear -water, within the sanctuary, which contained fish with golden necklaces -and rings. - -[53] “Inaures.” He probably means ornaments suspended from the gills, a -thing which, in the case of eels, might be done. - -[54] “Senum delubrum.” Ælian speaks of tame fish in the Old Men’s -Harbour (λιμὴν) at Chios. - -[55] In B. xxxi. c. 22. - -[56] The seat of the worship of the half-fish goddess Addirga, -Atergatis, Astarte, or Derceto. See B. v. c. 19. The original names of -Hierapolis (the Holy City) were Bambyce and Mabog. - -[57] See B. iii. c. 9. - -[58] A Greek name signifying “black-tails.” See c. 53 of this Book. -Holland translates it “the black-tailed ruffe” or “sea-bream.” - -[59] See B. v. c. 38. - -[60] See B. v. c. 31, and B. xxxi. c. 43. - -[61] See B. iii. c. 14. - -[62] See B. v. cc. 3, 4. - -[63] See B. iii. cc. 16, 26. - -[64] Ajasson thinks that this may possibly be true to some small extent. - -[65] Identical with the fish called “orbis,” already mentioned in c. 5 -of this Book. Ajasson remarks that though these fish have been known to -weigh as much as three hundred pounds, there are many others which grow -to a larger size, the sturgeon, and the silurus, for instance. - -[66] Ajasson thinks that this notion may possibly have been derived -from the name, which not improbably was given to it from the spongy and -oleaginous nature of the flesh. - -[67] See B. iii. c. 16. - -[68] Owing, perhaps, to the moisture of the atmosphere. - -[69] We learn from Festus, that he prohibited the use also of the -scarus, a fish _with_ scales. - -[70] “Ad pulvinaria.” Literally, “At the cushions;” in reference -to the practice of placing the statues of the gods upon pillows at -the Lectisternia, which were sacrifices in the nature of feasts, -at which images of the gods were placed reclining on couches, with -tables and food before them, as if they were really partaking of the -things offered in sacrifice. Livy, B. v. c. 13. gives an account of a -Lectisternium celebrated with great pomp, which he asserts to have been -the first instance of the practice. - -[71] In B. ix. c. 54. - -[72] See B. iii. c. 11. - -[73] Theophrastus reckons coral among the precious stones, and the -Pseudo-Orpheus among the minerals. Pliny would seem to be at a loss -whether to consider it as an animal or a vegetable. In reality it is -the production of marine organized bodies of an arborescent habit, -known as Corallina, with jointed stems, supported on a kind of root -divided into branches, which are likewise jointed. - -[74] Because κειρεῖται, it is “cut short” in the sea, a far-fetched -derivation, apparently. - -[75] Solinus informs us that Zoroaster attributed certain mysterious -properties to coral. - -[76] A practice still retained, though the original intention of it has -been lost sight of. As to the form of the coral now used by infants, -see Note 2171 to B. xxviii. c. 7. - -[77] In reality, the Pastinaca or Sting-ray is _not_ venomous; but the -wounds inflicted by the sting in its tail are highly dangerous, from -their tendency to gangrene. - -[78] In B. ix. c. 72. As Ajasson remarks, it is quite possible that the -sting of the Pastinaca might penetrate to the heart of a young tree, -and so kill it; but that is no proof of its being poisonous. See also -B. ix. cc. 40, 67. - -[79] Or Mustela, the sea-weasel, mentioned in B. ix. c. 29, and in c. -37 of the present Book. See also Note 2407 to B. ix. c. 29. Ajasson is -of opinion that under the names of “Galeos” and “Mustela,” the ancients -confounded the Squalus galeus and the Squalus mustelus of Linnæus. - -[80] See B. xix. c. 15, and B. xxii. c. 49. - -[81] As water, and are consequently amphibious. - -[82] The Castoreum of the ancients, the “castor” of our Materia Medica, -is _not_ in reality produced from the testes of the beaver, as was -supposed by the ancients, but from two oval pouches situate near the -anus of the animal of either sex. There are four of these pouches in -all, two containing a species of fat, and two larger ones including -in their membranous cells a viscous fetid substance, which forms the -castor of medicine. It is considered to be an antispasmodic. - -[83] “Folliculos.” A very appropriate term, as Ajasson remarks. - -[84] See B. xii. c. 49, and B. xxxiv. c. 14. - -[85] See B. xxv. c. 70. - -[86] Castor is still given to females to inhale, when suffering from -hysteria. - -[87] See B. xx. c. 54. - -[88] See B. xxiv. c. 38. - -[89] See B. viii. c. 41, B. x. c. 95, and B. xi. cc. 24, 28. - -[90] See B. xxix. c. 32. - -[91] See B. viii. c. 35, and B. xvi. c. 80. - -[92] See B. xx. c. 81; B. xxii. c. 13; B. xxiii. c. 23, and B. xxiv. c. -73. - -[93] See B. xii. c. 57. - -[94] Or Mistletoe; see B, xvi. c. 92. - -[95] As to the identity of the “nitrum” of the ancients, see B. xxxi. -c. 46 and the Notes. - -[96] See B. xx. c. 76. - -[97] Under the head of “testudines,” he includes the tortoises, -terrapenes, and turtles, which form an order of reptiles, known in -Natural History as Chelonia, and characterised by the body being -enclosed between a double shield or shell, out of which protrude the -head, tail, and four extremities. - -[98] See B. ix. cc. 11, 12. - -[99] Our tortoises so called. - -[100] Our Chelonides, or turtles. - -[101] The Emydes and Trionyches of Modern Natural History. - -[102] Or turtle. - -[103] See B. x. c. 86. - -[104] To make it of a yellow or golden colour, Dalechamps says. - -[105] Identified by Ajasson with the Emys lutaria of Modern Natural -History. - -[106] Our Houseleek. See B. xxv. c. 102. - -[107] Because it is then powerless, and can make no effort to rise. - -[108] An absurd story, founded, no doubt, on the extremely slow pace of -the tortoise. Ajasson remarks that it is the fresh-water tortoise, more -particularly, that is so slow in its movements. - -[109] In B. xxi. c. 44. - -[110] Or Gilt-head. “Aurata.” See B. ix. c. 25. - -[111] In B. viii. c. 38. See also B. xxviii. c. 30. - -[112] Among others, in B. vii. c. 13, and B. xxviii. c. 23. - -[113] In B. xxviii. c. 23. - -[114] As to this point, see c. 12 of this Book, and the Notes. - -[115] He must mean the Sea-dragon, mentioned in B. ix. c. 43, and in -c. 53 of the present Book; for he has already stated in B. xxix. c. -20, that the serpent called “draco” is destitute of venom. See also B. -viii. cc. 13, 14, 22, 41, and B. x. cc. 5, 92, 95, 96. - -[116] See B. viii. c. 41, B. x. c. 95, and B. xi. cc. 24, 28, 29. - -[117] See B. ix. cc. 71, 86, and c. 53 of the present Book. - -[118] See Note 115 above. - -[119] Rondelet asserts, B. vi. c. 19, that he himself had cured the -sting of the sea-dragon by an application of the liver of that fish. - -[120] See B. xxix. c. 32. - -[121] See B. viii. c. 35, B. xi. c. 43, and B. xvi. c. 80. - -[122] See B. xxiii. c. 29. - -[123] Nicander, in his Theriaca, classes the Elops among the innocuous -serpents. In B. ix. c. 27, we are informed that one name given to the -Acipenser was “Elops.” But see the remark made in c. 54 of this Book. - -[124] See B. xxiii. c. 80. - -[125] From c. 53 of the present Book, we learn that the Sarda was a -kind of Pelamis, or young tunny, which was pickled, like our Anchovy. - -[126] See Note 115 above. - -[127] Tunny cut into slices, and pickled. See B. ix. c. 18. - -[128] See B. ix. cc. 40, 67, 74, 83. - -[129] See B. viii. c. 48, B. xi. cc. 19, 76, 116, B. xxv. c. 76. - -[130] See B. x. c. 86. - -[131] Under the name “magi,” he is probably speaking here, not of the -ordinary magicians, but the Magi of the East, from whom Democritus -largely borrowed. - -[132] A piece of wit on the part of our author, in which he seldom -indulges. - -[133] See B. xi. c. 76. - -[134] From “rubus,” a “bramble.” - -[135] In B. viii. c. 48. It is not improbable that the “rubetæ” of the -ancients were toads. - -[136] Projections of the bones in which the eyes are set, as Dalechamps -remarks. - -[137] “Plenæ veneficiorum.” It was long a matter of doubt whether the -toad is really poisonous, but it has been recently ascertained that the -pustules on the skin contain a most active poison. - -[138] “Solium” and “oleum” are the readings here, but we adopt the -conjecture of M. Ian, and substitute “ollam.” - -[139] “Averting dogs.” - -[140] The Enhydris, probably. See B. xxx. c. 8. - -[141] See B. xxvi. c. 33. - -[142] “Cancri fluviatiles.” Our crawfish, the Potamobios of Leach. - -[143] See B. xix. cc. 31, 36, 44, and B. xx. c. 48. - -[144] It is difficult to say whether he means the shrew-mouse here, -the bite of which was supposed to be poisonous, or the serpent called -Scytale, mentioned by Lucan, B. ix. l. 717. - -[145] See Note 143 above. - -[146] The Crab. This is giving the serpent credit for too much wisdom; -an acquaintance, in fact, with the fantastic names which mankind have -bestowed upon the signs of the Zodiac. - -[147] See B. ix. c. 32. - -[148] The same as the Orbis or Orthagoriscus of Chapters 5 and 9 of -this Book, the Mola or sun-fish of the Mediterranean. See B. ix. c. 17. - -[149] Or sting-ray. See B. ix. c. 72. - -[150] There is considerable truth in this observation. - -[151] The sea-horse, the Syngnathus hippocampus of Linnæus. See B. ix. -c. 1. - -[152] See B. xxi. c. 105. - -[153] The same, probably, as the “opocarpathon” of B. xxviii. c. 45, a -substance which does not appear to have been identified with any degree -of certainty. See also c. 31 of the present Book. - -[154] B. ix. c. 79. - -[155] Ajasson remarks that these statements are consistent with fact. - -[156] “Deep-sea” oysters. - -[157] In Asia Minor. See B. v. c. 32, where it is called “Grynia.” - -[158] In Lemnos. See B. iv. c. 23, and B. v. c. 32. - -[159] This is an error: the statement is made, not in B. ix., but in B. -ii. c. 109. - -[160] See B. ix. c. 74. It is at the spawning season that this milky -liquid is found in the oyster; a period at which the meat of the fish -is considered unwholesome as food. We have a saying that the oyster -should never be eaten in the months without an r; that the same, too, -was the opinion in the middle ages is proved by the Leonine line: - -“Mensibus erratis vos ostrea manducatis.” - -“In the r’d months you may your oysters eat.” - -[161] See B. iii. c. 9. Horace speaks of the oysters of Circeii, B. ii. -Sat. 4. l. 33. - -[162] There has been considerable discussion among the commentators -as to the meaning of the word “spondylus” here. We are inclined to -adopt the opinion of Venette, and to think that it means the so-called -“meat” of the oyster. It must be short, and consequently plump and -comparatively destitute of beard, and it must not be fleshy, as that -would imply a degree of toughness not desirable in an oyster. The -words “nec fibris laciniata ac tota in alvo,” only seem to be an -amplification of the preceding ones, “spondylo brevi et non carnoso.” - -[163] Literally, “Having beautiful eyebrows.” - -[164] See B. ix. c. 79. - -[165] See B. v. c. 40. - -[166] See B. iii. c. 9. - -[167] “Dulciora.” - -[168] Those of Rutupæ, the present Richborough in Kent, were highly -esteemed by the Romans. See Juvenal, Sat. 4. l. 141. - -[169] “Suaviora.” - -[170] The district in the vicinity of Bordeaux, now called Medoc. The -oysters of Medulæ are mentioned in terms of praise by Ausonius, Epist. -vii. and Epist. cxliii. - -[171] “Acriora.” - -[172] See B. iii. c. 4. - -[173] See B. v. c. 32. - -[174] See B. iii. c. 23. - -[175] See B. iii. c. 9. - -[176] They probably gave the name of “oyster” to some other shell-fish -of large size. In Cook’s Voyages we read of cockles in the Pacific, -which two men were unable to carry. - -[177] From τρὶς, “thrice,” and δάκνω, “to bite.” - -[178] Ajasson remarks that many persons are unable to digest oysters, -in an uncooked state. - -[179] Ajasson remarks that calcined oyster-shells formed an ingredient -in the famous lithontriptic of Mrs. Stephens, a so-called remedy which -obtained for her a considerable reward, voted by the English Parliament -in the middle of last century. - -[180] A statement purely imaginary, Ajasson thinks; the liquid of this -class of shell-fish containing no element whatever to fit it for an -antidote. - -[181] Or antidote. - -[182] In B. xxvi. c. 66. - -[183] Many varieties of sea-weed are now known, Ajasson says, to -possess this property, and are still used by savage nations for -colouring the body. In Europe, the use of indigo, madder, and other -tinctorial plants of a more decided character, has caused them to be -entirely neglected for dyeing purposes. - -[184] Probably the Syngnathus hippocampus of Linnæus. See B. ix. c. 1. - -[185] As to the Nitrum of the ancients, see B. xxxi. c. 46. - -[186] Or Cuttlefish. See B. ix. c. 44. - -[187] See B. ix. c. 35. - -[188] See c. 17 of the present Book. - -[189] This seems to be the meaning of “conchyliorum” here, though in -most instances Pliny uses it as synonymous with the purple. See B. ix. -cc. 60, 61, 64. - -[190] See B. xxv. c. 70. - -[191] This assertion reminds us of the healing effects of the fish with -which Tobit cured his father’s blindness. See Tobit, c. xi. v. 13. - -[192] See c. 13 of this Book. - -[193] Identified by Ajasson with the white Rascasse of the -Mediterranean. Hardouin combats the notion that this was the fish, the -gall of which was employed by Tobit for the cure of his father, and is -inclined to think that the Silurus was in reality the fish; a notion no -better founded than the other, Ajasson thinks. - -[194] In his “Messenia,” for instance. The fragment has been preserved -by Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. xiii. c. 4. Ajasson remarks that the ancients -clearly mistook the swimming bladder of the fish for the gall. - -[195] Or “heaven-gazer.” - -[196] The original has “ab oculo quem,”—but we have adopted the reading -suggested by Dalechamps, “Ab oculis quos in superiore capite.” Ajasson -says that the white rascasse has the eyes so disposed on the upper part -of the head as to have the appearance of gazing upwards at the heavens. -Hence it is that at Genoa, the fish is commonly known as the _prête_ or -“priest.” - -[197] See B. ix. c. 32. - -[198] See Chapter 17 of the present Book. - -[199] “Albugines.” - -[200] Meaning, literally, “Fallen from Jupiter,” in reference to their -supposed descent from heaven in showers of rain. - -[201] Cortex. - -[202] See B. xxxiv. cc. 22, 23. - -[203] “Ossiculo.” - -[204] Literally, “fish-glue.” We can hardly believe Pliny that any fish -was known by this name. Hardouin takes the fish here spoken of to be -identical with that mentioned in B. ix. c. 17, as being caught in the -Borysthene, and destitute of bones. It is most probable, however, that -the “ichthyocolla” of the ancients, or “fish-glue,” was the same as our -isinglass, and that it was prepared from the entrails of various fish, -the sturgeon more particularly, the Acipenser huso of Linnæus. - -[205] The best isinglass still comes from Russia. - -[206] “Nativi coloris.” See B. viii. c. 23. Beckmann says, in reference -to the present passage: “We manufacture the wool of our brown sheep in -its natural colour, and this was done also by the ancients.”—_Hist. -Inv._ vol. ii. p. 110, _Bohn’s Ed._ - -[207] The “calamites” above mentioned, so called from “calamus,” a reed. - -[208] The Bryonia Cretica of Linnæus; see B. xxiii. c. 16. - -[209] An eminent surgeon, born at Sidon in Phœnicia, who practised at -Rome, probably in the first century B.C. - -[210] “Mutis,” “silent,” or “voiceless” frogs, as suggested by Gessner, -Hist. Anim. B. ii., would almost seem to be a preferable reading here -to “multis,” “many.” - -[211] Another reading is “tænia,” a fish mentioned by Epicharmus, -Athenæus informs us, and considered by Ajasson to be probably identical -with the Cepola rubescens, or Cepola tænia of Linnæus. - -[212] The same as the Batis of the Greeks, Hardouin thinks, the Raia -batis, a kind of skate. - -[213] See B. ix. c. 28. - -[214] See the preceding Chapter. - -[215] See c. 13 of the present Book. - -[216] See B. ix. c. 71. - -[217] As to “nitrum,” see B. xxxi. c. 46. - -[218] See B. xxxi. c. 43. - -[219] See Note 189 to Chapter 23 of this Book. - -[220] “Canicula.” See B. ix. cc. 11, 70. - -[221] Or sting-ray. - -[222] Tunny cut in slices. See B. ix. c. 18. - -[223] See end of B. xxxi. - -[224] For the purpose, probably, of assuaging the pain of tooth-ache by -their coolness. - -[225] See B. ix. cc. 40, 67. - -[226] “Cetum.” See B. ix. cc. 40, 74. - -[227] Ajasson is of opinion that here and in c. 19 Pliny has mistaken -the _otter_ for a serpent, the mammiferæ only having eye or canine -teeth. Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. i. c. i., calls the otter by the name -of “Enhydris.” See B. xxx. c. 8, where Pliny speaks of the “Enhydris” -as a “male white serpent.” - -[228] Or seal. See B. ix. c. 15. - -[229] See B. ix. c. 42. Holland calls the mæna the “cackerel.” - -[230] Or sting-ray. - -[231] See B. ix. c. 1. - -[232] Much like the cod-liver oil, held in such high repute at the -present day. - -[233] “Icthyocolla.” See Chapter 24 of the present Book. - -[234] Of course this assertion as to the nest of the kingfisher is -altogether fabulous, and the sea-productions here described by Pliny -were long considered, though destitute of leaves, flowers, and fruit, -to belong to the vegetable kingdom. Peyssonnel, however, made the -discovery that they belong to the animal kingdom, and that they owe -their origin to a species of polyp. - -[235] Or kingfisher. See B. x. c. 47. - -[236] “Oculorum cicatrices.” - -[237] See end of B. xx. - -[238] See end of B. viii. - -[239] See B. ix. c. 42. - -[240] See B. ix. cc. 40, 67. The Bamberg MS. has here “rhine,” (the -fish again mentioned in Chapter 53 of this Book) instead of “rana;” a -reading which Sillig rejects. Hardouin conjectures that “raia” is the -correct reading, the sea-frog having no sting or stickle in the tail. - -[241] See B. ix. c. 67. - -[242] Or sea-lizard, a fish again mentioned in Chapter 53 of this Book. -Ælian also speaks of it, Hist. Nat. B. xii. c. 25; but it has not been -hitherto identified. - -[243] See c. 25 of this Book. - -[244] See c. 13 of this Book. - -[245] See B. xxxi. c. 43. - -[246] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. - -[247] It is not clear whether he means the gum ammoniac of B. xii. c. -49, and B. xxiv. c. 14, or the sal ammoniac of B. xxxi. c. 39. - -[248] “Saliva.” See the recipe of Sallustius Dionysius in Chapter 26 of -this Book. - -[249] The Dryophites of Rondelet, Dalechamps says. - -[250] Identical with the Strombus of cc. 39, 46, and 53 of this Book. - -[251] See B. ix. c. 1. - -[252] Littré remarks that Pliny here seems to speak of the “Tethea” -as a mollusk; whereas in c. 31, from his expression “Fungorum verius -generis quam piscium,” he would appear to be describing a zoophyte. - -[253] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. - -[254] See B. ix. cc. 24, 48, 67, 74, 75. - -[255] See B. xx. c. 38. - -[256] A rock fish, according to Athenæus, B. vii. Rondelet, B. vi. -c. 7, identifies it with the fish called _girello_ by the people of -Liguria, the _donzella_ of other districts. - -[257] Sliced tunny. See B. ix. c. 18. - -[258] A genus which comprises the “myes,” mentioned in B. ix. c. 56, -according to Dalechamps. - -[259] See B. ix. c. 60. - -[260] See B. xxi. c. 105. - -[261] See B. xxviii. c. 45, and Chapter 20 of the present Book. - -[262] Identical with our mussel, probably. - -[263] Holland identifies this with the cockle, but it is probably a -smaller kind of mussel. - -[264] See B. xxxiv. c. 50. - -[265] We learn from Chapter 53 of this Book, that one class of the -“Chamæ,” or gaping cockles, was known as “Pelorides.” Horace also -mentions them. - -[266] See B. xxxi. c. 46. - -[267] See Note 251 above. Sillig would here read “tetheum,” apparently, -in the singular. - -[268] Described in B. xxvii. c. 29. - -[269] A city not far from the Canopic branch of the Nile. - -[270] “Dantur” seems a preferable reading to “datur.” - -[271] See B. ix c. 42. - -[272] Our crawfish, the Astacus potamobios of Leach. - -[273] See Chapter 13 of this Book. - -[274] See B. xix. c. 27, and B, xxv. c. 64. - -[275] See B. ix. cc. 23, 77. - -[276] See end of B. xxxi. - -[277] See B. ix. cc. 20, 24, 36. - -[278] See B. ix. cc. 24, 48, 67, 74, 75. - -[279] “Rhombus.” See B. ix. cc. 20, 36, 67, 79. - -[280] See Chapters 23, 34, 30 and 53 of this Book. - -[281] Rondelet, B. vi. c. 19, suggests “capite”—“in the head”—but the -present reading is supported by the text of Plinius Valerianus, B. ii. -c. 39, and of Marcus Empiricus, c. 28. - -[282] As to the identity of the Enhydris, see Chapters 19 and 26 of the -present Book: also B. xxx. c. 8. - -[283] Probably the Βλεννὸς of Oppian, B. i. c. 108. Dalechamps -identifies it with the mullet called “myxon,” apparently the same fish -as the “bacchus” mentioned in Chapter 25 of this Book. Rondelet appears -to identify it with some other sea-fish, small, and extremely rare. On -the other hand, the fish mentioned by Oppian is thought by Littré to -be the “gobius” of the Latins, (“gobio” or “cobio,” mentioned by Pliny -in B. ix. c. 83, and in c. 53 of the present Book), which is generally -considered the same as our gudgeon, and was a worthless fish, “vilis -piscis,” as Juvenal says. One of the Linnæan orders of fishes is called -“Blennius,” the blenny. - -[284] See B. ix. c. 28. - -[285] See B. ix. c. 68. - -[286] Or sea-lungs. See B. ix. c. 71, and B. xviii. c. 85. - -[287] Or crawfish. - -[288] “Pectines.” See B. ix. cc. 51, 52, 68, 74, 112. - -[289] Athenæus adds a fourth name, “solen;” and a fifth was “dactylus,” -see B. ix. c. 87. According to Dalechamps, the name “donax” was given -to one kind of scallop, from its fancied resemblance to a thick, -hollow, river-reed, and that of “onyx” from the resemblance of its -colour to that of the finger-nails. - -[290] It is not improbable that he may mean the same animal that has -been mentioned in cc. 19 and 26 of this Book, the Enhydris. See also B. -xxx. c. 8. - -[291] See B. xxix. c. 22. - -[292] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. - -[293] See B. ix. c. 42, and Chapter 27 of this Book. - -[294] See B. ix. cc. 18, 19, and Chapter 53 of this Book. - -[295] Salted tunny. See B. ix. c. 18. - -[296] See B. ix. cc. 24, 48, 74, 75. - -[297] Our crawfish. - -[298] See B. ix. cc. 24, 32. - -[299] See B. ix. c. 24. - -[300] See Chapters 23, 24, 30, 32, and 53 of the present Book. Also B. -xx. c. 53. - -[301] See B. ix. c. 42. - -[302] “Perca.” See B. ix. c. 24. - -[303] See Note 294 above. - -[304] See B. ix. c. 14. - -[305] In B. ix. c. 14. - -[306] Ajasson remarks that many writers have identified the Smaris with -the Sardine or the Anchovy. In his opinion, however, it is neither; but -he thinks that under this head were included seven or eight varieties -of the Pickerel, the principal of which are, the Sparus smaris of -Linnæus and Lacépède, the Sparus mana of Linnæus, or Sparus mendola of -Lacépède, and the Sparus haffara of Lacépède and Linnæus. - -[307] See Chapter 22 of the present Book. - -[308] See B. ix. c. 1. - -[309] Literally, the “little serpent.” Some think that it is the -Ophidium barbatum of Linnæus. Rondelet identifies it, B. xiv. c. 2, -with the small fish called _donzella_ by the people of Montpellier. See -c. 31, Note 256. - -[310] See B. xxx. c. 22. - -[311] See B. xiv. c. 8. - -[312] “Rubetæ.” See c. 18 of this Book; also B. viii. c. 48; B. xi. cc. -19, 76, 116, and B. xxv. c. 76. - -[313] See B. ix. c. 72; B. xxv. c. 77, and Chapter 3 of this Book. - -[314] Or seal-skin. See B. viii. c. 49, and B. ix. c. 15. - -[315] In B. xxvii. c. 33. - -[316] In B. xxvi. c. 66. - -[317] Or “sea-lungs.” See B. ix. c. 71, B. xviii. c. 5, and Chapters -32, 46, and 52 of the present Book. Ajasson remarks that this is still -the common name of many kinds of Medusæ. - -[318] Our crawfish. - -[319] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. - -[320] “Mituli.” See Chapter 31 of the present Book. - -[321] In B. viii. c. 49. - -[322] See Note 314 above. - -[323] See Chapter 13 of the present Book. - -[324] See B. ix. c. 29. - -[325] See B. ix. cc. 35, 76. - -[326] See B. ix. c. 1. - -[327] See B. ix. c. 28. - -[328] See B. ix. c. 24. - -[329] “Ablatis unguibus.” - -[330] “Rubeta.” - -[331] Our crawfish. - -[332] Because the nightingale sings at night, instead of sleeping. - -[333] See B. ix. cc. 2, 5, 6, 7, 15. - -[334] Or seal. - -[335] “Spondylus.” - -[336] See Chapter 29 of this Book. - -[337] See Chapters 30 and 31 of the present Book. - -[338] See B. xviii. c. 19. - -[339] “Crebriore anhelitu.” - -[340] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. - -[341] Or sting-ray. See B. ix. cc. 37, 40, 67, 72. - -[342] Ichthyocolla. See Chapter 24 of this Book. - -[343] See Chapter 13 of this Book. - -[344] See B. ix. c. 30. - -[345] See B. ix. c. 46. - -[346] This seems to be the meaning of “naturâ dissidente,” if it is the -correct reading. That, however, suggested by Dalechamps would seem to -be preferable, “naturâ retinente,”—“it being the nature of its flesh to -cling to the knife.” - -[347] See Chapter 24 of this Book. - -[348] “Calami.” - -[349] “Bloodsuckers.” - -[350] “Cucurbitæ medicinales.” - -[351] This does not appear to be considered the case at the present day. - -[352] A method still employed. - -[353] See B. x. c. 27. - -[354] “Invehunt virus remedio verso.” The reading is probably corrupt, -but the meaning is pretty evident. - -[355] See B. xxix. c. 17, and c. 47 of this Book. - -[356] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. - -[357] See B. ix. c. 17. Ajasson says that it is also found of enormous -size, in the Danube and in the Theisse. - -[358] See B. xxxiv. c. 33. - -[359] See B. ix. c. 42. - -[360] See Note 356 above. - -[361] “Cunila capitata.” See B. xx. c. 65. - -[362] See B. xxxiv. c. 55. - -[363] Tunny sliced and salted; see B. ix. c. 18. - -[364] See B. xxxi. c. 44. - -[365] See B. ix. cc. 24, 32. - -[366] See B. ix. c. 30. - -[367] See B. ix. c. 67. - -[368] See Note 359 above. - -[369] “Thymia.” - -[370] Ajasson thinks that the ancients knew but one kind of -sea-scorpion, but in different states, the Cottus scorpius, probably, -of Linnæus. - -[371] See Chapter 34 of this Book. - -[372] See Note 364 above. - -[373] See Note 359 above. - -[374] This fish has not been identified. It is possible, however, that -it may be the same as the “glaucus” mentioned in B ix. c. 25. - -[375] See Note 371 above. - -[376] See B. xxvi. c. 92. - -[377] See B. ix. cc. 14, 40, 67. - -[378] An asserted remedy, founded, as Ajasson remarks, upon nothing -but a pun, the resemblance between δελφὶς, a “dolphin,” and -δελφὺς, the “womb.” - -[379] See Chapters 29 and 39 of this Book. - -[380] See B. ix. c. 42. - -[381] See B. xx. c. 65. - -[382] In other words, seal-oil. - -[383] Or sea-lungs. See Chapter 36 of this Book. - -[384] Or crawfish. - -[385] See B. ix. c. 17; also Chapter 43 of this Book. - -[386] Meaning Egypt, probably; see the passages referred to in the -preceding note. - -[387] De Morb. Mulier. I. 128. - -[388] We would adopt the suggestion of M. Ian, and read “quinis cum,” -in preference to “cum quinis;” “fire crabs with roots of lapathum and -rue.” - -[389] See B. xx. c. 85. - -[390] See Chapter 13 of the present Book. - -[391] See B. xii. c. 57. - -[392] See B. ix. cc. 24, 48, 74, 75. - -[393] Or sting-ray. See B. ix. c. 72. - -[394] The callosity is here meant, Hardouin supposes, which covers the -purple in the shell. See Chapter 41 of this Book. - -[395] “Salis flore.” See B. xxxi. c. 42. - -[396] “Cedrium.” See B. xvi. c. 21, and B. xxiv. c. 11. - -[397] See end of B. xxviii. - -[398] Or “sea-lungs.” See Chapter 36 of this Book. - -[399] See B. ix. c. 67. - -[400] See B. ix. c. 68. - -[401] See Note 392 above. - -[402] In Chapter 24 of this Book. - -[403] See the preceding Note. - -[404] See Chapter 42 of this Book. - -[405] In the case of infants, probably. - -[406] “Canicula.” See B. ix. cc. 11, 70. - -[407] Or “crawfish.” - -[408] “Crebro humefacto” seems a preferable reading to “cerebro -humefacto” though supported by the Bamberg MS. - -[409] See B. xxii. c. 29, and B. xxx. c. 47. - -[410] See B. ix. c. 30. - -[411] Identified with the “erythinus” of B. ix. c. 23, and mentioned in -the next Chapter. - -[412] See B. ix. c. 1. - -[413] Or Remora. See B. ix. c. 41. - -[414] See B. viii. c. 39. - -[415] See Note 392 above. - -[416] See B. ix. c. 23. - -[417] See Chapter 24 of this Book. - -[418] See B. ix. c. 1. - -[419] “Rubeta.” See B. viii. c. 48, B. xi. cc. 19, 76, 116, B. xxv. c. -76, and c. 18 of this Book. - -[420] See B. xv. c. 36, and B. xx. c. 22. - -[421] “Remedies for lassitude.” See B. xxiii. cc. 45, 80; B. xxvii. c. -13, and B. xxix. cc. 13, 37. - -[422] See B. xvi. c. 66, and B. xxiv. c. 50. - -[423] See B. xvi. c. 66, and B. xxiv. c. 50. - -[424] See B. xxiv. c. 50. - -[425] See B. ix. cc. 20, 44, 74, 78. - -[426] “Ablato priore lumine.” Hardouin justly ridicules this assertion. -This ink, as Ajasson remarks, is intensely black. - -[427] See B. ix. c. 71, and Chapter 36 of this Book. - -[428] This _seems_ to be the meaning of “adeo ut baculum ita præluceat.” - -[429] Some MSS. have here “164,” the Bamberg MS. and others “144.” -Owing to the corrupt state of the text in many parts of this Chapter, -it is impossible to say which reading is correct. - -[430] “Invenire non potuimus” seems a preferable reading to “invenire -potuimus.” - -[431] Modern Ceylon. See B. vi. cc. 23, 24, B. vii. c. 2, and B. ix. c. -54. - -[432] “Quæ nascuntur certa sunt.” A bold assertion. The various fishes -now known amount to many thousands; and there are still vast numbers, -no doubt, with which science has not hitherto become acquainted. - -[433] “Belluæ.” - -[434] He may possibly allude to the plants mentioned in B. xiii. cc. -48, 49, 50, 51, and 52; though Hardouin seems to think it impossible -to discover what he means, seeing that he is speaking of sea-monsters, -beings with animal life. See also B. ix. c. 3. - -[435] See B. ix. c. 3. - -[436] See B. ix. cc. 2, 5. - -[437] See B. ix. c. 3; probably the same as the “pristis” of B. ix. c. -2. - -[438] See B. ix. c. 4. - -[439] See B. ix. c. 4. - -[440] See B. ix. c. 4. - -[441] “Homines marini.” See B. ix. c. 4. - -[442] See B. ix. c. 3. - -[443] See B. ix. c. 5. - -[444] See B. ix. c. 4. - -[445] See B. ix. c. 88, and B. xi. c. 62. - -[446] See B. ix. c. 67. - -[447] See B. ix. c. 7. - -[448] See B. ix. c. 15. - -[449] Odyssey, B. iv. l. 436. - -[450] Turtles. See B. ix. c. 13. - -[451] See Chapter 13 of this Book. - -[452] See B. viii. c. 47; also Chapters 26 and 32 of this Book. - -[453] See B. ix. c. 70. - -[454] The name of a fish unknown. Sillig conjectures that Pliny may -have had in view the fish called “dromades” by Aristotle. “Dromones” is -another reading, a sort of small crab. - -[455] Littré translates this “horned ray.” - -[456] “Gladii.” See B. ix. cc. 1, 21; the same, probably as the -“xiphias” mentioned at the end of this Chapter. - -[457] See B. ix. c. 1. - -[458] See B. viii. c. 39. - -[459] See B. viii. c. 37. - -[460] See B. ix. c. 18, 20. Holland says, “Some take ‘thynni’ for -the milters and ‘thynnides’ for the spawners.” In this translation, -however, he identifies the “thynnides” with the “pelamides,” or young -tunnies, mentioned in this Chapter and in B. ix. c. 18. - -[461] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25. - -[462] See B. ix. cc. 24, 32. - -[463] “Percæ.” See B. ix. c. 24. - -[464] See B. ix. c. 27. - -[465] “Aurata.” See B. ix. c. 25. - -[466] See B. ix. cc. 25, 28. - -[467] Considered by some to be the whiting. Littré identifies it with -the Perca labrax of Linnæus. - -[468] See B. ix. c. 74; where it is called “apua.” - -[469] The “sea-fox.” See B. ix. c. 67. - -[470] “Anguilla.” See B. ix. cc. 2, 37, 38. - -[471] Or sea-spider. See B. ix. c. 72. - -[472] The same as the _bogue_ of the coasts of Narbonne, according to -Rondelet, B. v. c. 11. - -[473] See Chapter 25 of the present Book. - -[474] See B. ix. c. 28. - -[475] Or frog-fish. See B. ix. c. 40. - -[476] “Sea-needles.” Identified by some with the horn-fish, horn-back, -or needle-fish. - -[477] “Needle-fish.” - -[478] “Acorn-fish.” A shell-fish, according to Rondelet, B. i. c. 30, -which frequents the clefts of rocks. - -[479] “Sea-raven.” According to some authorities, identical with the -Trigla hirundo of Linnæus. Hardouin says that it is the fish called -_capone_ by the people of Rome. - -[480] See B. ix. c. 71. - -[481] The same, probably, as the “gobio,” mentioned in B. ix. c. 83. - -[482] See B. ix. c. 28. - -[483] See B. ix. cc. 25, 28. - -[484] Thought by some to be a kind of mackerel, by others to be a -tunny. Rondelet says, B. viii. c. 8, that it is a fish still called -_coguiol_ by the people of Marseilles. - -[485] In the Hellespont. - -[486] Or Sexis, according to Pintianus. - -[487] Or “sea-lizards.” - -[488] See B. ix. c. 18. He surely does not intend to include this among -his “one hundred and seventy-six different kinds of aquatic animals”! - -[489] Or young tunny. See B. ix. c. 18. - -[490] See B. ix. c. 18. - -[491] Rondelet says, B. v. c. 4, that it is a fish still known (in -his time) as _cantheno_, by the people of Narbonne. Ovid, in his -Halieuticon, l. 103, speaks of the unpleasant flavour of its juices. - -[492] See Chapter 24 of the present Book. - -[493] Of course, as Hardouin says, he does not include the shell-fishes -in this assertion. The fish with this uncomplimentary name has not been -identified. - -[494] “Urtica.” See B. ix. c. 68. - -[495] See B. ix. c. 51. - -[496] Or “chamæ;” different varieties of gaping cockles. - -[497] Or “monster” cockles. - -[498] Or “sweet” cockles. - -[499] See Chapter 27 of this Book. - -[500] See B. ix. c. 54. - -[501] Or “cochli.” As to the various kinds of cochleæ, see B. ix. c. 51. - -[502] “Five-fingered.” So called from some peculiarity in their shape. - -[503] Considered by some to be the striated mussel, the Pecten of -Linnæus. - -[504] “Radii.” - -[505] This is not improbably the meaning of the very elliptical -sentence, “Quibus radii cantant.” - -[506] See B. ix. c. 1. - -[507] The “dog’s-face,” literally. This fish has not been identified: -indeed the reading is doubtful. - -[508] A kind of crab or crayfish. See B. xxvii. c. 2. - -[509] Literally, the “dog’s right hand.” This fish has not been -identified: Hardouin suggests that it may have been a zoöphyte. - -[510] See B. ix. c. 43, and Chapters 17 and 26 of this Book. - -[511] Or “little dragon.” - -[512] The sea-scorpion, probably. - -[513] See B. ix. c. 23; also Chapters 31 and 50 of this Book. - -[514] Or Remora. See B. ix. c. 41; also Chapter 1 of this Book. - -[515] See B. ix. cc. 14, 74. - -[516] See B. ix. c. 32. - -[517] See Chapter 46 of the present Book. - -[518] See B. ix. c. 67. - -[519] Possibly the same as the “Conger” of B. ix. c. 24. - -[520] A fish similar, most probably, to the “gerricula” previously -mentioned. Holland calls it a “pilchard” or “herring.” - -[521] A kind of squalus. See B. ix. c. 70. - -[522] See B. xxxi. c. 43. - -[523] Or “horse.” The crab, probably, mentioned in B. ix. c. 51. - -[524] See B. ix. c. 24. - -[525] Or sea-swallow. See B. ix. c. 43. - -[526] “Lungs of the sea.” The same as the Pulmones, or sea-lungs -mentioned in B. ix. c. 71, and in Chapter 36 of this Book. - -[527] See B. ix. c. 1. - -[528] Or “sea-liver.” A sort of rock-fish, according to Athenæus. - -[529] The same as the “milvus” or “sea-kite,” mentioned in B. ix. c. 43. - -[530] See Chapter 31 of this Book. Instead of this fish and the -preceding one, most of the editions mention the “elacatenes,” a -cetaceous fish, according to Athenæus, much used for salting. - -[531] “Sea-lizards.” - -[532] See B. ix. c. 45. - -[533] “Locusta.” See B. ix. c. 50. - -[534] “Lucerna.” See B. ix. c. 43. - -[535] Neither this fish nor the “larinus” has been identified. - -[536] See B. ix. c. 72, and Chapter 3 of this Book. - -[537] See B. ix. c. 51. - -[538] See B. ix. c. 30. - -[539] See B. ix. c. 20. - -[540] See B. ix. c. 26. - -[541] See Chapter 8 of this Book. Holland translates this—“The blacke -taile perch, (which some take for a ruffe, others for a sea-breame).” - -[542] See B. ix. c. 42. - -[543] A fish of the Nile, according to Ælian. “Meryx” is another -reading, a kind of Scarus, it is thought. - -[544] See B. ix. c. 23. - -[545] A shell-fish. See B. ix. c. 56. - -[546] See Chapter 31 of this Book. - -[547] See Chapter 31 of this Book. - -[548] See B. ix. c. 61. - -[549] The “eye-fish.” A kind of lamprey has been suggested. - -[550] See Chapter 35 of this Book. - -[551] See B. ix. c. 21. - -[552] “Sea-ears.” A kind of oyster, Holland says. - -[553] See B. ix. c. 20. - -[554] He speaks of it as a kind of Pelamis, a little further on. - -[555] The sun-fish. See Chapter 5 of this Book. - -[556] The same, probably, as the “orbis.” See Chapters 5 and 9 of the -present Book. - -[557] Or phagrus. See B. ix. c. 24. - -[558] See B. ix. c. 42. - -[559] A young tunny. See B. ix. c. 20. - -[560] A “choice bit.” See B. ix. c. 20. - -[561] See B. ix. c. 17. - -[562] This fish has not been identified. - -[563] See B. ix. c. 36. - -[564] Or sting-ray. See B. ix. c. 40. - -[565] See B. ix. c. 48. - -[566] See B. ix. c. 51. - -[567] See B. v. c. 39. - -[568] Probably the place of that name in Sicily, mentioned in B. ii. c. -94, and B. iii. c. 14. - -[569] See B. iii. c. 26. - -[570] See B. iii. c. 22. - -[571] “Pectunculus.” See Note 566 above. - -[572] See B. ix. c. 60. - -[573] An unknown fish. The reading is doubtful. - -[574] See B. ix. c. 66. - -[575] See B. ix. c. 66. - -[576] See B. ix. c. 40. - -[577] “Rhombus.” See B. ix. c. 36. - -[578] See B. ix. c. 29. - -[579] See B. ix. c. 36. - -[580] See B. ix. c. 30. - -[581] The same, perhaps, as the “pinnotheres” of B. ix. c. 66, a kind -of shrimp. - -[582] See Chapter 17 of this Book. - -[583] See B. ix. c. 18. - -[584] See B. ix. c. 19. - -[585] See B. ix. c. 32. - -[586] Considered by Sillig to be the same as the “Saurus” of Chapter 28 -of this Book; the “sea-lizard,” apparently. - -[587] It does not seem to have been identified; though Rondelet says -that it is the same as the _Rascasse_ of the Mediterranean. - -[588] See B. xx. c. 53, and Chapters 23, 30, 32, 34, and 35 of this -Book. - -[589] This fish has not been identified; indeed the reading is very -doubtful. - -[590] See B. ix. c. 24. - -[591] A fish similar to the preceding one, probably; some kind of -ombre, Littré thinks. - -[592] See B. ix. c. 67. - -[593] Probably the same as the “Myrus” of B. ix. c. 39. - -[594] See B. ix. c. 45. - -[595] See Chapter 30 of this Book. - -[596] See Chapter 32 of this Book. - -[597] A sort of mollusk, Littré thinks. There is a shell-fish known as -the Spondylus gæderopus of Linnæus. - -[598] See Chapters 34, 45, and 46, of this Book. - -[599] See B. ix. c. 86. - -[600] See B. ix. c. 69. - -[601] See B. ix. c. 20. - -[602] A sort of tunny, probably. - -[603] See Chapter 6 of this Book. Probably the same as the “gladius” of -this Chapter, and of B. ix. cc. 1, 21. - -[604] Considered by Littré to be the Shad. - -[605] See B. ix. c. 67. - -[606] See Chapter 30 of this Book. - -[607] See B. ix. c. 18. - -[608] See B. ix. c. 18. - -[609] See B. ix. c. 52, and Chapter 1 of this Book. - -[610] See B. ix. c. 1, and c. 49 of this Book. - -[611] See Note 603 above. - -[612] The Halieuticon, already mentioned in Chapter 5 of this Book. - -[613] At the town of Tomi, whither he was banished by Augustus Cæsar. - -[614] See B. ix. c. 24. - -[615] See B. ix. cc. 23, 77, and Chapters 31, 50, of this Book. - -[616] The same, probably, as the “iulis” mentioned in the preceding -Chapter. - -[617] The “golden brow.” The same as the “Aurata” or “dorade” of B. ix. -c. 25, and Chapters 16 and 53 of this Book. - -[618] An unknown fish; the reading is doubtful. - -[619] The “goat-fish.” It does not appear to have been identified. - -[620] Literally, the “black tail.” See the preceding Chapter. - -[621] According to Rondelet, a fish resembling the Coracinus. - -[622] See B. ix. c. 23. - -[623] See B. ix. c. 25. - -[624] See B. ix. c. 47. - -[625] See B. ix. c. 42. - -[626] See B. ix. c. 27. Ajasson is of opinion that the “helops” is the -Russian sturgeon, the “acipenser,” the common sturgeon. - -[627] Resembling a “stake” in appearance. It bee been suggested that -this is the Esox sphyræna. - -[628] “Perna.” Hardouin says that from the diminutive of this, -“pernula,” the modern word “pearl” is derived. - -[629] A sort of “tursio,” Dalechamps says. See B. ix. c. 11. - -[630] See B. iii. c. 12. - -[631] See end of B. xix. - -[632] See end of B. viii. - -[633] See end of B. xii. - -[634] See end of B. xviii. - -[635] See end of B. xii. - -[636] See end of B. ix. - -[637] According to Suetonius, Fescennius Iacchus was a grammarian who -taught in Cisalpine Gaul. See also B. xxxvii. c. 54. - -[638] See end of B. xxxi. - -[639] See end of B. v. - -[640] See end of B. xx. - -[641] See end of B. xxviii. - -[642] See end of B. xxx. - -[643] See end of B. xxxi. - -[644] See end of B. xxviii. - -[645] See end of B. ii. - -[646] See end of B. viii. - -[647] We now enter upon the Sixth division of Pliny’s work, containing -an account of mineral substances of all descriptions.—_Dr. Bostock._ - -[648] “Ipsæ opes.” The metals were looked upon by the ancients as the -only _true_ riches. It is in this sense that Ovid says, Metam. B. i.: -“Effodiuntur opes, irritamenta malorum.” Pliny applies the term “pretia -rerum” to metals, as forming the unit of value. - -[649] Electrum is described in c. 23, as gold mixed with a certain -quantity of silver. The word “electrum” is also used to signify amber, -as in B. iii. c. 30.—B. - -[650] “Æs;” by “æs” is here probably meant copper, as the author is -speaking of what is dug out of the earth; it is more fully described -in the first two Chapters of the next Book. According to the analysis -of Klaproth, the æs of the ancients, when employed in works of art, -cutting instruments, statues, vases, &c., was the “bronze” of the -moderns, a mixture of copper and tin, in which the proportion of tin -varied, from a little more than 2 to 1.14 per cent, according as the -object was to procure a flexible or a hard substance. Agricola speaks -of “æs” as synonymous with “cuprum,” and Pliny will be found several -times in the present Book, speaking of “æs Cyprium,” meaning probably -the finest kind of copper, and that without alloy.—B. - -[651] Pliny has already referred to this topic in B. ii. c. 63.—B. - -[652] Or shades below. - -[653] “Illa quæ non nascuntur repente.” - -[654] “Chrysocolla” is fully described in Chapter 26 of this Book.—B. - -[655] Meaning “gold glue,” or “gold solder.” - -[656] There is considerable variation in the text of this passage, as -found in the different editions. In that of Dalechamps, the Variorum, -and those of De Laet and Sillig, the sentence concludes with the -words “nomen ex auro custodiens;” while in those of Valpy, Lemaire, -Poinsinet, Ajasson, and others, we find substituted for them the words. -“Non natura,” “Nomen natura,” “Nomine natura,” or “Nomen naturam.”—B. -The first reading is warranted by the Bamberg MS. - -[657] “Auri sanies.” More properly speaking, “the corrupt matter -discharged by gold.” See Chapter 26. - -[658] “Minium” is treated of in Chapter 36 of this Book.—B. - -[659] “Pretia rerum.” The value of the raw material. - -[660] Pliny here refers both to the art of producing figures in relief -on drinking vessels made of the precious metals, and also of giving -them particular forms. A well-known line of Juvenal, Sat. ii. l. 96, -affords a striking illustration of the depraved taste which existed in -his time.—B. Lampridius also speaks of vessels of silver “defiled with -representations of a most libidinous character;” and Capitolinus speaks -of “phallovitroboli,” glass drinking vessels shaped like a phallus. - -[661] “Murrhina” or “myrrhina.” are described in B. xxxvii. c. 8; -they were, perhaps, onyxes or opals, though possibly the term was not -strictly confined to these substances, but signified any transparent -minerals, that exhibited a variety of colours. Salmasius, however, -ridicules the idea of their being onyxes, and is of opinion that these -vessels were made of porcelain; Exer. Plin. p. 144.—B. - -[662] See B. xxxvii. c. 9. - -[663] He alludes to the cups known as “chrysendeta,” adorned with -circlets of gold, exquisite chasings, and groups of precious stones. -See Juvenal, Sat. v. l. 42. - -[664] The “Smaragdus” is described in B. xxxvii. c. 13. - -[665] “Et aurum jam accessio est.” - -[666] “Sacrum famæ.” This is the reading given by the Bamberg MS. in -substitution for “aurum, sacra fames” and other readings of a similar -nature, in which Pliny was thought by the commentators to allude to the -famous lines of Virgil— - - “Quid non mortalia pectora cogis, Auri sacra fames!” - -Had he alluded to the passage of Virgil, it is not probable that he -would have used the expression in the plural, “celeberrimi auctores.” - -[667] Il. B. vii. ll. 472-5.—B. - -[668] Il. B. vi. l. 236. - -[669] We may infer that this was the reason why the figure of an ox or -other animal was impressed on the earliest Roman coins.—B. - -[670] As Hardouin remarks, “This story is told by others, of Gyges, -and not of Midas.” He refers to Cicero, De Off. B. iii. c. 9, in -confirmation of his assertion.—B. Both Gyges and Midas were noted for -their wealth. - -[671] “Sinistræ.” The play here upon the word “sinister” cannot be so -well transferred into the English language; but it bears reference to -the double meaning of the word, “on the left hand,” and “unlucky,” -“ill-omened,” or, as we say “sinister.” We may remark, that rings were -very generally employed by the Romans, not merely as ornaments, but as -indications of office and rank.—B. - -[672] From Corinth, it was said: Damaratus of Corinth being the father -of the first Tarquin. See B. xxxv. c. 5. - -[673] On the subject of “Bullæ,” golden balls, worn by the children of -the nobles, see Dr. Smith’s Dict. Antiq. p. 168.—B. - -[674] As to the “Toga prætexta,” see B. viii. c. 74. - -[675] “Lorum.” This word literally signifies a leather strap or thong, -and Pliny is supposed by Hardouin to mean simply, that, in this latter -case the strap was worn without the bulla, which was in other cases -attached to it. Juvenal, Sat. v. l. 164, speaks of the “lorum” of the -children of the poor.—B. - -[676] Δακτύλιον, from δάκτυλος, a “finger.” - -[677] Festus says that this was the Oscan name for a ring. It would -appear to be allied to the word “unguis,” which means a nail of the -finger or toe, and would perhaps signify a “nail ornament.” - -[678] As meaning a seal or signet, for which purpose, as we shall find -explained in the sequel, the ring was used. - -[679] This seems to be the meaning of “Vulgoque sic triumphabant.” - -[680] As to these crowns, see B. xxi. c. 4. - -[681] As to some other particulars connected with this usage, see the -end of B. xxviii. c. 7. - -[682] And yet, as Hardouin remarks, before his time, when Scipio was -besieging Carthage, the bodies of the Roman tribunes, when selected for -burial by Hasdrubal, were distinguished by their rings of gold. The -object of Marius, no doubt, was to ingratiate himself with the upper -classes. - -[683] A.U.C. 651. - -[684] Known as the “anulus pronubus,” or “engaged ring,” according to -Dalechamps. - -[685] “Codicillos.” Il. B. vi. l. 168. - -[686] See B. xiii. c. 21. - -[687] Od. B. viii. ll. 424, 443, 447. - -[688] See the Iliad, B. iii. and B. vii. l. 175, _et seq._ - -[689] His meaning is, that although κληρὸι were used, lots or -balls made of earth, we do not read that the impressions on them were -made by the aid of signet-rings. - -[690] “Fabricæ deûm.” He alludes to the forge of Vulcan, described in -the Eighteenth Book of the Iliad, l. 400, _et seq._ - -[691] This seems to be the meaning of “In primordio factitâsse.” - -[692] The “fibulæ” were the brooches of the ancients, consisting of a -pin, and of a curved portion furnished with a hook. See Dr. Smith’s -Dict. Antiq. p. 417. - -[693] As the meaning of this passage has been the subject of much -discussion with commentators, we give it in full, as found in the -Edition of Sillig. “Et quisquis primus instituit, cunctanter id fecit, -lævis manibus latentibusque induit, cum, si honos securus fuisset, -dextrâ fuerit ostentandus. Quodsi impedimentum potuit in eo aliquod -intelligi, etiam serior is usus argumentum est, et majus in lævâ -fuisset, quâ scutum capitur.” Sillig is of opinion that Pliny is here -alluding to the reason given by Ateius Capito (quoted in Macrobius, -Saturn. B. vii. c. 13), for wearing the ring on the left hand. It was -so worn, he says, from an apprehension that the precious stone with -which it was set, might receive injury from the continual use made of -the right hand. - -[694] Under the folds of the toga. - -[695] Il. B. xvii. l. 52. - -[696] The reading in most MSS. is the “fourth consulship.” This, -however, is an error which has been rectified by the Bamberg and some -other MSS. Pompey was but _thrice_ consul. M. Crassus was the person -generally accused of the act of robbery here alluded to. - -[697] Who took the golden torc (torques) from the Gaul whom he slew; -whence his name. - -[698] “Cum auro pugnare solitos.” - -[699] “Quod equidem in augurio intellectum est, cum Capitolinus duplum -reddidisset.” The meaning of this passage is obscure, and cannot -with certainty be ascertained. Holland renders it, “To the light -and knowledge whereof we come by means of revelation from Augurie, -which gave us to understand, that Jupiter Capitolinus had rendered -again the foresaid summe in duple proportion.” Littré gives a similar -translation. Ajasson translates it, “This, at least, is what we may -presume, from the fact of there being discovered double the amount -expected;” following the explanation given by Hardouin. - -[700] The “ædituus,” or “temple keeper.” See B. xxxvi. 4. - -[701] Beneath which there was poison concealed, Hardouin says. Hannibal -killed himself in a similar manner; also Demosthenes, as mentioned in -the next Chapter. - -[702] The adopted son of the great Marius. This event happened in his -consulship, B.C. 82. After his defeat by Sylla at Sacriportus, he -retired into the fortified town of Præneste, where he had deposited -the treasures of the Capitoline temple. The temple, after this -conflagration, was rebuilt by order of Sylla. - -[703] Called the “Fasti;” probably because this was the first word of -the title. - -[704] “Dies fasti.” These were the days on which the courts sat, and -the Prætor, who was the chief judge, gave his decisions. The word -“fasti” is derived from the ancient Latin “for,” or from the old -Greek word φάω, both signifying “to speak:” consequently the -“dies fasti” were “the speaking days,” and the “dies nefasti” the -“non-speaking days,” in allusion to the restrictions put upon the -judgments of the Prætor. - -[705] This complex state of the Roman Calendar long remained one of -the sources from which the priesthood and the patrician order derived -their power and influence over the plebeians. Having no other method of -ascertaining what days were “fasti,” and what were “nefasti,” the lower -classes were obliged either to apply to the priests and nobles for -information, or to await the proclamation by the priests of the various -festivals about to take place. - -[706] Appius Claudius Cæcus, the Censor and jurisconsult, who -constructed the Appian Way. - -[707] A.U.C. 440, or B.C. 314. - -[708] In the war, probably, with the twelve nations of Etruria, who -were conquered by the Consul Fabius A.U.C. 444. See Livy, B. ix. - -[709] The father of the former C. Pœtilius Libo, was Consul A.U.C. 428: -the father of the latter, Cneius Domitius Calvinus, was Consul A.U.C. -432. - -[710] “Anulos abjectos.” - -[711] The “phaleræ” were bosses of metal, often gold, attached to the -harness of the horse. See B. vii. c. 29. - -[712] He would probably imply hereby that, as he states subsequently, -at this period gold rings were not as yet worn by _all_ the members of -the senate. - -[713] A.U.C. 449. - -[714] “Ædiculam æream”—of brass or bronze. - -[715] For the explanation of this term, see B. vii. c. 60. - -[716] See B. x. c. 2. Livy tells us that this shrine or temple was -built in the area or place of Vulcan. - -[717] Livy, B. xxiii. speaks of _one_ modius as being the real -quantity. Florus, B. ii. c. 16, says _two_ modii: but Saint Augustin, -De Civit. Dei. B. iii. c. 19, and most other writers, mention _three_ -modii. - -[718: Q. Servilius Cæpio. He and M. Livins Drusus had been most -intimate friends, and each had married the other’s sister. The -assassination of Drusus was supposed by some to have been committed at -the instigation of Cæpio. The latter lost his life in an ambush, B.C. -90. - -[719: See B. xxviii. c. 41. - -[720: See B. ii. c. 85. - -[721: M. Calpurnius Flamma. See B. xxii. c. 6. - -[722: A patrician family; branches of which were the Cincinnati, the -Capitolini, the Crispini, and the Flaminini. - -[723: This is an erroneous assertion, both as to the East, and as to -Egypt. See instances to the contrary in Genesis, c. xli. v. 42; and in -Esther, c. iii. verses 10, 12, and c. viii. verses 2, 8, 10. - -[724: “Literis contenta solis.” - -[725: The Thirty-seventh Book. See also his remarks in B. ii. c. 63: -“We tear out earth’s entrails in order to extract the gems with which -we may load our fingers. How many hands are worn down that one little -joint may be ornamented!” Martial, Epigr. B. v. Ep. 11, speaks of -his friend Stella as wearing on the joint of one finger sardonyxes, -emeralds, and jaspers. - -[726] “Violari.” See B. xxxvii. c. 1. - -[727] A fashion much followed at the present day. - -[728] This also is a not uncommon fashion at the present day. - -[729] From the “Trinummus” of Plautus, A. iv. s. 4, we learn that the -ring worn by slaves was called “condalium.” From the “Truculentus” of -Plautus we learn also that these rings were sometimes made of bronze. -The “jus anuli,” or right of wearing a gold ring, was never conceded to -slaves. - -[730] See B. iv. c. 23. In the Origines of Isidorus Hispalensis, B. -xix. c. 32, we find mention made of “A Samothracian gold ring, with -an iron bezil, so called from the place of its invention.” Pliny has -already made allusion to the luxurious habits of the slaves, in B. -xiii. c. 4; and B. xviii. c. 2; a subject upon which Juvenal enlarges -in his Third Satire. - -[731] The reasons are mentioned by Ateius Capita, as quoted by -Macrobius, Saturnal. B. vii. c. 13: also by Apion the Grammarian, as -quoted by Aulus Gellius, B. x. c. 10. - -[732] The ring of each finger had its own appropriate name. - -[733] The “dactyliotheca,” or “ring-box.” - -[734] Juvenal, Sat. i. l. 26, _et seq._, speaks of the summer rings of -the Roman fops, and their fingers sweating beneath the weight. - -[735] Martial, Epigr. B. xiv., speaks of the numerous accidents to -which a weighty ring was liable. - -[736] Hannibal, too, for instance, as mentioned in Note 701 to the -preceding Chapter. - -[737] He alludes, probably, to forgeries perpetrated through the agency -of false signets. - -[738] Plautus, Cicero, Horace, and Martial, each in his own age, bears -testimony to the truth of this statement. - -[739] Or remembrancer; a slave whose duty it was to remind his master -of the name of each member of his household; see B. xxix. c. 8. -Athenæus, B. vi., speaks of as many as twenty thousand slaves belonging -to one household. Demetrius, the freedman of Pompey, mentioned in B. -xxxv. c. 58, had a retinue of slaves equal to an army in amount. - -[740] Meaning “Marci puer,” or “Luci puer”—“Marcius’ boy,” or “Lucius’ -boy.” - -[741] Suetonius says, c. 73, that Tiberius, in his last illness, -awoke after a long lethargy, and demanded his signet-ring, which -his son-in-law, Caligula, had removed from his finger, under the -supposition that he was dead. Macro, to avoid any unpleasant results -in the way of punishment, caused the emperor to be smothered with the -pillows and bedclothes. - -[742] This famous and somewhat improbable story of the ring of -Polycrates is told by Valerius Maximus, B. vi. c. 9; Herodotus, B. -iii.; and Cicero, De Finibus, B. iv. Pliny again mentions it in B. -xxxvii. cc. 2, 4. - -[743] He was crucified by Oroetes, the Persian satrap of Sardis. - -[744] “Anulo exsiliente.” - -[745] In Chapter 13 of this Book. - -[746] The laticlave tunic. See B. viii. c. 73, and B. ix. c. 63. - -[747] “Præcones.” - -[748] See the list of writers at the end of B. ix. - -[749] “Equus militaris.” - -[750] See B. xxix. c. 8. The “Decuriæ” of “judices,” or “judges,” were -so called, probably, from ten (decem) having been originally chosen -from each tribe. As to the Decuriæ of the judices, see Smith’s Dict. -Antiq. pp. 531-2. The account given by Pliny is confused in the extreme. - -[751] “Turmæ.” Squadrons of thirty “equites” or horsemen; ten of which -squadrons were attached to each legion. - -[752] Before the time of Augustus, there were but _three_ decuries. - -[753] A law introduced by Aurelius Cotta, B.C. 70, enacted that the -Judices should be chosen from the three classes—of Senators, Equites, -and Tribuni ærarii, or Tribunes of the treasury, these last being -taken from the body of the people, and being persons possessed of some -property. - -[754] Members selected by lot. - -[755] “Nongenti.” - -[756] Tacitus says that this took place the year before, in the -consulship of C. Sulpicius, and D. Haterius. See the Annales, B. iii. -c. 86. - -[757] Brother of the Emperor Galba. - -[758] “Aucupatus.” - -[759] Suetonius says that Tiberius instructed the ædiles to prohibit -stews and eating-houses: from which we may conclude, Hardouin says, -that C. Sulpicius Galba was an ædile. - -[760] Or, in other words, belonging to the equestrian order. The Roman -equites often followed the pursuits of bankers, and farmers of the -public revenues. - -[761] A law passed in the time of Julius Cæsar, B.C. 69, which -permitted Roman equites, in case they or their parents had ever had a -Census equestris, to sit in the fourteen rows fixed by the Lex Roscia -Theatralis. - -[762] Caligula. - -[763] Conjointly with L. Vitellius. - -[764] Or farmers of the public revenues; the “publicans” of Scripture. -In reality, they were mostly members of the equestrian order, and the -words “equites” and “publicani” are often used as synonymous. - -[765] “This passage seems to be the addition of some ignorant copyist. -It is indeed a remarkable fact, that we have _no_ inscription in -which we see the Equites named _after_ the people as well as the -Senate.”—Laboulaye, _Essai sur les lois Criminelles des Romains_: -Paris, 1845, p. 224. - -[766] According to Livy, B. i. c. 15, the Celeres were three hundred -Roman knights whom Romulus established as a body-guard. Their name, -probably, was derived from the Greek κέλης, a “war-horse,” -or “charger,” and the body consisted, no doubt, of the patricians in -general, or such of them as could keep horses. Another origin assigned -to the appellation is “Celer,” the name of a chieftain, who was a -favourite of Romulus. The adjective “celer,” “swift,” owes its origin, -probably, to the title of these horsemen. - -[767] A title derived, possibly, as Delafosse suggests, “a flectendis -habenis,” from “managing the reins.” - -[768] Called “Trossum” or “Trossulum,” it is supposed. The remains of -a town are still to be seen at Trosso, two miles from Montefiascone in -Tuscany. The Greek word τρωξαλλὶς, a “cricket,” and the Latin -“torosulus,” “muscular,” have been suggested as the origin of this -name. Ajasson suggests the Latin verb “truso,” to “push on,” as its -origin. - -[769] See the end of this Book. - -[770] From the ambiguous nature of the name, it being in later times -an expression of contempt, like our word “fop,” or “beau.” In this -latter sense, Salmasius derives it from the Greek τρυσσὸς, -“effeminate.” - -[771] This concluding passage is omitted in most editions. - -[772] See B. vii. c. 29. - -[773] Dionysius of Halicarnassus is therefore probably wrong in his -assertion that torcs of _gold_ were given to Siccius Dentatus, a Roman -citizen, as the reward of valour. - -[774] See B. vii, c. 29. - -[775] On this subject, see B. xvi. c. 3, and B. xxi. c. i. - -[776] A.U.C. 323, or 431 B.C. - -[777] Situate about fourteen miles from Rome, and on the road to the -town called La Colonna. - -[778] A.U.C. 479, and B.C. 275. In the following year Merenda himself -was consul, with Manius Curius Dentatus. - -[779] “Testamento prælegavit.” Properly speaking, “prælegare” was “to -bequeath a thing to be given before the inheritance was divided.” The -crown thus left by Piso was to be three pounds in weight. - -[780] Oxen, namely. The smaller victims had the head encircled with -chaplets. - -[781] The clasps by which the “sagum” or military cloak was fastened on -the shoulders. - -[782] See the beginning of Chapter 4 of the present Book. - -[783] Isidorus Hispalensis, Orig. B. xix. c. 30, says that bracelets -were formerly so called from the circumstance of being conferred on -warriors as the reward of bravery—“ob virtutem.” Scævola, Ulpian, and -others speak of “viriolæ” as ornaments worn by females. - -[784] See B. xxxvii. c. 6. - -[785] In allusion to the use of gold as an ornament for the shoes and -sandal-ties. - -[786] A dress worn over the tunic, and which came as low as the ankles -or feet. The stola was the characteristic dress of the Roman matrons of -rank; other females being restricted to the use of the toga, which did -not reach so low. - -[787] Between the matrons of rank whose feet were not to be seen -at all, and the plebeian females, whose feet _were_ seen, but -comparatively unadorned. - -[788] In the same way that the gold ring was the distinguishing mark of -the Equites, so would the gold ankle-jewels be the characteristic of -this new order of females. In the use of the word “Equestrem,” Ajasson -absolutely detects an indelicate allusion, and rallies our author on -thus retaining “the aroma of the camp!” - -[789] “Pædagogiis.” The origin of our word “page.” The pages of the -Romans were decorated with gold ankle-jewels and other ornaments for -the legs. - -[790] Or Horus, the god of silence. Ajasson is of opinion that this -impression on the seal was symbolical of the secrecy which ought to be -preserved as to written communications. - -[791] To the Emperor’s presence. - -[792] The _first_ crime having been committed by him who introduced the -use of gold rings. See the beginning of c. 4 of this Book. - -[793] The golden denarius was known also as the “aureus” or “gold -coin.” It was worth 25 silver denarii. As to the modern value of the -money used by the ancients, see the Introduction to Vol. III. The -golden denarius is mentioned also in B. xxxiv. c. 17, and in B. xxxvii. -c. 3. - -[794] A.U.C. 479. - -[795] Meaning, literally, the “little pound,” in reference to the -diminished weight of the “as.” - -[796] Meaning “two pounds,” or in other words, “two asses.” See B. -xxxiv. c. 2. As to the weight of the “libra,” or pound, see the -Introduction to Vol. III. - -[797] “Brasse bullion, or in masse.”—_Holland._ - -[798] “Money weighed out,” _i.e._ “expenses.” - -[799] “Money weighed out for the payment of interest.” - -[800] “To weigh out money for payment,” _i.e._ “to pay.” - -[801] “A weight of money.” - -[802] “Weighers-out;” meaning “keepers of accounts,” or “paymasters.” - -[803] “Weighers-out” of the soldiers’ wages; _i.e._ “paymasters.” - -[804] From “pecus,” a sheep. See B. xviii. c. 3. - -[805] “Pounds” or “asses.” - -[806] The third of an “as.” - -[807] The fourth of an “as.” - -[808] Or ounces; being one-fourth of the “as,” of one “libra” in -weight. See Introduction to Vol. III. - -[809] A.U.C. 663. - -[810] The same as the quinarius, one-half of the denarius. In B. xx. c. -100, it is mentioned as a weight. See also the Introduction to Vol. III. - -[811] As, originally, there were 288 “scripula,” or scruples, to the -“libra” or pound, this would appear to give 5760 sestertii to the -pound of gold, and not 900 merely. Though this apparent discrepancy -has generally puzzled the commentators, the solution, as suggested by -M. Parisot, in the Notes to Ajasson’s Translation, appears equally -simple and satisfactory. He suggests that in the “as,” or “libra,” of -_two ounces_, there were 288 scruples. Now, the scruple remaining the -same, when the as or libra was reduced to one ounce, it would contain -but 144 of these scruples. Then, on making the as the sixteenth part -of a denarius instead of the tenth, it would lose three-eighths of its -value in scruples, or in other words, 54 scruples, thus making it worth -but 90 scruples. Then again, as above stated, by the Papirian Law, the -weight or value of the libra or as was reduced one-half, making its -value in scruples only 45; or, in other words, five thirty-seconds of -its original value, when worth two unciæ or ounces. This number of -scruples to the libra would give, at the rate of twenty sesterces to -the scruple of gold, exactly 900 sesterces to the libra of gold. - -[812] Or “aurei.” - -[813] “Fames auri.” Similar to the words of Virgil, “Auri sacra fames.” -“The curst greed for gold.” See Note 666 to Chapter 3 of this Book. - -[814] Another version of this story was, that he extracted the brain, -and inserted lead in its place. - -[815] See B. xiv. c. 16. - -[816] In B.C. 88, M. Aquilius proceeded to Asia Minor as one of the -consular legati to prosecute the war against Mithridates. On being -defeated near Protomachium, he was delivered up to Mithridates by the -inhabitants of Mytilene, and after being treated in the most barbarous -manner, was put to death by pouring molten gold down his throat. - -[817] “Insperso.” Sillig is of opinion that Pliny is here speaking -of the work now known by Italian artists as _tausia_ or _lavoro all’ -agemina_. - -[818] Hardouin thinks that Pliny is here making allusion to the Greek -word “chrysendeta,” vessels “encircled with gold.” It is frequently -used in Martial’s works. - -[819] See B. xv. c. 38. - -[820] It is against such practices as these that Martial inveighs, B. -i. Ep. 28, and B. ix. Ep. 12. - -[821] A slave only; and not by any of his brother patricians. Antony -was rendered infamous by his proscriptions. - -[822] Appian and Livy mention the fine as consisting of ten thousand -talents _in all_, or in other words, eight hundred thousand pounds of -silver (at eighty pounds to the talent). Sillig is therefore of opinion -that Pliny is in error here in inserting the word “annua.” The payment -of the ten thousand talents, we learn from the same authorities, was -spread over fifty years. - -[823] Asia Minor. - -[824] “Folia.” Hardouin prefers the reading “solia,” meaning “thrones,” -or “chairs of state,” probably. - -[825] Ajasson refuses to place credit in this statement. - -[826] This vase of Semiramis was her drinking bowl, in much the same -sense that the great cannon at Dover was Queen Elizabeth’s “pocket -pistol.” - -[827] The country to which, in previous times, the Argonauts had sailed -in quest of the Golden Fleece, or in other words in search of gold, in -which those regions were probably very prolific. - -[828] See B. vi. c. 4. - -[829] This story of the defeat of the great Ramses-Sesostris by a petty -king of Colchis, would almost appear apocryphal. It is not improbable, -however, that Sesostris, when on his Thracian expedition, may have -received a repulse on penetrating further north, accustomed as his -troops must have been, to a warmer climate. - -[830] Of the amphitheatre. - -[831] Covered, probably, with plates of silver. - -[832] “Pegma.” A scaffold with storeys, which were raised or depressed, -to all appearance, spontaneously. Caligula is the emperor meant. - -[833] Another reading is “seven” pounds in weight, and “nine” pounds; -which would appear to be more probable than seven _thousand_, and nine -_thousand_, as given by the Bamberg MS. It is just possible, however, -that the latter may have been the united weights of _all_ the coronets -contributed by Spain and Gaul respectively, the word “inter” being an -interpolation. - -[834] See B. iv. c. 31, B. xi. c. 47, and B. xviii. c. 20. - -[835] Hence known as the “Golden Day,” according to Dion Cassius, B. -lxiii. - -[836] For further particulars as to the Golden Palace, see B. xxxvi. c. -24. - -[837] A.U.C. 597. - -[838] Or Marsic War. See B. ii. c. 85. - -[839] There is an error in this statement, probably, unless we -understand by it the small libra or pound of two ounces, mentioned in -c. 13 of this Book. - -[840] This remark is confirmatory of the incorrectness of the preceding -statement. - -[841] The reading here is doubtful. - -[842] A.U.C. 612. - -[843] See B. xix. c. 6. - -[844] Chapter 57. - -[845] In fact, no colour at all. - -[846] In _this_ climate, the light of most of the stars has the -complexion, not of gold, but of silver. - -[847] The topaz, for instance. - -[848] For ductility and malleability, both which terms may perhaps be -included in the “facilitas” of Pliny, gold is unrivalled among the -metals. As to weight, it is heavier than lead, the specific gravity of -gold being 19.258, and that of lead 11.352. Pliny is therefore wrong in -both of these assertions. - -[849] He forgets asbestus here, a substance which he has mentioned in -B. xix. c. 4. - -[850] Chlorine, however, and nitro-muriatic acid corrode and dissolve -gold, forming a chloride of gold, which is soluble in water. Ajasson -remarks, that gold becomes volatilized by the heat of a burning-glass -of three or four feet in diameter; and that when it acts as the -conductor of a strong current of electricity, it becomes reduced to -dust instantaneously, presenting a bright greenish light. - -[851] The gold thus tested was called “obrussum,” “obryzum,” or -“obrizum,” from the Greek ὄβρυζον, meaning “pure gold.” - -[852] See B. xviii. c. 23, where he calls the chaff used for this -purpose by the name of “acus.” - -[853] The present mode of assaying the precious metals, is by fusing -them upon a cupel with lead. - -[854] For which purpose, lead was used, no doubt, in drawing the lines -in the MSS. of the ancients. See Beckmann’s Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 339. -_Bohn’s Ed._ - -[855] This is far surpassed at the present day, its malleability being -such that it may be beaten into leaves not more than one two hundred -and eighty thousandth of an inch in thickness, and its ductility -admitting of one grain being drawn out into five hundred feet of wire. -For further particulars as to the gold leaf of the ancients, and the -art of gilding, as practised by them, see Beckmann’s Hist. Inv. Vol. -II. p. 391, _et seq._ _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[856] See B. xxxvi. c. 64. - -[857] He alludes to what are now known as _pepitas_, oval grains of -river-gold. “Striges” is the reading in the Bamberg MS., “strigiles” in -the former editions. - -[858] “Massa.” As we should say at the present day, “nuggets.” - -[859] “Ramentum.” - -[860] The contrary is now known to be the case; gold is sometimes, -though rarely, found in an oxidized state. - -[861] As to the solvents of gold, see Note 850 above. Stahl says that -three parts of sub-carbonate of potash, dissolved in water, and heated -with three parts of sulphur and one part of gold, will yield a complete -solution of the metal. - -[862] Aldrovandus relates, in his “Museum Metallicum,” that the grave -of the Emperor Honorius was discovered at Rome about the year 1544, -and that thirty-six pounds’ weight of gold were procured from the -mouldering dress that covered the body. See, on the subject of gold -threads, Beckmann’s Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 415. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[863] The “cloth of gold” of the present day, is made of threads of -silk or hair, wound round with silver wire flattened and gilded. - -[864] “Paludamento.” - -[865] See B. viii. c. 74. Beckmann is of opinion, from a passage -of Silius Italicus, B. xiv. l. 661, that the cloth of Attalus was -embroidered with the needle. See this subject fully discussed in his -Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 415. See also Dr. Yates’s “Textrinum Antiquorum,” -pp. 371, 464. - -[866] “Without entering into any research respecting the minerals -employed for this cement, called ‘leucophoron,’ one may readily -conceive that it must have been a ferruginous ochre, or kind of -bole, which is still used as a ground. Gilding of this kind must -have suffered from dampness, though many specimens of it are still -preserved.”—Beckmann’s Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 294. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[867] B. xxxv. c. 17. - -[868] Literally, “fluid silver.” “The first name here seems to signify -native quicksilver, and the second that separated from the ore by an -artificial process.” Beckmann’s Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 72. - -[869] In Chapters 32 and 41 of this Book. - -[870] As to the identity of the “alumen” of Pliny, see B. xxxv. c. 52. - -[871] In the preceding Chapter. - -[872] See B. xi. c. 36. - -[873] See B. vii. c. 2. - -[874] See B. iv. c. 17. - -[875] Ajasson remarks, that the Castilians still call the surface earth -of auriferous deposits by the name of _segullo_. He also doubts the -correctness of Pliny’s assertion as to the produce of the mines of -Dalmatia. - -[876] See B. xxxiv. c. 47. - -[877] We learn from Ajasson that numerous pits or shafts are still to -be seen in Spain, from which the Romans extracted gold. At Riotento, he -says, there are several of them. - -[878] Both meaning “channel gold.” - -[879] “Marmoris glareæ.” Under this name, he no doubt means quartz and -schist. - -[880] See B. xxxvii. c. 39. - -[881] See B. xxxvi. c. 13. - -[882] “Channel-gold” or “trench-gold.” - -[883] Becoming volatilized, and attaching itself in crystals to the -side of the chimney. - -[884] Or “sweat.” This “sweat” or “silver” would in reality be a -general name for all the minerals that were volatilized by the heat -of the furnace; while under the name of “scoria ” would be comprised -pyrites, quartz, petrosilex, and other similar substances. - -[885] The cupel or crucible is still known in Spain by the name of -_tasco_. - -[886] Who were said to have heaped one mountain on another in their war -with the gods. - -[887] Deep mines in Spain are still called _arrugia_, a term also used -to signify gold beneath the surface. According to Grimm, _arruzi_ was -the ancient High German name for iron. - -[888] See B. xxiii. c. 27. - -[889] The breaking-machines, used for crushing the silex. - -[890] “Cædunt” is certainly a preferable reading to “cadunt,” though -the latter is given by the Bamberg MS. - -[891] A similar method of washing auriferous earth or sand in the -mines, is still employed in some cases. - -[892] “The bringing of water into one channel.” - -[893] Or as Holland quaintly renders it, “Some flying spirit or winged -devill of the air.” - -[894] Magnesian carbonate of lime, or dolomite, Ajasson thinks. - -[895] From the Greek, ἀγωγὴ. - -[896] It does not appear to have been identified; and it can hardly be -the same as the Ulex Europæus of modern Natural History, our Furze or -Gorse. - -[897] That of sinking shafts, described already in this Chapter. - -[898] All these names, no doubt, are of Spanish origin, although -Salmasius would assign them a Greek one. - -[899] In B. iii. c. 24. - -[900] See B. iii. c. 21. - -[901] “Auripigmentum.” Yellow sulphuret of arsenic. See B. xxxiv. c. 56. - -[902] “Lapis specularis.” See B. xxxvi. c. 45. - -[903] Caligula. - -[904] It was accidently mixed with the ore of arsenic, no doubt, -unless, indeed, the emperor was imposed upon. - -[905] This is almost, but not quite, universally the case. - -[906] In Spain. See B. iii. c. 4, B. iv. c. 34, and B. ix. c. 2. The -locality alluded to is now unknown. - -[907] A name also given by the ancients to amber. Artificial -“electrum,” or gold alloyed with silver, was known in the most ancient -times. - -[908] The gold found by sinking shafts. See Chapter 21. - -[909] See B. ix. c. 65. - -[910] Od. B. iv. l. 71. - -[911] Pliny no doubt has been imposed upon in this instance. - -[912] “Solid hammer-work,” in opposition to works in metal, cast and -hollow within. - -[913] In B. v. c. 20, most probably. See also B. xvi. c. 64. - -[914] The worship of Anaïtis was probably a branch of the Indian -worship of Nature. The Greek writers sometimes identify this goddess -with their Artemis and their Aphrodite. - -[915] Holland has strangely mistaken the meaning of the veteran’s -reply; “Yea, sir, that it is; and that methinks you should know best, -for even now a leg of his you have at supper, and all _your_ wealth -besides is come unto _you_ by that saccage.” He then adds, by way of -Note, “For Augustus Cæsar defeited Antonie, and was mightily enriched -by the spoile of him.” - -[916] In Sicily. According to Valerius Maximus and other writers, -a statue of solid gold was erected by the whole of Greece, in the -temple at Delphi, in honour of Gorgias, who was distinguished for his -eloquence and literary attainments. The leading opinion of Gorgias was, -that nothing had any real existence. - -[917] The ninetieth Olympiad, about the year 420 B.C., is much more -probably the correct reading; as it was about the seventieth Olympiad, -or somewhat later, that Gorgias was born. - -[918] See B. xxxiv. c. 29. - -[919] See B. xxix. c. 38. and B. xxxvi. cc. 37, 38. - -[920] Or gith. See B. xx. c. 71. - -[921] Similar to the notion still prevalent, that the application of -pure gold will remove styes on the eyelids. - -[922] It has been supposed by some, that the “Chrysocolla” of the -ancients, as well as the “Cæruleum,” mentioned in c. 57 of this Book, -were the produce of cobalt; but the more generally received opinion is -that “chrysocolla” (gold-solder) was green verditer, or mountain-green, -carbonate and hydrocarbonate of copper, green and blue, substances -which are sometimes found in gold mines, but in copper mines more -particularly. It must not be confounded with the modern chrysocolla or -Borax. - -[923] In Chapter 21 of this Book. - -[924] The “Reseda luteola,” Dyer’s weed, or Wild woad. See Beckmann’s -Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 478-481, where the identity of the Chrysocolla of -the ancients is discussed at considerable length. - -[925] As to the identity of this substance, see B. xxxv. c. 52. - -[926] These drugs have not been identified. - -[927] “Elutam.” Though this is the reading given by the Bamberg MS., -“luteam” seems preferable; a name owing, probably, to its being -coloured with the plant “lutum,” as mentioned at the end of this -Chapter. - -[928] So called, probably, from being made up into little balls -resembling the “orobus” or vetch. - -[929] A powder, probably, prepared from “cæruleum.” See the end of the -present Chapter, and Chapter 57 of this Book. Littré renders the words -“in lomentum,” kept “in the form of powder,” without reference to the -peculiar pigment known as “lomentum.” - -[930] “Sudore resolutis.” - -[931] A strong proof that chrysocolla was a preparation from copper, -and not cobalt. Copper owes its name to the Isle of Cyprus, in which -it was found in great abundance. See Beckmann’s Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. -480. _Bohn’s Edition_. - -[932] The colour now known by painters as Emerald green. - -[933] As a “trigarius.” See B. xxviii. c. 72, and B. xxix. c. 5. From -Suetonius, c. 18, we learn that the Emperor Caligula, also, had the -Circus sanded with minium and chrysocolla. Ajasson is of opinion that -the chrysocolla thus employed was a kind of yellow mica or talc. - -[934] “Arenosam.” He alludes, probably, to the kind previously -mentioned as “aspera” or “rough chrysocolla.” - -[935] For its identification, see B. xxxiv. cc. 26, 32. - -[936] See B. xxxv. cc. 12, 18. - -[937] Making a spurious kind of “lomentum,” possibly, a pigment -mentioned in c. 57 of this Book. This passage seems to throw some -light, upon the words “in lomentum,” commented upon in Note 929 above. - -[938] As to durability, probably. - -[939] It was the mineral, probably, in an unprepared state. - -[940] Gold-glue or gold-solder. - -[941] See B. xxxi. c. 46, as to the “nitrum” of Pliny. Galen, in -describing the manufacture of “santerna,” omits the nitre as an -ingredient. - -[942] “Argentosum.” The “electrum,” probably, mentioned in c. 23. - -[943] As to the “cadmia” of Pliny, see B. xxxiv. c. 22. - -[944] “Plumbum album.” Tin, most probably. See B. xxxiv. cc. 47, 48, -49. Also Beckmann’s Hist. Inv., Vol. II. p. 219, _Bohn’s Edition_. - -[945] Of doubtful identity. See B. xxxiv. c. 48. - -[946] See Chapter 19 of this Book. - -[947] “Thracius lapis.” This stone, which is mentioned also by -Nicander, Galen, Simplicius, and Dioscorides, has not been identified. -Holland has the following Note on this passage] “Which some take for -pit-cole, or sea-cole rather, such as commeth from Newcastle by sea; or -rather, a kind of jeat (jet).” In either case, he is probably wide of -the mark, neither coal nor jet igniting on the application of water. - -[948] Or mistletoe. - -[949] In due succession to gold. - -[950] See B. xxxiv. cc. 47, 53. - -[951] “Plumbum nigrum”—“Black lead,” literally] so called by the -ancients, in contradistinction to “plumbum album,” “white lead,” our -“tin,” probably. - -[952] Lead ore; identified with “molybdæna” in B. xxxiv. c. 53. Native -sulphurate of lead is now known as “galena.” See Beckmann’s Hist. Inv. -Vol. II. p. 211, where this passage is commented upon. - -[953] This Beckmann considers to be the same as the “galena” above -mentioned; half-vitrified lead, the “glätte” of the Germans. - -[954] The specific gravity of lead is 11.352, and of silver only 10.474. - -[955] From the words μετ’ ἄλλα, “one after another.” - -[956] It is supposed that these shafts were in the neighbourhood of -Castulo, now Cazlona, near Linares in Spain. It was at Castulo that -Hannibal married his rich wife Himilce; and in the hills north of -Linares there are ancient silver mines still known its _Los Pozos de -Anibal._ - -[957] A mile and a half. - -[958] The proper reading here, as suggested by Sillig, is not -improbably “aquatini,” “water-carriers.” That, however, found in the -MSS. is “Aquitani;” but those were a people, not of Spain, but of Gaul. -Hardouin suggests that “Accitani” may be the correct reading, a people -of that name in Spain being mentioned in B. iii. c. 5. - -[959] Meaning “raw” silver, apparently. - -[960] “Alumen.” See B. xxxv. c. 52. - -[961] Kircher speaks of this being still the case in his time. - -[962] See Chapter 19 of this Book. - -[963] “Vomica liquoris æterni.” Mercury or quicksilver becomes -solidified and assumes a crystalline texture at 40° below zero. It -is found chiefly in the state of sulphuret, which is decomposed by -distillation with iron or lime. It is also found in a native state. - -[964] “Argentum vivum,” “living silver.” - -[965] Ajasson thinks that this is not to be understood literally, but -that Pliny’s meaning is, that mercury is a universal dissolvent. - -[966] “Permanans tabe dirâ.” - -[967] The specific gravity of mercury is 13.598, that of hammered gold -19.361. Platinum is only a recent discovery. - -[968] “Id unum ad se trahit.” - -[969] “The first use of quicksilver is commonly reckoned a Spanish -invention, discovered about the middle of the sixteenth century; but it -appears from Pliny, that the ancients were acquainted with amalgam and -its use, not only for separating gold and silver from earthy particles, -but also for gilding.”