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diff --git a/old/62774-0.txt b/old/62774-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5a6be15..0000000 --- a/old/62774-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7924 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Renaissance of Girls' Education in -England, by Alice Zimmern - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Renaissance of Girls' Education in England - A Record of Fifty Years' Progress - -Author: Alice Zimmern - -Release Date: July 27, 2020 [EBook #62774] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GIRLS' EDUCATION IN ENGLAND *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, MFR, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - RENAISSANCE OF GIRLS’ EDUCATION - - - - - THE - RENAISSANCE OF GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN ENGLAND - A Record of Fifty Years’ Progress - - - BY ALICE ZIMMERN - - (GIRTON COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE) - - AUTHOR OF ‘METHODS OF EDUCATION IN AMERICA,’ ‘OLD TALES PROM GREECE,’ - ETC. - - - London - - A. D. Innes & Company - - Limited - - 1898 - - - - - Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty - - - - - PREFACE - - -To all whom it may interest I dedicate this brief summary of the events -which have wrought a peaceful revolution among us during the last fifty -years. Among the many changes of the half-century, the great -transformation in the education of women surely deserves a record. The -workers have been many, the help given of various kinds, yet no event is -isolated, for all are links in one chain of progress. Fifty years ago a -few far-sighted men and women gave the impetus; we who harvest where -they sowed may like to be reminded, in this season of retrospects, of -the great debt we owe them. What has touched the lives of so many women -is the concern of all, and though I shall be proud indeed if my book -prove welcome to teachers, I should wish most of all to address myself -to that old and long-tried friend of literature, the general reader. If -he, or she, can be persuaded, to spend an hour or two, learning the past -and present of the education of our girls, my purpose will have been -accomplished. - -To thank for favours received is a pleasant task, but the list of those -who have helped me with this book would prove too long for enumeration. -I desire to offer my heartiest thanks to all who have assisted me with -information, criticism, or in any other way; especially to Miss Beale -for valuable materials and kind hospitality, to Mrs. Bryant and Miss A. -A. M. Rogers for much useful information, to Miss Mary Gurney, Miss Ella -Pycroft, Miss Mary Kennedy, and Mr. W. Edwards for reading portions of -the book, and to Mrs. Edwards for her sympathy and kindness during my -stay in Wales. To the many headmistresses who have allowed me to visit -their schools I offer most cordial thanks, and last, but not least, to -the officials of the Education Library, in particular Mr. Sadler and -Miss Beard, for their courtesy and helpfulness. - - ALICE ZIMMERN. - - _September 1898._ - - - - - CONTENTS - - - CHAP. PAGE - I. BEFORE 1848 1 - - II. THE FIRST COLLEGES 20 - - III. LIGHT IN DARK PLACES 38 - - IV. THE HIGH SCHOOLS 52 - - V. ENDOWMENTS FOR GIRLS 78 - - VI. THE WOMEN’S COLLEGES 103 - - VII. ADMISSION TO THE UNIVERSITIES 126 - - VIII. BOARDING AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS 149 - - IX. THE TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION ACTS 169 - - X. STATE AID FOR GIRLS 195 - - XI. THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS OF WALES 215 - - XII. 1898 234 - - - - - THE - - RENAISSANCE OF GIRLS’ EDUCATION - - - - - CHAPTER I - BEFORE 1848 - - -Yes, strange though it may sound, it was in truth a Renaissance—a -revival of the past, and no new experiment. Or perhaps we should more -fitly describe it as the realisation of an old dream, one that has been -dreamed many times in the course of the ages, but has waited till the -nineteenth century for its complete fulfilment. Two thousand years ago -it was seen by Plato, that most practical of idealists, who maintained -that it was for the best interests of the state that its men and women -should be as good as possible. Therefore the education of both was a -matter of public concern. In these latter days this doctrine has won -acceptance, with an even wider significance, due to our democratic -development. The treasures of learning are no longer the property of an -exclusive few, and the privileges of class and sex are breaking down -simultaneously. Education for all, boys and girls, rich and poor, is the -modern demand, which no party dare now refuse to consider. We must cater -not only for the ‘wives of the governors,’ but also for the children of -the slums. All the daughters of all the households of all civilised -countries are to enter into their heritage. The much-discussed ‘ladder’ -from the elementary school to the University is becoming a fact; and its -rungs are being widened, that the girls may ascend it side by side with -their brothers. _La carrière ouverte aux talents_, with no distinction -of class, sex, or creed, is the demand of the nineteenth century. - -From Plato’s Utopian ‘Republic’ to London of the County Council is a far -cry. Between the two, this question of girls’ education has many times -been raised and temporarily solved. Socrates’ half-jesting dictum, that -women are capable of learning anything which men are willing they should -know, might stand as the motto for nearly every attempt to improve -female education. The instruction given to women at different epochs has -varied directly with the estimation in which they were held. When they -were regarded as slaves or toys it was expedient to keep them in -ignorance; when they were treated honourably as equals, the best gifts -of learning were not thought too good for them. - -It is not our place here to dwell on the bright examples of antiquity, -the Neo-Platonist women and Hypatia, the beautiful mathematician of -Alexandria, but rather, turning to our own country, to see how -Christianity has touched the lives of women. Here, as elsewhere, it was -the Church alone that kept alive the flame of knowledge during the -Middle Ages. In the seventh and eighth centuries, that ‘nadir of -learning,’ monks and nuns alike were occupied with literary studies. -They read theology and classics, copied manuscripts, and corresponded in -Latin. Their activity was in accordance with their social position. ‘The -heads of the great religious houses were necessarily persons of -importance, with privileges and great responsibilities. They had -considerable wealth at their disposal, and in authority and influence -they ranked among the nobles of the land, to whom they were often allied -by birth.’[1] The name that naturally occurs first to our minds is that -of the Abbess Hilda, ‘whose counsel was sought even by kings,’ and who -ruled over a double monastery, which became a seminary of bishops and -priests. Hers is no solitary instance. ‘In Anglo-Saxon England,’ writes -Miss Eckenstein, ‘men who attained to distinction received their -training in settlements governed by women. Histories and a chronicle of -unique value were inspired by and drafted under the auspices of Saxon -abbesses.’ And ‘the curriculum of study in the nunnery was as liberal as -that accepted by the monks, and embraced all available writings, whether -by Christian or profane authors.’ The convents were the colleges of -Anglo-Saxon times. The nuns, who lived a life of seclusion and study, -might be compared with the fellows; the students were the successive -groups of girls who came there for education. - -Among the many social changes brought about by the Norman Conquest, the -most far-reaching, the introduction of feudalism, established a new -centre of education, which henceforth flourished side by side with the -cloister. The monks still taught the Trivium and Quadrivium—Grammar, -Dialectic, Rhetoric, Music, Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy—though the -instruction given deserved these high-sounding names little better than -the so-called sciences taught in girls’ schools at the beginning of our -own century. The castle could offer boys a more attractive programme. -The seven knightly accomplishments were to ride, sing, shoot with the -bow, box, hawk, play chess, and write verses. It had something for girls -as well. While the young squires gained their training by service done -to their lord, the _châtelaine_ would gather about her a troop of gentle -maidens, who learned to weave, spin, brew, and distil, and do various -kinds of needlework. They learned a little reading and writing, and in -these arts were somewhat in advance of their brothers, who were trained -to look on books as monkish and womanish, and not quite suited to a -knight and gentleman. The _châtelaine_ herself held an honourable -position. In her lord’s absence she must even take command of the -castle, and the _damoiselles_ must be prepared for their own coming -responsibilities. - -The thirteenth century brought a change. The political influence of the -Church, which had been lessened by the Conquest, was revived by the -preaching friars. They introduced a new ideal of monastic life; the -spirit of devotion and asceticism drove out the old love of learning. -New priories sprang up throughout England, but their aims were -different. As the monasteries were more and more becoming centres of -devotion, learning was being driven into the new universities, where the -philosophy of the schoolmen now reigned supreme. Already some colleges -with endowments for poor scholars had been founded at Oxford and -Cambridge, and it was becoming the custom for the monasteries to send -their most promising pupils there. Why did the nuns not follow this -example? Probably the metaphysical disputations then in vogue had few -attractions for them; and the presence of large numbers of men would be -a sufficient reason for keeping aloof, for though the studies of both -sexes might be the same, they were not pursued side by side. Whatever -the cause, it is certain that while masculine learning showed an -ever-growing tendency to leave the cloister, female scholarship was -still closely confined to the convent. But it was degenerating for want -of new life; the nunneries were a survival, not a living growth; their -learning had become ‘poor in substance, cramped in method, and -insufficient in application.’