—Beckmann, Hist. Inv., Vol. I. p. 15. _Bohn’s -Edition._ - -[970] See the description of the mode of gilding, given in Chapter -20 of this Book. Beckmann has the following remarks on the present -passage: “That gold-leaf was affixed to metals by means of quicksilver, -with the assistance of heat, in the time of Pliny, we are told by -himself in more passages than one. The metal to be gilded was prepared -by salts of every kind, and rubbed with pumice-stone in order to clean -it thoroughly (see Chapter 20), and to render the surface a little -rough. This process is similar to that used at present for gilding with -amalgam, by means of heat, especially as amalgamation was known to the -ancients. But, to speak the truth, Pliny says nothing of heating the -metal _after_ the gold is applied, or of evaporating the quicksilver, -but of drying the cleaned metal before the gold is laid on. Had he -not mentioned quicksilver, his gilding might have been considered -as that with gold leaf by means of heat, _dorure en feuille à feu_, -in which the gold is laid upon the metal after it has been cleaned -and heated, and strongly rubbed with blood-stone, or polished steel. -Felibien (_Principes de l’Architecture._ Paris, 1676, p. 280) was -undoubtedly right when he regretted that the process of the ancients, -the excellence of which is proved by remains of antiquity, has been -lost.”—Hist. Inv. Vol. II. pp. 294, 295. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[971] Beckmann finds considerable difficulties in this description—“I -acknowledge that this passage I do not fully comprehend. It seems -to say that the quicksilver, when the gold was laid on too thin, -appeared through it, but that this might be prevented by mixing with -the quicksilver the white of an egg. The quicksilver then remained -under the gold: a thing which is impossible. When the smallest drop -of quicksilver falls upon gilding, it corrodes the noble metal, and -produces an empty spot. It is, therefore, incomprehensible to me how -this could be prevented by using the white of an egg. Did Pliny himself -completely understand gilding? Perhaps he only meant to say that many -artists gave out the cold-gilding, where the gold-leaf was laid on with -the white of an egg, as gilding by means of heat.”—Hist. Inv. Vol. II. -p. 295. - -[972] Chapter 42 of this Book. See also Chapter 20, in Note 868, to -which it has been mentioned as artificial quicksilver. - -[973] He is speaking of Antimony. - -[974] From its whiteness. - -[975] Under the name of “female stimmi,” Ajasson thinks that pure, or -native, antimony is meant, more particularly the lamelliform variety, -remarkable for its smoothness. He thinks it possible, also, that it -may have derived its Greek name “larbason,” or “larbasis,” from its -brittleness. - -[976] Ajasson thinks that under this name, crude antimony or sulphuret -of antimony may have been included; as also sulphuret of lead, -sulphuret of antimony and copper, and sulphuret of antimony and silver; -the last of which is often found covered with an opaque pellicle. - -[977] “Globis.” The fracture of sulphuret of antimony is, in reality, -small subconchoïdal. - -[978] “Eye dilating.” Belladonna, a preparation from the Atropa -belladonna, is now used in medicine for this purpose. A similar effect -is attributed in B. xxv. c. 92, to the plant Anagallis. In reality, -the application of prepared antimony would contract the eyelids, and -so _appear_ to enlarge the eyes. This property is peculiar, Ajasson -remarks, to sulphuret of antimony, and sulphuret of antimony and silver. - -[979] Preparations “for beautifying the eyebrows.” See B. xxi. c. -73, B. xxiii. c. 51, and B. xxxv. c. 56. Omphale, the Lydian queen, -who captivated Hercules, is represented by the tragic poet Ion, as -using “stimmi” for the purposes of the toilet. It was probably with a -preparation of antimony that Jezebel “painted her face, and tired her -head.” 2 Kings, ix. 30. The “Kohl” used by the females in Egypt and -Persia is prepared from antimony. - -[980] “Spuma argenti.” See the next Chapter. - -[981] According to Dioscorides, it was prepared as a cosmetic by -enclosing it in a lump of dough, and then burning it in the coals till -reduced to a cinder. It was then extinguished with milk and wine, and -again placed upon coals, and blown till ignition. - -[982] As to the “nitrum” of the ancients, see B. xxxi. c. 46. - -[983] “Flos”—literally the “flower.” - -[984] “From this passage we may infer that the metal antimony was -occasionally seen by the ancients, though not recognized by them as -distinct from lead.”—Dana’s System of Mineralogy, p. 418. New York, -1850. - -[985] Pliny has here mistaken the sense of the word στέαρ, -which in the passage of Dioscorides, B. v. c. 99, borrowed probably -from the same source, evidently means _dough_, and not grease. - -[986] From ἕλκω, “to drag”—in consequence of its viscous -consistency, Hardouin says. - -[987] In B. xxxiv. c. 53. - -[988] Cerates, adipose or oleaginous plasters. See B. xxiii. c. 81. - -[989] “Spuma argenti.” This he uses as a general name for fused oxide -of lead, the Litharge of commerce. - -[990] Ajasson thinks it possible that the “chrysitis,” or “golden” -litharge, may have been the yellow deutoxide of lead; the argyritis, -or “silver” litharge, the white variety of the same deutoxide; and the -“molybditis,” or “leaden” litharge, a general name for sulphuret of -lead and silver; of lead and antimony; of lead, antimony, and bismuth; -and of lead, antimony, and copper. Or perhaps, he thinks, they may -have been the respective names of yellow or golden litharge, white or -silver litharge, and terne. With the latter opinion Delafosse seems to -coincide. - -[991] “Tubulis.” These cakes were probably made in a tubular form. - -[992] “Vena;” meaning the ore probably in its raw state, and mixed with -earth. All these distinctions are probably unfounded. - -[993] See B. xxxiv. c. 53. - -[994] Of “Puteolana.” - -[995] The litharge. - -[996] The scoria. - -[997] Nothing whatever is known as to the identity of these varieties -of litharge. Indeed the words themselves are spelt in various ways in -the respective MSS. - -[998] In B. xxxiv. c. 53, where he identifies it with “galena,” -mentioned in Chapter 31 of this Book. - -[999] See B. xviii. c. 13, B. xvi. c. 61, and B. xxii. c. 66. - -[1000] Sal gem, or common salt. - -[1001] In this Chapter. See note 987 above. - -[1002] The minium spoken of in this and the following Chapter is our -Cinnabar, a bisulphurate of mercury. This ore is the great source of -the mercury of commerce, from which it is obtained by sublimation. When -pure, it is the same as the manufactured vermilion of commerce. - -[1003] Intended, no doubt, to be typical of blood and carnage; and -indicative of a very low state of civilization. - -[1004] See B. xxxv. c. 45. - -[1005] See B. v. c. 31. - -[1006] See B. xvi. c. 12, and B. xxiv. c. 4. - -[1007] The same as the miltos mentioned below, “miltos” being the word -used by Homer, Il. II. 637. This substance is totally different from -the minium of the preceding Chapters, and from that mentioned in c. -40. It is our red ochre, peroxide of iron, mixed in a greater or less -degree with argillaceous earth. - -[1008] See B. xxix. c. 8; where he speaks of the mistake made by the -physicians in giving mineral vermilion or minium to their patients -instead of Indian cinnabar. The latter substance is probably identical -with that which is now used for varnishes, being imported from India, -and still known as “dragons’ blood,” the resin of the Ptero-carpus -draco, or Calamus palm. - -[1009] In B. viii. c. 12. - -[1010] In Chapter 41. - -[1011] The dragon’s blood, mentioned in the preceding Chapter. - -[1012] “Single colour paintings.” See B. xxxv. cc. 5, 11, 34, 36. - -[1013] Mentioned in Chapter 37. - -[1014] The “miltos” of the preceding Chapter. See Note 1007 above. - -[1015] In B. xxxv. c. 13, _et seq._ - -[1016] He is here speaking of our cinnabar, or vermilion, mentioned in -Chapter 36. - -[1017] See B. vi. cc. 27, 28, 32. - -[1018] See B. iii. c. 3, Vol. I. p. 163. He alludes to the district of -Almaden, in Andalusia, still famous for its quicksilver mines. - -[1019] When sold by the “publicani,” or farmers of the revenue. - -[1020] Of the publicani. - -[1021] Red oxide of lead, a much inferior pigment to cinnabar, or the -minium of Chapter 36. - -[1022] In Chapter 32 of this Book. - -[1023] Dana informs us that minium is usually associated with galena -and with calamine. Syst. Mineral, p. 495. - -[1024] “Steriles.” Barren of silver, probably; though Hardouin thinks -that it means “barren of lead.” Holland renders it “barraine and void -of the right vermilion.” - -[1025] In Chapter 37. - -[1026] B. xxxv. c. 24. - -[1027] When hired by the job for colouring walls or objects of art. See -B. xxxv. c. 12. - -[1028] See B. xvi. c. 12, and B. xxiv. c. 4. - -[1029] “Candelis.” The Abate Requeno thinks that these “candelæ” were -used as a delicate cauterium, simply to keep the wax soft, that it -might receive a polish from the friction of the linen. - -[1030] Hence the use of it in the middle ages; a reminiscence of which -still exists in our word “rubric.” - -[1031] Or artificial quicksilver. In reality, hydrargyrus is prepared -from the _genuine_ minium of Pliny, the cinnabar mentioned in Chapter -36] it being obtained by the sublimation of sulphuret of mercury. - -[1032] In Chapters 20 and 32. - -[1033] This, probably, is the meaning of “lubrico humore compluere.” - -[1034] See the end of Chapter 38. - -[1035] Artificial quicksilver is still used for this purpose. See Note -971 to Chapter 32 of this Book; also Beckmann’s Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. -295. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1036] In Chapter 32. He alludes to the use of glair of eggs. - -[1037] Literally “whetstone.” He is speaking of the stone known to us -as Touchstone, Lydian stone, or Basanite—“a velvet-black siliceous -stone or flinty jasper, used on account of its hardness and black -colour for trying the purity of the precious metals. The colour left -on the stone after rubbing the metal across it, indicates to the -experienced eye the amount of the alloy.”—Dana, Syst. Mineral., p. 242. - -[1038] In Lydia. See B. v. cc. 30, 31. - -[1039] As a test. At the present day, concentrated nitric acid is -dropped on the mark left by the metal; and the more readily the mark is -effaced, the less pure is the metal. - -[1040] This seems to be the meaning of “si sudet protinus.” - -[1041] A very far-fetched explanation, and very wide of the mark. - -[1042] “Paulum propulsa.” - -[1043] Which he supposes a concave surface to do. - -[1044] This passage is noticed by Beckmann, in his account of Mirrors; -Vol. II. p. 58. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1045] Distorting the image reflected, by reason of the irregularities -of the surface. See Seneca, Nat. Quæst. B. i. c. 5. - -[1046] “Parma Thræcidica.” - -[1047] He probably means, whether the surface is made convex or concave -at these different angles. - -[1048] A subject to which he returns in various parts of B. xxxvi. - -[1049] See B. xxxiv. c. 48. - -[1050] As to the identification of “stannum,” on which there have been -great differences of opinion, see B. xxxiv. cc. 47, 48, and the Notes. - -[1051] For some account of this artist, see Chapter 55 and the Notes at -the end of this Book. - -[1052] “Silver mirrors were known long before this period, as is -proved by a passage in the Mostellaria of Plautus, A. 1, S. 3, l. 101, -where they are distinctly mentioned. To reconcile this contradiction, -Meursius remarks that Pliny speaks only of his countrymen, and not of -the Greeks, who had such articles much earlier, though the scene in -Plautus is at Athens.”—Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 62. _Bohn’s -Edition._ - -[1053] “Nuper credi cœptum certiorem imaginem reddi auro opposito -aversis.”—“Of what Pliny says here I can give no explanation. Hardouin -(qy. if not Dalechamps?) is of opinion that mirrors, according to the -newest invention, at that period were covered behind with a plate of -gold, as our mirrors are with an amalgam. But as the ancient plates of -silver were not transparent, how could the gold at the back of them -produce any effect in regard to the image? May not the meaning be that -a thin plate of gold was placed at some distance before the mirror, -in order to throw more light upon its surface? Whatever may have been -the case, Pliny himself seems not to have had much confidence in the -invention.”—Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 62. - -[1054] Dr. Watson (Chemical Essays, Vol. IV. p. 246) seems to think -that Pliny is here speaking of _glass_ mirrors: “If we admit that Pliny -was acquainted with glass mirrors, we may thus understand what he says -respecting an invention which was then new, of applying gold behind a -mirror. Instead of an amalgam of tin, some one had proposed to cover -the back of the mirror with an amalgam of gold, with which the ancients -were certainly acquainted, and which they employed in gilding.” See -Chapter 20 of the present Book. On the above passage by Dr. Watson, -Beckmann has the following remarks: “This conjecture appears, at any -rate, to be ingenious; but when I read the passage again, without -prejudice, I can hardly believe that Pliny alludes to a plate of glass -in a place where he speaks only of metallic mirrors; and the overlaying -with amalgam requires too much art to allow me to ascribe it to such a -period without sufficient proof. I consider it more probable, that some -person had tried, by means of a polished plate of gold, to collect the -rays of light, and to throw them either on the mirror or the object, in -order to render the image brighter.”—Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 72. - -[1055] The dog-headed divinity. The seat of his worship was at -Cynopolis, mentioned in B. v. c. 11. Under the Empire his worship -became widely spread both in Greece and at Rome. - -[1056] Under the word “pingit,” he probably includes the art of -enamelling silver. - -[1057] “Fulgoris excæcati.” - -[1058] “Chaplet” copper. - -[1059] He either alludes to the practice of clipping the coin, or else -to the issue of forged silver denarii, short of weight. - -[1060] During the prætorship of Marius Gratidianus. He was on terms -of great intimacy with Cicero, and was murdered by Catiline in a most -barbarous manner during the proscriptions of Sylla. - -[1061] By public enactment probably; samples of the false denarius -being sold for the purpose of showing the difference between it and the -genuine coin. - -[1062] Twenty times one hundred thousand, &c. - -[1063] As signifying a “debt owing to another.” - -[1064] “The Rich.” - -[1065] This seems the best translation for “decoxisse creditoribus -suis,” which literally means that he “boiled” or “melted away” his -fortune from his creditors. In this remark Pliny is more witty than -usual. - -[1066] The Triumvir. The first person mentioned in Roman history as -having the cognomen “Dives,” is P. Licinius Crassus, the personage -mentioned in B. xxi. c. 4. As he attained the highest honours of the -state, and died universally respected, he cannot be the person so -opprobriously spoken of by Pliny. - -[1067] The meaning appears to be doubtful here, as it is not clear -whether “sesterces,” or “sestertia,” “thousands of sesterces,” is meant. - -[1068] Who cut off his head after his death, and poured molten gold -down his throat. - -[1069] Originally the slave of Antonia, the mother of Claudius. -Agrippina, the wife of Claudius, admitted him to her embraces, and in -conjunction with her he for some time ruled the destinies of the Roman -Empire. He was poisoned by order of Nero, A.D. 63. - -[1070] C. Julius Callistus, the freedman of Caligula, in whose -assassination he was an accomplice. The physician Scribonius Largus -dedicated his work to Callistus. - -[1071] A freedman of the Emperor Claudius, whose epistolary -correspondence he superintended. He was put to death on the accession -of Nero, A.D. 54. - -[1072] In which case it would be dangerous to speak of them. - -[1073] A.U.C. 746. - -[1074] According to some authorities, he was a Lydian. He derived his -wealth from his gold mines in the neighbourhood of Celænæ in Phrygia, -and would appear, in spite of Pliny’s reservation, to have been little -less than a king. His five sons accompanied Xerxes; but Pythius, -alarmed by an eclipse of the sun, begged that the eldest might be left -behind. Upon this, Xerxes had the youth put to death, and his body cut -in two, the army being ordered to march between the portions, which -were placed on either side of the road. His other sons were all slain -in battle, and Pythius passed the rest of his life in solitude. - -[1075] “Stipem spargere.” - -[1076] A.U.C. 568. - -[1077] In performance of a vow made in the war with King Antiochus. See -Livy, B. xxxix. - -[1078] So called from the silversmiths who respectively introduced -them. The Gratian plate is mentioned by Martial, B. iv. Epigr. 39. - -[1079] “Etenim tabernas mensis adoptamus.” - -[1080] “Anaglypta.” Plate chased in relief. It is mentioned in the -Epigram of Martial above referred to. - -[1081] “Asperitatemque exciso circa liniarum picturas,”—a passage, the -obscurity of which, as Littré remarks, seems to set translation at -defiance. - -[1082] He alludes, probably to tiers of shelves on the beaufets or -sideboards—“repositoria”—similar to those used for the display of plate -in the middle ages. Petronius Arbiter speaks of a round “repositorium,” -which seems to have borne a considerable resemblance to our “dumb -waiters.” The “repositoria” here alluded to by Pliny were probably made -of silver. - -[1083] “Interradimus.” - -[1084] “Carrucæ.” The “carruca” was a carriage, the name of which only -occurs under the emperors, the present being the first mention of it. -It had four wheels and was used in travelling, like the “carpentum.” -Martial, B. iii. Epig. 47, uses the word as synonymous with “rheda.” -Alexander Severus allowed the senators to have them plated with silver. -The name is of Celtic origin, and is the basis of the mediæval word -“carucate,” and the French _carrosse_. - -[1085] So called from his victory over the Allobroges. - -[1086] In allusion to the case of P. Cornelius Rufinus, the consul, who -was denounced in the senate by the censors C. Fabricius Luscinus and Q. -Æmilius Rufus, for being in possession of a certain quantity of silver -plate. This story is also referred to in B. xviii. c. 8, where _ten_ -pounds is the quantity mentioned. - -[1087] This is said ironically. - -[1088] Sextus Ælius Pœtus Catus, Consul B.C. 198. - -[1089] “Prandentem.” - -[1090] L. Paulus Æmilius. - -[1091] It being lent from house to house. This, no doubt, was said -ironically, and as a sneer at their poverty. - -[1092] Now Arles. It was made a military colony in the time of -Augustus. See B. iii. c. 5, and B. x. c. 57. - -[1093] “Pellitum.” There has been considerable doubt as to the meaning -of this, but it is most probable that the “privilege of the fur,” or -in other words, a license to be clad in certain kinds of fur, was -conferred on certain men of rank in the provinces. Holland considers -it to be the old participle of “pello,” and translates the passage -“banished out of the country and nation where his father was born.” - -[1094] “Triclinia.” The couches on which they reclined when at table. - -[1095] See B. ix. c. 13. - -[1096] This pattern, whatever it may have been, is also spoken of by -Cicero, pro Murenâ, and by Valerius Maximus, B. vii. c. 1. - -[1097] “Lances.” - -[1098] “Dispensator.” - -[1099] “Conservi”—said in keen irony. - -[1100] Giants, at least, one would think. - -[1101] Over the party of Marius. - -[1102] See B. ix. c. 13. - -[1103] “Compacta;” probably meaning inlaid like Mosaic. - -[1104] See B. xiii. c. 29, B. xv. c. 7, and B. xvi. cc. 26, 27, 84. - -[1105] Meaning, “drum sideboards,” or “tambour sideboards,” their -shape, probably, being like that of our dumb waiters. - -[1106] The name given to which was “lanx,” plural “lances.” - -[1107] His age and country are uncertain. We learn, however, from -Chapter 55 of this Book, that he flourished before the burning of the -Temple of Diana at Ephesus, B.C. 356. He is frequently mentioned in the -classical writers. See also B. vii. c. 39. - -[1108] He includes, probably, under this name both Asia Minor and -Syria. See a similar passage in Livy, B. xxxix. - -[1109] This passage is rejected by Sillig as a needless interpolation. - -[1110] Asia Minor. - -[1111] King of Pergamus. - -[1112] Over King Antiochus. - -[1113] He alludes to the destruction of Corinth, by L. Mummius Achaïcus. - -[1114] A drinking cup with handles, sacred to Bacchus. See B. xxxiv. c. -25. - -[1115] Bacchus. - -[1116] In allusion to the plebeian origin of C. Marius, who was born -at the village of Cereatæ, near Arpinum. It is more than probable that -the story that he had worked as a common peasant for wages, was an -invention of the faction of Sylla. - -[1117] “Ille arator Arpinas, et manipularis imperator.” - -[1118] Meaning the first king of that name. He was son of Mithridates -IV., king of Pontus. - -[1119] Appian says that there “was a gold statue of this Mithridates, -exhibited in the triumph of Pompey, eight cubits in height.” Plutarch -speaks of another statue of the same king, exhibited by Lucullus, six -feet in height. - -[1120] “Compedes.” See Chapter 12 of this Book. - -[1121] The translation of this passage is somewhat doubtful. We will, -therefore, subjoin that of Holland, who adopts the other version. “As -we may see by our proud and sumptuous dames, that are but commoners and -artizans’ wives, who are forced to make themselves carquans and such -ornaments for their shoes, of silver, because the rigour of the statute -provided in that case will not permit them to weare the same of gold.” - -[1122] A rhetorician who taught at Rome in the reign of Augustus. The -poet Ovid was one of his pupils. His rival in teaching declamation was -Porcius Latro. - -[1123] Of an improper intimacy with his pupils. - -[1124] Rings of silver being passed through the prepuce. This practice -is described by Celsus, B. vii. c. 25. - -[1125] “Videret hinc dona fortium fieri, aut in hæc frangi.” - -[1126] In B. vii. c. 39, and in Chapter 53 of this Book. - -[1127] “Quatuor paria ab eo omnino facta sunt.” Sillig, in his -_Dictionary of Ancient Artists_, finds a difficulty in this passage. -“The term ‘omnino’ seems to imply that the productions in question, -all of which perished, were the _only_ works executed by this artist; -but we find several passages of ancient writers, in which vases, &c. -engraved by Mentor, are mentioned as extant. Thus, then, we must -conclude, either that the term ‘omnino’ should be understood in the -sense of ‘chiefly,’ ‘pre-eminently,’ or that the individuals claiming -to possess works of Mentor, were themselves misinformed, or endeavoured -to deceive others.” If, however, we look at the word “paria” in a -strictly technical sense, the difficulty will probably be removed. -Pliny’s meaning seems to be that Mentor made four _pairs_, and no more, -of some peculiar kind of vessel probably, and that all these pairs were -now lost. He does not say that Mentor did not make other works of art, -in _single_ pieces. Thiersch, _Act. Acad. Monac._ v. p. 128, expresses -an opinion that the word “omnino” is a corruption, and that in it lies -concealed the name of the kind of plate that is meant. - -[1128] See B. vii. c. 39. - -[1129] His age and country are unknown. - -[1130] From Pausanias we learn that he was a statuary and engraver on -plate, born at Carthage; but Raoul Rochette thinks that he was a native -of Chalcedon. He is mentioned also by Cicero, In Verrem, 4. 14, and in -the Culex, l. 66, ascribed by some to Virgil. - -[1131] His country is uncertain. According to the statements of -Pausanias, B. i. c. 28, he must have been a contemporary of Phidias, -about Olymp. 84, B.C. 444. He is mentioned also by Propertius, Martial, -and Statius. - -[1132] His birth-place is unknown, but he probably lived about the time -of Phidias, and we learn from Pausanias that he was living when the -plague ceased at Athens, in B.C. 429. He is mentioned also by Cicero, -Ovid, Quintilian, Lucian, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. - -[1133] Nothing further is known of this artist. - -[1134] “Collocavisse verius quam cælasse.” - -[1135] “Phiala.” - -[1136] He lived probably about Olymp. 126; but his country is unknown. -He is mentioned by Athenæus. See also B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[1137] Nothing whatever is known of him, unless indeed he is identical -with the Tauriscus mentioned in B. xxxvi. c. 5. - -[1138] Nothing is known of his age or country. He is also mentioned in -B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[1139] His age and country are unknown. See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[1140] Nothing further is known of him. See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[1141] See the end of this Book. - -[1142] Beyond the mention made of him in B. xxxiv. c. 19, no -particulars relative to him are known. - -[1143] Other readings of this name are “Lædus Stratiotes,” “Ledis -Thracides,” “Hieris Thracides,” and “Lidistratices.” The Bamberg -MS. has “Hedys Trachides.” Salmasius, Hardouin, and Sillig propose -“Leostratides,” and Thiersch “Lysistratides.” - -[1144] Nothing further is known of him. - -[1145] For the murder of his mother Clytæmnestra. - -[1146] Nothing is known of this artist. - -[1147] From Troy. - -[1148] “Coquos,” literally, “cooks.” - -[1149] “Cooks in miniature.” - -[1150] By the process of moulding, probably. - -[1151] “Crustarius.” Of this artist nothing further is known. - -[1152] Yellow or brown Ochre, probably. Ajasson thinks that under -this name may be included peroxide of iron, hydroxide of iron in a -stalactitic and mamillary form, and compact peroxide of iron, imparting -a colour to argillaceous earth. - -[1153] “Scaly and ochrey brown iron ore are decomposed earthy -varieties, often soft like chalk; yellow ochre is here included.”—Dana, -Syst. Mineral, p. 436. - -[1154] “Marmorosum.” - -[1155] “Lucidum.” - -[1156] “Abacos.” Small compartments or partitions in a square form on -the walls of rooms. - -[1157] See B. vii. c. 57, where he is called an Athenian, whereas he -was a native of Thasos. He was one of the most eminent painters of -antiquity, and flourished in the age of Pericles. See a further account -of him in B. xxxv. c. 35. - -[1158] Son of Phanochus, and contemporary of Polygnotus. See B. xxxv. -c. 25, where it is stated that in conjunction with Polygnotus, he -either invented some new colours, or employed them in his paintings on -a better plan than that previously adopted. - -[1159] “It is possible that the ‘cæruleum’ of the ancients may in -some cases have been real ultramarine, but properly and in general, -it was only copper ochre.”—Beckmann’s Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 472. -_Bohn’s Edition._ Delafosse identifies it with blue carbonate and -hydrocarbonate of copper, one of the two azurites. - -[1160] “Candidiorem nigrioremve, et crassiorem tenuioremve.” - -[1161] Beckmann thinks that Pliny is here alluding to an artificial -kind of “cæruleum.” “Pliny clearly adds to it an artificial colour, -which in my opinion was made in the same manner as our lake; for he -speaks of an earth, which when boiled with plants, acquired their blue -colour.”—Hist. Inv., Vol. II. p. 480. - -[1162] Supposed by Hardouin to have been “glastum” or “woad,” the -Isatis tinctoria of Linnæus, mentioned in B. xxii. c. 2. - -[1163] “In suâ coquitur herbâ.” - -[1164] A blue powder; see Chapter 27 of this Book. Beckmann has the -following remarks on this and the preceding lines: “The well-known -passage of Pliny in which Lehmann thinks he can with certainty discover -cobalt, is so singular a medley that nothing to be depended on can be -gathered from it. The author, it is true, where he treats of mineral -pigments, seems to speak of a blue sand which produced different -shades of blue paint, according as it was pounded coarser or finer. -The palest powder was called lomentum, and this Lehmann considers as -our powder-blue. I am, however, fully convinced that the _cyanus_ of -Theophrastus, the _cæruleum_ of Pliny, and the _chrysocolla_ (see -Chapter 26), were the blue copper earth already mentioned, which may -have been mixed and blended together.”—Hist. Inv. Vol. I. pp. 480, 481. -_Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1165] According to Vitruvius, B. vii. c. 11, the manufactory of -Vestorius was at Puteoli, now Pozzuoli. This was probably the same C. -Vestorius who was also a money-lender and a friend of Atticus, and with -whom Cicero had monetary transactions. He is mentioned as “Vestorium -meum,” in the Epistles of Cicero to Atticus. - -[1166] For colouring surfaces of clay or cretaceous earth. This kind -was also manufactured by Vesturius, most probably. - -[1167] “Idem et Puteolani usus, præterque ad fenestras.” “The -expression here, _usus ad fenestras_, has been misapplied by Lehmann, -as a strong proof of his assertion; for he explained it as if Pliny -had said that a blue pigment was used for painting window-frames; but -glass windows were at that time unknown. I suspect that Pliny meant to -say only that one kind of paint could not be employed near openings -which afforded a passage to the light, as it soon decayed and lost its -colour. This would have been the case in particular with _lake_, in -which there was a mixture of vegetable particles.”—Beckmann, Hist. Inv. -Vol. I. p. 480. - -[1168] “Indian” pigment. Probably our “indigo.” It is again mentioned, -and at greater length, in B. xxxv. c. 27. See also Beckmann, Hist. Inv. -Vol. II. pp. 259, 267. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1169] This is probably a more correct reading than “seven.” - -[1170] See B. xxxv. c. 19. Vitruvius, B. vii. c. 14, describes an -exactly similar method adopted by dyers for imitating the colour of -Attic sil, or ochre, mentioned in Chapter 56. - -[1171] A quarter in the city of Capua, inhabited by druggists and -perfumers; see B. xvi. c. 18, and B. xxxiv. c. 25. - -[1172] In some MSS. the reading here is “Domitius,” and in others the -name is omitted altogether. We learn from the writings of Suetonius, -that the Emperor Domitian devoted himself to literary pursuits in -his younger days, and Quintilian and the younger Pliny speak of his -poetical productions as equal to those of the greatest masters. Sillig -expresses an opinion that Pliny may possibly have borrowed something -from his works, and inserted his name, with a view of pleasing the -young prince and his father, the Emperor Vespasian. - -[1173] He is quoted in Chapter 9 of this Book, where it appears that -he took his cognomen on account of his friendship for C. Gracchus. He -wrote a work, “De Potestatibus,” which gave an account of the Roman -magistrates from the time of the kings. A few fragments of this work, -which was highly esteemed by the ancients, are all that remain. - -[1174] See end of B. ii. - -[1175] See end of B. iii. - -[1176] See end of B. ii. - -[1177] Valerius Messala Corvinus. See end of B. ix. - -[1178] See end of B. vii. - -[1179] Calvus Licinius Macer was the son of C. Licinius Macer, a person -of prætorian rank, who, on being impeached of extortion by Cicero, -committed suicide. We learn from our author, B. xxxiv. c. 50, that -in his youth he devoted himself to study with the greatest zeal, and -applied himself with singular energy to intellectual pursuits. His -constitution, however, was early exhausted, and he died in his 35th or -36th year, leaving behind him twenty-one orations. We learn from Cicero -and Quintilian that his compositions were carefully moulded after the -models of the Attic school, but were deficient in ease and freshness. -As a poet he was the author of many short pieces, equally remarkable -for their looseness and elegance. He wrote also some severe lampoons -on Pompey and Cæsar, and their respective partisans. Ovid and Horace, -besides several of the prose writers, make mention of him. - -[1180] See end of B. ii. - -[1181] See end of B. ii. - -[1182] Cornelius Bocchus. See end of B. xvi. - -[1183] Annius or Annæus Fetialis. See end of B. xvi. - -[1184] See end of B. viii. - -[1185] See end of B. vii. - -[1186] See end of B. xx. - -[1187] See end of B. xii. - -[1188] See end of B. iii. - -[1189] See end of B. ii. - -[1190] See end of B. v. - -[1191] The person mentioned in Chapter 13 of this Book, is probably -different from those of the same name mentioned at the end of Books ii. -and iv. If so, no further particulars are known of him. - -[1192] It seems impossible to say which of the physicians of this name -is here alluded to. See end of Books iv. and xii. - -[1193] See end of B. xx. - -[1194] See end of B. xii. - -[1195] See end of B. xiii. - -[1196] See end of B. xii. - -[1197] See end of B. xii.; and for Sallustius Dionysius, see end of B. -xxxi. - -[1198] See end of B. xxix. - -[1199] See end of B. xii. - -[1200] See end of B. xii. - -[1201] As King Attalus was very skilful in medicine, Hardouin is of -opinion that he is the person here meant; see end of B. viii. - -[1202] A different person, most probably, from the writer of Pliny’s -age, mentioned in B. xxxvii. c. 2. The Xenocrates here mentioned -is probably the same person that is spoken of in B. xxxv. c. 36, a -statuary of the school of Lysippus, and the pupil either of Tisicrates -or of Euthycrates, who flourished about B.C. 260. - -[1203] There were two artists of this name, prior to the time of -Pliny; a sculptor, mentioned by him in B. xxxiv. c. 19, and a painter, -contemporary with Apelles, mentioned in B. xxxv. c. 36. It is -impossible to say which of them, if either, is here meant. - -[1204] See end of B. iii. - -[1205] See end of B. xii. - -[1206] It is impossible to say which writer of this name is here meant. -See end of Books iv., viii., xi., and xx. - -[1207] A statuary, sculptor, and chaser in silver, who flourished at -Rome about B.C. 60. He was a native of Magna Græcia, in the south of -Italy. He is not only mentioned in Chapter 55 of the present Book, but -also in B. xxxv. c. 45, as an artist of the highest distinction. His -narrow escape from a panther, while copying from nature, is mentioned -in B. xxxvi. c. 4. His five Books on the most celebrated works of -sculpture and chasing were looked upon as a high authority in art. He -was also the head of a school of artists. - -[1208] A writer on painting of this name is mentioned by Diogenes -Laertius, B. vii. c. 12. He is probably the same as the person here -mentioned, and identical with the Greek sculptor mentioned by Pliny in -B. xxxiv. c. 19, who probably flourished about 240 B.C. The Toreutic -Art, “Toreutice,” was the art of making raised work in silver or -bronze, either by graving or casting: but the exact meaning of the word -is somewhat uncertain. - -[1209] Menæchmus of Sicyon, probably; see end of B. iv., also B. xxxiv. -c. 19. - -[1210] If he is really a different person from the Xenocrates mentioned -above, nothing is known of him. - -[1211] See end of B. vii. - -[1212] Possibly one of the persons mentioned at the end of Books viii., -xix., and xxxi. If not, nothing whatever is known of him. - -[1213] An Athenian writer, surnamed “Periegetes.” The work here -mentioned, is alluded to by other writers under different names. From -a passage in Athenæus, he is supposed to have lived after the time of -Antiochus Epiphanes. - -[1214] See end of B. iii. - -[1215] The present Book is translated by the late Dr. Bostock, the -translation being corrected by the readings of the Bamberg MS., which -do not appear to have come under his notice. Some Notes by Dr. Bostock -will be also found at the commencement of Books 33 and 35; they are -distinguished by the initial B. - -[1216] “Æris Metalla.” The word “Æs” does not entirely correspond to -our word “brass;” the brass of the moderns being a compound of copper -and zinc, while the “Æs” of the ancients was mostly composed of copper -and tin, and therefore, would be more correctly designated by the word -“bronze.” But this last term is now so generally appropriated to works -of art, that it would seem preferable to employ in most cases the more -general terms “copper” or “brass.” For an excellent account of the “Æs” -of the ancients, see Smith’s Dict. Antiq. “Æs.”—B. Mr. Westmacott, in -the above-mentioned article, says that the ancient “Æs” has been found, -upon analysis, to contain no zinc, but in nearly every instance to be -a mixture of copper and tin, like our bronze. Beckmann says, on the -other hand, that the mixture of zinc and copper now called “brass,” -first discovered by ores, abundant in zinc, _was certainly known to -the ancients_. “In the course of time, an ore, _which must have been -calamine_, was added to copper while melting, to give it a yellow -colour.” Hist. Inv. Vol. II. pp. 32, 33. _Bohn’s Edition._ There can -be little doubt that the native _Cadmia_ of Chapter 22 of this Book -was our Calamine, hydrosilicate of zinc, or carbonate of zinc, or else -copper ore impregnated with calamine. - -[1217] In B. xxxiii. c. 13. - -[1218] “Stipis auctoritas.” The standard in money payments. - -[1219] These terms must have come into use when brass, “æs,” was the -ordinary medium, of circulation.—B. Their meaning is, “soldiers’ pay,” -“tribunes of the treasury,” the “public treasury,” “made bondmen for -debt,” and “mulcted of their pay.” - -[1220] In B. xxxiii. c. 13.—B. - -[1221] “Collegium” The colleges of the priests and of the augurs being -the first two associated bodies.—B. - -[1222] In B. xxxiii. c. 31, where we have an account of the ores of -silver.—B. - -[1223] Pliny again refers to this mineral in the 22d Chapter. We -have no means of ascertaining, with certainty, what is the substance -to which this name was applied by the ancients. The ores of copper -are very numerous, and of various chemical constitutions] the most -abundant, and those most commonly employed in the production of the -pure metal, are the sulphurets, more especially what is termed copper -pyrites, and the oxides. It has been supposed, by some commentators, -that the Cadmia of the ancients was Calamine, which is an ore of zinc; -but we may be confident that the _Æs_ of the ancients could not be -produced from this substance, because, as has been stated above, the -_Æs_ contains no zinc. I must, however, observe that the contrary -opinion is maintained by M. Delafosso.—B. See Note 1216 above. - -[1224] The inhabitants of Bergamum, the modern Bergamo.—B. See B. iii. -c. 21. - -[1225] Aristotle gives the same account of the copper ore of Cyprus. -Chalcitis is also spoken of by Dioscorides, as an ore of copper.—B. See -further as to “Chalcitis,” in Chapter 29 of this Book. - -[1226] There has been much discussion respecting the nature of this -substance, and the derivation of the word. Hardouin conceives it -probable that it was originally written “orichalcum,” _i.e._ “mountain -brass” or “copper.”—B. Ajasson considers it to be native brass, -a mixture of copper and zinc. In the later writers it signifies -artificial brass. The exact composition of this metal is still unknown, -but there is little doubt that Hardouin is right in his supposition as -to the origin of the name. - -[1227] Possibly so called from Sallustius Crispus, the historian, who -was one of the secretaries of Augustus. - -[1228] There is some doubt respecting the locality of these people; -they are enumerated by Pliny among the inhabitants of the mountainous -districts of Savoy, B. iii. c. 24, and are referred to by Ptolemy.—B. - -[1229] Livia. - -[1230] It was named “Marian,” after the celebrated Marius, and -“Corduban,” from the place whence it was procured; probably the -mountains near Corduba, in Spain, well known as the birth-place of the -two Senecas and of Lucan.—B. See B. iii. c. 3, and B. xix. c. 43. - -[1231] No light is thrown upon the nature either of Cadmia or -Aurichalcum by this statement; we only learn from it that different -compounds, or substances possessing different physical properties, went -under the common appellation of _Æs_, and were, each of them, employed -in the formation of coins.—B. - -[1232] “Dupondiariis.” The “as,” it must be remembered, _originally_ -weighed one pound. See B. xxxiii. c. 13, and the Introduction to Vol. -III. - -[1233] He alludes to the _ancient_ works of art in this compound metal. - -[1234] The art of making compound metals. - -[1235] Vulcan, namely. - -[1236] No one has accidentally stumbled upon the art of making this -composite metal. - -[1237] We have an account of the destruction of Corinth, and the -accidental formation of this compound, in Florus, B. ii. c. 16. -Although this account was generally received by the ancients, we may -venture to assert, that it cannot be correct; we cannot conceive the -possibility of such a fusion taking place during the destruction of the -city, or of the complete union of the components, in the mode in which -they have been found to exist.—B. - -[1238] B.C. 146.—B. - -[1239] “Trulleos.” In an epigram of Martial, B. ix. Ep. 97, the word -“trulla” signifies a chamber-pot. - -[1240] From the Greek ἥπαρ, “the liver.” - -[1241] The Delian brass is mentioned by Cicero, in his oration “Pro -Roscio Amerino,” s. 46, and in his Fourth oration “In Verrem,” s. 1.—B. -Pausanias, in his “Eliaca,” says that the Spanish copper, or copper of -Tartessus, was the first known. - -[1242] Or Cattle Market: in the Eighth Region of the City. See B. xxxv. -c. 7, and Chapter 16 of this Book. - -[1243] A distinguished statuary and engraver on silver. He lived in -Olympiad 87. Further mention is made of him by Cicero, Ovid, Strabo, -and Pausanias. See also Chapter 19 of this Book. - -[1244] There were several artists of this name. The elder Polycletus, a -native either of Sicyon or of Argos, is probably the one here referred -to. For further particulars of him, see Chapter 19. - -[1245] The words in the original are, respectively _candelabra_, -_superficies_, and _scapi_.—B. - -[1246] Probably a proverbial expression at Rome, as it is employed by -Juvenal, in an analogous manner, upon another occasion; Sat. iii. l. -132.—B. - -[1247] Plutarch speaks of the Geganii as an ancient noble family at -Rome. - -[1248] See B. xxxiii. c. 53. - -[1249] A.U.C. 585; we have an account of it in Livy, B. xiv. c. 42.—B. - -[1250] This building is referred to by Velleius Paterculus, in the -beginning of the Second Book of his History.—B. According to Aurelius -Victor, it was situated in the Ninth Region of the City. - -[1251] The Temple of Vesta is described by Ovid, Fasti, B. vi. l. 265, -_et seq._—B. - -[1252] C. Camillus probably, the Roman jurist and friend of Cicero. - -[1253] See end of B. ii. - -[1254] “Triclinia,” “abaci,” and “monopodia;” these appear to have -been couches for dining-tables, tables furnished with cupboards, and -tables standing on a single foot. Livy, B. xxxix. c. 6, informs us, -that Cneius Manlius, in his triumphal procession, introduced into Rome -various articles of Asiatic luxury; “Lectos æratos, vestem stragulam -preciosam, monopodia, et abacos.” We are not to suppose that the whole -of these articles were made of brass, but that certain parts of them -were formed of this metal, or else were ornamented with brass.—B. - -[1255] See end of B. ii. - -[1256] “Cortinas tripodum.” These articles of furniture consisted of a -table or slab, supported by three feet, which was employed, like our -sideboards, for the display of plate, at the Roman entertainments.—B. - -[1257] “Lychnuchi pensiles;” this term is applied by Suetonius, -Julius, s. 37; we may conceive that they were similar to the modern -chandeliers.—B. - -[1258] This temple was dedicated by Augustus A.U.C. 726. The lamps in -it, resembling trees laden with fruit, are mentioned by Victor in his -description of the Tenth Quarter of the City.—B. - -[1259] See B. v. c. 32. - -[1260] We have an account of this event in Livy, B. ii. c. 41, in -Valerius Maximus, and in Dionysius of Halicarnassus.—B. - -[1261] “Iconicæ,” “portrait statues,” from εἴκων, of the same -meaning. This term is employed by Suetonius, in speaking of a statue of -Caligula, c. 22.—B. - -[1262] Pisistratus. These statues are mentioned in the 19th Chapter of -this Book, as being the workmanship of Praxiteles.—B. - -[1263] See B. vii. cc. 31, 34: B. viii. c. 74: and B. ix. c. 63. - -[1264] Near the Temple of Janus, in the Eighth Region of the City. - -[1265] The Luperci were the priests of Pan, who, at the celebration of -their games, called Lupercalia, were in the habit of running about the -streets of Rome, with no other covering than a goat’s skin tied about -the loins.—B. - -[1266] “Pænula.” See B. viii. c. 73. - -[1267] We are informed by Cicero, De Off. B. iii. c. 30, and by -Valerius Maximus, B. ii. c. 7, that Marcinus made a treaty with the -Numantines, which the senate refused to ratify, and that he was, in -consequence, surrendered to the enemy. We may suppose that he regarded -the transaction as redounding more to the discredit of the senate than -of himself.—B. - -[1268] See end of B. xviii. - -[1269] In the First Region of the City, near the Capenian Gate. - -[1270] “Celetes;” this appellation is derived from the Greek word -κέλης, “swift,” and was applied to those who rode on -horseback, in opposition to the charioteers—B. - -[1271] Poinsinet remarks that Pliny has forgotten the gilded chariot, -with six horses, which Cneius Cornelius dedicated in the Capitol, two -hundred years before Augustus; he also refers to an ancient inscription -in Gruter, which mentions chariots of this description.—B. - -[1272] Mænius was consul with Furius Camillus, A.U.C. 416; we have an -account of his victories over the Latins and other neighbouring nations -in Livy, B. viii. c. 14.—B. - -[1273] We have an account of this transaction in Livy, B. viii. c. 14. -This trophy is also mentioned by Florus, B. i. c. 11. The “Suggestus” -was an elevated place, formed for various purposes, the stage from -which the orators addressed the people, the place from which the -general addressed his soldiers, and the seat occupied by the emperor at -the public games.—B. - -[1274] Florus, B. ii. c. 2, gives an account of the arrangements and -equipment of the Carthaginian fleet, the victory of Duillius, and the -rostral monument erected in its commemoration.—B. - -[1275] See B. xviii. c. 4. - -[1276] “Unciariâ stipe;” the _uncia_ was the twelfth part of the “as,” -and the word _stips_ was regarded as equivalent to _as_, as being the -usual pay of the soldiers.—B. See Introduction to Vol. III. - -[1277] See B. xv. c. 20. - -[1278] This circumstance is mentioned by Cicero in his Defence of Milo, -§ 90-1.—B. - -[1279] We have some account of Hermodorus in Cicero’s Tusc. Quæs. B. v. -c. 36.—B. - -[1280] See B. x. c. 2, B. xviii. c. 3, and B. xxxiii. c. 7. - -[1281] Livy, B. ii. c. 10, and Valerius Maximus, B. iii. c. 2, give an -account of this event. A. Gellius incidentally mentions the statue, and -its position in the Comitium, B. iv. c. 5.—B. - -[1282] We are informed by Dion Cassius, that there were eight statues -in the Capitol, seven of which were of the kings, and the eighth of -Brutus, who overthrew the kingly government; at a later period the -statue of Cæsar was placed by the side of that of Brutus.—B. - -[1283] Suetonius, speaking of this temple, remarks, that though -dedicated to the brothers Castor and Pollux, it was, only known as the -Temple of Castor.—B. - -[1284] We have an account of the victory of Tremulus over the Hernici, -and of the statue erected in honour of him, in Livy, B. ix. c. 43.—B. - -[1285] This event is referred to by Cicero, Philipp. ix., 5.—B. - -[1286] Florus, B. ii. c. 5, gives an account of the murder of P. Junius -and T. Coruncanius.—B. - -[1287] In the Bamberg MS. the reading is “unum se. verbum.” Gronovius -is probably right in his conjecture that the word is “senatus consulti.” - -[1288] By one Leptines, at Laodicea. - -[1289] “Oculatissimo.” The place where there was “the most extended -eyeshot.” It is to this singular expression, probably, that Pliny -alludes. - -[1290] “Quod campum Tiberinum gratificata esset ea populo.” - -[1291] A.U.C. 441. - -[1292] See B. vii. c. 31. - -[1293] His life has been written by Diogenes Laertius, and he is -mentioned by Cicero, de Fin. B. v. c. 19, and by Strabo.—B. - -[1294] In B. xxxiii. c. 46. - -[1295] We have an account of the exploit of Clælia in Livy, B. ii. c. -13, and in Valerius Maximus, B. iii. c. 2: there is a reference to this -statue in Seneca, de Consol. c. 16.—B. - -[1296] To King Porsena. - -[1297] See end of B. xvi. - -[1298] Plutarch says that it was uncertain whether the statue was -erected to Clælia or to Valeria.—B. - -[1299] A.U.C. 596.—B. - -[1300] See Chapter 9. - -[1301] “In Octaviæ operibus.” These were certain public buildings, -erected in Rome by Augustus, and named by him after his sister Octavia; -they are mentioned by Suetonius.—B. - -[1302] Valerius Maximus refers to this event, but he names the -individual Statius Servilius, B. i. c. 8, § 6.—B. - -[1303] See B. xxxiii. cc. 50, 54. - -[1304] We have an account of the attack by Hannibal on Rome in the -twenty-sixth Book of Livy, but we have no mention of the particular -circumstance here referred to.—B. - -[1305] “Forum Boarium.” See Chapter 5. - -[1306] Livy, B. i. c. 19, informs us, that Numa made Janus of a form to -denote both peace and war.—B. - -[1307] The mode in which the fingers were placed, so as to serve the -purpose here indicated, is supposed to have been by their forming the -letters which were the Roman numerals for the figures in question. We -are informed that some MSS. of Pliny give the number three hundred and -fifty-five only, and there is reason to believe that, in the time of -Numa, this was considered to be the actual number of days in the year. -Some of the commentators, however, are disposed to read three hundred -and sixty-five; and this opinion derives some support from Macrobius, -who refers to this statue as indicating this latter number with its -fingers.—B. The Bamberg MS. gives three hundred and sixty-five. - -[1308] See end of B. iii. - -[1309] “Misoromæus”—“Roman-hater.” See end of B. iii. - -[1310] Pliny himself informs us, in B. xxxv. c. 45, that the statue of -Jupiter in the Capitol, erected by Tarquinius Priscus, was formed of -earth.—B. - -[1311] The art of moulding or modelling in argillaceous earth; see B. -xxxv. cc. 43, 45. - -[1312] See B. xxxvi. c. 2, where he informs us that this theatre was -hardly one month in use.—B. - -[1313] Hardouin gives several quotations illustrative of his liberality -in bestowing ornaments in the City, and his inattention to his domestic -concerns.—B. - -[1314] The brothers Lucius and Marcus, the former of whom triumphed in -the Mithridatic, the latter in the Macedonian War.—B. - -[1315] See end of B. ii. - -[1316] See B. vii. c. 38. - -[1317] The absolute number of statues assigned to Lysippus differs -considerably in the different editions, as is the case in almost every -instance where figures are concerned. Pliny gives a further account of -his works in the next two Chapters and in the following Book.—B. - -[1318] “Aureum.” See B. xxxiii. c. 13, and B. xxxvii. c. 3. - -[1319] In their attack upon Flavius Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian; -A.U.C. 822. - -[1320] See B. iv. c. 27. - -[1321] It was a statue of Jupiter. - -[1322] Better known by the name of Q. Fabius Maximus; he acquired the -soubriquet of Verrucosus from a large wart on the upper lip.—B. - -[1323] The Colossus of Rhodes was begun by Chares, but he committed -suicide, in consequence of having made some mistake in the estimate; -the work was completed by Laches, also an inhabitant of Lindos.—B. - -[1324] It remained on the spot where it was thrown down for nearly nine -hundred years, until the year 653 A.D., when Moavia, khalif of the -Saracens, after the capture of Rhodes, sold the materials; it is said -that it required nine hundred camels to remove the remains.—B. - -[1325] Demetrius Poliorcetes. See B. xxxv. c. 36. - -[1326] He is mentioned by Columella, in his Introduction to his work De -Re Rusticâ, in connexion with the most celebrated Grecian artists.—B. - -[1327] Suetonius, in describing the temple which Augustus dedicated to -Apollo, on the Palatine Hill, speaks of the Portico with the Latin and -Greek library.—B. - -[1328] This victory took place A.U.C. 461; we have an account of it in -Livy, the concluding Chapter of the Tenth Book.—B. - -[1329] This was a statue of Jupiter, placed on the Alban Mount, twelve -miles from Rome. At this place the various states of Latium exercised -their religious rites in conjunction with the Romans; it was sometimes -called Latialis.—B. See B. iii. c. 9, and Notes; Vol. I. p. 205. - -[1330] The designer of the Colossus at Rhodes. - -[1331] Decius is said by Hardouin to have been a statuary, but nothing -is known respecting him or his works.—B. He probably lived about the -time of the Consul P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther, A.U.C. 697. - -[1332] His country is unknown. - -[1333] See B. iv. c. 33. - -[1334] St. Jerome informs us, that Vespasian removed the head of Nero, -and substituted that of the Sun with seven rays. Martial refers to it -in the Second Epigram _De Spectaculis_, and also B. i. Ep. 71.—B. - -[1335] “Parvis admodum surculis.” There is, it appears, some difficulty -in determining the application of the word _surculis_ to the subject in -question, and we have no explanation of it by any of the commentators. -Can it refer to the frame of wicker work which contained the model into -which the melted metal was poured?—B. - -[1336] This observation has been supposed to imply, that Zenodotus -cast his statues in a number of separate pieces, which were afterwards -connected together, and not, as was the case with the great Grecian -artists, in one entire piece.—B. - -[1337] See B. xxxiii. c. 55. - -[1338] The term _signum_, which is applied to the Corinthian figures, -may mean a medallion, or perhaps a seal-ring or brooch; we only -know that it must have been something small, which might be carried -about the person, or, at least, easily moved from place to place.—B. -_Statuette_, probably. - -[1339] Her riddle, and its solution by Œdipus, are too well known to -need repetition here. - -[1340] In the following Chapter. - -[1341] Consul A.U.C. 787. - -[1342] The “Avenger.” In the Forum of Augustus, in the Eighth Region of -the City. - -[1343] “Regia.” The palace of Minerva, also in the Forum of Augustus.—B. - -[1344] See B. vii. c. 39, B. xxxv. c. 34, and B. xxxvi. c. 4. - -[1345] We have an account of this statue, and of the temple in which -it was placed, by Pausanias, B. v. There is no work of Phidias now in -existence; the sculptures in the Parthenon were, however, executed by -his pupils and under his immediate directions, so that we may form some -judgment of his genius and taste.—B. There is a foot in the British -Museum, said to be the work of Phidias. - -[1346] An Athenian; see B. xxxvi. c. 5. He is spoken of in high terms -by Pausanias and Valerius Maximus. - -[1347] Tutor of Ptolichus of Corcyra, and highly distinguished for his -statues of the slayers of the tyrants at Athens. He is mentioned also -by Lucian and Pausanias. - -[1348] The reading is uncertain here, the old editions giving -“Nestocles.” We shall _only_ devote a Note to such artists as are -mentioned by other authors besides Pliny. - -[1349] An Athenian; mentioned also by Pausanias. - -[1350] There were probably two artists of this name; one an Argive, -tutor of Phidias, and the other a Sicyonian, the person here referred -to. - -[1351] A native of Ægina, mentioned by Pausanias. There is also a -statuary of Elis of the same name, mentioned by Pausanias, and to whom -Thiersch is of opinion reference is here made. - -[1352] See Chapter 5 of this Book. - -[1353] An Argive, mentioned by Pausanias. - -[1354] See Chapter 5 of this Book. - -[1355] Again mentioned by Pliny, as a native of Rhegium in Italy. - -[1356] A native of Paros, mentioned also by Pausanias and Strabo. - -[1357] Probably “Perillus,” the artist who made the brazen bull for -Phalaris, the tyrant of Agrigentum. The old reading is “Parelius.” - -[1358] This and the following word probably mean one person—“Asopodorus -the Argive.” - -[1359] Perhaps the same person that is mentioned by Pausanias, B. vi. -c. 20, as having improved the form of the starting-place at the Olympic -Games. - -[1360] Mentioned by Pausanias as an Arcadian, and son of Clitor. - -[1361] A native of Clitorium in Arcadia, and mentioned also by -Pausanias. - -[1362] He is said by Pausanias and Athenæus to have been the son, also, -of Myron. - -[1363] Son of Motho, and a native of Argos. He was brother and -instructor of the younger Polycletus, of Argos. He is mentioned also by -Pausanias and Tatian. - -[1364] He is once mentioned by Pausanias, and there is still extant the -basis of one of his works, with his name inscribed. - -[1365] It is supposed that there were two artists of this name, both -natives of Sicyon, the one grandson of the other. They are both named -by Pausanias. - -[1366] Probably a Sicyonian; he is mentioned also by Pausanias. - -[1367] As Pliny mentions two artists of this name, it is impossible to -say to which of them Pausanias refers as being an Athenian, in B. vi. -c. 4. - -[1368] The elder artist of this name. He was an Athenian, and his -sister was the wife of Phocion. He is also mentioned by Plutarch and -Pausanias. - -[1369] An Athenian; he is mentioned also by Vitruvius, Pausanias, and -Tatian. Winckelmann mentions an inscription relative to him, which, -however, appears to be spurious. - -[1370] He is mentioned also by Pausanias, and is supposed by Sillig to -have been a Theban. - -[1371] Praxiteles held a high rank among the ancient sculptors, and may -be considered as second to Phidias alone; he is frequently mentioned by -Pausanias and various other classical writers. Pliny gives a further -account of the works of Praxiteles in the two following Books.—B. - -[1372] He was also an eminent painter, and is also mentioned by -Quintilian, Dio Chrysostom, and Plutarch. - -[1373] Another reading is “Echion.” - -[1374] See B. xxxv. cc. 32, 36. - -[1375] This great artist, a native of Sicyon, has been already -mentioned in B. vii. c. 39, and in the two preceding Chapters of the -present Book; he is again mentioned in B. xxxv. c. 39.—B. See note 1344 -above. - -[1376] Also a native of Sicyon. He is mentioned by Tatian. - -[1377] Mentioned also by Pausanias, Plutarch, Strabo, and Appian. The -next two names in former editions stand as one, “Euphronides.” - -[1378] Supposed to have been an architect, and builder of the Pharos -near Alexandria: see B. xxxvi. c. 18. The same person is mentioned also -by Strabo, Lucian, and Suidas. - -[1379] An Athenian. He is mentioned also by Pausanias, Plutarch, -Diogenes Laertius, and Tatian. - -[1380] See B. xxxv. c. 36. - -[1381] A Sicyonian, pupil of Lysippus. He is also mentioned by -Pausanias; see also B. xxxvi. c. 4. - -[1382] Son and pupil of Lysippus. He is mentioned also by Tatian, and -by some writers as the instructor of Xenocrates. - -[1383] Sillig thinks that this is a mistake made by Pliny for -“Daïppus,” a statuary mentioned by Pausanias. - -[1384] Son of Praxiteles, and mentioned by Tatian in conjunction with -Euthycrates. The elder Cephisodotus has been already mentioned. See -Note 1368. - -[1385] Another son of Praxiteles. He is also alluded to by Pausanias, -though not by name. - -[1386] His country is uncertain, but he was preceptor of Mygdon of -Soli. See B. xxxv. c. 40. - -[1387] Mentioned also by Tatian; his country is unknown. - -[1388] It is doubtful whether Pausanias alludes, in B. vi. c. 4, to -this artist, or to the one of the same name mentioned under Olymp. 102. -See Note 1367. - -[1389] Sillig suggests that this word is an adjective, denoting the -country of Polycles, in order to distinguish him from the elder -Polycles. - -[1390] We learn from Pausanias that he worked in conjunction with -Timarchides. The other artists here mentioned are quite unknown. - -[1391] Sillig, in his “Dictionary of Ancient Artists,” observes that -“this passage contains many foolish statements.” Also that there is “an -obvious intermixture in it of truth and falsehood.” - -[1392] This is universally admitted to have been one of the most -splendid works of art. It is celebrated by various writers; Pausanias -speaks of it in B. i. See also B. xxxvi. c. 4.—B. - -[1393] As being made for the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. - -[1394] Probably “Callimorphos,” or “Calliste.” We learn from Pausanias -that it was placed in the Citadel of Athens. Lucian prefers it to every -other work of Phidias. - -[1395] A figure of a female “holding keys.” The key was one of the -attributes of Proserpina, as also of Janus; but the latter was an -Italian divinity. - -[1396] “Ædem Fortunæ hujusce diei.” This reading, about which there has -been some doubt, is supported by an ancient inscription in Orellius. - -[1397] “Artem toreuticen.” See Note at the end of B. xxxiii. - -[1398] Pliny has here confounded two artists of the same name; the -Polycletus who was the successor of Phidias, and was not much inferior -to him in merit, and Polycletus of Argos, who lived 160 years later, -and who also executed many capital works, some of which are here -mentioned. It appears that Cicero, Vitruvius, Strabo, Quintilian, -Plutarch, and Lucian have also confounded these two artists; but -Pausanias, who is very correct in the account which he gives us of all -subjects connected with works of art, was aware of the distinction; and -it is from his observations that we have been enabled to correct the -error into which so many eminent writers had fallen.—B. - -[1399] Derived from the head-dress of the statue, which had the “head -ornamented with a fillet.” Lucian mentions it. - -[1400] The “Spear-bearer.” - -[1401] “Canon.” This no doubt was _the same_ statue as the Doryphoros. -See Cicero, Brut. 86, 296. - -[1402] Or “strigil.” Visconti says that this was a statue of Tydeus -purifying himself from the murder of his brother. It is represented on -gems still in existence. - -[1403] “Talo incessentem.” “Gesner (Chrestom. Plin.) has strangely -explained these words as intimating a person _in the act of kicking -another_. He seems to confound the words _talus_ and _calx_.”—Sillig, -Dict. Ancient Artists. - -[1404] “The players at dice.” This is the subject of a painting found -at Herculaneum.—B. - -[1405] The “Leader.” A name given also to Mercury, in Pausanias, B. -viii. c. 31. See Sillig, Dict. Ancient Artists. - -[1406] “Carried about.” It has been supposed by some commentators, that -Artemon acquired this surname from his being carried about in a litter, -in consequence of his lameness; a very different derivation has been -assigned by others to the word, on the authority of Anacreon, as quoted -by Heraclides Ponticus, that it was applied to Artemon in consequence -of his excessively luxurious and effeminate habits of life.—B. It was -evidently a recumbent figure. Ajasson compares this voluptuous person -to “_le gentleman Anglais aux Indes_”—“The English Gentleman in India!” - -[1407] See Note 1397 above. - -[1408] “Quadrata.” Brotero quotes a passage from Celsus, B. ii c. 1, -which serves to explain the use of this term as applied to the form -of a statue; “Corpus autem habilissimum quadratum est, neque gracile, -neque obesum.”—B. “The body best adapted for activity is square-built, -and neither slender nor obese.” - -[1409] “Ad unum exemplum.” Having a sort of family likeness, similarly -to our pictures by Francia the Goldsmith, and Angelica Kaufmann. - -[1410] Myron was born at Eleutheræ, in Bœotia; but having been -presented by the Athenians with the freedom of their city, he -afterwards resided there, and was always designated an Athenian.—B. - -[1411] This figure is referred to by Ovid, De Ponto, B. iv. Ep. 1, l. -34, as also by a host of Epigrammatic writers in the Greek Anthology. - -[1412] See the Greek Anthology, B. vi. Ep. 2. - -[1413] “Player with the Discus.” It is mentioned by Quintilian and -Lucian. There is a copy of it in marble in the British Museum, and -one in the Palazzo Massimi at Home. The Heifer of Myron is mentioned -by Procopius, as being at Rome in the sixth century. No copy of it is -known to exist. - -[1414] Seen by Pausanias in the Acropolis at Athens. - -[1415] Or “Sawyers.” - -[1416] In reference to the story of the Satyr Marsyas and Minerva, told -by Ovid, Fasti, B. vi. l. 697, _et seq._ - -[1417] Persons engaged in the five contests of quoiting, running, -leaping, wrestling, and hurling the javelin. - -[1418] Competitors in boxing and wrestling. - -[1419] Mentioned by Cicero In Verrem, Or. 4. This Circus was in the -Eleventh Region of the city. - -[1420] See the Anthology, B. iii. Ep. 14, where an epigram on this -subject is ascribed to Anytes or Leonides; but the Myro mentioned is a -female. See Sillig, Dict. Ancient Artists. - -[1421] She was a poetess of Teios or Lesbos, and a contemporary of -Sappho. - -[1422] “Multiplicasse veritatem.” Sillig has commented at some length -on this passage, Dict. Ancient Artists. - -[1423] See Note 1418 above. - -[1424] There is a painter of this name mentioned in B. xxxv. c. 43. The -reading is extremely doubtful. - -[1425] Mentioned by Plato, De Legibus, B. viii. and by Pausanias, B. -vi. c. 13. He was thrice victorious at the Olympic Games. - -[1426] Python. - -[1427] From the Greek word Δικαιὸς, “just,” or “trustworthy.”—B. - -[1428] Diogenes Laertius mentions a Pythagoras, a statuary, in his -life of his celebrated namesake, the founder of the great school of -philosophy.—B. Pausanias, B. ix. c. 33, speaks of a Parian statuary of -this name. - -[1429] See Note 1395 above. - -[1430] See end of B. vii. - -[1431] Cicero remarks, Brut. 86, 296, “that Lysippus used to say -that the Doryphoros of Polycletus was his master,” implying that -he considered himself indebted for his skill to having studied the -above-mentioned work of Polycletus.—B. - -[1432] In Chapter 17 of this Book.—B. - -[1433] The same subject, which, as mentioned above, had been treated by -Polycletus.—B. - -[1434] In the Eighth Region of the City. - -[1435] Ἀποξυόμενος, the Greek name of the statue, signifying -one “scraping himself.” - -[1436] The head encircled with rays. - -[1437] The lines of Horace are well known, in which he says, that -Alexander would allow his portrait to be painted by no one except -Apelles, nor his statue to be made by any one except Lysippus, Epist. -B. ii. Ep. 1, l. 237.—B. - -[1438] This expression would seem to indicate that the gold was -attached to the bronze by some mechanical process, and not that the -statue was covered with thin leaves of the metal.—B. - -[1439] This story is adopted by Apuleius, in the “Florida,” B. i., who -says that Polycletus was the only artist who made a statue of Alexander. - -[1440] A large group of equestrian statues, representing those of -Alexander’s body-guard, who had fallen at the battle of the Granicus. - -[1441] A.U.C. 606. - -[1442] See the Greek Anthology, B. iv. Ep. 14, where this subject is -treated of in the epigram upon his statue of Opportunity, represented -with the forelock. - -[1443] Which is a word of Greek origin, somewhat similar to our word -“proportion.” - -[1444] At Lebadæa in Bœotia. - -[1445] Hardouin seems to think that “fiscina” here means a “muzzle.” -The Epigram in the Greek Anthology, B. iv. c. 7, attributed to King -Philip, is supposed by Hardouin to bear reference to this figure. - -[1446] The circumstance here referred to is related by Q. Curtius, B. -ix. c. 5, as having occurred at the siege of the city of the Oxydracæ; -according to other historians, however, it is said to have taken place -at a city of the Malli.—B. - -[1447] See Note 1417, above. - -[1448] Κατάγουσα; a figure of Ceres, probably, “leading back” -Proserpine from the domains of Pluto. Sillig, however, dissents from -this interpretation; Dict. Ancient Artists. - -[1449] Or Bacchus. - -[1450] See Pausanias, B. i. c. 20. Sillig says, “Pliny seems to have -confounded two Satyrs made by Praxiteles, for that here named stood -alone in the ‘Via Tripodum’ at Athens, and was quite different from the -one which was associated with the figure of Intoxication, and that of -Bacchus.”—Dict. Ancient Artists. - -[1451] “Much-famed.” Visconti is of opinion that the Reposing Satyr, -formerly in the Napoleon Museum at Paris, was a copy of this statue. -Winckelmann is also of the same opinion. - -[1452] In the Second Region of the city. According to Cicero, in -Verrem. vi., they were brought from Achaia by L. Mummius, who took them -from Thespiæ, A.U.C. 608. - -[1453] See B. xxxvi. c. 4. - -[1454] A woman plaiting garlands. - -[1455] A soubriquet for an old hag, it is thought. - -[1456] A female carrying wine. - -[1457] According to Valerius Maximus, B. ii. s. 10, these statues were -restored, not by Alexander, but by his successor Seleucus.—B. Sillig -makes the following remark upon this passage—“Pliny here strangely -confounds the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton, made by Praxiteles, -with other figures of those heroes of a much more ancient date, made by -Antenor.” - -[1458] From σαυρὸς a “lizard,” and κτείνω, “to kill.” This statue -is described by Martial, B. xiv. Ep. 172, entitled “Sauroctonos -Corinthius.”—B. Many fine copies of it are still in existence, and -Winckelmann is of opinion that the bronze at the Villa Albani is the -original. There are others at the Villa Borghese and in the Vatican. - -[1459] In her worthless favours, probably. Praxiteles was a great -admirer of Phryne, and inscribed on the base of this statue an Epigram -of Simonides, preserved in the Greek Anthology, B. iv. Ep. 12. She was -also said to have been the model of his Cnidian Venus. - -[1460] This artist is mentioned also by Cicero, Pausanias, Propertius, -and Ovid, the two latter especially remarking the excellence of his -horses.—B. See B. xxxiii. c. 55. - -[1461] The mother of Hercules.—B. - -[1462] See B. xxxvi. c. 4. Having now given an account of the artists -most distinguished for their genius, Pliny proceeds to make some -remarks upon those who were less famous, in alphabetical order.—B. - -[1463] The “highly approved.” - -[1464] Or “Lioness.” See B. vii. c. 23. - -[1465] The reading is doubtful here. “Iphicrates” and “Tisicrates” are -other readings. - -[1466] The same story is related by Athenæus, B. xiii., and by -Pausanias.—B. - -[1467] Pisistratus and his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. - -[1468] A lioness. - -[1469] She having bitten off her tongue, that she might not confess. - -[1470] Hardouin has offered a plausible conjecture, that for the -word “Seleucum,” we should read “Salutem,” as implying that the two -statues executed by Bryaxis were those of Æsculapius and the Goddess of -Health.—B. - -[1471] Already mentioned as a son of Lysippus. - -[1472] In the Eighth Region of the City. - -[1473] This reading appears preferable to “Cresilas,” though the latter -is supported by the Bamberg MS. - -[1474] Ajasson quotes here the beautiful words of Virgil—“Et dulces -moriens reminiscitur Argos”—“Remembers his lov’d Argos, as he dies.” - -[1475] Dalechamps supposes that Pericles was here represented in the -act of addressing the people; Hardouin conceives that this statue -received its title from the thunder of his eloquence in debate, or else -from the mighty power which he wielded both in peace and war, or some -of the other reasons which Plutarch mentions in the Life of Pericles.—B. - -[1476] It is doubtful to which of the artists of this name he alludes, -the elder or the younger Cephisodotus, the son of Praxiteles. Sillig -inclines to think the former—Dict. Ancient Artists. - -[1477] The “Deliverer.” - -[1478] The elder Canachus, probably. - -[1479] The “Lovely.” Brotero says that this is believed to be the -Florentine Apollo of the present day. It stood in the Temple at Didymi, -near Miletus, until the return of Xerxes from his expedition against -Greece, when it was removed to Ecbatana, but was afterwards restored by -Seleucus Nicator. - -[1480] See B. v. c. 31. - -[1481] “Alterno morsu calce digitisque retinentibus solum, ita -vertebrato dente utrisque in partibus ut a repulsu per vices resiliat.” -He seems to mean that the statue is so made as to be capable of -standing either on the right fore foot and the left hind foot, or on -the left fore foot and the right hind foot, the conformation of the -under part of the foot being such as to fit into the base. - -[1482] The following are the words of the original: “Ita vertebrato -dente utrisque in partibus.” I confess myself unable to comprehend -them, nor do I think that they are satisfactorily explained by -Hardouin’s comment.—B. - -[1483] The “Riders on horseback.” - -[1484] It is supposed by Sillig, Dict. Ancient Artists, that this -is the same person as the Cresilas, Ctesilas, or Ctesilaüs, before -mentioned in this Chapter, and that Pliny himself has committed a -mistake in the name. - -[1485] A figure of a man “brandishing a spear.” See Note 1400 above. - -[1486] He is mentioned by Quintilian as being more attentive to -exactness than to beauty; also by Diogenes Laertius, B. v. c. 85. -Sillig supposes that he flourished in the time of Pericles. Pausanias, -B. i., speaks of his Lysimache. - -[1487] The Athenians in their flattery, as we learn from Seneca, -expressed a wish to affiance their Minerva Musica to Marc Antony. His -reply was, that he would be happy to take her, but with one thousand -talents by way of portion. - -[1488] He is mentioned by Xenophon, according to whom, he dedicated the -brazen statue of a horse in the Eleusinium at Athens. He was probably -an Athenian by birth. - -[1489] Son of Patroclus, who is previously mentioned as having lived in -the 95th Olympiad. He was a native of Sicyon, and flourished about B.C. -400. Several works of his are also mentioned by Pausanias. - -[1490] Or “strigil.” See Note 1435 above. - -[1491] The first Grecian slain at Troy. - -[1492] Famous also as a painter. See B. xxxv. c. 40.—B. Paris, the son -of Priam, was known by both of these names. - -[1493] Q. Lutatius Catulus. - -[1494] “Bonus Eventus;” Varro, de Re Rustica, B. i. c. 1, applies -this term to one of the deities that preside over the labours of the -agriculturist. His temple was situate near the Baths of Agrippa.—B. - -[1495] In the Eighth Region of the City. - -[1496] See Note 1395, page 171. - -[1497] Pausanias, B. vi., speaks of a statue of Ancient Greece, but the -name of the artist is not mentioned.—B. - -[1498] See B. iv. c, 8. - -[1499] Brotero informs us, from Ficoroni, that there is a gem still in -existence on which this design of Eutychides is engraved.—B. - -[1500] Thiersch considers him to be identical with the elder Hegesias. -He is mentioned also by Pausanias, B. viii. c. 42. - -[1501] See Note 1483, above. - -[1502] Dedicated by Augustus on the Capitoline Hill, in the Eighth -Region of the City. - -[1503] Sillig distinguishes three artists of this name. - -[1504] See B. v. c. 40, and B. vii. c. 2. - -[1505] The “Sacrificers of the ox.” - -[1506] The son also. - -[1507] Martial expresses the same idea in his Epigram, B. i. Ep. 7; but -he does not refer to this statue.—B. Two copies of this Ganymede are -still in existence at Rome. - -[1508] Pausanias informs us, B. i. and B. ix., that he saw this statue -in the Prytanæum of Athens.—B. Autolycus obtained this victory about -the 89th or 90th Olympiad. - -[1509] It was in honour of a victory gained by him in the _pentathlon_ -at the Great Panathenæa, that Callias gave the Symposium described by -Xenophon. - -[1510] Martial, B. ix. Ep. 51, where he is pointing at the analogy -between his poems and 95the works of the most eminent sculptors, -probably refers to this statue:— - -“Nos facimus Bruti puerum, nos Lagona vivum.”—B. - -The reading “Lagonem,” or “Langonem,” certainly seems superior to that -of the Bamberg MS.—“Mangonem,” a “huckster.” - -[1511] For some further mention of him, see end of B. iv. - -[1512] Delafosse has pointed out the resemblance between this statue -and one of the works of Michael Angelo, representing David kneeling on -Goliath, and pressing back the giant’s neck.—B. - -[1513] A native of Argos, who flourished in the 95th Olympiad. He was -the son of Motho, and brother and instructor of the younger Polycletus -of Argos. Several of his statues are mentioned by Pausanias and Tatian. - -[1514] Ajasson thinks that three statues in the Royal Museum at Paris -may possibly be copies of this Discobolus of Naucydes. - -[1515] The Goddess of Health, and daughter of Æsculapius. Niceratus was -a native of Athens, and is also mentioned by Tatian. - -[1516] A “Female sacrificing.” The reading is very doubtful. - -[1517] The “Man cooking entrails.” For some further account of this -statue, see B. xxii. c. 20. This artist is unknown, but Thiersch -suggests that he may have been the father of Cleomenes, whose name -appears on the base of the Venus de Medicis. - -[1518] The master of the Gymnasium. - -[1519] He is twice mentioned by Pausanias: more particularly for the -excellence of his horses and oxen. His country is unknown. - -[1520] “The beautiful-legged.” This statue has been mentioned at the -end of Chapter 18, as having been greatly admired by Nero. - -[1521] This, it is supposed, is the statue to which Martial alludes in -his Epigram, mentioned in Note 1510 above.—B. - -[1522] There were two artists of this name, both natives of Samos. The -present is the elder Theodorus, and is mentioned by Pausanias as having -been the first to fuse iron for statues. He is spoken of by numerous -ancient authors, and by Pliny in B. vii. c. 57, B. xxxv. c. 45, and B. -xxxvi. c. 19, where he is erroneously mentioned as a Lemnian. - -[1523] At Crete: Athenagoras mentions him in conjunction with Dædalus. - -[1524] See B. vii. c. 21. Hardouin thinks that this bears reference to -the conquest of the younger Marius by Sylla, mentioned in B. xxxiii. c. -5. Müller and Meyer treat this story of the brazen statue as a fiction. - -[1525] Probably the same author that is mentioned at the end of B. -xxxiii. See also B. xxxv. c. 36. - -[1526] The Galli here spoken of were a tribe of the Celts, who invaded -Asia Minor, and afterwards uniting with the Greeks, settled in a -portion of Bithynia, which hence acquired the name of Gallo-Græcia or -Galatia.—B. - -[1527] See end of B. xxxiii. Attalus I., king of Pergamus, conquered -the Galli, B.C. 239. Pyromachus has been mentioned a few lines before, -and Stratonicus, in B. xxxiii. c. 55, also by Athenæus. - -[1528] A native of Carthage. A work of his is mentioned by Cicero, in -Verrem 4, 14, and in the Culex, l. 66, attributed to Virgil. See also -B. xxxiii. c. 55. - -[1529] In the Eighth Region of the City. - -[1530] We are informed by Pausanias, B. x., that Nero carried off from -Greece 500 bronze statues of gods and men.—B. - -[1531] See B. xxxvi. c. 24. - -[1532] See B. xxxv. c. 55. - -[1533] Mentioned by Pausanias, B. vi. Many of these artists are -altogether unknown. - -[1534] See B. xxxiii. c. 55. - -[1535] See B. xxxiii. c. 55. - -[1536] See B. xxxiii. c. 56, and B. xxxv. c. 35. - -[1537] Probably the same artist that has been mentioned in the -preceding page. - -[1538] The artist already mentioned as having been represented by -Silanion. - -[1539] Pausanias, B. iii., speaks of his statue of Cynisca, a female -who was victor at the Olympic games. Indeed, the victors at these games -were frequently represented in a posture resembling that of adoration. - -[1540] A man “scraping himself,” probably. See Note 1435, page 175. The -“Tyrannicides” were Harmodius and Aristogiton. - -[1541] Tatian mentions an artist of this name. - -[1542] Sillig thinks that this was Seleucus, king of Babylon, B.C. 312. - -[1543] See Note 1485 above. - -[1544] Pausanias, B. viii., gives an account of a statue of Diana, made -of Pentelican marble, by this Cephisodotus, a native of Athens; he is -supposed to have flourished in the 102nd Olympiad. In the commencement -of this Chapter, Pliny has enumerated a Cephisodotus among the artists -of the 120th Olympiad.—B. - -[1545] Bacchus. - -[1546] The elder artist of this name. See B. xxxv. c. 34. - -[1547] A native of Sicyon; Pausanias, B. v. cc. 17, 21, informs us -that Cleon made a statue of Venus and two statues of Jupiter; he also -mentions others of his works in B. vi.—B. - -[1548] A native of Megara. He made a statue of Diagoras the pugilist, -who was victor at the Olympic games, B.C. 464. He is mentioned also by -Pausanias. - -[1549] Probably the same with the “Laïppus” mentioned in the early part -of this Chapter. Sillig, Dict. Ancient Artists, considers “Daïppus” to -be the right name. - -[1550] See Note 1540 above. - -[1551] A native of Sicyon, and pupil of Pison, according to Pausanias, -B. vi. c. 3. He flourished about the 100th Olympiad. - -[1552] Works of his at Athens are mentioned by Pausanias, B. i. c. 2, -who also states that he was father of Euchir, the Athenian. - -[1553] A statuary of Syracuse, son of Niceratus. He made two statues -of Hiero II., king of Syracuse, who died B.C. 215. He must not be -confounded with the painter and statuary of the same name, mentioned in -B. xxxiii. c. 56, and B. xxxv. c. 35. He is mentioned also by Pausanias. - -[1554] An Athenian, son of Euctemon. He is mentioned also by Tatian, -and is supposed by Sillig to have flourished about B.C. 420. - -[1555] Called Dinomache by Plutarch. - -[1556] Already mentioned as a successful pupil of Lysippus. - -[1557] He was probably a native of Agrigentum, and flourished about -B.C. 560. The brazen bull of Perillus, and his unhappy fate, are -recorded by many of the classical writers, among others by Valerius -Maximus, B. ix. cc. 2, 9, and by Ovid, Art. Am. B. i. ll. 653-4.—B. - -[1558] See B. vii. c. 57. - -[1559] Mentioned at the commencement of this Chapter. - -[1560] A statuary of Ægina, mentioned also by Pausanias, B. v. c. 27, -in connexion with Dionysius of Argos. He flourished about Olymp. 76. - -[1561] Already mentioned in B. xxxiii. c. 55, and previously in this -Chapter. - -[1562] “Scopas uterque.” Sillig, Dict. Ancient Artists, expresses -an opinion that these words are an interpolation; but in his last -edition of Pliny, he thinks with M. Ian, that some words are wanting, -expressive of the branch in which these artists excelled. See also B. -xxxvi. cc. 5, 14. - -[1563] He is previously mentioned in this Chapter. See p. 179. - -[1564] An Athenian artist, son of Eubulides. He is also mentioned by -Pausanias. - -[1565] A Lacedæmonian artist, also mentioned by Pausanias. - -[1566] See B. xxxvi. c. 4. - -[1567] Mentioned also by Pausanias, B. i. c. 3. - -[1568] Probably _not_ the Athenian statuary mentioned by Pausanias, B. -ix. c. 7. See Sillig, Dict. Ancient Artists. - -[1569] A native of Phocis, mentioned also by Vitruvius. - -[1570] Also a Dithyrambic poet; mentioned by Diodorus Siculus. - -[1571] In B. xxxv. c. 36. - -[1572] See B. xxxiii. c. 55. - -[1573] Mentioned by Tatian as having made the statue of Eutychis. See -Pliny, B. vii. c. 3. - -[1574] He executed a statue of Hephæstion; and an inscription relative -to him is preserved by Wheler, Spon, and Chishull. - -[1575] See B. xxxvi. c. 4. - -[1576] A native of Sardis; mentioned by Pausanias. - -[1577] An Athenian, mentioned also by Pausanias. - -[1578] Strabo mentions some of his productions in the Temple at Ephesus. - -[1579] “Fritterer away of his works.” He was also an engraver on gold, -and a painter. He is spoken of in high terms by Vitruvius, Pausanias, -and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. - -[1580] We have an account of Cato’s honourable conduct on this occasion -in Plutarch.—B. See also B. xxix. c. 30. - -[1581] “Inane exemplum.” Hardouin thinks that this is said in reference -to his neglect of the example set by his grandfather, Cato the Censor, -who hated the Greeks. See B. vii. c. 31. - -[1582] In the poisoned garment, which was the eventual cause of his -death.—B. - -[1583] The general who conducted the war against Mithridates.—B. - -[1584] See B. xxxiii. c. 46. “Chaplet” copper. - -[1585] “Bar” copper, or “malleable.” - -[1586] It is very improbable that this effect could be produced by the -cause here assigned; but without a more detailed account of the process -employed, we cannot explain the change of colour.—B. - -[1587] Πυρωπὸς, “sparkling like fire.” Similar to, if not identical -with, our tinsel. - -[1588] “Cast brass.” - -[1589] See Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 415. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1590] In the former Editions the whole of the next ten lines, from -this word down to “sun” is omitted. It is evident that it has been -left out by accident, in consequence of the recurrence of the word -“Campano.” The hiatus has been supplied from the Bamberg MS., and the -reading is supported by the text of Isidorus, Orig. B. xvi. c. 20, s. 9. - -[1591] “Collectanei.” - -[1592] “Formalis.” - -[1593] “Plumbi nigri”—“black lead,” literally, but not what _we_ mean -by that name. - -[1594] The “Grecian” colour. It does not appear to have been -identified, nor does it appear what it has to do with moulds. - -[1595] “Pot” copper, or brass. - -[1596] Beckmann is of opinion that this “plumbum argentarium” was a -mixture of equal parts of tin and lead. Hist. Inv. Vol. II, p. 220. -_Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1597] Most of these preparations are in reality highly dangerous. -Oxides, however, or salts of copper, have been employed internally -with success, acting by alvine evacuation and by vomiting. The _Crocus -Veneris_ of the old chemists was an oxide of copper. It is still used -by the peasants of Silesia, Ajasson says. - -[1598] It is obvious that the “cadmia” here described must be an -essentially different substance from the “cadmia” mentioned in the -second Chapter of this Book, that being a natural production, possibly -calamine or hydrosilicate or carbonate of zinc; while the “cadmia” -of this Chapter is a furnace-calamine, a product of the fusion of -the ore of copper, or zinc.—B. It is evident, too, that copper ores, -impregnated with zinc or calamine, also passed under this name. See -Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. pp. 33-35, _Bohn’s Edition_, where this -subject is discussed at considerable length: also the treatise by -Delafosse, in Lemaire’s Edition of Pliny. - -[1599] The metal known to us as “cadmium” was discovered by Professor -Stromeyer in 1818: it is either associated in its ores with zinc, or -forms a native sulphuret. - -[1600] “Smoky residue.” None of these substances formed in smelting are -preserved for medicinal purposes at the present day. Tutty is an impure -oxide of zinc. - -[1601] “Cluster residue.” From its resemblance to a bunch of grapes. - -[1602] “Caked residue.” - -[1603] “Shell-formed residue.” - -[1604] See B. xiv. c. 16. - -[1605] See end of B. iii. - -[1606] See end of B. xii. - -[1607] We have the same account of the medicinal effects of Cadmia, -and the other preparations mentioned in this Chapter, given by -Dioscorides.—B. - -[1608] For an account of the “alumen” of the ancients, see B. xxxv. c. -52. - -[1609] See B. xxxiii. c. 21, and B. xxxvi. c. 13. - -[1610] See B. xxxiii. c. 37. - -[1611] “Æris flos.” Ajasson makes some correct remarks upon the -difference between the “scoria” and the “flower” of the metal. The -former may be considered as consisting of the metal, mixed with a -certain proportion of heterogeneous matter, which has been separated -during the fusion of the ore, while the latter consists of the pure -metal in a state of mechanical division.—B. - -[1612] From the Greek λεπὶς, “husk,” or “scale.” - -[1613] Ajasson describes this substance as consisting merely of the -pure metal in a state of minute mechanical division; it would appear, -therefore, to be scarcely, if at all, different from the articles -described in the last Chapter. The word Στόμωμα means a “hard -substance,” or “hard scales,” therefore the application of this term to -a substance like down, “lanugo,” is perhaps not very appropriate.—B. - -[1614] Beckmann comments at some length on this passage; Vol. I. p. -328. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1615] “Seplasiæ.” The druggists dwelling in the Seplasia. See B. -xxxiii. c. 58. - -[1616] In Chapters 22 and 23, as applied to Cadmia and Cyprian copper, -respectively.—B. - -[1617] “Ærugo.” The researches of modern chemists have ascertained the -composition of verdigris to be a diacetete of copper; the sesquibasic -acetate and the triacetate are also to be considered as varieties -of this substance; we have an exact analysis of these salts in the -“Elements” of the late Dr. Turner, the Sixth Edition, edited by -Professor Liebig and Mr. W. Turner, pp. 931, 2. Most of the processes -described in this Chapter are mentioned by Dioscorides.—B. See also -Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 171, _et seq._, _Bohn’s Edition_. - -[1618] According to Brotero, this is the process generally adopted in -France, in preference to the employment of vinegar in a pure state.—B. - -[1619] The form of copper which was termed “coronarium” has been -already described in Chapter 22.—B. - -[1620] “Atramento sutorio.” “Shoemakers’ black.” See Chapters 27 and 32 -of this Book. - -[1621] Until it assumes an ashy colour, Dioscorides says.—B. - -[1622] See B. xii. cc. 30, 32. - -[1623] According to Celsus, this substance obtained its name from -the person who invented or compounded it; he calls it “Collyrium of -Hierax.”—B. - -[1624] “Atramenti sutorii, quod chalcanthum vocant.” We may presume -that this substance was somewhat different from the “atramentum -sutorium” mentioned in the last Chapter: the word “chalcanthum” means -“flower of copper;” χαλκοῦ ἄνθος.—B. Delafosse identities -it with blue vitriol, sulphate, or hydro-trisulphate of copper. See -Chapter 32. - -[1625] See Chapter 31. - -[1626] From the Greek σκωλὴξ, “a worm,” “Vermicular Verdigris.”—“The -accounts of this substance in ancient authors seem to some commentators -to be obscure; but in my opinion we are to understand by them that the -ingredients were pounded together till the paste they formed assumed -the appearance of pieces or threads like worms. For the same reason the -Italians give the name of _vermicelli_ to wire-drawn paste of flour -used in cookery.”—Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 173, _Bohn’s Edition_. - -[1627] In B. xxxiii. c. 29.—B. - -[1628] The name, no doubt, of a copper ore which has not been -identified. Delafosse suggests that it may have been an ore of iron -and copper pyrites in combination with a silky copper malachite. See -Chapter 2 of this Book, and B. xxxv. c. 52. - -[1629] Brongniart is of opinion that the “sory” of Pliny is the -sulphate of copper, probably with an excess of acid. He informs us that -he has received a specimen of a native sulphate of copper from Cuença, -in Spain, which possesses all the characteristics of “sory” as here -described. He considers it more difficult to ascertain the chemical -composition of “misy,” but is disposed to consider it as a mixed -sulphate of iron and copper.—B. - -[1630] In the next two Chapters.—B. - -[1631] We have a similar account of its medicinal virtues given us by -Dioscorides; Celsus also enumerates chalcitis among the corrosives, or -cauteries, “quæ exedunt corpus.” He also recommends it for affections -of the eyes.—B. - -[1632] “Sore ointment.” - -[1633] See Note 1629 above. - -[1634] See Note 1629 above. Hardouin calls this substance “yellow -copperas,” or “Roman vitriol.” - -[1635] “In scrobibus.” The mineral alluded to is Chalcitis, mentioned -in Chapter 29.—B. - -[1636] Χαλκοῦ ἄνθος. “Flower of copper.”—B. - -[1637] “Atramentum sutorium.” It was thus called from its being used -for colouring leather. Under this name he probably includes green -vitriol, or sulphate of the protoxide of iron, and blue vitriol, or -sulphate, and hydro-trisulphate of copper, the former of which is, -properly, our copperas. See Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 181, _et -seq._ _Bohn’s Edition._ See also Note 1624 above. - -[1638] In reality, the “chalcanthum” of Dioscorides was the small -scales separated from molten copper by the application of water. See -Chapters 24 and 25 above. - -[1639] Of this kind, probably. See Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 182. - -[1640] From this _vitreous_ appearance of the crystals of vitriol, it -is most probable that vitriol derives its name. See Beckmann, Vol. I. -p. 184. - -[1641] “Drop,” or “globule” chalcanthum. - -[1642] Possibly a corruption of “leucoion,” “violet white.” - -[1643] He has described the mode of procuring salt, by evaporating the -brine in shallow pits, in B. xxxi. c. 39.—B. - -[1644] It is difficult to ascertain the exact nature of the substances -treated of in this Chapter. Ajasson has some judicious remarks upon -them, in which he points out what appear to be inconsistencies in the -account given of them, and of their relation to each other.—B. Ajasson -says that there is no doubt that a mammose or terreous carbonate of -copper is meant under these names. These substances are no longer -known, but our tutty, or impure oxide of zinc, bears some resemblance -to them. - -[1645] See B. xix. c. 4, and Chapters 34 and 52 of this Book. - -[1646] A Greek word, signifying “ashes,” or the residuum after -combustion.—B. - -[1647] From the corresponding passage in Dioscorides, there is some -doubt whether the account of this process here given is correct.—B. - -[1648] So called from Laurium, a district in Attica, in which there -were silver mines. See Pausanias, B. i.—B. - -[1649] Meaning “Substitute for spodos.” - -[1650] See B. xxiii. cc. 38, 63. - -[1651] See B. xxi. c. 26, and B. xvi. c. 20. - -[1652] See B. xxi. c. 95. - -[1653] See B. xi. c. 94.—B. - -[1654] “Detersive composition.” - -[1655] From Δὶς φρυγέσθαι.—“being twice calcined.”—B. - -[1656] The Scoriæ, Cadmia, and Flos, which are described in Chapters -22, 23 and 24.—B. - -[1657] A Roman coin, equal to the third part of the “as.”—B. - -[1658] We most fully coincide with Pliny in this sentiment, but we are -constrained to differ from him in giving credit to the alleged fact, as -he appears to have done.—B. - -[1659] See the list of authors at the end of this Book. - -[1660] “Arbusta:” trees on which vines were trained. See B. xvii. c. 35. - -[1661] Holland has the following Note upon this passage: “O Pliny, what -wouldst thou say, if thou didst see and hear the pistols, muskets, -culverines, and cannons in these days.” Vol. II. p. 513.—B. - -[1662] The charge that death is always the work of Nature.—B. - -[1663] Or “stylus.” - -[1664] See Ovid, Metam. B. iv. l. 467, _et seq._; and Fasti, B. vi. l. -489, _et seq._—B. - -[1665] An artist mentioned also by Ovid and Pausanias.—B. And by Virgil. - -[1666] “Mars Ultor.” In the Forum of Augustus, in the Eighth Region of -the City. - -[1667] The Isle of Elba, which has been celebrated for the extent and -the richness of its iron mines both by the ancients and the moderns.—B. -Ajasson remarks that it appears to be a solid rock composed of peroxide -of iron. - -[1668] “Clavis caligariis.” See B. viii. c. 44, B. ix. c. 33, and B. -xxii. c. 46. - -[1669] There have been numerous opinions on the meaning of this word, -and its signification is very doubtful. Beckmann has the following -remarks in reference to this passage:—“In my opinion, this was the name -given to pieces of steel completely manufactured and brought to that -state which rendered them fit for commerce. At present steel comes -from Biscay in cakes, from other places in bars, and both these were -formerly called ‘stricturæ,’ because they were employed chiefly for -giving sharpness to instruments, or tools, that is, for steeling them. -In speaking of other metals, Pliny says that the finished productions -at the works were not called ‘stricturæ’ (the case, for example, with -copper), though sharpness could be given to instruments with other -metals also. The words of Pliny just quoted are read different ways, -and still remain obscure. I conjecture that he meant to say, that some -steel-works produced things which were entirely of steel, and that -others were employed only in steeling—‘ad densandas incudes malleorumve -rostra.’ I shall here remark that these ‘stricturæ ferri’ remind us of -the ‘striges auri,’ (see B. xxxiii. c. 19), such being the name given -to native pieces of gold, which, without being smelted, were used in -commerce.”—Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 327. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1670] “A stringendâ acie.” The iron was probably formed into thin, -long bars, in thickness resembling a steel used for sharpening. The -French word _acier_, meaning “steel,” may possibly come from the Latin -“acies”—“edge,” as Beckmann has suggested. - -[1671] Situate at the spot now known as “Bambola,” near Calatayud. The -river Salo ran near it, the waters of which, as here mentioned, were -celebrated for their power of tempering steel. The poet Martial was a -native of this place. - -[1672] Supposed to be the modern Tarragona. - -[1673] See B. iii. c. 21. - -[1674] See B. vi. cc. 20-24, B. vii. c. 2, and B. xii. cc. 1, 41. This -Seric iron has not been identified. Ctesias, as quoted by Photius, -mentions Indian iron. Sec Beckmann, Vol. II. p. 228. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1675] Thought by Beckmann, quoting from Bottiger, possibly to bear -reference to a transfer trade of furs, through Serica, from the North -of Asia. See Vol. II. p. 307. As to the Seric tissues, see B. xxxvii. -c. 77. - -[1676] Or “Persian.” The steel of Damascus had in the middle ages a -high reputation. - -[1677] See B. iii. cc. 24, 27. Horace speaks of the “Norican sword” on -two occasions.—B. - -[1678] See B. iii. cc. 9, 17. - -[1679] See B. xviii. c. 67, and B. xxxvi. c. 38. - -[1680] B. xxxvi. c. 25. - -[1681] Properly “bubbles,” or “beads.” - -[1682] See B. xxxvi. c. 66. In the account of the loadstone referred to -above, he informs us that this mineral was employed in the formation of -glass.—B. Beckmann is of opinion that Manganese is here alluded to. See -Vol. II. p. 237. - -[1683] Another reading is “Dinochares,” or “Dinocrates,” for an account -of whom, see B. v. c. 11, and B. vii. c. 38. - -[1684] Wife and sister of Ptolemy Philadelphus. See B. vi. c. 33, and -B. xxxvi. c. 14. - -[1685] Some accounts state that the statue was to be of brass, and the -head of iron. It is said that the same thing was attempted with respect -to the statue of Mahomet, in his tomb at Medina.—B. - -[1686] We learn from Bowles that the celebrated mine of Sommorostro is -still worked for this metal. - -[1687] See B. iv. c. 34.—B. - -[1688] Both the reading and the meaning of this passage are very -doubtful. - -[1689] See B. v. c. 21.—B. - -[1690] We may presume that Pliny supposed that the ancient links had -been protected by some of the substances mentioned above, although this -is not distinctly stated.—B. Or rather by some religious ceremony as -above alluded to. - -[1691] “Nocturnas lymphationes.”—B. - -[1692] The _actual_ cautery, as it is termed, is occasionally employed, -in certain diseases, by the moderns, but I am not aware that it has -been tried in hydrophobia.—B. This precaution is sometimes used by -country practitioners, at all events. - -[1693] I cannot agree with Delafosse in his remark that “this remedy -also is much in use for cœliac and other affections at the present -day.”—B. It is still recommended by old women in the country, for -children more particularly. - -[1694] There are two versions of this story. In B. xxv. c. 19, Pliny -says that Achilles cured Telephus by the application of a plant, which -from him received its name. According to the other account, the oracle -had declared, that the wound of Telephus, which had been inflicted by -Achilles, could only be cured by means of the same weapon which had -caused it.—B. - -[1695] All the statements in this Chapter are to be found in -Dioscorides, B. v. c. 93.—B. - -[1696] The scaly excrescences beaten from iron in the forges, Hardouin -says.—B. - -[1697] From the Greek ὕγρον πλαστρὸν.—B. - -[1698] See B. xxxv. c. 57.—B. - -[1699] It is most probable that the “black lead” of Pliny was our lead, -and the “white lead” our tin. Beckmann has considered these Chapters at -great length, Vol. II. p. 209, _et seq._ _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1700] Supposed to have been derived from the Oriental word _Kastîra_. - -[1701] What is here adduced as a fabulous narrative is not very remote -from the truth; the Scilly Isles and Cornwall being the principal -sources of the tin now employed in Europe. Small boats, corresponding -to the description here given, were very lately still in use among -the inhabitants of some parts of the south-west coast of England [and -on the Severn]. Pliny has already spoken of these boats in B. vii. -c. 57.—B. See also B. iv. c. 30, as to the _coracles_ of the ancient -Britons. - -[1702] The ores of tin are known to exist in Gallicia; but the mines in -that country are very scanty compared to those of Cornwall.—B. - -[1703] “Talutium” is mentioned in B. xxxiii. c. 21. - -[1704] Tin ore is among the heaviest of minerals, though the specific -gravity of the metal is small. M. Hæfer is of opinion that these -pebbles contained platinum. - -[1705] Or tin. The greater fusibility of the tin producing this -separation.—B. - -[1706] We may conclude that the “plumbum nigrum,” or “black lead” -of Pliny is the Galena or sulphuret of lead of the moderns; it is -frequently what is termed argentiferous, _i.e._ united with an ore of -silver, and this in such quantity as to cause it to be worked for the -purpose of procuring the silver.—B. See Beckmann, Vol. II. p. 210. - -[1707] “Instead of oil, workmen use at present ‘colophonium,’ or some -other resin.”—Beckmann, Vol. II. p. 223. See also B. xxxiii. c. 20. - -[1708] Iliad, xi. 25, and xxiii. 561.—B. - -[1709] Ajasson considers this to be Bismuth; but it is more probable -that Beckmann is right in his conclusion, supported by Agricola, -Entzel, Fallopius, Savot, Bernia, and Jung, that it was a compound -metal, the _Werk_ of the German smelting-houses] a metal not much -unlike our pewter, probably. See Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. pp. 209, -212, 224. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1710] See B. xxxiii. c. 31, and c. 53 of this Book. - -[1711] A compound metal, probably, somewhat like pewter. See Note 1709 -above. He evidently alludes to the process of “tinning.” - -[1712] In B. xxxiii. c. 45: where he says that the best mirrors were -formerly made of a mixture of stannum and copper.—B. See Beckmann, -Hist. Inv. Vol. II. pp. 60-62, 72. - -[1713] Or tin. - -[1714] “Silver mixture.” - -[1715] Such a mixture as this would in reality become _more valuable_ -than “argentarium,” as the proportion would be _two-thirds_ of tin and -one of lead. How then could the workmen merit the title of dishonest? -Beckmann suggests that the tinning ought to have been done with _pure -tin_, but that unprincipled artists employed tin mixed with lead. It -is most probable, however, that Pliny himself has made a mistake, and -that we should read “equal parts of black lead” (our lead); in which -case the mixture passed off as “argentarium,” instead of containing -_equal_ parts of tin and lead, would contain _five-sixths_ of lead. See -Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 221. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1716] All these readings are doubtful in the extreme. - -[1717] As being too brittle, probably; the reason suggested by -Beckmann, Vol. II. p. 221. - -[1718] Literally, “inboiled,” being coated by immersion in the molten -tin. - -[1719] Supposed by Hardouin to have been the town of Alise, in Auxois. - -[1720] See B. iv. c. 33. - -[1721] The names of various kinds of carriages, the form of which is -now unknown. - -[1722] Both tin and lead can be fused in paper, when it is closely -wrapped around them. - -[1723] In reality India did and does possess them both; but it is -possible that in those days it was not considered worth while to search -for them. - -[1724] The “lead” of the moderns. - -[1725] Mr. T. Wright, the eminent antiquarian, is of opinion that the -extensive Roman lead mines at Shelve, in Shropshire, are here alluded -to. See the _Illustrated London News_, Oct. 4, 1856. - -[1726] Probably from Ovetum, the modern Oviedo.—B. - -[1727] So called from the island of Capraria. See B. iii. cc. 11, 12, -and B. vi. c. 37. - -[1728] See B. iii. c. 12. - -[1729] Not in Bætica, as Brotero remarks, but in Lusitania, or -Portugal; the modern Santarem.—B. - -[1730] See Introduction to Vol. III. - -[1731] This circumstance is mentioned by Suetonius, c. 20.—B. - -[1732] Hardouin observes, that these insects are never met with in -mines; but probably this may depend more upon other causes, than upon -the vapours which are supposed to proceed from the metals.—B. - -[1733] See B. xxxiii. cc. 33, 34. - -[1734] See B. xx. c. 81, and B. xxiv. c. 73. - -[1735] “Charta.” See B. xxiv. c. 51. - -[1736] This, according to Ajasson, is the protoxide, or probably, in -some cases, the arseniate of lead.—B. - -[1737] From σποδὸς, “ashes.”—B. - -[1738] See Chapter 34 of this Book.—B. - -[1739] This was probably lead ore in its primary state, when only -separated from the stannum, and before it was subjected to fusion for -the purpose of obtaining pure lead.—See Beckmann’s Hist. Inv. Vol. II. -p. 211. _Bohn’s Edition._ Ajasson identifies it with litharge, or fused -oxide of lead, known as gold and silver litharge, from its colour. - -[1740] See B. xxxiii. c. 31, and Chapter 47 of this Book.—B. - -[1741] In Cilicia: see B. v. c. 22. He is speaking, no doubt, of the -“metallic,” or artificial kind. - -[1742] A kind of ointment. See B. xxiii. c. 81, and B. xxxiii. c. 35. - -[1743] Our Litharge. See B. xxxiii. c. 35. - -[1744] According to Ajasson, this substance is properly a sub-carbonate -of lead, commonly called white lead.—B. - -[1745] Scoria of lead and molybdæna.—B. - -[1746] Preparations of lead are still used in cosmetics for whitening -the complexion. - -[1747] The Realgar of the moderns, red orpiment, or red sulphuret of -arsenic. Pliny has in numerous places spoken of it as a remedy for -certain morbid states both of animals and vegetables, B. xvii. c. 47, -B. xxiii. c. 13, B. xxv. c. 22, and B. xxviii. c. 62, but he has not -previously given any account of its origin and composition.—B. - -[1748] Dioscorides, B. v. c. 122, informs us, with respect to this -effect of sandarach, that it was burned in combination with resin, and -that the smoke was inhaled through a tube.—B. - -[1749] The substance here mentioned, though its name is the foundation -of our word “arsenic,” is not the arsenic of modern commerce, but -probably a sulphuret of arsenic containing a less proportion of sulphur -than the Sandarach of the last Chapter.—B. - -[1750] The other two mentioned species naturally divide into laminæ, -while this kind is disposed to separate into fine fibres.—B. - -[1751] By this process a considerable portion of the sulphur is -expelled, so as to cause the orpiment to approximate to the state of -arsenic.—B. - -[1752] See end of B. ii. - -[1753] See end of B. ii. - -[1754] See end of B. iii. - -[1755] See end of B. ii. - -[1756] See end of B. ii. - -[1757] A different person from the Messala mentioned at the end of B. -ix. He is mentioned in B. xxxiii. c. 14, B. xxxv. c. 2, and in Chapter -38 of this Book; but nothing further seems to be known of him. - -[1758] See end of B. vii. and Note 1315 to B. vii. c. 53. - -[1759] Domitius Marsus, a poet of the Augustan age, of whom few -particulars are known, except that he wrote an epitaph on the poet -Tibullus, who died B.C. 18. He is mentioned by Ovid and Martial, from -the latter of whom we learn that his epigrams were distinguished for -their wit, licentiousness, and satire. - -[1760] See end of B. xvi. - -[1761] See end of B. xx. - -[1762] See end of B. xii. - -[1763] See end of B. vii. - -[1764] See end of B. ii. - -[1765] See end of B. iii. - -[1766] See end of B. iv. - -[1767] See c. 19 of this Book, Note 1525, page 184. - -[1768] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[1769] See end of B. vii. - -[1770] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[1771] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[1772] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[1773] See end of B. iii. - -[1774] See end of B. xii. - -[1775] See end of Books iv., viii., xi., and xx. - -[1776] See end of B. xx. - -[1777] See end of Books iv., and xii. - -[1778] See end of B. xii. - -[1779] See end of B. xiii. - -[1780] See end of B. xii. - -[1781] See end of B. xii. - -[1782] See end of B. xxix. - -[1783] See end of B. xii. - -[1784] See end of B. xii. - -[1785] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[1786] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[1787] “Officinarum tenebræ;” probably in reference to the ignorance -displayed by the compounders of medicines, as pointed out in B. xxxiii. -c. 38, and in B. xxxiv. c. 25.—B. - -[1788] See B. xxxiii. c. 55. - -[1789] See B. xxxiv. c. 9. - -[1790] See B. xxxiii. c. 36. - -[1791] See B. xxxvi. c. 8. - -[1792] See B. v. c. 29. - -[1793] “Surdo figurarum discrimine.” - -[1794] We are informed by Suetonius, that this practice existed in the -time of Tiberius.—B. See also Note 18, p. 196. - -[1795] Which he is ready to employ in carrying away his plunder. - -[1796] “Ceromata;” this is properly a Greek term, signifying an -ointment used by athletes, composed of oil and wax.—B. - -[1797] This practice is referred to by Cicero, De Finib. B. v.—B. - -[1798] In reality, his birth-day was not on the twentieth day of any -month; but, for some reason which is not known, he fixed upon this -day.—B. He was born on the seventh day of the month Gamelion. - -[1799] From the Greek εἰκὰς, the “twentieth” day of the month. - -[1800] In obedience to the maxim of Epicurus, Λάθε βιῶσας—“Live in -obscurity.” - -[1801] See B. xxi. c. 49, and Note 2139, p. 346. - -[1802] This appears to have been the usual practice at the funerals -of distinguished personages among the Romans: it is referred to -by Tacitus, Ann. B. ii. c. 73, in his account of the funeral of -Germanicus.—B. - -[1803] “Tabulina.” Rooms situate near the atrium. - -[1804] A cognomen of the Gens Valeria at Rome, from which the family of -the Messalæ had also originally sprung. - -[1805] So called from his father-in-law Pomponius, a man celebrated for -his wealth, and by whom he was adopted. It would appear that Scipio -Pomponianus adopted Scipio Salvitto, so called from his remarkable -resemblance to an actor of mimes. See B. vii. c. 10. - -[1806] They were probably, like the Scipios, a branch of the Gens -Cornelia. Suetonius speaks in very derogatory terms of a member of this -family, who accompanied Julius Cæsar in his Spanish campaign against -the Pompeian party. - -[1807] In the Greek Anthology, B. v., we have the imaginary portrait of -Homer described at considerable length.—B. - -[1808] Hardouin supposes that this work was written by Cicero, and that -he named it after his friend Atticus; but, as Delafosse remarks, it is -clear from the context that it was the work of Atticus.—B. - -[1809] M. Deville is of opinion that these portraits were made in -relief upon plates of metal, perhaps bronze, and coloured with minium, -a red tint much esteemed by the Romans. - -[1810] “Clypei.” These were shields or escutcheons of metal, with the -features of the deceased person represented either in painting or in -relief. - -[1811] Hardouin informs us that there are some Greek inscriptions -given by Gruter, p. 441, and p. 476, from which it appears that public -festivals were celebrated on occasions of this kind.—B. - -[1812] A.U.C. 671.—B. See B. vii. c. 54. - -[1813] See B. xxxvi. c. 24. - -[1814] It is scarcely necessary to refer to the well-known description -of the shield of Achilles, in the Iliad, B. xviii. l. 478 _et seq._, -and of that of Æneas, Æn. B. viii. l. 626, _et seq._—B. - -[1815] He implies that the word is derived from the Greek γλύφειν, “to -carve” or “emboss” and not from the old Latin “cluo,” “to be famous.” -Ajasson suggests the Greek καλύπτω “to cover.” - -[1816] Cneius and Publius Scipio, who had been slain by Hasdrubal.—B. -As to L. Marcius, see B. ii. c. 3. - -[1817] See B. xxxiii. c. 5. - -[1818] “Lustrations.” Periods at the end of the census, made by the -censors every five years. The censors were the guardians of the -temples, and consequently these bucklers would come under their -supervision. - -[1819] This period for the invention of painting by the Egyptians -is evidently incorrect; but still there is sufficient reason for -concluding that there now exist specimens of Egyptian art, which were -in existence previous to the time of the earliest Grecian painters of -whom we have any certain account.—B. - -[1820] All the ancients who have treated of the history of the art -agree, that the first attempt at what may be considered the formation -of a picture, consisted in tracing the shadow of a human head or some -other object on the wall, the interior being filled up with one uniform -shade of colour.—B. - -[1821] From the Greek μονοχρώματον, “single colouring.”—B. - -[1822] He is mentioned also by Athenagoras, Strabo, and Athenæus. - -[1823] Called “graphis,” by the Greeks, and somewhat similar, probably, -to our pen and ink drawings. - -[1824] In Chapter 43 of this Book.—B. - -[1825] Ajasson remarks, that a great number of paintings have been -lately discovered in the Etruscan tombs, in a very perfect state, and -probably of very high antiquity.—B. - -[1826] There would appear to be still considerable uncertainty -respecting the nature of the materials employed by the ancients, and -the manner of applying them, by which they produced these durable -paintings; a branch of the art which has not been attained in equal -perfection by the moderns.—B. - -[1827] Caligula. - -[1828] See B. iii. c. 8. - -[1829] We have already remarked that painting was practised very -extensively by the Egyptians, probably long before the period of the -Trojan war.—B. - -[1830] Or “Health.” It was situate on the Quirinal Hill, in the Sixth -Region of the City. - -[1831] “Forum Boarium.” In the Eighth Region of the City. - -[1832] Holbein and Mignard did the same. - -[1833] Q. Pedius was either nephew, or great nephew of Julius Cæsar, -and had the command under him in the Gallic War; he is mentioned by -Cæsar in his Commentaries, and by other writers of this period.—B. - -[1834] Originally the palace of Tullus Hostilius, in the Second Region -of the City. - -[1835] Asiaticus, the brother of the elder Africanus.—B. - -[1836] It was _before_ the decisive battle near Mount Sipylus, that the -son of Africanus was made prisoner. King Antiochus received him with -high respect, loaded him with presents, and sent him to Rome.—B. - -[1837] He was legatus under the consul L. Calpurnius Piso, in the Third -Punic War, and commanded the Roman fleet. He was elected Consul B.C. -145. - -[1838] The younger Scipio Africanus. - -[1839] We learn from Valerius Maximus, that C. Pulcher was the first to -vary the scenes of the stage with a number of colours.—B. - -[1840] See Chapter 36 of this Book. - -[1841] We have an amusing proof of this ignorance of Mummius given by -Paterculus, B. i. c. 13, who says that when he had the choicest of -the Corinthian statues and pictures sent to Italy, he gave notice to -the contractors that if they lost any of them, they must be prepared -to supply new ones. Ajasson offers a conjecture which is certainly -plausible, that Mummius might possibly regard this painting as a -species of talisman.—B. - -[1842] In the eleventh Region of the City. - -[1843] “Sub Veteribus;” meaning that part of the Forum where the “Old -Shops” of the “argentarii” or money-brokers had stood. - -[1844] We have an anecdote of a similar event, related by Cicero, as -having occurred to Julius Cæsar, De Oratore, B. ii. c. 66.—B. - -[1845] See B. vii. c. 39. - -[1846] We have had this Temple referred to in B. ii. c. 23, B. vii. -c. 39, B. viii. c. 64, and B. ix. c. 57: it is again mentioned in the -fortieth Chapter of this Book, and in B. xxxvii. c. 5.—B. - -[1847] In the “Vaporarium,” namely.—B. The Thermæ of Agrippa were in -the Ninth Region of the City. - -[1848] According to Hardouin, this was done after the battle of Actium, -in which Augustus subdued his rival Antony.—B. - -[1849] By adoption. The Temple of Julius Cæsar was in the Forum, in the -Eighth Region of the City. - -[1850] See B. vii. c. 22, B. x. c. 60, and B. xxxiv. c. 11. - -[1851] In Chapter 36 of this Book.—B. - -[1852] See B. vii, cc. 45, 54, 60, and B. xxxiv. c. 11. - -[1853] See B. vii. c. 54, B. xv. c. 20, B. xxxiii. c. 6, and B. xxxiv. -c. 11. - -[1854] This was the personification of the Nemean forest in -Peloponnesus, where Hercules killed the Lion, the first of the labours -imposed upon him by Eurystheus.—B. - -[1855] See Chapter 40 of this Book. - -[1856] “Inussisse;” meaning that he executed it in encaustic. The Greek -term used was probably ΕΝΕΚΑΥΣΕ. - -[1857] Hemsterhuys is of opinion that he was the brother of Æschines, -the orator, contemptuously alluded to by Demosthenes, Fals. Legat. Sec. -237, as a painter of perfume pots. If so, he was probably an Athenian, -and must have flourished about the 109th Olympiad. - -[1858] In Chapter 40 of this Book. - -[1859] In B. xxxiii. c. 39. He alludes to cinnabaris, minium, rubrica, -and sinopis. - -[1860] Meaning “new painting,” probably. The reading, however, is -doubtful. - -[1861] “Splendor.” Supposed by Wornum to be equivalent to our word -“tone,” applied to a coloured picture, which comprehends both the -“tonos” and the “harmoge” of the Greeks. Smith’s Dict. Antiq. Art. -_Painting_. - -[1862] “Tone,” says Fuseli, (in the English acceptation of the -word) “is the element of the ancient ‘harmoge,’ that imperceptible -transition, which, without opacity, confusion, or hardness, united -local colour, demitint, shade, and reflexes.”—Lect. I. - -[1863] “Austeri aut floridi.” - -[1864] Because of their comparatively great expense. - -[1865] See B. xxxiii. cc. 30, 37. Under this name are included -Sulphuret of mercury, and Red oxide of lead. - -[1866] See B. xxxiii. cc. 38, 39. - -[1867] See B. xxxiii. c. 26. “Indicum” and “purpurissum” will be -described in the present Book. - -[1868] Or “rubrica Sinopica;” “red earth of Sinope,” a brown red ochre, -or red oxide of iron. Dioscorides identifies it with the Greek μιλτὸς, -which indeed seems to have embraced the cinnabaris, minium, and rubricæ -of the Romans. - -[1869] “Splendorem.” See Note 1861 above. - -[1870] So called from its deep grey brown colour, like that of the -“cicer” or chick-pea. - -[1871] The sense of this passage seems to require the insertion of -“quæ,” although omitted by the Bamberg MS. - -[1872] “Pressior.” - -[1873] Those parts of the walls, probably, which were nearer to the -ground, and more likely to become soiled. - -[1874] Red ochre, or red oxide of iron. See B. xxxiii. c. 38, and B. -xxxiv. c. 37. - -[1875] See B. xxxiii. cc. 36, 37. - -[1876] Ajasson thinks that this was an hydroxide of iron, of a greenish -yellow or brown colour. - -[1877] Whence our word “ochre.” See “Sil,” in B. xxxiii. cc. 56, 57. - -[1878] Theophrastus, on the contrary, says that it is “ochra” that is -burnt, in order to obtain “rubrica.” - -[1879] See B. xxxiii. cc. 56, 57. - -[1880] A white earth from the Isle of Melos. See Chapter 19. - -[1881] See B. xxxiii. c. 20. “One may readily conceive that this must -have been a ferruginous ochre, or kind of bole, which is still used as -a ground, _poliment, assiette_.”—Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 294. -_Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1882] A white, much used for fresco painting. Ajasson is of opinion, -that Pliny, in this Chapter, like the other ancient authors, confounds -two earths that are, in reality, totally different.—Hydrosilicate of -magnesia, or Steatite, and Rhomboidical carbonate of lime. - -[1883] See B. v. c. 6. - -[1884] Ajasson thinks that possibly our compact magnesite, meerschaum, -or sea-foam, may be the substance here alluded to. - -[1885] See Chapter 57 of this Book. - -[1886] See B. iv. c. 33. Tournefort says that this earth is exactly -similar to the Cimolian earth, described in Chapter 57. - -[1887] See B. xxxiii. c. 57, and Chapter 21 of this Book. - -[1888] In B. xxxiv. c. 54. - -[1889] Ceruse, white lead, or carbonate of lead, is prepared in -much the same manner at the present day. Ajasson is of opinion that -the native pigment discovered on the lands of Theodotus, was native -carbonate of lead, the crystals of which are found accompanied by -quartz. - -[1890] “Burnt” ceruse. This was, in fact, one of the varieties of -“minium,” red oxide of lead, our red lead. Vitruvius and Dioscorides -call it “sandaraca,” differing somewhat from that of Pliny. - -[1891] In Chapter 10. - -[1892] See B. xxxiii. cc. 56, 57. - -[1893] It was possibly owing to this that the colour known as “umber” -received its name, and not from Ombria, in Italy. Ajasson says that -shadows cannot be successfully made without the use of transparent -colours, and that red and the several browns are remarkably transparent. - -[1894] See B. iv. c. 21. - -[1895] As to both of these artists, see Chapter 36. - -[1896] To the chest. - -[1897] See B. vi. c. 34, and B. xxxvii. c. 32. - -[1898] In B. xxxiv. c. 55. “Pliny speaks of different shades of -sandaraca, the pale, or massicot, (yellow oxide of lead), and a mixture -of the pale with minium. It also signified Realgar, or red sulphuret of -arsenic.”—Wornum, in Smith’s Dict. Antiq. Art. _Colores_. - -[1899] Sir H. Davy supposes this colour to have approached our crimson. -In painting, it was frequently glazed with purple, to give it an -additional lustre. - -[1900] Ecl. iv. l. 45. “Sponte suâ sandyx pascentes vestiet agnos.” -Ajasson thinks that “Sandyx” may have been a name common to two -colouring substances, a vegetable and a mineral, the former being our -madder. Beckmann is of the same opinion, and that Virgil has committed -no mistake in the line above quoted. Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 110. -_Bohn’s Edition._ See also B. xxiv. c. 56. - -[1901] The form “_sand_,” in these words, Ajasson considers to be -derived either from “Sandes,” the name of Hercules in Asia Minor, or at -least in Lydia] or else from Sandak, the name of an ancestor of Cinyras -and Adonis. - -[1902] In B. xxxiii. c. 40. According to Aetius, syricum was made -by the calcination of pure ceruse, (similar to the “usta” above -mentioned). He states also that there was no difference between sandyx -and syricum, the former being the term generally used by medical men. - -[1903] “Black colouring substance.” - -[1904] “Carbones infectos.” The reading is very doubtful. It may -possibly mean “charred bones tainted with dirt.” This would make -an inferior ivory-black. The earth before-mentioned is considered -by Ajasson to be a deuto-sulphate of copper, a solution of which, -in gallic acid, is still used for dyeing black. The water near -copper-mines would very probably be also highly impregnated with it. -Beckmann considers these to have been vitriolic products. Vol. II. p. -265. - -[1905] Our Lamp-black. Vitruvius describes the construction of the -manufactories above alluded to. - -[1906] Probably, our Chinese, or Indian ink, a different substance from -the indicum of Chapter 27. - -[1907] From τρύξ, “grape-husks” or “wine-lees.” - -[1908] Indian ink is a composition of fine lamp-black and size. - -[1909] See B. ii. c. 29. Sepia, for sepic drawing, is now prepared from -these juices. - -[1910] In Chapter 12 of this Book. - -[1911] Plate powder. See B. xvii. c. 4, and Chapter 58 of this Book. - -[1912] See B. ix. c. 60. - -[1913] See B. ix. c. 65, and B. xxi. cc. 38, 97. According to -Vitruvius, it is a colour between scarlet and purple. It may possibly -have been made from woad. - -[1914] See B. iii. c. 16. - -[1915] See B. xxxiii. c. 57. - -[1916] White of egg, probably. - -[1917] Indigo, no doubt, is the colour meant. See B. xxxiii. c. 57. - -[1918] It is the produce of the Indigofera tinctoria, and comes -from Bengal more particularly. Beckmann and Dr. Bancroft have each -investigated this subject at great length, and though Pliny is greatly -mistaken as to the mode in which the drug was produced, they agree in -the conclusion that his “indicum” was real indigo, and not, as some -have supposed, a pigment prepared from _isatis_, or woad. - -[1919] This passage, similar in many respects to the account given by -Dioscorides, is commented on at great length by Beckmann, Hist. Inv. -Vol. II. p. 263. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1920] See Chapter 56 of this Book. - -[1921] See Chapter 30 of this Book. - -[1922] “Armenium.” Armenian bole is still used for colouring -tooth-powder and essence of anchovies. - -[1923] See B. xxxiii. c. 26. - -[1924] So called, probably, either from the place where it was made, -or from the person who first discovered it. Some commentators have -suggested that it should be “apian” green, meaning “parsley” colour. - -[1925] So called from “anulus,” a “ring,” as mentioned below. - -[1926] “Quo muliebres picturæ illuminantur.” The meaning of this -passage is obscure. It would seem almost to apply to paintings, but -Beckmann is of opinion that the meaning is, “This is the beautiful -white with which the ladies paint or ornament themselves.”—Hist. Inv. -Vol. II. p. 261. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[1927] Beckmann suggests that it was so called from its being one of -the sealing earths, “anulus” being the name of a signet ring. Vol. II. -p. 260. - -[1928] “Cretulam.” - -[1929] See B. xxxiii. c. 57. - -[1930] See Chapter 39, where this process is more fully described. -“‘_Ceræ_,’ or ‘waxes,’ was the ordinary term for painters’ colours -among the Romans, but more especially encaustic colours, which were -probably kept dry in boxes, and the wet brush or pencil was rubbed upon -them when colour was required, or they were moistened by the artist -previous to commencing work. From the term ‘ceræ’ it would appear that -wax constituted the principal ingredient in the colouring vehicle -used; but this does not necessarily follow, and it is very improbable -that it did; there must have been a great portion of gum or resin in -the colours, or they could not have hardened. Wax was undoubtedly a -most essential ingredient, since it apparently prevents the colours -from cracking. ‘Ceræ’ therefore might originally simply mean colours -which contained wax, in contradistinction to those which did not; -but was afterwards applied generally by the Romans to the colours of -painters.”—Wornum, Smith’s Dict. Antiq. Art. _Painting_. - -[1931] Called “Inceramenta navium,” in Livy, B. xxviii. c. 45. See also -Chapters 39 and 41 of this Book. - -[1932] Pliny here commits a mistake, which may have arisen from an -imperfect recollection, as Sir. H. Davy has supposed, of a passage in -Cicero (Brutus, c. 18), which, however, quite contradicts the statement -of Pliny. “In painting, we admire in the works of Zeuxis, Polygnotus, -Timanthes, and those who used _four_ colours only, the figure and the -lineaments; but in the works of Echion, Nicomachus, Protogenes, and -Apelles, _everything_ is perfect.” Indeed Pliny contradicts himself, -for he speaks of _two_ other colours used by the earliest painters, -the _testa trita_, or ground earthenware, in Chapter 5 of this Book; -and “cinnabaris,” or vermilion, in B. xxxiii. c. 36. Also, in Chapter -21 of this Book he speaks of Eretrian earth as having been used by -Nicomachus, and in Chapter 25 of ivory black as having been invented by -Apelles. - -[1933] These painters will all be noticed in Chapter 36. - -[1934] See Chapter 19 of this Book. - -[1935] See B. xxxiii. c. 56. - -[1936] Blue is here excluded altogether, unless under the term -“atramentum” we would include black and blue indicum, or in other -words, Indian ink and indigo. - -[1937] See Chapter 27 of this Book. - -[1938] In allusion to “Dragon’s blood.” See B. xxxiii. c. 38. - -[1939] In Chapter 2 of this Book. - -[1940] From the construction of the passage, it is difficult to say -whether he means to say that such colossal figures were till then -unknown in painting, or whether that the use of canvass in painting -was till then unknown. If the latter is the meaning, it is not exactly -correct, though it is probable that the introduction of canvass for -this purpose was comparatively late; there being no mention of its -being employed by the Greek painters of the best periods. - -[1941] See B. iii. c. 9, B. xiv. c. 3, and B. xvi. c. 91. - -[1942] “Torcutæ.” For the explanation of this term, see end of B. -xxxiii. - -[1943] In reality he was cousin or nephew of Phidias, by the father’s -side, though Pausanias, B. v. c. 11, falls into the same error as that -committed by Pliny. He is mentioned likewise by Strabo and Æschines. - -[1944] See B. xxxvi. c. 55. - -[1945] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[1946] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[1947] See B. vii. c. 39. - -[1948] Paintings with but one colour. “Monochromata,” as we shall see -in Chapter 36, were painted at all times, and by the greatest masters. -Those of Zeuxis corresponded with the _Chiariscuri_ of the Italians, -light and shade being introduced with the highest degree of artistic -skill. - -[1949] These several artists are quite unknown, being mentioned by no -other author. - -[1950] It is pretty clear, from vases of a very ancient date, that -it is not the sexual distinction that is here alluded to. Eumarus, -perhaps, may have been the first to give to each sex its characteristic -style of design, in the compositions, draperies, attitudes, and -complexions of the respective sexes. Wornum thinks that, probably, -Eumarus, and certainly, Cimon, belonged to the class of ancient -tetrachromists, or polychromists, painting in a variety of colours, -without a due, or at least a partial, observance of the laws of light -and shade. Smith’s Dict. Antiq. Art. _Painting_. - -[1951] He is mentioned also by Ælian. Böttiger is of opinion that he -flourished about the 80th Olympiad. It is probable, however, that he -lived long before the age of Polygnotus; but some time after that of -Eumarus. Wornum thinks that he was probably a contemporary of Solon, a -century before Polygnotus. - -[1952] “Catagrapha.” - -[1953] This picture was placed in the Pœcile at Athens, and is -mentioned also by Pausanias, B. i. c. 15, and by Æschines, Ctesiph. s. -186. - -[1954] See B. vii. c. 57. (Vol. II. p. 233), where he is mentioned as -an Athenian. It is not improbable that he became a citizen of Athens in -the seventy-ninth Olympiad, B.C. 463, when Thasos was brought under the -power of Athens, and, as Sillig suggests, at the solicitation of Cimon, -the son of Miltiades. It is generally supposed that he flourished about -the eightieth Olympiad. - -[1955] Belonging to the Theatre of Pompey, in the Ninth Region of the -City. - -[1956] With scenes from the Trojan War, and the adventures of Ulysses. - -[1957] Or “Variegated;” from its various pictures. - -[1958] See B. xxxiii. c. 56. - -[1959] See B. vii. c. 37. - -[1960] She is again mentioned in Chapter 40. - -[1961] He was a native of Thasos, and father and instructor of -Polygnotus. As Pliny has already stated that Polygnotus flourished -_before_ the ninetieth Olympiad, there is an inconsistency in his -making mention of the son as flourishing before the father. Hence -Sillig, with Böttiger, is inclined to think that there were two artists -of this name, one about the seventieth, and the other about the -ninetieth Olympiad, the former being the father of Polygnotus. - -[1962] “Primusque gloriam penicillo jure contulit.” Wornum considers -that “the rich effect of the combination of light and shade with -colour is clearly expressed in these words.”—Smith’s Dict. Antiq. Art. -_Painting_. This artist, who was noted for his arrogance, is mentioned -by other ancient writers. - -[1963] “Penicillus.” This was the hair-pencil or brush, which was used -by one class of painters, in contradistinction to the stylus or cestrum -used for spreading the wax-colours. Painters with the brush used what -we should term “water-colours;” oil-colours, in our sense of the word, -being unknown to the ancients. - -[1964] In “Magna Græcia,” near Crotona, it is supposed. Tzetzes styles -him as an Ephesian. - -[1965] This is _probably_ the meaning of the words—“Artem ipsis ablatam -Zeuxim ferre secum.” It is doubtful whether “ipsis” or “ipsi” is the -correct reading. - -[1966] King of Macedonia. - -[1967] Μωμήσεταί τις μᾶλλον ἢ μιμήσεται. This line is attributed by -Plutarch to Apollodorus. - -[1968] Cicero and Dionysius of Halicarnassus say that this picture was -executed at Crotona, and not at Agrigentum. It is generally supposed to -have been the painting of Helena, afterwards mentioned by Pliny. - -[1969] “Ex albo.” “That is, in grey and grey, similar to the -Chiaríscuri of the Italians.”—Wornum, in Smith’s Dict. Antiq. Art. -_Painting_. - -[1970] “Figlina opera.” It is not improbable that this may allude to -the painting of fictile vases. - -[1971] A.U.C. 666. As to this expedition of Fulvius Nobilior, see Livy, -B. xxxviii. - -[1972] Of Philippus Marcius, in the Ninth Region of the City. - -[1973] In the Eighth Region of the City. - -[1974] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[1975] See end of B. xxxiii. and B. xxxiv. - -[1976] The antithesis seems to require here the reading “inexorabilem,” -instead of “exorabilem.” - -[1977] “Navarchum.” - -[1978] The “Chief of the Galli,” or high priest of Cybele. - -[1979] See end of B. x. - -[1980] Possibly the person mentioned in B. xi. c. 9, or perhaps the -Tragic writer of this name, mentioned in the present Chapter. - -[1981] Bacchus. - -[1982] “Hoplites.” A runner in panoply, or complete armour, at the -Olympic Games. - -[1983] The “Liver in luxury.” Athenæus, B. xii., confirms this -statement, and gives some lines which Parrhasius wrote under certain of -his works. - -[1984] Of Achilles, which were awarded to Ulysses in preference to Ajax. - -[1985] We learn from Suetonius that Tiberius possessed a Meleager and -Atalanta by Parrhasius, of this nature. - -[1986] Said by Eustathius to have been a native of Sicyon, but by -Quintilian, of Cythnos. - -[1987] Cicero, for instance, De Oratore, c. 22, s. 74. - -[1988] Menelaüs. - -[1989] Agamemnon. - -[1990] Built near the Forum, by Vespasian, according to Suetonius. - -[1991] A native of Thebes. A full account of him will be given in the -course of this Chapter. - -[1992] Or “Grecian.” - -[1993] He was a native of Amphipolis in Macedonia. - -[1994] Phlius was the chief town of Phliasia, in the north-east of -Peloponnesus. It seems to be quite unknown to what events Pliny here -alludes. - -[1995] Possibly the naval victory gained by the Athenians under -Chabrias near Naxos, in the first year of the 101st Olympiad. - -[1996] Which would make the course of study, as M. Ian says, extend -over a period of twelve years. - -[1997] “Graphice;” equivalent, perhaps, to our word “drawing.” “The -elementary process consisted in drawing lines or outlines with the -graphis, (or stylus) upon tablets of box; the first exercise was -probably to draw a simple line.”—Wornum, in Smith’s Dict. Antiq. Art. -_Painting_. - -[1998] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[1999] Both of whom are mentioned as statuaries, in the early part of -B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2000] Bacchus. - -[2001] The generality of Greek writers represent him as a native either -of Ephesus, or of Colophon. - -[2002] “Venustas.” This word, it has been remarked, will hardly bear a -definition. It has been rendered “grace,” “elegance,” “beauty.” - -[2003] “Venerem.” The name of the Goddess of Beauty. - -[2004] “Gracefulness.” - -[2005] “Secuit.” Possibly meaning that he drew another outline in -each of these outlines. The meaning, however, is doubtful, and has -occasioned much trouble to the commentators. Judging from the words -used by Apelles and Protogenes, each in his message, it is not unlikely -that the “linea” or outline drawn by each was a profile of himself, and -that the profile of Protogenes was drawn within that of Apelles; who, -on the second occasion, drew a third profile between the other two, but -with a still finer line than either of them. In Dr. Smith’s Dictionary -of Biography, _art._ Apelles, it is thus explained: “The most natural -explanation of this difficult passage seems to be, that down the middle -of the first line of Apelles, Protogenes drew another, so as to divide -it into two parallel halves, and that Apelles again divided the line of -Protogenes in the same manner.” - -[2006] The Latin form of which, as given by Erasmus, is “Nulla dies -abeat, quin linea ducta supersit.” “Let no day pass by, without an -outline being drawn, and left in remembrance.” - -[2007] “In pergulâ.” - -[2008] “Ne sutor ultra crepidam.” Equivalent to our saying, “Let not -the shoemaker go beyond his last.” - -[2009] In B. vii. c. 38. - -[2010] Also known as “Campaspe,” and “Pacate.” She was the favourite -concubine of Alexander, and is said to have been his first love. - -[2011] “Venus rising out of the waters.” Athenæus says, B. xiii., that -the courtesan Phryne was his model, whom, at the festival of Neptune, -he had seen enter the sea naked at Eleusis. - -[2012] See Matthew xiii. 57; Mark vi. 4. “A prophet is not without -honour, save in his own country.” - -[2013] “Physiognomists.” - -[2014] “Vocatores”—more literally, his “inviting officers.” - -[2015] Strabo mentions a portrait of Antigonus in the possession of the -inhabitants of Cos. - -[2016] See Note 2011 above. Propertius mentions this as his greatest -work. B. III. El. 9, l. 11. “In Veneris tabulâ summam sibi ponit -Apelles.” “In his picture of Venus, Apelles produces his masterpiece.” -It is mentioned also by Ovid, Tristia, B. II. l. 527, and Art. Amor. B. -III. l. 401. The line in B. III. l. 224 is also well known— - - “Nuda Venus madidas exprimit imbre comas.” - - “And naked Venus wrings her dripping locks.” - -[2017] In the Forum, in the Eighth Region of the City. - -[2018] His father by adoption. - -[2019] There are several Epigrams descriptive of it in the Greek -Anthology. - -[2020] This, probably, is the meaning of “Tali opere dum laudatur -victo sed illustrato,” words which have given much trouble to the -commentators. - -[2021] Nothing further seems to be known of him. - -[2022] “Cois.” The first one was also painted for the people of Cos, by -whom it was ultimately sold to Augustus. - -[2023] See Chapter 32 of this Book. That this is an erroneous -assertion, has been shown in Note 1932 above. - -[2024] Probably the weight of the panel, frame, and ornamental -appendages. - -[2025] This word was probably a title, meaning “Keeper of the temple.” -Strabo tells us that the “megabyzi,” or as he calls them, the -“megalobyzi,” were eunuch priests in the Temple of Artemis, or Diana, -at Ephesus. - -[2026] The favourite of Alexander, by whom he was afterwards slain. - -[2027] Probably the name of a rich sensualist who lived at Argos. A son -of the Attic orator Lycurgus, one of the sophists, also bore this name. - -[2028] This name is supposed by Sillig to have been inserted -erroneously, either by Pliny, or by his transcribers. - -[2029] Either the Argonaut of that name, who was killed by the -Caledonian Boar, or else, which is the most probable, a King of the -Leleges in Samos, with whom, according to the Scholiast on Apollonius -Rhodius, originated the saying, “There is many a slip between the cup -and the lip;” in reference to his death, by a wild boar, when he was -about to put a cup of wine to his mouth. - -[2030] Shown in his forbearing to appropriate them to his own use. - -[2031] Anna Perenna, probably, a Roman divinity of obscure origin, the -legends about whom are related in the Fasti of Ovid, B. iii. l. 523. -_et seq._ See also Macrobius, Sat. I. 12. Her sacred grove was near -the Tiber, but of her temple nothing whatever is known. “Antoniæ” is -another reading, but no such divinity is mentioned by any other author. - -[2032] Sillig (Dict. Anc. Art.) is of opinion that the reading is -corrupt here, and that the meaning is, that Apelles “painted a Hero and -Leander.” - -[2033] Or Demigod. - -[2034] One of the followers of Alexander, ultimately slain by Eumenes -in Armenia. - -[2035] King of Macedonia. - -[2036] Odyss. B. vi. l. 102, _et seq._ - -[2037] Sir Joshua Reynolds discovers in the account here given “an -artist-like description of the effect of glazing, or scumbling, such as -was practised by Titian and the rest of the Venetian painters.”—_Notes -to Du Fresnoy._ - -[2038] “Lapis specularis.” See B. xxxvi. c. 45. - -[2039] He was son of Aristodemus, and brother and pupil of Nicomachus, -in addition to Euxenidas, already mentioned in this Chapter. He, -Pausanias, and Nicophanes, excelled, as we learn from Athenæus, B. -xiii., in the portraits of courtesans; hence their name, πορνόγραφοι. - -[2040] It has been well remarked by Wornum, in the article so often -quoted, that “expression of the feelings and passions cannot be denied -to Polygnotus, Apollodorus, Parrhasius, Timanthes, and many others.” - -[2041] See B. iv. c. 12. - -[2042] Meaning, “Her who has ceased” to live. The reference is to -Byblis, who died of love for her brother Caunus. See Ovid’s Metam. B. -ix. l. 455, _et seq._ - -[2043] Or Bacchus. Already mentioned in Chapter 8 of this Book, in -reference to the Roman general Mummius. - -[2044] In the Eleventh Region of the City. - -[2045] In the Tenth Region of the City. - -[2046] Celebrated on the 3rd of July. - -[2047] In reference to the age of Apelles, whom he is supposed to have -survived. - -[2048] In Caria, near to Lycia. Suidas says that he was born at Xanthus -in Lycia. - -[2049] Or Vestibule. - -[2050] Supposed by Sillig to have been an allegorical painting -representing two of the sacred ships of the Athenians; but to have -been mistaken in later times for a picture of Ulysses and Nausicaa, a -subject taken from the Odyssey, B. vi. l. 16, _et seq._ As to Paralus, -said to have been the first builder of long ships, or ships of war, see -B. vii. c. 57. - -[2051] Or “long ships.” - -[2052] Son of Cercaphus and Cydippe or Lysippe, and grandson of Apollo. -He is said to have been the founder of the town of Ialysus, mentioned -in B. v. c. 36. - -[2053] “These four times most probably were, the dead colouring, -a first and a second painting, and lastly, scumbling with -glazing.”—Wornum, Smith’s Dict. Antiq. Art. _Painting_. - -[2054] See Chapter 40 in this Book. - -[2055] “Poppyzonta.” “Smacking with his lips.” Somewhat similar to the -s—s—s—s of our grooms and ostlers. - -[2056] Poliorcetes. - -[2057] “In repose.” - -[2058] Phæstis, or Phæstias by name. - -[2059] In B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2060] A native of Athens, ranked by Plutarch with Euphranor and Nicias. - -[2061] Tyrant of Elaten, mentioned already in this Chapter. See Note 2041. - -[2062] Supposed by Sillig to have been a native of Thebes. - -[2063] Or “Youth;” in the Eighth Region of the City. - -[2064] See B. xiii. c. 5. - -[2065] A round, closely-fitting skull cap, made of felt. St. Jerome, -Epist. 120, speaks of Ulysses as being thus represented in paintings. -Statues of him with the “pileus” are still to be seen. - -[2066] See B. ii. c. 6. - -[2067] A contemporary of Philip of Macedon. - -[2068] A dithyrambic poet, born at Selinus. He flourished B.C. 398. -Only a few lines of his works remain. - -[2069] “Breviores etiamnum quasdam picturæ compendiarias invenit.” -Delafosse is of opinion that paintings in grotesque are probably meant. - -[2070] His country is uncertain, but he probably lived about the time -of Apelles. - -[2071] In Chapter 40 of this Book. - -[2072] He belonged, as Wornum remarks, to the class of genre-painters, -or _peintres du genre bas_, as the French term them. His age and -country are unknown. - -[2073] “Painter of low subjects.” This term is equivalent in meaning, -probably, to our expression—“The Dutch style.” - -[2074] “Mæniana.” Balustrades or balconies, said to have been so called -from one Mænius, who built them. - -[2075] See Chapter 8 of this Book. They are mentioned also in the -“Curculio” of Plautus, A. iv. s. i. l. 19. Nothing further is known of -Serapio. - -[2076] His country is unknown, but he is supposed to have lived in the -first century B.C. See also Chapter 40 of this Book. - -[2077] “Painter of men.” - -[2078] Mentioned also by Varro. He probably lived in the time of -Alexander the Great. - -[2079] A native of Egypt, compared by many to the most eminent artists. -He is spoken of in high terms by Quintilian, B. xii. c. 10. See also -Chapter 40 of this Book. - -[2080] Built by Augustus in the Ninth Region of the City, in honour of -his sister Octavia. - -[2081] See Chapter 36. - -[2082] Bacchus. - -[2083] And so caused his death by falling from his chariot. See the -“Hippolytus” of Euripides. - -[2084] Near the Theatre of Pompey, in the Ninth Region of the City. - -[2085] “Caricatures.” Sillig thinks it not unlikely that Gryllus was -painted with a pig’s face, that animal being signified by the Greek -word γρυλλὸς. - -[2086] See Chapter 40 of this Book. - -[2087] See Chapter 6 of this Book. - -[2088] In the original, as given by Sillig, “Plautiu, Marcus Cleœtas.” -That commentator supposes him to have been a Greek by birth, and -adopted into the Plautian family, on being made a citizen of Rome. - -[2089] “Euripi.” See B. ii. c. 100, B. viii. c. 40, and B. ix. cc. -22, 80. The landscape paintings on the interior walls of houses at -Herculaneum and Pompeii may be taken as specimens of this artist’s -style. - -[2090] “Succollatis sponsione mulieribus.” This passage appears to be a -mass of confusion, in spite of Sillig’s attempts to amend and explain -it. The meaning can only be guessed at, not given with any degree of -certainty: of Ludius himself, no further particulars are known. - -[2091] The “hypæthra” or promenades. - -[2092] Most editions give “Famulus.” Nothing further is known of him. - -[2093] See B. xxxvi. c. 24. - -[2094] Both in the First Region of the City, near the Capenian Gate. - -[2095] See Chapter 41 of this Book, where the difficulties attending -this description will be considered. - -[2096] See Chapter 36 of this Book. - -[2097] See Chapter 35 of this Book. - -[2098] Possibly the artist of that name mentioned by Athenæus, B. -x., as a tutor of Apelles. If so, he must have flourished about the -ninety-seventh Olympiad. - -[2099] Elasippus “inburned” this picture, _i.e._ executed it in -encaustic. From the Attic form of this word, it has been concluded that -he was an Athenian. The spelling of his name is very doubtful. - -[2100] See Chapter 36 of this Book. - -[2101] Two paintings of his at Epidaurus are mentioned by Pausanias, B. -ii. c. 27. - -[2102] And _not_ in encaustic; though, as we shall see in Chapter 41, -the brush was sometimes used in this branch. - -[2103] The “One day” picture. - -[2104] See B. xxi. c. 3. - -[2105] The “Chaplet-wearer.” See B. xxi. c. 3. - -[2106] The “Chaplet-seller.” - -[2107] A “correct” copy. - -[2108] “In confracto.” Meaning probably the group of the surrounding -spectators, on which the shadow of the animal’s body was thrown. It is -evident that this artist excelled in his effect of light and shade, -enhanced by contrasts, and strong foreshortenings.”—Wornum, Smith’s -Dict. Antiq. Art. _Painting_. - -[2109] A.U.C. 678. See B. xxxvi. c. 24. - -[2110] Mentioned also in B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2111] Praised by Pausanias, B. i. It was in this combat, he says, -that Gryllus, the son of Xenophon, and Epaminondas the Theban, first -distinguished themselves. - -[2112] “Carne.” Beef, according to Plutarch, was the flesh mentioned. - -[2113] The dress of the Greek philosophers, more particularly. - -[2114] Born in the island of Cythnos, one of the Cyclades. He is -supposed to be the artist mentioned by Theophrastus, De Lapid. c. 95. - -[2115] It is supposed by Sillig, from Dio Cassius, B. liii. c. 27, that -this painting was transferred by M. Vipsanius Agrippa, to the Portico -of Neptune. - -[2116] See Chapter 20 of this Book, where he is mentioned as having -been the first artist who used “usta” or burnt ceruse. From Pausanias -we learn that his remains were interred at Athens, in the road leading -to the Academia. - -[2117] Chiaroscuro. - -[2118] In Chapter 10 of this Book. - -[2119] Bacchus. - -[2120] In the Eighth Region of the City. - -[2121] Spoken of by Pausanias, B. iii. c. 19. - -[2122] In the Forum at Rome. - -[2123] See Chapter 36 of this Book, Note 2025, p. 261. - -[2124] “Place of the prophecies of the dead;” in reference to the -description of the Infernal Regions in the Fourth Book of the Odyssey. - -[2125] See Chapter 37 of this Book. - -[2126] See B. iv. c. 18. - -[2127] Supposed by Hardouin to be the writer mentioned at the end of B. -vii. and B. x.: or perhaps, “a chief” of an Athenian tribe. - -[2128] A “group of kindred.” - -[2129] A disciple of Carneades. See the list of writers at the end of -this Book. - -[2130] B.C. 168. - -[2131] Represented in a sitting posture, as mentioned by Ovid, Trist. -II. 525, and by Philostratus, Vit. Apol. B. II. c. 10. The Medea is -described in an Epigram in B. iv. of the Greek Anthology, imitated by -Ausonius, Epigr. 22. - -[2132] See Note 2116 above. - -[2133] Medusa, slain by Perseus. - -[2134] In the former editions, “Mecophanes.” - -[2135] Or ochre. See B. xxxiii. c. 56. - -[2136] Health, Brightness, and All-heal. - -[2137] Greek for “sluggard.” - -[2138] Probably, from the context, a pupil, also, of Pausias. - -[2139] In pencil painting, and in encaustic. - -[2140] Probably the same painter that is mentioned in Chapter 37. - -[2141] An effect for which Schalken is famous. - -[2142] “Shading his eyes.” - -[2143] Son and pupil of Aglaopho, and brother of Polygnotus. He was -probably a native of Thasos. - -[2144] See Chapter 36, Note 2029, page 261. - -[2145] “Dolus.” An emblematical picture evidently, probably -representing the events just prior to the capture of Troy. - -[2146] A famous diver, mentioned by Herodotus, B. viii. c. 8, -Pausanias, B. x. c. 19, and Strabo, B. ix. - -[2147] Probably the wife of Seleucus, given by him to his son -Antiochus. See B. vii. c. 37, Note 1165. - -[2148] That they should rebuild the walls of Troy. - -[2149] His contest with Corragus the Macedonian, whom he defeated, -is mentioned also by Ælian, Diodorus Siculus, Athenæus, and Quintus -Curtius. - -[2150] Gained “without raising the dust,” _i.e._ without any difficulty. - -[2151] This is perhaps the meaning of “stemmata;” “heraldic pictures,” -probably. See Juvenal, Sat. viii. l. 2. - -[2152] Suidas seems to mention him, under the name of “Ctesiochus,” as -the brother of Apelles. - -[2153] Who was said to have been born from the thigh of Jove. - -[2154] Or cap; see Chapter 35 of this Book. - -[2155] By Hercules, when he demanded Iole of her father Eurytus, king -of Œchalia. - -[2156] See Note 2147 above. - -[2157] Several Cratini were distinguished as Comic writers, but we do -not read in any other author of any one of them being a painter. The -reading is doubtful. - -[2158] A building at the entrance into Athens, whence the “pompæ,” or -solemn processions, set out. - -[2159] Hardouin thinks that this was the victory gained by Aratus of -Sicyon over Aristippus, the Tyrant of Argos. If so, Leontiscus must -have flourished about Olymp. 136. - -[2160] Caused by the anger of Juno. In this fit of insanity he slew his -wife Megara and her children. - -[2161] See also Chapter 36. From Plutarch we learn that he was greatly -in favour with Aratus of Sicyon. - -[2162] According to Brotero, a representation of the Ass and Crocodile -was found in the pictorial embellishments at Herculaneum. - -[2163] See B. xvii. c. 36, B. xviii. c. 56, and B. xix. c. 24. - -[2164] “Theodoras” in most of the editions. - -[2165] See Chapter 36 of this Book, page 252. - -[2166] See the Æneid, B. II. c. 403, _et seq._ - -[2167] Poliorcetes. - -[2168] A native of Samos, mentioned by Quintilian, B. xii. c. 10, -as one of the painters between the time of Philip and that of the -successors of Alexander. - -[2169] After the murder of his mother. - -[2170] See B. vii. c. 57. - -[2171] Or player with the discus. - -[2172] Against his brother Eteocles. - -[2173] Who assisted Polynices in his siege of Thebes. - -[2174] Helen, Castor, and Pollux. - -[2175] See B. vii. c. 37. - -[2176] Mentioned in Chapter 36, as having been commenced for the people -of Cos, but never finished. - -[2177] See B. xxxiv. cc. 19, 39. Sillig is of opinion that the picture -mentioned by Pausanias, B. I. c. 1, in honour of Leosthenes, killed in -the Lamina War, B.C. 323, was by this artist. - -[2178] Poliorcetes, who began to reign B.C. 306. - -[2179] Already mentioned in this Chapter, at greater length. - -[2180] See B. xxxiv. c. 40. - -[2181] See Chapter 36 of this Book, and the present Chapter. Of the -greater part of these artists nothing further is known. - -[2182] See Chapter 35 of this Book. - -[2183] Previously mentioned in this Chapter. - -[2184] Or stylus—“cestrum.” - -[2185] Probably the same painter as the one mentioned in Chapter 37 of -this Book. - -[2186] See Chapter 39 of this Book. Pausias painted in wax with the -cestrum. - -[2187] Wornum is of opinion that this must have been a species of -drawing with a heated point, upon ivory, without the use of wax. -Smith’s Dict. Antiq. Art. _Painting_. - -[2188] This method, as Wornum remarks, though first employed on ships, -was not necessarily confined to ship-painting; and it must have been -a very different style of painting from the ship-colouring of Homer, -since it was of a later date even than the preceding methods. - -[2189] Though he says nothing here of the use of the “cauterium,” or -process of _burning in_, its employment may certainly be inferred -from what he has said in Chapter 39. Wornum is of opinion that -the definition at the beginning of this Chapter, of _two_ methods -apparently, “_in_ wax and _on_ ivory,” is in reality an explanation of -_one_ method only, and that the ancient modes of painting in encaustic -were not only three, but several. - -[2190] Or Temple of the Nymphs. The daughter of Butades is called -“Core” by Athenagoras. - -[2191] See B. xxxiv. c. 3. - -[2192] Son of Philæus. He is mentioned by Pausanias, B. viii. c. 14, -and by Herodotus, B. iii. c. 60, as the architect of a fine temple at -Samos, and, with Smilis and Theodorus, of the Labyrinth at Lemnos. - -[2193] Mentioned also in B. xxxiv. c. 19. Pliny is in error here in -using the word “plastice;” for it was the art of casting brass, and not -that of making plaster casts, that these artists invented. - -[2194] See Chapter 5 of this Book. He is said by Dionysius of -Halicarnassus, B. iii., to have been a member of the family of the -Bacchiadæ. - -[2195] A different person, probably, from the one of the same name -mentioned in B. vii. c. 56. - -[2196] Terra cotta figures. - -[2197] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. Tatian mentions a statue of Melanippe by -Lysistratus. - -[2198] See B. xxxvi. c. 4. - -[2199] In the Eleventh Region of the City. This Temple of Ceres, -Bacchus, and Proserpine, in the Circus Maximus, was vowed by A. -Posthumius, the Dictator, A.U.C. 258, and dedicated by the consul -Cassius, A.U.C. 261, or B.C. 493. - -[2200] See B. xxxiv. c. 16. - -[2201] Sillig (Dict. Anc. Art.) is of opinion that this Chalcosthenes -is not identical with the artist of that name mentioned in B. xxxiv. c. -19; the name “Ceramicus” probably being of far earlier origin than the -formation of the statues of Comedians. - -[2202] “Et.” The insertion of this word seems to militate against -Sillig’s position. - -[2203] The “Pottery.” - -[2204] See also B. xxxvi. c. 4. - -[2205] See Chapter 40 of this Book. - -[2206] “Crater.” A vase in which wine and water were mixed for drinking. - -[2207] See B. xxxiii. c. 55, B. xxxvi. c. 4, and end of B. xxxiii. - -[2208] See B. xxxiii. c. 36. - -[2209] In B. viii. c. 4, for instance. - -[2210] The “Hercules fictilis.” It is mentioned by Martial, B. xiv. Ep. -178. - -[2211] See B. xxxiii. c. 2, and B. xxxvii. cc. 7, 8, 11. - -[2212] “Simpuvia.” - -[2213] See B. xxxi. c. 31. - -[2214] “Mammatis.” The exact meaning of this word is unknown. The -passage is evidently in a corrupt state. - -[2215] As to the Roman “Collegia,” see B. viii. c. 42, and B. xxxiv. c. -1. - -[2216] “Solia.”—The same name is given also to a kind of sitting or -reclining-bath, often mentioned by Pliny. - -[2217] Asia Minor. - -[2218] See B. iii. c. 18. - -[2219] A service of three dishes. - -[2220] See B. ix. c. 39. - -[2221] See B. ix. cc. 24, 28, 74, 79. - -[2222] In B. x. c. 72. - -[2223] See Note 2211 above. - -[2224] See B. xxiii. c. 47, and the end of this Book. - -[2225] Martial speaks of this practice, B. iii. Epigr. 81. - -[2226] Nothing further seems to be known of this personage, or of the -grounds of his invective. Pliny may possibly allude to some abominable -practices, with which Vitellius is charged by Suetonius also. - -[2227] The “Opus Signinum” was a plaster or cement much used for making -pavements. It took its name from Signia, in Italy, celebrated for its -tiles. See B. iii. c. 9. - -[2228] The floors of the Roman houses were seldom boarded. - -[2229] “Pulvis.” See B. iii. c. 9, B. xvi. c. 76, and B. xxxvi. c. -14. He alludes to the cement made of volcanic ashes, now known as -“Pozzuolane.” - -[2230] See B. iv. c. 17. - -[2231] It being the practice to rub the bodies of the athletes with -sand. - -[2232] This circumstance is mentioned also by Suetonius, in his life of -Nero. Patrobius was slain by order of the Emperor Galba. - -[2233] Ajasson says that they are called _tapias_ at the present day in -Spain. - -[2234] See B. ii. c. 73. - -[2235] “Rubrica.” - -[2236] See B. xxxi. c. 28. - -[2237] Which was, as a measure, nearly three inches in breadth. See -Introduction to Vol. III. - -[2238] See B. v. c. 32. - -[2239] Ajasson says that these bricks have been imitated by Fabroni, -with a light argillaceous earth, found in the territory of Sienna. -Delafosse thinks that a place called “Cala,” in the Sierra Morena, -probably marks the site of the cities above mentioned. - -[2240] See B. iv. c. 5, and B. xxxvi. c. 4. - -[2241] “Gerusia.” - -[2242] See B. iii. c. 19. - -[2243] In B. iii. c. 6. - -[2244] See B. xviii. c. 29. - -[2245] “Untouched by fire.” Native sulphur. - -[2246] “Gleba.” - -[2247] Sulphur has been always considered highly useful for the cure of -cutaneous affections. - -[2248] From ἅρπαζω, “to carry away.” - -[2249] Ovid, in his “Art of Love,” speaks of purifying houses with eggs -and sulphur. - -[2250] See B. xxxi. c. 32. - -[2251] There are three distinct kinds of bitumen. 1. Naphtha, also -known as petroleum, or rock-oil, inflammable, volatile, soluble in -alcohol, and found in France and Italy. 2. Asphalt, or bitumen of -Judæa, solid, insoluble in alcohol, and found in Lake Asphaltites in -Syria, more particularly. 3. Pissasphalt, of a medium consistency -between the other substances, of which it appears to be composed. See -B. xxiv. c. 25. - -[2252] In B. v. c. 15. - -[2253] Naphtha, most probably. - -[2254] See B. xxiv. c. 25. - -[2255] Chapter 109. - -[2256] As to the “nitrum” of Pliny, see B. xxxi. c. 46. - -[2257] “Asphalt plaster,” probably. - -[2258] Or mint. See B. xix. c. 47, and B. xx. c. 53. - -[2259] See B. xxxii. c. 13. - -[2260] In B. xxxiv. c. 9. - -[2261] Beckmann is of opinion that our _alum_ was not known to the -Greeks or Romans, and that what the latter called “alumen” was green -vitriol, or sulphate of the protoxide of iron, in an impure state. -Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 180. _Bohn’s Edition._ Dr. Pereira remarks, -however, that “there can be little doubt that Pliny was acquainted -with our alum, but did not distinguish it from sulphate of iron, for -he informs us that one kind of alum was white, and was used for dyeing -wool of bright colours.” Materia Medica, Vol. I, Delafosse identifies -the “alumen” of Pliny with double sulphate of alum and iron. - -[2262] “Salsugo terræ.” - -[2263] See Note 2261 above. - -[2264] For gilding, Hardouin says. - -[2265] The Roman provinces in Africa, other than Egypt. - -[2266] Now Strombolo. See B. iii. c. 14. - -[2267] Herodotus, B. ii., mentions the fact that King Amasis sent -the people of Delphi a thousand talents of this substance, as his -contribution towards rebuilding their temple. - -[2268] “Fruitful,” or “useful.” - -[2269] “Adulterated.” - -[2270] See B. xx. c. 71. - -[2271] “Split” alum. Probably iron alum, the French _alum de plume_; of -a flaky, silky appearance. - -[2272] “Hairy alum.” - -[2273] See B. xxxiv. cc. 2, 29. - -[2274] So called, according to Dioscorides, from the “round” form of -the pieces. - -[2275] He has previously said that the most esteemed kind was the -Egyptian, that of Melos being the next best. - -[2276] Στυπτηρία, the “styptic.” - -[2277] “Sero picis.” Hardouin is of opinion that under this name -pisselæon is intended. See B. xv. c. 7, B. xxiv. cc. 11, 24, and B. -xxv. c. 22. - -[2278] At the beginning of this Chapter in part. - -[2279] Aluminous silicates, as Delafosse remarks, more or less combined -with other minerals. Though employed for various purposes in the arts, -they are now but little used in medicine. - -[2280] Probably because it was the more extensively employed of the -two, in “collyria,” or compositions for the eyes. - -[2281] “Star” earth, apparently. - -[2282] From Eretria, in Eubœa. See B. iv. c. 21. - -[2283] In Chapter 21 of this Book. - -[2284] It appears to be a matter of doubt whether it was found at -Selinus, in Sicily, or the place of that name in Cilicia. See B. iii. -c. 14, and B. v. c. 22. - -[2285] Agricola is of opinion that this earth had its name from the -place called Pnigeum, in the Libyan Mareotis. Other commentators would -have it to be derived from πνίγω, “to suffocate,” such being -its effect if taken internally. - -[2286] See the next Chapter. - -[2287] So called from ἀμπέλος, a “vine;” either because it was -applied to vines to kill the insects, or because its admixture with the -soil was favourable to the cultivation of the vine. - -[2288] “Washes for beautifying the eye-brows.” See B. xxi. c. 73, B. -xxiii. c. 51, and B. xxxiii. c. 34. - -[2289] Cimolian earth, known in modern chemistry as Cimolite, is not -a cretaceous earth, but an aluminous silicate, still found in the -island of Kimoli, or Argentiera, one of the Cyclades; See B. iv. c. 23. -Tournefort describes it as a white chalk, very heavy, tasteless, and -dissolving in water. It is found also at Alexandrowsk in Russia. - -[2290] See Chapter 25 of this Book. - -[2291] See B. xxxi. c. 46. - -[2292] See B. xii. c. 51. - -[2293] See B. v. c. 28. - -[2294] Beckmann thinks that this may have been our common chalk. Vol. -II. p. 105. - -[2295] This _seems_ to be the meaning of “crescit in macerando.” - -[2296] A.U.C. 535, it is supposed. - -[2297] As a plebiscitum. - -[2298] “Desquamatur.” This is most probably the meaning of the word, -though Beckmann observes “that it was undoubtedly a term of art, which -cannot be further explained, because we are unacquainted with the -operation to which it alludes.”—Vol II. p. 104. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[2299] “Funditur sulphure.” The meaning of these words is very -doubtful. Beckmann proposes to read “offenditur,” but he is not -supported by any of the MSS. He has evidently mistaken the meaning of -the whole passage. - -[2300] Probably because it was too calcareous, Beckmann thinks. - -[2301] See B. iv. c. 3, and B. xxxvi. c. 59. - -[2302] Plate powder; from “argentum,” “silver.” See B. xvii. c. 4. - -[2303] Whitening, or chalk washed and prepared, is still used for this -purpose. - -[2304] The goal for the chariots. - -[2305] This reading is restored by Sillig from the Bamberg MS., but -no particulars are known relative to the person alluded to; unless, -indeed, as Sillig suspects to be the case, he is identical with Publius -Syrus, the writer of mimes, mentioned in B. viii. c. 77. - -[2306] Supposed by some to have been the Manilius who was author -of the poem called “Astronomica,” still in existence. It is more -probable, however, that he was the father of the poet, or perhaps the -grandfather; as it is clear from a passage in Suetonius, that Staberius -Eros taught at Rome during the civil wars of Sylla, while the poem must -have been written, in part at least, after the death of Augustus. - -[2307] Being afterwards manumitted. Sillig thinks that they may have -arrived in Rome about B.C. 90. - -[2308] “Catasta.” A raised platform of wood on which the slaves were -exposed for sale. - -[2309] “Rectorem.” For an explanation of this allusion, see B. xxviii. -c. 14. - -[2310] A native of Gadara in Syria, according to Josephus. Seneca -speaks of him as being more wealthy than his master. - -[2311] Or Menodorus, who deserted Sextus Pompeius and went over to -Octavianus. - -[2312] Who remained faithful to Pompeius, and died in his cause. - -[2313] He is probably speaking in reference to her paramour, the -freedman Pallas. See B. xxxiii. c. 47. - -[2314] As to the earths of Galata and Clypea, see B. v. c. 7. The -others are mentioned in B. iii. c. 11. - -[2315] See end of B. ix. - -[2316] See end of B. xxxiv. - -[2317] See end of B. viii. - -[2318] See end of Books vii. and xiv. - -[2319] See end of B. ii. - -[2320] See end of B. iii. - -[2321] See end of B. ii. - -[2322] See end of B. x. - -[2323] See end of B. ii. - -[2324] See end of B. vii. - -[2325] See end of B. xvi. - -[2326] A native of Longula in Latium. Though of dissolute character, -he was famous as an orator and satirical writer. It was he who accused -Nonius Asprenas of poisoning, as mentioned in Chapter 46 of this Book. -He died in exile at the island of Seriphos, about A.D. 33. His works -were at first proscribed, but were afterwards permitted by Caligula to -be read. - -[2327] See end of B. vii. - -[2328] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[2329] The painter, mentioned at great length in Chapter 36 of this -Book, and elsewhere. - -[2330] A painter of Sicyon, mentioned in Chapters 32 and 36 of this -Book. - -[2331] Probably the painter of that name, mentioned in Chapter 36 of -this Book. - -[2332] The artist mentioned in B. xxxiv. c. 19, and in Chapter 40 of -the present Book. - -[2333] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[2334] Possibly the painter of that name, mentioned in Chapter 40 of -this Book. - -[2335] See end of B. ii. - -[2336] See end of B. iii. - -[2337] See end of B. xxx. - -[2338] See end of B. iii. - -[2339] See end of B. xii. - -[2340] See end of Books iv., viii., xi., and xx. - -[2341] See end of B. xx. - -[2342] See end of Books iv. and xii. - -[2343] See end of B. xii. - -[2344] See end of B. xiii. - -[2345] See end of B. xii. - -[2346] See end of B. xii. - -[2347] See end of B. xxix. - -[2348] See end of B. xii. - -[2349] See end of B. xii. - -[2350] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[2351] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[2352] See B. xxxvii. cc. 7, 8, 11. - -[2353] See the lines of Juvenal, Sat. x. l. 151, _et seq._ - -[2354] He alludes to vessels made of crystal, which, as Dalechamps -remarks, was long supposed to be nothing but ice in a concrete form. -See B. xxxvii. c. 9. - -[2355] See B. viii. c. 82. - -[2356] “Glandia.” - -[2357] See Chapter 24 of this Book. - -[2358] See Chapter 8 of this Book. - -[2359] In the Eleventh Region of the City. - -[2360] See B. xxxv. cc. 43, 45. - -[2361] See B. xvii. c. 1. - -[2362] These two artists are invariably mentioned together. Pausanias, -B. ii. c. 14, and B. iii. c. 17, speaks or them as the pupils or sons -of Dædalus; only intimating thereby, as Sillig thinks, that they were -the first sculptors worthy of being associated with the father of -artists. Pausanias, B. ii. c. 22, mentions ebony statues by them. - -[2363] In the time of the Telchines, before the arrival of Inachus in -Argolis. - -[2364] Pausanias says that this statue was completed by their pupils. -Clemens Alexandrinus mentions other works of theirs. - -[2365] Another reading is “Anthermus.” Of many of these sculptors, no -further particulars are known. - -[2366] Another cause of the quarrel is said to have been the refusal of -Bupalus to give his daughter in marriage to Hipponax. This quarrel is -referred to in the Greek Anthology, B. iii. Epigr. 26. - -[2367] See B. xiv. c. 9. - -[2368] See B. iv. c. 20. - -[2369] Dedicated by Augustus, in the Tenth Region of the City. - -[2370] Λύχνος being the Greek for a “lamp.” - -[2371] See B. iii. c. 8: now known as the marble of Massa and Carrara, -of a bluish white, and a very fine grain. - -[2372] A similar case has been cited, in the figure of St. Jerome, to -be seen on a stone in the Grotto of Our Saviour at Bethlehem, and in -a representation of the Crucifixion, in the Church of St. George, at -Venice. A miniature resembling that of the poet Chaucer is to be seen -on the surface of a small stone in the British Museum. - -[2373] See B. xxxv. c. 44. - -[2374] See B. xxxv. cc. 37, 40. - -[2375] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2376] “In the Gardens.” A suburb of Athens, in which there was a -temple of Venus, or Aphrodite Urania. - -[2377] He is mentioned also by Pausanias and Strabo. - -[2378] The Goddess of Retribution. Pausanias, B. i. c. 33, says that -it was the work of Phidias, and that it was made of Parian marble, -which the Persians had brought into Attica for the purpose of erecting -a trophy. Strabo, however, in B. ix., says that it was the work of -Agoracritus and Diodotus (an artist otherwise unknown), and that it -was not at all inferior to the production of Phidias. Tzetzes again, -Suidas, and Photius, say that it was the work of Phidias, and that -it was presented by him to his favourite pupil, Agoracritus. Sillig -rejects the story of the contest, and the decision by the suffrages of -the Athenian people. Some modern writers have doubted also, whether a -statue of Venus could be modified so as to represent Nemesis; but not -with sufficient reason, Sillig thinks. - -[2379] See B. iv. c. 11. - -[2380] A statue, Sillig supposes, of the goddess Cybele. - -[2381] “Pandoras Genesis.” - -[2382] Sillig is of opinion that this passage is corrupt, and is -inclined to think, with Panofka, that the reading should be “nascenti -adstantes,”—gods “standing by the new-born” Pandora. - -[2383] In B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2384] See B. xxxv. c. 45. - -[2385] “Velatâ specie.” There has been much discussion about the -meaning of these words; and Sillig is of opinion that the figure was -represented draped in a garment, which, while it seemed designed to -hide the person, really exposed it to view. This dress would not -improbably recommend it additionally to the inhabitants of Cos, who -were skilled in making the _Coæ vestes_, garments which, while they -covered the body, revealed its naked charms. See further mention of -them in B. ix. c. 26. - -[2386] Visconti thinks that a statue still preserved in the Royal -Museum at Paris, is a copy of the Coan Venus. It has, however, a figure -of Cupid associated with it, which, as Sillig observes, militates -against the supposition. - -[2387] The ancient writers abound in praises of this wonderful statue. -Lucian, however, has given the most complete and artistic description -of it. It was supposed by the ancients, to represent Venus as standing -before Paris, when he awarded to her the prize of beauty; but it has -been well remarked, that the drapery in the right hand, and the vase -by the side of the figure, indicate that she has either just left or -is about to enter the bath. The artist modelled it from Phryne, a -courtesan or hetæra of Athens, of whom he was greatly enamoured. It was -ultimately carried to Constantinople, where it perished by fire in the -reign of Justinian. It is doubtful whether there are any copies of it -in existence. There is, however, a so-called copy in the gardens of the -Vatican, and another in the Glyptothek, at Munich. A Venus in the Museo -Pio-Clementino, at Rome, is considered by Visconti and others to have -been a copy of the Cnidian Venus, with the addition of drapery. It is -supposed that Cleomenes, in making the Venus de Medici, imitated the -Cnidian Venus in some degree. - -[2388] There are numerous Epigrams in reference to this statue in -the Greek Anthology; the most striking line in any of which is the -beautiful Pentameter: - - Φεῦ! φεῦ! ποῦ γυμνὴν εἶδε με Πραξιτέλης; - - “Alas! where has Praxiteles me naked seen?” - -[2389] Lucian, Valerius Maximus, and Athenæus, tell the same improbable -story, borrowing it from Posidippus the historian. - -[2390] Bacchus. - -[2391] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2392] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2393] Pliny is mistaken here: for in the time of Cicero, as we find -in Verr. 4, 2, 4, the Thespian Cupid was still at Thespiæ, in Bœotia, -where it had been dedicated by Phryne, and was not removed to Rome till -the time of the emperors. It was the Parian Cupid, originally made for -the people of Parium, that, after coming into the possession of Heius, -a rich Sicilian, was forcibly taken from him by Verres. - -[2394] Where it was destroyed by fire in the reign of Titus. See B. -xxxiv. c. 37. - -[2395] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2396] Frantic Bacchantes. - -[2397] Sacrificing Bacchantes. - -[2398] The name given in architecture to figures of females employed -as columns in edifices. The Spartans, on taking the city of Carya, in -Laconia, massacred the male inhabitants, and condemned the females to -the most bitter servitude, as “hewers of wood and drawers of water.” -Hence the memorials of their servitude thus perpetuated in architecture. - -[2399] Or companions of Bacchus. See B. xxxv. c. 36. - -[2400] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2401] “Symplegma.” - -[2402] Also mentioned in B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2403] Pausanias, B. I., speaks of _three_ figures sculptured by -Scopas; Erôs, Himeros, and Pothos. It is doubtful, however, whether -they are identical with those here spoken of. - -[2404] Or “Desire.” The name of “Phaëthon” is added in most of the -editions, but Sillig rejects it as either a gloss, or a corruption of -some other name. - -[2405] “Campteras.” This, which is probably the true reading, has been -restored by Sillig from the Bamberg MS. The καμπτὴρ was the -bend or turning, round the goal in the race-course for chariots; and -as Vesta was symbolical of the earth, these figures, Sillig thinks, -probably represented the poles, as goals of the sun’s course. - -[2406] Figures of Virgins, carrying on their heads baskets filled with -objects consecrated to Minerva. - -[2407] Dedicated to Neptune by Cneius Domitius Ahenobarbus, in the -Ninth Region of the City. - -[2408] “Et” appears a preferable reading to the “aut” of the Bamberg MS. - -[2409] “Hippocampi.” It is pretty clear that by this name he cannot -mean the small fish so called in B. xxxii. cc. 20, 23, 27, 30, 35, 38, -50, and 53, and alluded to in B. ix. c. 1; the Syngnathus hippocampus -of Linnæus. - -[2410] A sea-divinity. - -[2411] “Pistrices.” See B. ix. cc. 2, 3, 15. - -[2412] Conqueror of Callæcia. See B. iv. c. 35. This temple was -dedicated to Mars. - -[2413] A statue of Apollo, Hardouin thinks, which was originally -brought from Seleucia by C. Sosius, the quæstor of M. Lepidus. See B. -xiii. c. 5. - -[2414] Ajasson says that this work is identical with the group -representing Niobe and her children, now at Florence. It was found in -1535, or, as some say, 1583, near the Lateran Gate at Rome; upon which, -it was bought by Ferdinand de Medici, and placed in the park of one of -his villas. More recently, the Emperor Leopold purchased it, and had it -removed to Florence. - -[2415] The Temple of Janus, in the Eighth Region of the City. - -[2416] Probably by neither of them, as Janus was essentially an Italian -Divinity. See Ovid’s Fasti, B. I. - -[2417] See B. xxxv. c. 37. - -[2418] A large upper garment, reaching to the ankles. - -[2419] Both Liber and Libera were originally Italian Divinities, -who presided over the vine and the fields. Pliny, however, always -identifies the former with Bacchus, and other writers the latter with -Persephone, or Proserpina, the daughter of Demeter or Ceres. Ovid, -Fasti, B. iii. l. 512, calls Ariadne, “Libera.” - -[2420] See B. xvi. c. 76. - -[2421] A disciple of Marsyas, and a famous player on the flute. See p. -319. - -[2422] All these figures have been found copied in the frescoes of -Herculaneum. - -[2423] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2424] It is doubtful whether this is the same artist that is mentioned -in B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2425] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2426] Hence, too, the use of the word “Mausoleum,” as meaning a -splendid tomb. - -[2427] He means, probably, the extent of the colonnade or screen which -surrounded it. The Mausoleum was erected at Halicarnassus. - -[2428] Facing east and west. - -[2429] Or “wing.” The “ptera,” or “pteromata,” properly speaking, were -the two wings at the sides of a building. See Note 2431 below. - -[2430] She only survived her husband two years. - -[2431] Another reading, and perhaps a preferable one, is “one hundred” -feet. The account given by Pliny is very confused, and Littré has -taken some pains to explain the construction of this building. He is -of opinion that in the first place, a quadrangular main building was -erected, 63 feet in length on the north and south, the breadth of the -east and west faces being shorter, some 42 feet perhaps. Secondly, that -there was a screen of 36 columns surrounding the main building, and 411 -feet in circumference. (He adopts this reading in preference to the -440 feet of the Bamberg MS.) That the longer sides of this screen were -113.25 feet in extent, and the shorter 92.125 feet. That between the -main building and this screen, or colonnade, there was an interval of -25.125 feet. Thirdly, that the colonnade and the main buildings were -united by a vaulted roof, and that this union formed the “Pteron.” -Fourthly, that rising from this Pteron, there was a quadrangular -truncated pyramid, formed of twenty-four steps, and surmounted with a -chariot of marble. This would allow, speaking in round numbers, 37½ -feet for the height of the main body of the building, 37½ feet for -the pyramid, and twenty-five feet for the height of the chariot and the -figure which it doubtless contained. - -[2432] Supposed to be the person alluded to by Horace, 1 Sat. 3, 90. - -[2433] He is mentioned also by Tatian, and is supposed to have lived -about the time of Alexander the Great. - -[2434] “Charites.” - -[2435] “Porch,” or “Vestibule” of the Citadel at Athens. - -[2436] Mentioned in B. xxxv. c. 40. The present Socrates is identified -by Pausanias, B. i. c. 22, and B. ix. c. 25, and by Diogenes Laertius, -B. ii. c. 19, with the great Athenian philosopher of that name, son of -the statuary Sophroniscus: but the question as to his identity is very -doubtful. Diogenes Laertius adds, that whereas artists had previously -represented the Graces naked, Socrates sculptured them with drapery. - -[2437] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2438] See B. xxxv. c. 45. - -[2439] Or Muses of Thespiæ, in Bœotia. - -[2440] There have been several distinguished sculptors, all of this -name. A statuary, son of Apollodorus the Athenian, made the celebrated -Venus de Medici. It is the opinion of Visconti and Thiersch, that the -artist here mentioned flourished before the destruction of Corinth. - -[2441] This name is doubtful, and nothing is known relative to the -artist. - -[2442] “Hippiades” is the old reading, which Dalechamps considers to -mean “Amazons.” The Appiades were Nymphs of the Appian Spring, near the -temple of Venus Genetrix, in the Forum of Julius Cæsar. See Ovid, Art. -Am. B. i. l. 81, and B. iii. l. 451; and Rem. Am. l. 659. - -[2443] From an inscription on a statue still extant, he is supposed to -have been a pupil of Pasiteles, and consequently to have flourished -about B.C. 25. - -[2444] Figures in which the form and attributes of Hermes, or Mercury, -and Eros, or Cupid, were combined, Hardouin thinks. - -[2445] In B. xxxiii. c. 55. - -[2446] In Caria: see B. v. c. 29. - -[2447] Or “Xenias”—“Presiding over hospitality,” or “Protector of -strangers.” - -[2448] The story was, that Zethus and Amphion bound Dirce, queen of -Thebes, to the flanks of an infuriated bull, in revenge for the death -of their mother, Antiope, who had been similarly slain by her. This -group is supposed still to exist, in part, in the “Farnese Bull,” -which has been in a great measure restored. Winckelmann is of opinion, -however, that the Farnese Bull is of anterior date to that here -mentioned, and that it belongs to the school of Lysippus. - -[2449] Probably a native of Rhodes. No further particulars of this -artist appear to be known. - -[2450] Bacchus. - -[2451] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2452] A different person, probably, from the painter, mentioned in B. -xxxv. c. 40. - -[2453] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2454] Supposed by Sillig not to be the early statuary of Argos of that -name, who flourished, probably, B.C. 476. - -[2455] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2456] “Pasiteles” would appear to be a preferable reading; for Pliny -would surely have devoted more space to a description of these works of -Praxiteles. - -[2457] The same artist that is previously mentioned, Sillig thinks. - -[2458] Of Jupiter. - -[2459] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2460] “Symplegma.” See Note 2401, page 314. - -[2461] The first being in a stooping posture, washing herself. - -[2462] In B. xxxiii. c. 55, and B. xxxiv. c. 18. - -[2463] A sculptor of the age of Alexander the Great. He is also -mentioned by Tatian. For an account of Callisthenes, see end of B. xii. - -[2464] Winckelmann supposes that these artists lived in the time of -Lysippus; but, as may be discovered from an attentive examination -of the present passage, Lessing and Thiersch are probably right in -considering them to have been contemporaries of the Emperor Titus. This -group is generally supposed to have been identical with the Laocoön -still to be seen in the Court of the Belvedere, in the Vatican at -Rome; having been found, in 1506, in a vault beneath the spot known -as the Place _de Sette Sale_, by Felix de Fredi, who surrendered it, -in consideration of a pension, to Pope Julius II. The group, however, -is not made of a _single_ block, which has caused some to doubt its -identity: but it is not improbable, that when originally made, its -joints were not perceptible to a common observer. The spot, too, where -it was found was actually part of the palace of Titus. It is most -probable that the artists had the beautiful episode of Laocoön in view, -as penned by Virgil, Æn. B. II.; though Ajasson doubts whether they -derived any inspiration from it. Laocoön, in the sublime expression of -his countenance, is doing any thing, he says, but— - - “Clamores simul horrendos ad sidera tollit.” - - “Sending dire outcries to the stars of heaven.” - -[2465] This was an ancient and hideous idol, probably. Plato, Diodorus -Siculus, Plautus, Lactantius, Arnobius, and Isidorus, all concur -in saying that it was Saturn in honour of whom human victims were -immolated. - -[2466] “Ad Nationes.” A portico built by Augustus, and adorned with -statues representing various nations. - -[2467] “Thespiades.” They were brought by Mummius from Thespiæ, in -Bœotia. See B. xxxiv. c. 19, and Note 2439, above. - -[2468] See B. xxxv. c. 45, and end of B. xxxiii. - -[2469] Magna Græcia. - -[2470] Built by Metellus Macedonicus. - -[2471] “Navalia.” This was the name of certain docks at Rome, where -ships were built, laid up, and refitted. They were attached to the -Emporium, without the Trigeminian Gate, and were connected with the -Tiber. - -[2472] See B. xxxv. c. 45. - -[2473] In the Ninth Region of the City. These figures are mentioned -also by Suetonius, C. 46. - -[2474] See B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2475] A singular combination of names, as they mean “Lizard” and -“Frog.” No further particulars of these artists are known, but they -appear to have lived in the time of Pompey. - -[2476] Of Juno and Apollo. - -[2477] “Spiræ.” See Chapter 56 of this Book. - -[2478] Winckelmann, in Vol. II. p. 269, of the _Monumenti Antichi -ined._, gives the chapiter of an Ionic column, belonging to the church -of San Lorenzo, without the walls, at Rome, on the volutes of which are -represented a frog and a lizard. - -[2479] The old reading is adopted here, in preference to that of the -Bamberg MS., which does not appear reconcileable to sense in saying -that _this_ temple of Jupiter was originally made in honour of Juno; -for in _such case_ there could be no mistake in introducing the emblems -of female worship. - -[2480] A sculptor of Miletus. See B. vii. c. 21. - -[2481] A Lacedæmonian artist. See B. vii. c. 21. - -[2482] As well as that of Paros. - -[2483] Only completed in the time of the Emperor Adrian. - -[2484] Cebriones, the charioteer of Hector. See Il. B. xvi. l. 735. - -[2485] See B. xxxiii. c. 23. - -[2486] This is generally explained as meaning ordinary stone, but -covered with elaborate paintings, as was then the practice in the -magnificent villas that were built at Tibur, the modern Tivoli. See, -however, Chapter 48, and Note 2784. - -[2487] As applied to the decorations of the walls of houses. - -[2488] This date does not agree with that given to Scopas, one of the -artists who worked at the Mausoleum, in the early part of B. xxxiv. c. -19. Sillig, however, is inclined to think that there were _two_ artists -named Scopas, and would thus account for the diversity of about seventy -years between the dates. - -[2489] See end of B. ii. - -[2490] Owing to the liberality of Cæsar, he amassed great riches. He -is repeatedly attacked by Catullus (Carm. xxix., xliii., lvii.), and -accused of extortion, and other vices. Horace also speaks of him in -terms of ridicule, I Sat. 5, 37. - -[2491] See B. iv. c. 21. - -[2492] See Chapter 4 of this Book. - -[2493] The black marbles, Ajasson remarks, are comparatively rare. He -is of opinion that the colour of the Lucullan marble was the _noir -antique_ of the French, and says that it is to be found at Bergamo, -Carrara, Prato in Tuscany, and near Spa in Belgium. - -[2494] “Chios” is another reading. - -[2495] “Thundering Jupiter.” This temple was built by Augustus. - -[2496] Ajasson says that his remarks on the choice of the sand for this -purpose, are very judicious. - -[2497] A recommendation worse than useless, Ajasson remarks. - -[2498] For this purpose, at the present day, granular corindon, or -yellow emery, is used, as also a mixture composed of the oxides of lead -and of tin; the substance being repeatedly moistened when applied. - -[2499] See Chapters 13 and 43 of this Book. - -[2500] A city in Crete where the stone was prepared for use. - -[2501] “Cotes.” - -[2502] Books III. IV. V. and VI. - -[2503] The modern Ophite, both Noble, Serpentine, and Common. - -[2504] From the Greek ὄφις, a “serpent.” - -[2505] This would appear to be a kind of Apatite, or Augustite, found -in crystalline rocks. - -[2506] A superstition, owing solely to the name and appearance of the -stone. - -[2507] From the Greek τέφρα, “ashes.” The _modern_ Tephroite -is a silicate of manganese. - -[2508] Memphis, in Egypt. - -[2509] A variety of the modern Porphyry, possibly; a compact -feldspathic base, with crystals of feldspar. Ajasson refuses to -identify it with porphyry, and considers it to be the stone called _Red -antique_, of a deep uniform red, and of a very fine grain; which also -was a production of Egypt. - -[2510] “Small stone.” - -[2511] Of porphyrites. - -[2512] “Procurator.” - -[2513] See B. xxxvi. c. 38. See also the Lydian stone, or touchstone, -mentioned in B. xxxiii. c. 43. - -[2514] From Βάσανος, a “touchstone.” - -[2515] Philostratus gives a short account of this group, and copies of -it are to be seen in the Vatican, and in the grounds of the Tuilleries. - -[2516] See B. v. c. 10. - -[2517] The Egyptians called it, not Memnon, but Amenophis, and it is -supposed that it represented a monarch of the second dynasty. This is -probably the statue still to be seen at Medinet Abou, on the Libyan -side of the Nile, in a sitting posture, and at least 60 feet in -height. The legs, arms, and other parts of the body are covered with -inscriptions, which attest that, in the third century of the Christian -era, the priests still practised upon the credulity of the devotees, by -pretending that it emitted sounds. It may possibly have been erected -for astronomical purposes, or for the mystic worship of the sun. The -Greek name “Memnon” is supposed to have been derived from the Egyptian -_Mei Amun_, “beloved of Ammon.” - -[2518] Ajasson remarks that under this name the ancients meant, first, -yellow calcareous Alabaster, and secondly, Chalcedony, unclassified. - -[2519] See end of the present Book. - -[2520] See B. vi. cc. 27, 28, 32. - -[2521] “Variatum est.” - -[2522] Ajasson thinks that these columns, in reality, were made, in -both instances, of yellow jasper, or else yellow sardonyx, a compound -of sard and chalcedony. - -[2523] Erected A.U.C. 741. - -[2524] See B. xxxiii. c. 47. - -[2525] The reading here is doubtful, and it is questionable whether he -considers the two stones as identical. - -[2526] Probably calcareous Alabaster, Ajasson thinks. See B. xxxvii. c. -54. - -[2527] See B. xiii. c. 3. - -[2528] Plaster of Paris is made of gypsum or alabaster, heated and -ground. - -[2529] A feature both of jasper and of sardonyx. - -[2530] By some persons it has been considered to be the same with the -“lychnitis,” or white marble, mentioned in Chapter 4 of this Book. -Ajasson is of opinion that it has not been identified. - -[2531] Ajasson is in doubt whether this stone was really a marble or -a gypsic alabaster. It received its name from the river Curalius or -Coural, near which it was found; and it was also known as Sangaric -marble. Ajasson thinks that the ancient milk-white marble, still found -in Italy, and known to the dealers in antiquities as _Palombino_, may -have been the “corallitic” stone. He also mentions the fine white -marble known as _Grechetto_. - -[2532] See B. v. c. 29. Sulphuret of manganese is now known as -Alabandine; it is black, but becomes of a tarnished brown on exposure -to the air. It is not improbable that this manganese was used for -colouring glass, and that in Chapter 66 of this Book Pliny again refers -to manganese when speaking of a kind of “magnet” or load-stone. See -Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. pp. 237-8, _Bohn’s Edition_; who thinks, -that in the present passage Pliny is speaking of a kind of marble. -It is the fact, however, that Pyrolusite, or grey ore of manganese, -is used, at a red heat, for discharging the brown and green tints of -glass. See also B. xxxiv. c. 42, and the Note. - -[2533] Syenite is the name still given to feldspar, hornblende, -and quartz, passing into each other by insensible gradations, and -resembling granite. - -[2534] “Varied with red spots,” similar to our red granite. - -[2535] “Obelisci.” So called from ὀβελισκὸς, a “small spit,” -in consequence of their tapering form. - -[2536] Meaning, probably, that in the Egyptian language, the same -word is used as signifying a “spit” and a “ray” of light; for it is -generally agreed that the word “obeliscus” is of Greek origin. - -[2537] He does not appear to have been identified; and the correct -reading is doubtful. - -[2538] Heliopolis, or On. See B. v. c. 11. - -[2539] These figures or hieroglyphics did not denote the _phonetic -language_ of Egypt, but only formed a symbolical writing. - -[2540] Perhaps the same as “Sesostris.” The former reading is “Sothis.” - -[2541] Ajasson identifies him with Rameses III., a king of the -eighteenth dynasty, who reigned B.C. 1561. This was also one of the -names of Sesostris the Great. - -[2542] The name of the bull divinity worshipped by the people of On, or -Heliopolis; while by the people of Memphis it was known as Apis. - -[2543] This, Hardouin says, was the same obelisk that was afterwards -erected by Constantius, son of Constantine the Great, in the Circus -Maximus at Rome; whence it was removed by Pope Sextus V., in the year -1588, to the Basilica of the Lateran. - -[2544] This name is probably mutilated: there are about twenty -different readings of it. - -[2545] This name is also very doubtful. One reading is “Eraph,” and -Hardouin attempts to identify him with the Pharaoh Hophra of Jeremiah, -xliv. 30, the Ouafres of the Chronicle of Eusebius, and the Apries of -Herodotus. - -[2546] The Nectanabis, probably, of Plutarch, in his Life of Agesilaüs, -and the Nectanebus of Nepos, in the Life of Chabrias. - -[2547] Callixenus of Rhodes was a contemporary of Ptolemy Philadelphus, -and was the author of a description of Alexandria, and of a catalogue -of painters and sculptors. - -[2548] Egyptian talents, probably. See. B. xxxiii. c. 15. - -[2549] Evidently a stupendous monument, or rather aggregate of -buildings, erected by Ptolemy II., Philadelphus, in memory of his wife -and sister, Arsinoë. See B. xxxiv. c. 42. - -[2550] Caligula. - -[2551] See B. xvi. c. 76, and B. xxxv. c. 47. - -[2552] Or Circus Maximus; in the Eleventh Region of the City. According -to Kircher, it was this obelisk that Pope Sextus V. had disinterred, -and placed before the church of the Madonna del Popolo. - -[2553] There are sixteen various readings to this name. - -[2554] Diogenes Laertius says that he arrived in Egypt in the reign of -King Amasis. - -[2555] Boscovich and Brotero would read here “_eighty-two_ feet and -three quarters,” which is more in accordance with its height, as -measured by Kircher. - -[2556] After being long buried in ruins, it was disinterred, but not -re-erected, by Pope Benedict XIV. When thus brought to light, it was -found to be broken asunder. On it there was an inscription stating that -the Emperor Augustus had “presented it to the Sun”—“Soli donum dedit.” - -[2557] Twelve o’clock in the day. - -[2558] After the summer solstice. - -[2559] The one that is mentioned above as having been removed from -Alexandria by Caligula. - -[2560] This obelisk was transferred by Pope Sextus V. from the Circus -Vaticanus to the place of the Cathedral of St. Peter. - -[2561] So called because it was laid out on some gardens which had -belonged to one Vaticanus. - -[2562] Caligula. - -[2563] There are nine or ten readings of this name. Bunsen suggests -“Menophtheus,” the Egyptian king Meneph-Pthah. - -[2564] In Egypt, probably. - -[2565] Ajasson thinks that they were intended as places of sepulture -for the kings, but for the concealment, also, of their treasures. - -[2566] See B. v. c. 9. - -[2567] In Chapter 19 of this Book. - -[2568] See B. v. c. 9. Herodotus says that these pyramids were built by -King Mœris, in the middle of the lake, towering fifty paces above the -surface of the water. Diodorus Siculus says that they were built by him -in honour of himself and his wife. - -[2569] Or left-hand side to those coming down the stream. He alludes -to the three great Pyramids of Ghizeh, not far from Cairo. There are -numerous other pyramids to be seen in Egypt. - -[2570] In B. v. c. 9. - -[2571] It still exists, though the face is mutilated. It was -disinterred from the sand by Belzoni, but is now again nearly covered. -According to Cavaglia, the signature of the Historian Arrian was found -inscribed on one of the fore-paws, when it was disinterred. - -[2572] This reading is, perhaps, preferable to the LXI. s, (61½) of -the Bamberg MS. The head and neck, when uncovered, were found to be 27 -feet in height. - -[2573] Built by King Cheops, according to Herodotus, B. ii. - -[2574] All these writers are mentioned in the list of authors at the -end of the present Book. - -[2575] For the use of the workmen. There is, probably, no foundation -for a statement so exact as this; as it would be very singular that -such a fact should continue to be known, and the names of the builders -be buried in oblivion. - -[2576] According to modern measurement, the sides of its base measure -at the foundation 763 feet 4 inches, and it occupies a space of more -than 13 acres. Its perpendicular height is 480 feet. - -[2577] Other readings are 883, and 783. - -[2578] Differing very considerably from the modern measurement. These -variations may possibly arise, however, from a large portion of the -base being covered with sand. - -[2579] It was entirely coated with marble from the Thebaid; which, -however, was removed by the Arabs in the middle ages. In the vicinity -there is a fourth pyramid, but of such small dimensions that some of -the Egyptian obelisks exceed it in height. - -[2580] “Nitrum.” See B. xxxi. c. 46. - -[2581] From this reason being given, it would almost appear that these -“bridges” in reality were aqueducts, for conveying the water, in order -to melt the mounds of salt and nitre. - -[2582] A very improbable story, as Ajasson remarks; as if the method of -ascertaining the heights of edifices was unknown to the sages of Egypt, -and the constructors of the Pyramids! - -[2583] Herodotus, B. ii. cc. 134, 5, takes great pains to prove the -absurdity of this story; and there is little doubt that the beautiful -courtesan has been confounded with the equally beautiful Egyptian -Queen, Nitocris, who is said by Julius Africanus and Eusebius to have -built the third pyramid. As to the courtesan having been a fellow-slave -of the fabulist, Æsop, it is extremely doubtful. - -[2584] The greater harbour, there being two at Alexandria. - -[2585] Ptolemy Lagus. - -[2586] Supposed by Thiersch to have been the same person as the -statuary mentioned in B. xxxiv. c. 19. - -[2587] A risk that is now obviated, if, indeed, there is such a risk, -by the use of revolving lights and coloured lights. - -[2588] See B. v. c. 9. - -[2589] The site of this labyrinth has not been traced, but Sir G. -Wilkinson is inclined to think that it was at Howarah el Soghaïr in the -Faiöum. - -[2590] Similar, probably, to the one at Hampton Court. - -[2591] Most modern writers, and some of the ancients, have altogether -denied the existence of the Cretan Labyrinth; but, judging from the -testimony of Tournefort and Cockerell, it is most probable that it -really did exist, and that it was a vast natural grotto or cavern, -enlarged and made additionally intricate by human ingenuity. There -are many caverns of this nature in Crete, and one near Gortyna, at -Hagios-Deka, is replete with galleries and intricate windings similar -to those ascribed to the Labyrinth of Dædalus. - -[2592] See Chapter 13 of this Book. He is surprised that the people of -Egypt, a country which abounded in exquisite marbles, should have used -that of another country in preference to their own. - -[2593] As to the meaning of this word, see B. v. c. 9. - -[2594] See Chapter 5 of this Book. - -[2595] “Ulnæ.” See Introduction to Vol. III. - -[2596] The ἄρουρα was a Greek square measure, containing 2500 -square feet. - -[2597] See Chapter 11 of this Book. - -[2598] As to the meaning of this word, see Chapter 4 of this Book, page -317, and Note 2429. - -[2599] “Circummon” is a more common reading. - -[2600] Or acacia. See B. xxiv. c. 65. - -[2601] Welcker remarks that it is uncertain whether this Labyrinth was -erected as a temple of the Cabiri, or whether it had any connection -with the art of mining. - -[2602] Smilis lived, probably, 200 years before Rhœcus and Theodorus, -and was a native of Ægina, not Lemnos. Sillig, however, is inclined -to think that there were _two_ artists of this name; the elder a -contemporary of Dædalus, and the maker of several wooden statues. - -[2603] See B. xxxv. c. 43. - -[2604] See B. iii. c. 8. - -[2605] A round, broad-brimmed hat, such as we see represented in the -statues of Mercury. - -[2606] Where two brazen vessels were erected on a column, adjoining to -which was the statue of a boy with a whip; which, when agitated by the -wind, struck the vessels, and omens were drawn from the tinkling noise -produced, significant of future events, it was supposed. - -[2607] A building like this, as Niebuhr says, is absolutely impossible, -and belongs to the “Arabian Nights.” The description in some -particulars resembles that of a Chinese pagoda. - -[2608] Probably of Babylon, which were built on terraces raised on -arches. - -[2609] His meaning is, that it was built upon arches. - -[2610] Asia Minor. - -[2611] The Hotel de Ville at Brussels is said to have been built upon a -stratum of hides. - -[2612] See Chapter 4 of the present Book. Sillig, in his “Dictionary of -Ancient Artists,” suggests a reading which would make the passage to -mean that Scopas was jointly architect with Chersiphron. The latter, -however, was _not_ the architect of the _second_ temple at Ephesus, but -flourished nearly four hundred years before. - -[2613] Strabo says that, in conjunction with his son Metagenes, he -began the _first_ Temple at Ephesus. Thiersch is of opinion that he -lived about the first Olympiad, He is mentioned also in B. vii. c. 38. - -[2614] “Epistylia.” See B. xxxv. c. 49. - -[2615] Which must have been above the bags and at the summit of the -inclined plane. - -[2616] See B. v. c. 40. - -[2617] “Lapis Fugitivus.” - -[2618] A public place where the Prytanes or chief magistrates -assembled, and where the public banquets were celebrated. - -[2619] Or “Narrow” gate, apparently. Dion Cassius, B. 74, tells a -similar story nearly, of seven towers at Byzantium, near the _Thracian -Gate_; and “Thracia” is given by the Bamberg MS. It is most probable -that the two accounts were derived from the same source. - -[2620] Ἑπτάφωνον, “seven times vocal.” Plutarch also mentions -this portico. - -[2621] Βουλευτήριον, the “senate house” or “council-chamber.” - -[2622] It was the most ancient of the bridges at Rome, and was so -called from its being built upon “sublices,” or wooden beams. It was -originally built by Ancus Martius, and was afterwards rebuilt by the -Pontifices or pontiffs. We learn from Ovid, Fasti, B. v. l. 621, that -it was still a wooden bridge in the reign of Augustus. In the reign of -Otho it was carried away by an inundation. In later times it was also -known as the Pons Æmilius, from the name of the person probably under -whose superintendence it was rebuilt. - -[2623] See B. xxxiv. c. 11. - -[2624] L. Æmilius Paulus, who was consul with C. Marcellus, A.U.C. -703. His Basilica, a building which served as a court of law and as an -exchange, was erected in the Eighth Region of the City, at the cost -of 1500 talents; which were sent to him by Cæsar, Plutarch says, as a -bribe to gain him over from the aristocratical party. It was surrounded -with an open peristyle of columns of Phrygian marble. - -[2625] “Diribitorium.” See B. xvi. c. 76. - -[2626] Scribonius Libo, who was Ædile during the consulship of Cicero. - -[2627] “Mound,” or “Terrace.” See B. iii. c. 9, where it is ascribed to -Tarquinius Superbus; but Strabo seems to attribute its foundation to -Servius Tullius. - -[2628] Thebes, in Egypt. See Chapter 20 of this Book. - -[2629] A.U.C. 721. He alludes probably to the cleansing of the sewers -beneath the city, which took place, Dion Cassius informs us, in the -ædileship of Agrippa. - -[2630] As Hardouin remarks, the story of the Milesian Virgins, as -related by Aulus Gellius and Plutarch, is very similar. - -[2631] A.U.C. 676. - -[2632] Caligula. The Palace of Caligula was situate on the Palatine -Hill] that of Nero extended from the Palatine Hill to the Esquiline, -nearly the whole of which was covered by it. It was left unfinished -by Nero, but the Emperor Otho completed it. Martial, Spectac. Ep. 2, -speaks in terms of indignation of there being now “but one house in all -the City;” but, unfortunately, he gives utterance to it with a view of -flattering Domitian. - -[2633] Whence its name, “Aurea,” the “golden” Palace. - -[2634] “Sellaria.” - -[2635] By this mode of expression, he probably means that they were -“birds of a feather”—one as bad as the other. - -[2636] His mother, Metella Cæcilia, became the wife of Sylla. - -[2637] He forgets the Pyramids and the Labyrinth of Egypt, which he has -so recently described. - -[2638] See B. xvii. c. 1, and Chapter 3 of the present Book. L. Crassus -is the person alluded to. - -[2639] “Four” is the number mentioned in B. xvii. c. 1. - -[2640] In Chapter 2 of this Book. - -[2641] In B. xxxiv. c. 17. - -[2642] “Cavea.” The place where the spectators sat, much like the “pit” -of our theatres. - -[2643] See B. xxxiii. c. 19. - -[2644] “Choragio.” - -[2645] He was defeated and slain in Africa by Juba and P. Attius Varus. - -[2646] And, consequently, of more strict manners, and more strict -morals. - -[2647] “Tabulis.” The wooden frames, probably, which formed the -margin of one side of each theatre, and which, when they were brought -together, would make a diameter running through the circle which they -formed. Hardouin thinks that these theatres are alluded to in Virgil, -Georg. B. III. l. 22, _et seq._ - -[2648] In allusion, probably, to the addresses delivered by Curio, when -tribune, from the Rostra, in favour of Cæsar. - -[2649] “Pensiles.” Pliny not improbably intends a pun here, this word -meaning also “suspended,” or “poised”—in reference, probably, to their -suspension on the pivots in Curio’s theatres. - -[2650] Between Cæsar and Pompey, which he is supposed to have inflamed -for his own private purposes. - -[2651] He was prætor B.C. 144; and, in order that he might complete his -aqueduct, his office was prolonged another year. - -[2652] This aqueduct was begun by Appius Claudius Cæcus, the censor, -and was the first made at Rome; B.C. 313. - -[2653] See B. iii. c. 17. It was commenced by M. Curius Dentatus, B.C. -273, the water being brought a distance of 43 miles. It was afterwards -known as the “Anio Vetus,” to distinguish it from another aqueduct from -the same river, mentioned in this Chapter, and called the “Anio Novus.” -The former was constructed of Peperino stone, and the water-course was -lined with cement. Considerable remains of it are still to be seen. - -[2654] The Aqua Tepula was constructed B.C. 127; so that it is doubtful -if Pliny is not here in error. - -[2655] The Aqua Marcia was brought a distance of upwards of 60 miles, -from the vicinity of Sublaqueum, now Subiaco, and was of such elevation -that water could be supplied to the loftiest part of the Capitoline -Hill. A considerable number of the arches are still standing. In the -vicinity of the city it was afterwards united with the Aqua Tepula and -the Aqua Julia; the watercourse of the last being above that of the -Aqua Tepula, and that above the course of the Aqua Marcia. See B. xxxi. -cc. 24, 25. - -[2656] See B. xxxi. cc. 24, 25. - -[2657] See B. xxxi. c. 25. - -[2658] See end of B. iii. - -[2659] Victor mentions 856 public baths at Rome. - -[2660] Caligula. - -[2661] Anio Novus. - -[2662] Nero. - -[2663] See B. ii. c. 106, and B. iii. c. 17. In order to check the -sudden rise of its waters, a design was entertained by Julius Cæsar to -construct a subterranean canal from the lake into the valley of the -Liris, which, unfortunately, was frustrated by his death. Claudius, -however, executed the work, by cutting a gallery upwards of an English -mile and a half through the limestone rock; a work which, according -to Suetonius, occupied thirty thousand workmen continually for eleven -years. On opening it with a mock naval combat, an accident happened in -which many persons lost their lives, and Claudius himself but narrowly -escaped. The emissary answered its purpose for some time, and, though -Nero suffered the works to fall into decay, they were repaired by -Hadrian. In the middle ages, however, the work fell in, and has not -since been restored. - -[2664] See B. iii. c. 9. - -[2665] “Magnes.” - -[2666] In Chapter 23 of this Book. - -[2667] “Iron earth;” from σίδηρος, “iron.” The magnet, or -loadstone itself, is an oxide of iron, known as Oxidulated iron, or -Ferroso-ferric oxide; sometimes in combination with quartz or alumine. - -[2668] From Heraclea, in Lydia, or in Thessaly, according to some -accounts. It is not improbable, however, that it was so called after -“Heracles,” or Hercules, on account of its powerful influence upon iron -ores. - -[2669] Isidorus says, “India,” in B. 16 of the “Origines.” - -[2670] See the list of authors at the end of this Book. - -[2671] Varieties, no doubt, of oxide of iron. - -[2672] An absurd distinction, as Ajasson remarks; based, probably, -on Eastern notions, and with reference to the comparative powers of -attraction. - -[2673] From αἷμα, “blood.” He alludes to Specular iron, red -ochre, or red hematite, another oxide of iron. - -[2674] Sometimes it has, but in a very slight degree. - -[2675] Ajasson remarks that most probably the possessors of this -pretended variety knew the distinction between the two poles of the -magnet, and took care, when it was their interest to do so, to place -the opposite pole towards that of the other loadstone. - -[2676] It was the belief of the Duke of Noya Caraffa, that this stone -was identical with Tourmaline: but, as Beckmann says, tourmaline, when -heated, first attracts iron, and then repels it. Hist. Inv. Vol. I. pp. -87, 88. _Bohn’s Edition._ Ajasson is of opinion that the Theamedes was -neither more nor less than the ordinary loadstone, with the negative -pole presented, by designing persons, towards another magnet. - -[2677] In B. ii. c. 98, and B. xx. c. 1. - -[2678] See B. iv. c. 23. - -[2679] See B. ii. c. 106, Vol. I. p. 137, and Note 687. There is little -doubt that this was a volcanic, porous product. - -[2680] From σάρξ, “flesh,” and φάγω, “to eat.” See B. ii. c. 98. -Ajasson identifies it with Alunite, or Alum stone, in its several -varieties. - -[2681] Both of them varieties of calcareous tufa, Ajasson thinks. - -[2682] Or Sarcophagus: see the preceding Chapter. - -[2683] Democritus, amongst the ancients, and Savonarola and Cardan, -in more recent times, have attributed to stones the powers of -reproduction. Vivès speaks of certain diamonds which conceive and -fructify; and Avicenna speaks of the selenite or moon-stone of Arabia, -which, when suspended from a tree, generates other stones of a similar -nature. Tournefort also entertained similar opinions. - -[2684] Fossil teeth of mammiferæ, probably. - -[2685] Fossil animal remains, no doubt. - -[2686] Cneius Pompeius. See B. iii. c. 3. - -[2687] “Palmati.” This is more probably the meaning, than the “human -palm,” as Littré renders it. They were fossil impressions of leaves, in -all probability. - -[2688] See Chapter 43 of this Book: also B. iv. cc. 7, 8. - -[2689] Stones so called, possibly, from being found in the vicinity of -Cora in Italy: See B. iii. c. 9. These stones are also mentioned by -Isidorus, Orig. B. xvi. c. 4. - -[2690] Identified by Ajasson and Desfontaines? with Quartz molar agate, -very abundant in this volcanic region of Italy. - -[2691] “Molares.” “Millstone.” - -[2692] Or Serpentine. See Chapter 11 of this Book. - -[2693] Not the Pyrites of modern Mineralogy, combinations of sulphur -with various mineral ores. - -[2694] The Greek for “fire” being πῦρ. - -[2695] Sulphate of copper, probably, our Chalcopyrite, or yellow copper -pyrites. - -[2696] See B. v. c. 35. - -[2697] Or “quick,” “vivos.” Ajasson identifies these with the quartz -agates that form our gun-flints, a Chalcedonic variety of Silica. - -[2698] Amadue, or German tinder. - -[2699] Fossil shells of oysters and bivalve mollusks, combined, -probably, with Fahlunite or Hydrous Iolite. - -[2700] This is the most delicate variety of Asbestus, a kind of -Hornblende: it presents the lustre of satin. As to Asbestus, see -B. xix. c. 4, where Pliny has evidently taken it to be a vegetable -production. - -[2701] See B. xxxv. c. 52. - -[2702] “Earthy” stone. These are either nodules of iron-stone, hollow -in the centre, or else round, inorganic masses, hollow, and lined with -crystals within. These latter are mostly of a silicious nature. - -[2703] It was, probably, a yellow, argillaceous earth, and it is more -probable that it derived its name from μελὶ, “honey,” in consequence of -its colour than by reason of its supposed sweet juices. The Mellite, -Mellitite, or Honey-stone of modern Mineralogy, also known as Mellate -of Alumina, has its name from its honey-yellow colour. It is found in -Thuringia, Moravia, and Bohemia; but most probably was unknown in the -days of Pliny. - -[2704] See B. xx. cc. 6, 21. - -[2705] Our jet, which somewhat resembles cannel-coal, and is found in -clay soils. - -[2706] See B. v. c. 28, where a place called “Gagæ” is mentioned. In -Note 3900 to that Chapter, “gagates” is erroneously rendered “agate.” - -[2707] See B. v. c. 26. - -[2708] This comparison is not inapt, as it is closely akin to Lignite, -or brown coal. - -[2709] A bituminous and animal odour, Ajasson says, quite peculiar to -itself. - -[2710] He has borrowed this erroneous assertion, probably, from -Nicander, who, with Pliny, says the same of the “Thracian stone,” which -has not been identified, but is supposed to have been a sort of coal. -See B. xxxiii. c. 30. - -[2711] This is, probably, the meaning of “sonticus morbus,” a disease, -which, according to the jurists, excused those affected with it, from -attending in courts of justice. - -[2712] Albertus Magnus, De Mineral. B. ii., says that if it is given in -water to a female, it will have a diuretic effect immediately, if she -is not in a state of virginity, and that the contrary will be the case -if she is. - -[2713] See B. xxx. c. 5. According to Dalechamps, this was practised by -placing the jet upon a hatchet at a red heat. - -[2714] “Stone-macerater.” From τήκω, to “macerate,” and λιθὸς, “a -stone.” - -[2715] Dioscorides says that it was found in Cappadocia also; and both -he and Galen attribute to it certain medicinal properties. It was used -either for colouring, or else, like fuller’s earth, for taking the -grease out of wool and cloth. Ajasson is inclined to think that it was -either a volcanic scoria or a Peperite, also of volcanic origin. - -[2716] Or “blood-stone,” mentioned already in Chapter 25 of this Book. - -[2717] He is evidently speaking here of the red peroxide of iron. - -[2718] Vermilion. See B. xxxiii. c. 37. - -[2719] Literally, “split” stone; so called, probably, from its -laminated form. Ajasson identifies it with yellow or brown iron ore, -known in Mineralogy as Limonite, or Brown Hematite. - -[2720] “Explendis oculorum lacunis.” - -[2721] Mentioned in Chapter 25 of this Book. - -[2722] Mentioned also in Chapter 25. Probably Red peroxide of iron, in -a massive form. - -[2723] “All-serviceable,” or “all-heal.” - -[2724] “Man-subduing.” - -[2725] The colour of Specular iron, or red peroxide of iron, being of a -dark steel-grey or iron-black, this is probably another variety of it. -Ajasson thinks that it includes compact or massive red oxide of iron, -and scaly red iron, or red iron froth, which leaves red marks upon the -fingers. - -[2726] See Chapter 11 of this Book. Its alleged attraction of silver -and copper is fabulous, no doubt. - -[2727] This is probably the Limonite, or Hydrous peroxide of iron, -mentioned in the preceding Chapter. See Note 2719 above. - -[2728] Identified by Ajasson with Red ochre, or Reddle, a red peroxide -of iron, used for red crayons in drawing. - -[2729] “Liver-stone.” Not to be confounded with the Hepatite of modern -Mineralogy, or Sulphate of Barytes. - -[2730] “Spleen-stone.” - -[2731] See B. xxxv. c. 14. - -[2732] Identified by Ajasson with Laminated protoxide of iron. It has -probably an affinity to the variety noticed above, in Notes 2719 and 2727. - -[2733] Owing solely, in all probability, to its name, “blood-stone.” - -[2734] Ajasson is at a loss to know whether this is our Anthracite, a -non-bituminous coal, or some kind of bituminous coal. Delafosse takes -it to be pit-coal. - -[2735] Or “eagle-stone.” It is a Geodes, mentioned in Chapter 23 of -this Book, a globular mass of clay iron-stone. Sometimes it is hollow -within, and sometimes it encloses another stone, or a little water, or -some mineral dust. - -[2736] Chapter 4. - -[2737] See B. iv. c. 2. - -[2738] A kind of pumice, Ajasson thinks, or porous feldspathic scoria -from volcanos. - -[2739] In B. xxxv. c. 53. - -[2740] In Chapter 37 of this Book. - -[2741] See B. xxiii. cc. 45, 80. - -[2742] Probably of a similar nature to the Samian stone. - -[2743] Pumice is still used as the basis of a dentifrice, but it -destroys the enamel of the teeth. - -[2744] See Note 2739 above. - -[2745] Or “temples of the Muses:” evidently grottos in the present -instance. - -[2746] In allusion to the line, “Aridâ modo pumice expolitum”—“Just -polished with dry pumice-stone.” Ep. I. l. 2. Both the backs of books -and the parchment used for writing were rubbed with pumice. - -[2747] Sec B. v. c. 36. - -[2748] See B. xxxiv. c. 22. - -[2749] Hist. B. ix. c. 18. - -[2750] As a preventive of vomiting. - -[2751] “Musta.” Grape-juice in the process of being made into wine. - -[2752] Delafosse suggests that this may have been grey-spotted granite. -The name is doubtful, as “Edesian” and “Ephesian” are other readings. - -[2753] In Chapter 13 of this Book. - -[2754] “Golden stone.” A variety, perhaps, of the Thebaic stone with -gold spots, mentioned in Chapter 13 of this Book. - -[2755] Possibly so called from Χάλαζα, “hail,” it being, perhaps, a -granite with spots like hailstones. - -[2756] Sec Chapters 11 and 33 of this Book. - -[2757] In consequence of its extreme hardness. - -[2758] Phœnician stone and Tænarian stone do not appear to have been -identified. Parian stone may probably have been white Parian marble. - -[2759] See Chapter 12 of this Book. - -[2760] Serpentine. See Chapters 11 and 30. - -[2761] See B. iv. cc. 22, 23. - -[2762] Ajasson identifies it with Ollar stone, talc, or soap-stone, -a hydrous silicate of magnesia, and nearly allied to the Ophites of -Chapters 11 and 30. - -[2763] He being a native of that part of Italy. - -[2764] The Green Colubine Ollar stone; or soap-stone of Italy. - -[2765] See B. iii. c. 21. - -[2766] Identified by Brotero with our Free-stone or grit-stone. - -[2767] So called from its resemblance to the spots on a peacock’s tail. -He alludes, probably, to the mode of roofing with tiles cut in the form -of scales, still much employed on the continent, and in Switzerland -more particularly. - -[2768] Or “Mirror-stone.” Transparent Selenite or gypsum; a sulphate of -lime. - -[2769] Now Segorba, in Valentia. - -[2770] Ajasson is of opinion that various kinds of mica and talc are -the minerals here alluded to. - -[2771] From φεγγὸς, “brightness.” Beckmann is of opinion that -this was a calcareous or gypseous spar (Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 66); but -Ajasson seems to think that it was very similar to Parian marble, which -was sometimes called by this name. - -[2772] This is more likely to apply to a white marble than to a -calcareous or gypseous spar. Suetonius says, c. 14, that Domitian, when -he suspected that plots were forming against him, caused the porticos -in which he walked to be lined with Phengites, which by its reflection -showed what was going on behind his back. - -[2773] See B xviii. c. 2. - -[2774] See Chapter 24 of this Book. - -[2775] Beckmann says, in reference to this passage, supposing that a -kind of _spar_ is meant by the word _phengites_—“It is probable that -the openings of the walls of the building where the windows used to be, -were in this instance filled up with _phengites_. which, by admitting a -faint light, prevented the place from being dark, even when the doors -were shut.”— Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 66. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[2776] In Chapter 10 of this Book. - -[2777] See B. v. cc. 22, 35, for two places of this name. - -[2778] A Celtic word, probably. - -[2779] See B. iii. c. 2. - -[2780] Identical, probably, with the Tufa of modern Mineralogy, which -thence derives its name, a Carbonate of lime. - -[2781] Thus reversing the order of things with the Romans, who put the -lime on their houses, and the pitch in their wines. See B. xiv. cc. 3, -24, 25. - -[2782] See B. xiv. c. 24. - -[2783] A white tufa, Vitruvius says, B. i. c. 7. - -[2784] It was in reference, possibly, to this stone that Cicero made -the remark, mentioned in Chapter 5 of this Book; the heat of Chios -being so great, perhaps, that the Tiburtine stone could not have -endured it. - -[2785] A general name for Silica, Flint, or Quartz, and the several -varieties. - -[2786] See B. iii. c. 8. - -[2787] See B. ii. c. 96, B. iii. c. 9, and B. xiv. c. 8. - -[2788] Ajasson thinks that Travertine is meant; a tufa, or carbonate of -lime, which is common in Tuscany. - -[2789] “Built of stones of equal size.” - -[2790] “Built of stones of unequal sizes.” - -[2791] “Filled up work,” apparently. - -[2792] The reading is very doubtful here: for the word seems to mean, -in Greek, “From one wall to another.” “Diamicton”—“Mixed up,” is -another reading. - -[2793] Where the outer face of each stone forms an exact square; the -pointings consequently having a netlike or reticulated appearance. - -[2794] The vertical pointings or junctures lying one over the other. - -[2795] De Re Rust. c. 38. - -[2796] See Chapters 29 and 30 of this Book. - -[2797] To which Pozzuolane belongs. - -[2798] For making mortar. - -[2799] Pounded marble mixed with quicklime. - -[2800] “Lacte et croco” appears to be a preferable reading to “late e -croco,” as given by the Bamberg MS. - -[2801] It seems difficult to understand whether by the word “spiræ” he -means astragals, or bases. It would almost appear, by the use of the -word “subditæ,” that it is “bases” for the shafts. It is just possible, -however, that the meaning may be that the “spiræ” were placed _beneath_ -the capitals which were added. - -[2802] A different thing altogether from the Maltha or Pissasphalt -of B. ii. c. 108. Festus describes it as a mixture of pitch and wax; -and Palladius, in B. i. c. 17, speaks of it as being composed of tar, -grease, and lime boiled; and in c. 35 he describes Maltha caldaria -as a mixture of hammoniacum, figs, tow, tar, and melted suet. It was -probably a general name for several kinds of cement. Heineccius says -that it was employed for sealing, but on what authority does not -appear. See Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 141. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[2803] This is perhaps the meaning of “duplici lenimento.” The reading, -however, is doubtful. - -[2804] The name now given to Sulphate of lime, including the varieties -of Alabaster and Selenite. Plaster of Paris is prepared from it. - -[2805] The method of preparing plaster of Paris. - -[2806] See B. iv. c. 3. - -[2807] See B. iv. c. 3. - -[2808] The same thing, strictly speaking. See Chapter 12 of this Book. - -[2809] See Chapter 45 of this Book. - -[2810] See B. vii. c. 46. - -[2811] Dioscorides says, B. v. c. 134, that, taken internally, it -produces suffocation. - -[2812] “Lithostrota.” - -[2813] His age and country are unknown. - -[2814] “The house that has no sweeping.” - -[2815] “Subtegulanea.”—“Undercover;” in contradistinction to the -“subdialia” of next Chapter. - -[2816] “Pavimentum,” from “pavio,” to “beat down.” - -[2817] “Scutulatum.”—Having figures in the shape of a lozenge or -rhombus. - -[2818] The line is, - -“Arte pavimenti atque emblemate vermiculato;” - -literary compositions being compared by him to the artificial -construction of a pavement. - -[2819] “Subdialia;” more literally, “open-air pavements.” - -[2820] Or “kernel;” so called because it lay in the middle. Vitruvius -says that it was composed of one part lime, and three parts pounded -pottery. - -[2821] “Quercus.” - -[2822] “Spicata testacea.” These pavements were probably so called -because the bricks were laid at angles to each other (of about -forty-five degrees), like the grains in an ear of wheat; or like the -spines projecting from either side of the back-bone of a fish. - -[2823] “Lithostrota.” - -[2824] In Chapter 24 of this Book. - -[2825] See B. v. c. 17. - -[2826] See B. v. c. 19. - -[2827] A mineral alkali, Beckmann thinks; for it could not possibly be -our saltpetre, he says. See B. xxxi. c. 46. - -[2828] Beckmann discredits this story, because sand, he says, is not -so easily brought to a state of fusion. Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 496. -_Bohn’s Edition._ - -[2829] “Magnes lapis.” See B. xxxiv. c. 42, and Chapter 25 of this -Book. Beckmann is of opinion that an ore of Manganese is meant, a -substance which has a resemblance to the magnet, and is of the greatest -utility in making glass. Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 237. - -[2830] This appears to be the meaning of “Quoniam in se liquorem vitri -quoque ut ferrum trahere creditur.” - -[2831] In the description given by Isidorus in the “Origines,” which in -other respects is similar, these words are omitted, and it is possible -that they are a gloss by some one who was better acquainted with the -Old Testament than with Pliny. On the other hand, as Sillig remarks, -the Phœnicians may, at an early period, have imported into Greece a -substance which they called “nitre of Ophir.” - -[2832] See Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 84. - -[2833] “Excogitaverat.” Beckmann would seem to give this word the force -only of “thought of,” for he gives it as his opinion that attempts were -made at Sidon to form glass mirrors, but that the experiments had not -completely succeeded. “Had this invention formed an epoch in the art -of making mirrors, Pliny, in another place (B. xxxiii. c. 45), where -he describes the various improvements of it so fully, would not have -omitted it: but of those experiments he makes no further mention.” -He also expresses an opinion that the Sidonian mirrors consisted of -dark-coloured glass, resembling obsidian stone.”—Hist. Inv. Vol. II. -pp. 69, 70. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[2834] Knowles says, in his _Turkish History_, p. 1273, that in 1610, -among other rare presents sent to the King of Spain from the Sophy of -Persia, there were six drinking-glasses, made of malleable glass so -exquisitely tempered that they could not be broken. - -[2835] Dion Cassius and Suetonius tell a similar story; and, according -to one account, Tiberius ordered the artist to be put to death. - -[2836] This reading is doubtful. It would appear to mean “stone -handled.” Another reading is “pterotos,” “with winged handles.” - -[2837] Volcanic glass, feldspar in a more or less pure state, our -Obsidian, is probably meant; a word derived from the old reading, -Obsidius, corrected by Sillig to _Obsius_. - -[2838] He is speaking of the stone, not the glass that resembled it. - -[2839] A thing very difficult to be done, as Beckmann observes, by -reason of its brittleness. - -[2840] The present Portugal. - -[2841] “Blood-red” glass. - -[2842] See B. xxxvii. cc. 7, 8, 11. This glass was probably of an opal -colour, like porcelain. - -[2843] This passage is commented upon by Beckmann, Vol. II. p. 75, in -connexion with a similar passage in Isidorus, Orig., which is probably -corrupt. - -[2844] See B. xxxvii. c. 10. He was not aware, apparently, that in -such case they act as convex burning-glasses, and that ice even may be -similarly employed. - -[2845] This is, probably, the meaning of “in guttas;” a new reading, -which is only found in the Bamberg MS. - -[2846] See B. xxxiv. c. 2. - -[2847] See B. xxxiv. c. 47. - -[2848] “Improba” seems to be used here in much the some sense in which -Virgil has said “Labor improbus”—“Unremitting labour.” - -[2849] He alludes, probably, to eclipses of the sun. - -[2850] Acacia charcoal is still recommended as a valuable tonic, and as -good for internal ulcerations and irritations of the mucous membrane. - -[2851] In B. xxvi. c. 4. - -[2852] “Querneus.” - -[2853] It is much more likely that he was the son of Tarquin himself, -who not improbably, if indeed there ever was such a person, invented -the story, to escape the wrath of Queen Tanaquil. This absurd story is -mentioned also by Ovid, Arnobius, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. - -[2854] See B. iii. c. 9, and B. xix. c. 4. - -[2855] See end of B. ii. L. Cælius Antipater. - -[2856] See end of B. ii. - -[2857] Probably Sulpicius Galba, who devoted his time to literary -pursuits, and rose to no higher office than the prætorship, He was -grand-father of the Emperor Galba, and wrote a historical work. - -[2858] Another reading is “Ictius,” but nothing is known of either. - -[2859] See end of B. ii. - -[2860] See end of B. ii. - -[2861] See end of B. ii. - -[2862] See end of B. ii. and end of B. xviii. - -[2863] See end of B. vii. - -[2864] See end of B. xvi. - -[2865] See end of B. ii. and end of B. xviii. - -[2866] See end of B. vi. - -[2867] See end of B. iii. - -[2868] See end of B. xvi. - -[2869] See end of B. iii. - -[2870] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[2871] See end of B. v. - -[2872] See end of B. viii. - -[2873] All that we know of him is, that he wrote on Precious Stones. -Apollonius Dyscolus mentions an author who wrote on the same subject, -whose name was “Tacus;” and possibly the same person is meant. - -[2874] Mentioned in this and the next Book, as a writer on Precious -Stones. - -[2875] Cornelius Alexander. See end of B. iii. - -[2876] See end of B. xxx. - -[2877] See end of B. xx. - -[2878] See end of B. vii. - -[2879] See end of B. ii. - -[2880] A Sicilian author of the time of Alexander. In his “Sacred -History,” he interpreted the legends of the popular religion as based -upon historical facts, and taught that the gods of Mythology were -only deified men. His system has been compared with the rationalism -of some German theologians, and Euhemerists were still to be found at -the close of last century. Diodorus Siculus, Polybius, and Dionysius -of Halicarnassus have followed in his track; and the poet Ennius -translated his work, which is now lost. - -[2881] A Greek writer on Egypt. He is often quoted by Stephanus -Byzantinus, who says that he was not much younger than Plato. He is -mentioned as a writer on the Pyramids of Egypt, in Chapter 17 of this -Book. - -[2882] See end of B. xii. - -[2883] See end of B. ii. - -[2884] From the mention made of him in Chapter 17 of this Book, he must -have lived in the first century before, or the first century after -Christ. - -[2885] Possibly Antisthenes of Rhodes, a historian who lived about 200 -B.C. - -[2886] Possibly the author mentioned by Athenæus, B. xv. as having -written on Egypt. He is mentioned in Chapter 17 of this Book. - -[2887] Hardouin thinks that he is the same person as Hermateles, -mentioned by Tertullian, _De Spectaculis_, c. 8, as having written on -Obelisks. - -[2888] A native of Naucratis, in Egypt, who wrote a work on that -country, mentioned by Athenæus, and some Poems. - -[2889] In B. xxxiii. c. 4. - -[2890] This being imposed as a punishment on him, in remembrance of his -sacrilegious crimes, when released by Jupiter from the rock. Prometheus -and Vulcan, as Ajasson remarks, are personifications of fire, employed -for artistic purposes. - -[2891] See B. xxxiii. c. 6. - -[2892] For ultimately, Oroetes, the satrap of Sardes, contrived to -allure him into his power, and had him crucified, B.C. 522. Fuller, -in his _Worthies_, p. 370, tells a very similar story of the loss and -recovery of his ring by one Anderson, a merchant of Newcastle-on-Tyne; -and Zuinglius gives a similar statement with reference to Arnulph, duke -of Lorraine, who dropped his ring into the Moselle, and recovered it -from the belly of a fish. - -[2893] See Chapter 23. According to Herodotus, Pausanias, Dionysius of -Halicarnassus, and Suidas, the stone was an emerald; and Lessing thinks -that there was no figure engraved on it. See Chapter 4 of this Book. -Without vouching for the truth of it, we give the following extract -from the _London Journal_, Vol. xxiii. No. 592. “A vine-dresser of -Albano, near Rome, is said to have found in a vineyard, the celebrated -ring of Polycrates.—The stone is of considerable size, and oblong in -form. The engraving on it, by Theodore of Samos, the son of Talikles, -is of extraordinary fineness and beauty. It represents a lyre, with -three bees flying about; below, on the right, a dolphin; on the left, -the head of a bull. The name of the engraver is inscribed in Greek -characters. The upper surface of the stone is slightly concave, not -highly polished, and one corner broken. It is asserted that the -possessor has been offered 50,000 dollars for it.” - -[2894] “Achates.” A variegated chalcedony. It was probably what is -called, from its radiated streaks, a _fortification agate_. See Chapter -54 of this Book. - -[2895] Ajasson remarks that there can be little doubt that Nature had -at least been very extensively seconded by Art. - -[2896] “Choraules.” One who accompanies the chorus on the pipe or flute. - -[2897] “Smaragdus.” - -[2898] One of the Danaïdes. - -[2899] This is said with reference to the one in the Temple of Concord, -mentioned in Chapter 2. - -[2900] But see Exodus xxvii. 9, _et seq._, where it is shown that the -practice existed many hundreds of years before. - -[2901] See B. vii. c. 38; where marble is the substance named. There -are still two gems in existence said to have been engraved by this -artist; but by some they are thought to be spurious. - -[2902] There are many precious stones with his name, still extant: but -only six appear to have been really engraved by him. - -[2903] This signet is mentioned also by Plutarch and Valerius Maximus. - -[2904] See B. iii. c. 4. - -[2905] The younger Africanus. This circumstance is mentioned in the -Epitome of Livy, B. xlviii. - -[2906] See B. xxxiii. c. 5, and end of Book ix. - -[2907] In reference to the ambiguous part which he acted, Ajasson -thinks, in the early part of his career. - -[2908] In reference to the story of Œdipus and the Sphinx. - -[2909] A Greek word, signifying a “repository of kings.” - -[2910] See B. xxxvi. c. 24. - -[2911] The sister of Augustus. - -[2912] See B. xxxiii c. 53. - -[2913] See B. xxxiv. c. 8. - -[2914] “Acta.” - -[2915] Chapter 7. - -[2916] A.U.C. 693. - -[2917] 30th of September. - -[2918] “Alveum lusorium.” - -[2919] Probably meaning a shrine dedicated to the Muses. - -[2920] See B. ii. c. 78, and B. vii. c. 60. - -[2921] That of Africa. - -[2922] See B. vii. c. 27. - -[2923] As was the case, after the murder of Pompey in Egypt. - -[2924] Caligula. - -[2925] Modern writers differ as to the material of which these vessels -were composed. Some think that they were of variegated glass, and -others of onyx; but the more general opinion is, that they were -Chinese porcelain, and we have the line in Propertius, B. iv. El. 5, -l. 26. “And murrhine vessels baked on Parthian hearths.” Ajasson is of -opinion, from the description given by Pliny, that these vessels were -made of Fluor spar, or fluate of lime. “Myrrhine” is another reading of -the word. - -[2926] “Ante hos annos.” Sillig is of opinion that the reading here -should be “L. Annius,” and that L. Annius Bassus, who was Consul -suffectus in the year 70 A.D., is the person referred to; or possibly, -T. Arrius Antoninus, who was Consul suffectus, A.D. 69. - -[2927] The Gardens of Nero, in the Fourteenth Region of the City. - -[2928] He had been formerly a sharer in the debaucheries of Nero. -Tacitus called him “Caius.” - -[2929] See B. vi. cc. 27, 28, 32. - -[2930] Ajasson is of opinion that this passage bears reference to -crystallization. Both he and Desfontaines see in the present Chapter -a very exact description of Fluor spar; and there is certainly great -difficulty in recognizing any affinity between murrhine vessels, as -here described, and porcelain. - -[2931] “Abacus.” - -[2932] In the preceding Chapter. - -[2933] Meaning that they are semitransparent, Ajasson thinks. One great -characteristic of Fluor spar is its being subtranslucent. - -[2934] This would appear to be the meaning here of “sales.” See p. 396. - -[2935] One of the grounds, Ajasson says, on which may be based the -opinion that they were artificial. - -[2936] Colourless crystals, quartz, or rock crystal; called “white -stone” in jewellery. - -[2937] See B. xxxvi. c. 45. This was a very general opinion of the -ancients with respect to crystal. - -[2938] Κρύσταλλος, from κρύος, “cold.” - -[2939] See B. v. c. 29. - -[2940] In Caria, see B. v. c. 29. - -[2941] The Island “of the dead.” Brotero supposes it to be the island -of Maceira. - -[2942] See B. vi. c. 34. As Ajasson remarks, there could be no snow or -ice here. - -[2943] See B. iv. c. 35. - -[2944] Dioscorides attributes the hardening of crystal to the action of -the sun. - -[2945] “Its shape is rhombohedral, and hemihedral in some of its -modifications. The planes on the angles between the prism and -pyramidal terminations, incline sometimes to the right, and sometimes -to the left, and the crystals are termed right and left-handed -crystals.”—Dana, _System of Mineralogy_, Art. _Quartz_. - -[2946] Ajasson remarks that blocks have been found in Switzerland, -weighing above eight hundred pounds. - -[2947] Forty-eight sextarii. See Introduction to Vol. III. - -[2948] This “vomica,” Ajasson says, is either water, azote, rarified -oxygen, or water in combination with naphtha. - -[2949] “Centra,” knots, or flaws. See B. xvi. c. 76, where he speaks of -the “centra” in marble. See also Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 471. -_Bohn’s Edition._ - -[2950] “Sale.” See Note 2934 above. - -[2951] “Without flaw.” - -[2952] See B. xxxvi. c. 67. - -[2953] “Succinum.” It is of vegetable origin, and, according to -Göppert, was originally the viscous resin of a tree named by him -_Pinites succinifer_. - -[2954] It is used by men, more particularly, at the present day, as a -mouthpiece for pipes. - -[2955] As to the _vegetable_ origin of amber, there is no doubt that -the ancients were right. - -[2956] Most probably from ἥλιος, the “sun.” Phaëthon was -fabled to have been the son of Apollo. See the story in Ovid’s Met. B. -ii. l. 340, _et seq._ - -[2957] Where amber was not to be found. - -[2958] In reality, these “Amber Islands” were situate at the mouth of -the Vistula, into which the Radanus discharged itself; a river whose -name was afterwards confounded with “Eridanus,” the ancient name of the -Padus, or Po. See B. iv. cc. 27, 30, as to the produce of amber in the -Baltic. - -[2959] Another reference to its vegetable origin. - -[2960] De Lapid. n. 53. - -[2961] In confirmation of this, Ajasson remarks that amber is found at -Saint Paulet in the Department Du Gard, and at Aix, in the Department -of Bouches-du-Rhône, regions not very distant from the territory of -ancient Liguria. - -[2962] It has been supposed by some that this in reality was -Tourmaline, and Woodward has identified it with Belemnites. See -Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 86. _Bohn’s Edition._ See further as to -“Lyncurium,” B. viii. c. 57, and Chapter 13 of this Book. - -[2963] See B. iv. c. 28. - -[2964] See B. iv. c. 27. - -[2965] Said in reference to the electric spark, Ajasson thinks. - -[2966] In Hebrew, this word means “a stone.” - -[2967] From the Greek ἁρπάζω, “to drag.” - -[2968] See B. x. c. 38. - -[2969] All this is based, Ajasson thinks, upon the stories of Hindoo -mythology. - -[2970] The old reading is “Osericta:” Ajasson identifies it with the -island of Oësel in the Baltic. - -[2971] See B. x. c. 38. - -[2972] See B. iv. cc. 27, 30, and the Notes. - -[2973] See B. iv. c. 30. - -[2974] It is just possible that the Pinites succinifer may have still -existed, to some extent, eighteen hundred years ago. See Note 2953 above. - -[2975] From “succus,” “juice.” - -[2976] Goitre, for example. - -[2977] The projecting part in the Circus or Amphitheatre, next the -arena, and immediately in front of the place occupied by the emperor -and nobles. - -[2978] The knots, probably, were adorned with studs or buttons of amber. - -[2979] “Libitina.” Meaning the litters on which the slain gladiators -were carried away from the arena. - -[2980] Martial has three Epigrams on Insects enclosed in amber; B. iv. -Ep. 32 and 59, and B. vi. Ep. 15. - -[2981] These so-called kinds or varieties are mostly accidental -variations only in appearance. - -[2982] Which is perceptible on its being rubbed: in some cases the -odour of amber is very fine, in others it is perfectly fetid; though in -the latter case, as Ajasson remarks, it is doubtful whether it may be -considered to be genuine amber. - -[2983] “Lini.” Salmasius suggests “pini,” “pith of pine.” - -[2984] “Golden amber.” Brotero thinks that this must have been Hyacinth -or Zirconite of a yellowish white colour. Ajasson says that the -description would equally apply to Idocrase, Meionite, or Harmotome. - -[2985] See Note 2962, above. Brotero identifies it with orange-coloured -Hyacinth; Ajasson and Desfontaines with Tourmaline. Ajasson suggests, -also, that the first syllabic in its name—_Lync_, may have been derived -from the Sanscrit _Lanka_, the name of Ceylon, one of the localities -where the Tourmaline is chiefly found. - -[2986] Ajasson thinks that Rubellite or Red Tourmaline is here alluded -to. - -[2987] This is the case with tourmaline when subjected to heat. - -[2988] We may here remark, that throughout this Book, in all cases -where there is any doubt as to the identification of the substance, -the ancient name is retained. Hence our words “adamant” and “diamond.” -If Pliny means the latter, which is doubtful, it still maintains the -rank here assigned to it. The word “adamas” is supposed to be derived -from the Greek ἀ, privative, and δαμάω, “to subdue,” -it being supposed to be invincible by fire. The diamond is pure carbon -crystallized, and is thought to have been of vegetable origin. Dana has -the following remarks upon the word “adamas.”—“This name was applied -by the ancients to several minerals differing much in their physical -properties. A few of these are quartz, specular iron ore, emery, and -other substances of rather high degrees of hardness, which cannot now -be identified. It is doubtful whether Pliny had any acquaintance with -the real diamond.”—_System of Mineralogy_, Art. _Diamond_. We may also -add, from the same authority, that the method of polishing diamonds -was first discovered in 1456, by Louis Berquen, a citizen of Bruges, -previous to which time the diamond was only known in its native uncut -state. - -[2989] This statement cannot apply to the “diamond” as known to us, -though occasionally grains of gold have been found in the vicinity of -the diamond. - -[2990] Ajasson is of opinion that the Æthiopia here mentioned is in -reality India, and that the “Temple of Mercury” means the _Brahmaloka_, -or Temple of Brahma. - -[2991] The diamond, as known to us, is octahedral. - -[2992] Though found in comparative abundance in India, the diamond is -not found in Arabia. - -[2993] This is not the case with the diamond; for on being struck under -such circumstances, it will break. - -[2994] In reality, the diamond will burn, and, at a temperature of 14° -Wedgewood, is wholly consumed, producing carbonic acid gas. - -[2995] See Note 2988, above. - -[2996] “Millet-seed.” - -[2997] Ajasson says, that no doubt this adamas was Adamantine, or -limpid Corundum. - -[2998] Ajasson suggests that this may have been Dichroite, or -Cordierite, known also as Iolite, or Water sapphire. - -[2999] Possibly the Siderite, sparry iron, or spathic iron of modern -Mineralogy. Ajasson is inclined to think that it is Corundum, of a dark -hue. - -[3000] See B. xx. c. 1, B. xxviii. cc. 23, 41, and B. xxxii. c. 12. - -[3001] Brotero thinks that this was a story invented by the dealers, -with a view of concealing the real method of breaking the stone. - -[3002] Said, probably, with reference to the rank, nauseous smell of -the he-goat. - -[3003] This is true with reference to the diamond, and, in a less -degree, several other crystalline substances, emery and quartz, for -example. - -[3004] Ajasson remarks, that if the diamond is placed in the magnetic -line or current of the loadstone, it attracts iron equally with the -loadstone, and consequently neutralizes the attractive power of the -loadstone in a considerable degree. - -[3005] The reading is very doubtful here. This word, as it is here -given, would appear to be derived from the Greek ἀ privative, -and ἄγχομαι, “to strangle oneself,” and to mean, “preventive -of suicide.” - -[3006] See B. iv. c. 27, and Chapter 11 of this Book. - -[3007] At the present day the ruby is next in esteem to the diamond. - -[3008] Chapter 54, _et seq._ - -[3009] The Emerald, and various other green precious stones, were -included under this name. - -[3010] “Virentes” seems a very preferable reading to “silentes,” as -given by the Bamberg MS. - -[3011] The emerald is supposed to derive this colour from a minute -portion of oxide of chrome. - -[3012] Engraved emeralds are but seldom found among collections of -ancient gems. In 1593, there was one found in the tomb of Maria, -daughter of Stilicho, in the Vatican, with the head of Honorius, her -husband, engraved upon it. - -[3013] “It may here be objected that real emeralds are too small -to admit of being used as mirrors; but the ancients speak of some -sufficiently large for that purpose, and also of artificial ones; -so that we may with certainty conclude, that they classed among the -emeralds fluor spar, green vitrified lava, or the green Icelandic -agate, as it is called, green jasper, and also green glass.”