[2] The old order was changing, but somehow -the nuns failed to perceive it. In Erasmus’ day, we are told, the really -learned woman was to be found outside the convent walls, and he adds the -significant remark that her husband approved of her studies. The wrong -done to women by the dissolution was not so much the closing of the -convents as the transference to men of their endowments. The most -flagrant instance is the transformation of St. Radegund’s nunnery at -Cambridge into Jesus College. That this and other instances of -spoliation were possible shows how low the status of women had sunk, and -it is not strange, therefore, that a period of neglected education -should have ensued. - -Whatever the cause, the Reformation does not seem to have assisted the -development of women. Perhaps this was partly due to the removal of the -one career that had been open to them, thus forcing all, married and -unmarried, into a dependent position in the household. Luther’s views on -women were not very elevated, and probably a good many of the Reformers -shared them. It may be due to this Protestant influence that in England -women profited less intellectually by the Renaissance than men, or at -any rate in far smaller numbers. Thanks to the new grammar schools, -learning was being made accessible to boys of all classes. When Sir -Thomas More’s dream was realised, and the middle classes, from the -squire to the petty tradesman, were brought into contact with ancient -literature, the daughters were not as well provided as the sons. Some -authorities are of opinion that the original foundations were meant for -both sexes alike, but if so, very few girls of the middle class profited -by their advantages, though some sort of education evidently came to -all. Among the upper classes large numbers of women were carried away by -the enthusiasm of the Renaissance, and learned to read Latin and Greek. -The sixteenth century has always been celebrated for its learned ladies, -as witness Wotton’s oft quoted remark thereon and his comment: ‘One -would think by the effects that it was a proper way of educating them, -since there are no accounts in history of so many great women in any age -as are to be found between the years 1500 and 1600.’ Queen Elizabeth and -Lady Jane Grey are sometimes called exceptions, but this is clearly an -error. Learning was an expensive luxury for women, since it involved the -services of a private tutor, but it had fashion and opinion on its side. -To be learned was accounted a privilege, which called for neither -arrogant boasting nor blushing concealment. Those who did study, would -naturally turn to the best their age could offer them, _i.e._ the new -editions of the classics and the fashionable modern literature. They set -the fashion too as well as followed it. The success of _Euphues_ was -established by its lady readers, and in the domain of polite literature -it was generally acknowledged that they created the standard. When Lyly -wrote ‘Euphues had rather lie shut in a lady’s casket than open in a -scholar’s study,’ he knew well enough that it was not the ladies who -would neglect his book. He confessed as much in its dedication to the -‘Ladies and Gentlewomen of England.’ Nor was there anything new in this. -The lady sat in her bower to read Sidney’s _Arcadia_ as in olden times -she had listened in the hall to the lay of the minstrel. It was still -her part to assign the prize of romance as of valour. The leisure which -made the enjoyment of tale and song possible was essentially the lot of -the rich and noble lady, who neither toiled nor span, but did a more -useful work as guardian of art and literature. The amazing discovery -that ‘Books are a part of man’s prerogative’[3] had not yet been made; -there is certainly not a hint of it in Shakespeare. Nor could such a -doctrine possibly originate under a queen, who, whatever her faults, -cultivated learning herself and honoured it in others. Our thoughts -linger lovingly over that noblest age of English story, when romanticism -and classicism joined their glories for a brief space; when the courtier -was both knight and scholar, and the noble dame’s epitaph praised her as -‘wise and fair and good.’ Seen through the haze of the past, its -splendours stand out in even greater dimension, while all that was small -and weak is obscured to dimness. The very age that followed served as a -foil to throw into yet brighter relief ‘the spacious days of great -Elizabeth.’ - -It is significant of the rapid degeneration that ensued, that though -between the accession of Henry VIII. and the death of James I., 353 -grammar schools were founded in England, not one was added to the number -after 1625. The seventeenth century was a gloomy period for England. If -Elizabeth had given her country peace and glory, the Stuarts were not -long in reversing the position. Disastrous civil wars, political and -theological quarrels, absorbed the best energies of the nation. The -Cavaliers were too frivolous, the Roundheads too grimly earnest to spare -much leisure for learning. In times of war and national peril woman’s -influence is apt to wane, and such power as they had at the Stuart court -was not of the kind to encourage intellectual pursuits. When a scholar -was hardly accounted a gentleman, a lady might be pardoned for -neglecting her intellectual charms. It became the fashion among men to -decry female students, to bid them put away their books and learn to -wash and cook instead. ‘I like not a female poetess at any hand,’ says -one of these self-appointed critics. This attitude was characteristic of -the decline of chivalry and the degradation of woman’s position. ‘There -is not so much as a Don Quixote of the quill left,’ writes Mary Astell -in 1694, ‘to succour the distressed damsels.’ The age of courtesy being -over, women must help themselves, and she takes up the cudgels for her -sex. ‘A man ought no more to value himself on being wiser than a woman,’ -she remarks pertinently, ‘if he owes his advantage to a better education -and greater means of information, than he ought to boast of courage for -beating a man when his hands were bound.’[4] Hers is the old thesis, -that women are quite capable of learning if only men will not put -hindrances in their way. Even so the girls’ curriculum of her day does -not seem to have been as meagre as is often assumed. She tells us that -when the boys go to grammar schools the girls are sent ‘to -boarding-schools or other places to learn needlework, dancing, singing, -music, drawing, painting, and other accomplishments ... and French, -which is now very fashionable.’ This description which would almost have -served at the beginning of our own century, is not as gloomy as Defoe’s, -written at about the same time. Girls, he tells us, learned ‘to stitch -and sew and make baubles. They are taught to read indeed, and perhaps to -write their names or so, and this is the height of a woman’s -education.’[5] Both agree in condemning its narrowness. Defoe cannot -believe that ‘God Almighty ever made them such glorious creatures, and -furnished them with such charms, so agreeable and delightful to mankind, -with souls capable of the same accomplishment with men, and all to be -only stewards of our houses, cooks, and slaves.’ Mary Astell maintains -that ‘according to the rate that young women are educated, according to -the way their time is spent, they are destined to folly and -impertinence, to say no worse.’ She protests, as Mrs. Makins had done -before her,[6] against the new fashion of ignorant women, and implores -her sisters to help bring back the good old times, and take a lesson -from the ladies of the previous century. Both Defoe and Mary Astell -recommend the same project, the establishment of women’s colleges, thus -anticipating our own times by more than a century and a half. Defoe’s -colleges would have been superior boarding-schools, one in every county -and about ten for the city of London; Mary Astell’s plan was to combine -religious and intellectual aims. She contemplated ‘a seminary to stock -the kingdom with pious and prudent ladies, whose good example, it is to -be hoped, will so influence the rest of their sex, that women may no -longer pass for those little, useless, and impertinent animals which the -ill conduct of too many has caused them to be mistaken for.’[7] But it -must also try to ‘expel that cloud of ignorance which custom has -involved us in, to furnish our minds with a stock of solid and useful -knowledge, that the souls of women may no longer be the only unadorned -and neglected things.’ Nothing came of either project; they belong to -the domain of unfulfilled dreams. - -The new century brought little improvement. Anne was not of a -sufficiently independent character to influence greatly the lives and -pursuits of her subjects. As was natural in the reign of a Queen, the -position and dignity of women were somewhat raised; and in that -‘Augustan age’ there was one class of literature specially addressed to -the ladies, the newly invented essay. Addison really wanted to elevate -their position and social influence, but his success was literary rather -than moral. If we may trust the novelists of the last century, public -morality was never at a lower ebb. The men of that day worshipped -idleness, and it was not surprising that they did not care to see their -wives and mistresses at work. Show was the aim throughout, and the -‘accomplishment’ reigned supreme. The second half of the century -witnessed a great increase in the boarding-school system. Hitherto it -had been confined to the fashionable world; now tradesmen and farmers -who had made some money began to emulate their ‘betters.’ Imitations of -the fashionable schools sprang up everywhere. ‘We have,’ says the -heroine of General Burgoyne’s play, _The Heiress_, “Young ladies boarded -and educated” upon blue boards in gold letters in every village; with a -strolling player for a dancing-master, and a deserter from Dunkirk to -teach the French language.’ - -The eighteenth century, too, had its distinguished women; indeed, the -Blue-Stocking Club, so called, it seems, from the dress of one of its -masculine _habitués_, is regarded as the representative group of learned -ladies. But Mrs. Montagu, Mrs. Chapone, and Hannah More were exceptions, -and themselves only too conscious of their opposition to the rest of -their sex. There was a touch of the _précieuse_ about some of them which -exposed them to a good deal of cheap satire, and they were keenly alive -to the antagonism with which the other sex regarded them. Mrs. Chapone -even advises her niece to avoid the study of classics and science, for -fear of ‘exciting envy in one sex and jealousy in the other.’ Lady Mary -Wortley Montagu complains bitterly that ‘there is hardly a creature in -the world more despicable and more liable to universal ridicule than -that of a learned woman,’ while ‘folly is reckoned so much our proper -sphere, we are sooner pardoned any excesses of that than the least -pretensions to reading and good sense.’ - -Some of these last century women were practical reformers, who realised -the pernicious results of this false opinion about their sex. Among -these was Hannah More, who entered a most earnest protest against the -excessive accomplishment craze. The lower middle class were emulating -the upper in their endeavour to make their daughters ‘accomplished young -ladies,’ while they quite forgot that ‘the profession of ladies to which -the best of their education should be turned is that of daughters, -wives, mothers, and mistresses of families.’[8] She even ventured to fly -in the face of public opinion by asserting that ‘a young lady may excel -in speaking French and Italian, may repeat a few passages from a volume -of extracts, play like a professor, and sing like a siren,’ and yet be -very badly educated, if her mind remains untrained. ‘The kind of -knowledge that they commonly do acquire is easily attained,’ they learn -everything in a superficial question-and-answer way, or through -abridgments, beauties, and compendiums, instead of reading books that -require thought and attention. As we read her _Strictures on Female -Education_ we rub our eyes and look at the date once more. Is this, -indeed, Hannah More writing a hundred years ago, or have we stumbled -upon a stray extract from Mr. Bryce’s report to the Schools’ Inquiry -Commission in 1867? ‘She should pursue every kind of study which will -teach her to elicit truth, which will lead her to be intent upon -realities; will give precision to her ideas; will make an exact mind.’ -She quotes Dr. Johnson’s opinion that ‘a woman cannot have too much -arithmetic.’ Had the worthy doctor a prevision of a High School -time-table? - -Hannah More’s influence does not seem to have been very lasting. Her -contemptuous remark, that we might as well talk about the rights of -children as the rights of women, shows that she had not much real grasp -of the educational problem. Both should, in her opinion, be relegated to -their proper subordinate places. She was right in despising the -frivolity of her day, and condemning the constant round of pleasure in -which fashionable women spent their lives, but she was almost too severe -to be helpful. Far more valuable was Miss Edgeworth’s work, which was -constructive as well as critical. Her educational romances, in which she -contrasts the good and bad governess, the sensible and frivolous girl, -are thoroughly readable even at the present day, and must have proved -useful to many readers who lighted unawares on the powder in the jam. -_Practical Education_, written in conjunction with her father, throws -valuable light on contemporary conditions, and advances theories that -are still worthy of our notice. The ‘practical toy shop,’ provided with -all manner of carpenter’s tools, with wood properly prepared for the -young workman, and with screws, nails, glue, emery-paper, etc., is still -to seek; her remarks on the two schools, the one teaching ‘by dint of -reiterated pain and terror,’ the other ‘with the help of counters and -coaxing and gingerbread,’ are not altogether out of date. Nor have we -yet learned to pay a good governess £300 a year, on the ground that her -working days are few, and she ought to lay by for a comfortable old age. -Her severest strictures, like Hannah More’s, are reserved for ‘female -accomplishments.’ Their chief use is that ‘they are supposed to increase -a young lady’s chance of a prize in the matrimonial lottery.’ Hence, -when the end is achieved, they are thrown aside. ‘As soon as a young -lady is married, does she not frequently discover that she really has no -leisure to cultivate talents which take up so much time?’ Nor is it -quite certain that they are as efficacious as is generally supposed. The -market is becoming overstocked, for ‘every young lady, and every young -woman is now a young lady, has some pretension to accomplishments. She -draws a little; or she plays a little; or she speaks French a little.’ -Accomplishments are becoming so general ‘that they cannot be considered -as the distinguishing characteristics of even a gentlewoman’s -education.’ Since they are no longer ‘exclusive,’ she hopes they may be -cast aside for something better. Her indictment against the female -education of her day is that ‘sentiment and ridicule have conspired to -represent reason, knowledge, and science as unsuitable and dangerous to -women; yet, at the same time, wit and superficial acquirements in -literature have been the object of admiration in society; so that this -dangerous inference has been drawn, almost without our perceiving its -fallacy, that superficial knowledge is more desirable in women than -accurate knowledge.’ It is interesting to find this complaint repeated -in 1826 by an anonymous writer,[9] who maintains the old dictum that -‘females are not behind males in capacity, and excel them in diligence -and docility,’ but they are handicapped by ‘an education of mere -externals and of show.’ There is a want of stamina in girls’ education, -and as for their school-books, they are mere combinations of words used -as ‘substitutes or apologies for ideas.’ - -Maria Edgeworth’s influence should have been considerable, but turning -from her works to her contemporaries and immediate successors, it seems -doubtful whether they even understood her. Her stories, whose most -useful lessons were addressed to parents, were turned into children’s -books; and the demand for a more solid education simply led to an -increase of the memory and book-work in schools. In spite of her -strictures on the uselessness of a knowledge of isolated facts, and the -attempts of Mrs. Barbauld and others to supply something better, the -catechism system continued to grow and flourish. Large amounts of memory -work were added to the piano and drawing, which still held their own, -and the results were not merely negative as regards intellectual value, -but positive in their injurious effects on health. Miss Frances Power -Cobbe in her description of the fashionable boarding-school to which she -was sent in 1836, speaks of the pages of prose the girls were expected -to learn by heart, amid the din of constant practising. ‘Not that which -was good in itself or useful to the community, or even that which would -be delightful to ourselves, but that which would make us admired in -society was the _raison-d’être_ of each requirement. Everything was -taught in the inverse ratio of its true importance. At the bottom of the -scale were Morals and Religion, and at the top were Music and Dancing, -miserably poor music too, of the Italian school then in vogue, and -generally performed in a showy and tasteless manner on harp or -piano.’[10] Miss Cobbe thinks this education far worse than that -received by her mother in 1790, when much less was attempted, and there -was no ‘packing the brains of girls with facts.’ Besides ‘grammar and -geography, and a very fair share of history’ (ancient from Rollin, and -sacred from Mrs. Trimmer), they ‘learned to speak and read French with a -very good accent, and to play the harpsichord with taste.’ Clearly -things were on the downward course, and in the first half of this -century the education of both sexes was in some respects in a worse -condition in England than at any time before or since. Mere ignorance -would have been comparatively harmless, but there never was a time when -educational theories were more fashionable or more perverse. Miss -Catherine Sinclair, who wrote in the forties and fifties, lifted up her -voice, in _Modern Accomplishments_, against the system of cram and -display then prevailing. ‘Lady Howard’s utmost ingenuity was exercised -in devising plans of study for her daughter, each of which required to -be tried under the dynasty of a different governess, so that by the time -Matilda Howard attained the age of sixteen, she had been successively -taught by eight, all of whom were instructed in the last method that had -been invented for making young ladies accomplished on the newest -pattern.’ All these governesses were foreign, according to the fashion -of the day; at last an English lady of Edgworthian type was discovered, -who trained the mind instead of overloading the memory, and all ended -happily. Precocity and display were what parents demanded, and schools -and governesses contrived to supply the requirements. Miss Sinclair’s -accounts of premature death and lifelong ill-health may have been -overdrawn, but doubtless she put her finger on the weak spot when she -wrote: ‘Nothing is popular now that requires thought in young people, -who are constantly devouring books, but never digesting them, and are -allowed no time to think.’ - -The better the school, in the acceptation of that day, the worse -probably the result; and those girls whose parents could not afford the -expensive governess or the ‘finishing-school,’ often had the best of it, -so long as they were not sent to one of the cheap and inefficient -imitations. By a curious irony the one attempt made early in the century -to give a good education at a small expense, was that which through -Charlotte Brontë’s genius has been held up to everlasting contumely. The -Clergy Daughters’ School at Cowen Bridge undertook, for the small sum of -£14 a year, to clothe, feed, lodge, and educate the daughters of -clergymen. In 1825, the year when Charlotte Brontë was there, the Rev. -W. Carus Wilson (too well known as Mr. Brocklehurst), appealing for -additional funds, stated that an annual income of £250, together with -the fees, would be sufficient to meet current expenses. A comparison of -this modest demand with the sums raised in our own day for women’s -colleges, helps us to realise the revolution that has taken place in -public opinion. Even so most of the subscribers seem to have been Mr. -Wilson’s relations, and it was only as a charity for the poor clergy, -with a side-thought of getting better governesses at low terms, that it -awakened any interest at all. Still it was considered a remarkable -achievement. In 1833, Mr. Venn Elliott, who had visited the school in -its new premises at Casterton, and been present at the consecration of -the church built in its neighbourhood, wrote: ‘I would rather have built -this school and church than Blenheim and Burleigh. So Dr. Watts said he -would rather have written Baxter’s _Call to the Unconverted_ than -Milton’s _Paradise Lost_.’ The result of this visit was the foundation -of St. Mary’s Hall at Brighton. It still exists, and gives a really -first-class education at a low fee. Other schools were founded in -imitation; and in spite of the sordid economy of those early days, and -the suffering it entailed on the weakly, they deserve full recognition -as almost the only institutions which attempted in the early part of the -century to provide a good and cheap education for girls. The tradition -of sound study survived, and in 1867 the Casterton institution came in -for a word of praise from the Royal Commissioners, amid their almost -universal condemnation of existing girls’ schools. - -The benefits which a woman’s reign always confers on women have been -experienced to the full during the long and peaceful reign of our -present Queen. The interest taken by her and the Prince Consort in arts -and letters, and in the general improvement of the people, set an -example that was readily followed. Ladies of the upper and middle -classes began to take a keener interest in the lives of the poor, and in -dealing with the problems they thus encountered were often brought to -realise their own want of education. There was a stir and a movement -towards something better. The views of men were gradually changing, as -the ideal of womanhood set by a purer Court became more elevated. Sixty -years of a woman’s wise and beneficent rule have done much to restore -the glories of Elizabeth’s day. Like the revival of letters, which -communicated to the whole world the learning which had once belonged to -one small people, this other renaissance brought knowledge, not only to -the convent pupil and the lady of leisure, but to all the daughters of -the nation. This widening has helped to fix the roots more firmly, and -we may hope and believe that the gains of this century are not to be -lost, but, enriched by all the wealth of the future, to continue for -many a generation to come. - - - - - CHAPTER II - THE FIRST COLLEGES - - -The revival of women’s education in England has now a record of fifty -years behind it. On the 1st of May this year Queen’s College in Harley -Street celebrated its Jubilee with manifold rejoicings, a celebration in -which all Englishwomen may claim the right to join. Though Girton and -Holloway and other newer institutions have arisen since to throw the -glories of Queen’s into the shade, none can deprive it of its proud -title—the first women’s college in England. - -An occasion of this kind provokes reminiscence and the drawing of -contrasts between 1848 and 1898; while the question that naturally -occurs to us is: How did it all begin? Many answers have been suggested. -Some have pressed the significance of 1848 as the year of Revolution, -and hinted that the women’s share in revolt was an attempt to throw off -the shackles of ignorance. This may not be altogether fanciful. Such -social upheavals symbolise the workings of intellectual forces, nor can -we doubt that the attempt to win for women privileges from which they -had hitherto been jealously excluded is a part of the democratic demand -for universal equal opportunity. - -Along with the general ferment of ideas and the cry for reform must be -counted the growing influence on the lives of the upper classes -exercised by the Queen and Prince Consort. Following the lead of the -Court the ideals of the nation were changing. A more serious view of -life and its responsibilities was developing, and the time seemed a -propitious one for organised effort. But though various schemes had been -discussed, the immediate impetus to action was an actual and crying -need. In those days girls of the upper classes were, for the most part, -educated at home by governesses, usually foreigners, because -Englishwomen, though glad enough to obtain such posts, when suddenly -thrown upon the world by the death of a parent or other untoward -circumstance, were seldom properly qualified to fill them. Some of -course there were who, by foreign travel or private study, had reached a -fair standard of attainment; but how distinguish these from the herd, -when they lacked even the teacher’s diploma with which their Swiss or -German rivals were equipped? In this dilemma the Governesses’ Benevolent -Institution came to the rescue. - -This Institution had been founded in 1843 with a threefold aim:—(1) To -afford temporary relief in cases of great suffering, (2) To cultivate -provident habits in those who could afford to save; (3) To raise -annuities for those past work. This programme seemed to distinguish -governesses as a class specially in need of pity and relief. To attempt -to help them by increasing their competency, and thus indirectly their -wage-earning capacity, was a bold new departure. The first proposal was -to hold examinations for a teacher’s diploma, but it soon appeared that -an attempt to examine the untaught was a useless inversion of the -natural order. To make the undertaking really helpful it became -necessary to institute a system of classes. This scheme was first -discussed in 1846, and a sum of money collected by Miss Murray, one of -the Queen’s Maids of Honour, handed over to the Institution for this -purpose. In 1847 the first certificates were conferred, and arrangements -made for opening classes. Here some of the most distinguished professors -of King’s College stepped in with help. Among them were Maurice, Trench, -and Kingsley, and others no less noted. It was a new and astounding -departure for men of their standing to be willing to lecture to women. -They began with evening classes, but soon added others in the day for -ladies of no special occupation. This led to the taking of 67 Harley -Street, for the purpose of holding classes in ‘all branches of female -learning,’ and permission was received to name the new institution -Queen’s College. - -On March 29, 1848, Professor F. D. Maurice, who has been called the -‘parent and founder of the College,’ delivered an inaugural address on -‘Queen’s College, London, its objects and methods.’ After apologising -for the word ‘college’ as somewhat too ambitious for the project in -hand, he thought well to answer in advance the objections of those who -might use Pope’s hackneyed line about ‘a little learning’ as a means of -discrediting the new classes. Even he did not anticipate very deep -draughts from the spring of knowledge. ‘We are aware that our pupils are -not likely to advance far in mathematics, but we believe that if they -learn really what they do learn, they will not have got what is -dangerous but what is safe.... I cannot conceive that a young lady can -feel her mind in a more dangerous state than it was, because she has -gained a truer glimpse into the conditions under which the world in -which it has pleased God to place her actually exists.’ - -Each of the first courses was preceded by a preliminary lecture, in -which the professor introduced, and almost apologised for his subject. -Latin was to win toleration as ‘one road, and perhaps the shortest, to a -thorough study of English’; in each case it was shown that the evils -anticipated from that particular subject were fanciful. These -explanations strike us quaintly now; it is hard to realise how great was -the terror of learned ladies which in those days it was fashionable to -assume. - -Still, in spite of prejudice, the College flourished. There were no less -than two hundred entries the first term. In 1853 it had grown -sufficiently independent to stand on its own feet, and breaking away -from the parent institution, it was incorporated by Royal Charter. Its -objects were declared to be the general education of ladies, and the -granting of certificates of knowledge. Professor Maurice became Chairman -of Committee and Principal; and Queen’s, which loves its old traditions, -has continued the practice of appointing a male Principal, therein -differing from every other women’s college in the United Kingdom. It -feels so keenly the debt it owes its founders, that it cherishes the -idea—mistaken surely—that it can best do them honour by maintaining the -college such as it was in their day. Thus the fate of many a pioneer has -overtaken Queen’s. The vanguard have become the laggards, and useful and -admirable as is its work, it has been outstripped by younger -institutions, and no longer stands in the forefront of the battle. This -is the common fate; it is easier to improve than to originate, but the -debt of gratitude we all owe to Queen’s is none the less because so many -others have harvested where she sowed. - -Since Queen’s takes pride in its conservatism and adherence to its -original methods, the latest calendar gives a very fair idea of its work -even in early days. It states that ‘the College provides for the higher -education of women, in the first place by a liberal school training, -and, subsequently, by a four years’ course of College education. The -College education leads to the grade of Associate ... and after a -further course of study to the higher grade of Fellow of the College.’ -The school was not part of the original scheme, but became necessary -when the first generation of students, thoughtful women who had already -been trying to improve themselves, and eagerly welcomed the advantages -then for the first time offered them, gave way to a younger generation. -Among the applicants for admission were mere schoolgirls, and instead of -turning them away to seek inefficient preparation elsewhere, it was -resolved to start a preparatory department for their benefit. This -developed into a small school for girls under fourteen, the age at which -pupils are admitted into the College. Here the students belong to two -categories: those who follow a prescribed course laid down by the -authorities, and those who enter for single classes, and arrange their -work themselves. The former class are known as ‘compounders,’ and pay a -composition fee of £8 to £10 per term. They must attend eighteen hours a -week of regular class teaching. The regulations fix the subjects for -twelve hours; parents or guardians for the other six. The prescribed -work includes—(_a_) two languages: English, two hours, and French, -German, Latin, or Greek, two hours; (_b_) two sciences: Mathematics and -Arithmetic, four hours; Geography, one hour, Natural Philosophy, one -hour, when exemption is granted in Mathematics; (_c_) English History, -one hour, Ancient or Modern History, one hour; (_d_) Holy Scripture, one -hour. - -Candidates for the Fellowship must have passed the examination for the -Associateship at least one academical year previously to entering for -the Fellowship examination. For this, one principal subject of study -must be chosen, with not fewer than two additional subjects. Since only -three students had, in 1897, concluded this additional course, the -Associateship may be regarded as the ordinary goal of Queen’s College -students. The course for this is excellent, doubtless, for girls from -fourteen to eighteen; but studies of so miscellaneous a character, -leading to a ‘grade’ which can be attained at the age of eighteen, -belong properly to the domain of school work. Queen’s differs, however, -in its organisation from the upper department of a modern High School. -Most of the teaching is given in the form of lectures. This -lecture-system marks a distinct stage in the progress of girls’ -education. In the schools of the early part of the century the various -‘professors’ who came to lecture occupied an important place in the -prospectus. They ranged freely over the sciences in a manner that amused -and interested their hearers, without making any undue demand upon their -intelligence or powers of thought. Hence, the lecture-system seems to -have established itself as a first step towards attracting female pupils -to the higher branches of knowledge. The High Schools, too, were to pass -through that stage, and emerge from it. Queen’s still keeps up the -tradition of lectures, and as its discipline and general arrangements -differ from those of a school, without resembling those of a college, it -must be regarded as an institution apart, self-contained, and -unconnected. As such it is of the greatest value in supplementing the -home-teaching of girls, or undertaking the complete education of those -who do not desire to enter the University, or take up any distinct -profession. These would probably get a better practical preparation at a -good high school. Still the others are likely to remain the majority, -and there will always be an important function for an institution that -supplies good teaching without any compulsion to enter for outside -examination. Such, at any rate, is the view of the Council, who have -commemorated their Jubilee by a renewal of the lease, and the general -improvement and partial reconstruction of the premises. In its old home, -with unbroken traditions, gathering in the children and grandchildren of -its earliest students, it is continuing the work with which, fifty years -ago, it inaugurated the revival of women’s education. - -Although Queen’s was the first college actually opened, other similar -schemes were being projected at the same time. The foundation in 1826 of -University College had given an impetus to advanced studies in London, -and as a perfectly undenominational institution it served as the model -for Bedford Ladies’ College. The foundress and benefactor of Bedford was -Mrs. Reid. Her wish to help girls took effect in 1847 in the -establishment of classes at her own house. Two years later she took a -house in Bedford Square and gave £1500 towards the initial expenses. -Mrs. Reid and her friends were ambitious. They meant to found a real -place of higher education for women, and in doing so they did not -hesitate to break with the past. Mrs. Reid felt convinced that women -could best understand the needs of girls, and though a committee -consisting chiefly of men might at that time have included more -distinguished names, she probably kept in mind the time to come when the -college would be able to invite its own old pupils on to its committee. -The co-operation of ladies was in the first instance secured by the -institution of lady-visitors, to be present in turn at lectures—a plan -at that time considered indispensable, and adopted also at Queen’s. It -was arranged that the College Board should include the forty -lady-visitors and six gentlemen. This Board annually appointed the -Council of Management, and the Council elected the professors and all -the officers of the college. This plan seemed to answer, and the -college, which was fortunate enough to secure the services of such able -men as De Morgan, F. W. Newman, and Dr. Carpenter, entered on a -successful career. After a while pupils came in from a distance. -Provision had to be made for these, and in 1861 a second house was taken -and the upper floors adapted as a residence, while the lower ones were -used for class-rooms. For a few years Bedford too had to maintain a -school, but this was not part of the promoters’ scheme, and they hailed -the first signs of improved school teaching as a pretext for closing it. -This happened in 1868, at a time when circumstances made a complete -reorganisation of the college necessary with a distinct declaration of -policy. - -The change had been hastened by the death of Mrs. Reid. She left a -considerable part of her fortune in the charge of three trustees, Miss -Bostock, Miss J. Martineau, and Miss E. E. Smith, to be utilised for -‘purposes of higher education.’ This seemed a suitable moment to seek -incorporation, and in 1869 Bedford College received its charter. Its -objects were thus described: - -‘1. To continue with an improved constitution the College for women -which has been carried on since 1849 in Bedford Square, London, and has -been known since the year 1860 as Bedford College. - -‘2. To provide thereby a liberal education for women, such education not -to extend beyond secular subjects.’ - -Henceforth the management was vested in members of the college, with a -Council elected from the number and a President, to be called the -Visitor. This office has been held successively by Erasmus Darwin, Mark -Pattison, and Miss Anna Swanwick. - -Bedford, like Queen’s, was happy in its founders, but to none does it -owe more than to Miss Bostock. After Mrs. Reid’s death she took over the -care of the college as a sacred trust, devoting to it the greater part -of her time, and helping it with money and good counsel. Happily she -lived to see the fruit of her labours, and to know that Bedford College -had won an assured position through its connection with the London -University. - -Its beginnings, like that of most women’s institutions, had to be -tentative. The first lectures probably had a more popular character than -those now given; and since they aimed rather at general culture than a -systematic course of study, Literature, History, and Language would draw -the largest audiences. But from the very first Latin, Science, and -Mathematics were taught, and the college remembers with due pride that -George Eliot was a member of its earliest Latin class. At any rate the -promoters were quite sure of their aims. The daring words, ‘a liberal -education for women,’ had been uttered without extenuation or apology. -But in those days Bedford College stood alone, with no academic body to -test its work and direct its curriculum. Nor was public opinion yet -fully ripe for a real University education for women. Bedford had to -wait another ten years before the opening of the London degrees came to -fix its position and define its studies. They were not wasted years. The -college was giving numbers of intelligent and eager girls their first -insight into real knowledge, and teaching them to be dissatisfied with -narrow, cramping instruction. Many of them have gone out into the world -to hand on the impulse and inspiration gained here, and help to -influence that public opinion which alone has made admission to the -Universities possible. In 1874 the college was helped by a move to -better premises. When in 1879 London opened its degrees to women, the -opportunity of Bedford had come, and it was ready to use it. From this -date onward its history belongs to that of Women’s University Education. - -These two earliest colleges may be regarded as not only pioneers but -also parent institutions. They drew within the sphere of their influence -many of those women who were to train up the next generation. Among the -earliest pupils of the Queen’s College evening classes was Miss Buss, -who was already teaching in her mother’s private school, and was -destined to found the first public school for girls. She was one of the -first to win the governess diploma. Another was Miss Dorothea Beale, so -well known for her work at Cheltenham. She remained at Queen’s from 1849 -to 1856, first teaching Mathematics, then Latin, and afterwards in -charge of the school. In 1858 she became Principal of the Cheltenham -Ladies’ College, which had already been at work for five years. - -The Cheltenham College differed in its original idea from Queen’s and -Bedford. Both these had been founded with the purpose of giving women -such advanced education as they were at that time capable of receiving, -and had gradually been compelled by the exigencies of the case to -provide for girls as well. Cheltenham, though called a college in -imitation of the boys’ college in that town and some other public -schools, really aimed in the first instance at providing for girls -similar educational advantages to those which their brothers enjoyed in -the same town. As King’s College had suggested Queen’s, the boys’ -college at Cheltenham suggested the girls’. Twelve years elapsed between -the foundation of the two; and Queen’s and Bedford were already pointing -the way when a small committee of enthusiasts met at the house of Mr. -Bellairs, one of H.M. Inspectors, and drew up a prospectus, inviting the -public to take shares in the new undertaking. A day-school was all that -was at first contemplated, and the subjects to be taught there were -described as Holy Scripture and the Liturgy, history, geography, -grammar, arithmetic, French, music, drawing, needlework. German, -Italian, and dancing to be extras. The proposal found favour. Shares to -the amount of about £2000 were taken up, a house hired, and the new -venture started with good auspices, 88 pupils entering the first term, -and the numbers soon going up to 120. It is not quite easy to understand -why this prosperous beginning was not followed up. After a while the -numbers went down, and the college seemed to be losing favour. Probably -it was ahead of local