—Beckmann, -Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 67. _Bohn’s Edition._ It has also been -suggested, with reference to this passage, that Nero was short-sighted, -and that this emerald was formed like a concave lens. The passage, -however, will hardly support such a construction. Ajasson thinks that -it must have been a Dioptase or Siberian emerald; or else a green -Corundum. - -[3014] Ajasson is of opinion that the Dioptase, Siberian emerald, or -Malachite emerald is meant. - -[3015] Ajasson thinks that this may be the Dioptase or Achirite of -Chinese Bucharia; and that the merchant Achir Mahmed, from whom it -takes its name, was by no means the first to introduce it, or to -circulate his wonderful stories as to its formation. - -[3016] See B. ii. cc. 47, 48, and B. xviii. c. 74. - -[3017] Mount Zalora. in Upper Egypt, still produces emeralds, and was -probably the only locality of the _genuine_ stone that was known to the -ancients. - -[3018] “Cetarias.” - -[3019] Ajasson remarks that the greater part of the defects here -described belong in reality to the Dioptase. - -[3020] “Sal.” See Chapters 8, 10, 22, and 37, of this Book. - -[3021] Ajasson is of opinion that Diallage is here meant, known also by -the names of Bronzite, schillerspath, schillerstein, and omphasite. - -[3022] See B. iv. c. 11. - -[3023] “In sole” seems a preferable reading to “in solo,” “on the -ground,” as given by the Bamberg MS. - -[3024] See Chapter 39 of this Book; where it will be shown that this -probably is not the modern Sapphire. - -[3025] Ajasson suggests that these may have been Quartz agates of the -dendritic or arborized kind. - -[3026] He probably alludes here to some variety of the Chalcedony or -Opal quartz. - -[3027] Said with reference to Chrysoprase, Ajasson thinks; a leek-green -chalcedony, coloured by nickel. - -[3028] Probably the Cacholong of modern mineralogy, a variety of opal, -nearly opaque, and of a porcelain or bluish white colour. - -[3029] Ajasson and Brotero identify this with milk-white chalcedony; -but on what authority, does not appear. - -[3030] See B. iv. c. 8. - -[3031] Supposed by Ajasson to be the Euclase, a brittle green stone, -composed of silica, alumina, and glucina. Haüy gave it this name from -the Greek words εὖ, “easily” and κλάω, “to break.” According to Dana, -however, Euclase was first brought from Peru: if such is the fact, we -must, perhaps, look for its identification in Epidote, a green silicate -of alumina. - -[3032] “Brazen smaragdus.” It was probably Dioptase, combined with -copper Pyrites. See Notes 3013, 3014, and 3015, above. - -[3033] With reference to this statement and the others in this Chapter, -Ajasson remarks that these stones can have been nothing but prases, -green jaspers, fusible spaths, emerald quartz, and fluates of lime. - -[3034] Herodotus mentions this smaragdus and the temple, B. ii. c. 44, -as having been seen by himself. - -[3035] “Iaspis.” See Chapter 37 of this Book. - -[3036] Meaning “the conqueror of many,” probably; in reference to his -contentious disposition. See end of B. xxx. - -[3037] The Beryl and the Emerald are only varieties of the same -species, the latter owing its colour to oxide of chrome, the former to -oxide of iron. - -[3038] The best Beryls are found in Siberia, Hindostan, Brazil, and the -United States. - -[3039] The crystals are naturally hexagonal. - -[3040] Hence the name of the sky-blue, or mountain-green beryl, -_aquamarine_. - -[3041] Or “golden beryl,” The modern Chrysoberyl is altogether a -different stone from the one here described, which probably is -identical with Chrysoprase or leek-green Chalcedony, the stone next -mentioned. - -[3042] “Leek-green and gold.” - -[3043] “Sky-coloured.” - -[3044] The largest specimen of Beryl known, belonged to Don Pedro. It -was not cylindrical in form, but shaped like the head of a calf, and -weighed 225 ounces troy. - -[3045] Which is the case. - -[3046] In Chapter 18 of this Book. - -[3047] “Pterygia.” - -[3048] In the Uralian Mountains, for example. - -[3049] Opals are hydrated silica, the amount of water varying. - -[3050] On the contrary, precious Opal is found in Hungary, at -Frankfort, and in Honduras, and other varieties in numerous parts of -the world, including the East Indies. - -[3051] See Chapter 25 of this Book. - -[3052] See B. xxxv. c. 28. - -[3053] The largest opal known is in the Imperial cabinet at Vienna. -It is the size of a man’s fist, and weighs 17 ounces, but is full of -fissures. - -[3054] See Carm. 53 of the Poems of Catullus. - -[3055] A.U.C. 788. - -[3056] See B. viii. c. 47. He alludes to the story of the Beaver. - -[3057] See B. xxii. c. 29. - -[3058] This is the case with _common_ opal, as distinguished from -_precious_ opal. - -[3059] “Lovely youth.” - -[3060] Said ironically. There is a somewhat similar remark in B. -xxxiii. c. 12. - -[3061] A mixture of brown-red and white chalcedony. - -[3062] From the Greek Σάρδιον, “sard,” and ὄνυξ, a “finger nail.” - -[3063] His meaning seems to be that it does not present the bright -transparent red of the Indian Sarda or Carnelian. See Chapter 31 of -this Book. - -[3064] “Quâdam spe.” _Un soupçon_, as the French would say. - -[3065] This would appear, from the description, to be an Agate, or -variegated Chalcedony. - -[3066] He probably intends to include the Sarda or Carnelian here. - -[3067] A variety, probably, of common Chalcedony. - -[3068] See B. ix. cc. 74, 88, and B. xxxii. c. 53. - -[3069] “Fæculentæ,” of the colour of wine-lees. - -[3070] So called from ὄνυξ, a “finger-nail.” It is a variety -of the Chalcedony, resembling Agate, but the colours are arranged in -flat horizontal planes. - -[3071] See B. xxxiv. c. 22, and B. xxxvi. c. 12. - -[3072] It is pretty clear that the Onyx of Pliny included not only our -Onyx, but several other varieties of the Chalcedony. - -[3073] “Igniculos.” - -[3074] “Carnosas.” It is somewhat doubtful whether our Carnelian, -or Cornelian, take its name from this word, or from “cornus,” a -cornel-berry. - -[3075] See Chapter 31. - -[3076] Literally meaning a “red-hot coal.” The carbunculus of Pliny is -supposed to include not only the red, or Iron and Iron-lime garnet, but -the Spinelle ruby also, or Oriental ruby. - -[3077] There is some truth in this, as some few kinds both of the -Garnet and Ruby are infusible. Of the ruby, the red varieties change -to brown, black, and opaque even, as the temperature increases, and on -cooling become first green, and then nearly colourless, but at last -resume their red colour. - -[3078] From the Greek; meaning “incombustible.” - -[3079] From Καρχήδων, the Greek name for Carthage. - -[3080] Carthago Magna, so called in contradistinction to Carthage Nova, -or New Carthage, in Spain. - -[3081] See B. v. c. 29. - -[3082] In the vicinity of Orthosia. It is from this place that one kind -of garnet is now called “Almandine.” There is also the Almandine, or -violet-coloured ruby. Sec Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 238. _Bohn’s -Edition._ It is probable that Carthage was the great entrepôt for the -carbunculi of the Garamantes and Æthiopia, where Red sapphire, Red -corundum, or Oriental ruby, was probably found. - -[3083] A variety, perhaps, of Iron garnet, or Iron-lime garnet. - -[3084] Desfontaines suggests that this may have been the Balas ruby, or -possibly the Syrian Garnet, of a violet purple colour. Not improbably -it is the Almandine ruby. - -[3085] “Pinnato fulgore.” This mottled appearance is to be seen in the -interior of some red garnets. - -[3086] Common garnets, probably. - -[3087] Sillig suggests that this may be from λιγνὺς, “soot.” -The reading, however, is extremely doubtful. - -[3088] See Introduction to Vol. III. If this is the truth, they were -made of some of the crystals of the garnet, probably. - -[3089] De Lapid. see 61. - -[3090] “Pliny has here committed a gross mistake, which has not been -observed by Hardouin. Theophrastus, in the passage alluded to, does not -speak of a ruby, but the well-known black marble of Chio; though he -calls both _carbunculus_, a name given to the ruby, on account of its -likeness to a burning coal, and to the black marble on account of its -resemblance to a quenched coal or cinder; and the latter, as well as -the Obsidian stone, was sometimes used for mirrors.”—Beckmann, Hist. -Inv. Vol. II. pp. 67, 68. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[3091] “Illos.” He should have said “hos”—“the latter.” - -[3092] See B. iv. c. 35; the present Lisbon. - -[3093] Dalechamps thinks that this is the same as the “anthracites” -mentioned in B. xxxvi. c. 38, and identifies it either with our -Anthracite, or else with pit-coal or bituminous coal. It is much more -likely, however, that a precious stone is meant; and, in conformity -with this opinion, Brotero and Ajasson have identified it with the -Spinelle or scarlet Ruby, and the Balas or rose-red ruby, magnesiates -of alumina. - -[3094] Sec B. iv. c. 1. - -[3095] “Carbo.” This word may mean either a “burning coal” or -“charcoal” hence the confusion that has arisen in identifying the -mineral substance that is meant. - -[3096] See Note 3077, to Chapter 25. - -[3097] “Sandaresus” and “Sandasiros” are other readings. This stone has -not been identified, but Ajasson is inclined to think that it may have -been Aventurine quartz, and is the more inclined to this opinion, as -that mineral is found in Persia, and _sandastra_ or _tchandastra_ is -purely a Sanscrit word. The description, however, would hardly seem to -apply to Aventurine. - -[3098] Littré suggests that the reading here probably might be “ob id -_non_ magno”—“sell _not_ so dear.” - -[3099] It has not been identified. - -[3100] From λυχνὸς, a “lighted lamp” or “torch.” Brotero is -of opinion that this is the Cherry-coloured ruby, that the Ionian -stone is the Purple ruby, and that the kermes-berry coloured stone is -the Scarlet or Spinelle ruby. From the distinct reference made to its -electric nature, Ajasson identifies it with Tourmaline, a Silicate of -alumina. Beckmann is of the same opinion; Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 88. -_Bohn’s Edition._ - -[3101] “Remissiorem.” - -[3102] See B. xxi. cc. 33, 39, where the “Flos Jovis” is mentioned in -juxtaposition with the flower called “lychnis,” either the Umbel’d -Campion rose, or the Common red rose Campion. - -[3103] “Coccum.” “Kermes-berry coloured.” These kinds probably were, -Indicolite or Blue tourmaline, and Rubellite or Red tourmaline. - -[3104] As Beckmann remarks, he should have said that it first attracts, -and then repels them; such being the case with Tourmaline. - -[3105] Not identical, most probably, with the Carchedonian or -Carthaginian stone mentioned in Chapter 25, which was probably a garnet -or a ruby. Ajasson has no doubt that it is identical with jasper -quartz, including the varieties called Striped or Riband jasper, and -Egyptian jasper. - -[3106] See B. v. c. 5, and B. vii. c. 2. - -[3107] Tourmaline, probably, in combination with other mineral -substances. - -[3108] Carnelian, a variety of Chalcedony. It is originally grey, or -greyish red, which afterwards turns to a rich, deep, red, on exposure -to the sun’s rays, and subsequently to artificial heat. - -[3109] Which supplies the best carnelians at the present day. - -[3110] From their mixture, Ajasson says, with argillaceous earth. - -[3111] Under this name Pliny evidently speaks of the stone known to us -as Chrysolite, and possibly of green agate as well. Our Topaz cannot be -easily recognized in this Chapter, at all events. - -[3112] See B. vi. c. 34. - -[3113] See B. vi. c. 34. - -[3114] Τοπάζω in Greek, signifies “to conjecture.” - -[3115] It was agate, most probably. - -[3116] “Leek-green.” Ajasson and Desfontaines think that this must have -been either Oriental Chrysolite or Oriental Peridote. - -[3117] Some would identify this with Oriental topaz or yellow corundum, -a variety of the Sapphire; while others would see in it the genuine -Topaz; and others, again, think it synonymous with the Chrysoprase. The -name “chrysopteron” means “golden-wing.” - -[3118] “Leek-green and gold.” An apple or leek-green Chalcedony, -coloured by nickel. See Chapters 20, 34, and 73, of this Book. - -[3119] See B. xxxvi. c. 10. - -[3120] Dana thinks this identical with the Turquois. Ajasson and -Desfontaines identify it with Oriental Peridote. - -[3121] Turquois is found in large quantities in a mountainous district -of Persia, not far from Nichabour; where it occurs in veins which -traverse the mountains in all directions. - -[3122] Isidorus says, B. xvi. c. 17, that they wore it in the ears. -The Shah of Persia, it is said, retains for his own use all the larger -and more finely tinted specimens of turquois that are found in his -dominions. - -[3123] This story is now regarded as fabulous. - -[3124] See B. x. cc. 44, 79. - -[3125] The stone now known as “Prase” is a vitreous, leek-green, -variety of massive quartz. - -[3126] This may possibly have been Plasma, a faintly translucent -Chalcedony, approaching jasper, having a greenish colour, sprinkled -with yellow and whitish dots, and a glistening lustre. Or, perhaps, -Bloodstone or Heliotrope, a kind of jasper. - -[3127] See the preceding Chapter, and Note 3118. - -[3128] “Cymbia.” Drinking vessels shaped like a boat. - -[3129] Or “Nile-stone.” Egyptian jasper, or Egyptian pebble, a kind of -quartz. - -[3130] Our Malachite, a green carbonate of copper. See B. xxxiii. c. 26. - -[3131] Called μολόχη or μαλάχη in Greek. - -[3132] Also of Siberia, Shetland, the United States, and numerous other -localities. - -[3133] Meadow-green jasper. - -[3134] Salmasius erroneously takes this to be the Turquoise. It is our -sky-blue jasper, no doubt. See Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 471, -_Bohn’s Edition_. - -[3135] See B. vi. c. 2. - -[3136] The Bamberg MS. gives “Calchedon” here. - -[3137] Namely, πορφυρίζουσα, ῥοδίζουσα, and σμαραγδίζουσα. - -[3138] “Northern,” apparently. - -[3139] “Sky-blue,” mentioned above. - -[3140] See Chapter 31. Red jasper, or perhaps Red porphyry. - -[3141] “Aut” appeals to be a preferable reading to the “ut” of the -Bamberg MS. - -[3142] See B. xv. cc. 12, 13. - -[3143] “Terebinthizusa.” Yellow jasper, Ajasson says. - -[3144] See Chapter 18 of this Book. - -[3145] “Seal-stone.” A kind of carnelian, probably. - -[3146] “Publico gemmarum dominio iis tantum dato, quoniam optime -signent.” The above is the sense given to the passage by Holland, -Ajasson, and Littré; but another translation may also be suggested—“A -stone to which alone, by general consent, is awarded the custody of -precious stones, from the fact that it makes the best impression -as a seal.” In reference to the custom of putting a seal on the -dactyliothecæ, or jewel-caskets. See page 80 of this Book. - -[3147] “Single-lined.” - -[3148] “Many-lined.” - -[3149] Albertus Magnus, De Mineral. B. ii., has several other stories -respecting it of a similar nature. - -[3150] Jasper onyx. - -[3151] Identified by Ajasson with snow-flake chalcedony. - -[3152] Spotted jasper onyx. - -[3153] See B. xxxi. c. 41. - -[3154] Smoked jasper onyx. - -[3155] It is still used for making vases, boxes, knife-handles, and -other articles, and is much used in the manufacture of Florentine -mosaics. We may also remark, that the “iaspis” of Pliny probably -included some stones not of the jasper kind. - -[3156] “Azure stone;” generally supposed to have been a species of -Lapis lazuli or azure. Beckmann is of opinion that it was a mineral or -mountain blue, tinged with copper. - -[3157] It is found in China, Persia, Siberia, and Bucharia. - -[3158] Ultramarine is prepared from Lapis lazuli, and an artificial -kind is extensively in use, which equals the native in permanency and -brilliancy of colour, and is very extensively employed in the arts. -Theophrastus, De Lapid. sec. 55, speaks of this artificial ultramarine. - -[3159] This must not be taken for the Sapphire of the present day, but -was most probably Lapis lazuli, and identical, perhaps, with Cyanos. -Beckmann has devoted considerable attention to this subject; Hist. Inv. -Vol. I. pp. 468-473. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[3160] Particles of iron pyrites, probably, which are frequently to be -seen in Lapis lazuli. - -[3161] Quartz, probably, according to some authorities. - -[3162] So called, according to some authorities, from ἀ, “not,” μεθύω, -“to intoxicate,” on account of its being a supposed preservative -against inebriety. Ajasson is of opinion that Pliny does not here -speaks of the Quartz Amethyst of modern mineralogy, but only the -Oriental Amethyst, violet Sapphire, or violet Corundum. It is not -improbable, however, that he includes them all, as well as violet Fluor -spar, and some other purple stones; inclusive, possibly, of the Garnet. - -[3163] He is probably speaking _here_ of violet Fluor spar; Oriental -amethyst, or violet sapphire, it is next to impossible to engrave. - -[3164] See B. ix. c. 62. - -[3165] The city of Pharan, mentioned by St. Jerome and Eusebius. - -[3166] “In suspectu.” See B. xxi. c. 22. - -[3167] “Lovely youth.” The Opal has been thus called in Chapter 22. - -[3168] “Avenger of slighted love.” - -[3169] “Veneris gena;” called in Greek “Aphrodites blepharon.” - -[3170] Which is most probable; however untrue the story itself may be. -See Note 3162 above. - -[3171] A kind of Baboon. See B. vi. c. 35, B. vii. c. 2, and B. viii. -c. 80. - -[3172] It is considered very doubtful whether the modern Hyacinth or -Zircon is one of the number of stones that were called “Hyacinthus” by -the ancients. Jameson appears to have thought that they gave this name -to the oriental amethyst or violet sapphire. - -[3173] See B. xxi. c. 38. - -[3174] Generally supposed to be the Oriental topaz, yellow Sapphire -or yellow Corundum. We have already seen, in Chapter 32, that the -“Topazos” of the ancients was in all probability the modern Chrysolite. - -[3175] In Pontus: see B. vi. c. 4. - -[3176] See B. xxxiv. c. 2. - -[3177] Supposed to be yellow-white Hyacinth. See Chapter 12 of this -Book. - -[3178] “Electrum.” - -[3179] See Chapter 76 of this Book. - -[3180] See Chapter 9 of this Book. - -[3181] Yellow quartz crystal probably, or False topaz. - -[3182] “White gold stone.” It has not been identified. - -[3183] “Smoke-stone.” A jasper has been so called in Chapter 37. - -[3184] “Honey gold stone.” Some are of opinion that this was the -Honey-coloured Hyacinth. Others, again, identify it with the yellow, -honey-coloured Topaz; an opinion with which Ajasson coincides. - -[3185] “Xanthon” is another reading. See Chapter 60 of this Book. - -[3186] “Lovely youth.” See Chapter 22, where it has been already -mentioned. He here reverts to the Opals. - -[3187] See Chapter 40, for example, where it is given to a variety of -the Amethyst. - -[3188] The Opal, which he is about to describe. - -[3189] See Chapter 18 of this Book. - -[3190] The vitreous Asteriated crystals of Sapphire are still called by -this name. Ajasson, however, and Desfontaines, identify this gem with -Girasol opal or fire opal. See Note 3147. - -[3191] From ἀστερ, a star. - -[3192] “Star-stone.” Ajasson identifies this stone with the Asteriated -Sapphire or Corundum, mentioned in Note 3190 above. - -[3193] See B. iv. cc. 10, 17. - -[3194] “Lightning darting.” - -[3195] “Star-like.” Ajasson thinks, that it is identical with the stone -next mentioned. - -[3196] “Planet-stricken.” It is not improbable that this was Cat’s-eye, -a translucent Chalcedony, presenting a peculiar opalescence, or -internal reflections, when cut _en cabochon_. The colour is either -bright-greenish grey, or else yellow, red, or brownish. - -[3197] See Note 3194 above. Parisot thinks that these must have been -Aërolites or Meteorites. - -[3198] Brotero thinks that these were petrified shells, to which the -magicians imputed marvellous properties. - -[3199] Brotero is of opinion that those were Belemnites, more commonly -known as “thunderstones.” The reading “bætyli” is doubtful; but -Parisot says, on what authority does not appear, that “Betylus” meant -“Great father,” and that this name, as well as “Abaddir” of similar -signification, was given by magicians to aërolites or meteorites used -in their enchantments. - -[3200] A meteoric stone or aërolite, evidently. - -[3201] “Rainbow.” Opinion seems divided as to whether this is Hyalin -quartz iridized internally, or prismatic crystals of Limpid quartz, -which decompose the rays of the sun. - -[3202] The reading and meaning of this passage are very doubtful. - -[3203] The reading is doubtful, “zeros” and “erros” being given by -some MSS. Ajasson hazards a conjecture that it may have been a variety -of quartz, formed of a concretion of agates united by a cement of a -similar nature. - -[3204] A general name for Agate, and possibly some other stones not now -included under the name. - -[3205] “Jasper agate.” - -[3206] “Wax agate.” The modern Orange agate, probably. - -[3207] “Smaragdus agate.” Emerald-coloured agate. - -[3208] “Blood agate.” Agate sprinkled with spots of red jasper. - -[3209] “White agate.” - -[3210] “Tree agate.” Moss agate or Mocha stone, coloured by oxide of -iron. - -[3211] Probably the reading should be “Stactachates,” “Myrrh agate.” - -[3212] “Coralline agate.” See Chapter 56. - -[3213] Undulated agate. - -[3214] Moss agate, probably. See Note 3210 above. - -[3215] Sillig is of opinion that the reading here is corrupt. - -[3216] “Coticulas.” Stones for grinding drugs. - -[3217] “Refreshing” stone. Hardly any of these stones appear to be -identified. - -[3218] As to the “nitrum” of Pliny, see B. xxxi. c. 46. - -[3219] Probably the same as the Alabastrites of B. xxxv. c. 12. - -[3220] From the Greek, ἀλέκτωρ, a “cock.” - -[3221] See B. vii. c. 19. - -[3222] “Man-subduing.” Identified by some with Marcasite, or White iron -pyrites. - -[3223] See Chapter 15 of this Book. - -[3224] “Silver-subduing.” - -[3225] “Counteracting-stone.” - -[3226] Probably the stone mentioned in B. xxxvi. c. 41. - -[3227] “Aromatic stone.” Cæsalpinus is of opinion that this is grey or -clouded amber. - -[3228] “Reginis.” - -[3229] See B. xix. c. 4, and B. xxxvi. c. 31. - -[3230] The reading is doubtful. - -[3231] Called “melancoryphi” in Chapter 33. - -[3232] Ajasson thinks that the reading should be “Aeizoe,” from the -Greek ἀειζώη, “long lived.” - -[3233] “Shining stone,” apparently. - -[3234] See Chapter 33 of this Book. - -[3235] The reading is doubtful. - -[3236] See B. xxxiii. c. 2: where a fossil Chrysocolla is also -mentioned. - -[3237] See B. xi. c. 36, and B. xxxiii. c. 21. - -[3238] “Gem of Aphrodite” or “Venus.” Thought by Dalechamps and -Hardouin to have been a kind of agate. - -[3239] “Which never grows cold.” - -[3240] A kind of Onyx, Dalechamps thinks. - -[3241] “Acorn stone.” Like an olive in appearance, and now known as -“Jew stone,” probably, a fossil. - -[3242] “Frog-stone.” Varieties of quartz, probably. - -[3243] “Dipped stone.” Dalechamps says that it was amber stained with -alkanet, but on what authority does not appear. - -[3244] “Eye of Belus.” Supposed by Ajasson and Desfontaines to be Cat’s -eye Chalcedony. See Chapter 50, Note 3196. - -[3245] Belus, the father of Ninus, the “Bel” of Scripture. See Chapter -58. - -[3246] A kind of Tecolithos, Dalechamps says. See B. xxxvi. c. 35, and -Chapter 68 of this Book. - -[3247] “Grape-cluster stone.” - -[3248] “Puniceus” seems to be a preferable reading to “pampineus,” -“like a vine-tendril,” given by the Bamberg MS. - -[3249] Possibly it may have been Datholite or Borate of lime, a variety -of which is known as Botryolite. - -[3250] “Hair-stone.” This was probably either Iron alum, known also as -Alun de plume; Alunogen, known also as Feather Alum or hair salt; or -Amianthus, also called satin Asbestus. See B. xxxvi. c. 31. - -[3251] “Ox-heart.” Supposed to be a sort of Turquois, Hardouin says. - -[3252] “Thunder-stone.” - -[3253] “Clod-stone.” It may possibly have been a kind of Geodes. See -B. xxxvi. c. 32. Dalechamps, however, identifies it with Crapaudine, -Toad-stone, or Bufonite, supposed in former times to be produced by the -toad, but in reality the fossil tooth of a fish. - -[3254] See B. iii. c. 4. - -[3255] See B. xxxiv. c. 22, and Chapter 65 of this Book. - -[3256] Identical, probably, with the Callaina of Chapter 33, our -Turquois. - -[3257] Lapis lazuli. - -[3258] “Smoke-stone.” Identical with the jasper called “capnias,” in -Chapter 37. - -[3259] In Chapter 37 of this Book. - -[3260] “Cappadocian stone.” - -[3261] Like the “callaina” or “callais.” - -[3262] See Chapter 33 of this Book. - -[3263] “Attractive stone.” A large rocky stone, according to Solinus. -Dalechamps thinks that it must have been a kind of amber or bitumen, an -opinion with which Desfontaines coincides. - -[3264] “Looking-glass stone,” or “mirror stone.” A variety of Specular -stone, probably. - -[3265] “Onion stone.” A kind of agate, according to Dalechamps. It had -its name probably from the union of its streaks like those on the neck -of an onion. - -[3266] “Pottery stone.” - -[3267] See B. xxix. c. 38, Vol. V. p. 415. - -[3268] The Cinædus. See B. xxxii. c. 53. - -[3269] By its clear or clouded colour, it was said. - -[3270] “Wax stone.” - -[3271] From κίρκος, a “hawk” or “falcon.” - -[3272] “Hair-like;” from κόρση, the “hair.” - -[3273] “Coral agate.” See Chapter 54 of this Book. - -[3274] Vermilion. See B. xxxiii. cc. 37, 40. - -[3275] “Strong stone”—from κρατερὸς, “strong.” Supposed by -some to have been amber-coloured Hyacinth. - -[3276] Oriental topaz, probably. See Chapters 42 and 43 of this Book. - -[3277] “Saffron-coloured,” probably. If this is the meaning of the -name, it may be supposed to have resembled the bigaroon cherry. - -[3278] “Pregnant stone. An aëtites or geodes, probably. See B. xxx. c. -44, and B. xxxvi. c. 39. - -[3279] “Sounding like brass.” Probably Clinkstone or Phonolite, a -compact feldspathic rock of a greyish colour, clinking under the hammer -when struck, somewhat like a metal. - -[3280] “Swallow-stone.” - -[3281] “Tortoise-stone.” - -[3282] Six in the morning until mid-day. - -[3283] “Tortoise-like stone.” - -[3284] “Chelone,” in Greek. - -[3285] “Grass-green stone.” It is just possible that the Chlorite of -modern Mineralogy, a kind of emerald-green talc, or hydrous silicate of -magnesia, may be meant: but we must dismiss the story of the wagtail. - -[3286] The pied wagtail, Motacilla alba of Linnæus. - -[3287] See B. vi. c. 31. - -[3288] “Golden light.” Ajasson suggests that this may have been a -yellow phosphate of lead, which emitted light at night, from its close -vicinity to naphtha. Bologna stone, Bolognian spar, or sulphate of -Barytes, has also been suggested. Topaz, too, is mentioned. - -[3289] “Golden face.” - -[3290] A variety of Hyacinth, according to Dalechamps. - -[3291] From κηπὸς, “a garden,” it is thought; on account of -its varied colours. - -[3292] “Laurel-stone.” - -[3293] “Substitute” for beryl. - -[3294] “Two-formed,” or “of a double nature.” A grand acquisition, -as Ajasson remarks, for the worshippers of Priapus. See a similar -characteristic in the Eryngium, our Eringo, B. xxii. c. 9] also -Mandragora, B. xxv. c. 94, Note 877. - -[3295] “Stone of Dionysus” or “Bacchus.” - -[3296] “Dragon stone.” - -[3297] The serpent so called—“draco.” See B. xxix. c. 20. - -[3298] A story invented, no doubt, by the sellers of some kind of -precious stone. - -[3299] “Heart-shaped.” A turquois, Hardouin thinks. See “Bucardia” in -Chapter 55 above. - -[3300] “The best.” - -[3301] “Formed like the testes.” - -[3302] “Red stone,” apparently. The reading is very doubtful. - -[3303] The reading is doubtful, but the word may possibly mean “stone -of love,” or something equivalent. - -[3304] “Fine-haired.” - -[3305] “Skilled in sacred matters.” - -[3306] “Of fair length.” Ajasson thinks that this may have been a -variety of Pyromachic silex, or gun flint, nearly allied to Chalcedony. - -[3307] A preferable reading, probably, to “Eumitres.” It perhaps took -its name from Mithres, the god of the Sun among the Persians, and -meant “blessing of Mithres.” Ajasson thinks that it may have been -green Tourmaline, and that its electric properties may have been very -“serviceable to the charlatans who had the monopoly of the Temple of -Bel.” - -[3308] See Chapter 55 of this Book. - -[3309] “With beautiful leaves.” By some authorities this is thought to -be Opal, by others Heliotrope or Bloodstone. Ajasson thinks that it may -have been a general name for Jasper quartz, or else that it was Quartz -agate opalized. - -[3310] This reading is very doubtful. - -[3311] “Mouldy stone.” - -[3312] “Stone of the religious.” - -[3313] “Black on the surface.” This is the case, Ajasson remarks, with -many stones of the class known as “Cat’s eye.” - -[3314] “Galaxy stone.” Ajasson thinks that this may possibly have been -an Opal, or a dead white Topaz, traversed by lines of other colours. - -[3315] “Milk stone.” - -[3316] Probably milk-white Quartz, Ajasson thinks. - -[3317] “White earth.” - -[3318] “White-streaked stone.” - -[3319] “Clouded.” - -[3320] See Chapter 54 of this Book. - -[3321] An Eastern name, probably. - -[3322] A Geodes or Aëtites, probably. See B. xxxvi. c. 39, and Chapter -56 of this Book, Note 3278. - -[3323] “Tongue of stone.” - -[3324] Divination from the appearance of the moon. - -[3325] “Gorgon stone.” The head of the Gorgon Medusa was fabled to turn -those into stone who looked upon it. - -[3326] See B. xxxii. c. 11. - -[3327] This reading is very doubtful. - -[3328] Now known as Heliotrope, bloodstone, or blood jasper. It is of a -deep-green colour, with red spots. - -[3329] “Turning under the sun.” - -[3330] See B. xxii. c. 29. - -[3331] “Stone of Hephæstos” or “Vulcan.” - -[3332] It acting as a burning-glass, probably. - -[3333] See B. iv. c. 20, and B. v. c. 22. - -[3334] “Genitals of Mercury.” This singular stone does not appear to -have been identified. See Note 3294 above. - -[3335] “Sixty colour stone.” - -[3336] See B. v. cc. 5, 8, and B. vi. c. 34. - -[3337] “Hawk stone.” It is perhaps identical with the “Circos,” -mentioned in Chapter 56. Aëtius says that Hieracitis was of a greenish -hue. - -[3338] “Sand-stone.” Ajasson thinks that this was a granular quartz, of -a friable nature when subjected to compression. - -[3339] As to the identity of “nitrum,” see B, xxxi. c, 46. - -[3340] “Horn of [Jupiter] Hammon.” He here alludes to the Ammonites of -modern Geology, an extinct race of molluscous animals that inhabited -convoluted shells, and which are commonly known as “snake-stones.” They -abound in strata of the secondary formation, and vary from the size of -a bean to that of a coach-wheel. - -[3341] The reading of this word is doubtful. - -[3342] “Hyæna stone.” - -[3343] As to this stone, see B. xxxvi. c. 25. - -[3344] “Yellow” stone. See Chapter 45. - -[3345] “Idæan fingers.” These were probably Belemnites, so called from -their long, tapering shape, and being first observed, perhaps, on Mount -Ida in Crete. Belemnites are the shells of fossil Cephalopods, and are -commonly known as “thunder stones.” - -[3346] “Jaundice stone.” - -[3347] “Gem of Jove.” - -[3348] “Dew stone.” - -[3349] “Indian stone.” - -[3350] It is just possible that he may be thinking of Indigo here, -which he has before called by the same name. See B. xxxiii. c. 57. - -[3351] “Violet-coloured.” - -[3352] “Scale stone.” A fossil, probably. - -[3353] “White eye.” Cat’s eye chalcedony, perhaps. See “Astrobolos” in -Chapter 48, and “Beli oculus” in Chapter 55, of this Book. - -[3354] “Variegated with white.” - -[3355] “Yellow incense.” - -[3356] “Meadow-green stone.” - -[3357] “Fat stone.” - -[3358] “White gold.” Ajasson thinks that this may have been either a -sub-variety of Hyalin amethystine quartz, a yellow quartz or false -topaz, or else an unctuous, white quartz, either opaque or transparent. - -[3359] “Stone of Memnon.” - -[3360] This reading seems preferable to “Media,” given by the Bamberg -and some other MSS. - -[3361] The enchantress of Colchis. The stone, no doubt was as fabulous -as the enchantress. - -[3362] “Poppy stone.” - -[3363] For the origin of this name, see “Eumithres,” in Chapter 58, -Note 3307. - -[3364] It was probably a kind of Opal. - -[3365] The reading here is very doubtful. - -[3366] This reading also is doubtful: it is probably an Eastern word. -According to some authorities, this stone was a dark-brown rock -crystal. Ajasson identities it with Schorl or black Tourmaline, with a -base of Magnesia. - -[3367] Red Tourmaline, possibly, or Rubellite. - -[3368] Carnelian. See Chapter 31 of this Book. - -[3369] “Ectypæ sculpturæ.” See B. xxxv. c. 43. - -[3370] “Myrrh stone.” It was an Eastern compound, probably. See Chapter -54, Note 3211. - -[3371] “Wart stone.” - -[3372] “Myrtle stone.” - -[3373] “White in the middle.” This and the next seem to have been -general names for stones of a particular appearance. - -[3374] “Black in the middle.” - -[3375] Bacchus. - -[3376] A Greek word, signifying the skin of a fawn or deer, as worn -by the Bacchanals in the celebration of their orgies. Ajasson is of -opinion that this was a mottled quartz or agate, similar to those -mentioned as resembling the spots of the lion, in Chapter 54, the -Leontios and Pardalios of Chapter 73. - -[3377] This reading is doubtful. - -[3378] “Shower stone,” apparently. - -[3379] From “Notus,” the south wind, which usually brought rain. - -[3380] See Chapters 48 and 51. - -[3381] See Chapter 55 of this Book. - -[3382] “Ass’s heart.” - -[3383] “Mountain stone.” - -[3384] See Chapter 67. - -[3385] “Shell-stone.” Not the same, probably, as the Cadmitis or -Ostracitis mentioned in Chapter 56 of this Book. See B. xxxvi. c. 31, -where a stone of this name is also mentioned. Horn-stone, probably, a -Chalcedony, more brittle than flint, is meant in the present passage. - -[3386] See Chapter 56 of this Book. - -[3387] See the beginning of Chapter 54. - -[3388] “Oyster-stone.” - -[3389] See B. xxxvi. chap. 67; our “Obsidian.” - -[3390] “Of all colours.” Either Opal, Ajasson thinks, or Iridized -hyalin quartz. - -[3391] “All corners.” Ajasson seems to think that this may have been -Hyalin quartz. - -[3392] “Worthy of all love.” - -[3393] Of the same meaning as “paneros.” - -[3394] “Gem of Pontus.” According to Desfontaines, these stones are -identified, by some with agates, by others with sapphires. - -[3395] “Flame-coloured.” - -[3396] “Golden-coloured stone.” - -[3397] See B. xxxiii. c. 56, and B. xxxv. cc. 12, 16. - -[3398] “Palm-date stone. Desfontaines says that this is Jew stone, the -fossil spine of an egg-shaped echinus. See Chapter 55, Note 3241. - -[3399] Φῦκος; whence the Latin “fucus.” - -[3400] “White around.” - -[3401] An Aëtites or Geodes, probably. See Chapter 56, Note 3278; also B. -xxx. c. 44, and B. xxxvi. cc. 32, 39. - -[3402] “Earth stone,” apparently. - -[3403] The tomb of Tiresias was ordinarily pointed out in the vicinity -of the Tilphusan Well, near Thebes; at least Pausanias states to that -effect. - -[3404] “Gem of the Sun.” According to some, this is the Girasol opal; -but Ajasson has no doubt, from the description given of it by Photius, -from Damascius, that it is identical with the “Asteria” of Chapter 47. -See also the “Astrion” of Chapter 48. - -[3405] Supposed to be jet. - -[3406] “Lizard stone.” - -[3407] “Flesh stone.” - -[3408] “Moon stone.” Our Selenite probably, crystallized sulphate of -lime] the thin laminæ of which reflect the disk of the sun or moon. - -[3409] “Stone like iron.” See “Oritis” in Chapter 65; also B. xxxvi. c. -25, and Chapter 15 of this Book, for minerals of this name. - -[3410] “Variegated iron.” - -[3411] So called from its teeth meeting evenly, like the jaw-teeth, and -not shaped like those of a saw, so formed that the teeth of one jaw -lock with those of the other. See B. xi. c. 5. The Linnæan genus Sparus -is of this kind. - -[3412] See B. v. cc. 4, 5, and B. vi. c. 37. - -[3413] “Fistulous stone.” - -[3414] “Three-coloured stone.” - -[3415] Meaning “Female root,” apparently. The reading, however, is -uncertain. - -[3416] “Female heart,” apparently. The reading is doubtful. - -[3417] “Thracian stone.” The reading, however, is doubtful. - -[3418] “Ash-coloured stone.” It has been identified with Uranian agate -by some. - -[3419] “Dissolving stone.” Probably our Jew stone, and identical with -the Phœnicitis of Chapter 66. See Note 3398. - -[3420] “Venus’ hair.” As Ajasson remarks, the description renders it -next to impossible to say what the stone was. - -[3421] “Liver stone.” Heavy spar, a sulphate of barytes, is sometimes -called Hepatite. - -[3422] “Fat stone.” Saponite or soapstone, a silicate of magnesia, is -also known as Steatite. - -[3423] An ancient king of Syria, worshipped by the people of that -country and the inhabitants of Phrygia. According to Macrobius, the -Assyrians worshipped Jupiter and the Sun under this name. - -[3424] “Three-eye stone.” Some kind of Cat’s eye chalcedony, probably. - -[3425] “Crab stone.” - -[3426] “Viper-stone.” - -[3427] “Scorpion stone.” - -[3428] See B. ix. c. 29, B. xl. c. 61, and B. xxxii. c. 53. This was -perhaps the same stone as the “Synodontitis” of Chapter 67. - -[3429] Which was called τριγλὰ, in Greek. - -[3430] “Ant stone.” Possibly a kind of amber. - -[3431] “Beetle stone.” - -[3432] “Wolf’s eye.” - -[3433] “Peacock stone.” - -[3434] “Golden sand.” This may possibly have been Aventurine quartz. - -[3435] “Millet stone.” - -[3436] “Oak stone.” Fossil coal, perhaps. - -[3437] “Ivy stone.” - -[3438] “Daffodil stone.” An Eastern compound, probably. - -[3439] “Bean stone.” - -[3440] Our “Jew stone,” probably; identical with the Phœnicitis of -Chapter 66 and the Tecolithos of Chapter 68. - -[3441] See Note 3398 to Chapter 66. - -[3442] See Chapter 66. - -[3443] See B. xxxvi. c. 43. Pebbles of white flint were probably meant -under this name; from which is derived, according to Ajasson, the -French word _caillou_, meaning a flint pebble. - -[3444] “Fire stone.” Not a Pyrites of modern Mineralogy, probably. - -[3445] “With many zones.” Probably an agate or jasper. - -[3446] “Lightning stone.” - -[3447] “Flame stone.” - -[3448] “Burning coal stone.” See B. xxxvi. c. 38, and Chapter 27 of -this Book. - -[3449] “Containing liquid.” Identified by Desfontaines with the Geodes -enhydros of modern Geology, which sometimes contains a liquid substance. - -[3450] “Many-haired stone.” - -[3451] As to these stones, agates or jaspers probably, see “Nebritis,” -in Chapter 64, and the Note. - -[3452] “Dew stone.” The reading here is very doubtful. See Chapter 61. - -[3453] “Honey-coloured and yellow.” - -[3454] “Saffron stone.” - -[3455] All three being derived from the corresponding name in Greek. - -[3456] See Chapter 55 of this Book. - -[3457] “Hand stone.” - -[3458] “Stone of necessity.” - -[3459] “Retaining stone.” - -[3460] “Tree stone.” - -[3461] De Lapidibus. - -[3462] He alludes to petrified shells, most probably. - -[3463] “Phaleræ.” See B. vii. c. 2, and B. xxxiii. c. 6. - -[3464] “Nature;” _i.e._ “works of Nature.” - -[3465] “Lenticula.” Like a lentil in shape. - -[3466] Substituting garnets for rubies, as an illustration. - -[3467] “Minium.” See Chapter 23 of this Book. - -[3468] Lest the deception should be commonly practised. Seneca, Epist. -19, mentions one Democritus, who had discovered the art of making -artificial Emeralds. See further on this subject, Beckmann, Hist. Inv. -Vol. 1. p. 124. _Bohn’s Edition._ - -[3469] Ten in the morning. - -[3470] See Chapters 18 and 20. - -[3471] We can only guess at the meaning of this passage, as it is -acknowledgedly corrupt. - -[3472] Our Obsidian. See B. xxxvi. c. 67, and Chapter 65 of this Book. - -[3473] See Chapter 15 of this Book. Ajasson thinks that he has here -confounded two different substances, powdered emery and diamond dust. - -[3474] See B. iv. c. 26. - -[3475] “Trigariis.” “Three-horse chariot races,” literally. See B. -xxviii. c. 72, and B. xxix. c. 5. - -[3476] It having been in recent times declared unlawful to work them, -as he has already informed us. - -[3477] “Quacunque ambitur mari.” With these words the Natural History -of Pliny terminates in all the former editions. M. Ian was the first -among the learned to express a suspicion that the proper termination of -the work was wanting; an opinion in which Sillig coincided, and which -was happily confirmed, in the course of time, by the discovery of the -Bamberg MS., the only copy of the Natural History (or rather the last -Six Books) in which the concluding part of this Chapter has been found. - -[3478] See B. xix. c. 7. - -[3479] See B. xxxvi. c. 45. - -[3480] See Chapter 15 of this Book. - -[3481] See Chapter 16 of this Book. - -[3482] See Chapters 7, 8, and 11 of this Book. - -[3483] “Coccum.” See B. xvi. c. 12, and B. xxiv. c. 4. - -[3484] See B. xix. c. 15, and B. xxii. c. 49. - -[3485] See B. xii. c. 26. - -[3486] See B. vi. c. 20, and B. xii. c. 1. - -[3487] See B. xiii. c. 29, and B. xv. c. 7. - -[3488] See B. xii. c. 42. - -[3489] See B. xii. c. 43. - -[3490] See B. xii. c. 28. - -[3491] See Chapter 11 of this Book. - -[3492] See B. xii, c. 54. - -[3493] See B. xii. c. 33. - -[3494] See B. xii. c. 30. - -[3495] See B. xii. c. 25. - -[3496] See B. xxxiv. c. 41. - -[3497] In B. xii. c. 37, and B. xxvi. c. 30. - -[3498] See B. ix. cc. 60, 61. - -[3499] See B. x. c. 28, and B. xxix. c. 13. - -[3500] “Numeris omnibus.” - -[3501] Bernhardy, _Grundriss d. Röm. Lit._ p. 644, has expressed an -opinion that there is still some deficiency after the concluding words, -“tuis fave;” notwithstanding the comparative completeness of the -restored text as given by the Bamberg MS. - -[3502] See end of B. ii. - -[3503] See end of B. v. - -[3504] See end of B. ix. - -[3505] See end of B. xxxii. - -[3506] See end of B. xvi. - -[3507] See end of B. v. - -[3508] See end of B. xxxiii. - -[3509] See end of B. xxxvi. - -[3510] See end of B. x. - -[3511] A Dithyrambic poet, a native of Cythera, or, according to some, -of Heraclea in Pontus. During the latter part of his life he resided -at the court of the younger Dionysius, tyrant of Sicily, and died B.C. -380, at the age of 55. Of his poems, only a few fragments are left. - -[3512] One of the great Tragic Poets of Greece, born at Salamis B.C. -480. Of his Tragedies, eighteen are still extant, out of seventy-five, -or, according to some accounts, ninety-two, which he originally wrote. - -[3513] See end of B. viii. - -[3514] Nothing positive seems to be known of this author, who is -mentioned in Chapters 11, 24, and 25 of the present Book as having -written on Precious Stones. It is possible that he may have been the -architect mentioned in B. xxxvi. c. 14. Hardouin would identify him -with a Comic writer of Olynthus, of this name. - -[3515] See end of B. iii. - -[3516] See end of B. xii. - -[3517] See end of B. x. - -[3518] A Roman senator, who wrote a work on Fishing, in 26 Books, one -on Hydromancy or aquatic divination, and other works connected with -history. It is probably from a work of his, “On Rivers,” that Plutarch -quotes. See Chapters 11 and 23 of the present Book. - -[3519] Author of a “Periplus,” and of a poem “on the Fabulous forms of -Men,” both mentioned by Tzetzes. See Chapters 11, 23, 24, and 51 of -this Book. - -[3520] See end of Books iii. and xxxv. - -[3521] See end of B. xxxvi. - -[3522] See end of B. ii. - -[3523] See end of B. iv. - -[3524] A writer on Stones, of this name, is also mentioned by Plutarch -and Stobæus, but no further particulars are known of him. He is -mentioned in Chapter 11 of this Book. - -[3525] Mentioned also in Chapter 11 of this Book. A person of this -name is quoted by the Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius as the author of -a work on Libya; from which he is supposed to have been a native of -Africa. - -[3526] Beyond the mention made of him in Chapter 11 of this Book, as a -contemporary of Pliny, no further particulars are known. - -[3527] A native of Patara in Lycia, who wrote a Description of the -Earth, and a collection of the Oracles given at Delphi. See Chapter 11 -of this Book. - -[3528] Beyond the mention made of him in Chapter 11 of this Book, -nothing relative to this writer seems to be known. - -[3529] See end of B. ii. - -[3530] Mithridates VI., Eupator, or Dionysus, King of Pontus, and the -great adversary of the Romans, commonly known as Mithridates the Great. -His notes and Memoirs were brought to Rome by Pompey, who had them -translated into Latin by his freedman Pompeius Lenæus. See end of B. -xiv.: also B. vii. c. 24, B. xxiii. c. 77, B. xxv. cc. 3, 27, 79, B. -xxxiii. c. 54, and Chapters 5 and 11 of the present Book. - -[3531] See end of B. xxi. - -[3532] See end of B. viii. - -[3533] From the mention made of him in Chapters 12 and 25 of this Book, -we may conclude that he was a writer on Precious Stones. - -[3534] See end of B. ii. - -[3535] From the mention of him in Chapters 23 and 28 of this Book, he -appears to have been a writer on Precious Stones. - -[3536] Probably the physician of Miletus, sometimes called Olympiacus, -who, according to Galen, belonged to the sect of the Methodici, and -lived in the first century after Christ. Galen speaks of him as “a -frivolous person.” - -[3537] See Cornelius Alexander, end of B. iii. - -[3538] See end of B. xxx. - -[3539] See end of B. xxix. - -[3540] See end of B. xviii. - -[3541] A native of Babylon, mentioned in Chapter 60 of this Book, as -having dedicated a work, on Precious Stones, to King Mithridates. - - - - -INDEX - -TO THE PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS MENTIONED IN THE TEXT AND NOTES. - -⁂ _The Roman numerals refer to the volume, the Arabic to the Page._ - - - A. - - Abaci, vi. 14. - - Abaculi, vi. 382, 383. - - Abantias, i. 317. - - Abarimon, ii. 124. - - Abdera, i. 304. - - Abdomen, iii. 75. - - Abella, i. 198. - - Abellina, iii. 316. - - Abellinates, i. 229. - - Abies, iii. 155. - - Abiga, v. 13, 14. - - Abnoba, i. 328. - - Abominations mentioned by Pliny, v. 302. - - Abortion, ii. 141; iv. 285. - - Abrotonum, iv. 334, 377, 378; v. 106. 232. - - Abruzzo, i. 231. - - Absarus, ii. 10. - - Abscesses, remedies for, v. 201, 202. - - Absinthites, iii. 259. - - Absinthium, v. 106, 232-235; vi. 41. - And _see_ “Wormwood.” - - Absinthium marinum, v. 235. - - Abstinence, from food, iii. 99 - —from drink, iii. 99. - - Absurdities mentioned by Pliny, =i.= 405, 406; =iv.= 102, 105, 110, - 178, 179, 190, 199, 200, 249, 250, 285, 316, 332, 373, 400, - 414, 468, 482, 502; =v.= 2, 9, 30, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, - 67, 68, 69, 70, 73, 89, 93, 95, 105, 106, 128, 188, 189, 218, - 265, 266, 283, 289, 292, 301, 304, 305, 306, 307, 311, 313, - 339, 340, 345, 346, 350, 355, 365, 366, 367, 384, 398, 410, - 414, 435, 436, 452, 463, 464, 466, 467, 468, 522; =vi.= 4, 18, - 21, 32, 39, 48, 205, 361, 434, 438, 441, 446, 447, 450, 456. - - Absyrtides, i. 258, 266. - - Absyrtus, i. 256. 266, 306; ii. 10. - - Abydos, i. 308, 417, 489. - - Abyla, i. 152, 384. - - Acacia, v. 43, 44; vi. 341 - —Nilotica, iii. 183, 184. - - Academia of Cicero, v. 473, 474. - - Academy at Athens, iii. 104. - - Acanos, iv. 398. - - Acanthice mastiche, iv. 354. - - Acanthion, v. 43. - - Acanthis, ii. 542; v. 146, 147. - - Acanthus, iv. 421. - - Acanthyllis, ii. 515. - - Acarnania described, i. 273. - - Acatium, ii. 423. - - Acerræ, i. 240. - - Acetum (honey), iii. 14. - - Achæmenis, v. 64, 159. - - Achaia described, i. 280. - - Acharne, vi. 60. - - Acharus, ii. 157. - - Achates (stone), vi. 388, 439, 440, 441. - - Acheron, i. 209, 273. - - Acherusia, i. 197, 273; ii. 3. - - Achetæ, iii. 31. - - Achillea, i. 339. - - Achilleon, i. 477. - - Achilleos, v. 94, 95. - - Achilles, i. 294, 321, 331, 477; v. 94; vi. 211. - Isle of, i. 331. - - Achirite, vi. 410. - - Achlis, ii. 263. - - Acidula, v. 474. - - Acinos, iv. 382. - - Acinus, iii. 319, 320, 321. - - Acipenser, ii. 398, 399. - - Acmodæ, i. 351. - - Acone, ii. 3. - - Aconitum, ii. 293; v. 218-221. - - Aconiti, vi. 278. - - Acopa, iv. 491, 518; v. 411; vi. 58, 365. - - Acopon, v. 226, 227. - - Acopos, vi. 440. - - Acorion, v. 143. - - Acorn, iii. 345-348; v. 4. - - Acorna, iv. 453. - - Acoron. v. 142, 143. - - Acqui, i. 156. - - Acra lapygia, i. 226. - - Acragas, vi. 138, 139. - - Acre, i. 434. - - Acroceraunia, i. 262, 271. - - Acrocorinthos, i. 279. - - Acron, i. 204. - - Actæa, v. 232. - - Actæon, iii. 44. - - Acte (place), i. 288. - - Acte (plant), v. 198. - - Actiniæ, iv. 254. - - Actium, i. 273. - Battle of, vi. 2. - - Acynopos, iv. 349. - - Ad Gallinas, iii. 336. - - Adad, vi. 458. - - Adumantis, v. 65. - - Adamas, vi. 405, 407, 408. - - Adarca, iv. 290; vi. 58. - - Adda, i. 253. - - Adder gem, v. 389. - - Adelphides, iii. 176. - - Adiabene described, ii. 27. - - Adiantum, iv. 356, 415, 416, 417. - - Adimantus, iii. 214. - - Adipsatheon, v. 45. - - Adipsos, iv. 399, 400. - - Adornment of the person, iv. 389, 390. - - Adonis, iv. 149. - Gardens of, iv. 334. - - Adonis (fish), ii. 406. - - Adonium, iv. 334. - - “Adorea,” derivation of the word, iv. 7. - - Adramytteos, i. 474. - - Adria, i. 235, 245. - - Adrian wines, iii. 242. - - Adriatic Sea, i. 245, 250, 265. - - Adrumetum, i. 391. - - Adulitæ, ii. 95. - - Adulteration, iii. 357. - - Adynamon, iii. 256. - - Ædemon, i. 380. - - Ædui, i. 356. - - Ægæ, i. 447. - - Ægean Sea described, i. 309. - - Ægialus, Vetulenus, iii. 234. - - Ægilops (disease), iv. 358. - - Ægilops (plant), iv. 358. - - Ægimius, ii. 201. - - Ægina, i. 312. - - Æginetan brass, vi. 151, 152. - - Ægipans, i. 378, 405, 406. - - Ægithus, ii. 487, 551. - - Ægocephalos, iii. 78. - - Ægoceras, v. 74. - - Ægolethron, iv. 341, 342. - - Ægolios, ii. 539. - - Ægophthalmos, vi. 459. - - Ægospotamos, i. 308. - - Ægyptilla, vi. 443. - - Ælana, i. 423. - - Ælian quoted, i. 141. - - Ælius, C., vi. 161. - - Ælius, Pætus Catus, iii. 275. - - Ænaria, i. 214; v. 474. - - Æneas, i. 194, 214. - - Æolian Islands, i. 221. - - Æolis described, i. 472. - - Æolus, i. 221. - - Aërolite, i. 63, 88, 89, 177; vi. 4, 38. - - Aëromancy, v. 427. - - Æs, vi. 68, 147-155. - - Æsalon, ii. 551. - - Æschines, the orator, ii. 174. - - Æschines, the physician, v. 369. - - Æschrion, ii. 357. - - Æschylus, mentioned, ii. 555. - —quoted, v. 81. - - Æschynomene, v. 67. - - Æsculapian snake, v. 397. - - Æsculapius, i. 285, 286; v. 390, 397, 445. - - Æsculetum, iii. 355. - - Æsculus, iii. 495. - - Æserninus, Marcellus, iii. 106. - - Æsop, the fabulist, vi. 338. - - Æsopus, the actor, his extravagance, ii. 440, 441; vi. 287. - —his famous dish of birds, ii. 531, 532. - - Æthiopia, i. 404; - described, ii. 97 - —wonders of, ii. 129 - —animals of, ii. 276, 279, 281 - —trees of, iii. 193, 194 - —sand of, vi. 326. - - Æthiopian Sea, Islands of, ii. 105. - - Æthiopis, v. 65, 159, 221. - - Æthiops, ii. 101. - - Aëtites, ii. 484; v. 464; vi. 364, 446, 449, 456. - - Aëtion, vi. 169, 256. - - Ætna, i. 217. - - Ætolia described, i. 275. - - Æx, i. 309. - - Africa, described, i. 374 - —islands of, i. 402 - —discoveries in, ii. 98, 99 - —produces no stags, ii. 303 - —proprietors of, put to death by Nero, iv. 14, 15 - —its fruitfulness in wheat, iv. 35, 36. - - African animals, decree respecting, ii. 274 - —by whom sent to Rome, ii. 275. - - Africus, i. 73; iv. 116. - - Affection, instances of, ii. 180, 181 - —shewn by serpents, ii. 252. - - Aganippe, i. 291. - - Agaric, iii. 353, 354; v. 120. - - Agates, vi. 360, 388, 412, 418, 439, 440, 441. - - Agatharchides, ii. 241. - - Agathocles, the historian, i. 371. - - Agathocles of Chios, ii. 356. - - Agathyrsi, i. 335. - - Age, of animals known from the teeth, iii. 60, 61. - —of trees, iii. 429, 430. - - Agelades, vi. 168. - - Ageraton, v. 221. - - Agesander, vi. 320. - - Agger, i. 204; vi. 347. - - Agility, instances of, ii. 161. - - Aglaophotis, v. 64. - - Aglaosthenes, i. 373. - - Aglaüs, his happiness, ii. 199. - - Agnus castus, v. 26, 27, 28. - - Agoracritus, vi. 310. - - Agreement of mankind on certain points, ii. 236, 237. - - Agriculture, surnames derived from, iv. 5 - —ancient taste for, 6 - —writers upon, 9, 10 - —maxims of the ancients upon, 16, 17, 18. - - Agrifolia, v. 86. - - Agrigentum, i. 218. - - Agrion, iii. 121. - - Agriopas, ii. 355. - - Agrippa, M., i. 163, 164, 268; ii. 142, 143—vi. 175, 233, 347, 378, - 480. - - Agrippæ, ii. 142. - - Agrippina, ii. 149, 155, 510, 523; vi. 130, 302 - —her memoirs, ii. 239 - —poisons Claudius, iv. 428. - - Agrippinas, the two, their characters, ii. 143. - - Ahenobarbus, C. Domitius, iii. 438, 439. - - Aigleucos, iii. 249, 250. - - Air, i. 65. - - Aïzoum, iv. 58; v. 143, 144. - - Ajax, i. 477 - —death of, iv. 337. - - Ajmere, ii. 47. - - Alabanda, i. 464. - - Alabandic stone, vi. 330, 331. - - Alabaster, vi. 329 - —boxes for unguents, ii. 435; iii. 166; iv. 310. - - Alabastrites, vi. 329, 330. - - Alabastritis, vi. 440. - - Alabastron, i. 417. - - Alabeta, i. 410. - - Alauda, iii. 43. - - Alba Longa, i. 198. - - Alban Mount, i. 205. - - Alban wine, iii. 240, 241; iv. 470. - - Albania, ii. 20, 124. - - Albertus Magnus quoted, ii. 255; vi. 361, 431. - - Albinos, ii. 124. - - Albion, i. 350. - - Albis, i. 348. - - Albucus, iv. 360. - - Albugo, iv. 222. - - Albula, i. 191, 236; v. 475. - - Alburnum, iii. 412. - - Alcæus, iv. 456. - - Alcala de Henares, i. 169. - - Alcamenes, vi. 168, 178, 310. - - Alcea, v. 224. - - Alcibiades, iii. 272; vi. 159, 186, 316. - - Alcibium, v. 230. - - Alcima, v. 202, 203. - - Alcippe, ii. 137. - - Alcman, death of, iii. 40. - - Alcmena, v. 298. - - Alcon, v. 379; vi. 206. - - Alcyonidium ficus, iii. 210, 211. - - Alder, v. 32. - - Alec, ii. 403. - - Alectoria, vi. 440. - - Alectoroslophos, v. 230, 231. - - Alex, v. 508, 509. - - Alexander the Great, =i.= 104, 225, 298, 419, 434, 447, 448, 465, - 469, 470, 476, 477, 485, 489, 490; =ii.= 27, 32, 33, 35, 48, - 51, 58, 59, 71, 72, 81, 173; =iii.= 128, 238, 239, 296; - =v.= 470; =vi.= 174, 175, 176, 258, 259, 264, 389 - —his letters, =ii.= 115 - —his edict as to his portraits, 184 - —his Indian expedition, 39, 40, 41, 360, 361; =iii.= 138, 211, 212; - =vi.= 27. - - Alexander, king of Epirus, i. 224, 225. - - Alexander, Cornelius, i. 270. - - Alexandria, i. 419 - —plan of, ii. 184 - —foundation of, iii. 186. - - Alexipharmacon, iv. 373. - - Alexis, vi. 168. - - Alga, iii. 209, 210. - - Alga rufa, v. 232. - - Alica, iv. 28, 41, 42, 43, 195, 443. - - Alicant, i. 164. - - Aliments, influence of, upon the disposition, iv. 435, 436. - - Alinda, i. 465. - - Alisma, v. 129, 130. - - Alites, ii. 495. - - Alkaline ashes, iv. 459, 460. - - Alkanet, iii. 162; iv. 355, 409; v. 238. - - Alkekengi, iv. 384. - - Alluvion, i. 117 - —of the Nile, iii. 186. - - Almaden, mines of, vi. 122. - - Almanacks, iii. 480. - - Almandine, vi. 420. - - Almonds, iii. 316, 317; iv. 512, 513. - - Aloe, v. 222, 223, 224. - - Alopecuros, iv. 357. - - Alopecy, remedies for, iv. 223; v. 408, 409, 534, 535; vi. 29. - - Alpheus, i. 281. - - Alphius, Lake, v. 475. - - Alps, nations of, i. 254 - —passes of, i. 247. - - Alsine, v. 224, 225. - - Altercangenum, v. 91. - - Althæa, iv. 286. - - Altinum, i. 249. - - Alum, ii. 435; vi. 295, 296. - - Alum (plants), iv. 176; v. 231. - - Alumen, vi. 294-298. - - Alunite, vi. 357. - - Alunogen, vi. 444. - - Aluntium, iii. 248. - - Alypon, v. 224. - - Alysson, v. 39. - - Amadue, vi. 360. - - Amalchian Sea, i. 341, 342. - - Amalthæa, v. 320. - - Amanus, i. 438, 447. - - Amaracinum, iii. 161. - - Amaracus, iv. 334, 335, 378, 379, 383. - - Amaranth, iv. 327. - - Amardi, ii. 34. - - Amasia, ii. 6. - - Amasis, King, i. 416; iv. 134; vi. 295. - - Amastris, ii. 4. - - Amazons, i. 468, 470; ii. 15, 23, 24. - - Amber, i. 266, 344, 351, 352; vi. 397-404. - - Ambracia, vi. 252. - - Ambracian Gulf, i. 273. - - Ambrosia, v. 106, 107, 226, 236. - - Ambrysus, i. 277. - - Ambula, iv. 234. - - Ameria, i. 238, 241 - —brooms of, v. 29 - —willow of, v. 26. - - Amethyst, vi. 433. - - Amethystine tint, ii. 449. - - Amethystos, vi. 432, 433, 434. - - Amia, ii. 386. - - Amianthus, vi. 360, 444. - - Aminean grape, iii. 322, 323. - - Amisius, i. 348. - - Amisus, ii. 5. - - Ammi, iv. 263, 264. - - Ammianus Marcellinus quoted, i. 422; ii. 73. - - Ammoniac gum, iii. 144, 145; v. 11. - - Ammonites, vi. 451. - - Amometus, ii. 115. - - Amomis, iii. 123. - - Amomum, iii. 122. - - Amorgos, i. 322. - - Ampelitis, vi. 299. - - Ampeloleuce, iv. 466, 467. - - Ampelome, ii. 89. - - Ampeloprason, v. 55. - - Ampelos agria, v. 232. - - Ampelos Chironia, v. 91. - - Ampelusia, i. 374. - - Amphidanes, vi. 442. - - Amphilochus of Athens, ii. 356. - - Amphimalla, ii. 335. - - Amphion, ii. 231; vi. 318, 319. - - Amphipolis, i. 301, 302; ii. 488. - - Amphisbæna, ii. 285; v. 463. - - Amphissa, i. 277. - - Amphistratus, vi. 320. - - Amphitheatre, of Curio, vi. 350, 351, 352 - —of Nero, iii. 419. - - Amphitheatre, awnings for, iv. 139. - - Amphitus, ii. 12. - - Amphora, vi. 396. - - Ampsaga, i. 387. - - Amulets. _See_ “Magic.” - - Amurca of olives, iii. 280, 281, 286; iv. 486, 487. - - Amyclæ, i. 194, 283. - - Amygdalinum, iii. 288, 289. - - Amygdalites, v. 180. - - Amylum, iv. 29, 30, 446. - - Amyris, iii. 129, 138. - - Anabasis, v. 166, 203, 204. - - Anacampseros, v. 67. - - Anacreon, his death, ii. 142 - —mentioned, ii. 242 - —quoted, ii. 200. - - Anactoria, i. 273. - - Anagallis, v. 136, 137, 138. - - Anagyros, v. 226, 227. - - Anaitis, vi. 106. - - Ananchites, vi. 408. - - Anancitis, vi. 461. - - Anaphe, i. 323. - - Anarrhinon, v. 131. - - Anataria, ii. 482. - - Anatomy, ignorance of, v. 277. - - Anaxagoras, i. 88, 89. - - Anaxapolis, ii. 356. - - Anaxarchus, his fortitude, ii. 164. - - Anaxilaüs, iv. 205; vi. 202. - - Anaxilaüs of Larissa, iv. 387. - - Anaximander, i. 26, 112, 149, 372. - - Anaximenes, i. 109; iii. 157. - - Anazarbus, i. 149. - - Ancæus, vi. 261, 262, 278. - - Anchiale, i. 447. - - Anchialum, i. 306. - - Anchors, invention of, ii. 235. - - Anchusa, iv. 355, 409; v. 238 - - Ancona, i. 236, 237. - - Ancus Martius, v. 487, 506. - - Ancyra, i. 491, 492. - - Andaræ, ii. 45. - - Andrachle, iii. 204; v. 144, 145. - - Andrachne, iii. 204. - - Andreas, iv. 302. - - Androbius, vi. 278. - - Androclus and the Lion, ii. 271. - - Androcydes, his letter to Alexander, iii. 288. - - Androdamas, vi. 363, 440. - - Androgyni, ii. 126, 136. - - Andromeda, i. 426, 479; ii. 99, 364 - —the dwarf, ii. 157. - - Andropogon, iii. 144. - - Andros, i. 318. - - Androsaces, v. 225. - - Androsæmon, v. 225, 226. - - Androtion, ii. 357. - - Anemone, iv. 336, 379. - - Angel-fish, ii. 380. - - Anger, iii. 80. - - Angerona, i. 202. - - Angora, i. 492. - - Animals, the largest, in India, =ii.= 129 - —wild, their instinct, 248 - —their supposed dread of man, 249 - —medical remedies first indicated by, 291-294 - —prognostics of danger derived from, 294, 295 - —nations exterminated by, 295 - —in a half-wild state, 346 - —that are partly tamed only, 350 - —places where certain, are not found, 352, 353 - —which injure strangers only, 353, 354 - —which injure the natives only, 354 - —the largest found in the sea, 358 - —oviparous, 532 - —terrestrial, that are oviparous, 540 - —terrestrial, the generation of, 540-544 - —position of, in the uterus, 544 - —the origin of which is unknown, 544 - —born of beings that are not born themselves, 546 - —born themselves but not reproductive, 546 - —that are of neither sex, 546 - —the senses of, 546, 547 - —the feeding of, 548 - —that live on poisons, 548 - —the drinking of, 550 - —the antipathies of, 550, 551 - —the friendships of, 551, 552 - —the sleep of, 552, 553 - —certain, subject to dreams, 553 - —that are found in fire, =iii.= 42 - —that live for a day only, 42 - —characteristics of, limb by limb, 43 - —horns of, 44, 45, 46 - —that have no eyelids, 54, 55 - —that have not teeth on each side of the mouth, 56 - —that have hollow teeth, 56 - —their age estimated from their teeth, 60 - —in which the neck is rigid, 63 - —which have the largest heart, 65 - —that have two hearts, 65 - —which have the largest lungs, 67 - —which have the smallest lungs, 67 - —that are destitute of gall, 68 - —that have no belly, 71 - —the only ones that vomit, 71 - —that have no kidneys, 73 - —that have no bladder, 74 - —that have suet, 76 - —that have marrow, 76 - —that have no bones, 77 - —that have no nerves, 77, 78 - —that have no arteries or veins, 78 - —the blood of which coagulates, 78 - —the blood of which does not coagulate, 79 - —of which the blood is thickest, 79 - —of which the blood is thinnest, 79 - —that are destitute of blood at certain times, 79, 80 - —the feet of, 91 - —the tails of, 92 - —the voices of, 92, 93 - —that feed upon poison, 98 - —their modes of defence, =iv.= 2 - —none that are odoriferous, 323 - —superstitious usages relative to, =v.= 366, 367 - —diseases of, =vi.= 57, 58. - - Anio, i. 234. - - Anise, iv. 271, 272, 273. - - Anna Perenna, vi. 262. - - Anonis, iv. 355. - - Anonymos, v. 227. - - Antæus, the giant, i. 375. - - Antæus, the physician, iii. 157. - - Antandros, i. 475 - —fall of the baths at, iii. 426. - - Antaphrodisiacs, v. 189, 467, 468—vi. 57. - - Antelope, iii. 44. - - Antelope oryx, ii. 346. - - Antemnæ, i. 205. - - Antenor, i. 252. - - Anteros, vi. 434. - - Anthalium, iv. 348, 349, 383. - - Anthedon, i. 425. - - Anthemis, iv. 338, 411, 412; v. 186. - - Anthelmintics, v. 246. - - Anthericos, iv. 360. - - Anthias, the fish, how taken, iv. 273, 274. - - Anthophoros, v. 35. - - Anthracites, vi. 364. - - Anthracitis, vi. 423, 460. - - Anthriscum, iv. 423. - - Anthropophagi, i. 335; ii. 36, 104, 124. - - Anthus, ii. 522, 551. - - Anthyllis, v. 184. - - Anthyllium, iv. 383; v. 184. - - Antias, i. 148. - - Antibes, i. 178. - - Anticlides, i. 373. - - Anticyra, i. 277—v. 98. - - Anticyricon, iv. 444, 445. - - Antidote, universal, iv. 299, 300. - - Antidotus, vi. 275. - - Antigenes, i. 499. - - Antigonus, vi. 145. - - Antigonus of Cymæ, ii. 356. - - Antilibanus, i. 435. - - Antimony, vi. 115, 116. - - Antiochia, i. 437, 444. - - Antiochus, ii. 146; iv. 300; v. 372; - —the marvellous cure of, ii. 182. - - Antipater, Cælius, i. 147. - - Antipater of Sidon, ii. 209. - - Antipater of Tarsus, ii. 355. - - Antipathes (the stone), vi. 442. - - Antipathies, and sympathies between aquatic animals, ii. 475, 476 - —of animals, ii. 550, 551. - - Antipathy, iv. 206, 217, 237, 375; v. 1, 2; vi. 12, 13, 50, 51, - 407, 442. - - Antiphilus, vi. 269, 278. - - Antipodes, i. 94 to 97. - - Antipolis, i. 178. - - Antiquity of the art of Painting, vi. 228, 229, 230. - - Antirrhinum, v. 131. - - Antirrhium, i. 275. - - Antium, i. 193. - - Antispodium, vi. 203, 204. - - Antonia, who never expectorated, ii. 160. - - Antonines, the, i. 179. - - Antony, Marc, i. 242, 439, 440; iv. 309, 310; vi. 2, 92, 178, 180, 416 - —harnesses lions, ii. 270 - —his inebriety, iii. 273. - - Ants, venomous, =ii.= 295 - —description of, =iii.= 37, 38 - —their reproduction, 37 - —their habits, 38 - —winged, 38 - —gigantic size of those of India, 38 - —excavate gold, 39; =vi.= 99, 442, 443. - - Anubis, i. 418; vi. 128. - - Anularian white, vi. 244. - - Aornos, i. 271. - - Aorsi, ii. 32. - - Aosta, i. 247. - - Apamea, i. 479; ii. 78 - —wine of, iii. 246. - - Apamia, i. 444. - - Aparine, v. 227, 228. - - Ἀπαθεῖς, ii. 160. - - Apatite, vi. 327. - - Apes, =ii.= 95, 100, 132 - —white, 281 - —described, 347 - —their shrewdness, 347 - —how taken, 347 - —affection for their young, 347 - —their teeth, =iii.= 58 - —their resemblance to man, 86, 87. - - Apeliotes, i. 73; iv. 116. - - Apellas, vi. 185. - - Apelles, artist, ii. 184; vi. 245, 256 to 263, 303. - - Apelles, physician, v. 369. - - Apennines, i. 186. - - Aphaca, v. 230. - - Aphace, iv. 349, 350. - - Apharce, iii. 204. - - Aphides, iii. 179. - - Aphrodisiaca, vi. 443. - - Aphrodisiacs, iv. 252; v. 189, 365, 366, 467, 468; vi. 57. - - Aphrodisius, the river, v. 475. - - Aphrodite, i. 481; ii. 14. - - Aphronitram, v. 515. - - Aphua, v. 508. - - Apiana, iii. 224. - - Apiastrum, iv. 247. - - Apiatæ, iii. 196. - - Apicius, M., the epicure, ii. 344, 403; iv. 185. - - Apidanus, i. 295. - - Apiolæ, i. 207. - - Apion, i. 8; v. 470. - - Apios ischias, v. 180, 181. - - Apis (the city), i. 402 - —the Egyptian deity, ii. 330, 331. - - Apocynum, v. 40. - - Apodes, ii. 521; iii. 90. - - Apographon, vi. 273. - - Apolecti, ii. 386. - - Apollinaris, v. 91. - - Apollo, i. 462, 473, 475. - - Apollobeches, v. 424. - - Apollodorus, i. 371; ii. 182; iii. 100, 247; iv. 301; vi. 145, 185. - - Apollodorus of Lemnos, ii. 356. - - Apollonia, i. 226, 338, 396. - - Apollonides, ii. 241. - - Apollonius of Pergamus, ii. 356. - - Apollonius Mus, v. 368. - - Apollonius of Pitanæ, v. 420. - - Apollonius Tyanæus, ii. 6, 7. - - Apothecæ, iii. 254, 263. - - Appendix, v. 46. - - Appî Forum, i. 201. - - Appiades, vi. 318. - - Appianum, vi. 243, 244. - - Appius Claudius, vi. 227. - - Apple of the earth, v. 116, 117. - - Apples, iii. 298, 299, 302, 303; iv. 496, 497 - —smell of, ii. 132. - - Apronia, iv. 468. - - Aproxis, v. 63. - - Aps, i. 254. - - Apsides, i. 42. - - Apsinthe, iii. 259. - - Apsyctos, vi. 443. - - Apua, v. 508. - - Apuleius quoted, i. 122; v. 158; vi. 175. - - Apulia, i. 225, 227. - - Apuscidanus, Lake, v. 479. - - Apyrenum, iii. 200. - - Aqua Marcia, vi. 353. - - Aqua Tepula, vi. 353. - - Aquamarine, vi. 414. - - Aquatic animals, distribution of, into species, =ii.= 379, 380 - —their parturitions, 380, 381 - —their antipathies and sympathies, 475, 476 - —prognostics derived from, =iv.= 123, 124. - - Aqueducts, v. 487, 488 - —at Rome, vi. 352, 353, 354. - - Aquifolia, v. 45, 47, 239. - - Aquila, i. 148. - - Aquileia, i. 209. - - Aquilius, vi. 92. - - Aquilo, i. 74, 77; iv. 115. - - Aquitanica described, i. 357. - - Arabia, described, i. 422—ii. 82 - —its spices, iii. 123 - —Roman expedition against, 125 - —why called “Happy,” 136, 137 - —its perfumes, 138 - —its rivers, vi. 5. - - Arabian Gulf, ii. 66. - - Arabian stone, vi. 365, 366. - - Arabian thorn, v. 43. - - Arabica, vi. 442. - - Arabis, ii. 134, 360. - - Arabs, ii. 90, 91. - - Arachidna, iv. 349. - - Arachne, i. 472—ii. 224. - - Arachosia, ii. 50, 57. - - Aracos, iv. 349. - - Aracynthus, i. 276. - - Arados, i. 479. - - Aral, Sea of, ii. 32. - - Araneus, vi. 61. - - Arar, i. 175. - - Aratus, iv. 128. - - Arausio, i. 178. - - Araxes, ii. 18. - - Araxus, i. 311. - - Arbalo, victory at, iii. 19. - - Arbela, i. 104; ii. 27, 71. - - Arbute-tree, iii. 320, 321. - - Arbutus, iii. 320; iv. 516. - - Arcadia, described, i. 285 - —asses of, ii. 323 - —wines of, iii. 262 - —its simples, v. 116. - - Arcesilas, vi. 281. - - Arcesilaüs, vi. 285, 322. - - Archagathus, v. 375. - - Archebion, iv. 410, 411. - - Archelaüs, king, ii. 357. - - Archelaüs, the poet, v. 368. - - Archezostis, iv. 466, 467. - - Archibius, iv. 128. - - Archidemus, iii. 158. - - Archilochus, ii. 174. - - Archimachus, ii. 243. - - Archimedes, i. 149; ii. 183. - - Architecture, the orders of, vi. 374, 375. - - Archytas, ii. 356. - - Arcion, v. 124, 164. - - Arconnesus, i. 484. - - Arction, v. 228. - - Arcturum, v. 228. - - Arcturus, iv. 107. - - Ardea, i. 193 - —paintings at, vi. 270. - - Areca catechu, v. 66. - - Areiopagus, ii. 227. - - Arelate, i. 178. - - Arellius, vi. 271. - - Arellius Fuscus, vi. 137. - - Arescon, ii. 138. - - Arescusa, ii. 138. - - Arethusa, i. 131, 217, 291, 317; v. 493. - - Arezzo, i. 189. - - Argæus, ii. 7. - - Arganthonius, ii. 200, 201. - - Argema, iv. 222. - - Argemo, v. 188. - - Argemone, iv. 379. - - Argemonia, v. 119, 120. - - Argentaria, iii. 454; vi. 301. - - Argentarii, iv. 307; vi. 232. - - Argentarium, vi. 214. - - Argilla, iii. 453. - - Arginussæ, i. 488. - - Argippæi, ii. 15. - - Argo, the ship, iii. 203. - - Argolis described, i. 284. - - Argonauts, i. 250; ii. 10. - - Argos, Amphilochian, i. 174 - —Hippian, i. 228, 284 - —Inachian or Dipsian, i. 284, 285. - - Argyrodamas, vi. 441. - - Argyrippa, i. 228. - - Argyritis, vi. 117. - - Aria, ii. 23. - - Ariadne, vi. 316. - - Ariana described, ii. 56, 58 - —trees of, iii. 115. - - Arianis, v. 65. - - Aricia, i. 142, 198. - - Ariena, iii. 110. - - Arii, ii. 50. - - Arimaspi, ii. 34, 123, 124, 336. - - Ariminum, i. 241. - - Arimphæi, ii. 15, 24. - - Arinca, iv. 31, 35, 441. - - Arion, the story of, ii. 374. - - Arisaros, v. 60. - - Arisbe, i. 487. - - Aristæus, the story of, iii. 23; iv. 344. - - Aristagoras, vi. 385. - - Aristander, ii. 357. - - Aristarchus of Sicyon, i. 499. - - Aristarete, vi. 281. - - Aristeas, ii. 211, 241. - - Aristides, (artist), vi. 168, 178, 255, 263, 264, 272. - - Aristides of Miletus, i. 372. - - Aristis, v. 250. - - Aristocreon, i. 499. - - Aristocritus, i. 378. - - Aristodemus, vi. 185. - - Aristogenes, v. 420. - - Aristogiton, vi. 155, 177, 179. - - Aristogiton, the author, iv. 272. - - Aristolaüs, vi. 277. - - Aristolochia, v. 116, 117, 118. - - Aristomachus, iii. 214. - - Aristomachus of Soli, iii. 100. - - Aristomenes, his heart covered with hair, iii. 66 - —his remarkable escape, 66. - - Aristophanes, the comic writer, quoted, iv. 319 - —his joke upon Euripides, 423. - - Aristophanes of Miletus, ii. 356. - - Ariston, vi. 139, 185, 268. - - Aristonidas, vi. 206, 281. - - Aristophon, vi. 278. - - Aristotle, his birth-place, i. 301 - —his enquiries into Natural History, by order of Alexander, ii. 265 - —quoted, i. 29, 57, 70, 73, 81, 90, 91, 112, 113, 128, 129, 135, - 318, 319, 485; ii. 146, 174; iii. 92, 96; v. 470; vi. 287. - - Aristratus, vi. 268. - - Arles, i. 178. - - Armenia described, ii. 17. - - Armenian bole, vi. 243. - - Armenium, vi. 243. - - Armenochalybes, ii. 9, 21. - - Armentarius, ii. 148. - - Armillæ, ii. 171. - - Arms, various, when first used, ii. 227, 228. - - Arms (of the body) described, iii. 86 - —peculiarities in, 86. - - Aromatic wines, iii. 258, 259. - - Aromatites, iii. 253, 258, 259. - - Aromatitis, vi. 442. - - Arcs, ii. 299, 300. - - Arosapes, ii. 58. - - Aroteres, i. 306. - - Arpinum, i. 199. - - Arraceni, ii. 88. - - Arrenogonon, v. 191. - - Arretium, i. 189. - - Arrhenicum, vi. 220, 221. - - Arrian, his autograph, vi. 336. - - Arrows, iii. 404 - —how poisoned, iii. 97, 98. - - Arrugiæ, vi. 101. - - Arruntius, i. 269. - - Arsenic, vi. 220, 221. - - Arsenogonon, v. 213, 214. - - Arsinoë, vi. 427 - —city of, i. 396; ii. 93 - —temple of, vi. 209. - - Arsinoïtes, i. 409. - - Artabrum, i. 363. - - Artacoana, ii. 58. - - Artaphernes, vi. 248. - - Artaxata, ii. 19. - - Artemidorus, i. 150. - - Artemis, i. 463, 468, 473. - - Artemisia (plant), v. 106, 226, 236. - - Artemisia (queen), v. 106; vi. 316, 317. - - Artemisium, i. 317. - - Artemita, i. 274; ii. 71. - - Artemon (the artist), vi. 278. - - Artemon (the writer), v. 368. - - Artemon, his resemblance to Antiochus, ii. 146. - - Arteriace, iv. 279, 509, 510, 511. - - Arterial pulsation, iii. 78. - - Arteries, iii. 78. - - Artery, tracheal, iii. 62. - - Articulation, ii. 155; iii. 62. - - Artichoke, iv. 190, 299, 353. - - Artificial wines, iii. 256-260; iv. 477, 478. - - Artists in silver, vi. 138, 139, 140. - - Artolaganus, iv. 39. - - Arts, persons who have excelled in the, ii. 182, 183. - - Arum, iv. 169; v. 57, 58, 59. - - Aruspices, iii 69, 336. - - Arval priesthood, iv. 3. - - As, vi. 149. - - Asafœtida, iv. 144, 146, 432. - - Asana, i. 381. - - Asarotos Œcos, vi. 376, 377. - - Asarubas, vi. 467. - - Asarum, iii. 121, 122; iv. 319, 369. - - Asbestus, iv. 136, 137; vi. 360, 442. - - Ascalabotes, v. 403. - - Ascalon, i. 425. - - Ascitæ, ii. 97. - - Asclepias, v. 229. - - Asclepiades, ii. 183, 242 - —his medical practice, v. 156, 157, 158. - - Asclepiades of Thrace, ii. 242. - - Asclepiodorus, vi. 267, 303. - - Asconius Pedianus, ii. 240. - - Asculum, i. 236. - - Ascyroïdes, v. 229, 230. - - Ascyron, v. 225, 226, 229, 230. - - Aselli, iv. 121. - - Asellus, ii. 396, 399. - - Ash (tree), iii. 365, 366; v. 21. - - Ashdod, i. 425. - - Ashes, vi. 283, 284 - —used in agriculture, iii. 455, 456. - - Asia, islands of, i. 479 - —trees of, iii. 201. - - Asio, ii. 504. - - Asisium, i. 238. - - Asmagi, ii. 47. - - Asp, ii. 285, 286, 552; v. 394. - - Aspalathos, iii. 146, 147; v. 45. - - Asparagus, iv. 188, 189, 190, 245, 350, 405. - - Aspendum, i. 452. - - Asperugo, v. 193. - - Asphalt, vi. 293. - - Asphaltites, Lake, i. 132, 429; ii. 152. - - Asphodel, i. 276; iv. 359, 360, 417, 418. - - Aspisatis, vi. 442. - - Asplenon, v. 228, 229. - - Asprenas, vi. 288. - - Asprenates, v. 443. - - Ass, =v.= 116 - —wild, =ii.= 263, 297 - —its generation, 322, 323 - —best varieties of, 323 - —its habits, 324 - —its value, 324 - —eaten as food, 324 - —Indian, =iii.= 46 - —its bones used for flutes, 77 - —its milk, =v.= 340 - —baths of its milk, iii. 84. - - Assabinus, the god, iii. 128, 139. - - Assyria, i. 424. - - Assisi, i. 238. - - Astaceni, i. 139. - - Astaci, ii. 424. - - Astaphis, iv. 463, 464 - —agria, iv. 464, 465. - - Astapus, i. 411. - - Astarte, v. 485; vi. 9. - - Aster, v. 229. - - Astercum, iv. 407. - - Asteria, vi. 437. - - Asthma, remedies for, v. 344. - - Astobores, i. 411. - - Astomi, ii. 131. - - Astorga, i. 172. - - Astosapes, i. 411. - - Astragalizontes, vi. 172. - - Astragals, vi. 375. - - Astragalus, v. 170, 171. - - Astragus, ii. 184. - - Astrapæa, vi. 460. - - Astrion, vi. 437. - - Astriotes, vi. 437. - - Astrobolos, vi. 438. - - Astrology, i. 25 - —invention of, ii. 230. - - Astromancy, v. 427. - - Astura, i. 193. - - Asturcones, ii. 322. - - Asturia, i. 214. - - Astynomus, i. 373. - - Astypalæa, i. 323. - - Asyla, v. 137. - - Atabulus, the wind, iii. 523. - - Ateius, L., i. 269. - - Ateius Prætextatus, i. 370. - - Atergatis, i. 426, 439. - - Aternus, i. 231. - - Ateste, i. 252. - - Athamanes, i. 275. - - Athamantium, iv. 295, 296. - - Athanatus, ii. 161. - - Athenæus quoted, i. 447. - - Athenion, vi. 276. - - Athenis, vi. 308. - - Athenodorus, vi. 320. - - Athens, i. 289. - - Athletes, iv. 504. - - Athletic exercises, iii. 271. - - Athos, i. 300, 324 - —inhabitants of, ii. 132. - - Atina, i. 232. - - Atinas, C. Pompeius, iv. 394. - - Atinum, i. 230. - - Atizoë, vi. 442. - - Atlantes, i. 405. - - Atlantic Ocean, i. 210 - —islands of, i. 367. - - Atlantis, i. 120; ii. 106. - - Atlas, Mount, described, i. 377, 378, 381, 382, 383 - —trees of, iii. 194. - - Atomic theory of Plato, iv. 436. - - Atractylis, iv. 350, 353. - - Atramentum, v. 2, 3; vi. 240, 241, 242. - - Atramentum sutorium, vi. 200, 201, 202. - - Atramitæ, ii. 87; iii. 124. - - Atrebates, i. 354. - - Atria, i. 245. - - Atriplex, iv. 282, 283. - - Atropatene, ii. 27. - - Attacori, i. 337; ii. 37. - - Attagen, ii. 528, 529. - - Attagenæ, ii. 353. - - Attalic vestments, ii. 337. - - Attalus, king, ii. 356; vi. 136, 145, 264. - - Attelebi, v. 403. - - Attica described, i. 288. - - Atticus, Julius, iii. 275. - - Atticus, Pomponius, i. 273; ii. 240; vi. 226. - - Attilus, ii. 383. - - Attius, L., iv. 126. - - Attus, Navius, iii. 310, 311; vi. 157. - - Auchetæ, i. 335. - - Aufidius, M., vi. 228. - - Augetis, vi. 402. - - Augury, ii. 294, 487, 493, 494, 495 - —from fish, ii. 391 - —from eggs, ii. 535. - - Augustus, the Emperor, i. 58, 61, 184, 198, 256, 274; ii. 82, 237; - iii. 68, 69, 342; iv. 51, 181, 182, 395; v. 108; vi. 106, 233, - 262, 387, 389 - —an author, i. 268 - —his union with Livia unprolific, ii. 149 - —his misfortunes, ii. 195 - —the colour of his eyes, iii. 51 - —his temple, iii. 140 - —his taste in wines, iii. 244, 245. - - Augustite, vi. 327. - - Augylæ, i. 392, 393, 405. - - Aulocrenæ, i. 461. - - Aulon, i. 281. - - Aulus Gellius quoted, i. 110. - - Aurata, ii. 397. - - Aurelian, the Emperor, i. 445. - - Aurelius, Marcus, iv. 515. - - Aurichalcum, vi. 148, 435. - - Auripigmentum, vi. 104, 105. - - Aurora Borealis, i. 60, 63. - - Ausones, i. 222. - - Auster, i. 73. - - Autololes, i. 379, 384. - - Autolycus, vi. 182. - - Autumn, iv. 107, 108. - - Aventurine, vi. 423, 459. - - Avernus, Lake, i. 196; v. 479. - - Avianius Evander, vi. 317. - - Aviaries, the inventor of, ii. 531. - - Awnings for theatres, iv. 138, 139. - - Axenus, i. 326; ii. 1. - - Axinomancy, v. 427; vi. 362. - - Axis, the wild beast, ii. 280, 281. - - Axungia, v. 324. - - Azanian Sea, ii. 67, 95. - - Azotus, i. 425. - - - B. - - Babba, i. 376. - - Babel, tower of, i. 444. - - Baboon, ii. 135, 348. - - Babylon, ii. 72; vi. 294. - - Babylonia, fertility of, iv. 59, 61. - - Babylonian vestments, ii. 337, 338. - - Babylonians, their astronomical observations, ii. 221. - - Babytace, ii. 79. - - Bacca, iii. 319, 320. - - Bacchar, iii. 121; iv. 318, 319, 368, 369. - - Bacchiadæ, vi. 283. - - Bacchius of Miletus, ii. 357. - - Bacchus, ii. 399 - —his birth, ii. 50 - —origin of the name, ii. 219. - - Bacchus (fish), vi. 33. - - Bactra, ii. 32, 30. - - Bactriana, v. 500, 501; - trees of, iii. 116. - - Bactrus, ii. 32. - - Badger, ii. 310. - - Bætica, i. 154. - - Bætis, i. 157. - - Bæton, i. 498. - - Bætyli, vi. 438. - - Bagoüs, an eunuch, iii. 174. - - Bagrada, i. 389; ii. 261. - - Bahr-el-Abied, i. 411. - - Baiæ, i. 196; v. 472. - - Bakers, when first introduced at Rome, iv. 40, 41. - - Balæna, ii. 359, 361, 365, 368, 369. - - Balaklava, i. 334. - - Balani, iii. 177. - - Balanites, vi. 443. - - Balanus, iii. 182; vi. 61 - —oil of, iii. 162. - - Balas ruby, vi. 421. - - Balaustium, iv. 500, 501. - - Balbus, Cornelius, i. 399, 400; ii. 190; vi. 329. - - Balbusard, ii. 482. - - Baldness, natural, iii. 47. - - Balearic Islands, described, i. 211 - —infested with hares, ii. 349 - —wines of, iii. 244. - - Balista, first used, ii. 228. - - Balkh, ii. 30. - - Ball, game of, ii. 232. - - Ballis, v. 82. - - Ballotes, v. 236. - - Balm, of Gilead, iii. 147, 396 - —of Mecca, iii. 147; iv. 492. - - Balsamodes, iii. 141. - - Balsamum, iii. 147; 151, 396. - - Baltia, i. 342. - - Baltic, islands of the, i. 341. - - Bamberg MS. of the text of Pliny, vi. 1, 190, 465, 466. - - Bambos arundinacea, ii. 129. - - Bambotus, i. 380. - - Bambyx, i. 439. - - Banasa, i. 377. - - Bandoline, v. 20. - - Bankers, iv. 307. - - Banquets in trees, iii. 105. - - Banquetting-couches, ii. 448. - - Bantams, ii. 536. - - Banyan tree, ii. 129; iii. 109, 110. - - Baobab tree, iii. 429. - - Baptes, vi. 443. - - Barbers, early employment of, ii. 236. - - Barberry, v. 46. - - Barcelona, i. 167. - - Barcino, i. 167. - - Bargyla, i. 463. - - Barippe, vi. 443. - - Bark of trees, ii. 117, 354, 355, 393. - - Barley, iv. 27, 28, 30, 31, 445, 446. - - Baroptenus, vi. 443. - - Barrenness, ii. 149. - - Barter, vi. 71. - - Basanite, vi. 125, 328. - - Basil, iv. 249, 250. - - Basilia, i. 342; vi. 408. - - Basilica, vi. 227, 346. - - Basilis, ii. 116. - - Basilisk, ii. 282, 394. - - Bassus, Calpurnius, iii. 437. - - Bassus, Julius, iv. 304. - - Bassus, Q. Lecanius, v. 154. - - Bastard, asarum, v. 35 - —dittany, v. 172 - —saffron, iv. 350. - - Basternæ, i. 330, 348. - - Bat, ii. 540; v. 400 - —used as a countercharm, v. 400. - - Batavi, i. 355. - - Bath-room, sprinkled with unguents, iii. 168. - - Baths at Rome, vi. 353, 354. - - Batia, vi. 33. - - Batis, iv. 347, 382. - - Baton, vi. 187. - - Batrachion, v. 148, 149, 150, 258. - - Batrachitis, vi. 443. - - Batrachus, vi. 61, 322. - - Battering-ram, ii. 229. - - Battles, the first, ii. 227. - - Bauli, i. 196. - - Bdellium, iii. 116. - - Beaks of ships, ii. 235. - - Beans, iv. 44, 45, 57, 447, 448. - - Bears, and their cubs, ii. 305, 306, 307 - —in the Circus, ii. 307 - —have the hardest skulls, iii. 47 - —their genitals, iii. 92. - - Bears’-grease, iv. 366; v. 334 - —used for the hair, ii. 306. - - Beaver, ii. 297, 298—vi. 13, 14, 416. - - Bebriacum, ii. 529. - - Bebryces, i. 478. - - Bechion, v. 164. - - Beckmann’s “History of Inventions” quoted, =iii.= 354; =iv.= 33, 37; - =v.= 38, 39, 109, 193, 264, 323, 342, 486, 487, 502, 504, 506, - 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 519; =vi.= 4, 5, 32, 97, 98, 99, 108, - 109, 111, 114, 124, 141, 142, 143, 147, 189, 191, 195, 198, 200, - 207, 208, 212, 213, 214, 218, 238, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 295, - 301, 330, 357, 369, 370, 375, 379, 380, 381, 382, 398, 409, 410, - 420, 422, 424, 425, 430, 432, 463. - - Bedeguar, iv. 366; v. 48, 84. - - Bedouins, ii. 86. - - Bedrooms, quinces hung up in, iii. 293 - —plants in, iv. 259. - - Bee-bread, iv. 434. - - Beech, iii. 346, 355; v. 7. - - Bee-eater, ii. 516. - - Bee-glue, iii. 6. - - Beehives, iv. 344. - - Beer, iii. 256, 274; iv. 26, 456. - - Bees, =iii.= 5 - —their works, 5-6 - —honey, 10, 11, 12, 13 - —their wax, 6, 7 - —their fondness for the olive, 7 - —not injurious to trees, 7 - —persons who have made them their study, 8 - —their mode of working, 8-14 - —their habits, 15, 16 - —reproduction of, 16, 17; iv. 344 - —swarming of, =iii.= 17, 18, 19 - —their government, 18 - —omens afforded by, 19 - —various kinds of, 20 - —the king-bee, 10, 16-21 - —their sting, 20; iv. 343 - —their aversions, =iii.= 21 - —what creatures are hostile to them, 21 - —their diseases, 21, 22; iv. 340 - —things that are noxious to them, =iii.= 22 - —olive oil fatal to them, 22 - —how to keep them to the hive, 23 - —how to renew the swarm, 23, 24 - —plants for, =iv.= 339, 340 - —their food, 340, 341 - —their hives, 344 - —influence of hunger upon them, 345. - - Beet, iv. 183, 184, 232, 233. - - Beetles, iii. 33; v. 418, 419, 436. - - Behen nut, or ben, iii. 142, 143, 182, 327, 495. - - Belemnites, vi. 398, 452. - - Beli oculus, vi. 443. - - Belladonna, v. 137. - - Bellerophon, ii. 229; iii. 193. - - Bellio, iv. 328. - - Bellis, v. 162. - - Bells, i. 198. - - Belly, iii. 71, 72 - —animals with none, iii. 71 - —diseases of the, v. 169, 170. - - Belluno, i. 252. - - Belone, ii. 466; vi. 61. - - Belunum, i. 252. - - Belus (the divinity), ii. 72. - - Belus (the river), vi. 379. - - Belus (the stone), vi. 443. - - Beneventum, i. 229. - - Berecynthus, i. 164. - - Berenice (city), i. 396; ii. 94. - - Berenice (queen), vi. 427. - - Berenice’s Hair, i. 103. - - Bergamo, i. 248. - - Bergamum, i. 248. - - Berkeley, Bishop, his “Siris,” v. 18. - - Berœa, i. 440. - - Berosus, ii. 182, 242. - - Berry fruits, iii. 319-322. - - Beryls, vi. 414, 415. - - Berytus, i. 435. - - Bestia, Calpurnius, how he slew his wives, v. 218. - - Betel, iii. 153. - - Beterræ, wines of, iii. 242. - - Bethleptephene, i. 428. - - Beth-shan, i. 432. - - Betony, v. 111, 112. - - Bevagna, i. 239. - - Beyrout, i. 435. - - Bezoar stones, v. 349. - - Bibraga, ii. 51. - - Biestings, iii. 83; v. 320. - - Bilbilis, vi. 208. - - Bildulgerid, i. 399. - - Bion of Soli, ii. 115; v. 369. - - Bion (wine), iii. 247; iv. 478. - - Birch, bitumen from, iii. 371. - - Birdlime, iii. 435. - - Birds, of Æthiopia and India, =ii.= 479, 480 - —classified according to their feet, 490 - —of ill omen, 491, 492 - —extinct, 492, 493 - —born with the tail first, 493 - —with hooked talons, 495 - —ominous, 495, 509 - —migration of, 503-506 - —flight of, 504-506 - —places where certain are never found, 507, 508 - —which change their colour and voice, 509 - —incubation of, 512 - —aquatic, 513 - —construction of their nests, 513, 514 - —flight of, 520 - —food of, 521, 522 - —instinct of, 522 - —which speak, 522-525 - —their mode of drinking, 527 - —their food, 527 - —foreign kinds, 528 - —fabulous, 530 - —language of, 530—v. 397 - —the generation of, =ii.= 532-538 - —when they lay, and how many eggs, 537 - —why they peck at the eyes, =iii.= 53 - —feet of, 90 - —singing of, 94 - —prognostics from, iv. 124 - —remedies derived from, v. 400. - _See also_ “Singing of birds.” - - Births, marvellous, ii. 134-138 - —monstrous, 142, 144. - - Birthwort, v. 117. - - Bison, ii. 262. - - Bithus, v. 368. - - Bithynia described, i. 493. - - Bitonto, i. 230. - - Bitumen, ii. 152; iii. 364; vi. 293, 294 - —of Judæa, v. 222, 305. - - Bituriges, i. 359. - - Biuri, v. 469. - - Bizya, i. 307. - - Bladder, iii. 74 - —animals destitute of, 74 - —diseases of the, v. 182, 183, 443, 444; vi. 41, 42. - - Blachnon, v. 245, 246. - - Blackberries, iii. 411; v. 47, 49. - - Blackbird, ii. 509 - —white, 512. - - Black Forest, i. 328. - - Black marble, vi. 325. - - Black stones, vi. 358. - - Black vine, iv. 468. - - Blasting winds, i. 80. - - Blattaria, v. 122. - - Blechnon, iv. 261. - - Blemmyæ, i. 405. - - Blendius, vi. 43. - - Blinding of birds, v. 414. - - Blindness, iii. 53. - - Blindworm, ii. 466. - - Blite, iv. 295. - - Blood, =iii.= 65, 78; =v.= 328 - —of insects, =ii.= 3 - —human, =v.= 292 - —remedies from, 276 - —discharges of, periodically, =iii.= 79 - —which is the thickest, 79 - —which is the thinnest, 79 - —other properties of it, 79 - —whether it is the principle of life, 80 - —baths of, 155 - —spitting of, remedies for, v. 438, 439. - - Bloodless fish, ii. 416. - - Blood-letting, v. 319; vi. 50. - - Blood-red shrub, v. 31. - - Bloodstone, vi. 448, 450. - - Blossoming of flowers, iv. 336, 337 - —of trees, iii. 380-384. - - Blossoms of plants, iv. 170, 171. - - Blue, staining the body, iv. 390. - - Blue-bell, iv. 328. - - Blushing, iii. 80. - - Boa (serpent), ii. 262. - - Boa (disease), v. 24, 199. - - Boarfish, iii. 94. - - Boats, various kinds of, the invention of, ii. 234. - - Boca, vi. 61. - - Bocchus, Cornelius, iii. 437. - - Bodies that have the nature of animal and vegetable combined, ii. 453. - - Bodincus, i. 246. - - Body, gigantic, discovered, ii. 156 - —remarkable properties of the, 158, 159 - —parts to which certain religious ideas are attached, iii. 88 - —maladies which attack the whole of the, v. 194 - —evils which affect the whole of the, 448, 449. - - Bœbeïs, i. 295. - - Bœdas, vi. 176, 179. - - Bœotia, described, i. 290. - - Boëthus, vi. 139, 184. - - Bœus, ii. 555. - - Boii, i. 243, 356. - - Boils, remedies for, v. 200, 357, 457. - - Bokhara, ii. 31. - - Boleti, iv. 429. - - Bolites, iv. 381. - - Bologna, i. 241. - - Bologna stone, vi. 447. - - Bolos, vi. 444. - - Bolters, iv. 41. - - Βομβύκια, v. 273. - - Bombylis, iii. 25. - - Bombyx of Assyria, iii. 25. - - Bona Dea, rites of, ii. 536. - - Bonasus, ii. 264. - - Bones, iii. 77 - —gigantic, ii. 156 - —solid, 159, 160 - —of the head, iii. 47 - —broken, remedies for, v. 354, 460, 461. - - Bonomi’s “Nineveh,” referred to, v. 47. - - Bononia, i. 241. - - Bonus Eventus, vi. 181. - - Books, of Numa, discovered, iii. 192 - —burnt, 192 - —seasoning of, v. 8. - - Boomerang, ii. 253 - —possible allusion to, v. 47. - - Bootskopf, ii. 364, 365. - - Borage, v. 109 - —still used in certain beverages, v. 109. - - Boreas, i. 74. - - Borion, i. 394. - - Borysthenes, i. 331. - - Bosporus, i. 306, 326, 495; ii. 2. - - Bostock, Dr. i. vi (in the Preface); vi. 68, 147. - - Bostrychitis, vi. 444, 461. - - Botany, introduction of, ii. 224. - - Botryitis, vi. 444. - - Botrys, iii. 214; v. 106, 107, 226, 236. - - Bong, i. 332. - - Boulogne, i. 350. - - Bovillæ, i. 199. - - Bowels, remedies for pains in the, v. 181 - —remedies for maladies in the, v. 346, 347, 348, 442, 443; vi. 39. - - Bowstrings, made of the genitals of the camel, iii. 92. - - Box-tree, iii. 368, 369, 390, 391. - - Box-wood, ii. 4. - - Brabyla, v. 236. - - Brace (malting wheat), iv. 24. - - Brachmanæ, ii. 42. - - Braga, i. 165. - - Brahma, temple of, vi. 406. - - Brahmins, ii. 42, 44. - - Brain, of man, iii. 47 - —and other animals, iii. 48 - —palpitation of the, 48. - - Bramble, iii. 411; v. 47-50 - —of Ida, iii. 412. - - Bramble-frog, ii. 298; iii. 98; iv. 102; v. 128, 303; vi. 22. - - Bran, iv. 440. - - Branch, propagation from the, iii. 485, 486. - - Branches of trees, iii. 391, 392. - - Branchidæ, oracle of, i. 466. - - Brand’s “Popular Antiquities” quoted, ii. 127; v. 282, 283, 389. - - Brand-marks, how treated, v. 150. - - Brass, a description of, vi. 147-168. - - Brathy, v. 41. - - Bratus, iii. 135. - - Brawn, ii. 345. - - Bread, iv. 26, 28, 29, 33, 447 - —methods of making, 39, 40 - —various kinds of, 39, 40. - - Bream, ii. 389. - - Breast, iii. 74 - —modes of preserving the, v. 464, 465. - - Breath, iii. 97 - —tainted, 97 - —bad, remedies for, 97; v. 150 - —of animals, different effects of, iii. 97. - - Breeches, i. 173, 174. - - Bregma, iii. 112. - - Brenta, i. 246. - - Brick, used in making bread, iv. 37. - - Bricks, vi. 290, 291. - - Brilessus, i. 289. - - Brindisi, i. 226. - - Brine, v. 503, 504. - - Britain, i. 109; v. 85, 86; vi. 94, 215, 399 - —described, i. 150 - —pearls of, ii. 437 - —oysters of, 468; vi. 27 - —its geese, ii. 500 - —the people of, stain the body, iv. 390 - —its possible communication with the East, v. 426. - - Britannica, v. 85 - —why so called, 85, 86. - - Brixilum, i. 242. - - Brocchi, the family of the, iii. 56. - - Brochon, iii. 116. - - Bromos, iv. 455. - - Brontea, vi. 444. - - Bronze, vi. 68. - - Bronzite, vi. 412. - - Brood-hens, defects in, and their remedies, ii. 535. - - Broom, iv. 135; v. 28, 29. - - Brundusium, i. 226. - - Bruscum, iii. 368. - - Brussels sprouts, iv. 185, 239. - - Bruttium described, i. 208. - - Brutus, Callæcus, vi. 315. - - Brutus, L., iii. 335. - - Brutus, M., vi. 87. - - Brya, iii. 202; v. 30, 31. - - Bryaxis, vi. 165, 179, 313, 316, 317. - - Bryazus, v. 480. - - Bryon, iii. 154, 155, 162, 310; v. 12 - —maritimum, 236, 237. - - Bryony, iv. 466, 467. - - Bubalus, ii. 263. - - Bubastis, i. 408. - - Bubasus, i. 459. - - Bubo, ii. 492. - - Bubon, i. 457. - - Bubonion, v. 229. - - Bucardia, vi. 444. - - Buccinum, ii. 444. - - Bucephala, ii. 49. - - Bucephalus, i. 285; ii. 317. - - Buckthorn, v. 50, 51. - - Budding, iii. 477. - - Buffon, an opinion of, iv. 54. - - Bufonite, vi. 444. - - Buglossos, v. 109. - - Bugs, remedies derived from, v. 392, 393, 394. - - Building, woods used in, iii. 426 - —stones used for, vi. 372 - —methods of, v. 372 - —defects in, vi. 374. - - Buildings, marvellous, at Rome, vi. 345-355. - - Bulapathum, iv. 288. - - Bularchus, vi. 247. - - Bulb emetic, iv. 244. - - Bulbine, iv. 244. - - Bulbs, iv. 168, 169, 243, 244. - - Bulgaria, i. 264. - - Bulimia, iii. 99. - - Bulls, wild, ii. 280 - —the appearance of, 329 - —fights by, 329 - —used as victims, 329 - —how ridden, 329. - - Bulls’ blood, the effects of swallowing, iii. 79; iv. 216; v. 518. - - Bulls’ gall, iii. 69. - - Bulrushes of stone, iii. 212. - - Bumastus, iii. 220. - - Bunias, iv. 215. - - Bunion, iv. 214. - - Bupalus, vi. 308. - - Bupleuron, iv. 421, 422; v. 237. - - Buprestis, iv. 422, 469; v. 503. - - Buphthalmos, v. 110, 114. - - Bura, i. 280. - - Burbuleius, the actor, ii. 147. - - Burcana, i. 344. - - Burgundiones, i. 345. - - Burial, ii. 217. - - Burning, places that are always, i. 139, 140, 141. - - Burning the dead, ii. 217. - - Burning-glasses, vi. 382, 396, 450. - - Burning shields, i. 63. - - Burns, remedies for, v. 202, 357, 457; vi. 49. - - Burying alive, v. 279, 280. - - Busiris, i. 421. - - Butades, vi. 283. - - Butcher’s broom, iv. 382. - - Buteo, ii. 487, 530; iii. 92. - - Buteones, family of the, ii. 487. - - Buthrotum, i. 273. - - Butoridas, vi. 385. - - Butter, iii. 84; v. 323, 324. - - Buttermilk, iii. 84. - - Buzzard, ii. 487. - - Byblis, vi. 264. - - Byblos, i. 435. - - Byssus, iv. 137; v. 274. - - Bythiæ, ii. 127. - - Byzacium, i. 390. - - Byzantium, i. 307, 495. - - - C. - - Cabbages, most esteemed when yellow, iv. 47 - —described, iv. 153, 185-188 - —admired by Cato the Censor, iv. 185 - —their remedial virtues, iv. 235-241. - - Cabinet-work, woods for, iii. 367, 368, 413, 414, 417, 421. - - Cabiri, i. 324, 341. - - Cacalia, v. 133. - - Cachelot whale, ii. 364. - - Cachexy, vi. 49. - - Cachla, v. 110. - - Cacholong, vi. 413. - - Cachrys, iii. 351, 352; v. 40, 41. - - Cackerel, vi. 35. - - Cacoëthes, v. 359, 360. - - Cactos, iv. 354, 358. - - Cadistus, i. 314. - - Cadiz, i. 368. - - Cadmia, vi. 148, 149, 191-194. - - Cadmitis, vi. 444. - - Cadmus, i. 435, 467. - - Caduceus, v. 390. - - Cadusii, ii. 32. - - Cadytas, iii. 433. - - Cæcilius, v. 369. - - Cæcina, i. 148—ii. 505. - - Cæcuban wine, iii. 239, 240; iv. 471. - - Cæcubum, i. 195. - - Cælia (a kind of beer), iv. 456. - - Cæpio, iv. 387. - - Cære, i. 188. - - Cæruleum, vi. 141-144. - - Cæsapon, iv. 228, 229. - - Cæsarean operation, ii. 143. - - “Cæsars,” why so called, ii. 143. - - Cæsena, wines of, iii. 242. - - Cæsennius, iv. 205. - - Cæsi, iii. 51. - - Cæsones, ii. 143. - - Cæsonia, ii. 140. - - Caïcus, i. 473. - - Caieta, i. 194. - - Calabria, i. 225. - - Calabrix, iii. 467. - - Calagurris, i. 166. - - Calahorra, i. 166. - - Calamine, vi. 191, 194. - - Calamis, vi. 139, 167, 320. - - Calamites, vi. 31, 32, 50. - - Calamochnus, vi. 58. - - Calamus, sweet-scented, iii. 144, 187. - - Calatajud, i. 171. - - Calathi, iv. 315. - - Calchas, i. 228. - - Calcifraga, v. 244. - - Calculi, urinary, remedies for, iii. 74, 92; v. 182, 183, 443, 444. - - Caledonian Forest, i. 350. - - Calendar, Roman, vi. 76, 77. - - Calenian wine, iii. 241. - - Calentum, i. 162. - - Calenus, Olenus, v. 280, 281. - - Caliga, ii. 189, 405; iv. 429; vi. 207. - - Caligula, the Emperor, i. 279; ii. 143; iii. 51; vi. 2, 104, 230, 349. - - Calingæ, ii. 42, 134. - - Calingi, ii. 47. - - Calippus, iv. 127. - - Callaica, vi. 445. - - Callaina, vi. 427, 428. - - Callais, vi. 444. - - Callarias, ii. 399. - - Calliblephara, iv. 495; vi. 299. - - Callicia, v. 62. - - Callicles, vi. 186, 269. - - Callicrates, i. 270; ii. 162, 163; vi. 323. - - Callidemus, i. 372. - - Callimachus, i. 371 - —quoted, 267, 310, 318. - - Callimachus (the artist), vi. 188. - - Callimachus (the physician), iv. 388. - - Callimus, vi. 365. - - Callionymus, vi. 30. - - Calliphanes, i. 270. - - Callipolis, i. 225, 308. - - Callistratus, vi. 467. - - Callisthenes, iii. 156, 157. - - Callistratus, vi. 170. - - Callistus, vi. 329. - - Callitriche, ii. 348. - - Callitrichos, iv. 415, 416, 417; v. 132, 133. - - Callon, vi. 168. - - Calpas, ii. 2. - - Calpe, i. 152. - - Caltha, iv. 318. - - Caltrop, iv. 355. - - Calves, man only has them, iii. 89. - - Calves (animals), ii. 329. - - Calvinus, Domitius, iii. 99. - - Calvus, the orator, vi. 216. - And _see_ “Macer.” - - Calycadnus, i. 449. - - Calydne, i. 484. - - Calydon, i. 275. - - Calymna, i. 323. - - Calypso, Islands of, i. 213. - - Calyx, v. 238. - - Camarina, i. 218. - - Cambalidus, ii. 79. - - Cambyses, ii. 92; vi. 332. - - Camel, ii. 276; iii. 58; v. 308, 309 - —its feet, iii. 89 - —its genitals, iii. 92. - - Cameleopard, ii. 277 - —when first seen at Rome, 277. - - Camelodunum, i. 109. - - Camerinum, i. 328. - - Camillus, i. 248; vi. 119, 158. - - Cammaron, v. 218-222. - - Cammarus, v. 220; vi. 62. - - Cammock, iv. 355. - - Camomile, v. 186. - - Camp, luxury of the Roman in perfumes, iii. 168. - - Campania, i. 195 - —its roses, iii. 169 - —its wheat, iv. 41 - - Campaspe, vi. 259. - - Campi Lapidei, i. 176. - - Campion rose, vi. 425. - - Campter, vi. 314. - - Campus Martius, vi. 333, 334. - - Canachus, vi. 169, 180, 322. - - Canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, ii. 92. - - Canaries (islands), ii. 107. - - Canary grass, v. 264. - - Cancamum, iii. 142. - - Cancer (the disease), remedies for, v. 359, 360. - - Cancer, sign of, transforms crabs into serpents, ii. 427. - - Candace, Queen, ii. 101. - - Candahar, ii. 57. - - Candaules, vi. 247. - - Candelæ, vi. 123. - - Candia, i. 313. - - Candle rushes, iii. 411. - - Cane (place), ii. 64. - - Canephori, vi. 314. - - Canine madness, ii. 136. - _See_ “Hydrophobia.” - - Canine teeth, iii. 56, 58. - - Cannabis, iv. 198, 297, 298. - - Cannæ, i. 230. - - Cannibalism, ii. 122. - _See_ “Anthropophagi.” - - Canobus, i. 420. - - Canoes, ii. 65. - - Canon, vi. 171. - - Canopus, i. 420, 479. - - Cantabri, i. 361. - - Cantabrica, v. 112. - - Cantharias, vi. 459. - - Cantharis, iv. 55. - - Cantharus (artist), vi. 185. - - Cantharus (fish), vi. 61. - - Cantharus, ii. 330. - - Cantharides, iii. 41; v. 303, 403, 404, 405. - - Cantharite wine, iii. 246. - - Canusium, i. 228. - - Capena, i. 189. - - Caper, iii. 206, 207; iv. 194, 264, 265. - - Caper-plant, v. 252. - - Caphareus, i. 316. - - Caphrena, ii. 72. - - Capillati, i. 255; iii. 46. - - Capisa, ii. 57. - - Capito, C. Ateius, i. 269. - - Capito, Oppius, ii. 151. - - Capitolinus, Manlius, his singular valour, ii. 171. - - Capnos, v. 42. - - Cappadocia (the country), described, ii. 6, 16. - - Cappadocia (a stone), vi. 445. - - Cappadox, ii. 7. - - Capparis, iii. 206, 207; iv. 264, 265. - - Capræa, ii. 346, 347. - - Capraria, i. 213. - - Caprification, iii. 312, 313, 530, 531. - - Caprificus, iii. 311, 312, 313. - - Caprimulgus, ii. 521. - - Capsa, i. 395. - - Captatio, iv. 262. - - Capua, i. 198; vi. 143. - - Carabi, ii. 424. - - Carambis, ii. 4, 501. - - Carambucis, ii. 24. - - Caraway, iv. 194. - - Carbasus, iv. 133; v. 273. - - Carbo, Cn. Papirius, ii. 153 - —his death prognosticated by mice, ii. 353. - - “Carbo,” meaning of the word, vi. 423. - - Carbuncle, remedies for, v. 154, 198, 467; vi. 52, 53. - - Carbunculus (the stone), vi. 420-423, 425. - - Carcasum, i. 179. - - Carcasonne, i. 179. - - Carchedonia, vi. 425. - - Carcine, i. 332. - - Carcinethron, v. 259, 260. - - Carcinias, vi. 459. - - Carcinomata, v. 359, 360; vi. 52. - - Cardamomum, iii. 123. - - Cardiac disease, iii. 67; iv. 477. - - Carduelis, ii. 522. - - Carduus, iv. 353. - - Carfiathum, iii. 127. - - Caria, described, i. 458 - —its name, ii. 230. - - Caricatures, vi. 270. - - Caricæ, iii. 178. - - Carinthia, i. 263. - - Carmania described, ii. 66. - - Carmelus, i. 434. - - Carnac, i. 416. - - Carneades, ii. 175; v. 98. - - Carnelian, vi. 418, 420, 425, 426, 431. - - Carob, iii. 181, 319; iv. 516. - - Caryophyllon, iii. 113. - - Caros, v. 185. - - Carpathian Sea, i. 323. - - Carpathum, vi. 25. - - Carpathus, i. 483. - - Carpenters’ woods, iii. 427. - _See_ “Cabinet-work.” - - Carpentoracte, i. 179. - - Carpentras, i. 179. - - Carphos, v. 74. - - Carpinus, iii. 368. - - Carrara marble, vi. 309. - - Carrhæ, i. 443, 444. - - Carrot, iv. 166, 219, 220; v. 124. - - Carrucæ, vi. 132. - - Carseoli, iii. 516. - - Cartana, ii. 57. - - Carteia, i. 156. - - Cartenna, i. 385. - - Carthage, Great, i. 390 - —hated by Cato the Censor, iii. 309, 310. - - Cartilage, iii. 77. - - Carvilius, Spurius, vi. 165, 166. - - Carving, ii. 184. - - Caryanda, i. 485. - - Caryatides, vi. 313. - - Caryites, v. 178. - - Carynian wine, iii. 262. - - Caryotæ, iii. 175. - - Carystus, i. 309, 317. - - Casignetes, v. 66. - - Casilinum, siege of, ii. 351. - - Casius, i. 424, 438. - - Casks, iii. 268. - - Caspian Gates, ii. 28; v. 501. - - Caspian Passes, ii. 21. - - Caspian Sea, i. 453; ii. 20, 24. - - Cassander, i. 300; v. 492. - - Cassia, iii. 140, 141, 396. - - Cassiterides, i. 367. - - Cassiteris, ii. 225. - - Cassiteros, vi. 212, 213. - - Cassius Parmensis, v. 522. - - Cassius, Spurius, vi. 154. - - Castabala, ii. 6. - - Castalia, i. 277. - - Castes of India, ii. 44. - - Casthanea, i. 296. - - Castor, Antonius, iv. 304; v. 80, 81. - - Castor and Pollux (stars), i. 64, 65. - - Castor oil, iii. 287; iv. 489, 490. - - Castoreum, ii. 297; vi. 13, 14, 15. - - Castra Cornelia, i. 389. - - Castration, iii. 92. - - Castritius, iv. 205. - - Castulo, i. 164. - - Catabathmos, i. 397. - - Catacecaumene, wine of, iii. 246. - - Catadupi, i. 412; ii. 97. - - Catagusa, vi. 177. - - Catanance, v. 237. - - Catapulta, ii. 228. - - Cataract, cure of, iii. 53. - - Cataractæ, ii. 526. - - Cataracts, i. 412, 415. - - Catchweed, v. 227. - - Catechu, iii. 113; v. 51. - - Caterpillars, ii. 552; iii. 522; iv. 200. - - Cathæan mountains, ii. 16. - - Catharcludi, ii. 131. - - Catiline, i. 82. - - Catkin, v. 41. - - Catmint, iv. 261, 262. - - Cato the Censor, =i.= 202, 267; =ii.= 150, 175, 176 - —his high character, 169 - —his treatment of wines, =iii.= 267 - —his hatred to Carthage, 309, 310 - —his admiration of the cabbage, =iv.= 185, 235 - —his bad opinion of the Greeks, =v.= 375, 376 - —quotations from his work, =i.= 10, 188, 232, 241, 548; =iii.= 248, - 281, 285, 308, 313, 315, 332, 379, 409, 410, 416, 417, 450, 458, - 459, 465, 469, 470, 471, 472, 474, 476, 481, 482, 486, 487, 502, - 509, 510, 511, 520, 532, 535; =iv.= 5, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18, 59, 63, - 71, 81, 86, 91, 153, 185, 189, 236, 237, 240; =v.= 188, 365; - =vi.= 373. - - Cato of Utica, i. 4, 389; ii. 150, 176; v. 405; vi. 188. - - Catoblepas, ii. 281. - - Catochitis, vi. 445. - - Catullus quoted, i. 1, 103; vi. 324, 366, 416 - —his birth-place, i. 253. - - Catulus, Q., iii. 438. - - Catus, ii. 178. - - Cat worship, ii. 98. - - Cats, ii. 494, 541, 543, 550; iii. 53, 61; iv. 58; v. 334, 360, 363. - - Cats’-eye chalcedony, vi. 438, 443, 449, 452, 458. - - Caucalis, iv. 349, 424. - - Caucasus, Passes of, ii. 1. - - Cauline wine, iii. 244. - - Caunos, i. 459. - - Cautery, vi. 396. - - Cave-snails, ii. 311. - - Cavea, ii. 275; vi. 350. - - Caverns, windy, i. 71. - - Caves, for weaving, iv. 132. - - Cavnea, iii. 313. - - Caÿster, i. 468. - - Cea, i. 315. - - Cebrenia, i. 476. - - Cebriones, vi. 323. - - Cecrops, i. 289, 290; ii. 222. - - Cedar, iii. 178; v. 8, 9. - - Cedræi, i. 422. - - Cedrelates, iii. 179. - - Cedria, v. 8. - - Cedrides, v. 9, 10. - - Cedrium, iii. 361. - - Celadussæ, i. 266. - - Celænæ, i. 461, 491. - - Celandine, v. 114. - - Celeres, vi. 85. - - Celestial prodigies, i. 59, 60 - —Coronæ, i. 61. - - Celetes, vi. 156. - - Celsus, Cornelius, ii. 240; v. 370 - —on gestation, ii. 140. - - Celtiberi, i. 162. - - Cements, vi. 288, 289. - - Cemos, v. 237. - - Cenchramis, vi. 186. - - Cenchreæ, i. 278, 285. - - Cenchris, ii. 532. - - Cenchritis, vi. 459. - - Cendebia, vi. 379. - - Cenomanni, i. 252, 356. - - Censorial laws, vi. 306. - - Centauri, ii. 229. - - Centaurion, v. 103, 104, 105. - - Centauris triorchis, v. 104, 105. - - Centaury, v. 103, 104. - - Centifolia, iv. 312. - - Centipedes, iii. 91; v. 417. - - Centrones, i. 255. - - Centum capita, iv. 397. - - Centunculus, v. 56. - - Centurion, his mark of authority; iii. 221, 222 - —instance of one honoured with a crown, iv. 394. - - Centuripa, i. 219. - - Cepæa, v. 184. - - Cephallenia, i. 310. - - Cephenes, iii. 17. - - Cepheus, ii. 99. - - Cephisia, i. 289. - - Cephisodotus, vi. 169, 170, 179, 180, 185, 186, 314. - - Cephisus, i. 291, 292. - - Cepitis, vi. 445. - - Ceponides, vi. 447. - - Ceræ, vi. 244, 245. - - Ceramicus, vi. 285. - - Ceramitis, vi. 445. - - Cerastes, ii. 285; iii. 45; iv. 264. - - Cerasus, ii. 9. - - Cerate, iv. 368. - - Ceratia, v. 173. - - Ceratitis, iv. 278. - - Ceraunia, vi. 437, 438. - - Ceraunian Mountains, i. 454; ii. 16, 20. - - Ceraunus, ii. 7. - - Cerberion, ii. 14. - - Cercina, i. 402. - - Ceres, festivals of, v. 508. - - Cerigo, i. 312. - - Cerintha, iv. 340. - - Cerinthos, iii. 7. - - Ceritis, vi. 445. - - Cerne, ii. 105, 488. - - Ceroma, v. 295. - - Cerrus, iii. 346; v. 67. - - Ceruse, vi. 210, 220, 238, 239. - - Cervesia, iv. 456. - And _see_ “Beer” - - Cesi, ii. 47. - - Cestros, v. 111, 112. - - Cestrota, iii. 45. - - Cetariæ, ii. 387. - - Ceterach, v. 95, 96. - - Cethegus, Cornelius, iv. 192. - - Ceto, i. 426. - - Ceuta, i. 384. - - Cevennes, i. 174. - - Ceylon, ii. 51; vi. 59. - - Chabura, v. 485; vi. 8. - - Chæreas of Athens, ii. 357. - - Chæristus, ii. 276. - - Chæremon, vi. 341. - - Chæronea, i. 291. - - Chaff, iv. 440, 441 - —used by goldsmiths, 37 - —used for hay, 104. - - Chakal, ii. 304. - - Chalasis in the egg, ii. 533. - - Chalastra, i. 299; v. 513. - - Chalazian stone, vi. 367. - - Chalazias, vi. 460. - - Chalcanthum, vi. 197, 200, 201. - - Chalcedon, i. 495 - —why called the City of the Blind, ii. 388. - - Chalcedony, vi. 329, 388, 412, 413, 418, 419. - - Chalceos, iv. 353. - - Chalcetum, v. 168. - - Chalcis, i. 316, 317. - - Chalcis (fish), ii. 459. - - Chalcitis, vi. 148, 198, 201, 202. - - Chalcophonos, vi. 446. - - Chalcopyrite, vi. 359. - - Chalcosthenes, vi. 285. - - Chaldæi, vi. 424. - - Chalk, used in making bread, iv. 33, 42 - —described, vi. 300, 301. - - Chalonitis, ii. 78. - - Chalybes, ii. 351. - - Chama, ii. 278. - - Chamæacte, v. 28, 24. - - Chamæcerasus, iii. 323. - - Chamæcissos, v. 35, 54, 126. - - Chamæcyparissos, v. 65. - - Chamædaphne, iii. 333; iv. 382; v. 53. - - Chamædrys, v. 52, 53. - - Chamæleon (animal), ii. 302, 303; v. 315-318 - —has nothing but lungs in the body, ii. 67 - —peculiarity of its eyes, iii. 54. - - Chamæleon (plant), iv. 353, 407, 408, 409, 453; v. 234. - - Chamæleuce, v. 54, 55, 164. - - Chamæmelum, iv. 411, 412. - - Chamæmyrsine, iv. 521. - - Chamæpence, v. 55. - - Chamæpitys, v. 13, 14, 185. - - Chamæplatanus, iii. 106. - - Chamæreps, iii. 174. - - Chamærops, v. 169. - - Chamæsyce, v. 54. - - Chamæzelon, v. 122, 123, 249. - - Chamelæa, iii. 201, 287; iv. 53, 54, 108, 109. - - Chamois, iii. 44. - - Chamses, v. 314. - - Channe, ii. 391, 467, 468; vi. 65. - - Chaones, i. 271. - - Chaplets, iv. 304-309, 329, 330, 333, 334. - - Characias, v. 177, 178. - - Character expressed by the eyes, iii. 51, 52. - - Charax, i. 333; ii. 80, 81. - - Charcoal, iii. 348, 349; vi. 383. - - Charcoal-blight, iii. 520; iv. 95, 97. - - Chares (artist), vi. 165, 166. - - Chares of Mitylene, iii. 157. - - Chargers of silver, vi. 134. - - Chariot-horses, ii. 319, 320. - - Charioteers, ii. 217, 319, 320. - - Chariots, invention of, ii. 226, 229. - - Charis, vi. 256. - - Charitoblepharon, iii. 212, 213. - - Charmis, v. 374, 379. - - Charms. _See_ “Magic.” - - Charybdis, i. 216. - - Chastity, instances of, ii. 180. - - Chatterer, ii. 528. - - Chatti, i. 347. - - Chauci, i. 346; iii. 339, 340. - - Cheek-teeth, iii. 59. - - Cheeks, iii. 55 - —forbidden to tear the, 55. - - Cheese, iii. 84; v. 322 - —various kinds of, iii. 85 - —made of sheep’s milk, 85 - —of goats’ milk, 85 - —becomes salt when old, 85 - —Zoroaster lived on it, 85. - - Cheeses, modern, referred to, iii. 85. - - Chelidonia (plant), ii. 292; v. 114. - - Chelidonia (stone), vi. 446. - - Chelidoniæ, i. 482. - - Chelidonium, i. 453, 455. - - Chelonia, vi. 446. - - Chelonitis, vi. 446. - - Chelonophagi, ii. 67, 379. - - Chelyon, ii. 379. - - Chemæ, vi. 62. - - Chenalopex, ii. 500. - - Cheneros, ii. 500. - - Chenomyche, iv. 335. - - Cheops, vi. 337. - - Chernites, vi. 357. - - Chernitis, vi. 461. - - Cherry, ii. 9; iii. 322, 323; iv. 511. - - Chersinæ, ii. 379, - - Chersiphron, the architect, ii. 183, 184; vi. 343. - - Chersonesus, i. 305, 327, 333. - - Cherusci, i. 348. - - Chervil, iv. 423. - - Chesnut, i. 296, 318, 319, 485, 494; iv. 516. - - Chess-board, vi. 391. - - Chest, remedies for diseases of the, v. 164, 165; vi. 38. - - Chian earth, vi. 299. - - Chian wine, iii. 245. - - Chiaroscuro, vi. 247, 251, 275. - - Chicheling vetch, iv. 450, 451. - - Chickens, ii. 534, 535. - - Chickpea, iv. 46, 450, 451. - - Chicory, iv. 233, 234. - - Childhood, critical periods of, ii. 140. - - Children, when they begin to speak, iii. 94 - —when to walk, 95. - - Chiliodynamus, v. 102, 103. - - Chilney, island of, ii. 51. - - Chilon, his precepts, ii. 178. - - Chimæra, i. 140, 272, 455. - - Chimpanze, ii. 279. - - Chin, iii. 56. - - China, ii. 36. - - Chinese, possible reference to, ii. 131. - - Chios described, i. 486. - - Chiron, ii. 224; v. 90, 91, 94, 108. - - Chironia, iv. 468. - - Chironian pyxacanthus, iii. 114. - - Chironion, v. 103, 104. - - Chlampys, i. 419. - - Chloreus, ii. 551. - - Chlorion, ii. 512. - - Chlorite, vi. 446. - - Chloritis, vi. 446. - - Choara, ii. 29. - - Choaspes, ii. 77. - - Choaspitis, vi. 446. - - Cholera, iv. 449. - - Chondris, v. 115, 116, 172. - - Chondrylla, iv. 349, 358, 359, 427. - - Choraules, vi. 388. - - Choromandæ, ii. 131. - - Chresimus, C. Furius, iv. 17. - - Christianity, a possible reference to, v. 425. - - Chromis, ii. 392. - - Chrysalis, iii. 39, 41. - - Chrysanthemum, iv. 380, 381; v. 186. - - Chryse, ii. 37. - - Chryselectrum, vi. 404, 435. - - Chrysendeta, vi. 70, 92. - - Chrysermus, iv. 456. - - Chryses, i. 495. - - Chrysippus, iv. 301; v. 371, 372. - - Chrysites, vi. 367. - - Chrysitis, vi. 117. - - Chrysitis (plant), iv. 329. - - Chrysobora, ii. 46. - - Chrysocarpos, v. 33. - - Chrysoceras, i. 307. - - Chrysocolla, vi. 69, 107, 110, 243. - - Chrysocolla (stone), vi. 442. - - Chrysocome, iv. 329, 373. - - Chrysolachanum, v. 241. - - Chrysolampis, vi. 447. - - Chrysolite, vi. 426, 427. - - Chrysolithos, vi. 434, 435. - - Chrysomelum, iii. 293. - - Chrysophrys, vi. 65. - - Chrysopis, vi. 447. - - Chrysopolis, i. 495. - - Chrysoprase, vi. 413, 414, 415, 427, 429. - - Chrysopteron, vi. 427. - - Chydæi, iii. 176. - - Cicada, iii. 31, 32, 33. - - Cicatrization, applications for promoting, v. 461. - - Cicer, iv. 450, 451. - - Cicero, the Orator, i. 199, 202; vi. 323, 324, 371 - —eulogium on him, ii. 177 - —quotations from his works, i. 3, 4, 7, 17, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, - 28, 68, 82, 112, 127, 129, 142, 462; iii. 456; iv. 81; v. 476, - 491; vi. 139, 171, 173, 174, 177, 224, 254. - - Cicero, the Younger, his singular drunkenness, iii. 273. - - Cichorium, iv. 182, 233, 234. - - Cicus, iii. 287, 489. - - Cicuta, v. 140, 141. - - Cilicia described, i. 446. - - Cilium, iii. 55. - - Cimbri, i. 346, 347; v. 159; vi. 305 - —victory over the, ii. 163. - - Cimmerian Bosporus, i. 335; ii. 13. - - Cimmerium, i. 334; ii. 14. - - Cimolian earth, vi. 300. - - Cimolus, i. 322. - - Cimon (artist), vi. 248. - - Cinaris, ii. 200. - - Cinædia, i. 445. - - Cinædopolis, i. 485. - - Cincinnatus, iv. 9. - - Cincius, vi. 385. - - Cineas, his extraordinary memory, ii. 164 - —his witticism, iii. 219. - - Cinnabar, iii. 162 - —mistake made as to its identity, v. 380. - - Cinnabaris, vi. 120, 121. - - Cinnamolgus, ii. 515. - - Cinnamominum, iii. 164. - - Cinnamomum, iii. 137-140 - —chaplets of, iii. 140. - - Cinnamon, iii. 155, 156. - - Cinquefoil, v. 122, 123. - - Cippus, story of, iii. 44. - - Circæa, v. 238. - - Circæon, v. 138, 139, 140. - - Circe, i. 193; ii. 126; iii. 197; v. 81. - - Circeii, i. 192, 193. - - Circles suddenly formed in the air, i. 62. - - Circos, vi. 445. - - Circuit of Rome, i. 203. - - Circus Maximus, vi. 346 - —games of the, ii. 320. - - Cirsion, v. 239. - - Cirta, i. 388. - - Cissanthemos, v. 125. - - Cissitis, vi. 459, 460. - - Cissos, v. 34, 35. - - Cistern water, v. 484. - - Cisterns, vi. 373. - - Cisthos, v. 34. - - Cithæron, i. 290. - - Cities swallowed up by the sea, i. 120. - - Citium, i. 481. - - Citron, iii. 106, 107, 198; iv. 498 - —eaten with vinegar, iv. 498. - - Citrus, iii. 159, 192, 194-197 - —great value of the wood, iii. 194. - - Civet, possible allusion to, ii. 274. - - Civic crown, iii. 341, 342, 344. - - Clarian Apollo, i. 469. - - Clarigation, iv. 391. - - Claudia, ii. 180. - - Claudius, the Emperor, i. 245, 259, 497; iv. 428; v. 379; - vi. 262, 354, 417 - —the colour of his eyes, iii. 51 - —poisoned, 68. - - Clazomenæ, i. 470 - —wine of, iii. 245. - - Cleanthes (artist), vi. 229. - - Clefts in the earth, i. 112, 113. - - Clelia, vi. 160. - - Clema, v. 259. 260. - - Clematis, iv. 339; v. 35, 56, 57. - - Clematitis, v. 116, 117. - - Cleobulus, i. 373. - - Cleombrotus, ii. 182. - - Cleomenes, vi. 318. - - Cleon, vi. 186. - - Cleonæ, i. 287. - - Cleopatra, iv. 309, 310 - —swallows a pearl of great value, ii. 439. - - Cleophantus, iv. 302. - - Clepsydra, ii. 239. - - Cliduchus, vi. 171. - - Climacteric, ii. 205. - - Climate, i. 110, 111 - —inequality of, i. 102, 103, 104. - - Climax Megale, ii. 69. - - Clinical practice, v. 371. - - Clinkstone, v. 446. - - Clinopodium, v. 55, 56. - - Clipping of shrubs, iii. 106. - - Clitarchus, ii. 115. - - Clitus, vi. 261. - - Clitorium, i. 287. - - Clitorius, Lake, v. 477. - - Clivia, ii. 493. - - Clodius, Publius, vi. 157, 206, 346. - - Clodius, Servius, v. 87. - - Cloth, fine, i. 316 - —different kinds of, ii. 336. - - Clothing derived from trees, iii. 118. - - Clot-burr, v. 120. - - Clouds, i. 69 - —stones falling from the, i. 88, 89 - —prognostics derived from, iv. 121, 122. - - Clover, iv. 53, 54. - - Cluacina, Venus, iii. 329, 330. - - Clupea, ii. 383 - —sprattus, 389. - - Clusium, i. 189. - - Clymenus, v. 105. - - Clypea, i. 390. - - Clypei, vi. 227, 228. - - Cnecos, iv. 350. - - Cneorum, iii. 201. - - Cnestron, iii. 201. - - Cnidian Venus, vi. 312. - - Cnidinum, iii. 290. - - Cnidos, i. 460. - - Cnossus, i. 314. - - Coagulum terræ, v. 241. - - Coän Venus, vi. 312. - - Coän vestments, ii. 37; iii. 26. - - Coatings for colours, vi. 244, 245. - - Cobalt, vi. 107, 109. - - Cobios, v. 180. - - Cobweb blight, iii. 522. - - Cobwebs, v. 410. - - Coccus, iii. 353. - - Coccus Cnidius, v. 242. - - Coccus ilicis, ii. 450. - - Coccygia, iii. 204. - - Cochineal, iii. 353. - - Cochleæ, vi. 62. - - Cochlides, vi. 461, 462. - - Cock, the dunghill, ii. 496, 497 - —how castrated, 498 - —one that spoke, 498. - - Cockfighting, ii. 497, 498. - - Cock’scomb, v. 230. - - Cockles, vi. 41, 62. - - Cocles, Horatius, vi. 157, 345. - - Cocolobis, iii. 226. - - Cocoons, iii. 26. - - Codanian Gulf, i. 343. - - Codierite, vi. 407. - - Cœlesyria, i. 423, 438, 439. - - Cœliac flux, iv. 217. - - “Cœlum,” origin of the word, i. 17. - - Cœranus, i. 149. - - Coffins, made of earthenware, vi. 286. - - Coimbra, i. 363. - - Coins, Roman, an account of, vi. 89, 90, 91. - - Colapis, i. 264. - - Cold drinks, iv. 152. - - Coliacum, ii. 54. - - Colias, vi. 61. - - Colic, iii. 71; v. 155, 156 - —dogs greatly troubled with, iii. 71. - - Colica described, ii. 11. - - Collatia, i. 205, 230. - - Collegia, the Roman, vi. 286. - - Collyrium, vi. 298. - - Colocasia, iv. 347, 348, 382. - - Colocynthis, iv. 212, 213. - - Cologne, i. 355. - - Colon, iii. 71 - —affections of the, v. 348, 349. - - Colonies, i. 154, 161. - - Colonna, Cape, i. 289. - - Colopene, ii. 6. - - Colophon, i. 469. - - Colossæ, iv. 329. - - Colossal, paintings, vi. 246 - —statues, vi. 164, 165, 166. - - Colossus of Rhodes, vi. 165. - - Colostra, iii. 83; v. 320. - - Colotes, vi. 186, 247, 403, 419. - - Colouring of tissues, vi. 282, 283. - - Colours, of the stars i. 49, 50 - —of the sky, 60, 61 - —of wines, iii. 237, 248; iv. 475 - —of juices, iii. 325, 326 - —primary, iv. 326 - —of flowers, 326, 327 - —plants delineated in, v. 80 - —artificial, vi. 325 - —for painting, 245, 246. - - Colt’sfoot, v. 54, 55. - - Coluber haje, ii. 285. - - Colubraria, i. 211. - - Columella, L. J. M., mentioned, ii. 354 - —quoted, i. 142; iii. 457, 490, 491, 499; iv. 11, 27, 63, 105, 131. - - Columnæ, ii. 105. - - Columns of Hercules, i. 152. - - Columns, vi. 374, 375 - —of marble, 306, 307. - - Coluthia, vi. 36. - - Colymbades, iii. 283; iv. 486. - - Comacum, iii. 155, 156. - - Comana, ii. 6. - - Comata, Gallia, why so called, iii. 46. - - Combretum, iv. 319, 369. - - Come, v. 270. - - Comets, i. 55-58. - - Comfrey, v. 231, 232. - - Comitium, iii. 310. - - Commagene (country), i. 443. - - Commagene (plant), v. 390, 391. - - Commagenum, ii. 500; v. 390, 391; vi. 466. - - Commiades, iii. 338. - - Commosis, iii. 6. - - Como, i. 248. - - Compartitions, vi. 141. - - Compitalia, vi. 384. - - Complutum, i. 169. - - Compluvium, iii. 500. - - Comum, i. 248. - - Conception, ii. 144, 152. - - Conch, vi. 39. - - Conchylia, ii. 443. - - Conchyliated fabrics, ii. 448. - - Conchylium, vi. 29. - - Conditorium, ii. 157. - - Condochates, ii. 43. - - Condrion, iv. 427. - - Condurdum, v. 162, 163. - - Confarreation, iv. 5. - - Conferva, v. 242. - - Conflagration of the universe, ii. 156. - - Conger, ii. 395, 408. - - Congress, sexual, ii. 141. - - Conimbrica, i. 363. - - Conjuring up of thunder, i. 84. - - Conopas, the dwarf, ii. 157. - - Consentia, i. 209. - - Considia, v. 20. - - Consiligo, v. 112, 113. - - Consingis, ii. 313. - - Constantinople, i. 307. - - Constellations, iii. 489. - - Constructions without iron, vi. 345. - - Contents, table of, as given by the author, i. 11, 12. - - “Conterraneus,” meaning of the term, i. 1. - - Contests by painters, vi. 248, 249. - - Contracts, vi. 82. - - Contributions, voluntary, at Rome, vi. 131. - - Contusions, cured by thapsia, iii. 206 - —remedies for, v. 358. - - Conventus juridicus, i. 159. - - Convolvulus, iv. 315. - - Convulsions, remedies for, v. 205. - - Conyza, iv. 266, 267, 332, 333. - - Cookery, iv. 203, 431. - - Cooks, iv. 41. - - Cophes, ii. 50, 59. - - Coponius, Q., vi. 287, 322. - - Copper, working of, ii. 224, 225 - —weapons made of, v. 94 - —various kinds of, described, vi. 147-155, 189, 190, 191, 193, 194. - - Coptos, i. 407, 416. - - Cora, i. 200. - - Coracesta, v. 62. - - Coracias, ii. 492. - - Coracinus, i. 410; ii. 394, 404; vi. 24. - - Coracles, i. 351, 415; ii. 233; vi. 212. - - Coral, vi. 10, 11, 12 - —used for infants, v. 290; vi. 12. - - Corallis, vi. 445. - - Corallitic stone, vi. 330. - - Coralloachates, vi. 440, 445. - - Corani, vi. 358, 359. - - Corbulo, Domitius, i. 104, 497; ii. 17, 20, 26, 140. - - Corchoron, v. 136, 137, 138. - - Corchorus, iv. 349, 386. - - Corculus, ii. 178. - - Corcyra, i. 267, 310. - - Cordage, iii. 187. - - Cordi, ii. 331. - - Cordia sebestana, iii. 182. - - Cordial, iv. 424. - - Cordova, i. 163. - - Corduba, i. 162. - - Cordueni, ii. 29. - - Cordus, Cremutius, ii. 239. - - Corfidius, ii. 212. - - Corfinium, i. 231. - - Corfu, i. 310. - - Coriander, iv. 282. - - Corinth, i. 279 - —capture of, vi. 150, 152, 153. - - Corinthia, v. 63. - - Corinthian brass, vi. 147, 149, 150, 167. - - Corinthian Gulf, i. 178. - - Coriolanus, C. M., i. 206. - - Corioli, i. 206. - - Corison, v. 185. - - Cork, uses of, iii. 354. - - Cork-tree, iii. 354, 524; v. 7. - - Cormorant, ii. 529. - - Corn, first use of, ii. 220 - —low prices of, iv. 7, 8 - —grinding of, 36, 37, 38 - —prodigies connected with, 60 - —modes of storing, 104-107. - - Corn marygold, v. 186. - - Corn poppy, iv. 278. - - Cornel, iii. 323; iv. 516; v. 31. - - Cornelia, ii. 151, 154, 181. - - Cornelian. _See_ “Carnelian.” - - Cornuta, ii. 411, 415; vi. 60. - - Corocotta, ii. 296, 297. - - Corollæ, iv. 306. - - Corona graminea, iv. 392. - - Coronæ, celestial, i. 61. - - Corone, i. 282. - - Coronea, i. 291. - - Coronopus, iv. 409. - - Corpulence, how caused, iii. 98 - —how reduced, 98. - - Corruda, iv. 188, 190, 245, 246. - - Corsica described, i. 213. - - Corsoeides, vi. 445. - - Cortex, ii. 380. - - Corundum, vi. 407, 420, 433, 434, 435, 437. - - Corus, i. 74, 77; iv. 116. - - Corvinus, Valerius Messala, vi. 144. - - Corvus corax, ii. 491. - - Corybantes, i. 313. - - Corycos, i. 449. - - Corycus, i. 314; v. 482. - - Corymbi, iii. 400. - - Corymbites, v. 180. - - Coryphas, i. 474. - - Coryphia, vi. 36. - - Cos, i. 484 - —silk of, iii. 26 - —wines of, 247, 248. - - Cosenza, i. 209. - - Cosmetics, iv. 210, 211, 512; v. 340, 383; vi. 220. - - Cossi, iii. 40. - - Cossiæi, ii. 79. - - Cossicius, L., ii. 138. - - Cossis, iii. 519; v. 459. - - Costus, iii. 119. - - Cosyra, i. 403. - - Cotinus, iii. 371. - - Cotonea, v. 169. - - Cottana, iii. 178. - - Cottiani, i. 255, 257. - - Cottius, i. 255. - - Cotton, ii. 36; iii. 223, 377; iv. 134, 135; v. 273, 274 - —or silk alluded to, ii. 131 - —possible origin of the word, iii. 118. - - Cotton-tree, iii. 108, 117, 118, 193, 194. - - Cottonara, ii. 65. - - Cotyledon, v. 143. - - Couches, when first adorned with silver, vi. 134, 135 - —made of brass, vi. 153. - - Couch-grass, v. 72, 73. - - Cough, v. 163 - —remedies for, v. 343, 344; vi. 38. - - Countercharms, v. 290. - - Counter poisons, v. 407, 408; vi. 19. - - Courage, extreme, ii. 170. - - Coverings of the skin, iii. 81. - - Crabs, ii. 424, 425, 426; vi. 23, 48 - —cooked, iii. 21. - - Cracca, iv. 52. - - Cragus, i. 457. - - Cramming poultry, ii. 531. - - Cranes, i. 306; ii. 501, 509 - —their instinct, ii. 501 - —and the Pygmies, ii. 132. - - Crannon, i. 295, 297; v. 479. - - Crapula, iii. 265, 266; iv. 237. - - Crassus, L., iii. 438, 439, 440; vi. 232, 307. - - Crassus, M., the elder, never laughed, ii. 159. - - Crassus, M., i. 443; ii. 31; iii. 313, 331; vi. 129. - - Cratægis, v. 191. - - Cratægonos, v. 238. - - Cratægos, v. 239. - - Cratægum, iii. 390. - - Crater, vi. 285. - - Crateritis, vi. 445. - - Craterus, vi. 320. - - Crates, i. 371. - - Crateus, iv. 302. - - Crathis, v. 476. - - Cratinus, vi. 279. - - Crawfish, vi. 23. - - Crayfish, ii. 423, 424 - —of monstrous size, ii. 360. - - Cremmyon, i. 288. - - Cremona, i. 252. - - Crepis, iv. 356. - - Cresses, iv. 191, 251, 252. - - Cretaceous earths, vi. 299, 300, 301. - - Cretan Labyrinth, vi. 340, 341. - - Crete, described, i. 313 - —figs of, iii. 181. - - Crethmos, v. 141, 183, 184. - - Cretica, v. 116, 117. - - Crickets, iii. 34; v. 418, 439. - - Crimea, i. 333. - - Crimson tint, ii. 450. - - Crinas, v. 373, 374. - - Crissa, i. 276, 277. - - Crista, v. 230, 231. - - Critias, vi. 168. - - Critobulus, ii. 182. - - Critodemus, i. 149. - - Criton, iv. 127. - - Criumetopon, i. 313, 334; ii. 501. - - Croaking of frogs, iii. 61. - - Crocallis, vi. 446. - - Crocias, v. 460. - - Crocinum, iii. 160. - - Crocis, v. 67. - - Crocodeilopolites, i. 409. - - Crocodile, ii. 287, 288, 289; v. 314, 315 - —when first exhibited at Rome, ii. 290, 291 - —when it does not attack, 331 - —has a moveable jawbone, iii. 56. - - Crocodilea, v. 314. - - Crocodileon, v. 240. - - Crocomagma, iv. 370. - - Crocotta, ii. 279. - - Crocus, iv. 319, 320, 321, 370. - - Crœsus, i. 451, 466, 474; vi. 131 - —his son speaks in his infancy, iii. 94. - - Cromill, iv. 411. - - Cromna, ii. 4. - - Cronian Sea, i. 343, 351. - - Crop of birds, iii. 71. - - Crops, their influences on land, iii. 459 - —adapted to certain soils, iv. 59, 60. - - Crotalia, ii. 435. - - Croton, iii. 287. - - Crotona, i. 209, 223. - - Crowns, various kinds of, ii. 171; iii. 342, 343, 344 - —made of plants, iv. 392, 395 - —of gold, vi. 86. - - Crows, ii. 490, 491 - —ill-omened, 491 - —speaking, 525 - —shrewdness of, 525, 526. - - Crucibles, vi. 101. - - Crudity, remedies for, iii. 98. - - Crustaceous sea-animals, ii. 423. - - Crustumerium, i. 191. - - Crustumium, i. 241. - - Crystal, v. 306, 394-397. - - Crystallion, v. 135, - - Ctesias, i. 150. - - Ctesibius, ii. 184. - - Ctesicles, vi. 279. - - Ctesilaüs, vi. 179. - - Ctesiphon, ii. 73. - - Cuckoo, ii. 488, 489 - —thought to be a hawk, 488. - - Cucubalus, v. 241. - - Cucumber, cultivated, iv. 156-160, 210, 211 - —wild, 207, 208, 209 - —anguine or erratic, 209, 210. - - Cucumber-fish, ii. 359. - - Cucus, iii. 183. - - Cuenca, i. 170. - - Culeus, iv. 109. - - Cultivation, modes of, by various nations, iv. 60, 61, 62. - - Cumæ, i. 106. - - Cumania, ii. 21. - - Cummin, iv. 103, 262, 263. - - Cuniculus, ii. 349. - - Cunila, ii. 548; iv. 195, 266, 267. - - Cunila bubula, ii. 292; iv. 265, 266. - - Cunila gallinacea, iv. 266. - - Cunilago, iv. 266. - - Cupidity for gold, vi. 91. - - Cupping-glasses, vi. 51. - - Cures, i. 233. - - Curetes, ii. 231. - - Curetis, i. 273. - - Curia, vi. 233. - - Curiatii, ii. 135. - - Curio, the Elder, i. 269; ii. 147. - - Curio, C., the amphitheatre of, vi. 350, 351, 352. - - Curio’s, the family of the, ii. 188. - - Curius, Manius, iv. 8, 165. - - Currant-tree, iii. 226. - - Cursor, Papirius, iii. 469. - - Curtius, his devotedness, iii. 311. - - Curtius, Q., quoted, i. 134. - - Cusenta, iv. 56. - - Cutiliæ, i. 235; v. 475, 495. - - Cutleek, iv. 223, 224, 225. - - Cuttings, iii. 436 - —propagation by, iii. 464. - - Cuvier quoted, =ii.= 134, 136, 137, 139, 156, 244, 258, 262, 263, - 266, 276, 278, 279, 280, 282, 283, 285, 288, 289, 290, 291, 302, - 303, 304, 305, 307, 308, 311, 321, 350, 352, 359, 360, 361, 362, - 364, 365, 367, 369, 377, 378, 379, 380, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, - 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, - 401, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 415, 416, - 417, 418, 419, 420, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 431, - 432, 434, 436, 437, 441, 443, 444, 415, 450, 451, 462, 453, 454, - 455, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 464, 466, 467, 471, 472, 474, - 475, 476, 478, 479, 481, 482, 483, 484, 487, 488, 489, 490, 492, - 500, 506, 507, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 519, 522, 523, 526, - 527, 528, 529, 530, 533, 534; =iii.= 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 16, 23, - 25, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 42, 43, 45, 48, - 50, 57, 58; =iv.= 188. - - Cyamias, vi. 459. - - Cyamos, iv. 347, 348. - - Cyanæan Islands, i. 338. - - Cyanos (plant), iv. 328. - - Cyanos (stone), vi. 432. - - Cybele, i. 492. - - Cybindis, ii. 488. - - Cybium, ii. 386; vi. 21. - - Cychranius, ii. 504. - - Cyclades, i. 317. - - Cyclaminos, v. 125, 126. - - Cyclopes, i. 217; ii. 122, 223. - - Cyclopean walls, i. 199 - —architecture, i. 284. - - Cydius, vi. 275. - - Cydnus, i. 448; v. 475. - - Cydonea, i. 488. - - Cydonia, iii. 292, 293. - - Cyllene, i. 280, 287. - - Cymæ, iv. 185, 239; v. 48. - - Cyme, i. 472. - - Cyna, iii. 118. - - Cynægirus, vi. 248. - - Cynamolgi, ii. 104, 295. - - Cynapanxis, v. 49. - - Cynips, iii. 351. - - Cynips psenes, iii. 41. - - Cynocephali, ii. 100, 130, 135, 348; vi. 434. - - Cynocephalia, v. 429. - - Cynoglossos, v. 110. - - Cynoïdes, v. 135. - - Cynomorion, iv. 455. - - Cynopolis, i. 417, 418. - - Cynopos, vi. 62. - - Cynops, iv. 357. - - Cynorrhodos, ii. 317 - —a cure for hydrophobia, v. 84. - - Cynosbaton, iii. 207. - - Cynosbatos, iii. 412; v. 49. - - Cynosdexia, vi. 62. - - Cynosorchis, v. 240. - - Cynossema, i. 308. - - Cynosura, ii. 539. - - Cynozolon, iv. 407, 408, 409. - - Cynthus, i. 319. - - Cyparissa, i. 282. - - Cyparissias, v. 180. - - Cyperos, iv. 362, 363, 364. - - Cypira, iv. 363. - - Cypiros, iv. 359, 362. - - Cypræa, or cowry, ii. 413. - - Cypress, iii. 397, 398, 399; v. 7, 8. - - Cyprinum, iii. 161, 163, 164, 165, 289. - - Cyprinus, ii. 464. - - Cypros, iii. 146. - - Cyprus described, i. 480. - - Cyprus, (the tree), iii. 146. - - Cypseli, ii. 521. - - Cyrenaica, i. 395; iii. 399; iv. 145, 146 - —the mice of, 350 - —the trees of, iii. 200. - - Cyrene, i. 396, 397; iv. 431 - —destitute of grass, ii. 32, 33. - - Cyrni, ii. 132. - - Cyrus, i. 451, 472; ii. 33, 70 - —his great memory; ii. 164. - - Cyrus (the river), ii. 18. - - Cythera, i. 312. - - Cytheris, ii. 270. - - Cythnius, ii. 477. - - Cythnos, i. 318. - - Cytinus, iv. 500. - - Cytis, ii. 94. - - Cytisus, iii. 208, 209. - - Cytitis, vi. 446. - - Cytorus, ii. 4. - - Cyzicus, i. 489; vi. 233. - - - D. - - Daci, i. 329, 330; ii. 145. - - Dacia described, i. 329. - - Dactyli (fish), ii. 475. - - Dactyli, Idæan, ii. 225. - - Dactyliothecæ, vi. 390. - - Dactylos, v. 73. - - Dactylus (grape), iii. 320. - - Dædalus, i. 458; iv. 131 - —his inventions, ii. 226. - - Daffodil, iv. 367. - - Dahæ, ii. 34. - - Daisy, iv. 328; v. 162. - - Dalion, ii. 115. - - Dalmatia described, i. 259. - - Dama, ii. 347. - - Damaratus, i. 190; vi. 229, 283. - - Damascena, iii. 178, 295. - - Damascus, i. 431, 432 - —the Seven Sleepers of, ii. 211. - - Damasonion, v. 129, 130. - - Damastes, i. 371. - - Damion, iv. 302. - - Damon, ii. 241. - - Damophilus, vi. 284. - - Damsons, iii. 178, 295. - - Danaüs, ii. 233. - - Dandaguda, ii. 47. - - Dandelion, iv. 349. - - Danger, prognostics of, from animals, ii. 294, 295. - - Danube, i. 250, 262, 328; v. 481. - - Danuvius, v. 481. - - Daphnea, vi. 447. - - Daphnoïdes, iii. 141; v. 57. - - Dardæ, ii. 45. - - Dardanelles, i. 305, 307. - - Dardani, i. 272, 297. - - Dardanum, i. 478. - - Dardanus, i. 200. - - Darius, ii. 27, 92 - —his chest of perfumes, iii. 159. - - Dark, persons who could see in the, iii. 51. - - Darnel, iv. 55, 442, 454. - - Dascusa, ii. 19. - - Dassaretæ, i. 272. - - Dasypus, ii. 349, 543; iii. 81. - - Dates, iii. 169, 172, 174-177 - —consecrated to the gods, 176 - —green, ill effects of, on Alexander’s soldiers, 177. - - Date-bread, iii. 169. - - Date-palm, iii. 143. - - Date-wine, iii. 169, 175. - - Dathiathum, iii. 127. - - Datis, vi. 248. - - Daucus, v. 123. - - Daulis, i. 277. - - Daylight, how regulated, i. 105, 106. - - Days, irregularity of, i. 50, 51 - —longest and shortest, 108, 109 - —how computed, 110 - —in the year, vi. 162. - - Davy, Sir H., quoted, vi. 240, 245. - - Dead, closing the eyes of, iii. 53 - —remedies derived from, v. 292, 293. - - Dead-nettle, iv. 404, 405. - - Death, signs of, ii. 208 - —the greatest of blessings, ii. 219. - - Deaths, sudden, ii. 213-217 - —happy, ii. 216 - —unhappy, 217. - - Decapolis described, i. 431. - - Decay, certain trees proof against, iii. 422. - - Decii, v. 279. - - Decius, P., iii. 343. - - Deculo, ii. 554. - - Decuman path, iii. 501. - - Decuries of judges, vi. 82, 83. - - Defrutum, iii. 246, 249, 269, 270. - - Delian brass, vi. 151. - - Deliratio, iv. 65. - - Delos, i. 318, 319, 337, 338 - —the perfumes of, iii. 160. - - Delphi, i. 277 - —laurel of, iii. 332. - - Delta, i. 407. - - Demetrius (artist), vi. 180. - - Demetrius (geographer), vi. 385. - - Demetrius (physician), ii. 355. - - Demetrius Phalereus, vi. 159. - - Demetrius Poliorcetes, i. 279; vi. 165, 266. - - Democlides, iii. 158. - - Democracy, ii. 227. - - Democrates, Servilius, v. 420. - - Democritus (artist), vi. 186. - - Democritus, the philosopher, i. 149; ii. 219; v. 424 - —his foresight, iv. 95, 117 - —visits the East, v. 82 - —on plants, 64-68. - - Demodamas, ii. 33, 115. - - Demodes, iii. 157. - - Demonnesos, i. 496. - - Demosthenes, ii. 174. - - Demostratus, vi. 467. - - Demoteles, vi. 385. - - Denarii, weight of, ii. 53. - - Dendritis, vi. 461. - - Dendroïdes, v. 180. - - Denia, i. 170, 211. - - Dentatus, M. Curius, ii. 153. - - Dentatus, L. Siccius, ii. 170; iv. 393. - - Dentifrices, v. 517; vi. 365. - - Depilatories, iii. 265; v. 215, 465; vi. 55, 56. - - Depth of the sea, i. 130. - - Derbices, ii. 32. - - Derceto, i. 439. - - Dertona, i. 186. - - Dessert, iii. 102. - - Destinies at the birth of man, ii. 203. - - Deuteria, iii. 251. - - Dgiggetai, ii. 326. - - Dia, i. 315. - - Diachyton, iii. 250. - - Diacodion, iv. 279. - - Diadochos, vi. 447. - - Diadumenos, vi. 171. - - Diaglaucia, v. 247, 248. - - Diagoras, iii. 158. - - Dial in the Campus Martius, vi. 334, 335. - - Diallage, vi. 412. - - Dials, i. 106, 109. - - Diamond, vi. 405, 406 - —dust of, vi. 464. - - Diana, i. 408 - —Temple of, at Ephesus, i. 117; iii. 218, 423; vi. 343, 344, 375. - - Dianium, i. 211. - - Diapasma, iii. 166; iv. 366. - - Diapason, i. 53. - - Diaphragm, iii. 70. - - Diatichon, vi. 372. - - Diaxylon, v. 45. - - Dibapha, ii. 448; iv. 326. - - Dicæarchus, i. 95, 149. - - Dichroïte, vi. 407. - - Dictamnos, iv. 260; v. 115, 116. - - Dies fasti, vi. 76. - - Diet on figs, iv. 504. - - Dieuches, iv. 302. - - Digestion, v. 296. - - Diglito, ii. 75. - - Dill, iv. 274. - - Dimensions of the earth, i. 143-146. - - Dindymus, i. 489. - - Dinochares, the architect, i. 419; ii. 184; vi. 209. - - Dinomenes, vi. 169, 181. - - Diocæsarea, ii. 6. - - Diocles, iv. 301. - - Diodorus of Priene, ii. 357; iii. 338. - - Diodorus the physician, v. 420. - - Diodorus Siculus, i. 270 - —quoted, ii. 79. - - Diodotus, Petronius, iv. 302. - - Diogenes the Cynic, ii. 160. - - Diognetus, ii. 115. - - Diomedes, i. 227, 228, 265, 304 - —birds of, ii. 526 - —tomb of, 526. - - Diomedia, i. 265. - - Dion of Colophon, ii. 357. - - Dion Cassius quoted, i. 141, 264. - - Dionysias, vi. 447. - - Dionysius (artist), vi. 319. - - Dionysius, physician, iii. 158. - - Dionysius, Cassius, ii. 357, 555. - - Dionysius Periegetes, i. 372. - - Dionysodorus, vi. 388. - - Dionysonymphas, v. 66. - - Diophanes, ii. 357. - - Dioptase, vi. 410. - - Dioscoron, i. 224. - - Dioscurias, ii. 11. - - Diospolis, i. 416. - - Diospyron, v. 253, 254. - - Diotimus, v. 369. - - Diphryx, vi. 204, 205. - - Diphyes, vi. 447. - - Dipœnus, vi. 308, 309. - - Dipsacos, v. 242, 243. - - Dipsas, iv. 516. - - Dirce, i. 291; vi. 318, 319. - - Diribitorium, iii. 419; vi. 346. - - Discobolus, vi. 173. - - Discovery, voyages of, i. 98, 99. - - Disease, new forms of, ii. 119; v. 152 - —various instances of, ii. 206. - - Diseases, which affect certain classes, ii. 208 - —infinite in number, 209 - —of bees, iii. 22 - —of trees, 517-526, 527, 530 - —the most painful, v. 86, 87 - —of females, 210-214, 361-364, 462, 463 - —of infants, 364. - - Disposition, influence of aliments upon, iv. 435, 436. - - Distances, of the stars, i. 52 - —comparative, of places, ii. 108. - - Dittander, iv. 195, 270. - - Dittany, iv. 260, 261; v. 115. - - Dium, i. 314, - - Diver (bird), ii. 513. - - Divers, ii. 527. - - “Dives,” the surname, vi. 129. - - Divination, art of, ii. 179, 229, 230, 487. - - Divisions of the globe, i. 151, 152. - - Diyllus, ii. 242. - - Dnieper, i. 331. - - Dniester, i. 330. - - Dodder, v. 174. - - Dodecatheos, v. 88. - - Dodona, i. 133, 272, 276; vi. 342. - - Dogs, exposed, =ii.= 88 - —ruling as kings, 103 - —their fidelity, 312, 313 - —their memory, 314 - —their scent, 315 - —cross breeds of, 314, 315; - —and crocodiles of Egypt, 315 - —generation of, 316 - —of Laconia, 542 - —troubled with colic, =iii.= 71 - —their spitefulness, =v.= 114, 115 - —crucified, 391 - —remedies derived from, 391, 392. - - Dog-burr, v. 71. - - Dog-fish, ii. 377, 433, 456, 457, 458. - - Dog-nettle, iv. 351, 352. - - Dog-plant, v. 114, 115. - - Dog-rose, v. 84. - - Dog-star, i. 67. - - Dog-wolf, ii. 279. - - Dolichos, iii. 433. - - Dolium, iii. 221, 269. - - Dolopes, i. 275. - - Dolphin, ii. 461; vi. 35, 36 - —attacks the crocodile, ii. 288, 289 - —described, 368-371 - —its love for human beings, 372, 373, 374 - —its love for music, 374 - —helps men to fish, 374, 375, 376 - —other marvels relative to, 376, 377 - —of the Ganges, 384. - - Domitianus, the Emperor, i. 3; vi. 144, 370. - - Don, ii. 14. - - Donax, v. 36; vi. 58. - - Dongola, ii. 99. - - Donusa, i. 321. - - Dorade, ii. 397; vi. 19. - - Dorcas, ii. 352. - - Doripetron, v. 173. - - Doris (country), i. 293. - - Doris (plant), iv. 410. - - Doriscus, i. 305. - - Dormice, ii. 351, 352. - - Dorotheus, iii. 157. - - Dorsal spine, iii. 63. - - Dory, ii. 404. - - Dorycnium, v. 303. - - Dorylæum, i. 471. - - Doryphoros, vi. 171. - - Dosiades, i. 372. - - Dositheus, iv. 127. - - Dossennus, i. 275. - - Douching, v. 108. - - Douma Thebaica, iii. 143. - - Draave, i. 263. - - Draconitis, vi. 447. - - Dracontium, v. 57, 58, 60. - - Dracunculus, v. 37, 57, 58, 60; vi. 62. - - Dragon, or serpent, v. 395 - —its enmity to the elephant, ii. 258 - —its size, 261 - —where found, 261 - —its crest, 261; iii. 43 - —man saved by a, ii. 273. - - Dragon’s-blood, vi. 121, 245. - - Draining, iii. 448. - - Draus, i. 263. - - Dreams, ii. 165 - —signification of, ii. 553 - —what animals are subject to, ii. 553 - —at will, v. 317. - - Drepana, i. 218. - - Drepanis, iii. 90. - - Drepanum, i. 217. - - Drilo, i. 260. - - Drink, abstinence from, iii. 99 - —perfumes in, iii. 168. - - Drinking, of animals, ii. 550 - —for wagers, iii. 366. - - Drinking-horns, iii. 45. - - Drones, iii. 10, 11. - - Droppings from leaves, iii. 474, 475. - - Dropsy, ii. 159; v. 198, 199, 356, 456; vi. 49. - - Drosolithos, vi. 452, 460. - - Druggists, their fraudulence, vi. 195 - —their ignorance, 223. - - Drugs, varying prices of, vi. 143, 144. - - Druids, iii. 435, 436; v. 42, 390, 426. - - Drunkard, described, iii. 272. - - Drunkenness, described, iii. 270-274 - —antidotes to, 526; iv. 237, 513. - - Druppa, iii. 154, 279. - - Drusillanus Rotundus, vi. 134. - - Drusus, ii. 162; iii. 19; iv. 185; v. 98, 328. - - Dryitis, vi. 459. - - Dryophonon, v. 243. - - Dryopteris, v. 243. - - Drypetis, iii. 279. - - Dubius Avitus, vi. 167. - - Ducks of Pontus, v. 79. - - Ductility of gold, vi. 96. - - Dugong, iii. 57. - - Dugs of animals, iii. 82, 83. - - Duillius, Caius, vi. 157. - - Dulce, iii. 250. - - Dulichium, i. 311. - - Dung-beetle, iii. 34. - - Dunghill, plant growing upon, v. 69. - - Dupondius, vi. 89. - - Durability of wood, iii. 423, 424. - - Duracinus grape, iii. 220, 232. - - Duracinus peach, iii. 294. - - Duration of life, prognostics of, iii. 96. - - Duris, ii. 241. - - Dust productive of worms, iii. 41. - - Dwarfish and deformed tribes, ii. 131. - - Dwarfs, ii. 157; iii. 91. - - Dyeing, ii. 224; iii. 392; iv. 138, 390, 391, 409; v. 193; vi. 28, 362 - —walnuts used for, iii. 316. - - Dyers’ weed, vi. 108. - - Dyme, i. 280. - - Dyris, i. 381. - - Dyrrhachium, i. 227, 261. - - Dysentery, remedies for, v. 441, 442. - - - E. - - Eagles described, ii. 481, 508; v. 513 - —different kinds of, ii. 481-484 - —their characteristics, 484 - —the figure of, used as the Roman standard, 485, 486 - —fight with dragons, 486 - —affection shown by, 486 - —incubation of, 539. - - Eagle-fish, ii. 411. - - Eale, ii. 279. - - Eared plants, iv. 357. - - Earrings, costly, iii. 48. - - Ears, people without, ii. 103 - —large, 134 - —particulars relative to, iii. 48, 49 - —tingling of the, v. 284 - —diseases of, 337, 338, 416, 417, 418; vi. 33, 34. - - Earth, nature of the, i. 91-94 - —form of, 94 - —if surrounded by the Ocean, 98, 99, 100 - —what part inhabited, 100-103 - —middle of the world, 102 - —prodigies connected with, 115, 116 - —dimensions of, 143, 144 - —smell of, iii. 167 - —new and spontaneous productions of, 399 - —flavour of, 451. - - Earthenware, vi. 286, 287. - - Earthquakes, i. 111-116, 471, 472, 473. - - Earths, various kinds of, iii. 452, 453, 454 - —how washed, vi. 298, 299 - —of Egypt, 237 - —of Eretria, 239, 298 - —of Ebusus, 303 - —of Galata, 303. - - Eastern Ocean, ii. 33. - - Ebony, iii. 108, 109; v. 37. - - Ebro, i. 361. - - Ebulum, v. 127, 198. - - Ebusus, i. 211, 212, 404; vi. 303. - - Ecbatana, ii. 88. - - Ecbolas, iii. 263. - - Ecdippa, i. 434. - - Echecrates, his mare, ii. 543. - - Echeneïs, ii. 412, 413, 414; vi. 2, 3 - —used in enchantments, ii. 413, 414. - - Echeon, v. 412. - - Echinades, i. 274, 310. - - Echinopodes, iii. 7. - - Echinus, i. 322. - - Echios, v. 120. - - Echis, iv. 410. - - Echites, v. 56. - - Echitis, vi. 459. - - Echo, sevenfold, vi. 345. - - Eclipses, i. 31, 34, 36-39, 62 - —where visible, 104, 105 - —of the sun, vi. 450. - - Ecnephias, i. 79. - - Ἐκτραπέλοι, ii. 158. - - Ectypa, vi. 284, 454. - - Edessa, i. 443. - - Edonus, i. 309. - - Eels, ii. 408, 409. - - Eelskins used for flogging, ii. 411. - - Egagropile, iii. 72. - - Egelasta, v. 502. - - Eggs, purification with, ii. 487 - —various kinds of, 532-538 - —augury derived from, 535, 536 - —hatched by artificial heat, 536 - —how best kept, 539 - —sucked by serpents, 548, 549 - —remedies derived from, v. 585-588. - - Eggshells, superstition as to breaking, v. 282. - - Eglantine, iii. 412; iv. 310, 311, 313; v. 48, 49, 84. - - Egnatia, i. 227. - - Egypt, described, i. 406, 416 - —routes through, to the Red Sea, ii. 63, 64, 65 - —its trees, iii. 180 - —its grapes, 246 - —its beer, 274 - —its modes of cultivation, iv. 61 - —the cruelty of its kings, v. 155 - —marvellous works in, vi. 334-341. - - Egyptian thorn, iii. 183; v. 43 - —plum-tree, iii. 184 - —earth, vi. 237 - —jasper, vi. 429. - - Elæomeli, iii. 290; iv. 494. - - Elam, ii. 68. - - Elaphites, i. 267. - - Elaphoboscon, iv. 422, 423; v. 115. - - Elaphonnesus, i. 496. - - Elate, iii. 155; iv. 495, 496. - - Elatea, i. 292. - - Elaterium, iv. 207-210. - - Elatine, v. 243, 244. - - Elatus, v. 475. - - Elba, i. 214, 348. - - Elder, iii. 411, 412; v. 23, 24. - - Elecampane, iv. 167, 168, 222. - - Electricity, i. 84. - - Electrides, i. 266, 352, 397, 398. - - Electrum. _See_ “Amber.” - - Electrum (metal), vi. 105. - - Electuary, v. 52. - - Elelisphacus, iv. 449, 450. - - Elements, i. 18, 19 - —three, destitute of taste and smell, iii. 324. - - Elenchi, ii. 435. - - Elephants, mentioned, i. 9; v. 308 - —an account of, =ii.= 244-259 - —their notions of religion, 244, 245 - —when first harnessed, 245 - —bastard kind of, 245 - —trained to dance, 245 - —on the tight rope, 246 - —their docility, 247 - —wonderful feats by, 247 - —their instinct, 248 - —used in war, 249 - —their modesty, 250 - —their love for women, 250 - —their regard for justice, 251 - —when first seen in Italy, 251 - —fights by, in the Circus, 252, 253, 254 - —combats of, 252, 253 - —their appeals to human sympathy, 254 - —their merciful disposition,255 - —how caught and trained, 255, 256 - —how hunted, 256 - —African and Indian, 257 - —their gestation, 258 - —their teeth and tusks, 259 - —where found, 259 - —their enmity to the dragon, 259 - —their sagacity, 260 - —their teeth, =iii.= 58, 59 - —their hide, 80 - —their voice, 94. - - Elephantiasis, v. 152, 154, 155, 311. - - Elephantis, v. 369. - - Eleusis, i. 289. - - Eleutheræ, i. 291, 314. - - Elicius, Jupiter, i. 84. - - Elis, i. 281. - - Elk, ii. 263. - - Elleborine, v. 244. - - Elm, iii. 370; v. 22, 23 - —the wood, its uses, iii. 422 - —propagation of, 467, 468. - - Elops, ii. 399. - - Elpenor, tomb of, iii. 329. - - Elpis and the lion, ii. 271. - - Elymais, ii. 68. - - Emathii, i. 297. - - Embalming the dead, iii. 66, 161; v. 8. - - Embassy from Rome to Alexander the Great, i. 194. - - Emblems, vi. 322. - - Emboliaria, ii. 203. - - Embroidery, ii. 337. - - Emeralds, vi. 409-413. - - Emerita, i. 365. - - Emery, vi. 464. - - Emesa, i. 439. - - Emmaus, i. 428. - - Emodian Mountains, ii. 38, 42. - - Empedocles, iii. 100. - - Emperors, Roman, deified, i. 181. - - Empetros, v. 244. - - Empirics, sect of, v. 372. - - Emporetica, iii. 189. - - Emydes, vi. 15. - - Encardia, vi. 448. - - Encaustic, vi. 234, 272, 273, 282. - - Enchanters, ii. 126, 127 - —their influence on the moon, i. 31. - - Enchantments, remedies for, v. 331, 332. - _See also_ “Magic,” &c. - - Enchrysa, iv. 410, 411. - - Endive, iv. 182, 183, 233, 234, 235. - - Endymion, i. 31. - - Engadda, i. 431. - - Engedi, i. 431. - - Engraving, ii. 184. - - Enhæmon, iii. 134, 135; iv. 485. - - Enhydris, v. 430; vi. 23, 35. - - Enhygros, vi. 460. - - Eningia, i. 344. - - Enipeus, i. 295. - - Enna, i. 219. - - Enneacrunos, i. 289; v. 491. - - Enneaphyllon, v. 245. - - Ennemoser’s “History of Magic,” quoted, ii. 127. - - Ennius, ii. 176. - - Enorchis, vi. 448. - - Entertainments, wine used at, iii. 254, 255. - - Entrails, inspection of, iii. 66-70 - —head of the, 68. - - Eon, iii. 203, 204. - - Epaminondas, i. 286. - - Ephedra, v. 166. - - Ephemera, iii. 42. - - Ephemeron, v. 147, 148. - - Ephesus, i. 468 - —Temple of Diana at, 117; iii. 218, 423; vi. 343, 344, 375 - —wine of, iii. 246. - - Ephialtes, ii. 316. - - Ephippus, iii. 157. - - Ephorus, i. 371. - - Ephyre, i. 279. - - Ephyri, i. 275. - - Epicharmus, iv. 302. - - Epicurus, his garden, iv. 150 - —portraits of him worn, vi. 224, 225. - - Epidamnum, i. 261. - - Epidaurus, i. 260, 284, 285. - - Epidius, C., iii. 535. - - Epigenes, i. 149. - - Epiglossis, iii. 62. - - Epilepsy, v. 196, 197, 353, 354, 451, 452, 453; vi. 47 - —in quails, ii. 505. - - Epileus, ii. 488. - - Epimedion, v. 244, 245. - - Epimelas, vi. 449. - - Epimenides, ii. 211. - - Epipactis, v. 244. - - Epipetron, iv. 349, 350. - - Epiphanæa, i. 440. - - Epiphania, i. 444. - - Epirus described, i. 271 - —oxen of, ii. 327. - - Epithymon, v. 174, 175. - - Epodes, vi. 65. - - Equestrian order, particulars connected with, vi. 83-86. - - Equestrian statues, vi. 156, 160. - - Equisætis, iv. 91; v. 203, 204. - - Equisætum, v. 203, 204. - - Equites, inspection of the, iii. 384 - —particulars connected with, 83-86. - - Equus hemionus, ii. 326. - - Equus October, v. 327, 328. - - Erannoboas, ii. 43. - - Erasistratus, ii. 182; iii. 100; v. 372. - - Eratosthenes, i. 150. - - Erebinthus, i. 496. - - Eretria, i. 317. - - Eretrian earth, v. 239, 293. - - Ergastula, iv. 9. - - Erica, iii. 201; v. 28. - - Ericæum, iii. 14. - - Eridanus, i. 243. - - Erigeron, v. 146, 147. - - Erigonus, vi. 280. - - Erineon, iv. 507. - - Erinna, vi. 173. - - Eriophorus, iv. 142. - - Eriphia, v. 67, 68. - - Erithace, iii. 7. - - Erithacus, ii. 511. - - Ermine, ii. 308. - - Eros, Staberius, vi. 302. - - Erotylos, vi. 448. - - Eructation, absence of, ii. 160. - - Ervilia, iv. 23, 52. - - Ervum, iv. 451, 452. - - Erymanthus, i. 287. - - Eryngium, iv. 396, 397. - - Erysimum, iv. 36, 453, 454. - - Erysipelas, iv. 213; v. 199, 200, 357, 456; vi. 49. - - Erysisceptrum, iii. 146, 147; v. 45. - - Erysithales, v. 205. - - Erythallis, vi. 448. - - Erythia, i. 369. - - Erythinus, ii. 391, 467, 468; vi. 57. - - Erythræ, i. 469. - - Erythræa, i. 369. - - Erythraïcon, v. 191. - - Erythras, ii. 66, 87. - - Erythrodanus, v. 38, 39. - - Eryx, i. 218, 219. - - Esseda, vi. 215. - - Essedones, i. 335; ii. 34, 123. - - Essenes, i. 430, 431. - - Este, i. 252. - - Eternity of matter, iii. 450. - - Etesiaca, iii. 229. - - Etesiæ, i. 76, 77. - - Etesian stone, vi. 367. - - Etruria described, i. 186. - - Etrurian observations on thunder and lighting, i. 81-85. - - Euagon of Thasos, ii. 357. - - Euanthes, ii. 355. - - Eubœa described, i. 316. - - Eubulides, vi. 186. - - Euchir, ii. 232; vi. 187, 283. - - Euclase, vi. 413. - - Euclea, v. 131. - - Euclid, i. 149. - - Eucnemos, vi. 183. - - Euctemon, iv. 128. - - Eudemus, v. 378. - - Eudicus, v. 523. - - Eudoxus of Cnidoe, i. 78, 149. - - Eudoxus of Cyzicus, ii. 114. - - Euganei, i. 254, 255. - - Eugenia, iii. 224. - - Euhemerus, vi. 385. - - Eulæus, ii. 62, 79, 80. - - Eumachus, i. 371. - - Eumeces, vi. 448. - - Eumenes, King, i. 308 - —invents parchment, iii. 186. - - Eumithres, vi. 448. - - Eunicus, vi. 185. - - Eunuchs, iii. 47, 81, 92; v. 31; vi. 139. - - Euonymos, iii. 203. - - Eupatoria, ii. 5. - - Eupatoria (plant), v. 103. - - Eupetalos, vi. 448. - - Euphorbia, i. 383; iv. 228, 264, 278, 281; v. 14, 15, 54, 68, 107, - 108, 177-190, 261. - - Euphorbus, v. 108. - - Euphranor, vi. 169, 181, 274, 275, 303. - - Euphrates, i. 441, 446; ii. 72. - - Euphron, iii. 158. - - Euphronius, ii. 357. - - Euphrosynum, v. 109. - - Eupompus, vi. 174, 255. - - Eureos, vi. 448. - - Euripi, ii. 253; vi. 270. - - Euripice, iv. 364. - - Euripides, iv. 423; vi. 467. - - Euripus, i. 292, 316, 323. - - Europa and Jupiter, iii. 105. - - Europe, the boundaries of i. 153 - —the gulfs of, 153 - —islands of, 210 - —north of, described, 339 - —measurement of, 369. - - Europus, ii. 28. - - Eurotas, i. 283. - - Eurotias, vi. 448, 449. - - Eurus, i. 73; iv. 116. - - Eurymedon, i. 459. - - Eusebes, vi. 449. - - Euthycrates, vi. 170, 176. - - Euthymus, deified in his life-time, ii. 199. - - Eutychides, vi. 170, 319. - - Eutychis of Tralles, ii. 137. - - Euxine, i. 326, 338 - —described, ii. 1 - —islands of, ii. 22. - - Euxinidas, vi. 255. - - Evacuations, an Animal that has no passage for the, iii. 40, 41. - - Evander, i. 286; vi. 162. - - Evenus, i. 275. - - Evergreens, iii. 373, 374. - - Evil eye, ii. 127. - - Evonymitæ, ii. 100. - - Exacum, v. 104. - - Excæcaria agallochum, iii. 115. - - Excellence, man of the greatest, ii. 179. - - Excretions, human, remedies derived from, v. 294, 295. - - Exebenus, vi. 44. - - Exedum, v. 71. - - Exercise, v. 296. - - Exocœtus, ii. 406. - - Exonychon, v. 253, 254. - - Expiations for lightning, iii. 302. - - Extraction of substances from the flesh, v. 461, 462; vi. 51. - - Eye, a beast that kills with the, ii. 281. - - Eyes, particulars relative to the, iii. 49 - —colour of, 50, 51 - —seeing in the dark, 50, 51, 53 - —expressive of the character, 51, 52 - —pupils of, 52, 53 - —diseases of, 53 - —of certain animals will grow again when removed, 54 - —remedies for diseases of, v. 136, 335, 336, 411-416; vi. 29, 30. - - Eye-brows, iii. 49. - - Eye-lashes, iii. 54 - —fall of, with some persons, 54. - - Eye-lids, iii. 54, 55 - —affections and diseases of the, v. 410, 411; vi. 29, 30, 31. - - - F. - - Fabaria, i. 344. - - Fabariæ, iv. 45. - - Faber (fish), ii. 404. - - Fabianus, i. 148. - - Fabii, family of the, ii. 188; vi. 230. - - Fabius Maximus, iv. 393 - —saves Rome, iv. 393. - - Fabricius, vi. 137, 138, 161. - - Fabrics that rival flowers in colour, iv. 326, 327. - - Fabulous birds, ii. 530. - - Face, iii. 49 - —diseases of, v. 340, 341, 342 - —remedy for spots on, v. 432, 443; vi. 35. - - Factio, ii. 217, 505. - - Factus, iii. 286. - - Facundus Novus, vi. 334, 335. - - Fæcatum, iii. 251. - - Fagutal, iii. 355. - - Falconry, in an early state, ii. 488. - - Falernian wine, iii. 240, 254; iv. 270, 271. - - Falernum, i. 195. - - Falisci, i. 188. - - Fallow deer, iii. 44. - - False incense, iii. 356, 357. - - Famine at Casilinum, ii. 351. - - Famous trees, iii. 432, 433. - - Fangs of serpents, iii. 57, 58. - - Fannius Palæmon, iii. 188. - - Far, iv. 19, 24, 31, 32, 33. - - Farfarum, v. 54, 55. - - Farfugium, v. 54, 55. - - Farina, iv. 33. - - Farm-house, iv. 13, 14, 15. - - Farm-steward, iv. 15. - - Farnese Bull, vi. 319. - - Farrago, iv. 20, 52. - - Farreum, iv. 5. - - Fascinations, ii. 127. - - Fascinus, v. 290. - - Fasti, vi. 76. - - Fat, iii. 76 - —drawn off, iii. 76 - —various kinds of, v. 324, 325, 326. - - Fatui, v. 256. - - Fauces, iii. 64. - - Fauces Caudinæ, i. 229. - - Fauni, ii. 316. - - Fausta, her fecundity, ii. 135. - - Faustian wine, iii. 240. - - Faventia, i. 242. - - Favenza, i. 242. - - Favonius, i. 74; iv. 116. - - Fear, iii. 80. - - Feathers of the eagle consume those of other birds, ii. 485. - - Fecundation of trees, iii. 381. - - Fecundity, ii. 135, 136, 137. - - Federate towns, i. 155. - - Fée, M., his labours on Pliny, iii. 105; v. 272. - - Feeding of animals, diversities in the, ii. 548. - - Feet, iii. 89 - —of birds, ii. 490; iii. 90 - —of animals, from two to a hundred, 91 - —diseases of the, v. 192, 352, 353, 447, 446. - - Fel terræ, v. 104. - - Felt, ii. 335. - - Feltre, i. 252. - - Female sex, remedies derived from, v. 301, 302. - - Females, once pregnant only, ii. 130 - —in what cases more courageous than males, iii. 92 - —diseases of, v. 210, 211, 212, 360-364, 462, 463; vi. 53, 54, 55. - - Fenestella, ii. 354. - - Feniculum, ii. 293. - - Fennel, iv. 296, 297. - - Fennel-giant, iii. 204, 205; iv. 198, 199, 298, 299. - - Fenugreek, v. 74, 75. - - Ferentum, i. 230. - - Fern, v. 245, 246. - - Feronia, i. 188. - - Ferret, ii. 349; v. 392. - - Ferula, iii. 204, 205. - - Ferulaceous plants, iv. 198. - - Fescennia, i. 189. - - Fescennine songs, iii. 315. - - Fetialis, iii. 436. - - Fevers, remedies for, v. 197, 198, 354, 355, 453-456; vi. 47. - - Fezzan, i. 398. - - Fibulæ, vi. 74, 87. - - Ficarii, iii. 41. - - Ficedula, ii. 511. - - Ficus religiosa, ii. 129. - - Ficus sycamorus, iii. 180. - - Fidenæ, i. 206. - - Fidentia, i. 242. - - Fidustius, M., ii. 189. - - Field mice, i. 68; ii. 351. - - Field nard, iv. 318, 319. - - Figs, iii. 173, 307-311, 313, 531; iv. 502-507 - —the cause of a war, iii. 309, 310. - —Indian, 109, 110 - —of Alexandria, 180 - —of Cyprus, 181 - —wine made from, 257. - - Figures, natural, in stone, vi. 309. - - Filberts, i. 198, 199; iii. 316. - - Filicula, v. 175. - - Filix, v. 245, 246. - - Filters for wine, iii. 270. - - Fine flour, iv. 442, 443. - - Fingers, iii. 86 - —peculiarities in the, 86 - —maladies of the, v. 458. - - Fins of fish, ii. 408. - - Fir, iii. 357, 359 - —gigantic, iii. 419. - - Fire, the marvels of, i. 141, 142, 143; vi. 383 - —how first preserved, ii. 226; iii. 206 - —animal found in, iii. 42 - —obtained from wood, iii. 421 - —prognostics derived from, iv. 122. - - Firmus, iv. 205. - - Fiscus, ii. 171. - - Fish, tame, i. 317 - —diet on, ii. 134 - —their faculties, 367, 368, 369 - —species of, how many, 381 - —the largest, 381, 382 - —not found in the Euxine, 387, 388 - —why they leap above the surface, 390 - —auguries derived from, 391 - —that have no males, 391, 392 - —that have a stone in the head, 392, 393 - —that conceal themselves during the winter, 393, 394 - —that are taken at stated times only, 395 - —that conceal themselves in summer, 396 - —pickled alive, 403 - —enormous prices of, 403 - —not everywhere equally esteemed, 404 - —their gills and scales, 405, 406 - —that have a voice, 406 - —that come on land, 406, 407 - —time for catching them, 407 - —classification of, 407 - —their fins and modes of swimming, 408 - —flat, 411 - —that fly, 415 - —that shine at night, 415 - —destitute of blood, 416 - —soft, 416 - —maladies of, 460, 461 - —generation of, 460, 461-465 - —that are both oviparous and viviparous, 465, 466 - —peculiarities in their spawning, 466 - —that impregnate themselves, 466 - —aged, 467 - —that come on land, 471, 472 - —that have the best hearing, 547 - —tame, 547 - —that have the finest sense of smell, 547 - —teeth of, =iii.= 57 - —bones of, 77 - —how poisoned, =v.= 118 - —consulted, 480 - —poisonous, 480, 481, 482 - —instincts of, =vi.= 7 - —marvelous properties of, 8 - —that eat from the hand, 8 - —oracular responses by, 8, 9 - —that are bitter, salt, or sweet, 9, 10 - —glue made from, 31, 32. - - Fishermen, hardiness of, v. 511. - - Fish-preserves, ii. 467, 469, 547. - - Fistula, remedies for, v. 200. - - Fitches, iv. 40, 51, 451, 452. - - “Flaccus,” the surname, iii. 48. - - Flamen, iv. 44 - —Dialis, v. 327, 328. - - Flamens, apex of the, iv. 430. - - Flamingo, ii. 528, 529, 530. - - Flammeum, iv. 327. - - Flanatic Gulf, i. 251. - - Flavius, Cneius, iii. 156; vi. 76, 77. - - Flavus, Alfius, ii. 476. - - Fleawort, v. 135. - - Flexible glass, vi. 381. - - Flight of birds, ii. 504, 506, 520. - - Flies, produce maggots, ii. 546 - —when drowned, come to life, iii. 43 - —rub their eyes, 91. - - Flint, vi. 360, 371, 372, 448. - - Floating islands, i. 122, 123. - - Floating of dead bodies, ii. 158. - - Flock, iv. 134. - - Floralia, iv. 99. - - Florence, i. 189. - - Flour, iv. 33, 34. - - Flower of Jove, iv. 333, 337. - - Flower of salt, v. 506, 507. - - Flower of wine, iii. 269. - - Flowers, the colours of, iv. 304, 317, 326, 327 - —their odours, 321-323 - —the blossoming of, 336, 337, 338 - —duration of, 339. - - Fluor spar, vi. 392, 394, 433. - - Flute reeds, iii. 405, 408. - - Flutes, treble and bass, iii. 408. - - Fly-catcher, ii. 511. - - Flying-fish, ii. 415; iii. 81. - - Foal-foot, iii. 121, 122. - - Fœtus, how formed, iii. 64. - - Foliatum, iii. 165. - - Food, abstinence from, iii. 99 - —prognostics derived from, iv. 125. - - Forcing-beds, iv. 156. - - Forehead, iii. 49. - - Foreknowledge of the future in sleep, ii. 553. - - Formacean walls, vi. 289. - - Formation of insects, ii. 45. - - Formentera, i. 211. - - Formiæ, i. 194. - - Formulæ, v. 279-283, 286. - - Fornacalia, iv. 4. - - Fortunate Islands, i. 367, 368; ii. 107. - - Fortune, worshipped as the great divinity, i. 23 - —statue of, ii. 338 - —temple of, vi. 171. - - Forum of Augustus, ii. 215. - - Forum Boarium, vi. 151. - - Forum Julii, i. 178. - - Fossils, i. 322; vi. 358, 360. - - Fountains and rivers, wonders of, i. 131-138. - - Fowls, the best kinds of, ii. 536 - —diseases of, 536. - - Foxes, their craftiness, ii. 295. - - Fox-glove, iii. 121. - - Fraces, iii. 286. - - Frankincense, iii. 124-129 - —carriage and high price of, 128, 129. - - Frantic laurel, iii. 431, 432. - - Frescoes, vi. 291. - - Free towns, i. 155. - - Freedmen, who have become famous, vi. 301, 302. - - Free-stone, vi. 368. - - Frejus, i. 178. - - Fresh water in the sea, i. 479. - - Friendships of animals, ii. 551, 552. - - Frisii, i. 349. - - Friuli, i. 253. - - Frogs, vi. 21, 22, 32, 34, 35, 38, 39 - —the generation of, ii. 462, 463 - —dumb, 353 - —the tongue of, iii. 61, 62. - - Frog-fish, ii. 452. - - Fruiting of trees, iii. 384, 385. - - Fruits, wines made from, iii. 256, 257 - —foreign, 297-300 - —modes of keeping, 303-307 - —juices of, 323-326 - —various natures of, 326, 327, 328. - - Fucinus, i. 232. - - Fucus, iii. 209 - —ericoides, 210 - —vesiculosus, 210 - —avarice, 210. - - Fuel, wood for, iii. 348, 349. - - Fugitive stone, vi. 344, 345. - - Fuller quoted, vi. 387. - - Fulling, ii. 224; vi. 300, 301. - - Fulvius, L., ii. 190. - - Fumitory, v. 142. - - Fundament, remedies for diseases of, v. 187, 350, 351, 445; vi. 44. - - Fundanian wine, iii. 241. - - Funerals, perfumes burnt at, iii. 137. - - Funereal games, ii. 232. - - Fungi, iii. 351, 352; iv. 429, 430, 431. - - Furunculi, v. 200. - - Fuseli quoted, vi. 235. - - Fustic, iii. 371. - - - G. - - Gabalium, iii. 142. - - Gabbaras, the giant, ii. 157. - - Gabienus, his death, ii. 213. - - Gabii, i. 201. - - Gabinius, i. 376. - - Gadara, i. 432. - - Gades, Straits of, i. 151, 152, 210, 368. - - Gadfly, iii. 35 - —becomes blind, iii. 42, 43. - - Gadis, i. 368. - - Gæanis, vi. 456. - - Gaëta, i. 194. - - Gagæ, i. 455. - - Gagates, vi. 361, 362. - - Gait, iii. 89. - - Galactite, vi. 449. - - Galatia described, i. 491. - - Galaxias, i. 449. - - Galba, Sulpicius, vi. 385. - - Galbanum, iii. 152; v. 10. - - Galen quoted, i. 111 - —an opinion of, alluded to, ii. 152, 153. - - Galena, vi. 112, 118, 212, 218. - - Galeobdolon, v. 246. - - Galeopsis, v. 246. - - Galeos, vi. 12, 63. - - Galerita, iii. 43. - - Galgulus, ii. 506, 515, 548; v. 452. - - Galion, v. 246. - - Gall, iii. 68, 69; v. 327, 328 - —animals destitute of, iii. 68 - —of extraordinary size, 68 - —persons without it, 69 - —double, 69 - —of the bull, 69. - - Gallæcia, i. 363. - - Gallaica, vi. 449. - - Galli castrate themselves, iii. 92. - - Gallia, Narbonensis, i. 174 - —Togata, 237 - —Belgica, 353. - - Gallic nard, iv. 369, 370. - - Gallic Ocean, islands of, i. 349. - - Gallidraga, v. 249. - - Gallio, Annæus, v. 496. - - Gallipoli, i. 225, 305, 307, 308. - - Gallnut, iii. 350; v. 5. - - Gallus, Ælius, ii. 90. - - Gallus, river, i. 493; v. 474. - - Gallus, Sulpicius, i. 36, 147. - - Gamala, i. 427. - - Gamecocks, ii. 498. - - Games, sacred, iii. 343. - - Gamphasantes, i. 405. - - Gander, ii. 499. - - Gangaridæ, ii. 44. - - Ganges, ii. 43, 131. - - Gangites, ii. 484. - - Gantæ, ii. 499. - - Garama, i. 399. - - Garamantes, i. 392, 401, 404, 405. - - Garden, pleasures of the, iv. 149-154. - - Garden-grounds, laying out of, iv. 154. - - Gardens, statues in, iv. 150. - - Gargara, i. 474, 475. - - Garlands, iv. 304-309, 329, 330, 333, 334. - - Garlic, iv. 174, 175, 176, 225-228. - - Garnet, vi. 420, 421. - - Garum, ii. 403; iv. 227; v. 507, 508. - - Gassinade, vi. 449. - - Gates of Rome, i. 203. - - Gaugamela, ii. 71. - - Gauls, invasion of Asia by, i. 492 - —their invasion of Italy, iii. 103 - —besiege Rome, vi. 75, 76. - - Gausapa, ii. 333, 335. - - Gaza, i. 423. - - Gazæ, ii. 28. - - Gazelle, ii. 347, 352. - - Gebanitæ, iii. 128, 129, 130. - - Gecko, ii. 299; iii. 31. - - Gedrosi, ii. 360. - - Gedrosia, ii. 50 - —trees of, iii. 115. - - Gedrusi, ii. 59. - - Geese, hatching of, ii. 538. - - Gegania, vi. 152. - - Gela, i. 219. - - Gelduba, iv. 166. - - Gellianus, i. 269. - - Gellius, Cneius, ii. 239. - - Geloni, i. 335. - - Gelotophyllis, v. 66. - - Gemitorian Steps, ii. 314. - - Gemursa, v. 155. - - Generals, exhibitions by, of their victories, vi. 233, 234. - - Generation, ii. 144, 149, 150, 152, 153, 540-544. - - Genesara, Lake of, i. 429. - - Geneva, Lake of, i. 175. - - Genita Mana, v. 391. - - Genitals, remedies for diseases of, iii. 350, 351; v. 445, 446; - vi. 45. - - Genius, men of, ii. 173. - - Gennesareth, Sea of, i. 429. - - Genoa, i. 185. - - Genre-painters, vi. 268. - - Gentian, v. 105, 106. - - Genua, i. 184 - —wines of, iii. 242. - - Genuini, iii. 59. - - Geodes, vi. 360, 364, 365, 444, 446, 449, 456 - —enhydros, 460. - - Geometry, ii. 183. - - Ger, i. 382. - - Geræstus, i. 316. - - Geranion, v. 195. - - Geranitis, v. 459. - - Gergitha, i. 474. - - Germ, iii. 496. - - Germanicus, i. 469; ii. 319, 330; v. 85 - —his death, iii. 67. - - Germany described, i. 345. - - Germination of fruit, iii. 382 - —of trees, iii. 381, 382. - - Gerra, ii. 84. - - Gerres, vi. 62. - - Gerrhæ, v. 501. - - Gerricula, vi. 62. - - Geryon, i. 369. - - Geskleithron, ii. 123. - - Gesoriacum, i. 350, 353. - - Gestatio, v. 296. - - Gestation, period of, ii. 139, 140. - - Getæ, i. 329. - - Geum, v. 166. - - Ghauts, ii. 46. - - Gibbon’s History, quoted, i. 346, 348. - - Gibraltar, i. 152. - - Gigantic trees, iii. 419, 420. - - Gilding, vi. 98, 99, 124, 295 - —frauds committed in, vi. 114. - - Gills of fish, ii. 367, 405, 406. - - Gilthead, ii. 395; vi. 19. - - Ginger, iii. 112. - - Gingidion, iv. 219, 220. - - Ginnus, ii. 326. - - Ginseng, iv. 285. - - Giraffe, ii. 277. - - Girasol opal, vi. 437, 456. - - Gith, iv. 195, 270, 271. - - Gladiators, their combats painted, vi. 246 - —their mode of cure, vi. 384. - - Gladiolus, iv. 359; v. 134. - - Glæsaria, i. 344; vi. 401. - - Glæsariæ, i. 351. - - Glæsum, vi. 401. - - Glanis, ii. 452. - - Glans, iii. 341, 345. - - Glass, i. 434 - —broken, how to mend, v. 388 - —the discovery and manufacture of, vi. 379-382. - - Glastum, iv. 389, 390. - - Glauce, ii. 498. - - Glaucias, iv. 303. - - Glaucides, vi. 187. - - Glaucion, the artist, vi. 276. - - Glaucion (plant), iv. 278; v. 247, 248. - - Glauciscus, vi. 53. - - Glaucus, ii. 396. - - Glaux, v. 247. - - Gleucinum, iii. 289; iv. 492. - - Globe, divisions of the, i. 151, 152. - - Glossopetra, vi. 449. - - Glottis, ii. 504. - - Glow-worm, iii. 34. - - Glue, iii. 427; v. 358. - - Gluttony, v. 169, 297. - - Glycera, iv. 305; vi. 273, - - Glycyrrhiza, iv. 351, 399, 400; v. 217. - - Glycyside, v. 88, 89, 248, 249. - - Gnaphalium, v. 249. - - Gnats, iii. 2, 42; v. 469. - - Gnesios, ii. 483. - - Gnu, ii. 282. - - Goats, ii. 339 - —their propagation, 339, 340 - —their intelligence, 340 - —shearing of, 341 - —not sacrificed to Minerva, 342 - —destructive to trees, 342 - —suckled by birds, 521 - —collect laudanum on their beard, iii. 133; v. 171. - - Goat-lettuce, iv. 228. - - Goatsucker, ii. 521. - - Goblets, wooden, iii. 420. - - God, opinions upon the existence of, i. 20-25. - - Gods, plurality of, i. 20, 21 - —their respective trees, iii. 102. - - Goitre, vi. 402. - - Gold, a place where it is buried in the earth, ii. 79 - —excavated by ants, iii. 39; vi. 99, 442, 443 - —an account of, 69, 70 - —its first recommendation, 71 - —rings made of, 71-75, 76-82 - —quantity of, possessed by the ancients, 75, 76 - —crowns made of, 86 - —uses made of by females, 87, 88 - —cupidity for, 91, 92, 93 - —coronets made of, 94, 95 - —high value set upon, 96, 97, 98 - —cloth of, 98 - —how found, 99-104 - —statues made of, 105, 106 - —remedies derived from, 106, 107. - - Golden Fleece, vi. 94. - - Golden Horn, i. 307; ii. 388. - - Golden Palace of Nero, vi. 95, 185, 271, 349, 370. - - Gold-mines, ii. 22, 123, 225; vi. 99, 104. - - Goldsmiths, iv. 37. - - Golgi, i. 481. - - Gonger, vi. 62. - - Goniæa, vi. 450. - - Good fortune in the same family, instances of, ii. 187, 191, 199. - - Goose, its liver artificially increased, ii. 344 - —its asserted bashfulness, 496 - —its vigilance, 498 - —saves the Capitol, 498; v. 391 - —sacred, ii. 498 - —falls in love, 498 - —its wisdom, 499 - —its feathers, 499, 500. - - Gooseberry, v. 49. - - Goosefoot, v. 236. - - Goosegrass, v. 71, 227, 390, 391. - - Gordian Knot, i. 490. - - Gordiucome, i. 490. - - Gordium, i. 492. - - Gorgades, ii. 106. - - Gorgasus, vi. 284. - - Gorgias, vi. 106. - - Gorgonia, vi. 450. - - Gorgoniæ, iii. 212. - - Gortyna, i. 286, 314. - - Gossypium, iv. 134, 135; v. 274. - _See_ “Cotton.” - - Goths, i. 346. - - Gourds, iv. 158-161, 212, 213. - - Gout, v. 192 - —remedies for, v. 352, 353, 447; vi. 46, 47. - - Government of bees, iii. 18. - - Gracchanus, Junius, vi. 144. - - Gracchi, ii. 149, 154. - - Gracchus, C., ii. 237. - - Gracilis, Turannius, i. 267. - - Græcanic pavements, vi. 378. - - “Græcia,” the name, i. 288, 293. - - Græcinus, Julius, iii. 275. - - Græcostasis, ii. 237. - - Græcula, iii. 224. - - Græcus, i. 293. - - Grafting, iii. 295, 298, 302, 467, 477-485 - —marvels of, 484. - - Grain, different kinds of, iv. 19-24 - —grown in the East, 31, 32 - —diseases of, 54, 55, 56 - —remedies for them, 57, 58, 59. - - Grain of Cnidos, iii. 201; v. 242. - - Grain of wood, iii. 414. - - Gramen, v. 72, 73. - - Grampus, ii. 359. - - Granæum, iv. 43. - - Granatum, iii. 200. - - Granicus, i. 476, 489. - - Granius, v. 368. - - Grapes, the nature of, iii. 218-222 - —smoked, 221 - —of Egypt, 246 - —solstitial, 256 - —modes of keeping, 304-307 - —how protected from insects, 517 - —remedies from fresh; iv. 461 - —from preserved, 461, 462. - - Grape-fish, ii. 359; vi. 57, 65. - - Grape-husks, iv. 463. - - Grape-stones, iv. 462. - - Graphia, vi. 229, 255. - - Graphis, vi. 255. - - Grasshoppers, iii. 31, 32, 33 - —eaten, 32 - —have no mouth, 32 - —countries without, 32, 33 - —some without a voice, 33. - - Gratidianus, Marius, vi. 159. - - Graviscæ, i. 188 - —wines of, iii. 242. - - Great year, revolution of the, ii. 480, 481. - - Greece, trees of, iii. 201. - - Greek-nuts, iv. 513, 514. - - Greek weights and measures, iv. 386, 387. - - Greeks, hated by Cato the Censor, ii. 176 - —their credulity, 283, 284 - —the opinion of Cato upon them, v. 375. - - Greffe-Diane, iii. 484. - - Gremil, v. 253. - - Grey partridge, ii. 529. - - Griffins, ii. 123, 530. - - Grinding of corn, iv. 33, 37, 38. - - Gromphæna, v. 167, 469. - - Grotto del Cane, i. 121, 122. - - Ground strawberry, iii. 320. - - Groundsel, v. 146. - - Grouse, ii. 528. - - Groves, consecrated, iii. 535. - - Growth of plants, iv. 177, 178. - - Grunting, iii. 94. - - Gryllus, v. 439. - - Grynia, i. 473. - - Gubbio, i. 239. - - Guests, inferior wine given to, iii. 253. - - Guinea-fowls, ii. 528. - - Gulfs of Europe, i. 153. - - Gullet, iii. 62, 64. - - Gum, v. 42, 43 - —nine kinds of, iii. 184, 185 - —acacia, v. 43, 44 - —ammoniac, iii. 144, 145; v. 11 - —Arabic, iii. 134 - —de Lecce, 134 - —tragacanth, 202. - - Gutones, i. 346. - - Guttalus, i. 348. - - Guzerat, ii. 48. - - Gyara, i. 321 - —the mice of, ii. 350. - - Gyges, ii. 199. - - Gymnasia, v. 294, 295. - - Gymnastic games, ii. 232. - - Gymnetæ, i. 404; ii. 133. - - Gymnosophists, ii. 129; iii. 110. - - Gynæcanthe, iv. 468. - - Gypsies, ii. 13, 15. - - Gypsum, vi. 376 - —wine treated with, iii. 266 - —used in making alica, iv. 43 - —taken internally, 269. - - Gyrini, ii. 462. - - - H. - - Habron, vi. 261, 281. - - Hadramaut, ii. 87, 90. - - Hadrobolon, iii. 116. - - Hæbudes, i. 351. - - Hæmatites, vi. 356, 362, 363. - - Hæmatitis, vi. 451. - - Hæmatopus, ii. 527. - - Hæmorrhage, v. 203, 358, 359 - —methods of arresting, v. 458; vi. 50. - - Hæmorrhoïs (serpent), iv. 226. - - Hæmus, Mount, i. 272, 302, 303, 306; v. 492. - - Hagnon, vi. 92. - - Hail, i. 90, 91. - - Hair, iii. 81, 82 - —facts relative to, 46, 47; v. 291 - —cutting of, iii. 417 - —applications for, v. 214. - - Hair of Isis (plant), iii. 212. - - Hair-pencil, vi. 250. - - Halcyon, ii. 512, 513; vi. 36. - - Halcyon days, i. 76; ii. 512, 513; iv. 82. - - Halcyoneum, vi. 35, 37. - - Halcyonium, ii. 513. - - Haliacmon, i. 298; v. 476. - - Haliætus, ii. 483, 484. - - Halicacabum, iv. 385. - - Halicarnassus, i. 462. - - Halieuticon of Ovid quoted, vi. 65, 66, 67. - - Halimon, iv. 419, 420. - - Halipleumon, vi. 68. - - Halonnesos, i. 325. - - Halus, v. 169. - - Halys, ii. 5, 6. - - Hamaxobii, i. 330. - - Hammitis, vi. 450. - - Hammochrysos, vi. 459. - - Hammon, Jupiter, i. 395. - - Hammoniacum (resin), iii. 144, 145; v. 11. - - Hammoniacum (salt), v. 502. - - Hammonis cornu, vi. 451. - - Hammonitrum, vi. 381. - - Hams, iii. 87, 88. - - Hands, iii. 80. - - Handwriting, iii. 91. - - Hanging, baths, ii. 468 - —city, vi. 343 - —gardens, iv. 150; vi. 343. - - Hannibal, i. 164, 227, 230, 493, 494; ii. 19; vi. 78, 112, 161, 290, - 305 - —at the gates of Rome, iii. 310. - - Hanno, i. 99, 378, 499; ii. 106. - - Happiness, supreme, instances of, ii. 186. - - Happy, men pronounced most, ii. 199 - —why Arabia was so called, iii. 136, 137. - - Hares, different species of, ii. 348, 349 - —sleep with the eyes open, iii. 52 - —with a double liver, iii. 68. - - Haricot bean, iv. 47. - - Harmodius, vi. 155, 177, 179. - - Harmoge, vi. 235. - - Harmony of the spheres, i. 17 - —of the stars, 52, 53. - - Harpalus, iv. 128. - - Harpasa, i. 465. - - Harpocrates, vi. 88. - - Harrowing, iv. 66, 67. - - Hartwort, iv. 221, 288, 289; v. 71. - - Harvesting, iv. 103, 104. - - Hasheesh, v. 65. - - Hasta pura, ii. 170. - - Hatching, ii. 534-537. - - Hawks, ii. 487, 488, 519; iv. 229 - —pursue the chase with men, ii. 488. - - Hawkweed, iv. 229, 230. - - Hay-grass, v. 257. - - Haymaking, iv. 89, 92. - - Hazel nuts, iii. 316; iv. 515. - - Head, induration of the bones of, ii. 118 - —in animals, iii. 46 - —bones of the, 47 - —hardest in the parrot, 47 - —wounds in the, v. 409, 410 - —how strengthened, 298 - —diseases of, 334. - - Head-ache, remedies for, v. 409, 410. - - Health indicated by the urine, v. 301. - - Hearing, acuteness of, ii. 163. - - Heart, iii. 64, 65, 66 - —inspected for divination, 66 - —found wanting in the victims, 66 - —in what cases it will not burn, 67. - - Hearth, prodigies connected with, vi. 384. - - Hebrus, i. 303, 305. - - Hecale, iv. 426; v. 184. - - Hecatæus, vi. 139, 185. - - Hecatæus of Abdera, ii. 114. - - Hecatæus of Miletus, i. 370. - - Hecatompylos, ii. 29. - - Hecuba, i. 308. - - Hederine, v. 33. - - Hedge-hogs, ii. 308, 309 - —their quills used for carding, 309. - - Ἡδύοσμον, iv. 193. - - Hedysmata, iii. 161. - - Hedystratides, vi. 139. - - Hegesias (artist), vi. 182. - - Hegesias (historian), ii. 242. - - Hegias, vi. 181, 182. - - He-goat, the wonderful effects of its blood, iv. 207; vi. 407. - - Height, measurement of, ii. 158; vi. 338 - —of man, iii. 377. - - Helena, iv. 377; v. 81. - - Helenium, iv. 333, 376, 377 - —wine made from it, iii. 259. - - Helianthes, v. 66. - - Helice, i. 280. - - Helices, v. 62. - - Helichrysos, iv. 380, 381. - - Helicon, i. 278, 290. - - Heliocallis, v. 66. - - Heliodorus, vi. 187, 319. - - Heliodorus Periegetes, vi. 146. - - Helion, v. 23, 24. - - Heliopolis, i. 418; vi. 331. - - Helioscopios, v. 179. - - Helioscopium, iv. 413, 414, 415. - - Helioselinon, iv. 179, 248. - - Heliotropium (plant), iv. 356, 413, 414, 415. - - Heliotropium (stone), vi. 450. - - Helix, iii. 401. - - Helix neritoïdea, ii. 311. - - Helix pomatia, ii. 311. - - Hellanicus, i. 371. - - Hellas, i. 278, 288. - - Hellebore, i. 277; v. 96-101. - - Hellen, i. 293. - - Hellespont, i. 326 - —described, i. 488. - - Helops, vi. 66. - - Helos, i. 282. - - Helots, ii. 227. - - Helvennaca, iii. 227, 250; iv. 476. - - Helvetii, i. 355. - - Helxine, iv. 353, 406; v. 115. - - Hemerobion, iii. 42. - - Hemerocalles, iv. 333, 376. - - Hemina, Cassius, iii. 156. - - Hemionion, v. 95, 96, 228, 229. - - Hemlock, v. 140, 141; - —wine, an antidote to the effects of, iii. 238. - - Hemp, iv. 198, 297, 298. - - Henbane, v. 91, 92. - - Heneti, ii. 4. - - Heniochi, ii. 10, 11, 12, 22. - - Henna, iii. 146; iv. 492. - - Henry II. of France, ii. 153. - - Henry V. of England, his saying, iii. 404. - - Hepatites, vi. 363, 364. - - Hepatitis, vi. 458. - - Hephæstiades, i. 221. - - Hephæstitis, vi. 450. - - Hepsema, iii. 248. - - Heptaphonon, v. 345. - - Heraclæa, i. 298. - - Heracleon, v. 107. - - Heracleopolites, i. 408. - - Heracleos, v. 253, 254. - - Heracleotici, ii. 425. - - Heraclia, i. 224, 273. - - Heraclides of Heraclæa, i. 373; iii. 158. - - Heraclides of Tarentum, iii. 158. - - Heraclides (artist), vi. 276. - - Heraclides (physician), vi. 145. - - Heraclion, vi. 355. - - Heraclium, iv. 268, 269, 270, 278, 279. - - Herat, ii. 58. - - Herb mastich, iii. 147. - - Herba pratensis, iv. 14. - - Herbalists, their malpractices, iv. 372. - - Herbs, wines made from, iii. 259, 260 - —juices and flavours of, iv. 202, 203. - - Herculanea (ants), v. 432. - - Herculaneum, i. 197. - - Hercules, i. 157, 177, 304, 318, 369, 375; ii. 33, 48, 55; v. 103, 298 - —and Iphicles, ii. 144 - —temple of, at Rome, 508 - —Fictilis, vi. 286 - —Carthaginian statue of, 321. - - Hercules, Pillars of, i. 152. - - Hercynian Forest, i. 329, 348; ii. 528; iii. 341. - - Herdonea, i. 230. - - Hermaphrodite, ii. 136; iii. 92. - - Hermaphroditism in fish, ii. 