public opinion, not yet abreast of North London, -where Miss Buss was already successfully at work. The first years were -times of struggle, and even the appointment of Miss Beale in 1858 did -not at once turn the scale. After forty years of successful work in the -college, Miss Beale can enjoy the pleasure of contrasting then and now. -Some of her reminiscences throw a curious light on public opinion in the -early fifties. The curriculum, unpretentious as it seems, proved too -advanced. Parents objected to the thoroughness of the teaching, and the -time given to arithmetic and similar subjects. Some disliked the annual -examination, which was held to be unfeminine, and the difficulty of -obtaining good teachers was almost insuperable. In regard to these Miss -Beale suffered through being ahead of her times. She desired especially -two things: that the teachers should be women, for, to quote her own -words, ‘we think it essential to the right moral training of girls that -the whole internal discipline and much of the moral training should be -in the hands of ladies’; and that they should be to some extent -specialists, the only way to abolish the textbook cram and unintelligent -memory work then in vogue in girls’ schools. How she set out again and -again to seek for teachers, and how many a time she was disappointed, -she has herself recorded in her history of the college. Her efforts show -how hard it was to found a school before the reformation of the higher -education had given the necessary impetus from above. It was a case of -making bricks without straw. - -Perhaps the practical difficulties in the way of finance were really the -most hampering, for the founders had too little experience of these -matters; and a Mr. Brancker, who as treasurer, by readjusting the whole -system of fees, put the College on a sound financial basis, may almost -count as its second founder. - -In 1863, five years after Miss Beale took office, some Oxford examiners -were invited to inspect and report on the school. This was a new -departure; it meant an acknowledgment of the connection which should -exist between girls’ schools and the Universities. A small thing in -itself, but typical of the many changes that the next five-and-twenty -years were to bring. - -From this time onward the College was brought into close connection with -every educational reform in England; and its history, like that of the -North London Collegiate, presents in miniature the various changes of -this busy quarter of a century. In 1863 an informal examination was held -for girls in the papers of the Cambridge Local Examination. This was the -beginning of a new departure, and from that time forth preparation for -one or other of the local University examinations formed part of the -work of both schools. In 1866, Miss Beale and Miss Buss were called upon -to give evidence before the Royal Commission, and the plan of these two -schools was thus brought before the notice of the general public. The -interest that resulted in all questions concerning the education of -girls reacted on these first schools. For Miss Buss it won an endowment, -for Cheltenham that recognition which means success. It became possible -to raise the standard and enlarge the curriculum. Mathematics, Science, -Latin and Greek, were added to the prospectus. Applications from pupils -outside the town necessitated the opening of a boarding-house in 1864. -The College was fast outgrowing its first home; then came a fresh -obstacle to overcome. Building had become essential, but prejudice stood -in the way. Although good premises and beautiful surroundings have long -been regarded as essential for boys’ schools and colleges and a really -important factor in the training given there, the prejudice that any -makeshift was good enough for girls has died hard, if indeed it can even -now be called dead. Miss Beale naturally desired to see the now -flourishing College in adequate and beautiful buildings. This seemed to -some of the governors too daring a departure. However, after many -struggles and defeats, the party of progress carried the day. The new -premises, the nucleus of the present beautiful College buildings, were -opened in 1873. Of course they had the effect of attracting additional -numbers; and when three years later, further extension became necessary, -it appeared that the College had not merely outgrown its premises, but -also its constitution. The time had come to put it on a more lasting -basis. At a meeting of shareholders it was decided to renounce all claim -on a profit, and accept instead a right of nomination on each share, as -is done at several boys’ proprietary schools. The whole income became -available for the payment of teachers, the maintenance and improvement -of the buildings, school furniture and apparatus. The government was -placed in the hands of a council of twenty-four persons, six being -representative members chosen by the Bishop of the Diocese, the -Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and London, the Lady Principal and -the staff of teachers, while the remaining eighteen were elected by the -shareholders. The inclusion of women on this body has proved specially -beneficial to the College. - -By this time there were 500 girls in the school, and ten licensed -boarding-houses. Many internal changes had taken place, corresponding to -the changes in the world without. The Cambridge Local Examinations had -proved helpful in the early days, and the establishment in 1868 of the -Cambridge Higher Local supplied a definite aim for the work of the -senior classes. It has always been popular at Cheltenham, and over 500 -girls have passed it from the College. Another impetus was given to work -by the institution of the special women’s examination of the University -of London; during the nine years of its existence, one-third of the -successful candidates came from Cheltenham. But it was the formal -opening of the London degrees that led to the present complete -organisation of the College with its system of departments, leading -respectively to the Oxford Senior, Cambridge Higher, and London -University Examinations. By this time Girton, Newnham, and other women’s -colleges had come into existence. Cheltenham could send its pupils to -continue their studies at the older Universities, and the specialist -teachers, for whom Miss Beale had sighed in vain in the early days, were -now forthcoming. Fashion too was beginning to smile on those more -serious studies which the College had so long pursued in the face of -prejudice. The time of struggle was over. Cheltenham was no longer in -advance of the tide, but moving harmoniously with it, giving help and -receiving it. - -Cheltenham College, as it now exists, has certain peculiarities which -distinguish it from most of the girls’ schools of the present day. -Firstly, it does not receive all comers, but is distinctly intended for -the ‘daughters of gentlemen,’ and references in regard to social -standing are required before admission. Secondly, it combines the -functions of a day and boarding-school, by a system of boarding-houses -which belong to the Council, and are under the general control and -supervision of the Principal. Thirdly, it is not one large school, but a -system of departments under separate heads, all under the direction of -the Principal. Division I. is under Miss Beale herself. The work is -directed towards: (1) the London Degrees; (2) the Cambridge Higher -Local; (3) the Oxford Senior and Higher Local Examinations. This -division is the College proper, and is organised to some extent on -college lines. Division II. has about 200 pupils between twelve and -sixteen. Division III., the juvenile department, has about 70 pupils -between seven and twelve. Below this comes the Kindergarten. By-students -may attend single courses of lectures as at Queen’s and Bedford. - -Cheltenham College is thus enabled from its own resources to take a -child straight from the nursery, and after many years send her forth as -a full-fledged graduate of London University. It is neither to be -expected nor desired that many girls should thus receive the whole of -their education under one roof, but while some attend one department and -some another, the College does in itself comprise the three stages of -education: primary, secondary, higher. It has gone even further, for it -takes an important part in the work of training teachers, which has been -so largely developed of late years. The training department has three -distinct divisions, in which teachers are prepared for Kindergarten, -Secondary, and Public Elementary Schools. The ‘Hall of Residence,’ which -is growing so much in favour now, is also represented at Cheltenham by -St. Hilda’s, a residential college for students over eighteen, and in -particular the twenty foundationers who are intending teachers and are -received at reduced fees. Finally, the Old Girls’ Guild with its eleven -hundred members all over the world, its College Settlement in the East -End of London, and its biennial meetings at Cheltenham, keeps the -College in constant touch with the work, social, philanthropic, and -professional, that is being done by women at the present day. - -The Cheltenham College has become a little world of itself. It presents -in miniature each of the developments in women’s education which has -taken place in the last fifty years. The dignity of its beautiful -buildings, the ideals which take visible form in the statues of -representative women, and the stained-glass presentations of Scripture -characters and female virtues, seem to link it to the past; the energy -and enthusiasm of its Principal, and the full tide of life that pulses -through the whole, assure its place in the future of girls’ education. - - - - - CHAPTER III - LIGHT IN DARK PLACES - - -The fifties had witnessed the rise of these earliest colleges, and given -hope to a little band of reformers whose efforts on behalf of light and -progress were the chief feature of the sixties. Never was a reform -happier in its advocates. Frances Buss, dreaming, while yet in her -teens, of giving to future generations of girls that public school life -which had been denied to her; Anne Clough, recording in her early diary -the longing to do her country some great service; Emily Davies, devoting -all her thought and energy to making that dream of a women’s college a -reality; Dorothea Beale, struggling against opposition and prejudice to -build up the wonderful organisation at Cheltenham—these were some of the -pioneers whose names have become as household words, whose portraits -hang in many a home even beyond the seas, the patron saints of our girl -students. - -Side by side with these worked others, both men and women, who had come -to realise the deplorable condition of girls’ education. On the one -hand, complaints were heard of their incompetence in domestic matters. -‘They cannot keep house accounts,’ says one writer; ‘they neither can -make puddings nor direct servants in making them; they cannot make or -mend their clothes; in a sick-room they are either so nervous or so -senseless that their presence is worse than useless.’ On the other, we -hear of the terrible strain consequent on what was by curious irony -called over-education—girls sitting at their books or piano from morning -to night, loading their memories with undigested facts. Both evils -proceeded from the same cause. ‘Everything that is taught is taught -dogmatically, and consequently the powers of research, inquiry, -analysis, and reason either are altogether crushed out or rust from want -of use.’[11] - -At this time public schools for girls were practically unknown. Teaching -was no profession for women—it was the acknowledged resource of the -middle-aged spinster left penniless by her father, or the widow whose -husband had made ducks and drakes of the money. It was the one thing -that anybody could do, since it required neither knowledge nor -experience. All that was necessary was to hire a house, with a little -saved or borrowed capital, and put up a brass plate on the door, -announcing the existence of a select establishment for young ladies. -Each schoolmistress did what seemed good in her own eyes or those of her -pupils’ parents, and though, when the principal was herself a cultivated -woman, she often inspired her pupils with a love of books that remained -with them in after years, these cases were the exceptions. The condition -of the great mass of cheap day-schools was deplorable. - -An attempt to penetrate beyond these brass-plated doors was made by -Madame Bodichon, who as Barbara Leigh Smith had attended some of the -earliest classes at Bedford College. The results of her inquiry were -given to the Social Science Congress at Glasgow in 1860. She strongly -denounced the little cheap private day-schools, academies, and such -like, ‘often conducted by broken-down trades-people, who failing in -gaining a livelihood in a good trade, take in despair to what is justly -considered, in consequence of the competition of the schools assisted by -government, as a very bad business.’ Happily, times have changed, and we -can afford to smile at the picture of these ‘genteel’ establishments, -with their ‘insufficient room and ventilation,’ where the young ladies -were taught about the ‘four elements, earth, air, fire, and water,’ and, -shutting their eyes and their windows, studied the wonders of nature in -little cheap catechisms. - -Some test for distinguishing good schools from bad ones seemed desirable -in the best interests of teachers and pupils. In 1857 and 1858 Oxford -and Cambridge had instituted local examinations for young persons not -members of the Universities. These had proved useful in raising the -standard of middle-class education, giving an aim and a stimulus to -small schools. Why not do the same for girls? It was decided to make the -attempt. In October 1862 a small committee was formed in London, with -Miss Emily Davies as secretary. Permission was asked and given to -conduct an informal examination for girls with the same papers as were -set to the boys. The examiners looked over the answers and reported on -them. The results were somewhat startling. Out of forty senior -candidates thirty-four failed in preliminary arithmetic. The juniors did -a little better. The average work in English was pronounced fair, and in -grammar very good. French did not compare unfavourably with the boys. In -German only twelve candidates presented themselves; all passed—three -with distinction. Not such a bad record after all, but of course it was -only the progressive schools that were represented. These learned that -they must look to their arithmetic, and they did so with excellent -results. Both the successes and the failures showed the value of the -experiment, and it was resolved to repeat it. A memorial was sent to the -Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge, signed by more than a thousand persons -engaged in teaching or interested in education. The result was the -formal admission of girls to these examinations. In 1865 they were held -at six places: Brighton, Bristol, Cambridge, Manchester, London, and -Sheffield. A hundred and twenty-six candidates entered; ninety passed. A -great advance had been made in two years. Arithmetic was no longer a -stumbling-block. Out of the whole number of candidates only three failed -in it. English history came in for a share of praise. ‘The examiners -thought the style of the girls’ replies better than that of the boys.’ -‘The answers of the senior and junior girls were orderly and methodical, -and the writing and expression good. The papers of many gave proof of -care and ability on the part of both teacher and scholar,’ and more to -the same effect. In 1866 there were two hundred and two girls at ten -centres. This time the report was even more satisfactory. - -These results were most valuable. They proved that there must be many -good schools in the country, and some teachers who could learn from the -success and failure of their pupils. No time could have been more -opportune for this experiment, for just then a Royal Commission was -making an inquiry into all the schools that had not been included in the -Popular Education Commission, or that which examined into the nine great -public schools. This really meant a general survey of boys’ secondary -education; and to boys it would have been confined, had it not been for -those same energetic women who had inaugurated the reform of girls’ -education. Here was an opportunity not to be missed. Once more -signatures were collected for a memorial, this time to beg for the -inclusion of girls’ schools in the scope of the inquiry. This was -granted, and consent given to the admission of a few ladies to give -evidence. Some trepidation was felt at so novel a proceeding. Thirty -years later, when another such Commission was appointed, and women were -included among the Commissioners, their appointment caused less remark -than the invitation given in 1865 to a few ladies to give information on -a subject on which none were better qualified to speak. So quickly has -public opinion changed! - -Nine ladies gave evidence before the Commission. The most valuable -testimony came from Miss Buss, at that time head of a large private -school, Miss Beale, Principal of Cheltenham College, and Miss Emily -Davies, who was taking so active a part in all reforms that concerned -girls. Eight Assistant Commissioners were requested to make special -inquiries as to the girls’ schools in selected districts. Their task -proved no easy one. The request to be allowed to inspect schools or -procure information about them by other means was met sometimes by -indignant refusal, at others by a silence as eloquent. However, in spite -of difficulties, it proved possible to obtain returns from a good number -and examine some more or less thoroughly. Since the assumption seems -fair that it was the superior schools which were most ready for -inspection, the reports must be read with the mental addition of an even -worse state of things behind that remained unrevealed. At any rate, -there was enough to make out a case for action. - -The report which was issued in 1867 summarised the impression formed by -the Assistant Commissioners. ‘It cannot be denied that the picture -brought before us of the state of middle-class female education is, on -the whole, unfavourable. The general deficiency in girls’ education is -stated with the utmost confidence, and with entire agreement, with -whatever difference of words, by many witnesses of authority. Want of -thoroughness and foundation; want of system; slovenliness and showy -superficiality; inattention to rudiments; undue time given to -accomplishments, and those not taught intelligently or in any scientific -manner; want of organisation—these may sufficiently indicate the -character of the complaints we have received in their most general -aspect. It is needless to observe that the same complaints apply to a -great extent to boys’ education. But, on the whole, the evidence is -clear that, not as they might be but as they are, the girls’ schools are -inferior in this view to the boys’ schools.’ Mr. Norris, one of the -Assistant Commissioners, says: ‘We find, as a rule, a very small amount -of professional skill, an inferior set of school-books, a vast deal of -dry, uninteresting task-work, rules put into the memory with no -explanation of their principles, no system of examination worthy of the -name, a very false estimate of the relative value of the several kinds -of acquirement, a reference to effect rather than to solid worth, a -tendency to fill or adorn rather than strengthen the mind.’ - -There is unanimous testimony as to the undue amount of time given to -accomplishments, music in particular. There are some elaborate -calculations as to the total number of hours spent on acquiring a -mechanical skill on the piano, though about a third of the pupils never -make the slightest use of it after they have left school. The music -played is bad; there is little training for the taste and none for the -mind in this study to which girls devote almost as much time as their -brothers do to classics. Next to music modern languages absorbed most of -the time and energies of the pupils, and yet the Commissioners -unanimously report with severity on the results attained. Very few girls -could compose a French sentence correctly; slipshod grammar and bad -pronunciation are noted, and set down to the habit of speaking French -out of school hours, by which a sort of jargon was developed -incomprehensible to an outsider, and not even up to the standard of -Stratford-atte-Bowe. On the subject of Science Mr. Fitch wrote: ‘Few -things are sadder than to see how the sublimest of all physical sciences -is vulgarised in ladies’ schools. No subject, if properly taught, is -better calculated to exalt the imagination and to kindle large thoughts -in a pupils mind. Yet all the grandeur and vastness are eliminated from -the study of Astronomy as commonly pursued; and the pupils whose -attention has never been directed to any one of the great laws by which -the universe is governed, think they are learning astronomy when they -are twisting a globe round and round, and solving a few problems in -latitude and longitude.’ - -Arithmetic comes in for the worst censure. It is spoken of as ‘the weak -point in women teachers.’ ‘It would be an affectation of politeness,’ -says Mr. Hammond, to say a word on behalf of the arithmetic taught by -ladies. It is always meagre and almost always unintelligent.’ The -school-books receive almost unqualified abuse, in particular _Mangnall’s -Questions_ and ‘all the noxious brood of catechisms.’ History and -‘miscellaneous subjects’ are too often taught from these, geography and -grammar from wretched little text-books, all the sciences in the course -of a few lectures. Now and then a word of praise is given to English -literature and composition, _e.g._, ‘English literature occupies a more -prominent position in the education of girls than of boys.... The object -of the lessons is to exercise the memory and to cultivate the -imagination of the scholars; their most beneficial result is observable -in the style of composition acquired by girls at a comparatively early -age. Whereas a boy of fifteen hardly ever succeeds in putting together -half a dozen readable sentences, a girl of the same age often writes -with much freedom and fluency.... A bundle of letters written by girls -of seventeen or eighteen afforded me real pleasure; many of these were -well conceived and well expressed, and they presented a variety of style -and subject which proved that they were not manufactured to order or -cast in any stereotyped mould.’[12] - -One of the most serious defects is the lack of all physical training, -while attempts are made to combine exercise and instruction, _e.g._ by -repeating French verbs when out walking, thus achieving neither result -satisfactorily. - -Not only were the Commissioners of one mind in their strictures, but -there is a striking unanimity about their recommendations. Mr. Giffard’s -lucid summary may be taken as also representing the views of his -colleagues: ‘If I were to sum up the impression I derived from my visits -to girls’ schools, I should say, (1) that the mental training of the -best girls’ schools is unmistakably inferior to that of the best boys’ -schools; (2) that there is no natural inaptitude in girls to deal with -any of the subjects which form the staple of a boy’s education; (3) that -there is no disinclination on the part of the majority of teachers to -assimilate the studies of girls to those of boys; (4) that the present -inferiority of girls’ training is due to the despotism of fashion, or, -in other words, the despotism of parents or guardians.’ - -There is a general consensus of opinion on the following points:— - -1. Most girls’ schools are too small. - -‘There is little life, no collective instruction, and nothing to call -forth the best powers of either teacher or learner in a school where -each class consists of two or three pupils only.’—(Mr. Fitch.) - -2. They lack proper organisation. - -‘There is a certain number of classes or of girls learning particular -things, but there is neither any definite course of studies nor any -grouping of classes, so as to play into one another.’—(Mr. Bryce.) - -3. Want of proper proportion in arranging subjects. - -4. Poor quality of the teaching, due to the inferior education of the -teachers themselves. - -5. Lack of an external standard to act as a stimulus to the learner and -help to the teacher. - -Mr. Bryce’s recommendations are of special interest, since they mark out -the lines on which the chief reforms have proceeded. They are these:— - -1. The establishment of schools for girls under proper authority and -supervision. ‘It would be at all events most desirable to provide in -every town large enough to be worthy of a grammar school a day school -for girls, under public management, where a plain, sound education -should be offered at the lowest prices (from £5 per annum or upwards) -compatible with the provision of good salaries for teachers, and which -should be regularly examined by competent persons thereto appointed.’ - -2. Considerable changes in the course of instruction for girls of all -classes. ‘It would be proper to lay more stress upon arithmetic, to -introduce mathematics everywhere, and Latin where there is a fair -prospect of a girl’s being able to spend four hours a week upon it for -three years.’ - -3. The foundation of institutions which should give to women the same -opportunity of obtaining higher education which the Universities give to -boys. The lack of this higher training injures the school education by -lowering its tone, and opening up no wider field of knowledge to the -more studious and eager scholars. An even worse result is ‘the low -standard of education and of knowledge about education among -schoolmistresses and governesses.’... ‘It is from the advent of more -highly educated teachers that the first improvement in the education of -girls is to be hoped for.’ - -Such was the verdict of this famous Commission, whose ‘revelations’ have -figured in so many prizegiving speeches. The report filled twenty stout -volumes, which were duly relegated to their place on official shelves, -to accumulate dust; and there, thirty years after, they have been joined -by the nine volumes drawn up by our latest educational Commission. Truly -has it been said that the best way to shelve a question in England is to -let a Royal Commission sit upon it. But even a Royal Commission and a -twenty-volume report could not shelve the subject of girls’ education; -the reformers were too much in earnest. Miss Beale extracted from these -ponderous blue tomes all that related to girls, and reprinted it in a -compact little volume. Even before its appearance action had been taken. -The Cambridge Local Examinations had drawn schoolmistresses together and -given them a common interest. They now began to form associations in -different parts of the country. One was started in London, with Miss -Buss as President and Miss Davies as Secretary. The North of England -proved a specially congenial sphere for this form of union. The Ladies’ -Honorary Council of the Yorkshire Board of Education was an outcome of -the introduction into that county of the Local Examinations, but it soon -extended its operations over wider fields, _e.g._ domestic economy and -sanitary science, as well as the extension of endowments to girls. - -Even more far-reaching in its results was the North of England Council. -This too originated in Schoolmistresses’ associations, among which Miss -A. J. Clough was a moving spirit. In 1865 she contributed to -_Macmillan’s Magazine_ an article setting forth certain schemes for -improving girls’ education. One of these was to establish in other large -towns courses of lectures similar to those given at Queen’s and Bedford -Colleges, to be attended by the older pupils from schools and by -teachers. Co-operation between several towns would make it possible to -engage really able lecturers from Oxford and Cambridge. The experiment -was first tried at Liverpool, and spread to Manchester, Leeds, and -Sheffield. Associations were formed in these four towns, and by the -election of two representatives from each, the ‘North of England Council -for Promoting the Higher Education of Women’ was constituted in 1867, -with Miss Clough as secretary and Mrs. Butler as president. The lectures -proved a phenomenal success. In the autumn of 1868 the numbers of the -combined audiences in nine towns amounted to 1500, and Mr. F. Myers -writing of them in _Macmillan_, enumerated their advantages thus: - -‘1. They contain within themselves the germ of university extension. - -‘2. They confront young women in a reasonable manner with reasonable -men. - -‘3. They encourage and help governesses, who attend in large numbers, -and are glad to have good teaching and to know of the best books. - -‘4. They form a nucleus for educational libraries and for the -friendships of fellow-students. - -‘5. They pay.’ - -These lectures were in actual fact the beginning of University -Extension, but the work of the North of England Council did not stop -here. A further aim for study was needed, and some more advanced -examination than those for girls under eighteen, if women were to be -qualified to instruct girls in anything but elementary subjects. A -petition was drawn up and sent to Cambridge with the signatures of over -600 ladies engaged in teaching, 300 interested in it, and six members of -the late Schools’ Inquiry Commission. They pointed out ‘the great want -which is felt by women of the upper and middle classes, particularly by -those engaged in teaching, of higher examinations suitable to their own -needs.’ The petition was granted, and the first Women’s Examination held -in 1869. - -Looking back on these past days now that it is the fashion to decry -examination as the death of education, it is interesting to realise what -this much abused system really did to give it fresh life. The Cambridge -Senior and Junior Locals were the first link established between girls’ -schools and the university, and it would be difficult to over-estimate -their value in this period of chaos. Their utility was recognised at -once. They spread all over the country and to the colonies; and they are -widely used by schools, both public and private, and by children working -with governesses at home. Edinburgh and Durham soon followed suit in the -admission of girls, and in 1870 Oxford too relented. London did its part -by instituting a special Women’s Examination on the lines of -Matriculation, and in 1869 that of Cambridge was held for the first -time. These were the germs of future developments. At London the way was -paved for opening the degrees to women; the Cambridge Women’s -Examination led to the foundation of Newnham. - -To some extent the work of these examinations is done. Conditions have -changed; and the establishment of the Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board, -and the opening of the universities to women have removed the necessity -for this kind of examination in schools of the first grade. But in small -private, and in middle-grade schools, and for children working with -governesses at home, they are still of distinct use, and their -popularity does not seem to diminish, if numbers are any test. Should -they ever become needless, owing to a