391. - - Hermaphroditus, ii. 136. - - Hermesias, v. 66. - - Hermias, tomb of, vi. 410. - - Herminei, vi. 411. - - Hermippus, v. 470. - - Hermit-crab, ii. 426, 451. - - Hermopolis, i. 412. - - Hermotimus of Clazomenæ, ii. 211. - - Hermuaidoion, vi. 450, 451. - - Hermunduri, i. 347. - - Hermupoa, v. 92, 93, 94. - - Hernia, remedies for, vi. 44. - - Herodotus, when he wrote his History, iii. 108 - —quoted, i. 331, 333, 335, 337, 405, 414, 425, 452, 466, 487, 491; - ii. 24, 34, 89, 512, iii. 137; vi. 336, 337, 338, 414. - - Heroic exploits, instances of, ii. 167. - - Herons, ii. 538, 539. - - Heroöpolis, ii. 92. - - Herophilus, iii. 100; v. 82, 372. - - Heroüm, iv. 417. - - Herpes, v. 460. - - Hesiod, his father’s birth-place, i. 472 - —mentioned, ii. 242 - —quoted, i. 272; ii. 200; iii. 216, 352; iv. 425, 474; v. 301. - - Hesperian Promontory, i. 380. - - Hesperides, i. 375; vi. 400 - —Gardens of the, iv. 149 - —Islands of the, ii. 106. - - Hesperu Ceras, ii. 105. - - Hestiatoris, v. 66. - - Hesus, v. 426. - - Hesychius quoted, i. 285. - - Hexapolis, Æolian, i. 487. - - Hexecontalithos, vi. 451. - - Hibernia, i. 351. - - Hibiscum, iv. 218. - - Hicesius, iii. 338. - - Hickory-nut, iii. 317. - - Hiddekel, ii. 75. - - Hides of animals, iii. 80, 81. - - Hierabotane, v. 121, 122. - - Hieracitis, vi. 451. - - Hieracium, vi. 197. - - Hierapolis, i. 122, 160; vi. 9. - - Hieratica, a kind of paper, iii. 188. - - Hieres, islands of, i. 213. - - Hiericus, i. 427, 428; iii. 175. - - Hiero, King, ii. 356. - - Hieromnemon, vi. 448. - - Hierosolyma, i. 428, 431. - - High farming, iv. 15. - - Hilarus, C. Crispinus, ii. 150. - - Hillæ, iii. 71. - - Himalaya, ii. 38. - - Himantopodes, i. 406. - - Himera, i. 218. - - Himilce, i. 164. - - Himilco, i. 99, 499. - - Hindoo mythology, vi. 400. - - Hindú Kúsh, i. 454; ii. 33. - - Hinnulus, ii. 325. - - Hippace, v. 111. - - Hipparchus, i. 37, 148 - —his doctrine on the stars, 59. - - Hippo Diarrhytus, i. 389; ii. 373. - - Hippo Regius, i. 388. - - Hippocampus, vi. 25, 29. - - Hippocentaur, ii. 137. - - Hippocrates, ii. 182, 241; v. 371 - —his precepts, 156. - - Hippocrene, i. 291. - - Hippodamantian wine, iii. 246. - - Hippoi, ii. 425. - - Hippolapathon, iv. 287. - - Hippomanes, ii. 321; v. 339, 340, 365. - - Hippomarathron, iv. 296, 297. - - Hipponax, vi. 308. - - Hippophaes, iv. 401, 402. - - Hippophæston, iii. 434; v. 250, 251. - - Hippopheos, v. 174, 175. - - Hippophlomos, v. 138, 139, 140. - - Hippophobas, v. 64. - - Hippopodes, i. 143. - - Hippopotamus, iii. 318, 319 - —described, ii. 290, 291 - —when first exhibited at Rome, 290 - —bleeds itself, ii. 291 - —its hide, iii. 80. - - Hippos, vi. 63. - _See_ “Hippoi.” - - Hipposelinon, iv. 180, 248. - - Hippuris, v. 203, 204. - - Hippurus, ii. 394. - - Hirpi, insensible to fire, ii. 128. - - Hirpirni, i. 225, 229. - - Hirtius, Quintus, iv. 204. - - Hissing, iii. 94. - - Histropolis, i. 305. - - Hive-moths, iii. 22. - - Hoeing, iv. 66. - - Hogs, ii. 342 - —their propagation, 342 - —diseases of, 343 - —their brutishness, 343 - —their intelligence, 343, 344 - —choice parts of, 344. - - Holcus, v. 250. - - Holland’s Translation of Pliny, quoted, i. 419; ii. 39, 56; iv. 501; - v. 31, 236, 237, 254, 278, 282, 323, 378, 399, 406, 417, 440; - vi. 9, 60, 63, 75, 103, 106, 111, 122, 133, 137, 205. - - Holm-oaks, iii. 853; v. 455 - —aged, iii. 430, 431. - - Holochrysos, iv. 328, 373. - - Holoschœnus, iv. 361, 364. - - Holosteon, v. 250. - - Holothuria, ii. 458. - - Holothuria pentactes, ii. 359. - - Homer, his tomb, i. 321 - —his poems honoured by Alexander, ii. 173 - —his works quoted, i. 73, 117, 194, 209, 214, 274, 279, 287, 292, - 293, 296, 310, 311, 325, 404, 412, 476, 484, 489, 490; ii. 4, - 132, 156, 236, 334; iii. 186, 193, 197, 343, 386, 451, 456; - iv. 14, 35, 139, 150, 321, 360, 377, 412, 473; v. 28, 81, 87, - 88, 108, 282, 381, 423; vi. 60, 71, 74, 75, 105, 213, 263, 265, - 276, 323 - —misquoted, v. 494. - - Homona, i. 450. - - Hones, vi. 370, 440. - - Honey, iii. 6, 8, 9, 10 - —the qualities of, 11, 12 - —peculiar kinds of, 12, 13 - —how tested, 14 - —wild, 14, 15 - —when gathered, 14, 15 - —of Attica, iv. 332 - —from the olive, 340 - —poisonous, 341, 342 - —maddening, 342, 343 - —untouched by flies, 343 - —remedies derived from, 434, 435. - - Honey-comb, iii. 11. - - Honey-dew, v. 22. - - Honeysuckle, v. 105. - - Honied wine, ii. 215; iii. 245; iv. 437, 438. - - Honours, examples of, ii. 189. - - Hoofs of animals, ii. 549; iii. 89, 90 - —how renewed when worn, 45. - - Hoopoe, ii. 511; iii. 43. - - Hops, iv. 347. - - Horace, his birth-place, i. 228 - —his works quoted, 4, 22, 86, 129, 139, 192, 193, 227; ii. 529, - 533; iii. 523; iv. 131, 174, 509; vi. 175, 317, 324. - - Horaion, iii. 13. - - Horatii, ii. 135. - - Horehound, iv. 289, 290, 291, 292. - - Horminum, iv. 36, 454. - - Hormiscion, vi. 451. - - Horn, how bent, iii. 45 - —pictures upon, 45. - - Hornbeam, iii. 368. - - Horned fish, ii. 411. - - Horned owl, ii. 492; v. 400 - —funereal, ii. 492. - - Horned pheasant, ii. 530. - - Horned poppy, iv. 278. - - Hornets, iii. 24, 25. - - Horns, of a gigantic ant, iii. 39 - —various kinds of, 44, 45, 46 - —moveable, 44 - —on the human head, 44. - - Hornstone, vi. 455. - - Horse, the first use of, ii. 229 - —wild, 363—the nature of, 317 - —of Alexander, 317 - —of Cæsar, 317, 318 - —tombs of, 318 - —Semiramis enamoured of one, 318 - —weeping, 318 - —its sense of propriety, 318 - —dance by, 318 - —grief of, 318, 319 - —its intelligence, 319 - —duration of its life, 320 - —its generation, 320, 321, 322 - —its paces, 322 - —its gall not in the liver, iii. 69 - —hermaphrodite, 92 - —blood of, used by the Sarmatians, iv. 38. - - Horse-radish, wild, iv. 48. - - Hortensius, i. 196; ii. 496; vi. 167 - —wines left by, iii. 255. - - Horus, v. 420, 468; vi. 88. - - Hostilia, the bees of, iv. 341. - - Hostilius, Hostus, iii. 343. - - Hostilius, Tullus, i. 84; v. 280, 281, 282. - - Hot drinks, v. 296. - - Hot springs, i. 133, 195, 266; v. 472. - - Houseleek, iv. 58, 349; v. 143, 144. - - Houses first built, ii. 222. - - Human beings beloved by dolphins, ii. 372, 373, 374. - - Human sacrifices, i. 334; ii. 122; v. 426. - - Hundred-plant drink, v. 112. - - Hunger, how allayed, iii. 99. - - Hunting-nets, iv. 133, 134. - - Hurricane, i. 79. - - Hyacinth, iv. 337, 381. - - Hyacinthos (stone), vi. 434. - - Hyades, i. 67; iv. 87. - - Hyæna, ii. 296; iii. 54; v. 309-314; vi. 451. - - Hyæna (fish), vi. 66. - - Hyænia, vi. 451. - - Hyalin quartz, vi. 438, 439. - - Hyampolis, i. 292. - - Hybla, i. 220 - —honey of, iii. 12. - - Hybrid goats, ii. 346 - —swine, 346. - - Hydaspes, ii. 41, 47. - - Hydrargyros, vi. 99, 124. - - Hydri, v. 397. - - Hydrocele, remedies for, v. 446. - - Hydrolapathum, iv. 287. - - Hydromancy, v. 427; vi. 461. - - Hydromel, iv. 435, 436, 437. - - Hydromeli, iii. 261; v. 498. - - Hydrometer, v. 485, 486. - - Hydrophobia, ii. 316, 317; iv. 248; v. 84, 331, 405, 436, 407; - vi. 23, 210. - - Hydruntum, i. 226. - - Hydrussa, i. 315. - - Hyginus, i. 268. - - Hygremplastrum, vi. 212. - - Hylas, ii. 555. - - Hymen, imperforate, ii. 154. - - Hymettus, i. 289 - —honey of, iii. 12. - - Hyophthalmos, vi. 459. - - Hyoscyamos, v. 91, 92. - - Hyoseris, v. 250. - - Hypæpæ, i. 472. - - Hypanis, i. 332, 335; v. 493 - —the short-lived insect of the, iii. 42. - - Hypasis, i. 107; ii. 41, 47. - - Hypatodorus, vi. 169. - - Hypecoön, v. 251. - - Hypenemia, ii. 538, 539. - - Hyperborei, i. 336, 337; ii. 23, 24. - - Hypericon, v. 185. - - Hyphear, iii. 434. - - Hypochœris, iv. 349. - - Hypocisthis, v. 172. - - Hypoglossa, v. 251. - - Hyrcania, tree of, iii. 115. - - Hyrcanian Sea, i. 453; ii. 24, 30. - - Hyrcanus, the dog, ii. 313. - - Hyriæ, i. 292. - - Hysge, ii. 450. - - Hysginian tint, ii. 450. - - Hysginum, iv. 381. - - Hyssop, v. 133, 134. - - Hysteria, v. 355. - - - I - - Iacchus, Fescennius, vi. 67. - - Iadera, i. 259. - - Iaia, vi. 281. - - Ialysos, i. 483. - - Ian, M., his collations of Pliny, vi. 1, 465. - - Ianthinum, iv. 326. - - Iapydes, i. 262. - - Iasione, iv. 358, 423, 424. - - Iaspis, vi. 414, 430, 431. - - Iasponyx, vi. 431. - - Iatraliptics, v. 371 - - Iatronices, v. 373. - - Iazyges, i. 329. - - Iberia, ii. 20. - - Iberis, v. 112, 113. - - Iberus, i. 361. - - Ibex, ii. 346, 347. - - Ibis, ii. 291, 507, 529 - —black, 512. - - Icaros, i. 320. - - Icasium, i. 386. - - Icetidas, v. 369. - - Ichneumon, ii. 286-289. - - Ichnusa, i. 216. - - Ichthyocolla, vi. 31, 32. - - Ichthyophagi, ii. 59; iii. 98, 289. - - Iconicæ, vi. 155. - - Iconium, i. 452. - - Icterias, vi. 452. - - Ictinus, vi. 63. - - Ictis, v. 392. - - Ida, i. 314, 474. - - Idæa herba, v. 251. - - Idæan bramble, v. 50. - - Idæi dactyli, vi. 452. - - Idalium, i. 481. - - Idocrase, vi. 404. - - Idumæa, i. 425. - - Igilgili, i. 386. - - Iguvium, i. 239 - —oil of, iv. 494. - - Ilerda, i. 166. - - Iliac passion, remedies for, v. 442. - - Iliad, contained in a nut-shell, ii. 162. - - Ilium, i. 477. - - Ill omen, birds of, ii. 461 - —trees of, iii. 385. - - Illecebra, v. 144, 145. - - Illiberis, i. 175. - - Illyricum described, i. 257, 265. - - Ilus, tomb of, iii. 431. - - Ilva, i. 214. - - Imagination, effects of the, ii. 146. - - Imagines, iv. 346. - - Imaüs, i. 454; ii. 42, 124. - - Imbros, i. 324. - - Immortelle, iv. 308, 328. - - Immusulus, ii. 487. - - Impetigo, Greek charm for, v. 254. - - Impia, v. 70. - - Impotence, iv. 298. - - Inarime, i. 214. - - Incendiary bird, ii. 492, 493. - - Incisions in trees, iii. 529, 530. - - Incisors, iii. 58, 59. - - Incubation of birds, ii. 512, 534-537. - - India, the conquests of, i. 302 - —the nations of, ii. 38 - —expeditions to, of Alexander, 39, 40, 41, 360, 361; iii. 138, - 211, 212; vi. 27 - —of Seleucus, ii. 41 - —voyages to, 60-63 - —wonders of, 129 - —terrestrial animals of, 280. - - Indian ass, iii. 89, 90 - —fig, 109, 110 - —ink, ii. 417; vi. 241 - —olive, iii. 111 - —thorn, 109. - - Indian Ocean, plants of, iii. 211 - —monsters of, ii. 359. - - Indica (stone), vi. 452. - - Indicum, vi. 143, 241, 242, 243. - - Indiges, Jupiter, i. 193. - - Indigestion, iii. 98. - - Indigo, vi. 143, 242, 243, 452. - - Indurations, remedies for, v. 357. - - Indus, ii. 46. - - Inequality of climates, i. 102, 103, 104. - - Infants, swathing of, ii. 118, - —born with teeth, 153 - —dreams of, 553 - —never cry in the womb, iii. 94 - —diseases of, v. 364, 465, 466, 467; vi. 56, 57. - - Influences of the seasons, i. 67, 68, 69. - - Ingævones, i. 343. - - Inguinalis, v. 188, 229. - - Ink, v. 2, 3 - —Indian, ii. 417; vi. 241 - —of the sæpia, 58. - - Inoculation of trees, iii. 477. - - Insanity, Lake of, v. 478. - - Insects, the minuteness of, iii. 1, 2 - —why so called, 1 - —whether they respire, ii. 3 - —voice of, 3 - —whether they have blood, 3 - —their bodies, 4, 5 - —wings of, 33 - —parasitical, iii. 40 - —feet of, 95 - —that breed in leguminous plants, iv. 415. - - Instinct of animals, ii. 248. - - Interamna, i. 233. - - Interbreeding of fish, ii. 464. - - Intercalation, iv. 76. - - Interlunium, iv. 112. - - Intoxication, remedies for, v. 468. - - Introduction to the work, i. 1-11. - - Inundations, i. 116. - - Invalids, peaches recommended for, iii. 294. - - Inventions, v. 77. - - Inventors of various things, ii. 219. - - Iol, i. 386. - - Iolcos, i. 296. - - Iolite, vi. 407. - - Iollas, iii. 158. - - Ion, vi. 169. - - Ionia described, i. 466. - - Ionian Sea, i. 265. - - Ios, i. 321. - - Irinum, iii. 160. - - Irio, iv. 36, 453, 454. - - Iris (plant), iv. 324, 325, 371, 372. - - Iris (stone), vi. 438, 439. - - Iritis, vi. 439. - - Iron, discovery of, ii. 225 - —the art of working, 225 - —rings of, vi. 78 - —an account of, 205-209, 210, 211. - - Irrigation, iii. 528, 629; iv. 68. - - Irving, Washington, indebted to the story of Epimenides, ii. 211. - - Isatis, iv. 229. - - Isauria described, i. 450. - - Ischæmon, v. 111. - - Ischia, i. 214. - - Isidorus, C. Cæcilius Claudius, vi. 130. - - Isidorus of Charax, i. 150. - - Isigonus, ii. 241. - - Isinglass, vi. 31, 32. - - Isis, hair of, iii. 212. - - Iskenderun, i. 447. - - Islands, suddenly formed, i. 117, 118, 119 - —united to the main land, 119 - —of Europe, 210. - - Ismaron, i. 304. - - Ismenias (musician), vi. 388. - - Ismenias (writer), vi. 468. - - Isoscinnamomum, iii. 141. - - Isocrates, ii. 174. - - Isodomon, vi. 372. - - Isopyron, v. 251, 252. - - Isox, ii. 382. - - Issa, i. 259, 260. - - Issos, i. 447. - - Istævones, i. 347. - - Ister, i. 250, 262, 328. - _See also_ “Danuvius.” - - Isthmian games, i. 285. - - Isthmus of Corinth, i. 278, 279. - - Istria, i. 251. - - Istropolis, i. 328. - - Italy, described, i. 180 - —its praises enlarged upon, 181, 182; vi. 464, 465 - —its shape, i. 183 - —forbidden to be dug for minerals, 257 - —the country of the vine, iii. 215, 218 - —when generous wines were first made in, 251 - —its climate, v. 158 - —practice of magic in, 425, 426 - —its high rank among nations, vi. 464, 465. - - Itch, remedies for, v. 360. - - Ithaca, i. 311. - - Iton, iv. 144. - - Iulis, vi. 39, 63. - - Iviza, i. 211. - - Ivory, ii. 247; iii. 103 - —fossil, ii. 247. - - Ivy, iii. 376, 399-403; v. 32-35. - - Ixias, iv. 407, 408, 409; v. 234. - - Iÿnx, iii. 90. - - - J. - - Jackal, ii. 97, 304. - - Jackdaw, ii. 493, 503 - —guilty of stealing, 508. - - Jaculus, ii. 285. - - Jaffa, i. 426; ii. 364. - - Janiculum. i. 204. - - Jannes, v. 425. - - Janus, vi. 90, 315. - - Jason, the Argonaut, i. 207; ii. 9, 26, 233. - - Jason, of Pheræ, ii. 206. - - Jasper, vi. 425, 429, 430, 431, 445. - - Jaundice, remedies for, iv. 438; v. 200, 354, 452. - - Jawbone, iii. 56. - - Jaxartes, ii. 25. - - Jay, ii. 622. - - Jealousy in females, v. 397. - - Jerboa, ii. 308. - - Jericho, i. 427, 428; iii. 175. - - Jerome, Saint, quoted, vi. 267. - - Jerusalem, i. 428, 431. - - Jet, vi. 361, 362. - - Jewels, vi. 386, 387, 388 - —displayed at Rome by Pompeius Magnus, vi. 390, 391. - - Jews, vent their rage upon the, balsamum of Judæa, iii. 148 - —their rites, v. 508, 509. - - Jew-stone, vi. 443, 456, 457, 460. - - Jhelum, ii. 41, 47. - - John, Saint, i. 321. - - John the Baptist, i. 430, 431. - - Joints, diseases of, v. 202, 203. - - Jomanes, river, ii. 41, 42. - - Jonquil, iv. 244. - - Joppa, i. 426; ii. 364. - - Jordanes, river, i. 427, 428, 429. - - Josephus quoted, i. 427, 428, 431, 432, 467; ii. 75. - - Joshua, i. 395. - - Jovis gemma, vi. 452. - - Juba, King, i. 383, 498; ii. 82; iii. 125. - - Judæa, described, i. 427 - —its balsamum, iii. 148 - —its palm-trees, 169. - - Judices, v. 378; vi. 82, 83. - - Jugerum, iv. 4, 5 - —grain required for sowing a, 71, 72. - - Jugglers, iii. 58. - - “Juglans,” origin of the word, iii. 317. - - Juices of fruits, iii. 323-326 - —of trees, 412. - - Jujube, iii. 297. - - Julia, ii. 198, 199, 535, 536 - —her depravity, 143. - - Julius Cæsar, i. 58, 62, 168, 241, 256, 279, 390; ii. 166; iv. 188; - v. 283; vi. 155, 232, 233, 324, 346 - —his epistles quoted, iii. 241, 242 - —wine given by him at his banquets, 255 - —Pliny borrows from his account of the yew, 360 - —his reformation of the calendar, iv. 76. - - Jumna, ii. 41, 42. - - Juncinum, iii. 289. - - Juniper, iii. 178, 380, 381; v. 24, 25 - —wine from the, iv. 478. - - Juno, v. 485 - —Temple of, at Rome, vi. 322. - - Jupiter, feasts of, v. 121 - —Temple of, at Rome, vi. 322. - - Jupiter’s beard (shrub), iii. 372. - - Jura, i. 174. - - Jurisdictio, i. 159. - - Jus Latii, i. 155. - - Justin quoted, i. 177, 225. - - Juvenal quoted, i. 21, 301, 321; ii. 541; iv. 144; vi. 70, 80, 305. - - - K - - Kæmpfer quoted, vi. 4. - - Kaffa, i. 334. - - Kastri, i. 277. - - Keeping of fruits, iii. 303-307. - - Κήποι, ii. 278. - - Kermes-berry, ii. 450; iii. 353; iv. 390; v. 4, 5. - - Kertsch, i. 327, 334. - - Kestril, ii. 519. - - Khimara, i. 272. - - Kidneys, iii. 73, 74 - —stags with four, 73. - - Kidney-bean, iv. 47. - - Killing of animals, the first, ii. 235. - - Kingfisher, ii. 512, 513; vi. 36. - - Kipes for fishing, v. 361. - - Kirmanshah, ii. 79. - - Kissing, as a salutation, v. 153. - - Kite, ii. 490. - - Knees, iii. 87, 88. - - Knot-grass, v. 259. - - Kohl, iii. 54; vi. 115. - - Kokend, ii. 33. - - Κόσμος, i. 17. - - Kraken or korven, ii. 362. - - Kurds, ii. 29. - - - L - - Labeo, Antistius, ii. 554. - - Labeo, C. Atinius, ii. 193. - - Labeo, Titidius, vi. 230. - - “Labeo,” origin of the name, iii. 56. - - Laberius, ii. 476. - - Laborium, i. 195. - - Labourers, their wines, iii. 234, 251 - —fed on figs, 113. - - Labranda, vi. 8. - - Labrum Venereum, v. 148, 242, 243. - - Labrusca, iii. 255; iv. 464, 465. - - Labyrinth, i. 418; vi. 339-342 - —of Crete, vi. 184. - - Laccadives, ii. 51. - - Lacedæmon, i. 283. - - Lacinium, i. 223. - - Laconia described, i. 283. - - Lactes, iii. 71. - - Lactoris, v. 68. - - “Lactuca,” whence derived, iv. 181. - - Lacus, iv. 109. - - Lacydes and his goose, ii. 499. - - Ladanum, iii. 132, 133, 134; v. 171, 172. - - Læstrygones, i. 194. - - Lagara, wine of, iii. 243. - - Lagenæ, iii. 242. - - Lagine, v. 56. - - Lagopos, ii. 529; v. 173, 174. - - Laina, iii. 132. - - Laippus, vi. 170, 176. - - Laïs, v. 368. - - Laletanum, wine of, iii. 244. - - Lalisiones, ii. 326. - - Lambs, ii. 331. - - Lamia, L., ii. 210. - - Lamia (fish), ii. 411. - - Lamium, iv. 404, 405; v. 254. - - Lamp-black, iii. 259, 263; vi. 241. - - Lamp-stands, vi. 152. - - Lampedusa, i. 403. - - Lampido, ii. 188. - - Lamprey, ii. 394. - - Lampsacus, i. 308, 389. - - Lanata, iii. 297. - - Land, fishes that live upon, ii. 471, 472 - —buying of, iv. 11, 12, 13 - —manuring of, iv. 68, 69 - —laying out of, iv. 114-117. - - Lands, separated by the sea, i. 119 - —changed into sea i. 119, 120 - —swallowed up by the sea, i. 120. - - Landslips, i. 115, 116; iii. 527. - - Language, iii. 95. - - Lantern-fish, ii. 415. - - Laocoön, the Belvedere, vi. 320. - - Laodice, ii. 146. - - Laodicea, i. 437, 441, 460. - - Lapathum, iv. 287, 288. - - Lapdogs, i. 267 - —nursing of, v. 437. - - Lapidaries, vi. 389. - - Lapis lazuli, vi. 432. - - Lapithæ, i. 295. - - Lappa, iv. 358. - - Lappa boaria, v. 194. - - Lappa canaria, v. 71. - - Lappago, v. 192, 193. - - Lapsana, iv. 188, 241. - - Lapwing, ii. 512. - - Lar, v. 285. - - Larch, iii. 357, 359, 414, 416; v. 13. - - Lard, v. 324, 325, 326. - - Lares, iii. 331 - —Compitales, i. 203. - - Larinus, vi. 63. - - Larisa, i. 294. - - Lartius Licinius, v. 480. - - Larvæ, iii. 519. - - Laser, i. 396, 398; iii. 399; iv. 145, 147, 432, 433, 434. - - Laserpitium, iv. 144-147, 148. - - Latace, v. 159. - - Latera, Lake, ii. 374. - - Lathyris, v. 252. - - Laticlave tunic, ii. 331, 335, 447 - —purple, 442. - - Latium described, i. 191. - - Latin confederacy, i. 205. - - Latin Festival, v. 233. - - Latiniensian wines, iii. 242. - - Latinitas, i. 155. - - Latmus, i. 467. - - Latona, i. 319. - - Latro, Porcius, iv. 263. - - Laughing-plant, v. 66. - - Laughter, absence of, ii. 159 - —description of, iii. 70, 71 - —persons die with, when pierced, 71 - —connected with the spleen, 73. - - Laurea, Tullius, v. 473. - - Laurel, oil of, iii. 288 - —varieties of, 332, 333, 334 - —anecdotes connected with, it, 334-337 - —never struck by lightning, 335 - —crackles in the fire, 335 - —remedies derived from, iv. 516-519. - - Lauriotis, vi. 203. - - Lauron, wine of, iii. 244. - - Laurus cassia, iii. 153. - - Lavender, iii. 120; iv. 338; v. 169. - - Laver, v. 172. - - Laws, first introduction of, ii. 220. - _See also_ “Twelve Tables.” - - Layers, trees propagated from, iii. 475, 476, 477. - - Leæna, her fortitude, ii. 164; vi. 179. - - Lead, vi. 112, 212-218. - - Lead-wort, v. 141, 142. - - Leaf-gold, vi. 96, 97. - - Leather, tanning of, iii. 201 - —preparation of, v. 38 - —dyeing of, 71. - - Leaven, iv. 38, 39. - - Leaves, trees that never lose their, iii. 118 - —of trees described, 374-379 - —of plants, iv. 356. - - Lebanon, i. 435. - - Lebedos, i. 469. - - Lecanomancy, v. 427. - - Lecheæ, i. 278. - - Lectisternia, vi. 10. - - Leda (plant), iii. 133. - - Leeches, vi. 29, 51. - - Leeks, iv. 173, 174, 223, 224, 225 - —juice of, poisonous, 174. - - Lees, of sapa, iv. 484 - —of wine, 482, 483 - —of vinegar, 483. - - Legacy-hunting, iii. 217. - - Legion, the fifth, iii. 43. - - Leguminous grain, iv. 106, 107. - - Leguminous plants, iv. 43, 44, 81 - —insects that breed in, iv. 455. - - Leleges, i. 292, 478. - - Lemanus, Lake, i. 175. - - Lemnisci, iv. 306. - - Lemnos described, i. 324 - —earth of, vi. 236, 237 - —Labyrinth of, vi. 341. - - Lemonium, v. 122. - - Lenæus, Pompeius, v. 78, 79. - - Lentils, iv. 46, 448, 449. - - Lentisk, iii. 132, 323; v. 17, 19, 20. - - Lentulus, ii. 147. - - Leochares, vi. 169, 182, 316, 317. - - Leonatus, ii. 60. - - Leonidas, tutor of Alexander, iii. 128. - - Leontice, v. 133. - - Leontios, vi. 460. - - Leontiscus, vi. 174. - - Leontopetalon, v. 252. - - Leontophonus, ii. 310. - - Leontopodion, v. 173. - - Leopard, how produced, ii. 264, 265. - - Lepanto, i. 175. - - Lepas, vi. 63. - - Lepidi, family of the, ii. 145. - - Lepidotis, vi. 452. - - Lepidus, M., ii. 181; vi. 272, 324, 348. - - Lepis, vi. 194, 195. - - Lepontii, i. 254, 255. - - Leprosy, v. 153. - - Leptis, i. 391, 393. - - Leptophyllos, v. 180. - - Leptorragæ, iii. 220. - - Lerida, i. 166. - - Lernæa, a parasitical class of insects, ii. 390. - - Leros, i. 322. - - Lesbias, vi. 452. - - Lesbos, described, i. 487 - —wines of, iii. 245. - - Lethargus, iv. 461. - - Lethargy, v. 198, 355; vi. 49. - - Lethe, v. 477. - - Letters, origin of, i. 424; ii. 220, 221 - —ancient, 236. - - Lettuce, iv. 180, 181, 182, 228-232. - - Leucacantha, iv. 405; v. 263. - - Leucacanthos, iv. 353. - - Leucadia, i. 274. - - Leucanthemum, iv. 378; v. 263. - - Leucanthemus, iv. 411, 412. - - Leucanthes, iv. 383. - - Leucatas, i. 494. - - Leucate, i. 274. - - Leuce, i. 315, 471. - - Leuce (plant), v. 254, 255. - - Leuceoron, v. 173. - - Leucimna, i. 310. - - Leucochrysos, vi. 435, 453. - - Leucocoüm, iii. 247, 248. - - Leucogæa, vi. 449, 476. - - Leucographis, v. 255. - - Leucographitis, vi. 449. - - Leucopetra, i. 210. - - Leucophoron, vi. 98, 99, 237, 238. - - Leucophthalmos, vi. 452. - - Leucopœcilos, vi. 453. - - Leucosyri, ii. 7. - - Leucrocotta, ii. 279. - - Leuctra, i. 283. - - Libadion, v. 104. - - Libanian wine, iii. 262. - - Libanochrus, vi. 453. - - Libanotis, iv. 203, 267. - - Libanus, i. 435. - - Libations, iii. 262. - - Libella, vi. 89. - - Liber (the divinity), i. 290; ii. 167; vi. 316. - - Libera, vi. 316. - - Liberal arts, iii. 217; iv. 391. - - Libethra, i. 296. - - Libo, Scribonius, vi. 346. - - Library, first public, ii. 177. - - Libs, iv. 116. - - Liburnia described, i. 257. - - Liburnica, ii. 365. - - Libya, i. 374 - —Mareotis, described, i. 401. - - Lilybæum, i. 218. - - Libycum, iv. 245, 246. - - Libyphœnices, i. 390. - - Libyssa, i. 494. - - Lice, remedies for, iii. 40; v. 409. - - Lichen, remedies for the disease, iv. 208; v. 152, 153, 154, - 160, 161; vi. 35. - - Lichens, iii. 145, 146 - —on plumtrees, iv. 508. - - Liciniani, ii. 150. - - Life, the duration of, ii. 132, 133, 200-205 - —the frailty of, 141, 142 - —the uncertain tenure of, 206 - —persons who have returned to, 210 - —whether the blood is the principle of, iii. 80. - - Light, emitted from the eyes of dead fish, iii. 54 - —from rotten wood, 54. - - Lightning, particulars connected with, i. 69, 70, 84, 85, 86; v. 471 - —its effects, i. 81, 82 - —objects struck by, 86 - —not struck by, 86, 87 - —of a remarkable nature, ii. 200 - —expiation for, iii. 302, 310. - - Liguria described, i. 184. - - Ligurians, i. 185. - - Ligusticum, iv. 265. - - Ligustrum, iii. 146; v. 32. - - Lily, iv. 314, 315, 316, 366, 367. - - Limbs, of animals, iii. 43 - —superfluous, 95. - - Lime (tree), iii. 366, 367; v. 23. - - Lime (for building), vi. 373, 375. - - Limestone, iii. 455. - - Limeum, v. 254. - - Limonia, iv. 425, 426. - - Limoniatis, vi. 453. - - Limonion, iv. 233. - - Limonite, vi. 363. - - Limyra, i. 455. - - Linden-tree, iii. 366, 367; v. 23. - - Lindos, i. 483. - - Linen, iv. 132, 133; v. 273 - —when first dyed, iv. 138 - —bleaching of, iv. 279. - - Lingua (plant), v. 69. - - Lingulaca, v. 132, 133. - - Linnet, ii. 522. - - Linozostis, v. 92, 93, 94. - - Linseed, iv. 135, 294, 295. - - Linus (river), v. 475. - - Lion, how produced, =ii.= 264, 265, 266 - —different species of, 266 - —its food, 266, 267 - —attacks men, 267 - —its alleged clemency, 267, 271 - —its anger and courage, 268 - —terrified by the crowing of a cock, 269 - —when first exhibited at Rome, 269 - —how caught, 270 - —wonderful feats by, 270 - —harnessed, 270 - —its gratitude, 271, 272 - —killed by the leontophonus, 310 - —killed by a dog, 315 - —its breath fœtid, =iii.= 97 - —remedies derived from, =v.= 308. - - Lion-crab, ii. 425. - - Lipara, i. 221. - - Liparæ, vi. 219. - - Liparæan islands, i. 221. - - Liparea, vi. 453. - - Liparis, river, i. 450; v. 478. - - Lips, iii. 56. - - Liqueurs, iii. 247. - - Liquorice, iv. 351, 399, 400; v. 110, 163, 217. - - Lirinon, iv. 314. - - Lisbon, i. 364. - - Liternum, ii. 311; iii. 234. - - Litharge, vi. 117, 118. - - Lithontriptics, v. 444; vi. 28. - - Lithospermum, v. 253, 254. - - Live iron, vi. 209. - - Liver, of the goose used for food, ii. 499 - —described, iii. 67, 68 - —wanting in victims, 68 - —sometimes double, 68 - —increase of, with the moon, 70 - —its powers of preservation, 70 - —remedies for complaints of, v. 344 - —remedies for pains in, 438, 439; vi. 39. - - Livia Augusta, her longevity, iii. 239 - —omen of the laurel, 336. - - Livy, ii. 114 - —his birthplace, i. 252 - —his works quoted, 5, 87, 88, 105, 143, 187, 224, 229, 297, 478; - ii. 136. - - Livy, the Younger, i. 497. - - Lixos, i. 375, 376. - - Lizards, ii. 299, 312; v. 397, 402, 403, 414, 415, 417 - —gigantic, ii. 312 - —spotted, iii. 31. - - Loadstone, vi. 209, 355. 356. - - Localities of trees, iii. 370, 371, 372. - - Lochia polyrrhizos, v. 116, 117, 118. - - Lochius, Publilius, vi. 301, 302. - - Loci, iii. 75. - - Lockets, v. 435. - - Locri, i. 222. - - Locrians, Epicnemidian, i. 192. - - Locris described, i. 276. - - “Locuples,” derivation of the word, iv. 5. - - Locusta (the botanic term), iv. 455. - - Locusts, ii. 133; iii. 55, 56, 57 - —plagues of, 36, 37 - —eaten, 37 - —remedies derived from, v. 403. - - Loins, remedies for pains in the, v. 344, 345, 440, 441. - - Loligo, ii. 389, 416, 417. - - Lollia Paulina, her pearls, ii. 437, 438. - - Lollius, M. ii. 438. - - Lomentum, vi. 108, 109, 142. - - Lonchitis, v. 134. - - Long life, indications of, iii. 96. - - Longompori, ii. 103. - - Longula, i. 206. - - Longulanus, C. Severus, ii. 148; vi. 303. - - Lopadusa, i. 403. - - Lophius piscatorius, ii. 412. - - Lora, iii. 234, 251, - - Loretum, iii. 337. - - Lorum, vi. 72. - - Lotapea, v. 425. - - Lotometra, iv. 412, 413. - - Lotophagi, i. 393. - - Lotus, iii. 439; iv. 358, 412; v. 3, 4 - —of Africa, iii. 198 - —of Egypt and the Euphrates, 199, 200 - —aged, 430. - - Louis XIV. of France, ii. 153. - - Louse-plant, iv. 464. - - Lovage, iv. 194, 195, 265. - - Luca, i. 187. - - Lucan, his “Pharsalia” quoted, i. 57, 86, 107, 117, 177, 185, 241, - 261, 375, 413, 431; ii. 37, 283; iv 124, 226, 280, 321, 481, - 516; v. 73, 129. - - Lucania described, i. 207. - - Lucanian oxen, ii. 251. - - Lucanus, C. Terentius, vi. 246. - - Lucanus (a beetle), v. 454. - - Lucca, i. 187. - - Lucentum, i. 164. - - Lucerne (plant), iv. 53, 54. - - Lucian, his birth-place, i. 443. - - Lucifer, i. 29. - - Lucilius, C., mentioned, ii. 355 - —quoted, vi. 377. - - Lucretius, T., mentioned, ii. 554 - —quoted, i. 133, 205; ii. 137, 553; iv. 138, 321. - - Lucrinus, Lake, i. 196; ii. 372 - —emissary of, vi. 354. - - Lucullan marble, vi. 325. - - Lucullus, L., i. 306; ii. 8, 9; v. 87, 159; vi. 285, 302 - —his largesses in wine, iii. 255 - —introduces the cherry into Italy, 322 - —his want of moderation, v. 297. - - Lucullus. M., i. 338. - - Ludius, vi. 270. - - Lugdunensis (Gallia) described, i. 355. - - Lugdunum, i. 357. - - Luna, i. 187 - —wines of, iii. 242 - —marble of, vi. 325. - - Lungs, iii. 67. - - Luperci, vi. 155. - - Lupines, iv. 49, 50, 452, 453. - - Lupus (fish), ii. 392, 399. - - Lurco, M., Aufidius, ii. 496 - - Lusitania described, i. 363 - —its fertility, ii. 322. - - Lustra, vi. 228. - - Lustration, ii. 522. - - Lutarius, ii. 402. - - Luxor, i. 416. - - Luxury, appliances of, found in the sea, ii. 429 - —excesses of, iii. 167, 168 - —in woods, 429. - - Lycanthropy, ii. 283. - - Lycaon, the animal, ii. 304. - - Lycaonia described, i. 451. - - Lycapsos, v. 252, 253. - - Lyceas, vi. 385. - - Lychnis (plant), iv. 313, 337, 381 - —agria, v. 131. - - Lychnis (stone), vi. 424, 425. - - Lychnitis, v. 127, 128. - - Lychnomancy, v. 427. - - Lycia described, i. 455. - - Lycium, iv. 499, 501; v. 50, 51, 103. - - Lycius, vi. 169, 182. - - Lycophthalmos, vi. 459. - - Lycus, the physician, iii. 157. - - Lycus, river, ii. 3, 8. - - Lydda, i. 428. - - Lydia described, i. 465. - - Lygdinus, vi. 330. - - Lygos, v. 26. - - Lyncestis, i. 299. - - Lyncarium ii. 310; vi. 404, 405. - - Lynx, ii. 278. 284, 310; v. 319; vi. 398. - - Lyons, i. 357. - - Lyron, v. 129, 130. - - Lysander, i. 308. - - Lysias, vi. 319. - - Lysimachia, v. 106. - - Lysimachos (stone) vi. 453. - - Lysimachus the historian, ii. 357. - - Lysimachus strangles a lion, ii. 270. - - Lysippus, ii. 184; vi. 169, 174, 175, 176. - - Lysistratus, vi. 169. - - Lyson, vi. 187. - - Lystra, i. 492. - - Lytarmis, ii. 24. - - - M. - - Mabog, i. 439 - - Macaron, i. 339. - - Mace, iii. 114. - - Macedonia described, i. 261, 297. - - Macedonicus, Q. Metellus, ii. 149, 193, 194. - - Macer, Æmilius, ii. 477. - - Macer, Calvus Licinius, iv. 204; vi. 144. - - Macir, iii. 114. - - Mackerel, ii. 386, 387. - - Macrobii, ii. 101, 132, 133. - - Macrobius quoted, vi. 458. - - Macrocollum, iii. 190. - - Macron Teichos, i. 305. - - Mad dog, bite of, ii. 316, 317; iv. 248; v. 83, 84, 331, 405, 406, - 407; vi. 23, 210. - - Maddening honey, iv. 342. - - Madder, iv. 148; v. 38, 39. - - Madeira, ii. 106. - - Madness, canine, ii. 316 - —caused by animals licking the skin, iii. 61. - - Madon, v. 107. - - Madrepores, iii. 210, 211; v. 225. - - Mæander, i. 461, 463, 467. - - Mæcenas, C. Cilnius, ii. 476. - - Mæcenatian wines, iii. 242. - - Mæna, ii. 413. - - Mænalus, i. 287. - - Mænian column, ii. 238. - - Mænius, C., vi. 156. - - Mæonia, i. 465. - - Mæotis (fish), vi. 63. - - Mæotis. _See_ “Palus Mæotis.” - - Maggots, ii. 546; iii. 42 - —in the brains of stags, 48. - - Magi, ii. 70; iv. 380, 383, 384, 398, 410, 414; v. 31, 62, 64, 65, - 66, 67, 124, 159, 293, 398, 428; vi. 21. - - Magic (including amulets, charms, enchantments, philtres, spells, - and superstitions), =i.= 83, 84; =iii.= 30, 435, 534, 535; - iv. 18, 44, 49, 60, 102, 105, 178, 199, 234, 243, 325, 336, - 372, 373, 380, 385, 398, 414, 445, 496, 510; =v.= 22, 28, 30, - 31, 35, 42, 46, 47, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, - 73, 82, 87, 89, 97, 125, 131, 139, 159, 160, 188, 189, 191, - 248, 254, 256, 257, 265, 266, 269, 279, 281, 282, 283, 284, - 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 291, 292, 293, 294, 298, 299, 301, - 302, 304, 305, 306, 307, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 316, 317, - 331, 339, 340, 345, 346, 349, 350, 354, 355, 361, 364, 365, - 366, 367, 390, 394, 395, 398, 399, 400, 410, 411, 421, 422, - 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 435, 436, 439, 440, 441, - 443, 448, 451, 453, 454, 455, 456, 458, 463, 464, 466, 467, - 468, 522; =vi.= 3, 4, 11, 12, 19, 21, 22, 23, 32, 39, 47, 48, - 57, 205, 210, 327, 328, 360, 361, 362, 404, 405, 408, 424, 429, - 431, 434, 437, 438, 441, 442, 444, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, - 453, 461. - - Magical plants, v. 62-68. - - Magicians, v. 159 - —their practices, v. 313 - —and Magic, a history of, v. 421-429. - - Magma, iii. 166. - - Magna Græcia, i. 182 - —described, i. 222. - - Magnes, vi. 355. - - Magnesia described, i. 296. - - Magnet, vi. 209, 356, 356. - - Magnetes, i. 471. - - Magnitude of the stars, i. 85, 86. - - Mago, his writings, iv. 10 - —quoted, iii. 488; iv. 360, 361. - - Magon, i. 212. - - Magpie, ii. 508, 522. - - Magydaris, iv. 147, 148. - - Maiæ, ii. 425. - - Maigre, ii. 392, 396. - - Majorca, i. 211. - - Makron Teichos, iii. 208. - - Mala, iii. 293. - - Malaca, i. 156. - - Malache, iv. 284. - - Malachite, vi. 429. - - Maladies, in which wine should be administered, iv. 274, 275, 276 - —peculiar to various nations, v. 271, 272. - - Malaga, i. 156. - - Malea, i. 283. - - Maledictions, iii. 82. - - Maleus, ii. 46. - - Maleventum, i. 229. - - Maliac Gulf, i. 293. - - Mallet-shoots, iii. 148. - - Mallos, i. 447. - - Mallow-tree, iv. 156. - - Mallows, iv. 218, 282-285. - - Malobathrum, iii. 153; iv. 493. - - Malope, iv. 284. - - Maltha, i. 138, 139; vi. 375. - - Malum terra, v. 288. - - Malundrum, v. 167, 168. - - Malvane, i. 385. - - Malvoisie, iii. 244. - - Mamertine wines, iii. 242. - - Mammæ, iii. 82. - - Mamurra, vi. 324. - - Man, his obligations to Nature, =ii.= 117 - —the only tearful animal, 118 - —his helplessness, 119 - —the frail tenure of his life, 120 - —his inhumanity to man, 120 - —diversified powers and might of Nature displayed in, 121 - —his brain, =iii.= 47, 48 - —his face, 49 - —his forehead, 49 - —his eye-brows, 49 - —his eyes, 49, 50, 51 - —peculiarities in his members, 86 - —resembled by the ape, 86, 87 - —his audacity, =iv.= 130, 131 - —remedies derived from, =v.= 276, 277, 278, 286, 287, 288. - - Mancinus, L. H., vi. 231. - - Mandi, ii. 133. - - Mandragora, v. 138, 139, 140. - - Mandrake, of Scripture, iv. 397 - —superstitions as to, v. 139. - - Manes, existence of the, ii. 218. - - Manfredonia, i. 227. - - Manganese, vi. 330, 380. - - Mangrove, iii. 117. - - Mani, ii. 455, 456. - - Manilius, M. ii. 554 - —his alleged work quoted, i. 19, 26, 57. - - Manilius Antiochus, vi. 302. - - Manna, iii. 115, 128; v. 25. - - Manteium, ii. 8. - - Mantichora, ii. 280, 297. - - Mantinea, i. 286. - - Mantua, i. 252. - - Manure, iii. 456-460, 472, 481. - - Manuring, of trees, iii. 531, 532 - —of land, iv. 68, 69. - - Mapalia, i. 387. - - Maple, iii. 367; v. 21. - - Marathon, i. 290 - —battle of, vi. 248. - - Marble, i. 388, 496; iii. 439; vi. 306-309, 323-328 - —coloured, vi. 224. - - Marcasite, vi. 440. - - Marcellus, M., ii. 166; iii. 68; vi. 390. - - March, Ides of, iv. 84. - - Marchantia, v. 161. - - Marcia, i. 81. - - Marcian Waters, v. 487. - - Marcion, v. 369. - - Marcipor, vi. 81. - - Mare that conquered when with foal, ii. 543. - - Mareotis, Lake, i. 401, 419. - - Mares impregnated by the wind, i. 365; ii. 322. - - Margarides, iii. 175. - - Margiane, ii. 31. - - Margus, ii. 31. - - Maria, tomb of, vi. 409. - - Mariandyni, ii. 3. - - Marius, C., i. 176, 195, 199; ii. 485; iii. 88, 89; iv. 13; - vi. 73, 136. - - Mariva, ii. 89. - - Marjoram, iv. 268, 334, 335. - - Market-dues, iv. 152, 153. - - Marl, iii. 453, 454, 455. - - Marmaridæ, i. 397. - - Marmaritis, v. 64. - - Maronean wine, ii. 236. - - Marriage customs, ii. 336; iii. 315, 316; v. 382. - - Marrow, iii. 63, 76; v. 327 - —spinal, iii. 76, 77 - —human, produces serpents, ii. 345. - - Marrubium, iv. 290, 271, 292. - - Mars, ii. 23 - —Ultor, vi. 206. - - Marsi, ii. 126; v. 81. - - Marsian War, ii. 137; iii. 329, 332. - - Marsus, Domitius, vi. 221. - - Marsyas, i. 234, 461, 462; ii. 281; iv. 307; v. 478, 479. - - Marsyas of Macedon, iii. 157. - - Marten, ii. 308. - - Martial quoted, i. 92, 122, 249; ii. 333; iv. 184, 430; v. 19; vi. 80, - 92, 131, 132, 182, 266, 402. - - Martinet, ii. 521. - - Marum, iii. 147. - - Marvellous works in Egypt, vi. 334-340. - - Marvels connected with fire, vi. 383. - - Masks of Comedy, v. 134. - - Masinissa, i. 387, 391—ii. 150, 201. - - Maspetum, iv. 146. - - Massagetæ, ii. 34. - - Massaris, iii. 155; iv. 461. - - Massæsyli, i. 383. - - Massic wine, iii. 241. - - Massica, i. 195. - - Massicot, vi. 240. - - Massilia, i. 177 - —wines of, iii. 242. - - Mastich, iii. 132; v. 17, 19, 20. - - Mastos, v. 214. - - Masts, invention of, ii. 235. - - Mastya, ii. 3. - - Matapan, i. 282. - - Mattiacum, v. 479. - - Mauri, i. 383. - - Mauritania, the two kingdoms of, i. 374. - - Maurusii, i. 383. - - Mausoleum described, vi. 316, 317. - - Mausolus, v. 106; vi. 316, 324. - - Maximus, the dwarf, ii. 157. - - Maxula, i. 390. - - Mead, iii. 261. - - Meal, various kinds of, iv. 441, 442. - - Measures, Greek and Roman—_See_ “Introduction to vol. iii.” - —invention of, ii. 226. - - Mecenius, Egnatius, slays his wife, iii. 252. - - Mecon aphrodes, v. 261. - - Meconis, iv. 231. - - Meconitis, vi. 453. - - Meconium, iv. 277. - - Medea, i. 258, 266, 306; ii. 10; v. 81; vi. 453. - - Media described, ii. 28, 69. - - Medica, iv. 53, 54. - - Medicaments for trees, iii. 532, 533, 534. - - Medicinal compositions, remarks in disparagement of, iv. 439, 440. - - Medicinal remedies borrowed from animals, ii. 291-294. - - Medical art, origin of the, ii. 224; v. 370 - —the frauds of, 3 - —the practice of, 156, 157, 158, 376-381 - —changes in the system of, 374. - - Mediolanum, i. 247. - - Medion, v. 255. - - Mediterranean, trees and shrubs of, iii. 209, 210. - - Medius, iv. 302. - - Medusa, ii. 106. - - Medusæ, vi. 46. - - Medlar, iii. 314; iv. 512. - - Megabyzus, vi. 261, 275. - - Megalium, iii. 164. - - Megara, i. 289—iv. 244 - —prophecy of the fall of, iii. 418, 419. - - Megaris, i. 288. - - Megasthenes, i. 499. - - Megisba, ii. 53. - - Mela, M. Annæus, iv. 174. - - Mela, Pomponius, i. 268 - —quoted, i. 177, 336, 337, 364, 403, 405. - - Melamphyllos, iv. 421. - - Melampodes, ii. 179 - —understood the language of birds, 530. - - Melamprasion, v. 236. - - Melampsythium, iii. 248. - - Melanaëtos, ii. 481. - - Melanchlæni, ii. 11. - - Melancholy, remedies for, v. 355. - - Melancoryphus, ii. 511; vi. 428, 442. - - Melancranis, iv. 361. - - Melandrya, ii. 385. - - Melanthion, iv. 270, 271. - - Melanthius, vi. 245, 303. - - Melanurus, vi. 9, 63. - - Melas, i. 449. - - Meleager, i. 275, 322. - - Meleagrides, ii. 507; iv. 151. - - Meles, ii. 310. - - Melichloros, vi. 460. - - Melichrus, vi. 460. - - Melichrysos, vi. 436. - - Melicraton, iii. 261. - - Melilote, iv. 330, 335, 336, 374. - - Melinum, iii. 161; iv. 497; vi. 238. - - Melissophyllum, iv. 247, 248, 340, 373, 374. - - Melissus, C. Mæcenas, ii. 240; v. 299. - - Melitæi, i. 267. - - Melite, i. 267. - - Melitene, i. 442; ii. 7. - - Melitinus, vi. 360, 361. - - Melitites, iii. 250; iv. 438. - - Melligo, iii. 6. - - Melons, iv. 158. - - Melothron, iv. 466, 467. - - Members of man, peculiarities in, iii. 86. - - Memnon, ii. 99 - —birds of, 506 - —statue of, vi. 328, 329. - - Memnonia, vi. 453. - - Memnonides, ii. 506; iv. 151. - - Memory, ii. 164, 165 - —loss of, 165 - —seat of, iii. 88. - - Memphis, i. 409. - - Menæchmus, i. 372; vi. 145, 182, 183. - - Menander, ii. 357; iv. 205; vi. 146. - - Menander, the poet, ii. 175; v. 423, 523; vi. 323 - —quoted, iv. 28, 295, 519; vi. 30. - - Menapii, i. 353. - - Menas, vi. 302. - - Mendes, the unguents of, iii. 160, 161. - - Menecrates (artist), vi. 302. - - Menecrates, the poet, ii. 357. - - Menenius Agrippa, vi. 131. - - Menestratus, vi. 317. - - Meninx, i. 402. - - Menismini, ii. 135. - - Menodorus, vi. 187. - - Menogenes the cook, ii. 147. - - Menstrual discharge, ii. 151, 152 - —marvels connected with, v. 304-307. - - Menstruation, ii. 150, 151, 152; iv. 199. - - Mentastrum, iv. 256. - - Mentor, the artist, ii. 185; vi. 135, 138. - - Mentor and the Lion, ii. 271. - - Mephitis, Temple of, i. 122. - - Mercurialis, v. 92, 93, 94. - - Merges, iv. 103. - - Merida, i. 366. - - Mermaids, ii. 363. - - Mer-men, ii. 363. - - Meroë, i. 107, 411; ii. 100, 101. - - Meroïs, v. 65. - - Merops, ii. 516. - - Mesembria, i. 306. - - Mesogitic wine, iii. 246. - - Mesoleucon, v. 254, 255. - - Mesoleucos, vi. 454. - - Mesopotamia, i. 444; ii. 70. - - Messages, by pigeons, ii. 519. - - Messala, the censor, ii. 147. - - Messala, M. V., ii. 477; vi. 144 - —owed his healthiness to wine, iii. 243. - - Messala, vi. 221. - - Messalina, ii. 541; v. 373. - - Messalinus, Cotta, iii. 276. - - Messana, i. 217. - - Messapia, i. 225. - - Messene, i. 282. - - Messenia, i. 282. - - Messina, i. 217. - - Mestus, i. 304. - - Metæ, i. 34. - - Metagonitis, i. 387. - - Metalla, vi. 350, 351. - - Metals, soldering of, vi. 111. - - Metapontum, i. 224. - - Metellus, L., ii. 131, 192; iv. 8. - - Metellus, Q., ii. 191, 192. - - Metellus, the pontiff, his articulation, iii. 62. - - Meteorites, vi. 438. - - Meteors, i. 59, 60, 63, 64. - - Methone, i. 282, 296. - - Methora, ii. 46. - - Methymna, i. 487. - - Metimanus, ii. 150. - - Meton, iv. 127. - - Metopium, iii. 161, 162, 288, 289. - - Metrodorus, artist and philosopher, vi. 277, 303. - - Metrodorus, of Chios, iv. 303. - - Metrodorus, of Scepsis, i. 270. - - Meum, iv. 295, 296. - - Meuse, i. 348. - - Mevania, i. 239. - - Mica, vi. 369. - - Micciades, vi. 308. - - Mice, of Pontus, =ii.= 308 - —that swallow gold, 350, 351 - —various kinds of, 350, 351 - —prognostics derived from, 350 - —that gnaw iron, 350 - —singing, 351 - —of the Nile, 472 - —their fecundity, 544, 545 - —remedies derived from, v. 392. - _Also see_ “Mouse.” - - Micipsa, i. 391. - - Micon, vi. 141, 186, 241, 249, 281. - - Mictis, i. 351. - - Micton, iv. 303. - - Midas, vi. 71. - - Migration of birds, ii. 503-506. - - Milan, i. 247, 248. - - Mildew, iii. 529; iv. 96, 97. - - Miletus (place), i. 466, 467. - - Miletus (writer), v. 368. - - Milfoil, v. 61, 221. - - Miliaria, iv. 455. - - Militaris, v. 68. - - Military services, gifts for, vi. 86. - - Milk, offerings of, i. 4 - —particulars relative to, iii. 83 - —in woman, 83 - —in animals, 83 - —what is the thinnest, 84 - —the richest, 84 - —curdled, iv. 257, 258 - -impregnated by plants, v. 116 - —of Arcadia, 116 - —woman’s, remedies from, 302, 303 - —medicinal uses of, 319-322. - - Milky Way, iv. 98. - - Millefolium, v. 61. - - Millepedes, v. 417. - - Millet, iv. 38, 444 - —wine from, iii. 256. - - Milliarium aureum, i. 203. - - Millstones, vi. 339. - - Milo, T. Annius, i. 88; vi. 346, 347. - - Milo the wrestler, ii. 161; vi. 440. - - Miltiades, vi. 248. - - Miltites, vi. 363, 364. - - Miltos, vi. 120. - - Miltwaste, v. 228, 229. - - Mimas, i. 469. - - Mimosa, iii. 184; v. 43, 67. - - Mind, greatness of, ii. 166 - —vigour of, 166. - - Mineral waters, v. 485, 494, 493, 496 - —extravagant use of, 496. - - Minerals of Spain, i. 173, 174. - - Minerva Musica, vi. 180. - - Minium, vi. 119, 120-124. - - Minorca, i. 211. - - Minos, ii. 89. - - Minsas, v. 63. - - Mint, iv. 192, 193, 256-259. - - Minturnæ, i. 195. - - Minute works of art, ii. 163; vi. 184, 323. - - Minyanthes, iv. 375. - - Miraculous properties of wines, iii. 262. - - Mirage, ii. 135. - - Mirmillo, ii. 148. - - Mirror-stone, iv. 344; vi. 368, 369. - - Mirrors, vi. 126, 127, 214, 280, 422. - - Misenum, i. 196. - - Mistletoe, iii. 391, 433-436; v. 5, 6. - - Mists, i. 91 - —prognostics derived from, iv. 122. - - Misy, iv. 144; vi. 198, 199, 200. - - Mithrax, vi. 453. - - Mithridate, iv. 515; v. 79, 130, 380. - - Mithridates, King, i. 333; ii. 19; iv. 515; v. 78, 79, 102; vi. 92, - 390, 451, 467 - —his extraordinary memory, ii. 165. - - Mithridatia, v. 102. - - Mitra, ii. 91. - - Mitulus, vi. 41. - - Mitylene, i. 487, 488. - - Mnaseas, vi. 467. - - Mnason, vi. 267. - - Mnemonics, ii. 165. - - Mnemosyne, fountain of, v. 477. - - Mnesides, iii. 158. - - Mnesigiton, ii. 243. - - Mnesitheus, iv. 388. - - Mocha-stone, vi. 440. - - Modellers, ancient, vi. 284, 285, 286. - - Modelling, the art of, vi. 283, 284, 285. - - Modena, i. 242. - - Modogalinga, ii. 45. - - Mœnus, ii. 384. - - Mœris, Lake, i. 409; vi. 336. - - Mœsia, i. 264. - - Molar stones, vi. 359. - - Molemonium, v. 168. - - Moles (abortions), ii. 151. - - Moles (animals), ii. 353 - —have no sight, iii. 50 - —remedies derived from, v. 429. - - Mollugo, v. 192, 193. - - Molluscum, iii. 368. - - Mollusk, vi. 65. - - Molochitis, vi. 429. - - Molon, v. 165, 166. - - Moly, v. 87, 88. - - Molybdæna (plant), v. 141, 142. - - Molybdæna (metal), vi. 112, 118, 218, 219. - - Molybditis, vi. 117. - - Mona, i. 109, 351. - - Monapia, i. 351. - - Monarchy, ii. 227. - - Monboddo, Lord, his theory, ii. 134. - - Mongols, ii. 9, 15. - - Monkeys, ii. 347. - - Monoceros, ii. 281. - - Monochromes, vi. 247. - - Monocoli, ii. 130. - - Mons Sacer, the secession to, iv. 152, 153. - - Monsters, human, ii. 136, 137; iii. 95. - - Month, work to be done in each, iv. 81-108. - - Moon, particulars connected with the, i. 31-34, 36-40 - —its effect upon fish, ii. 424 - —its influence, iii. 415, 417, 480; iv. 97, 107, 110, 111 - —revolutions of, 111, 112 - —conjunction of, 101 - —prognostics from, 119, 120. - - Moons, several seen at once, i. 63. - - Moral disposition, indications of from the appearance, iii. 96. - - Morbus pediculosus, ii. 191, 209. - - Morimarusa, i. 342. - - Morini, i. 353. - - Morion, v. 138, 139, 140. - - Mormorion, vi. 453. - - Mormyr, vi. 65. - - Morochthos, vi. 453. - - Morphew, remedies for, v. 461. - - Morphnos, ii. 482. - - Morse, iii. 57. - - Mortar, vi. 373. - - Mortars, stones for, vi. 367. - - Mosa, i. 348. - - Mosaic pavements, vi. 378, 379. - - Moses, v. 425. - - Moss, iii. 154; v. 499. - - Moss agate, vi. 440. - - Mossylum, ii. 96. - - Motacilla, ii. 551; vi. 446. - - Moths, iii. 22, 41. - - Motions of the stars, i. 47, 48. - - Mountain green, vi. 107, 108. - - Mourning, signs of, iii. 398. - - Mouse, of Egypt, ii. 308 - —increase of its liver, iii. 70. - _And see_ “Mice.” - - Mouse-barley, iv. 445, 446; v. 250. - - Mouth, the grasshopper has none, iii. 32 - —remedies for sores of the, v. 431. - - Mouths of the Nile, i. 420. - - Mucianus, L., i. 148; ii. 138. - - Mucianus, the augur, ii. 487. - - Mud-mullet, ii. 402. - - Mugwort, v. 107. - - Mulberries, iii. 319, 320; iv. 508, 509. - - Mulc, vi. 457. - - Mule-gnat, iii. 21; v. 469. - - Mules, ii. 323 - —their nature, 324, 325 - —barren, 325 - —other peculiarities of, 326 - —shod with gold, vi. 132. - - Mulio, iii. 21; v. 469. - - Mullet, ii. 397, 398, 401, 402, 403. - - Mulsum, ii. 215; iii. 246; iv. 437. - - Multipedes, v. 417. - - Mulucha, i. 385. - - Mummies, the coffins of, iii. 180. - - Mummius, his capture of Corinth, vi. 163, 232. - - Munatius, P., iv. 307. - - Munda, i. 461; vi. 358. - - “Mundus,” the term, i. 13, 14, 17. - - Municipia, i. 154. - - Muræna, ii. 394, 407-411; iv. 299; vi. 6, 7 - —preserves for the, ii. 469. - - Murex, ii. 413, 428, 441-445; vi. 29. - - Muria, v. 503, 504, 509. - - Murrhine vessels, vi. 70, 286, 392, 393, 394. - - Murrhitis, vi. 454. - - Murviedro, i. 166. - - Mus, P. Decius, iv. 393. - - Mus cabirinus, ii. 308. - - Musa, Antonius, iv. 182; v. 372. - - Musæa, vi. 366, 391. - - Musæus, iv. 387. - - Muscatella wine, i. 195. - - Muses, i. 290, 296. - - Museum, the Sallustian, ii. 157. - - Mushrooms, iv. 428, 429. - - Music, theatrical, iii. 408. - - Musical, inventions, ii. 230 - —scale applied to the pulsation, v. 372. - - Musmon, ii. 339; v. 329. - - Mussels, vi. 41 - —gigantic, vi. 5. - - Must, iii. 249, 250 - —how prepared, 263, 264 - —properties of, iv. 468, 469. - - Mustaceum, iii. 332. - - Mustard, iv. 197, 288, 289, 290. - - Mustela (fish), ii. 401. - - Mutina, i. 60, 142, 242. - - Muza, ii. 64. - - Muziris, ii. 65. - - Mya margarifera, ii. 437. - - Myagrus (plant), v. 256. - - Myagrus (artist), vi. 188. - - Myax, vi. 40. - - Mycenæ, i. 284. - - Mycon, vi. 152. - - Myconian wine, iii. 246. - - Myconos, i. 318; iii. 46. - - Myes, ii. 436. - - Mygdones, i. 299. - - Mygdonia, i. 301. - - Myiagros, ii. 507. - - Myiodes, the divinity, v. 408. - - Myisca, vi. 41. - - Mylasa, i. 463. - - Myoctonon, v. 220. - - Myosota, v. 255, 256. - - Myosotis, v. 255, 256. - - Myosoton, v. 224. - - Myra, i. 456. - - Myriandros, i. 438. - - Myrica, iii. 202; v. 29, 30, 31. - - Myriophyllon, v. 61. - - Myriza, v. 61, 62. - - Myrmecides, the sculptor, ii. 163; vi. 323, 454. - - Myrmecitis, vi. 459. - - Myrobalanum, iii. 142, 143; iv. 495. - - Myron, vi. 168, 169, 173, 174, 318. - - Myrrh, iii. 129-132 - —prices of, 131. - - Myrrha, v. 61, 62. - - Myrrhine. _See_ “Murrhine.” - - Myrrhina, iii. 253. - - Myrrhis, v. 61, 62, 195. - - Myrsilus, i. 372. - - Myrsineum, iv. 296, 297. - - Myrsinitis, vi. 454. - - Myrtidanum, iii. 257; iv. 521. - - Myrtis, v. 195. - - Myrtites, iii. 257. - - Myrtle, iii. 328 - —anecdotes relative to, 328, 329 - —varieties of, 330, 331 - —used for wines, 331 - —used in ovations, 331, 332 - —remedies derived from, iv. 519. - - Myrtoän Sea, i. 309, 317. - - Myrtopetalos, v. 259, 260. - - Mys, vi. 139. - - Mysia described, i. 488. - - Mystus, wine of, iii. 246. - - Myxa plum, iii. 178. - - Myxon, vi. 33. - - - N. - - Nabatæi, i. 422; ii. 88; iv. 364. - - Nabun, ii. 277. - - Nails, the human, iii. 87 - —peculiarities in the, 87 - —paring of, v. 285 - —maladies of, 458 - —malformed, vi. 53. - - Napata, ii. 99. - - Naphtha, i. 139; v. 476; vi. 293, 294. - - Naples, i. 197. - - Napy, iv. 197. - - Narbonensis, i. 174 - —wines of, ii. 243. - - Narbonne, i. 174, 175. - - Narcissinum, iii. 161. - - Narcissitis, vi. 459. - - Narcissus, iv. 316, 367, 368. - - Nard, iii. 119, 120, 121; iv. 369, 370 - —Indian, iii. 165. - - Nardinum, iii. 165. - - Narona, i. 260. - - Narthex, iii. 205. - - Nasamones, i. 397; ii. 126. - - Nasamonitis, vi. 454. - - Nassa, ii. 421. - - Nasturtium, iv. 191, 251, 252. - - “Nasutus,” the term, iii. 55. - - Nations, how affected by climate, i. 110, 111 - —exterminated by animals, ii. 295 - —modes of cultivation pursued by various, iv. 61 - —maladies peculiar to certain, v. 271, 272. - - Natrix, v. 256. - - Nature, considered by Pliny to be identical with God, i. 25 - —her ingenuity displayed in the insect world, iii. 1, 2 - —the providence manifested by, iv. 396 - —her wondrous powers, v. 1 - —a comparative view of, vi. 464. - - Naucerus, vi. 183. - - Naucratis, i. 408, 421. - - Naucydes, vi. 169, 183. - - Naulochum, i. 277, 467. - - Naumachia, iii. 416, 419. - - Naupactus, i. 275. - - Nauplius, sailing, ii. 422. - - Nausicaa, vi. 265. - - Naustathmus, i. 218. - - Nautilus, ii. 419, 429. - - Navalia, vi. 321. - - Navel-wort, v. 143. - - Navigation, i. 97, 98. - - Navius, Attus, iii. 310, 311; vi. 157. - - Nasica, Scipio, ii. 179. - - Naxos, i. 320 - —stone of, vi. 327. - - Nealces, vi. 266, 279, 280. - - Neapolis, i. 197. - - Nearchus, ii. 115. - - Nearer Spain described, i. 164. - - Nebritis, vi. 454, 460. - - Necepsos, i. 148. - - Nechthebis, vi. 332, 341. - - Neck, iii. 63 - —remedies for pains in the, v. 343. - - Necklaces of amber, vi. 401. - - Necron, Isle of, vi. 395. - - Nectarites, iii. 259. - - Negropont, i. 316. - - Nemausum, i. 179, 180. - - Nemea, i. 287. - - Nemean Games, iv. 192. - - Nemesis, i. 290; vi. 310 - —seat of, iii. 88. - - Nenuphar, v. 107. - - Neoptolemus of Paros, iii. 100. - - Nep, iv. 261, 262. - - Nepos, Cornelius, i. 147. - - Nereïds, ii. 363, 364. - - Neritus, i. 311. - - Nero, the Emperor, i. 279, 288; ii. 26, 99, 149; iii. 92, 137; iv. 15, - 428; v. 358; vi. 109, 167, 175, 183, 185, 216, 246, 261, 393, 402, - 403, 409 - —his birth, ii. 143 - —his sight, iii. 51 - —his use of thapsia, 206 - —his study of magic, v. 428. - - Nero, Tiberius, his rapid journey, ii. 162. - - “Nervus,” the term, ii. 160; iii. 77. - - Nervii, i. 354. - - Nepenthes, iv. 377; v. 81. - - Nests of birds, ii. 513, 514, 515. - - Nettle, iv. 351, 352, 402, 403, 404 - —eaten, 352. - - Neuras, v. 128, 129, 262. - - Neuroïdes, iv. 233. - - Neurospastos, v. 49. - - New birds, the, ii. 529. - - New Carthage, i. 157, 163, 170. - - Niam Niams, the, a people with tails, ii. 134. - - Nicæa, i. 184, 493. - - Nicæus, the wrestler, ii. 145, 146. - - Nicander, ii. 357. - - Nice, i. 184. - - Nicephorion, ii. 71. - - Niceratus (artist), vi. 183, 186. - - Niceratus (writer), v. 523. - - Niceros, vi. 268. - - Nicias (artist), vi. 275, 276. - - Nicias (general), i. 38. - - Nicias (writer), vi. 467. - - Nicknames, ii. 147. - - Nicobulus, iii. 157. - - Nicolaüs of Damascus, iii. 176. - - Nicomachus, vi. 245, 267, 268. - - Nicomedes, King, ii. 313. - - Nicomedia, i. 494. - - Nicophanes, vi. 268, 297. - - Nicopolis, i. 274; ii. 19. - - Niger, Sextus, iii. 156. - - Niger, Trebius, ii. 355. - - Niger, river, i. 382. - - Night-hawk, ii. 488, 539. - - Nightingale, ii. 509, 510 - —white, ii. 510. - - Nightmare, ii. 316; v. 89, 256, 449. - - Nightshade, iv. 384, 385, 386; v. 266. - - Nigidius Figulus, ii. 114 - —quoted, 152. - - Nigris, i. 395, 404; ii. 281. - - Nigritæ, i. 404. - - Nile, alluvion of the, i. 117; iii. 186; v. 81 - —description of, i. 410 - —promoter of fertility, ii. 135, 136 - —mice of the, 472 - —water of, like glue, iii. 189. - - Nilion, vi. 429. - - Nilometer, i. 414. - - Nineveh, ii. 27, 70. - - Ninguaria, ii. 108. - - Ninus, the city, ii. 27, 70. - - Niobe, the fountain, i. 284. - - Niobe and her children, the group of, vi. 315. - - Nipparene, vi. 454. - - Nipples, only in man the male has them, iii. 82. - - Nismes, i. 179, 180. - - Nisus (bird), ii. 551. - - Nisyros, i. 484, 485. - - Nitre, iv. 164. - - Nitrum, v. 512-519. - - No, i. 416, 418. - - Noctua, ii. 492. - - Noir antique, vi. 325. - - Nola, i. 198. - - Nomades, i. 335, 387; ii. 83, 90, 134. - - Nomenclator, vi. 81. - - Nomentum, i. 233 - —vines of, iii. 223. - - Nomes of Egypt, i. 407. - - Nonacris, i. 287. - - Nonius Struma, vi. 416. - - Norici, i. 262. - - Northern regions of Europe described, i. 339. - - Nostrils, the, iii. 55, 56 - —exponents of ridicule, 55 - —discharges of blood from, 79 - —remedies for diseases of, v. 145, 150. - - Notia, v. 71; vi. 454. - - Novara, i. 247. - - Novaria, i. 247. - - Nulo, Mount, ii. 130. - - Numa, Pompilius, i. 84, 233; iv. 4; vi. 10 - —his books discovered, iii. 191, 192 - —his law on wine, 252. - - Numantia, i. 171; vi. 132. - - Numenius, ii. 86. - - Numidia, described, i. 387 - —the marble of, vi. 325. - - Numidicæ, ii. 528. - - Nundinæ, iv. 6, 7; v. 285. - - Nurseries for plants, iii. 464-467. - - Nus, the river, v. 477. - - Nut, the several varieties of, iii. 315-319. - - Nut-galls, iii. 350. - - Nutriment, iii. 97. - - Nyctalopy, ii. 341; iv. 335; v. 336, 337. - - Nyctegreton, iv. 335. - - Nyma, v. 256. - - Nymphæ, iii. 17. - - Nymphæa, v. 107. - - Nymphæa heraclia, v. 132. - - Nymphæa nelumbo, iv. 45. - - Nymphæa pteris, v. 245, 246. - - Nymphæum, i. 142, 261. - - Nymphæus, i. 295. - - Nymphodorus, i. 270. - - Nysa, ii. 50. - - - O. - - Oak, i. 285; iii. 341, 342. - - Oar, invention of the, ii. 235. - - Oäsites, i. 409. - - Oats, iv. 54, 55, 56, 446, 455. - - Obelisks, iii. 419; vi. 331-334 - —at Rome, vi. 333, 334, 335. - - Obliquity of the zones, i. 102. - - Obsian glass, vi. 381. - - Obsian stone, vi. 381, 382, 455, 463. - - Obsidian, vi. 381, 382, 455, 463. - - Occhus, iii. 115. - - Oce, iii. 90. - - Ocean, surrounding the earth, i. 98, 99, 100. - - Ocelis, ii. 64. - - Ochra, vi. 237. - - Ochre, vi. 235, 236, 363 - —red, 120 - —yellow, 140, 141. - - Ocimoïdes, v. 55, 56. - - Ocimum, iv. 191, 249, 250, 356 - —cursed when sown, 178. - - Ocinum, iii. 511; iv. 52, 53. - - Ocriculum, i. 191, 239. - - Ocrisia, vi. 384. - - Octavius, Cneius, vi. 158, 159. - - Oculata, vi. 63. - - Oculus, iii. 496. - - Odd numbers, v. 287. - - Odinolytes, vi. 4. - - Odontitis, v. 257. - - Odours, the nature of, iv. 321, 322, 323. - - Odrysæ, i. 303. - - Œa, i. 393, 401. - - Œnanthe, ii. 511, 512; iii. 155, 161; iv. 380, 460 - —oil of, iv. 488, 489. - - Œnanthinum, iii. 255, 289. - - Œneus, i. 275. - - Œnophorus, vi. 177. - - Œnopides, iv. 128. - - Œsophagus, iii. 64. - - Œsypum, iii. 133; v. 383, 384, 385. - - Œtum, iv. 349. - - Ogygia, i. 223. - - Oica, vi. 454. - - Oil, first use of, ii. 226 - —of œnanthe, iv. 488, 489 - —of almonds, 490 - —of laurel, 490, 491 - —of chamæmyrsine, 491 - —of cypress, 491 - —of citrus, 491 - —of walnuts, 491 - —of Cnidium, 491 - —of mastich, 491 - —of balanus, 492 - —of cyprus, 492 - —of balsamum, 492, 493 - —of henbane, 493 - —of lupines, 493 - —of narcissus, 493 - —of radishes, 493, 494 - —of sesame, 494 - —of lilies, 494 - —of Selga, 494 - —of Iguvium, 394 - —of pitch, 494. - _And see_ Olive oil. - - Oils, artificial, iii. 162, 163, 286-291; iv. 488-494. - - Oleander, v. 37. - - Oleaster, iii. 285, 287. - - Olenum, i. 280. - - Oleron, i. 360. - - Oliaros, i. 319. - - Olisipo, i. 364, 365; vi. 422. - - Olive, Indian, iii. 111 - —of Arabia, 135 - —omphacium made from, 154 - —the history of, 277 - —its introduction into Europe, 277 - —its growth, 277, 278 - —its nature, 278 - —varieties of it, 278-284 - —victors crowned with its leaves, 284, 285 - —culture and preservation of, 285, 286 - —wild, 418, 419 - —aged trees of, 430, 431 - —culture of, 486, 487, 488 - —leaves of, iv. 484 - —blossom of, 484, 485. - - Olive oil, iii. 278, 279 - —where produced, 279, 280 - —its qualities, 280, 281 - —nature of, 284 - —making of, 286. - —remedies derived from, iv. 488. - - Olives, white, iv. 485 - —black, 486. - - Ollar stone, vi. 368. - - Ololygones, iii. 62. - - Olusatrum, iv. 193, 194, 248. - - Olympia, i. 281 - —Games at, ii. 232; v. 408, 493. - - Olympiads, i. 281. - - Olympias of Thebes, iv. 303. - - Olympias, wind, iii. 523. - - Olympicus, vi. 468. - - Olympiodorus, iii. 157. - - Olympus, i. 295, 489. - - Olynthos, i. 304. - - Olyra, iv. 441. - - Olyros, i. 280. - - Omani, ii. 83. - - Ombre (fish), ii. 393. - - Ombria, vi. 454. - - Omens, iii. 94, 313, 336 - —from poultry, 479 - —from birds, 509 - —from bees, iii. 19 - —evil, 68 - —fortunate, 70 - —from trees, 395. - _Also see_ “Portents.” - - Omentum, iii. 73. - - Omphacium, iii. 153, 154, 255, 459, 460, 488. - - Omphalocarpos, v. 227, 228. - - On, i. 418. - - Onager, ii. 324; v. 332, 351. - - Onear, v. 196. - - Onesicritus, i. 150; ii. 60. - - Onions, iv. 168, 169, 171, 173, 176, 222. - - Onitis, iv. 268. - - Onobrychis, v. 62. - - Onochilis, iv. 356. - - Onochilon, iv. 410, 411. - - Onoclia, v. 238. - - Onopordon, v. 258. - - Onopyxos, iv. 353. - - Onosma, v. 257. - - Onotheres, v. 196. - - Onyches (fish), ii. 428, 475. - - Onyx, vi. 329, 419, 420, 431. - - Oönæ, i. 342. - - Opal, vi. 415, 416, 417, 436, 437. - - Ophicardelon, vi. 455. - - Ophiogenes, ii. 125; v. 237. - - Ophion, v. 329. - - Ophir, vi. 380. - - Ophites, vi. 327, 367. - - Ophiusa, v. 65. - - Ophrys, v. 214, 215. - - Ophthalmic preparations, iv. 208; vi. 367. - - Opici, v. 376. - - Opilius, Aurelius, v. 368. - - Opimian wine, ii. 237; iii. 254. - - Opium, iv. 230, 231, 275, 276, 277. - - Opobalsamum, iii. 149. - - Opocarpathon, v. 332; vi. 25, 40. - - Opopanax, iii. 152. - - Oporice, v. 52. - - Oppius, C., iii. 99. - - Opuntia, iv. 358. - - Opus, i. 292. - - Orach, iv. 419, 420. - - Orage, iv. 282, 283; v. 241. - - Orange (town), i. 178. - - Orata, Sergius, ii. 468. - - Oratis, ii. 67. - - Orbis (fish), vi. 7, 9, 24. - - Orca, ii. 365, 366. - - Orcades, i. 351. - - Orchis, v. 189, 190, 240. - - Orchomenus, i. 286, 294 - —seed of, iii. 405, 406, 407. - - Orcus, i. 296. - - Oreoselinon, iv. 180, 248. - - Orestes, his body found, of gigantic size, ii. 156. - - Origanum, iv. 266, 268; v. 90 - —Heracleotic, iv. 266-270. - - Orion, ii. 156. - - Orios, v. 259, 260. - - Oritæ, ii. 134. - - Oritis, vi. 454. - - Ornithogale, iv. 357, 358. - - Orobanche, iv. 455. - - Orobethron, v. 172. - - Orobia, iii. 128. - - Orobus, iv. 51. - - Orodes, ii. 31. - - Orontes, i. 437, 438. - - Oropus, i. 290. - - Orpheus, i. 303, 305; iv. 301; v. 423. - - Orphus, ii. 395. - - Orpiment, vi. 104, 105, 220. - - Orpine, v. 67. - - Orthagoriscos, vi. 9, 24. - - Ortolan, ii. 504. - - Ortospanum, ii. 41. - - Ortygia, i. 319. - - Ortygometra, ii. 504. - - Oruros, ii. 72. - - Oryges, ii. 346. - - Oryx, i. 67; iii. 89, 90 - —its body a preventive of thirst, ii. 550. - - Oscines, ii. 495. - - Osiris, i. 417. - - Osiritis, v. 429. - - Ossa, i. 295. - - Osseous stones, vi. 358. - - Ossifrage, ii. 487. - - Ossuna, i. 161. - - Osthanes, v. 277, 365, 366, 424, 425. - - Ostia, i. 192 - —construction of the harbour at, ii. 366; iii. 420; vi. 333. - - Ostraceum, vi. 55. - - Ostracias, vi. 455. - - Ostracites, vi. 360. - - Ostracitis, vi. 444, 455. - - Ostrich, ii. 478, 479. - - Ostrys, iii. 202, 203. - - Osyris, v. 258. - - Otho, M., iii. 167. - - Othoninum, iv. 135. - - Othonna, v. 257. - - Otis, ii. 500. - - Otranto, i. 226. - - Otter, vi. 35. - - Otus, ii. 156, 504. - - Outline painting, vi. 229. - - Ovations, myrtle used in, iii. 331, 332. - - Ovid, his birth-place, i. 231 - —his place of banishment, 306 - —his “Halieuticon,” ii. 391—vi. 6, 65 - —probably mistranslated by Pliny, iii. 352 - —mentioned, iv. 126 - —his works quoted, =i.= 4, 19, 26, 38, 43, 44, 82, 84, 100, 119, - 131, 135, 199, 214, 219, 232, 234, 243, 258, 265, 306, 472, 493; - =ii.= 90, 106, 338, 409, 545; =iii.= 44, 82, 133, 332, 385, 424, - 529, 535; =iv.= 44, 84, 99, 197, 293, 337, 346, 426; =v.= 41, 283, - 397, 434, 474, 476, 477; =vi.= 6, 7, 65, 66, 68, 173, 187, 206, - 260, 264, 277, 315, 318, 345, 397. - - Oviedo, i. 172. - - Oviparous animals, ii. 532. - - Ovum anguinum, v. 389. - - Owl, horned, ii. 492. - - Owlet, ii. 492, 494. - - Oxalis, iv. 287. - - Oxen, the generation of, ii. 326, 327 - —of the best quality, 327 - —peculiarities in, 329 - —not killed by the ancients, 328 - —with powers of speech, 330 - —fed on fish, iii. 98. - - Oxus, ii. 32. - - Oxycedrus, iii. 178. - - Oxygala, v. 323, 324. - - Oxylapathum, iv. 287. - - Oxymeli, iii. 261; iv. 481. - - Oxymyrsine, iv. 521; v. 143. - - Oxys, v. 268. - - Oxyschœnos, iv. 361. - - Oyster-beds, i. 196 - —artificial, ii. 467, 468. - - Oyster-bread, iv. 39. - - Oysters, ii. 458, 463, 464, 468, 469; vi. 25-28 - —of neither sex, ii. 546 - —have no hearing, 547 - —have sense of touch, 548 - —when wholesome to eat, vi. 26 - —of gigantic size, vi. 27, 28. - - Ozæna, ii. 420. - - Ozænitis, iii. 120. - - Ozolæ, i. 276. - - - P. - - Pachynum, i. 217, 218. - - Pactolus, i. 465. - - Pacuvius, vi. 230. - - Padua, i. 252. - - Padus, i. 243, 246. - - Padusa, i. 244. - - Pæanitis, vi. 456. - - Pædagogus, vi. 88. - - Pæderos (plant), iv. 421. - - Pæderos (stones so called), vi. 417, 433, 436. - - Pænula, ii. 333. - - Pæonia, v. 88, 89, 248, 249. - - Pæstum, i. 208. - - “Pætus,” origin of the name, iii. 53. - - Pagæ, i. 278, 288. - - Pagasa, Gulf of, i. 324. - - “Page,” origin of the English word, vi. 88. - - Pagur, ii. 425; vi. 48. - - Pain, endurance of, ii. 164 - —intensity of, v. 86, 87. - - Painters, journeymen, thefts by, vi. 122, 123 - —celebrated, 246-268. - - Painting, the art of, ii. 184; vi. 223, 224, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, - 234, 235, 245, 246-282 - —invention of, ii. 236 - —use of chrysocolla in, vi. 108, 109 - —cinnabaris used in, vi. 121, 122, 123. - - Pala, iii. 110. - - Palæmon, Rhemmius, his successful culture of the vine, ii. 235, 236. - - Palæogoni, ii. 51. - - Palæphatus, v. 420. - - Palæsimundus, ii. 53. - - Palæstina, i. 425. - - Palamedes, ii. 229. - - Palantium, i. 286. - - Palatium, i. 286. - - Palencia, i. 171. - - Paleness, how produced, v. 328. - - Palibothra, ii. 42, 43, 45. - - Palimpissa, v. 18. - - Palinurum, i. 208. - - Palinurus, i. 208. - - Paliurus, iii. 200, 381; v. 46. - - Palladium, rescue of the, ii. 192. - - Palladius quoted, iv. 303. - - Pallene, i. 300. - - Pallium, vi. 275. - - Palm, iii. 169-174, 200, 460; iv. 494, 495 - —leaves of, iii. 377 - —used for writing, 186 - —wine from the, 257. - - Palm (a measure), vi. 290. - - Palm-stones, vi. 358. - - Palma, i. 211, 235. - - Palmensian wines, iii. 242. - - Palmyra, i. 445. - - Paludamentum, iv. 390. - - Palus Mæotis, i. 98, 99, 326; ii. 1, 2, 14. - - Pampeluna, i. 169. - - Pamphagi, ii. 104. - - Pamphile, iii. 26. - - Pamphilus, the actor, ii. 147. - - Pamphilus, the artist, vi. 255, 273. - - Pamphylia described, i. 452. - - Panaces, asclepion, v. 89 - —heracleon, 90, 94 - —chironion, 90 - —centaurion or pharnacion, v. 90, 91 - —siderion, 91. - - Panænus, vi. 247, 248, 374. - - Panætius, i. 498. - - Panathenaicon, iii. 161. - - Panax, iii. 152; iv. 203, 265. - - Pancaste, vi. 259. - - Panchrestos, iv. 509, 510, 511. - - Panchrus, vi. 455. - - Panchrysos, ii. 94. - - Pancration, iv. 234. - - Pancratium (plant), v. 261, 262. - - Pandæ, ii. 48. - - Pandion, King, ii. 65. - - Pandore, ii. 133. - - Panels for painting, iii. 414. - - Paneros, vi. 455. - - Pangæum, i. 302, 303. - - Pangonus, vi. 455. - - Panhormus, i. 218. - - Panic (grain), iv. 21, 38, 444. - - Panormus, i. 280. - - Panorpis, iii. 30, 35. - - Panotii, i. 343. - - Pantellaria, i. 403. - - Panthera, or leopard, its gratitude, ii. 272, 273 - —description of, 274 - —singular antidote used by, 293 - —remedies derived from, v. 219. - - Pantherinæ, iii. 196. - - Panticapæum, i. 327, 334. - - Panticapes, i. 332. - - Papaverata, ii. 337. - - Paper, the discovery of it, iii. 185, 186 - —how made, 186, 187 - —various kinds of, 186-190 - —qualities of, 189, 190 - —defects in, 190, 191 - —scarcity of, 193 - —remedies derived from, v. 37. - - Paphlagonia described, ii. 3. - - Papirius, L., ii. 140 - —his vow, iii. 253. - - Pappus, iii. 204; iv. 354; v. 146, 147. - - Paps of animals, iii. 82, 83. - - Papyrus, iii. 185-189, 193; v. 36. - _Also, see_ “Paper.” - - Parabeste, ii. 57. - - Parætonium (place), i. 397. - - Parætonium (a plaster), vi. 238. - - Paralion, iv. 279, 280. - - Paralios, v. 179. - - Parallels, division of the earth into, ii. 110. - - Paralysis, remedies for, v. 450. - - Parapanisus, the river, i. 341. - - Parapotamia, iii. 155. - - Parasitical insects, ii. 459; iii. 40. - - Parasitical plants, iii. 207, 206, 433, 434; iv. 199. - - Parchment, invention of, iii. 186. - - Pard, ii. 265, 272, 274, 250. - - Pardalianches, ii. 293; v. 218-222. - - Pardalion, v. 252. - - Pardalios, vi. 460. - - Pardalium, iii. 161. - - Pardon of the gods, how asked, iii. 88. - - Parentalia, iv. 44. - - Pargetting, vi. 374. - - Parian Chronicle, i. 319. - - Parian marble, vi. 309. - - Parietary, iv. 357. - - Parilia, iv. 159. - - Parisii, i. 356. - - Parks for wild animals, ii. 345. - - Parma, i. 183, 242. - - Parmenio, i. 473. - - Parmeniscus, iv. 127. - - Parnassus, i. 277. - - Paropanisus, the mountains of, ii. 33, 46. - - Paros, i. 319. - - Parra, ii. 512; iv. 101. - - Parrhasia, i. 286. - - Parrhasius, vi. 251-254. - - Parrot, ii. 522, 523 - —has the hardest head, iii. 47. - - Parrot-seed, iv. 350. - - Parsley, iv. 192, 246, 247. - - Parsnip, iv. 165, 166, 218, 219, 222; v. 124. - - Parthenion, v. 92, 93, 94. - - Parthenis, v. 106. - - Parthenium, iv. 383, 406, 407. - - Parthenope, i. 197. - - Parthia, described, ii. 68 - —the waters of, v. 484. - - Parthians, their cookery, ii. 531; iii. 107 - —eat grasshoppers, 32 - —eat locusts, 37 - —their tainted breath, 97 - —their drunkenness, 274 - —the Roman expedition against, 313 - —their delicate bread, iv. 40. - - Partridge, i. 323; ii. 516, 517; iv. 357, 406, 417 - —of Paphlagonia has a double heart, iii. 65. - - Parturition, methods of facilitating, v. 463, 464. - - Pasines, ii. 81. - - Pasiteles, vi. 137, 145, 285, 319, 321. - - Passagarda, ii. 70. - - Passernices, vi. 370. - - Paste used for making paper, iii. 191; iv. 443. - - Pastern bones, iii. 90. - - Pastinaca (fish), ii. 408, 411, 452, 460; vi. 24, 25 - —venomous, 12. - - Pastinaca erratica (plant), v. 124. - _Also, see_ “Parsnip.” - - Patala, ii. 51. - - Patale, i. 108; iii. 119. - - Patara, i. 456. - - Patavium, i. 252. - - Patetæ, iii. 176. - - Patmos, i. 321. - - Patna, ii. 43, 45. - - Patræ, i. 279. - - Patras, i. 279. - - Patrobius, vi. 289. - - Patrocles the geographer, ii. 39, 115. - - Patroclus (artist), vi. 169. - - Paul, Saint, i. 201, 267, 297, 300, 304, 447, 456, 457, 491, 492. - - Paulinus, Pompeius, vi. 133. - - Paulus, L. Æmilius, i. 302; vi. 171, 277, 346. - - Pausanias quoted, i. 215, 278. - - Pausias, iv. 305; vi. 273, 274. - - Pausilypum, i. 214; ii. 467. - - Pavements, vi. 376-379. - - Paxos, i. 310. - - Peaches, iii. 293, 294, 296; iv. 508 - —of Persia, poisonous, iii. 296 - —Pliny’s singular notions as to, iv. 508. - - Peacock, ii. 495, 496 - —its vanity, 495 - —fattened for food, 496 - —remedies derived from, v. 413. - - Peahen, ii. 538. - - “Pearl,” alleged origin of the word, vi. 66. - - Pearl oyster, ii. 481, 432, 436, 437. - - Pearls, ii. 430-436 - —when first used at Rome, 440 - —of Britain, 437 - —costliness of, 437, 438, 439. - - Pears, iii. 300-303 - —remedies derived from, iv. 502. - - Pease, iv. 46. - - Pebbles, white and black, ii. 187. - - Pectines, ii. 428. - - Pectoral, iv. 291. - - Pectunculus, vi. 64. - - “Pecunia,” origin of the word, iv. 5; vi. 89. - - Pedius, his supreme happiness, ii. 199. - - Pedius, Q., vi. 231. - - Pegasi (beasts), ii. 279. - - Pegasi (birds), ii. 530. - - Pegasus, i. 291. - - Pegma, vi. 94. - - Pelamides, ii. 385. - - Pelagiæ, ii. 444. - - Pelasgi, i. 187. - - Pelecinon, v. 262. - - Pelican, ii. 527, 528. - - Peligni, i. 231. - - Pelion, i. 295. - - Pella, i. 298; v. 491; vi. 264. - - Pellitory, iv. 357. - - Peloponnesus described, i. 278. - - Pelops, his rib, v. 288. - - Pelops, the writer, v. 523. - - Pelorides, vi. 41. - - Pelorus, i. 209, 217, 219. - - Pelusium, i. 420. - - Peneus, i. 295, 296. - - Penicilli, v. 520. - - Penicillus, vi. 250. - - Pennyroyal, iv. 259, 260, 261. - - Pentapetes, v. 122, 123. - - Pentadactyli, vi. 62. - - Pentaphyllon, v. 122, 123. - - Pentapolis, i. 395. - - Pentelicus, i. 289. - - Pentorobus, v. 88, 89, 248, 249. - - Peony, v. 88, 89, 248, 249. - - Peparethos, wine of, iii. 247. - - Peplis, iv. 280, 281; v. 261. - - Pepones, iv. 157, 211. - - Pepper-tree, iii. 111, 112, 113, 396. - - Pepperwort, iv. 203, 269, 270. - - Peræa, i. 427. - - Peraticum, iii. 116. - - Perch, ii. 395. - - Percnos, ii. 482. - - Perdicium, iv. 357, 383, 406, 407. - - Perekop, Gulf of, i. 332. - - Perfumes, burnt at funerals, iii. 137 - —extravagance in, 137 - —a description of, 160-165 - —mixed with oil, 166. - - Perga, i. 452. - - Pergamum, i. 478. - - Pergula, iv. 307. - - Periander, i. 498. - - Periboëtos, vi. 177. - - Pericarpum, v. 131, 132. - - Pericles, vi. 179 - —adventure of his slave, iv. 407. - - Periclymenos, v. 261, 262; vi. 188. - - Perileucos, vi. 456. - - Perillus, vi. 168, 187. - - Perimula, ii. 47, 431. - - Periphoretos, vi. 172. - - Peristereon, v. 121, 122. - - Peristereos, v. 130. - - Periwinkle (plant), iv. 339, 382; v. 57. - - Periwinkles (fish), ii. 427, 428, 470 - —gigantic, 470. - - Perna (fish), vi. 66. - - Perorsi, i. 404. - - Perpressa, iv. 368, 369; v. 186. - - Perperene, i. 474; v. 482. - - Perrhæbi, i. 271, 275. - - Persea, iii. 296. - - Persepolis, ii. 69. - - Perseus, King, i. 299, 302. - - Persia, trees of, iii. 117. - - Persian Gulf, ii. 66 - —trees of, iii. 117. - - Persian tree, iii. 182. - - Persians, their use of perfumes, iii. 136. - - Persica, iii. 296. - - Persicon napy, v. 268, 269. - - Persis, the province of, ii. 68. - - Persolata, v. 124. - - Personata, iii. 348. - - Pertinax Helvius, i. 186. - - Perugia, i. 190. - - Perusia, i. 190. - - Pescara, i. 231. - - Pesoluta, iv. 386. - - Pessinus, i. 492. - - Petasus, vi. 342. - - Petauristæ, iii. 40. - - Peter, Saint, i. 426. - - Petilium, iv. 328. - - Petorita, vi. 215. - - Petosiris, i. 148. - - Petrichus, iv. 205. - - Petrifactions, v. 482; vi. 438, 461. - - Petritan wine, iii. 246. - - Petroleum, i. 138; v. 478. - - Petronius, P., ii. 99. - - Petronius, T., vi. 393. - - Petroselinum, iv. 248. - - Peucedanum, v. 126. - - Peucestes, vi. 176. - - Peucini, i. 348. - - Pezenas, i. 180. - - Pezica, iv. 144. - - Phædrus quoted, ii. 315; iii. 102; iv. 13. - - Phaëthon, i. 243; vi. 397. - - Phagrus, ii. 393; vi. 48. - - Phalacrocorax, ii. 529. - - Phalangion (plant), v. 263. - - Phalangitis, v. 263. - - Phalangium (insect), ii. 353; iii. 29; v. 400. - - Phalaris, v. 264; vi. 187 - —the first tyrant, ii. 227. - - Phaleræ, ii. 170; vi. 77. - - Phalerides, ii. 528. - - Phalerum, i. 289. - - Phallovitroboli, vi. 70. - - Phanagoria, ii. 14. - - Phanias, iv. 388. - - Phaon, i. 274; iv. 398. - - Pharanitis, vi. 433. - - Pharnaces, ii. 128; v. 90. - - Pharos, i. 479; vi. 339. - - Pharsalia, i. 294, 295; v. 159. - - Pharusii, i. 406. - - Pharynx, iii. 62. - - Phaselis, oil of, iv. 494. - - Phasganion, v. 134, 135. - - Phasiolon, v. 251, 252. - - Phasis, ii. 10. - - Phaulias, iii. 433. - - Phausia, v. 482. - - Phazania, i. 398. - - Pheasant, ii. 528. - - Phellandrion, v. 264. - - Phellos, i. 456. - - Phellusa, i. 488. - - Phemonoë, ii. 554. - - Pheneus, i. 287. - - Phengites, vi. 369, 370. - - Pheos, iv. 401. - - Pheræ, i. 280, 283, 294. - - Pherecydes, i. 112; ii. 209. - - Phiala, i. 413; ii. 331. - - Phidias, ii. 185; vi. 168, 170, 171, 247, 310, 311. - - Philadelphus, Ptolemæus, ii. 92, 93, 94. - - Philæ, i. 415. - - Philæni, i. 393. - - Philanthes, iv. 356. - - Philanthropos, v. 71, 227, 228. - - Philemon (geographer), i. 373. - - Philemon (poet), ii. 555. - - Philetæria, v. 102, 103. - - Philinus, iv. 303. - - Philip, King, i. 300, 304; - his wound, ii. 183. - - Philippi, i. 304. - - Philippopolis, i. 303. - - Philippus of Medma, iv. 127. - - Philiscus, vi. 319. - - Philistides Mallotes, i. 372. - - Philistina, i. 245. - - Philistion, iv. 302. - - Philistus, ii. 356; iii. 100. - - Philochares, vi. 229. - - Philocles, vi. 229. - - Philon, ii. 184; vi. 188. - - Philonides, i. 373. - - Philostephanus, ii. 242. - - Philoxenus (artist), vi. 268. - - Philoxenus (poet), vi. 467. - - Philtres, ii. 321; iv. 219. - _Also, see_ “Magic.” - - Philyra, iv. 306; v. 2. - - Philyræ, iii. 366. - - Phlegra, i. 300. - - Phlegræan Plains, i. 197. - - Phlius, i. 280, 281. - - Phloginos, vi. 455. - - Phlogitis, vi. 460. - - Phlomis, v. 127, 128. - - Phlomos, v. 127. - - Phlox, iv. 333, 334, 336. - - Phocæ, ii. 369. - - Phocis described, i. 276. - - Phœnice (country) described, i. 433. - - Phœnice (barley), iv. 445, 446. - - Phœnicitis, vi. 456, 459. - - Phœnicobalanus, iii. 143; iv. 495. - - Phœnicopterus, ii. 528. - - Phœnicurus, ii. 511. - - Phœnix, ii. 479, 480, 481; iii. 43. - - Pholöe, i. 287. - - Phonolite, vi. 446. - - Phorinean wine, iii. 248. - - Phradmon, vi. 168. - - Phrenion, iv. 379. - - Phrenitis, remedies for, v. 198, 452, 453. - - Phryganea, iii. 42. - - Phryganion, v. 455. - - Phrygia described, i. 490. - - Phrygian stone, vi. 362. - - Phryne, vi. 178, 259, 312. - - Phrynion, v. 128, 129, 262. - - Phthia, i. 294. - - Phthiotis, i. 294. - - Phthiriasis, ii. 191, 209; iv. 227; v. 206, 468 - —internal, iv. 165. - - Phthirophagi, ii. 11. - - Phthisis, remedies for, v. 355, 356. - - Phu, iii. 121; iv. 370. - - Phycis, ii. 414. - - Phycitis, vi. 456. - - Phycos, iii. 209, 210. - - Phycos thalassion, v. 193. - - Phylace, i. 297. - - Phylarchus, ii. 241. - - Phyllis, iii. 385, 386. - - Phyllon, v. 263. - - Phyllos, iv. 405. - - Physalus, ii. 454. - - Physema, ii. 432. - - Physeter, ii. 361. - - Physicians, an account of, v. 372-376 - —their ignorance, v. 377, 378, 380; vi. 120, 121, 194, 195 - —their avarice, v. 379 - —their cruelty, v. 381. - - Physiognomists, vi. 260. - - Physiognomy, observations upon, iii. 96. - - Physis, vi. 462. - - Phyteuma, v. 263. - - Piacenza, i. 242. - - Picarel, vi. 45. - - Picatum, iii. 238; iv. 476; vi. 371. - - Picenum, i. 235. - - Picris, iv. 359, 417. - - “Pictor,” the surname, vi. 230. - - Pictures, high prices of, ii. 184. - - Picus, ii. 495. - - Pie, ii. 515, 522, 523. - - Pieria, i. 294. - - Pig. _See_ “Swine.” - - Pigeons, an account of, ii. 517-520 - —messages by, 519 - —high prices of, 520. - - Pigments, vi. 235. - - Pileus, vi. 267. - - Pilgrims to Saint Jago, ii. 428. - - Pimpernel, v. 137. - - Pina, ii. 436. - - Pinaster, ii. 292, 356. - - Pindar, his name honoured by Alexander, ii. 174 - —his writings quoted, i. 297. - - Pindus, i. 273, 293, 295. - - Pine, i. 246; iii. 355, 356. - - Pine-nuts, iii. 292; iv. 512. - - Pinites succinifer, vi. 397, 401. - - Pinna, ii. 450. - - Pinnotheres, ii. 426, 451. - - Pinus cedrus, iii. 178. - - Piombino, i. 187. - - Pip (in poultry), ii. 537; v. 32, 41. - - Piperitis, iv. 203, 267, 268. - - Piræicus, vi. 268. - - Piræus, i. 289. - - Pirates, ii. 97. - - Pisa, i. 287. - - Pisæ, i. 287. - - Pisaurum, i. 238. - - Piscenæ, i. 180. - - Pisces, the Constellation, ii. 407. - - Pisciculus, Junius, vi. 321. - - Pisidia described, i. 451. - - Piso, L., i. 147; iii. 67, 273, 276. - - Pissasphaltos, iii. 364; v. 18, 19. - - Pisselæon, iii. 288; v. 18; vi. 297. - - Pissinum, iii. 290; iv. 494. - - Pissoceros, iii. 6. - - Pistacia, iii. 178. - - Pistachio-nuts, iii. 317; iv. 515. - - Pistoia, i. 190. - - Pistorium, i. 190. - - Pistrix, ii. 361. - - Pitane, i. 473. - - Pitch, iii. 264-267, 361, 362 - —remedies derived from, v. 17. - - Pitch-oil, iii. 290. - _Also, see_ “Pisselæon.” - - Pitch-tree, iii. 356, 357; v. 13. - - Pitched wines, iii. 238; iv. 476; vi. 371. - - Pithecusa, i. 214. - - Pituita, ii. 537. - - Pityocampæ, v. 404. - - Pityus, ii. 12. - - Pityusa, i. 312; v. 14, 15. - - Pityussæ, i. 211. - - Placentia, i. 242. - - Plague, its course, ii. 208. - - Plaice, ii. 407. - - Plaids, probable allusion to, ii. 338. - - Planaria, i. 213. - - “Plancus,” origin of the name, iii. 89. - - Plancus, i. 10; ii. 147, 440. - - Plane-tree, iii. 103-106 - —aged, 431 - —remedies derived from, v. 20, 21. - - Planets, i. 19, 20, 27-31, 40, 41, 42, 48, 49 - —their influence on human life, ii. 204. - - Plangus, ii. 482. - - Plant of Fulvius, v. 187. - - Plantago, v. 109, 129, 130. - - Plants, wines made from, =iii.= 257, 258 - —propagated by seed, 460, 461 - —propagation of, 461-487 - —prognostics derived from, =iv.= 125 - —growth of, 155, 156 - —roots of, 170 - —blossoms of, 170, 171 - —growth of, 177, 178 - —of which there is but one kind, 179 - —sown at the autumnal equinox, 197 - —garden, maladies of, 199, 200 - —for bees, 339, 340 - —stems of, 355, 356 - —leaves of, 356 - —eared, 357 - —properties of, 389 - —for colouring the body, 389, 390 - —for dyeing, 90, 391 - —that grow on the head of a statue, =v.= 68, 69 - —on the banks of a river, 69 - —in a sieve, 69 - —upon a dunghill, 69 - —moistened with the urine of a dog, 69 - —wild, 77, 78, 79 - —delineated in colours, 80 - —authors who have written upon, 80, 81, 82 - —medicinal properties of, 83, 84, 85 - —enquiries of the ancients into, 217, 218 - —ages of, 270 - —how their efficacy may be ensured, 271. - - Plastæ, vi. 284. - - Plaster of Paris, vi. 330. - - Plastering, vi. 374. - - Plastice, vi. 163. - - Platanista, ii. 384. - - Platæ, i. 291. - - Platea, ii. 522. - - Plating, vi. 215. - - Plato, i. 148; ii. 174; iv. 436 - —his works quoted, i. 120; vi. 174. - - Platyceros, iii. 44. - - Platyophthalmon, vi. 115. - - Platyphyllos, v. 188. - - Plautus, mentioned, iii. 275 - —quoted, i. 261, 396; iv. 40, 107, 145, 150, 346; v. 391, 485. - - Plinthia, Fountain of, v. 480. - - PLINY, addresses Titus Vespasianus, =i.= 1-11 - —states the object of his work, 5, 6 - —the sources whence derived, 6, 7 - —alludes to his Roman History, 6, 7 - —inveighs against plagiarism, 7, 8 - —against empty titles of books, 8 - —states the general design of his work, 9 - —his work on Grammar, 9 - —his contempt for his slanderers, 10, 11 - —his opinions on the Deity, 20-25 - —does not believe in a superintending Providence, 22, 23 - —inveighs against superstition and infidelity, 23 - —against human pride, 24 - —considers Nature identical with God, 25 - —laments the perverseness of mankind, 93 - —enlarges in praise of Italy, 181 - —guilty of adulation, 181 - —his death noticed, 197 - —censures others for credulity, 376 - —inveighs against falsehood, 381 - —proofs of his own credulity, 405, 406 - —exclaims against luxury, =ii.= 55 - —a probable lapse of memory by, 80 - —his gloomy views of human life, 118, 119 - —his credulity, 121 - —possible error by, 127 - —his credulity, 132 - —his visit to Africa alluded to, 138 - —repines at the frail tenure of life, 141 - —his metaphorical style, 142 - —his superstition, 151, 152, 155 - —his opinion on the final conflagration of the world, 156 - —his hatred of war, 166 - —his desponding views on human happiness, 187 - —repines at the frailty of, 207 - —thinks a short life desirable, 207 - —considers sudden death a blessing, 213 - —his singular notion as to a happy death, 216 - —denies the immortality of the soul, 218 - —censures the credulity of the Greeks, 283, 284 - —a mistake made by, 318 - —his work on the use of the javelin, 320 - —exclaims against luxury, 438, 439 - —errors committed by, 488; =iii.= 104 - —exclaims against extravagance in perfumes, 137 - —a mistake made by, 155 - —inveighs against luxury, 167, 168 - —his ignorance of vegetable physiology, 197 - —errors committed by, 203, 205 - —exclaims against avarice and disregard of knowledge, 216, 217 - —against drunkenness, 270-274 - —refers to his visit to the Chauci, 339 - —a mistake probably committed by, 352 - —errors committed by, 359, 365, 374 - —a mistake probably made by, 387 - —errors committed by, 390, 392 - —error in transcribing, 441 - —takes a more cheerful view of things, =iv.= 3 - —commends old times, 8, 9 - —misquotes Columella, 27 - —error committed by, and his probably imperfect knowledge of Greek, - 56, 57 - —his ambiguous language, 99 - —accidental omission by, 114 - —contemplates a work, probably, which he did not write, 150 - —inveighs against luxury, 150, 151 - —against gluttony, 152 - —mistakes made by, 163, 179, 180 - —contradicts himself, 206, 207 - —mistakes probably made by, 216, 266 - —two errors committed by, 279 - —contradicts himself, 321 - —mistake made by, 323 - —errors probably committed by, 334, 338 - —a lapse of memory by, 361 - —exclaims against profligacy, 390 - —against luxury and effeminacy, 395 - —against the derision of his enemies, 395 - —mistakes probably made by, 397, 399, 406 - —error committed by, 410 - —mistakes probably made by, 413, 422, 460 - —errors committed by, 464, 492 - —mistake probably made by, 495 - —his singular notion as to peaches, 508 - —error probably committed by, 508 - —his credulity, 520 - —commends the ancient manners, =v.= 3 - —errors probably committed by, 3, 4, 23 - —instances of his credulity, 64-67 - —repines at the general indifference to knowledge, 77, 78 - —refuses to credit some marvels, 82 - —inveighs against magic, 87 - —a possible lapse of memory by, 100 - —mistake made by, 104 - —mistake probably made by, 106 - —absurd error committed by, 111 - —singular mistake made by, 131 - —mistake possibly made by, 137 - —inveighs against magic, 159, 160 - —against gluttony, 169 - —admires the research of the ancients, 218, 219 - —his belief in first causes, 219 - —error committed by, 236 - —inveighs against magic, 237 - —error committed by, 240 - —error probably committed by, 273 - —his great but unsuspecting credulity, 275 - —his horror of cruelty, 276, 278 - —approves of suicide, 278 - —inveighs against magicians, 307 - —his rare attempts at wit, 318 - —inveighs against magic, 355 - —exclaims against immorality, 378 - —inveighs against the Greeks, 381 - —against magic, 395, 400, 427 - —mistake probably made by, 509 - —his credulity, =vi.= 2, 3 - —effusion of wit, 21 - —mistake made by, 25 - —exclaims against avarice, 68, 69 - —against obscenity, 70 - —against the use of gold, 71 - —against vast retinues of slaves, 81 - —mistake made by, 116 - —effusion of wit, 129 - —laments the downfall of Roman morals, 136, 137, 138 - —his credulity, 205 - —mistake made by, 245 - —commends the simplicity of ancient times, 271 - —exclaims against luxury, 306 - —commends the ancient simplicity, 349 - —exclaims against the depravity of taste, 351, 352 - —inveighs against luxury, 391, 392 - —against the falsehoods of magic, 405 - —instances of his credulity, 407, 408 - —mistake made by, 422 - —exclaims against the practices of magic, 434, 450. - - “Pliny’s graft,” iii. 478. - - Plistolochia, iv. 284; v. 116, 117. - - Plistonicus, iv. 302. - - Plocamus, Annius, ii. 53. - - Plotius, L., betrayed by his perfumes, iii. 169. - - Plough, first use of, ii. 226, 227 - —described, iv. 62. - - Ploughing, iv. 62-66 - —seasons for, iii. 359. - - Plover, ii. 527. - - Plum, iii. 294, 295, 296; iv. 507, 508; v. 236 - —of Egypt, iii. 184. - - Plumbago (plant), v. 141, 142. - - Plutarch quoted, i. 79, 157, 302; iv. 407. - - Pluto, i. 219. - - Pnigitis, vi. 299. - - Po, i. 186, 243. - - Podium, vi. 402. - - Poetry, origin of, ii. 231. - - Poison, animals that live on, ii. 548; iii. 98 - —of serpents, iii. 57, 58 - —taken internally, 323 - —remedies for, v. 130, 332, 333, 334, 407, 408; vi. 19 - —in rings, vi. 80. - - Poisonous, fungi, iv. 430 - —honey, iv. 431, 432. - - Polecat, ii. 310. - - Polemonia, v. 102, 103, 127. - - Polenta, iv. 28, 29, 442. - - Poles of the magnet, vi. 356, 357. - - Poles, or stakes, iii. 494, 495. - - Poley, iv. 325, 326, 356, 372, 373. - - Polias, vi. 460. - - Polium, iv. 325, 326, 356, 372, 373. - - Pollio, Asinius, i. 310; ii. 177, 239; vi. 318. - - Pollio, Carvilius, vi. 134. - - Pollio, Nævius, the giant, ii. 156. - - Pollio, Romilius, his old age, iv. 437, 438. - - Pollio, Vedius, his cruelty, ii. 410. - - Polyacanthos, iv. 353. - - Polyanthemum, iv. 353. - - Polybius, i. 370 - —the voyage of, 378 - —his history quoted, 169. - - Polycles, vi. 169, 170, 183, 319. - - Polycletus, vi. 152, 168, 171, 172. - - Polycnemon, v. 209. - - Polycrates, vi. 81, 82, 386, 387. - - Polycritus, iii. 157. - - Polydorus, i. 305. - - Polygala, v. 262. - - Polygnotus, vi. 141, 185, 241, 249. - - Polygonatos, iv. 405. - - Polygonoïdes, v. 57. - - Polygonos, v. 259, 260. - - Polyidus, vi. 188. - - Polymita, ii. 338. - - Polypi, ii. 407, 408, 416-421; vi. 36, 50 - —sailing, ii. 410 - —their hatred of cunila, 548. - - Polypodion, v. 175, 176, 243. - - Polypus of the nose, v. 176. - - Polythrix, v. 132; vi. 460. - - Polytrichos, iv. 415, 416, 417. - - Polyzonos, vi. 460. - - Pomegranate, iii. 200, 201 - —remedies derived from, iv. 498-502. - - Pomes described, iii. 293, 294. - - Pometia, i. 204; ii. 154. - - Pompeii, i. 82, 197; iii. 228 - —wines of, iii. 244. - - Pompeiopolis, ii. 5. - - Pompeius, Cneius, i. 161. - - Pompeius Magnus, i. 164, 414, 424; ii. 35; v. 78, 79; vi. 390, 391 - —his theatre, ii. 136 - —resemblance to him, 147 - —his conquests, 167. - - Pompeius, Sextus, ii. 213, 391. - - Pompholyx, vi. 202, 203. - - Pompilos, ii. 388, 419. - - Pomponianus, Scipio, vi. 225. - - Pomponius, Sextus, iv. 440. - - Pomptine Marshes, i. 194. - - Pontic mouse, ii. 550. - - Pontica, vi. 455. - - Pontus, animals of, iii. 69. - _Also, see_ “Euxine.” - - Poplar, iii. 154, 376; v. 21, 22 - —used for training the vine, iii. 218. - - Poppæa, v. 340; vi. 132, 403 - —bathes in asses’ milk, iii. 84 - —the funeral of, 137. - - Poppy, iv. 196, 275-279 - —when to sow, 81 - —used for linen, 138. - - Porcelain, vi. 392. - - Porcupine, ii. 305. - - Porphyrio, ii. 530, 537. - - Porphyrites, vi. 328. - - Porpoise, ii. 377. - - Porrigo, remedies for, iv. 227; v. 409. - - Porsena, King, i. 84; vi. 160, 206 - —his Labyrinth, vi. 342. - - Port Mahon, i. 212. - - Portico of Octavia, i. 164. - - Porto Fino, i. 185. - - Portents, v. 280, 281, 282. - _Also, see_ “Magic,” “Omens,” and “Prodigies.” - - Portraits, vi. 224-228 - —waxen, iv. 346. - - Porus, ii. 48. - - Posca, iii. 266; iv. 219. - - Posia, iii. 282, 283. - - Posias, vi. 280, 281. - - Posideum, i. 466. - - Posidonius (artist), vi. 139, 188. - - Posidonius (philosopher), i. 149. - - Posilippo, i. 214. - - Posis, vi. 285. - - Potamaugis, v. 65. - - Potamogiton, v. 172. - - Poterion, v. 128, 129, 262. - - Pothos, iv. 338. - - Potidæa, i. 300. - - Potter’s wheel, ii. 226. - - Pottery, invention of the art of, ii. 225 - —works in, vi. 286, 287. - - Poultices, iv. 447. - - Poultry, the art of cramming, ii. 531 - —law as to, 531 - —remedies derived from, v. 399. - - Pozzuolane, iii. 420; vi. 289, 373. - - Pozzuolo, i. 196. - - Præcordia, iii. 70. - - “Prælegare,” meaning of the word, vi. 87. - - Præneste, i. 201. - - Prætetianum, iii. 239. - - Prætexta, ii. 337, 338, 411, 447, 448; vi. 72. - - Prætutia, i. 235 - —wines of, iii. 242, 246. - - Pramnian wine, ii. 237. - - Prase, vi. 429. - - Prasii, ii. 52. - - Prasion (plant), iv. 268, 290, 291, 292. - - Prasion (stone), vi. 429. - - Prasoïdes, vi. 427. - - Prason, iii. 210. - - “Prata,” derivation of the word, iv. 12. - - Praxagoras, iv. 301. - - Praxiteles, ii. 185; vi. 169, 177, 178, 272, 311, 312, 313. - - Precepts most useful in life, ii. 178. - - Precious stones, first use of, vi. 366 - —engraving on, 389, 390 - —defects in, vi. 411 - —that suddenly make their appearance, 461 - —artificial, 462, 463 - —forms of, 462 - —mode of testing, 463. - - Precocity, instances of human, ii. 158 - —sign of an early death, 209 - —in trees, iii. 389. - - Pregnancy, ii. 141. - - Prester, iv. 280, 474; vi. 20. - - “Prevarication,” meaning of the word, iv. 64. - - Priaponnesus, i. 485. - - Priapus, i. 326, 485, 489. - - Prices, of trees, iii. 438, 439 - —of drugs, vi. 143, 144 - —immoderate, of statues, 163, 164. - - Priene, i. 467. - - Primary colours, iv. 326. - - Primipilus, iv. 394. - - Pristæ, vi. 173. - - Pristis, ii. 359. - - Privernian wine, iii. 241. - - Privet, iii. 372; v. 32. - - Prochyta, i. 214. - - Procilius, ii. 354. - - Proconnesus, i. 496; ii. 144. - - Procreation at will, v. 67. - - Proculeius, C., ii. 196; vi. 376. - - Prodigies, i. 115, 116; v. 280, 281, 282 - —celestial, i. 596 - —connected with trees, iii. 526, 527 - —connected with the hearth, vi. 384. - - Production of plants, the natural order of, iii. 379, 380. - - Products of trees, iii. 119. - - Prœtus, the daughters of, v. 96. - - Progeny, numerous, ii. 149, 150. - - Progne, i. 307. - - Prognostics, as to length of life, iii. 96 - —derived from the sun, iv. 117, 118, 119 - —from the moon, 119, 120 - —from the stars, 120, 121 - —from thunder, 121 - —from clouds, 121 - —from mists, 122 - —from water, 122, 123 - —from tempests, 123 - —from aquatic animals and birds, 123, 124 - —from quadrupeds, 124, 125 - —from plants, 125 - —from food, 125. - - Promenade, arched, vi. 339. - - Prometheus, ii. 226; vi. 71, 386. - - Propagation of plants, iii. 461-467. - - Propolis, iii. 6, 7; iv. 346, 434; v. 22. - - Propontis, islands of, i. 496. - - Propylæum, vi. 318. - - Prose, first writer in, ii. 231. - - Proserpin, i. 219. - - Proserpinaca, v. 264. - - Prostypa, vi. 284. - - Protesilaüs, i. 297, 308; iii. 431. - - Protogenes, vi. 188, 257, 258, 259, 264-267. - - Protropum, iii. 240, 250. - - Proverbs, i. 8, 10, 229; vi. 256, 262. - - Pruning, iii. 509-515 - —errors in, 531. - - Prusa, i. 493, 494. - - Prusias, i. 493; ii. 154. - - Psetta, ii. 396. - - Pseudoanchusa, iv. 410. - - Pseudobunion, v. 61. - - Pseudodictamnon, v. 115, 116, 172. - - Pseudonard, iii. 120. - - Psimithium, vi. 219, 220. - - Psittacus, ii. 522, 523. - - Psoricon, vi. 199. - - Psychotrophon, v. 111, 112. - - Psylli, i. 393; ii. 125, 289; iii. 30; v. 129. - - Psythium, iii. 248. - - Pteris, v. 245, 246. - - Pteron, vi. 317. - - Pterophoros, i. 336. - - Pterygia, v. 510. - - Ptisan, iv. 28, 29, 446. - - Ptolemæus, i. 440; iii. 157; vi. 260. - - Ptolemais, i. 396, 434; ii. 94. - - Ptyas, v. 497. - - Publicani, vi. 84, 85. - - Publicius, ii. 147. - - Public-houses, ii. 459. - - Publius Syrus, ii. 344. - - Puce, ii. 450. - - Pucinum, wine of, iii. 239. - - Pulcher, Claudius, vi. 231. - - Pulegium, iv. 259, 260. - - Pulmentarium, iii. 303; iv. 32. - - Pulmo marinus, ii. 458; vi. 46. - - Puls, iv. 32, 443. - - Pulsation, v. 372. - - Pumpkins, iv. 157. - - Pumice, vi. 365, 366, 367. - - Punic apple, iii. 200, 201; iv. 498-502. - - Punjaub, ii. 16. - - Pupils of the eyes, double, ii. 127, 128 - —the nature of, iii. 52, 53. - - Purgatives, iv. 518, 519. - - Purification, vi. 292 - —of the city of Rome, ii. 492, 493. - - Purple, i. 435; ii. 442-450 - —vestments, 442, 443 - —when first used at Rome, 447. - - Purples, ii. 441-445. - - Purpurariæ, ii. 106. - - Purpurissum, vi. 242. - - Purslain, iii. 204; iv. 280, 281, 282. - - Purulent eruptions, remedies for, v. 357. - - Puteal, iii. 310. - - Puteoli, i. 196, 214. - - Pycnocomon, v. 175. - - Pydna, i. 298, 300. - - Pygargus, ii. 347, 482, 483. - - Pygmies, i. 306, 464; ii. 101, 132. - - Pylos, i. 282. - - Pyracantha, v. 46. - - Pyrallis, ii. 551; iii. 42. - - Pyramids of Egypt, i. 418; vi. 335-338. - - Pyrausta, iii. 42. - - Pyren, vi. 459. - - Pyrene, i. 157. - - Pyrenees, i. 166, 360, 361, 363. - - Pyrgoteles, ii. 184; vi. 389. - - Pyrites, vi. 359. - - Pyritis, vi. 460. - - Pyromachus, vi. 170, 183, 184. - - Pyropus, vi. 189. - - Pyrosachne, iii. 201. - - Pyrrhic dance, ii. 231. - - Pyrrho, ii. 160. - - Pyrrhocorax, ii. 529. - - Pyrrhopœcilon, vi. 331. - - Pyrrhus, King, i. 226; ii. 128; iii. 70; v. 288 - —his jewel, vi. 387, 388. - - Pythagoras (artist), vi. 168, 174. - - Pythagoras, the philosopher, i. 29, 52, 486; vi. 159 - —his opinion on beans, iv. 44 - —his work on plants, v. 62, 63 - —his visit to the East, 82. - - Pythagorean philosophers, i. 148, 149. - - Pythagorean philosophy, the, iii. 192. - - Pytheas (artist), vi. 140. - - Pytheas, the geographer, i. 150. - - Pythius, vi. 130. - - Pythonoscome, ii. 502. - - Pyxacanthus, Chironian, iii. 114. - - - Q. - - Quadrupeds, prognostics derived from, iv. 124, 125. - - Quails, ii. 503, 504 - —subject to epilepsy, 505 - —not eaten, 505. - - Quartz, vi. 371, 372, 453. - - Queen-bee, iii. 10, 17. - - Quercus, iii. 346. - - Quicklime, vi. 373. - - Quicksets, iii. 499, 502. - - Quicksilver, swallowing of, iv. 220 - —description of, vi. 113, 114. - - Quinces, i. 488; iii. 392, 393, 398 - —remedies derived from, iv. 496, 497. - - Quincunx, iii. 468. - - Quindecimviri, ii. 191; v. 280. - - Quinquatria, iv. 159; vi. 280. - - Quinquefolium, v. 122, 123. - - Quintii, family of the, vi. 78. - - Quinzy, remedies for, v. 161, 434, 435, 436. - - Quorra, i. 395. - - - R. - - Rabbits, i. 212; ii. 348, 349 - —of Bætica have a double liver, iii. 70. - - Rabelais quoted, ii. 304, 414; v. 427. - - Rachias, ii. 53. - - Radicula, iv. 148, 149; v. 39, 40. - - Radishes, iv. 161-165, 215-218. - - Ragwort, v. 146. - - Raia, ii. 411. - - Rain, place where there is none, i. 123 - —its influence upon plants, iii. 442, 443 - —signs of, iv. 124. - - Rainbow, i. 89, 90 - —its influence, iii. 451. - - Rain-water, v. 483. - - Raisin wine, iii. 249. - - Raisins of the sun, iii. 249; iv. 463, 464. - - Ram, ii. 332 - —in love with a woman, ii. 498. - - Rameses, i. 418. - - Rampions, iv. 507; v. 72. - - Ranunculus, iv. 248, 379; v. 148, 149, 150. - - Rape, iv. 47, 48, 161, 213, 214. - - Raphanos agria, v. 180, 181. - - Rascasse, vi. 30. - - Raspberry, v. 50. - - Ratumenna, the horses of, ii. 320. - - Raurici, i. 355. - - Raven, ii. 491, 492 - —speaking, 524, 525 - —used for hunting, 525. - - Ravenna, i. 241. - - Razors, invention of, ii. 237. - - Razor-sheath, ii. 547; iii. 50. - - Realgar, vi. 220, 240. - - Reaping-hook, iv. 92. - - Reate, i. 133, 233 - —asses of, ii. 323. - - Receding of the sea, i. 116, 117. - - Reclining-chairs, iii. 409. - - Red hair, iv. 483; v. 342. - - Red ochre. _See_ “Ochre.” - - Red Sea, ii. 66 - —gulfs of, 91 - —monsters of, 360 - —trees of, iii. 117 - —plants of, 211 - —marvels of, vi. 5, 6. - - Reddle, vi. 363. - - Rediculus, the field of, ii. 525. - - Red-throat, ii. 511. - - Reed-beds, iii. 493. - - Reeds, iii. 403-409; v. 35, 36; vi. 58 - —gigantic, ii. 129; iii. 405 - —scented, v. 36. - - Regal unguent, iii. 166. - - Reggio, i. 209, 243. - - Regillus, Lake, vi. 86. - - Register of the Triumphs, i. 497. - - Regret, deaths from, ii. 181. - - Regulus, Atilius, iv. 11. - - Reindeer, ii. 304. - - Relief, vi. 454. - - Religious ideas attached to certain parts of the body, iii. 88. - - Religious observances, iii. 92. - - Remedies derived from man, v. 276, 277, 278, 286, 287, 288 - —from the dead, 292, 293. - - Remora, ii. 412, 413, 414; vi. 2, 3. - - Rennet, ii. 298; iii. 84. - - Repositorium, ii. 379; iv. 125; vi. 132. - - Reproduction of stone, vi. 358. - - Reseda, v. 265, 266. - - Resemblance, of children to parents, ii. 145 - —strong, instances of, 145-148. - - Resin, iii. 361, 362, 363 - —cedar, 179 - —medicinal properties of, v. 15, 16, 17. - - Respiration, iii. 67, 97 - —of insects, ii. 3 - —of fish, 367, 368. - - Reticulated building, vi. 373. - - Revolutions of the planets, i. 27-31. - - Rex, Q. Marcius, vi. 352. - - Rex Sacrorum, iii. 66. - - Reynolds, Sir Joshua, quoted, vi. 263. - - Rhacoma, v. 265. - - Rhagiane, ii. 28. - - Rhamnos (plant), v. 50. - - Rhamnus (place), i. 290. - - Rhamsesis, vi. 331, 332. - - Rhætian wines, iii. 242. - - Rhenus, i. 348, 349, 350. - - Rhegium, i. 208, 209, 216. - - Rhine, i. 348, 349, 350. - - Rhinoceros, ii. 278; iii. 46, 89, 90. - - Rhinocolura, i. 425. - - Rhion, i. 275. - - Rhizophora mangle, iii. 117. - - Rhodanus, i. 175. - - Rhodes, described, i. 483 - —wines of, iii. 248 - —Colossus of, vi. 165. - - Rhodinum, iii. 160, 289. - - Rhoditis, vi. 461. - - Rhododendron, iii. 373, 374; v. 37. - - Rhodope, i. 272, 299, 303. - - Rhodopis, vi. 338. - - Rhodussæ, i. 496. - - Rhœas, iv. 278, 379. - - Rhœcus, vi. 283, 342. - - Rhœteum, i. 477. - - Rhoïtes, iii. 257. - - Rhombus, ii. 389, 396, 452. - - Rhone, i. 175. - - Rhopalon, v. 107. - - Rhubarb, v. 265. - - Rhus, v. 38 - —erythros, 38. - - Rhysaddir, i. 385. - - Ribes, iii. 74. - - Rice, iv. 28. - - Riches, immense, instances of, vi. 93, 94, 129, 130, 131. - - Ricinus (plant), iii. 287. - - Ridicule, how expressed, iii. 55. - - Rimini, i. 241. - - Ringdove, ii. 508, 518. - - Rings, curtain, iii. 183 - —gold, vi. 71-75 - —right of wearing, 76 - —how worn, 80. - - Riphæan Mountains, i. 336; ii. 23. - - Risardir, i. 379. - - River-crab, vi. 23. - - River-frog, vi. 21. - - River-snail, vi. 24. - - Rivers, wonders of, i. 131-138. - - Roach, ii. 391. - - Rob, iii. 249. - - Robigalia, iv. 99. - - Robur, excrescences of the, v. 6. - - Rocket (plant), iv. 250, 251. - - Rocks split with vinegar, iv. 480. - - Rodarum, v. 69, 70. - - Rome, described, i. 202 - —sway of, v. 218 - —tutelary deity of, 282 - —siege of, by the Gauls, vi. 75, 76 - —painters of, 229, 230, 231 - —paintings exhibited at, 231-234 - —marvellous buildings at, 345-355. - - Romulus, i. 202, 204; iv. 3; vi. 158 - —his inspection of wines, iii. 252 - —and Remus, suckled by a wolf, iii. 310. - - Roots, of trees, iii. 393 - —loosening of, 390, 394 - —of plants, 491, 492; iv. 170 - —plants without, 142. - - Ropes, materials for, iv. 141. - - Roscius, the actor, ii. 185. - - Rosemary, iv. 203; v. 40. - - Roses, iv. 310-314, 364, 365, 366 - —of Pæstum, i. 208 - —oil of, iii. 289. - - Rostra, ii. 238; iii. 342; vi. 156. - - Rostrum, iii. 342. - - Royal disease, why jaundice was so called, iv. 488. - - Rubellio, vi. 57. - - Rubellite, vi. 405. - - Rubeta, ii. 298; iii. 98; iv. 102; v. 128, 303; vi. 22. - - Rubia, iv. 148; v. 38, 39. - - Rubico, i. 241. - - “Rubric,” the word, vi. 123. - - Rubrica, vi. 120, 236, 237. - - Rubrius, the actor, ii. 147. - - Ruby, vi. 420-425. - - Rue, iv. 191, 192, 252-256. - - Rufus, Julius, v. 154. - - Rufus, Messala, ii. 239. - - Rufus, P. Cornelius, ii. 206. - - Rufus, Suillius, ii. 140. - - Rufus, Vibius, iii. 276. - - Rumex, iii. 7; iv. 287. - - Ruminalis, iii. 310. - - Rumination, ii. 549, 550. - - Rumpotinus, iii. 219; v. 69. - - Runners have the spleen cauterized, iii. 73. - - Rupicapra, ii. 346, 347. - - Ruptures, remedies for, v. 205. - - Ruscus, iv. 521 - —hypophyllum, 518. - - Rush, iii. 403, 411; iv. 361 - —sweet-scented, iii. 144; iv. 364. - - Rust, vi. 209, 210, 211. - - Rut, earth from a, v. 429. - - Rutubis, i. 379. - - Rutupæ, oysters of, vi. 27. - - Rye, iv. 31, 52. - - - S. - - Saave, i. 263. - - Saba, iii. 124. - - Sabæi, ii. 87; iii. 124. - - Sabbath, v. 480. - - Sabelli, i. 232. - - Sabini, i. 191, 234, 235. - - Sabinus Fabianus, iv. 126. - - Sabinus, Masurius, ii. 239. - - Sabinus, Titius, ii. 313. - - Sabis, the divinity, iii. 128. - - Sabota, iii. 128. - - Sabrata, i. 399. - - Sacæ, ii. 33, 34. - - Sacal, vi. 399. - - Saccharon, iii. 114. - - Sachets, iii. 166. - - Sacopenium, iv. 195, 196, 274, 275. - - Sacrament, the Holy, a possible reference to, v. 427. - - Sacred rites, wines not used in, iii. 263. - - Sæpia (fish), ii. 359, 389, 416, 417; vi. 31 - —ink of the, 58. - - Sæpia (colour), vi. 241. - - Sætabis, i. 170. - - Saffron, iv. 319, 320, 321, 370. - - Saffron-water, iv. 321. - - Sagapenon, iv. 195, 196, 274, 275. - - Sagaris, ii. 2. - - Sagda, vi. 456. - - Sage, iv. 449, 450; v. 164. - - Sagmen, iv. 391. - - Saguntum, i. 166 - —Temple at, iii. 424. - - Sailcloth, iv. 132. - - Sails, invention of, ii. 235. - - Saïs, i. 408, 421. - - Sala, i. 377. - - Salads, iv. 153. - - Salamander, ii. 545, 546 - —eaten by the wild boar, iii. 98 - —poisonous, 98 - —remedies from, v. 397. - - Salamis, i. 315. - - Salarian Way, v. 506. - - Salerno, School of health at, i. 207; iv. 167, 214, 223. - - Salernum, i. 207. - - Salicastrum, iv. 465, 466. - - Salii, iv. 309. - - Salinuca, iv. 325, 372. - - Salivation, v. 254. - - Sallee, i. 377. - - Sallustius Dionysius, v. 523. - - Salmon, ii. 404. - - Salona, i. 259. - - Saloniani, ii. 150. - - Salpa, ii. 404. - - Salpe, v. 369. - - Salsugo, v. 506, 507. - - Salt, why the sea is, i. 129, 130 - —towers of, ii. 84 - —good for cattle, 549 - —water, plants benefited by, iv. 201 - —an account of, v. 500-506 - —nature of, 509-512 - —“Salt,” figurative use of the word, 505, 506. - - Salted cake, iv. 4. - - Salted fish, vi. 20, 21. - - Salted wines, iii. 247, 248. - - Saltpans, v. 503. - - Saltpetre, v. 512. - - Salvia, iv. 449, 450; v. 164. - - Salvitto, ii. 147; vi. 225. - - Salvius, ii. 161. - - Samaria described, i. 425, 427. - - Sammonium, i. 313. - - Samnites, i. 232 - —their arms, ii. 160. - - Samolus, v. 42. - - Samos, i. 485 - —earth of, vi. 298 - —stone of, v. 365. - - Samosata, i. 443. - - Samothrace, i. 324 - —rings of, vi. 79. - - Samothracia (stone), vi. 456. - - Sampsuchinum, iii. 163. - - Sampsuchum, iv. 334, 335, 378, 370. - - Sancus, the divinity, ii. 336. - - Sand, used in bread, iv. 37 - —various kinds of, v. 490, 499 - —used for cutting marble, vi. 326 - —for making glass, 379, 381. - - Sandalides, iii. 175. - - Sandaliotis, i. 216. - - Sandaraca, vi. 220, 239, 240. - - Sandaraca (of bees), iii. 7. - - Sandaresos, vi. 424. - - Sandastros, vi. 423, 424. - - Sandix, v. 39; vi. 240. - - Sangarius, ii. 3. - - Sangenon, vi. 417, 436. - - Sangualis, ii. 487. - - Sanguiculus, v. 348. - - Sanguinaria, v. 259, 260. - - Sanguisuga, ii. 259. - - Sanni Heniochi, ii. 10. - - Santarem, vi. 216. - - Santerna, vi. 110. - - Saone, i. 175. - - Sap of trees, iii. 379, 383; v. 164. - - Sapa, iii. 248, 264, 269, 270; iv. 481, 482 - —lees of, 484. - - Sapenos, vi. 433. - - Sapphire, vi. 420, 427, 434, 435, 437. - - Sapphiros, vi. 432. - - Sappho, i. 274; iv. 398. - - Sappinia, iii. 292. - - Saraceni, i. 422. - - Saracens, ii. 88. - - Sarcitis, vi. 456. - - Sarcocolla, iii. 185; v. 52. - - Sarcophagus, i. 124; vi. 357. - - Sarda, vi. 418, 420, 425, 426, 443. - - Sardanapalus, i. 447. - - Sardes, i. 465. - - Sardines, v. 264. - - Sardinia, i. 215 - —earth of, vi. 300. - - Sardonic laugh, ii. 208. - - Sardonyx, vi. 387, 417, 418. - - Sarepta, i. 435. - - Saripha, iii. 207. - - Sarmatæ, i. 329 - —their horses, ii. 320. - - Sarmati, i. 344. - - Samiatia described, i. 329. - - Saronic Gulf, i. 278, 285. - - Sarpedon, his letter, iii. 193. - - Sarsaparilla plant, iii. 402. - - Sartago, iii. 362. - - Sasernæ, the, ii. 554. - - Sasonis, i. 267. - - Satarchæ, i. 333. - - Satrapies, ii. 50, 51, 57. - - Saturnia, i. 204. - - Saturninus, L. Volusius, ii. 150; iii. 79. - - Satyrion, v. 190, 191, 192. - - Satyrs, i. 406; ii. 132, 348, 549. - - Satyrus, vi. 467. - - Sauritis, vi. 456. - - Sauromatæ, ii. 13. - - Saurus (artist), vi. 322. - - Saurus (fish), vi. 38. - - Savin, v. 41. - - Savus, i. 263. - - Sawfish, ii. 359. - - Saxifragum, iv. 415, 416, 417. - - Saxum, vi. 300. - - Scævola, Q. Mutius, iii. 275. - - Scalabis, i. 365. - - Scaldis, i. 353. - - Scales, ii. 405 - —fish without, v. 508. - - Scales of iron, vi. 211, 212. - - Scallions, iv. 171, 173. - - Scallops, ii. 417; vi. 43, 44. - - Scamander, i. 476. - - Scammony, v. 176, 177. - - Scandia, i. 351. - - Scandinavia, i. 343 - —the island of, ii. 263. - - Scandix, iv. 349, 423. - - Scapus, iii. 189. - - Scarabæus, v. 416, 454 - —nasicornis, iii. 34. - - Scaritis, vi. 459. - - Scars, obliteration of, v. 209, 210, 260. - - Scarus, ii. 400, 401. - - Scaurus, M., vi. 163, 306, 307, 349, 350, 390. - - Scenitæ, i. 422, 445; ii. 74, 83, 86. - - Scepsis, i. 474. - - Scheda, iii. 190. - - Schillerspath, vi. 412. - - Schirri, ii. 151. - - Schistos, vi. 363. - - Schœni, v. 64. - - Schorl, vi. 453. - - Sciadeus, vi. 64. - - Sciæna, ii. 393. - - Sciapodæ, ii. 130. - - Sciatica, v. 441. - - Scilly Islands, i. 367; vi. 212. - - Scincus, ii. 288; v. 318. - - Scinde, ii. 51. - - Scio, i. 486. - - Scipio Africanus, the Elder, ii. 143; iii. 235. - - Scipio Africanus, the Younger, ii. 525; vi. 132 - —his funeral mentioned, ii. 194 - —the first who shaved constantly, 237. - - Scipio, L., Asiaticus, i. 4. - - Scipio, L., his memory, ii. 164. - - Scipio, Metellus, ii. 355. - - Scipios, nickname given to the, ii. 147. - - Scironian Rocks, i. 289. - - Scolex of copper, vi. 197, 198. - - Scolopendra, ii. 452; iii. 35; v. 417. - - Scolymos, iv. 299, 353, 354, 425, 426. - - Scomber, ii. 386; v. 508. - - Scopa regia, iv. 318; v. 95. - - Scopas, vi. 313, 314, 316, 317, 324, 343. - - Scops, ii. 530, 531. - - Scordotis, v. 102. - - Scoria of copper, vi. 194. - - Scoria of lead, vi. 218. - - Scorpæna, ii. 464; vi. 64. - - Scorpio (plant), iv. 350, 352, 405; v. 128, 270. - - Scorpion, iv. 381, 414; v. 222, 284 - —which injures the natives only, ii. 354 - —an account of, iii. 29, 30, 31 - —winged, 30 - —remedies for the sting of, v. 330, 331. - - Scorpion-fly, iii. 30. - - Scorpion-grass, iv. 350, 352, 405; v. 110. - - Scorpitis, vi. 459. - - Scorpiuron, iv. 413, 414, 415. - - Screech-owl, ii. 492 - —with teats, iii. 82. - - Scripture quoted, i. 156, 201, 304, 380, 418, 422, 423, 425, 426, 428, - 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 440, 442, 452, 456, 457, - 460, 474, 492; ii. 75, 90; iv. 122, 397; v. 425, 509; vi. 30, 79, - 115, 259. - - Scrofa, G. Tremellius, iii. 99. - - Scrofula, why so called, ii. 343 - —remedies for, v. 161, 162, 342, 434, 435, 436; vi. 37. - - Sculptors, celebrated, vi. 308-323. - - Sculptures at Rome, vi. 315, 316. - - Scumbling, vi. 263, 265. - - Scutari, i. 495. - - Scutcheons, grafting by, iii. 483, 484, 485. - - Scybelites, iii. 248. - - Scylacium, i. 222. - - Scylla, i. 209, 216, 217. - - Scyllæum, i. 209, 284. - - Scyllis, vi. 278, 380. - - Scyritæ, ii. 131. - - Scyros, i. 319, 321. - - Scythe, iv. 91, 92. - - Scythia, described, i. 329, 330; ii. 36 - —the peoples and tribes of, 34, 122; v. 110, 111 - —the animals of, ii. 262. - - Scythian Ocean, ii. 23. - - Scythians, their cavalry, ii. 318 - —poison their arrows, iii. 97, 98. - - Scythice, v. 110. 111, 163. - - Scythopolis, i. 432. - - Sea, the, i. 97, 98, 128, 129, 130 - —receding of, 116, 117 - —ebb and flow of, 124-128 - —largest animals in, ii. 358, 361 - —monsters of, 359, 460 - —animals of, 459, 460 - —a list of, vi. 59-65 - —water of, mixed with wines, iii. 247 - —remedies derived from, v. 496, 497, 498 - —voyages by, advantages of, 496, 497. - - Sea-blackbird, ii. 389. - - Sea-cabbage, iv 241; vi. 39. - - Sea-calf, ii. 298, 369, 380, 381; vi. 24. - - Sea-dogs, or dogfish, ii. 377, 433, 456, 457, 458. - - Sea-dragon, ii. 416. - - Sea-eagle, great, ii. 482, 483. - - Sea-elephant, ii. 364. - - Sea-fennel, v. 141. - - Sea-fish, when first eaten at Rome, vi. 10. - - Sea-fleas, ii. 459, - - Sea-fox, ii. 452. - - Sea-frog, ii. 412, 452; vi. 21. - - Sea-hare, iii. 59, 460; v. 332; vi. 4, 5. - - Sea-holly, iv. 397. - - Sea-kite, ii. 415. - - Sea-lice, ii. 459; vi. 33. - - Sea-lizard, vi. 33. - - Sea-locust, ii. 423, 424. - - Sea-lungs, ii. 458; vi. 46. - - Sea-men, ii. 363; vi. 60. - - Sea-mew, ii. 513. - - Sea-mice, ii. 406, 466; iii. 59; vi. 29. - - Sea-monster to which Andromeda was exposed, ii. 364. - - Sea-needle, ii. 466. - - Sea-nettle, ii. 453, 454; v. 187. - - Sea-ram, ii. 364, 452. - - Sea-raven, vi. 61. - - Sea-scallop, ii. 248, 249. - - Sea-scorpion, vi. 53. - - Sea-serpents, ii. 362. - - Sea-snails, preserves for, ii. 470. - - Sea-sparrow, ii. 407. - - Sea-spider, ii. 416, 460. - - Sea-stars, ii. 458, 474; vi. 19. - - Sea-swallow, ii. 415. - - Sea-thrush, ii. 389. - - Sea-trees, ii. 362; vi. 60. - - Sea-urchin, ii. 427; iii. 58; vi. 25. - - Sea-weasel, vi. 12. - - Sea-weed, v. 193, 232; vi. 28. - - Sea-wheels, ii. 363, 467. - - Sea-wolves, ii. 488. - - Sea-wort, iv. 21; vi. 39. - - Seals (animals), ii. 369; vi. 74, 79. - - Seals (for letters), vi. 389, 390, 431. - - Sealskin, vi. 46. - - Seasons, the, i. 66, 67, 68 - —for sowing, iv. 72, 73, 74 - —epochs of, 78, 79 - —signs of, 93, 94. - - Sebaste, i. 427. - - Sebastia, ii. 6. - - Sebennys, wine of, iii. 246. - - Sebosus, i. 147. - - Secale, iv. 52. - - Secundilla, the giantess, ii. 157. - - Secundus, Pomponius, ii. 238. - - Securidaca, v. 262. - - Sedigitæ, iii. 86. - - Sedition caused by a raven speaking, ii. 524. - - Sedum, iv. 58; v. 144. - - Seed, iii. 460, 461 - —quality of, iv. 69, 70 - —at what age unproductive, 69, 70. - - Seed-plots, iii. 464-467. - - Segesta, iv. 4. - - Segobriga, i. 171. - - Segontia, i. 172. - - Seia, iv. 4; vi. 370. - - Σελάχη, ii. 412. - - Selago, v. 41, 42. - - Selenite, vi. 368, 369. - - Selenitis, vi. 456. - - Selenomancy, vi. 449. - - Seleucia, i. 438, 440; ii. 73. - - Seleucides, ii. 507. - - Selgicum, iii. 290; iv. 494. - - Selinus, i. 218, 220, 448. - - Selinusian earth, vi. 299. - - Sellæ, i. 272. - - Semiramis, ii. 6, 33; vi. 93 - —in love with a horse, ii. 318. - - Semnion, v. 65. - - Semper mustum, iii. 249. - - Seneca, L., Annæus, ii. 114; iii. 235 - —his works quoted, i. 60, 61, 64, 70, 73, 77, 81, 83, 85, 92, 97, - 101, 113, 114, 117, 119, 121, 128, 132, 135, 136, 413, 414; - ii. 40, 76. - - Senogallia, i. 238. - - Senones, i. 243, 356. - - Senses, ii. 546, 547. - - Sensitive plant, v. 67. - - Sensitiveness of water animals, ii. 451. - - Sentiments, expression of the, iii. 95. - - Sentius, C., iii. 255. - - Sepiussa, i. 485. - - Seplasia, iii. 357; vi. 143, 195. - - Seps, iv. 516; v. 407. - - Septa, iii. 419; vi. 316. - - Septentrional Ocean, i. 341; ii. 20. - - Septimuleius, vi. 91. - - Septuagint, i. 479. - - Sepulchres adorned with chaplets, iv. 308. - - Sequani, i. 355. - - Seræ, ii. 54, 55. - - Serapias, v. 189, 190. - - Serapio, vi. 269. - - Serapion, the philosopher, i. 149. - - Serenus, Annæus, poisoned, iv. 430. - - Seres, ii. 35, 132; iii. 101, 107, 117; vi. 208, 465, 466. - - Sergius, M., his valour, ii. 172. - - Sergius, Paulus, i. 148. - - Serica, ii. 36. - - Serichatum, iii. 142. - - Seriphium, v. 235; vi. 41. - - Seriphus, i. 318. - - Seris, iv. 235. - - Serpent-charmers, ii. 125; iii. 58. - - Serpentine, vi. 367. - - Serpents, i. 92, 194, 212 - —their power of fascination, ii. 261 - —of immense size, 261, 262 - —their combats with stags, 301, 302 - —that injure strangers only, 253, 254 - —oviparous, 540 - —produced from human marrow, 545 - —how driven away, 548 - —suck eggs, 548, 549 - —liking for wine, 549 - —attacked by the spider, 552 - —affection shown by, 552 - —teeth of, iii. 57, 58 - —poison of, 57, 58 - —with feet, 90 - —eaten by swine, 97 - —a shrub full of, 115 - —their antipathy to certain trees, 365, 366 - —remedies for injuries inflicted by, v. 118, 119, 328, 329, 330, - 392, 396, 397; vi. 20. - - Serpents’ eggs (adder gems), v. 388, 389, 390. - - Serpents’ Island, i. 331. - - Serrani, family of the, iv. 132. - - Serranus, iv. 9. - - Serratula, v. 111, 112. - - Sertorius, Q., i. 166; ii. 168; iv. 394 - —and the white hind, ii. 301. - - Serum, iii. 84. - - Servia, i. 264. - - Servility condemned, iii. 217. - - Servius on Virgil quoted, i. 194, 410, 455. - - Servius Tullius, King, i. 143; vi. 384. - - Sesambri, ii. 103. - - Sesame, ii. 90; iv. 36, 444. - - Sesamoïdes, iv. 444, 445. - - Sesculysses, i. 8. - - Seselis, ii. 299. - - Sesostris, ii. 92; vi. 94. - - Sesothes, vi. 331. - - Sestos, i. 308; ii. 486. - - Setia, i. 195. - - Setine wines, iii. 239; iv. 471. - - Sevenfold echo, vi. 345. - - Severus, Cassius, v. 288. - - Sewers at Rome, vi. 347, 348. - - Sex, indications of, before birth, ii. 141 - —changes of, 138 - —children of one, 149 - —of issue, how ensured, v. 93, 289 - —in trees, iii. 359. - - Sextiæ, v. 472. - - Sextilius, v. 368. - - Sexual congress, the, v. 292, 297. - - Sexual parts of animals, iii. 91, 92. - - Sexual passions, stimulants of the, v. 365, 366. - _And see_ “Aphrodisiacs.” - - Shad, vi. 65. - - Shadows, when and where there are none, i. 107, 108 - —thrown by trees, iii. 473. - - Shaking lands, i. 122. - - Shakspeare quoted, ii. 143, 153. - - Shame, iii. 80. - - Sharks, ii. 456, 457, 458. - _And see_ “Dog-fish.” - - Shaving, the practice of, ii. 236, 237. - - Sheba, ii. 87. - - Sheep, ii. 331 - —their propagation, 331 - —covered, 332 - —colonic, 332 - —their wool, 333, 334, 335 - —shapes of, 338, 339. - - She-goat, destructive to the olive, iii. 291, 292. - - Shell-fish, ii. 458 - —various kinds of, 428, 429 - —why honoured at Cnidos, 413, 414 - —generation of, 463. - - Shells of Venus, ii. 429. - - Shepherd’s dog, ii. 315. - - Shields, invention of, ii. 227 - —with portraits, vi. 227, 228. - - Shingles (disease), v. 24, 199. - - Shingles (for building), iii. 101, 355. - - Ships, invention of, ii. 233, 234 - —of war, 234, 235, 236 - —building of, iii. 416 - —colouring of, vi. 245. - - Shiverings, cold, remedies for, v. 449, 450. - - Shoes, invention of, ii. 224 - —mullet-coloured, 402. - - Shooting stars, iv. 120. - - Shop-paper, iii. 189. - - Shortlived trees, iii. 432. - - Shortness of life, indications of, iii. 96. - - Shoulders, remedies for diseases of, v. 436. - - Showers of milk, blood, flesh, iron, wool, and tiles, i. 87, 88. - - Shrewmouse, its bite venomous, ii. 353. - - Shrubs, wines made from, iii. 260 - —used for training the vine, 495-517. - - Shushan, ii. 62. - - Sibyl, i. 474; ii. 179 - —her books, iii. 193. - - Sicelicon, v. 135. - - Sicily described, i. 216. - - Sickle, iv. 91, 92. - - Sicyon, i. 280. - - Side, which is the strongest, ii. 158 - —remedies for pains and affections in the, v. 164, 440, 441. - - Sideboards, vi. 132, 135. - - Sideration, iii. 520. - - Siderite, vi. 407. - - Siderites, vi. 407. - - Sideritis (plant), v. 94, 95, 162. - - Sideritis (a stone), vi. 355, 454, 456, 457. - - Sideropœcilos, vi. 456, 457. - - Sidon, i. 435; vi. 380. - - Siege, usages at, v. 281, 282. - - Sieve, plants that grow in a, v. 69. - - Siga, i. 385. - - Sigeum, i. 308, 476. - - Sight, acuteness of, ii. 162 - —theory of, iii. 50, 51, 52 - —mole destitute of, iii. 50 - —of snails, iii. 50. - - Sigilmessa, i. 382. - - Signets, vi. 74, 79, 81, 389, 390. - - Signia, i. 201. - - Signine composition, vi. 288. - - Signine wines, iii. 241; iv. 471. - - Signum, vi. 167. - - Siguenza, i. 172. - - Sikhs, ii. 47. - - Sil, vi. 140, 141. - - Silanion, vi. 169, 183. - - Silanus, D., iii. 275; iv. 10. - - Silanus, M., ii. 149. - - Silaüs, v. 186. - - Sile, iv. 221. - - Siler, v. 31. - - Silex, vi. 371, 372. - - Sili, v. 71. - - Silicia, iv. 51, 52; v. 74, 75. - - Siligo, iv. 29, 32, 33, 35, 440. - - Siliqua, iii. 181, 368. - - Siliquastrum, iv. 267, 268. - - Silk, ii. 36; iii. 26, 27, 377; v. 273 - —or cotton, alluded to, ii. 131 - —vestments of, iii. 26, 27 - —chaplets of, iv. 309. - - Silkworm, iii. 25, 26 - —larvæ of, 25 - —of Cos, 26. - - Sillig, his labours on Pliny, iv. 519; v. 272; vi. 1. - - Sillybum, iv. 425; v. 168. - - “Silo,” the name, iii. 56. - - Silphium, i. 396, 398; iv. 431, 432. - - Silures, i. 351. - - Silurus, i. 410; ii. 108, 382, 383. - - Silver, used on the stage, vi. 94 - —how found, 111, 112, 113 - —scoria of, 116 - —gilding of, 124 - —testing of, 125, 126 - —colouring and enamelling of, 128 - —various uses of, 137, 138 - —artists in, 138, 139, 140. - - Silver chalk, iii. 454; vi. 301. - - Silver lead, vi. 191. - - Silver mines, vi. 112. - - Silver plate, luxury in, vi. 131, 132 - —frugality of the ancients in, 132, 133 - —enormous prices of, 135, 136. - - Simia hamadryas, ii. 348. - - Simiæ, menstruation of the, ii. 151. - - Similago, iv. 34. - - Simoïs, i. 476. - - Simon, vi. 187. - - Simonides, i. 322; ii. 165, 231. - - Simonides, the Younger, ii. 116. - - Simus, the writer, iv. 388. - - “Simus,” the name, iii. 56. - - Sindbad, the Sailor, and the story of Aristomenes, iii. 66. - - Sindos, ii. 13. - - Sinews, remedies for diseases and affections of, v. 202, 203, 358, - 457, 458; vi. 50. - - Singara, i. 444. - - Singing, aided by plates of lead, vi. 216. - - Singing of birds, iii. 94 - —how prevented, vi. 272. - - Sinigaglia, i. 238. - - “Sinister,” meaning of the word, vi. 72. - - Sinon, ii. 229. - - Sinope, ii. 4. - - Sinopis, vi. 235, 236. - - Sinuessa, v. 474. - - Siphnus, i. 318. - - Sipontum, i. 227. - - Sipylum, i. 470. - - Siræum, iii. 248. - - Sirbonian Lake, i. 425. - - Sirbytum, ii. 103. - - Sirenes (bees), iii. 17. - - Sirens, i. 197; ii. 530. - - Siriasis, iv. 414; v. 465, 466, 467. - - Sirius, ii. 316; iii. 11. - - Sisymbrium, iv. 197, 293. - - Sittacene, ii. 78. - - Sium, iv. 424, 425; v. 172. - - Size, instances of unusual, ii. 155, 156, 157. - - Skarpanto, i. 483. - - Skate, vi. 33. - - Skin, coverings of the, iii. 81. - - Skirrets, iv. 166-169, 220. - - Sky, colours of the, i. 60, 61 - —rattling of arms in, 88. - - Slabs of marble, vi. 324, 325, 326. - - Slave-dealing, ii. 148; iv. 381. - - Slavery, introduction of, ii. 227. - - Slaves, iii. 373; iv. 9, 381; vi. 79, 81, 129, 130, 302 - —sold at high prices, ii. 185, 186. - - Sleep, of fish, ii. 367 - —of other animals, 552, 553 - —the mind retiring into itself in, ii. 553 - —animals without, iii. 48 - —provocatives of, v. 467. - - Slips, propagation by, iii. 464. - - Slugs, v. 409. - - Smaragdus, vi. 388, 408, 414. - - Smarides, vi. 45. - - Smegma, vi. 204. - - Smell of juices, iii. 325, 326. - - Smilax, the maiden, and the youth Crocus, iii. 402. - - Smilax, the plant, iii. 402. - - Smilis, vi. 342. - - Smintheus, i. 475. - - Smoked wines, iv. 473. - - Smoke-plant, v. 142. - - Smoking, instances of the practice of, iv. 362; v. 55, 164, 356; - vi. 220. - - Smoothing of paper, iii. 190. - - Smyrna, i. 470. - - Smyrnium, iv. 203; v. 266, 267. - - Smyrus, vi. 64. - - Snails, ii. 311 - —valued as a food, 312 - —destitute of sight, iii. 50 - —used as a diet, v. 437, 438 - —remedies derived from, 463. - - Snapdragon, v. 131. - - Sneezing, v. 297. - - Snow, region of, i. 336 - —reddened by insects, iii. 42 - —used for cooling water, v. 486. - - Snow-partridge, ii. 529. - - Snow-water, v. 483. - - Soap, v. 342. - - Soapstone, vi. 368, 458. - - Soapwort, v. 162. - - Social War, vi. 78. - - Socondion, vi. 433. - - Socrates (artist), vi. 277, 318. - - Socrates (philosopher), his sedateness, ii. 159 - —the wisest of men, 178; vi. 159 - —how put to death, v. 140. - - Soft fish, ii. 416. - - Soft stones, vi. 371. - - Sogdiani, ii. 33. - - Soils, the various kinds of, iii. 446-455 - —crops adapted to certain, iv. 59, 60. - - Solanum, v. 266. - - Soldering of metals, vi. 111. - - Sole (fish), ii. 388, 396. - - “Solecism,” origin of the word, i. 448. - - Solen, ii. 547; iii. 50; vi. 64. - - Soles of the feet, iii. 89 - —perfumed, 167. - - Soli, i. 448. - - Solinus quoted, i. 202, 234, 333 - —a mistake by, ii. 137. - - Solipuga, ii. 295; iv. 445; v. 403. - - Solis gemma, vi. 456. - - Solo, iv. 303. - - Solstice, the winter, iv. 82, 83 - —the summer, 92-97. - - Solstitial grapes, iii. 256. - - Somphus, iv. 212. - - Sonchos, iv. 426, 427; v. 314. - - Sonticus morbus, vi. 361. - - Sophocles, iv. 387 - —his burial, ii. 174 - —his death, 213 - —his works quoted, iv. 25, 375. - - Soracte, i. 121; ii. 128. - - Soranus, Valerius, i. 11, 102. - - Sorbs, iii. 314; iv. 512. - - Soriculata, v. 273. - - Sornatius, v. 522. - - Sorrel, iv. 287; v. 258. - - Sorus, vi. 64. - - Sory, vi. 198, 199. - - Sosigenes, i. 30, 148; iv. 76. - - Sosimenes, iv. 302. - - Sostratus, vi. 174, 339. - - Sotacus, vi. 385. - - Sotades, i. 498. - - Sotira, v. 368. - - Souchet, iv. 383. - - Soul, its immortality denied, ii. 218 - —in plants, iii. 101. - - Sour apples, iv. 497. - - Sour-krout, iv. 167, 236. - - Southernwood, iv. 334, 377, 378; v. 106, 232. - - Sow, womb of the, iii. 75 - —a great delicacy, 75. - - Sow-bread, v. 125, 126. - - Sow-thistle, iv. 426, 427. - - Sowing, rotation in, iv. 68 - —seed required for, 71, 72 - —proper times for, 72, 73, 74 - —winter, 79, 80. - - Spa, v. 476. - - Spagas, iii. 265. - - Spain described, i. 153, 160 - —how colonized, 157 - —its minerals, 173, 174 - —its high rank among nations, vi. 465. - - Spalatro, i. 259. - - Spanish broom, v. 28. - - Sparganion, v. 122, 123. - - Sparrow, ii. 518. - - Sparta, i. 283. - - Spartacus, iii. 331; vi. 93. - - Spartel, i. 374. - - Sparus, vi. 457. - - Spartopolias, vi. 460. - - Spartum, iii. 7, 187; iv. 139-142; v. 28, 29. - - Spathe, iii. 155; iv. 495, 496. - - Specillum, ii. 215. - - Specular iron, vi. 356, 363. - - Specular stone, iv. 344; vi. 368, 369. - - Spells. _See_ “Magic.” - - Spelt, iv. 19, 24, 31, 32. - - Sperchius, i. 293. - - Sphacos, iv. 449, 450; v. 12. - - Sphæromancy, v. 427. - - Sphæx, iii. 24. - - Sphagnos, iii. 145, 146; v. 12. - - Sphere, invention of the, ii. 230. - - Sphingia, ii. 95, 100. - - Sphingium, ii. 549. - - Sphinx, ii. 118, 279; vi. 167, 389 - —Egyptian, 336, 337. - - Sphondyle, v. 271. - - Sphragis, vi. 237, 431. - - Sphyrene, vi. 66. - - Spiders, attack the serpent, ii. 552 - —an account of, iii. 27 - —their webs, 27, 28 - —generation of, 29 - —remedies derived from, v. 415, 416. - - Spignel, iv. 295, 296. - - Spikenard, iii. 120. - - Spilumene, vi. 177. - - Spina regia, iii. 107, 208. - - Spinal marrow, iii. 63. - - Spinelle ruby, vi. 420. - - Spinning, invention of, ii. 224; iv. 136. - - Spinther, the actor, ii. 147. - - Spinturnix, ii. 493. - - Spiræ, vi. 375. - - Spissum, iii. 167. - - Spitter, iii. 44. - - Spitting of blood, remedies for, v. 343, 344. - - Spittle, human, kills serpents, ii. 126 - —particulars relative to, v. 288, 289, 290 - —of females, 304. - - Splanchnoptes, iv. 407; vi. 183. - - Spleen, iii. 73 - —animals without, 73 - —cauterized in runners, 73 - —small in certain animals, 73 - —remedies for diseases and affections of, v. 181, 182, 345, 346, - 439, 440; vi. 41, 42. - - Spleenwort, v. 228, 229. - - Splenion, v. 95, 96. - - Spodium, iv. 485, 505; vi. 202, 203 - —of lead, 218. - - Spodos, vi. 202, 203. - - Spoleto, i. 240. - - Spoletum, i. 240. - - Spondylium, iii. 153; v. 12. - - Spondylus, vi. 65. - - Sponges, ii. 454, 455, 456; v. 519-522. - - Spongites, vi. 362. - - Spongitis, vi. 457. - - Sponsalia, ii. 437. - - Spontaneous growth of trees, iii. 394, 395, 396. - - Spoonbill, ii. 522. - - Sporades, i. 320. - - Spotted marble, vi. 325. - - Sprains, remedies for, v. 200, 357. - - Spring flowers, iv. 336, 337. - - Spring-wagtail, ii. 522. - - Springs, hot. _See_ “Hot springs.” - - Spurge, iv. 228; v. 177, 179, 180. - - Squalls, i. 79, 80. - - Squalus, ii. 289, 412. - - Squatina, ii. 380, 411, 452. - - Squill, iv. 241, 242, 243 - —vinegar, 241, 242, 480, 481. - - Squillace, i. 222. - - Squinting, iii. 53. - - Squirrel, ii. 310, 311. - - Stabiæ, i. 206. - - Stachys, v. 55. - - Stacte, iii. 130, 131. - - Stag-beetle, iii. 33 - —used as an amulet, 34 - —remedies derived from, v. 454. - - Stagira, i. 301. - - Stagmint, v. 209. - - Stagonia, iii. 128. - - Stagonitis, iii. 152. - - Stags, an account of, ii. 299-302 - —ruminate, 549 - —maggots in their brain, iii. 48 - —with four kidneys, 73. - - Stag-wolf, ii. 284. - - Stakes, iii. 495. - - Stalactites, v. 482. - - Standard of the Roman legions, ii. 485, 486. - - Stanko, i. 484. - - Stannum, vi. 212, 214, 215. - - Staphis, iv. 464. - - Staphyle, iv. 466, 467. - - Staphylinos, iv. 218, 219. - - Staphylodendron, iii. 368. - - Staphylus, i. 373. - - Starch, iv. 19, 20, 446. - - Starfish, ii. 458, 474. - - Starlings, ii. 506, 507, 524. - - Stars, an account of the, i. 19, 20, 23, 25-31, 35, 36, 42-50, 52, - 53, 59, 64 - —first observations of the, ii. 235 - —their influence on fish, 397 - —arrangement of, according to days and nights, iv. 74-77 - —rising and setting of, 77, 78 - —prognostics derived from, 120, 121. - - Star-thistle, iv. 401. - - Statice, v. 172, 173. - - Statine wine, iii. 241; iv. 471. - - Statonian wine, iii. 242. - - Statue, plants growing on the head of, v. 68, 69. - - Statues, of gold, vi. 105, 106 - —of silver, 136, 137 - —of brass, 154-158 - —of iron, 206 - —the heads of, changed, 224. - - Statyellæ, v. 472. - - Steatitis, vi. 458. - - Steatomata, v. 110. - - Stelephuros, iv. 357. - - Stelis, iii. 434. - - Stellio, iii. 31; v. 397, 402, 403 - —figurative use of the name, v. 451. - - Stemmata, vi. 278. - - Stems of plants, iv. 355, 356. - - Stephaneplocos, iv. 305; vi. 273. - - Stephanomelis, v. 205. - - Stephanus, vi. 318. - - Stephanusa, vi. 177. - - Stergethron, v. 144. - - Sterile trees, iii. 202. - - Sterility, iv. 97-101 - —remedies for, iv. 101, 102. - - Stertinius, Q., v. 373. - - Stesichorus, ii. 510. - - Sthenelus, Acilius, iii. 234, 235. - - Sthennis, vi. 169, 187. - - Stibi, vi. 115, 116. - - Stilo, Ælius, ii. 477. - - Stimmi, vi. 115, 116. - - Sting-ray. _See_ “Pastinaca.” - - “Stipendium,” meaning of the word, vi. 89. - - Stobolon, iii. 132. - - Stobrum, iii. 135, 136. - - Stœbe, iv. 401. - - Stœchades, i. 212. - - Stœchas, v. 169, 266. - - “Stolo,” origin of the name, iii. 440. - - Stolo, Licinius, iv. 8. - - Stomach, an account of the, iii. 64 - —remedies for pains and affections of, v. 164, 165, 344, 437, 438. - - Stomatice, iv. 499, 509, 510, 511; v. 38. - - Stomoma, vi. 194, 195. - - Stone, reproduction of, vi. 358. - - Stone of Armenia, vi. 327. - - Stone of Assos, vi. 357, 358. - - Stone of Naxos, vi. 327. - - Stone of Scyros, vi. 357. - - Stone of Siphnos, vi. 368. - - Stone of Tibur, vi. 324. - - Stone-crop, iv. 411; v. 144. - - Stone-moss, v. 254. - - Stone-quarries, when first opened, ii. 223. - - Stones of fruit, iii. 326, 327. - - Stones, showers of, i. 66. - - Stonework, various kinds of, vi. 372, 373. - - Storax, iii. 136, 151, 152; v. 11. - - Storks, ii. 501, 502, 503, 508. - - “Strabo,” meaning of the name, ii. 147; iii. 53. - - Strabo, his acute vision, ii. 162. - - Strabo, the geographer, his birth-place, ii. 6 - —his work quoted, i. 117, 134, 141, 171, 188, 223, 225, 231, 236, - 281, 292, 293, 297, 300, 301, 311, 313, 315, 316, 317, 323, 328, - 329, 332, 334, 344, 376, 422, 424, 447, 449, 452, 454, 458, 459, - 464, 466, 468, 473, 478, 485, 486, 487, 488, 491; ii. 3, 4, 5, - 8, 11, 12, 32, 34, 70, 71, 73, 90, 96. - - Strabo of Lampsacus, ii. 242. - - Strainers for wine, iv. 475. - - Strategies, ii. 19. - - Stratiotes, v. 68. - - Stratonice, vi. 278, 279. - - Stratonicus, vi. 139, 184, 185, 187. - - Strawberry, iii. 320. - - Strength, instances of extraordinary, ii. 160, 161. - - Strepsiceros, ii. 347; iii. 44. - - Strictura, vi. 207. - - Strigil, v. 145. - - Strix, iii. 82. - - Strix scops, ii. 530, 531. - - Strombi, vi. 49. - - Stromboli, i. 222. - - Strongyle, i. 222. - - Strongylion, vi. 183, 184. - - Strophiolum, iv. 304, 305. - - Strumus, v. 148, 149, 150, 241. - - Struthea, iii. 293. - - Struthiocamelus, ii. 478, 479. - - Struthion, v. 39, 40. - - Struthopodes, ii. 131. - - Strychnon, iv. 384, 385; v. 241, 266. - - Strymon, i. 302, 303. - - Stubbing, iv. 66. - - Stucco, vi. 374. - - Studiosus, the gladiator, iii. 86. - - Studious men, hellebore for, v. 97, 98. - - Stuppa, iv. 136. - - Sturgeon, ii. 383, 384, 398, 399; vi. 66. - - Stymmata, iii. 161. - - Stymphalis, i. 133; iii. 43. - - Stymphalus, i. 286. - - Styptics, v. 48. - - Styx, i. 136; v. 470. - - Suani, ii. 11, 22. - - Suari, ii. 46. - - Subdialis, vi. 377. - - Subiaco, i. 234, 235. - - Subis, ii. 493. - - Subjugus, v. 469. - - Sublaqueum, i. 234. - - Sublician Bridge, vi. 345. - - Subsolanus, i. 73; iv. 116. - - Subtegulana, vi. 377. - - Subulo, iii. 44. - - Suckers of trees, iii. 463. - - Suculæ, i. 67; iv. 87. - - Sudines, vi. 385. - - Sudis, vi. 66. - - Sudras, ii. 44. - - Suessa Pometia, i. 204 - —its destruction, ii. 154. - - Suessiones, i. 354. - - Suet, v. 326, 327. - - Suetonius Paulinus, i. 382, 497. - - Suevi, i. 347. - - Suez, i. 423. - - Suffocations, hysterical, iii. 75. - - Sugar, iii. 114. - - Suilli, iv. 430. - - Sulmo, i. 231; iii. 529; vi. 208. - - Sulphate of lime, vi. 376. - - Sulphur, vi. 291, 292, 293. - - Sulphur-wort, v. 126. - - Sulpicius Gallus, i. 36. - - Sulpicius, Servius, v. 367. - - Sumach, iii. 179, 180 - —used for preparing leather, 180 - —remedies derived from, v. 38. - - Summanus, i. 82; v. 391. - - Summer flowers, iv. 437, 438, 439. - - Summer honey, iii. 13. - - Sun, an account of the, i. 34, 38, 39, 50, 51 - —several seen at once, 62, 63 - —prognostics derived from the, iv. 417, 418, 419. - - Sun-dial, the first at Rome, ii. 238 - —in the Campus Martius, vi. 334, 335. - - Sunfish, vi. 24. - - Sunflower, iv. 413, 414, 415. - - Sunium, i. 289. - - Supercilia, iii. 55. - - Superficies, how calculated by Pliny, ii. 109. - - Superfœtation, ii. 144, 349, 543. - - Supernatia, iii. 294. - - Superstition, i. 23, 24. - - Superstitions. _See_ “Absurdities,” and “Magic.” - - Superstitious beliefs, relative to animals, v. 366, 367 - —of various kinds, 283-286, 298, 299. - - Supplication, attitudes of, iii. 88. - - Sura, Mamilius, ii. 355, 554. - - Sura, the proconsul, ii. 147. - - Surnames, derived from trees, iii. 440 - —from agriculture, iv. 5. - - Surrentum, i. 197 - —wines of, iii. 241; iv. 470. - - Sus babiroussa, ii. 345. - - Susa, ii. 62, 79. - - Susinum, iii. 163, 165. - - Sutlej, ii. 41, 47. - - Swallows, i. 307; ii. 505, 506, 521 - —avoid the city of Thebes, 505 - —used for carrying messages, 505 - —an account of, 513, 514 - —at the mouth of the Nile, 514 - —incapable of being taught, 526. - - Swallow-wort, v. 56, 114. - - Swammerdam quoted, ii. 428. - - Swans, ii. 502, 503 - —their singing, 503. - - Sweat, the, iii. 78. - - Sweet apples, iv. 497. - - Sweet wines, iii. 248, 249, 250. - - Sweet-scented calamus, iii. 144 - —sweet-scented rush, iii. 144; iv. 364. - - Sweet-wort, iii. 274. - - Swiftness, in runners, ii. 161 - —in animals, iii. 67. - - Swine, living, gnawed by mice, iii. 76 - —of Illyricum, have solid hoofs, 89 - —eat serpents, 97 - —their mode of feeding, 349, 350 - —the grease of, v. 324, 325, 326. - - Swordfish, ii. 359, 390; vi. 8. - - Syagri, iii. 175. - - Sybaris, i. 224 - —the destruction of, ii. 163 - —the cavalry of, 318. - - Sybaris, the river, v. 476. - - Syce, v. 261. - - Sycitis, vi. 461. - - Syene, i. 107, 414, 415—ii. 97. - - Sygaros, ii. 88. - - Sylla, the Dictator, i. 85, 206, 316; v. 206; vi. 323, 389 - —his success and dreadful death, ii. 190, 191 - —his memoirs, iv. 394 - —his triumph, vi. 76. - - Symboli, Port of the, i. 334. - - Syme, i. 484. - - Sympathy, iv. 206; v. 1; vi. 12, 13, 407. - - Symphyton petræon, v. 231, 232. - - Symplegades, i. 338. - - Symplegma, vi. 314. - - Synnephitis, vi. 449. - - Synochitis, vi. 461. - - Synodontitis, vi. 457, 459. - - Synodus, vi. 457. - - Syphax, i. 385. - - Syracuse, i. 217. - - Syrbotæ, ii. 101, 134. - - Syreon, v. 71, 72. - - Syria described, i. 423 - —Antiochia described, i. 436 - —the trees of, iii. 178. - - Syricum, vi. 240. - - Syrie, i. 469. - - Syringia, iii. 405. - - Syringitis, vi. 457. - - Syrites, iii. 74. - - Syron, v. 165, 166. - - Syrtes, i. 391. - - Syrtitis, vi. 457. - - - T. - - Tabanus, iii. 35. - - Table-napkins, i. 1, 170 - —of asbestus, iv. 136, 137. - - Tables, large, iii. 195, 196, 197. - - Tablets, writing, iii. 186. - - Tacapa, iii. 388 - —its fertility, iv. 67. - - Tachos, i. 471. - - Tacitus, Cornelius, ii. 158. - - Tacitus, the historian, quoted, i. 136, 330, 347, 450. - - Tacompsos, ii. 98. - - Tadmor, i. 445. - - Tadpoles, ii. 462, 463; vi. 50. - - Tænarum, i. 282, 283. - - Tagasta, i. 395. - - Tagliamento, i. 249. - - Tagus, i. 264. - - Tails, men with, ii. 134 - —of insects, iii. 35 - —of animals, 92, 93. - - Talc, vi. 368, 369, 446. - - Talgæ, i. 399. - - Tallies, iii. 372. - - Tallow, v. 326, 327. - - Talpona, iii. 229. - - Tamarica, v. 29, 30. - - Tamaricus, river, v. 480. - - Tamarindus Indica, iii. 110, 111. - - Tamarisk, iii. 374; v. 29, 30. - - Tamarix, v. 29, 30. - - Taminia, iv. 446, 465, 468. - - Tanagra, i. 292. - - Tanaïs, i. 327, 335; ii. 14. - - Tanaquil, ii. 336; vi. 384. - - Tanarus, i. 244. - - Tangier, i. 374. - - Tannin, iv. 461, 484, 487, 500, 508, 519; v. 6. - - Tanning, iv. 499. - - Tanos, vi. 413. - - Taos, vi. 459. - - Tapeworm, remedies for, v. 348, 349. - - Taphiusan stone, vi. 365. - - Taphræ, i. 334. - - Taposiris, vi. 41. - - Taprobane, ii. 134, 430; vi. 59 - —described, ii. 51. - - Tar, iii. 361 - —water, v. 18. - - Tarandrus, ii. 304. - - Tarantula, v. 401. - - Tarbelli, v. 472. - - Tarda, ii. 500. - - Tarentine red, ii. 447. - - Tarquinii, i. 190 - —Lake of, i. 123. - - Tarquinius Priscus, vi. 72, 229, 347, 384. - - Tarquinius Superbus, i. 204; iii. 193; iv. 150, 196, 197. - - Tarquitius, i. 146. - - Tarraco, i. 166; iv. 133 - —wines of, iii. 244. - - Tarragona, i. 166. - - Tarshish, i. 156, 369. - - Tarsus, i. 447. - - Tartessos, i. 156, 399. - - Tarum, iii. 142. - - Tarutius, iv. 126. - - Tarvisium, i. 248. - - Tasitia, v. 478. - - Tattooing, practice of, ii. 8; iv. 389 - —a probable allusion to, ii. 145. - - Taurica, i. 333. - - Taurini, i. 247. - - Tauriscus, vi. 139, 318. - - Tauromenian wine, iii. 242. - - Tauron, ii. 241. - - Taurus (bird), ii. 522. - - Taurus (range of), i. 453. - - Taxilla, ii. 41. - - Taygetus, i. 283. - - Teal, ii. 528. - - Teats, iii. 75. - - Teazel, v. 148. - - Tecolithos, vi. 362, 443, 457. - - Tectæ, ii. 332. - - Tectosages, i. 492. - - Teeth, the human, ii. 153, 154, 155 - —superstition as to, 155 - —serrated, 549; iii. 56, 61 - —an account of, 56, 57 - —canine, 56, 58, 60 - —hollow, 57 - —of fish, 57 - —of serpents, 57, 58 - —of other animals, 58 - —marvels connected with, 59, 60 - —cut in old age, 59 - —double row of, 60 - —never changed, 60 - —age of animals estimated from, 60, 61 - —human, venom in, 61 - —remedies for diseases of, v. 145, 146 - —remedies derived from the human, 291. - - Tegea, i. 286. - - Telchius, ii. 12. - - Telephanes, v. 177. - - Telephion, v. 267, 268. - - Telephus, v. 94; vi. 211. - - Telestis, vi. 268. - - Telinum, iii. 164. - - Telis, v. 74. - - Telmessus, i. 457. - - Telmissus, i. 462. - - Tembrogius, ii. 3. - - Temetum, iii. 252. - - Temesvar, i. 306. - - Tempe, i. 296 - - Tempests, i. 80 - —prognostics derived from, iv. 122. - - Temples, ornaments of, made of brass, vi. 153 - —marvels connected with, 344. - - Temsa, i. 209. - - Temulentia, iii. 253. - - Tenedos, i. 488. - - Teneriffe, ii. 108. - - Tenesmus, remedies for, v. 348, 349. - - Tenites, vi. 436. - - Tenos, i. 318. - - Tents (surgical), v. 520. - - Tentyra, i. 407. - - Tentyris, i. 417. - - Tentyritæ, ii. 289. - - Tephrias, vi. 328. - - Tephritis, vi. 457. - - Terebinth, iii. 179; v. 12, 13, 16. - - Terebinthine, iii. 179, 357; v. 16. - - Teredo, iii. 2, 22, 367, 425. - - Terence quoted, i. 318. - - Tereus, i. 307. - - Tergeste, i. 250. - - Tergilla, iii. 275. - - Terpander, ii. 231. - - Terrace-pavements, vi. 377. - - Terracina, i. 194. - - Terrestrial animals, generation of, ii. 540-544. - - Tesseræ or watchwords, ii. 229. - - Testes, iii. 92 - —injuries of the, 92 - —remedies for diseases of, v. 187. - - Testudo, ii. 288. - - Tethalassomenon, iii. 248. - - Tethea, vi. 39. - - Tetrao, ii. 500. - - Tetrarchies, i. 432, 433. - - Tettigometra, iii. 32. - - Tettigonia, iii. 31. - - Teucer, the artist, vi. 140. - - Teucer, the hero, i. 481. - - Teuchites, iv. 364. - - Teucria, v. 52, 53. - - Teuthalis, v. 259, 260. - - Teuthrion, iv. 326. - - Teutoni, i. 346. - - Text of Pliny, its defective state, vi. 1. - - Thalami, ii. 330. - - Thalassægle, v. 65. - - Thalassites, iii. 248. - - Thalassomeli, v. 498. - - Thales, i. 37; iv. 127; vi. 338. - - Thalictrum, v. 268. - - Thamyris, ii. 231. - - Thapsia, iii. 205, 206. - - Thapsus, i. 391. - - Thasos, i. 324 - —wines of, iii. 245 - —grapes of, 262. - - Theamedes, iv. 207; vi. 356, 357. - - Theangalis, v. 66. - - Theatre, of Pompeius, vi. 350 - —of Scaurus, 163, 349, 350. - - Theatres, awnings for, iv. 138 - —saffron-water used in, 321. - - Thebaic stone, vi. 331, 367. - - Thebaïs, i. 407. - - Thebasa, i. 493. - - Thebes, in Bœotia, i. 290 - —the taking of, vi. 174. - - Thebes, the Corsian, i. 277. - - Thebes, in Egypt, i. 416; vi. 343. - - Thebes, in Thessaly, i. 294. - - Thelycardios, vi. 457. - - Thelygonon, v. 191, 213, 214, 239. - - Thelyphonon, v. 128, 218-221. - - Thelypteris, v. 245, 246. - - Thelyrrhizos, vi. 457. - - Themiscyra described, ii. 8. - - Themison, iii. 100; v. 372. - - Theobrotion, v. 64, 65, 66. - - Theochrestus, vi. 467. - - Theodorus, ii. 226; vi. 184, 283, 342. - - Theodosia, i. 334. - - Theomenes, vi. 467. - - Theomnestus, vi. 145, 188, 267. - - Theon, vi. 280. - - Theon Ochema, i. 380; ii. 104. - - Theophrastus, i. 9, 10, 270 - —quoted, 193, 194; iii. 197, 441, 478, 525; iv. 208; vi. 366, 461. - - Theopompus, i. 150. - - Theramne, i. 283. - - Theriaca, grapes of the, iv. 463. - - Theriace, v. 384, 396 - —composition of, iv. 299, 300. - - Therimachus, vi. 169, 256. - - Therionarca, v. 65, 124. - - Thermæ, Gulf of, i. 300, 324. - - Thermopylæ, i. 294. - - Theseus, i. 289; iv. 426. - - Thesion, iv. 359, 417. - - Thesmophoria, v. 26. - - Thespiades, vi. 321. - - Thespiæ, i. 290; v. 475. - - Thesproti, i. 271. - - Thessalonica, i. 300. - - Thessalus, v. 373. - - Thessaly described, i. 294 - —its witchcraft, v. 423. - - Thibii, ii. 127. - - Thieldones, ii. 322. - - Thirst, successfully resisted, ii. 159 - —how prevented in Gætulia, 550 - —how allayed, iii. 99. - - Thistles, various kinds of, iv. 190, 191, 299, 351, 353, 354, 401, - 425, 426; v. 45, 239. - - Thlaspi, v. 268, 269. - - Thomna, iii. 128. - - Thorn, iv. 421; v. 43-46. - - Thorn, Egyptian, iii. 183. - - Thorn, Indian, iii. 109. - - Thorn, royal, iii. 207, 208. - - Thorn, thirsty, iii. 211. - - Thorybethron, v. 173. - - Thos, ii. 304. - - Thoth, the Egyptian month, v. 256. - - Thrace described, i. 302. - - Thracia (stone), vi. 457. - - Thranis, vi. 65. - - Thrasimenus, i. 116. - - Thrason, vi. 188. - - Thrasyllus, i. 149. - - Thread, gold, vi. 98. - - Threshing-floor, iv. 70, 102. - - Thrissa, vi. 65. - - Throat, iii. 63, 64 - —remedies for affections of, v. 433. - - Thrushes, ii. 506, 509 - —fattened, ii. 501. - - Thryallis, v. 127, 128. - - Thryselinum, v. 135. - - Thucydides, i. 119, 270, 474; ii. 175. - - Thule, i. 109, 145, 352; ii. 113. - - Thunder, i. 69, 70, 80-83, 86 - —ascribed to Jupiter, 51, 52 - —prognostics from, iv. 121 - —truffles produced by, 144. - - Thurii, wines of, iii. 243. - - Thyatira, i. 468. - - Thymbræum, iv. 293. - - Thyme, iv. 292, 293, 331, 332, 375, 376. - - Thymelæa, iii. 201. - - Thynias, ii. 22. - - Thynni, ii. 385. - - Thynnis, vi. 65. - - Thyon, iii. 197. - - Thyrea, i. 283. - - Thyrsus, iii. 187. - - Thysdris, ii. 138. - - Tiber, i. 191, 192. - - Tiberias, i. 429. - - Tiberius, the Emperor, i. 264; ii. 197, 198; iii. 241, 272; iv. 156, - 174, 188, 189; v. 283, 390, 426; vi. 81, 234, 381 - —could see in the dark, iii. 51. - - Tibur, stone of, vi. 324. - - Tiburnus, iii. 431. - - Ticks, various kinds of, iii. 40, 41. - - Tides, an account of the, i. 124-128. - - Tifernum, i. 240, - - Tifernus, i. 231. - - Tiga, i. 395. - - Tigers, when first seen at Rome, ii. 275 - —their nature, 275, 276. - - Tigranes, ii. 82. - - Tigranocerta, ii. 19. - - Tigress, instinct of the, ii. 248. - - Tigrinæ, iii. 196. - - Tigris, ii. 62, 75. - - Tiles, the invention of, ii. 222 - —an account of, vi. 368. - - Tiliaventum, i. 249. - - Timæus, i. 30, 148, 372; vi. 145, 222. - - Timagenes, i. 270. - - Timanthes, vi. 251, 254, 255. - - Timarchides, vi. 188. - - Timarchus, vi. 170. - - Timarete, vi. 249, 281. - - Timaris, vi. 455. - - Timaristus, iv. 368. - - Timavus, i. 266. - - Timber, felling of iii. 415, 416, 417. - - Time, Roman reckoning of, ii. 125. - - Time-pieces, the first, ii. 237. - - Timictonia, vi. 459. - - Timocles, vi. 170. - - Timomachus, vi. 277. - - Timon the misanthrope, ii. 160. - - Timosthenes, i. 371. - - Timotheus, the musician, ii. 231. - - Timotheus, the sculptor, vi. 188, 316, 317. - - Tin, i. 351 - —first use of, ii. 225 - —an account of, vi. 212. - - Tinea, iii. 425. - - Tingi, i. 374. - - Tinning, vi. 214. - - Tinnunculus, ii. 519, 532. - - Tinting of flowers, iv. 317. - - Tinus, iii. 333. - - Tipasa, i. 386. - - Tiphe, iv. 31, 35. - - Tiresias, vi. 456. - - Tiridates, v. 428. - - Tiro, Sabinus, iv. 204. - - Tiro, Tullius, i. 147. - - Tiryns, i. 284. - - Tisicrates, vi. 176, 187 - —colouring of, 282, 283. - - Tithymalis, v. 179. - - Tithymalon, iv. 279, 280. - - Tithymalos, v. 177-180. - - Titidius Labeo, vi. 230. - - Titles of Greek works, i. 7. - - Titus, the Emperor, i. 2, 147; vi. 320. - - Tlepolemus, iv. 302. - - Tmolus, i. 465; ii. 203 - —wines of, iii. 245, 246. - - Toad, vi. 22. - _See also_ “Bramble-frog,” and “Rubeta.” - - Tobit, cure of his father’s blindness, vi. 30. - - Toes, eight on each foot, ii. 130. - - Toga, statues clad in the, vi. 155. - - Toga Phryxia, ii. 337. - - Toga picta, ii. 443. - - Toga prætexta, ii. 337, 338, 411, 447, 448; vi. 72. - - Toga pura, ii. 336. - - Toga undulata, ii. 336. - - Toledo, i. 171. - - Toletum, i. 171. - - Tolosa, i. 180. - - Tomentum, ii. 335; iv. 184. - - Tomi, i. 306; vi. 65. - - Tonberos, ii. 58. - - Tone, vi. 235, 236. - - Tongres, v. 476. - - Tongue, of various animals, iii. 61 - —asperities of, in some, 61. - - Tonsillary glands, iii. 62 - —remedies for diseases of, v. 342. - - Tooth of wolf used as an amulet, iii. 59. - - Tooth-ache, remedies for, v. 338, 339, 430, 431; vi. 34. - - Toothpicks, v. 19. - - Tooth-wort, v. 245, 257. - - Toparchies of Judæa, i. 427. - - Topaz, vi. 427, 434, 435. - - Topazos, vi. 426, 427. - - Tophus, iii. 447, 448; vi. 371. - - Toranius, his trick upon Antony, ii. 148. - - Torch-tree, iii. 358; v. 19. - - Torcs of gold, vi. 86. - - Tordylon, v. 71, 72. - - Toreutic art, vi. 171, 247, 256. - - Tornadoes, i. 80. - - Torone, i. 300. - - Torpedo, ii. 396, 411, 451, 456; vi. 4. - - Torquatus, his defeat of the Gaul, vi. 75. - - Torquatus, Novellius, the drunkard, iii. 272, 273. - - Torques, ii. 171; vi. 86. - - Tortivum, iii. 268. - - Tortoise, vi. 15-18. - - Tortoise shell, ii. 379; iii. 429; vi. 16. - - Tortona, i. 186. - - Touchstones, vi. 125, 327, 328. - - Toulouse, i. 180. - - Tourmaline, vi. 356, 398, 404, 405, 424, 425, 448, 453. - - Towers, by whom first erected, ii. 223. - - Toxica, iii. 360; iv. 397; v. 10, 333. - - Toxicum, v. 171. - - Trabea, ii. 337, 447. - - Trachin, i. 294. - - Trachinia, v. 269. - - Trachonitis, i. 433. - - Trafalgar, Cape, i. 156. - - Tragacanthe, iii. 202. - - Tragelaphus, ii. 302. - - Tragemata, iii. 177. - - Tragi, ii. 455. - - Tragion, iii. 201, 202. - - Tragonis, v. 269, 270. - - Tragopan, ii. 530. - - Tragopogon, iv. 349; v. 270. - - Tragoriganum, iv. 268. - - Tragos, iii. 202; v. 270. - - Tragum, iv. 29. - - Tragus, ii. 455; vi. 65. - - Trajan, the Emperor, his death, i. 448. - - Tralles, i. 464. - - Transpadana, i. 246. - - Transplanting, iii. 468-471, 487-491. - - Trapezus, ii. 9. - - Travertine, vi. 371. - - “Treacle,” origin of the word, iv. 300; v. 380. - - Treasury, the Roman, vi. 95. - - Trebellian wine, iii. 243. - - Trebizond, ii. 9. - - Trebula, wine of, iii. 244. - - Trees, their place in the system of Nature, =iii.= 101 - —early history of, 102 - —consecrated to peculiar divinities, 102 - —uses of, 103 - —exotic, 103 - —of huge size, 105 - —of India, 107, 108 - —of Asia, 115, 116 - —of Persia, 117 - —that grow in the sea, 117 - —that never lose their leaves, 118 - —products of, 119 - —exhibited in triumphal processions, 147 - —of Syria, 178 - —of Phœnicia, 178 - —of Egypt, 180 - —in which fruits germinate one beneath the other, 182 - —of Æthiopia, 193, 194 - —of Mount Atlas, 194, 195 - —of Cyrenaica, 200 - —of Asia and Greece, 201 - —of the Mediterranean, 209, 210 - —gigantic, in the Indian Seas, 212 - —of the Troglodytic Sea, 212 - —methods of grafting, 302 - —countries that have none, 339 - —wonders connected with those of the North, 340, 341 - —various products of, 350, 351 - —the bark of, 354, 255 - —those of which the wood is valued, 365 - —localities of various, 370, 371 - —species of, 373 - —evergreen, 373, 374 - —leaves of, 374-379 - —blossoms of, 380, 383 - —fecundation of, 381 - —which bear the whole year, 385 - —which bear no fruit, 385 - —looked upon as ill-omened, 386, 387 - —which soonest lose their fruit or flowers, 386 - —unproductive in some localities, 387 - —their mode of bearing, 387 - —in which the fruit appears first, 387 - —with two crops in a year, 388 - —which become old most rapidly or most slowly, 389, 390 - —with various products, 390 - —differences in their trunks and branches, 391, 392 - —roots of, 391 - —trunks of, 391, 392 - —branches of, 391, 392 - —bark of, 393 - —which grow spontaneously, 394, 395, 396 - —changes in their nature, 397 - —juices of, 412 - —veins and pores of, 413, 414 - —the felling of, 415 - —size of, 417 - —largest in size, 419 - —some proof against decay, 422, 423 - —age of, 429, 430, 431 - —shortlived, 432 - —famous, 433 - —enormous prices of, 438, 439 - —surnames derived from, 440 - —influence of weather upon, 441, 442 - —their mode of bearing, 460 - —which never degenerate, 461, 462 - —interval left between, 472, 473 - —shadow thrown by, 473, 474 - —growth of, 475 - —which grow from cuttings, 486 - —diseases of, 517-524, 527, 530 - —which are injurious to one another, 525, 526 - —prodigies connected with, 526, 527 - —incisions in, 529, 530 - —mode of manuring, 531, 532 - —medicaments for, 532, 533, 534. - - Trefoil, iv. 330, 331, 374, 375. - - Trent, i. 252. - - Treviso, i. 248. - - Triarius, ii. 8. - - Triballi, i. 297. - - Tribes of Rome, iv. 6. - - Tribulum, iv. 103. - - Tribulus, iv. 351, 355, 400, 401. - - Tribuni ærarii, vi. 83. - - Tributanus, the gladiator, ii. 160. - - Tributes paid in silver, vi. 93. - - Trichecum dugong, ii. 361. - - Trichecum manatum, ii. 361, 370. - - Trichecus rosmarinus, ii. 364. - - Trichias, ii. 389. - - Trichomanes, iv. 415, 416, 417; v. 268. - - Trichrus, vi. 457. - - Tricoccum, iv. 413, 414, 415. - - Tricongius, iii. 272. - - Tridentum, i. 252. - - Triens, the story of the Servilian, vi. 205. - - Trieste, i. 250. - - Trifoline wines, iii. 244. - - Trigarium, vi. 464. - - Trigarius, vi. 109. - - Trigemenian Gate, iv. 7. - - Triglitis, vi. 459. - - Triophthalmos, vi. 458. - - Triorchis, ii. 487; iii. 92; v. 105. - - Tripatinium, vi. 287. - - Tripolium, v. 167. - - Tripudia solistima, ii. 497. - - Triton, the river, i. 394, 412. - - Tritons, ii. 362, 363. - - Trispithami, ii. 132. - - Triumphs, usages at, v. 290, 291; vi. 73. - - Triumpilini, i. 254. - - Trixago, v. 52, 53. - - Troas described, i. 476. - - Trochi, ii. 467. - - Trochilus, ii. 288, 551. - - Trœzen, i. 284; v. 475 - —wine of, iii. 262. - - Troglodytæ, i. 134, 329, 398, 404; ii. 95, 96, 130, 134, 379; iii. 45, - 124, 142, 143; v. 478; vi. 426, 427. - - Troglodytic Sea, iii. 212, 213. - - Troglodytica, i. 103, 107, 108; vi. 451 - —described, ii. 93. - - Trogus Pompeius, ii. 240. - - Trophonius, v. 477; vi. 176. - - Trophy erected on the Alps, i. 256. - - Trossuli, vi. 85, 86. - - Trowsers, i. 173. - - Troxallis, v. 439, 460. - - Truffles, iv. 142, 143, 144. - - Trumpet-fish, ii. 391, 396. - - Trunks of trees, iii. 391, 392. - - Trychnum, iv. 384, 385. - _See also_ “Strychnon.” - - Trygon, ii. 460. - - Tuber (fruit) iii. 297, 467. - - Tuber (truffle), iv. 142, 143, 144. - - Tuber terræ, v. 125, 126. - - Tubero, C. Ælius, ii. 210. - - Tubero, Q., i. 147. - - Tuccia, v. 279. - - Tuditanus, C. Sempronius, i. 251; iii. 156. - - Tufa, iii. 447, 448; vi. 357, 371. - - Tullius, the dwarf, ii. 157. - - Tumours, remedies for, v. 201, 202 - —inflamed, remedies for, 188, 189. - - Tungri, waters of, v. 476. - - Tunica recta, ii. 336. - - Tunny, ii. 382, 385-388. - - Turbith, v. 224. - - Turbot, ii. 389, 396, 452. - - Turcæ, ii. 15. - - Turcomania, ii. 75. - - Turduli, ii. 155. - - Turf, iii. 340. - - Turin, i. 247. - - Turnips, iv. 48, 49, 161, 162, 214, 215 - —wine from, iv. 478. - - Turnsole, iv. 413, 414, 415. - - Turpentine, iii. 179, 357; v. 16. - - Turpentine-tree, iii. 179; v. 12, 13, 16. - - Turpilius, vi. 230. - - Turquoise, vi. 427, 428. - - Tursio, ii. 377; vi. 66. - - Turtles, described, ii. 369; vi. 15 - —various kinds of, ii. 377, 378, 379 - —how taken, 378, 379 - —propagation of, 378, 379 - —without tongue or teeth, iii. 64. - - Tuscan architecture, vi. 285. - - Tuscany, modern, the wines of, iii. 229. - - “Tusci,” origin of the name, i. 187. - - Tusculum, i. 202. - - Tuscus, Fabricius, i. 269. - - Tussilago, v. 164. - - Twelve Tables, Laws of the, iii. 55; iv. 6, 306, 307; v. 281, 426. - - Twins, ii. 138. - - Tyana, ii. 6. - - Tylos, the island of, ii. 85; iii. 117, 118. - - Tympania, ii. 432. - - Tympanum, iv. 115. - - Tymphæi, i. 275. - - Tyndaris, i. 219. - - Typhon (wind), i. 57, 79. - - Tyra, river, i. 330. - - “Tyrant,” meaning of the word, ii. 227. - - Tyrian purple, ii. 447, 449. - - Tyrrheni, i. 187. - - Tyrus, i. 434. - - - U. - - Ubii, i. 355. - - Ulcers, remedies for, v. 206-209, 359, 458, 459, 460; vi. 52. - - Ulex, vi. 103. - - Uliarus, i. 360. - - Ulophonon, iv. 407, 408, 409. - - Ultramarine, vi. 432. - - Ulula, ii. 492. - - Ulysses, vi. 265, 267. - - Umber, vi. 239. - - Umbilicus, iv. 113. - - Umbri, i. 187, 191. - - Umbri, sheep so called, ii. 339. - - Umbria described, i. 237. - - Umbricius Melior, ii. 554. - - Unedo, iii. 321; iv. 516. - - Unguents, iii. 159 - —when first used, 159, 160 - —various kinds of, 160-165 - —regal, 166 - —mode of testing, 166 - —boxes for, 166 - —excesses of luxury in, 167, 168 - —when first used by the Romans, 169, 170. - - Ungulus, vi. 73. - - Unicorn, ii. 279, 281. - - Union of Greece and Italy by a bridge, contemplation of, i. 226. - - Union of high qualities with purity, ii. 169. - - Unions, unnatural, ii. 134 - —unproductive, ii. 148, 149. - - Ura, i. 445. - - Urang-utang, ii. 106. - _See also_ “Satyrs.” - - Uranoscopos, vi. 30. - - Urceolaris, iv. 407. - - Uredo nivalis, i. 87. - - Urine, human, remedies derived from, v. 299, 300, 301 - —incontinence of, vi. 46. - - Urinum, ii. 537, 538, 539. - - Urna, iii. 45. - - Urtication, iv. 402, 403. - - Urus, ii. 262 - —horns of the, iii. 45. - - Usta, vi. 239. - - Uterus, position of the fœtus in the, ii. 139 - —of animals in, 544 - —described, iii. 75. - - Utica, i. 389 - —Temple at, iii. 424. - - Uvula, iii. 62. - - - V. - - Vaccinium, iii. 373. - - Vacuna, i. 234. - - Vagienni, i. 243. - - Valens, Vettius, v. 373, 378. - - Valens, Vinnius, ii. 161. - - Valeria, ii. 153; vi. 160. - - Valeria (an eagle), ii. 481. - - Valerian, iii. 121; iv. 370; v. 102. - - Valerianus, i. 269; ii. 354. - - Valerius Flaccus quoted, i. 49. - - Valerius Maximus, ii. 240 - —quoted, i. 143. - - Valgius, C., iv. 300; v. 78. - - Vallum, iii. 342. - - Valtelline, i. 255. - - Vandili, i. 345. - - Vanishing men, ii. 135. - - Vannius, i. 330. - - Vappa, iii. 241, 266. - - Var, i. 174. - - Variæ, ii. 508. - - Varicose veins, remedies for, iii. 88; v. 353. - - Varro, M., his statue erected in his lifetime, ii. 176 - —how buried, vi. 286, 287 - —his works quoted, i. 147, 235, 260; ii. 35; iii. 304, 374, 525; - iv. 44, 53, 63, 81, 103, 106, 438, 448; v. 157, 394, 408; - vi. 285, 342, 384. - - Varro, P. Atacinus, i. 268. - - Varus, the slaughter of, ii. 198. - - “Varus,” the origin of the name, iii. 89. - - Vectis, i. 351. - - Veientana, vi. 457. - - Veii, i. 190. - - Veins, iii. 78 - —varicose, 88; v. 353. - - Vejovis, iii. 424. - - Vela, iv. 453. - - Velia, Lake, v. 474. - - Velinus, i. 234. - - Veliturnum, iii. 105 - —wine of, 241. - - Venafrum, i. 198 - —oil of, iii. 279. - - Venedi, i. 344. - - Veneering, iii. 195, 196, 427, 428, 429. - - Veneris crines, vi. 457. - - Venom in the human teeth, iii. 61. - - Venomous, sea-animals, ii. 459, 460 - —animals that are, will not die of hunger, 549. - - Ventidius, P., ii. 189. - - Vents in the earth, i. 121. - - Venus, worship of, i. 481. - - Venus Anadyomene, vi. 259, 260, 261. - - Venus’ comb, v. 70, 71. - - Venus de Medici, vi. 312, 318. - - Venus’ hair, vi. 457. - - Venusia, i. 228. - - Veratrum, v. 96, 97, 98. - - Verbascum, v. 127. - - Verbena, iv. 391. - - Verbenaca, v. 121, 122. - - Verbenarius, iv. 391. - - Verdigris, its medicinal efficacy, v. 94 - —an account of, vi. 195-198. - - Vergiliæ, i. 68; iv. 79, 88, 89. - - Vermifuge, iv. 452. - - Vermilion, derivation of the word, v. 5 - —an account of, vi. 119, 120. - - Verona, i. 252. - - Verres, vi. 167. - - Verrius Flaccus, i. 269. - - Versipellis, the story of, ii. 283. - - Vervain, v. 121, 122, 130. - - Vervain mallow, v. 224. - - Vespasiani, family of the, i. 203. - - Vespasianus, the Emperor, iii. 140; vi. 184, 271. - - Vesper, i. 29. - - Vessels of burden, of gigantic size, vi. 333. - - Vestal Virgins, v. 290. - - Vestalis, Fabius, ii. 240. - - Vestilia, ii. 140. - - Vestinus, iv. 387. - - Vestorius, vi. 142. - - Vesuvius, i. 197. - - Vetches, iv. 46, 51, 450, 451. - - Veternum, v. 355. - - Vettonica, v. 111, 112. - - Vetus, Antistius, v. 473. - - Vianiomina, i. 262. - - Viator, iv. 9. - - Vibius, ii. 147. - - Vicissitudes, instances of remarkable, ii. 189. - - Victims for sacrifice, ii. 329; iii. 79. - - Victoriatus, v. 8, 14; vi. 90. - - Vienna, i. 262. - - Vigintiviri, ii. 212. - - Vinalia, iv. 99. - - Vincapervinca, iv. 338, 339, 382; v. 57. - - Vindex, Julius, iv. 263. - - Vine, first cultivation of, ii. 226 - —the nature of, =iii.= 215, 218 - —cultivation of, 218-221 - —ninety-one varieties of it, 222-233 - —remarkable facts connected with it, 233-236 - —profits derived from its culture, 234, 235, 236 - —shoots of, pickled, 263 - —training of it, 409 - —the proper situation for it, 444, 445 - —grafting of, 482 - —culture of, 495-517 - —various kinds of, 499, 500 - —its uses, =iv.= 457, 458 - —leaves and shoots of, 458, 459 - —cuttings of, 462. - - Vine, wild, iii. 255; iv. 464, 465; v. 232. - - Vinedressers’ reed, iii. 408, 409. - - Vinefretter, iii. 534. - - Vinegar, iii. 257, 266, 268; iv. 478, 479, 480 - —lees of, 483. - - Vintage, iv. 109, 110, 111. - - Violet, iv. 317, 318, 368. - - Violet-purple, ii. 447. - - Vipers, ii. 311; v. 395, 396, 412 - —flesh of, eaten, ii. 133 - —torpor of, 311. - - Vipio, ii. 530. - - Virgil, the poet, where he died, =i.= 226 - —his birth-place, 252 - —his works forbidden to be burnt, =ii.= 176 - —his works quoted, =i.= 58, 64, 78, 95, 100, 110, 121, 131, 132, - 187, 208, 233, 305, 321, 335, 403; =ii.= 127, 328, 329; =iii.= 20, - 21, 24, 124, 152, 217, 223, 228, 231, 232, 242, 246, 278, 297, - 302, 372, 393, 398, 442, 444, 447, 448, 459, 461, 464, 470, 473, - 475, 477, 479; =iv.= 15, 16, 17, 38, 45, 57, 59, 62, 64, 65, 67, - 72, 73, 75, 85, 102, 104, 110, 111, 117, 119, 122, 123, 124, 131, - 154, 182, 311, 315, 316, 340, 344, 454; =v.= 25, 41, 365, 381; - =vi.= 71, 139, 179, 240, 320, 383 - —mistranslated by Pliny, =iii.= 352. - - Virgin Waters, v. 488. - - Viscera, the, iii. 70 - —remedies for pains in, v. 437. - - Viscum, iii. 391, 434, 435; v. 6. - - Vistula, i. 344, 348. - - Visula, iii. 225. - - Visurgis, i. 348. - - Vital spirit, iii. 65. - - Vitality, signs of in man, iii. 96. - - Vitellius, the Emperor, vi. 164, 287, 288. - - Vitellius, P., iii. 67. - - Vitex, v. 26, 27, 28. - - Vitiparra, ii. 515. - - Vitriol, vi. 200, 295. - - Vitruvius Pollio, mentioned, iii. 437 - —quoted, i. 450; vi. 242, 377. - - Vivaria, ii. 345. - - Viviparous animals without hair, ii. 381. - - Voice, of insects, ii. 3 - —of animals, iii. 92, 93 - —of man, in a measure forms his physiognomy, 95 - —its varieties, 95 - —how deadened, 95 - —how heightened, 95. - - Volcanius, vi. 285. - - Volcanoes, i. 139, 140 - —submarine, v. 473. - - Volcatius, ii. 313. - - Vologesus, ii. 73. - - Volsinii, i. 190; vi. 162. - - Volsinium, i. 83. - - Volterra, i. 190. - - Volturnus, i. 73; iv. 116. - - Vomit, the only animals that, iii. 71. - - Vomits, the use of, iv. 403. - - Vopisci, ii. 144. - - Voyages, of discovery, i. 98, 99 - —to India, ii. 60-63 - —speedy, instances of, iv. 130 - —for the recovery of health, v. 13. - - Vulcan, i. 324. - - Vulture, great European, ii. 486. - - Vultures, an account of, ii. 486 - —how put to flight, iii. 97 - —how attracted, 97 - —remedies derived from, v. 398, 399. - - Vulva, iii. 75. - - - W. - - Wagtail, ii. 551; vi. 446. - - Walking-sticks, iii. 205. - - Wall-nightingale, ii. 511. - - Wall-paintings, vi. 270. - - Wall-wort, v. 127. - - Walls, when first built, ii. 223 - —formation of, vi. 289, 290, 291 - —of houses, 324. - - Walnuts, iii. 315; iv. 514, 515. - - Wanley, Nathaniel, quoted, ii. 136. - - Warm springs, i. 133, 195, 266; v. 472. - - Warts, remedies for, v. 209, 210; vi. 53. - - Wasps, iii. 24, 25, 98. - - Water, an account of, =i.= 96, 97, 98 - —peculiar properties of, 135, 136, 137 - —how made potable, =v.= 2 - —remarkable facts connected with, 471 - —properties of, 472 - —remedies derived from, 473 - —impurities of, 484, 485 - —modes of testing, 485, 486, 487 - —boiled, 486, 487 - —mode of searching for, 488, 499 - —differences in, 489, 490, 491 - —qualities of, 491, 492 - —modes of conveying, 494 - —fresh at sea, 499. - - Water-chesnut, iv. 355. - - Watering of gardens, iv. 201, 202, 203. - - Water-organ, ii. 372. - - Water-parsley, iv. 424. - - Water-pipes, v. 494. - - Water-plants, iii. 403. - - Water-spouts, i. 80. - - Water-warblers, ii. 510, 511. - - Waters, productive of insanity, v. 474 - —remedial for calculi, 474 - —curative of wounds, 475 - —preventive of abortion, 475 - —which remove morphew, 475 - —which colour the hair, 476 - —which colour the body, 476, 477 - —which aid or impede the memory, 477 - —which affect the senses, 477 - —which improve the voice, 477 - —which cause a distaste for wine, 477, 478 - —which produce inebriety, 477, 478 - —which serve as a substitute for oil, 478 - —salt and bitter, 478 - —which throw up stones, 478, 479 - —which cause laughter, 479 - —which are a cure for love, 479 - —which preserve their warmth, 479 - —in which all things sink, 479 - —in which nothing will sink, 479, 480 - —of a deadly nature, 480, 481, 482 - —which petrify, 482 - —their wholesomeness considered, 482, 483, 484 - —which have suddenly appeared or ceased, 492, 493. - - Wax (bees’), iii. 6, 7, 17; iv. 345, 346 - —writing-tablets of, iii. 186 - —remedies derived from, iv. 438. - - Wax-colours, vi. 244, 245, 272. - - Wax of the human ear, remedies derived from, v. 291. - - Wealth, immense, instances of, vi. 93, 94, 129, 130, 131. - - Weasel, odour of, fatal to the basilisk, ii. 282 - —remedies derived from, v. 392. - - Weather, states of the, i. 69 - —peculiarities of, 91 - —its influence upon trees, iii. 441, 442. - - Weaving, invention of, ii. 223. - - Webs of spiders, iii. 27, 28. - - Wedge drawn by a bird from a tree, v. 82. - - Weevil, iv. 105, 441. - - Weight of the body, ii. 158. - - Weights, invention of, ii. 226 - —Greek and Roman, iv. 386, 387—_and_ Introduction to Vol. III. - - Wells, invention of, ii. 223 - —an account of, v. 491. - - Weser, i. 348. - - Wheat, an account of, iv. 25, 26, 27 - —Africa productive of, 35, 36 - —remedies derived from, 440. - - Wheat-meal, iv. 440. - - Whetstones, iv. 91; vi. 370. - - Whey, iii. 84. - - Whirlwinds, i. 57, 79, 80. - - Whispering-gallery, iii. 95. - - White lead, vi. 219, 220. - - White squall, iv. 122. - - White thorn, eaten, iv. 338 - —remedies derived from, v. 43. - - White vine, iv. 466, 467. - - Whitening, iii. 454; vi. 301. - - Wicks of lamps, iv. 362, 489. - - Wiesbaden, v. 479. - - Wild animals, parks for. ii. 345. - - Wild boar, ii. 344, 345 - —the flesh of, a delicacy, 345 - —eats the salamander, iii. 98. - - Wild fig, iii. 311, 312, 313 - —remedies derived from, iv. 505, 506, 507. - - Wild honey, iii. 14. - - Wild myrtle, iv. 521. - - Wild olive, leaves of, iv. 487, 488. - - Wild plants, v. 77, 78, 79. - - Wild plums, iv. 508. - - Wild pomegranate, iv. 501. - - Wild thyme, iv. 197, 198, 292, 293. - - Wild vine, iii. 255; iv. 464, 465; v. 232. - - Will, remedies depending on the, v. 295, 296. - - Willow, iii. 409, 410; v. 25, 26. - - Willow-beds, iii. 492, 493. - - Willow-herb, v. 196. - - Wind-egg, ii. 537, 538, 539. - - Windows, iii. 303; vi. 142, 143. - - Winds, an account of the, i. 70-79; iii. 445 - —predicted, i. 222 - —invention of the theory of, ii. 230 - —the theory of explained, iv. 113, 114 - —the points of, 114-117. - - Wine, honied, ii. 215; iii. 246; iv. 437, 438. - - Wine-cellars, iii. 268, 269. - - Wine-cure, ii. 183. - - Wine-lees, iii. 268; iv. 482, 483. - - Wine-lofts, iii. 254, 263. - - Wine-press, iv. 109, 110. - - Wine-vessels, iii. 268, 269, 279. - - Wines, the most ancient, =iii.= 236, 237, 238 - —colours of, 237, 248; =iv.= 475 - —pitched, =iii.= 238; =iv.= 476; =vi.= 371 - —nature of, =iii.= 238, 239 - —fifty kinds of, 239-245 - —drugged, 243 - —healthfulness of, 243 - —peculiar tastes in, 244, 245 - —foreign, 245, 246, 267 - —recommended by Apollodorus, 247 - —salted, 247, 248 - —disguising of, 248 - —sweet, 248, 249, 250 - —made from raisins, 250 - —second rate, 251 - —generous, when first made in Italy, 251 - —inspection of, 252 - —women not allowed to drink, 252 - —laws upon, 252 - —drunk by the ancient Romans, 253 - —when several kinds were first served at table, 254 - —artificial, 256-260; iv. 477, 478 - —made from fruit, iii. 256, 257 - —from plants, 257, 258 - —aromatic, 258, 259 - —from herbs, 259, 260 - —from shrubs, 260 - —of a miraculous nature, 262 - —that change their nature, 263 - —certain, not used in sacred rites, 263 - —seasoned with pitch and resin, 265, 266, 267 - —made from corn, 274 - —medicinal properties of, =iv.= 469-473, 477. - - Winged animal, the only one that is viviparous, ii. 540. - - Wings, iii. 33, 34. - - Winking, iii. 54. - - Winter-clothes, iv. 80. - - Winter-sowing, iv. 79, 80. - - Winter-wheat, iv. 29, 32, 33, 35. - - Wisdom, remarkable, instances of, ii. 174. - - Wisdom-teeth, iii. 59. - - Withes, iii. 409, 410. - - Witnesses, summoning of, iii. 88. - - Witwall, v. 452, 508, 512, 515. - - Wolf, Romulus suckled by, ii. 273 - —an account of the, 282 - —influence of its eyes, 283 - —men changed into, 283, 284 - —its bladder, iii. 74. - - Womb, iii. 75 - —of the sow, iii. 75. - - Women not allowed to drink wine, iii. 252. - - Wonderful forms of various nations, ii. 122. - - Wonders, of various countries, i. 123, 124 - —of fountains and rivers, 131-138 - —of fire, 141, 142, 143. - - Wood, animals that breed in, iii. 40 - —for furniture, 195, 196, 197 - —for fuel, 348, 349, 358 - —the nature of, 417, 418, 420, 421 - —fire obtained from, 421 - —the lightest, 422 - —the durability of, 423, 424, 425 - —used in building, 426 - —for carpenters’ work, 427 - —united with glue, 427. - - Woodcock, ii. 528, 529. - - Woodbine, v. 105. - - Woodlice, v. 417, 436, 440, 441, 450. - - Woodpecker, ii. 494, 508, 515; iii. 519; v. 89, 248, 403 - —its magical power, ii. 494. - - Woodworms, iii. 40. - - Wool, various kinds of, ii. 333 - —its various colours, 333, 334, 335, 338 - —dyed purple, 445 - —remedies derived from, v. 381, 382, 383. - - Wool-fruit, iii. 297. - - Wool-grease, iii. 133; v. 383, 384, 385. - - Wool-plant, v. 68. - - Woolly sage, v. 221. - - Words, the healing efficacy of, v. 278, 279, 280. - - World, if more than one, i. 13-16 - —form of, 16 - —nature of, 16, 17 - —name of, 17, 18 - —dimensions of, 53, 54, 55 - —earth, the middle of, 102. - - Worming of dogs, v. 406. - - Worms eaten, iii. 519. - - Worms, fish so called, ii. 384. - - Wormwood, v. 106 - —animals that feed on, have no gall, iii. 69 - —wine made from, 259 - —remedies derived from, v. 232-235. - - Wounds, remedies for, v. 206, 207, 208, 458, 459, 460. - - Wreaths of corn, iv. 3. - - Wren, ii. 551. - - Wright, Mr. T., on the lead-mines of Britain, vi. 215. - - Wryneck, iii. 90. - - - X. - - Xanthos (stone), vi. 452. - - Xanthus, the historian, v. 151. - - Xanthus, the river, i. 456, 476. - - Xenagoras, i. 373. - - Xenocrates, artist, vi. 145, 184. - - Xenocrates of Aphrodisias, iv. 303. - - Xenocrates of Ephesus, iii. 158. - - Xenophilus, ii. 207. - - Xenophon, i. 373 - —quoted, 452; iv. 79, 341; vi. 182. - - Xenophon of Lampsacus, i. 270. - - Xerxes, i. 300, 305, 315, 317, 473; iii. 526; v. 424. - - Xiphias, vi. 8. - - Xiphion, v. 134, 135. - - Xuthon, vi. 436. - - Xylobalsamum, iii. 149. - - Xylocinnamomum, iii. 139. - - Xyris, iv. 372. - - - Y. - - Yarrow, v. 61. - - Yates, Dr., his “Textrinum Antiquorum” quoted, v. 273, 274; vi. 98. - - Yeast, iv. 26, 456. - - Yew, iii. 360; v. 47. - - - Z. - - Zachalias, vi. 468. - - Zacynthus, i. 310. - - Zama, i. 395; v. 477. - - Zancle, i. 221. - - Zara, i. 259. - - Zarephthali, i. 435. - - Zariaspa, ii. 30. - - Zathene, vi. 457. - - Zea, iv. 31. - - Zebu, ii. 328. - - Zeno, iv. 128. - - Zenobia, i. 445. - - Zenodotus, vi. 166, 167. - - Zenothemis, vi. 467. - - Zephyria, ii. 539. - - Zephyrium, i. 210. - - Zephyrus, i. 74; iv. 116. - - Zethus, vi. 318, 319. - - Zeugitana, i. 388. - - Zeugma, i. 424, 444; vi. 210. - - Zeus (fish), ii. 404. - - Zeuxis, vi. 170, 250, 251, 252. - - Zigæ, ii. 15. - - Zimpiberi, iii. 112. - - Zingiberi, iii. 112. - - Zirconite, vi. 404. - - Zizyphus, iii. 297. - - Zmilampis, vi. 457. - - Zmyrus, ii. 410. - - Zodiac, signs of the, i. 17, 18, 26, 27, 44; - an account of, iv. 78-108. - - Zoëla, i. 172; iv. 133. - - Zoilus, iii. 158. - - Zones, the, i. 100 - —obliquity of, 102. - - Zoöphytes, ii. 453, 465; iii. 211, 213. - - Zopissa, iii. 363; v. 19. - - Zopyron, v. 55, 56. - - Zopyrus, vi. 139. - - Zoraniscæa, vi. 457. - - Zoroaster, ii. 155; iv. 128; v. 422, 424; vi. 11, 437, 448 - —lived entirely upon cheese, iii. 85. - - Zoster, iii. 210; v. 199. - - Zythum, iv. 456. - - - - -ERRATA. - - - VOL. I. p. 455, l. 36, _for_ “agate,” _read_ “jet.” - — II. — 537, — 39, — “urine-egg,” — “wind-egg.” - — III. — 326, — 23, — “nuts,” — “Walnuts.” - — IV. — 391, — 42, — “on this” — “on this subject, - in B. xxv. c. 59.” - - THE END. - - J. BILLING, PRINTER AND STEREOTYPER, GUILDFORD, SURREY. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes:— - -The footnotes for each of the six volumes have been renumbered, the -references to notes in other volumes have been changed accordingly. - -Apparent errors in the footnotes:— - -(footnote numbers in the original are clothed thus [99].) - - Footnote 1794 [8], p. 224. The reference to Note [18], p. 196 appears - to be incorrect. - - Footnote 3398 [13], p. 456. See Chapter 56, Note 3241 [55] should read - See Chapter 55, Note 3241 [55]. - -In footnote 24 “See Introduction to Vol. III.” probably refers to the -glossary of “GREEK AND ROMAN MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES MENTIONED BY -PLINY.” which follows the Contents section of Volume III. - -Index entry for:— - - Leucogæa, vi. 449, 476. - should read:— - Leucogæa, vi. 449. - as the last page in the body of the text is numbered 468. - similarly, - Agrippa, M. vi. 480 is incorrect. - Hyophthalmos, vi. 459. - should read:— - Hyophthalmos, vi. 459. - Dgiggetai, ii. 326. refers to the Mongolian wild ass, the usual - spelling being ‘Dziggetai’. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Natural History of Pliny, Volume 6 -of 6, by Pliny the Elder - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PLINY, THE ELDER *** - -***** This file should be named 62704-0.txt or 62704-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/7/0/62704/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Mr. Franco Sogliani, Brian -Wilcox and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - |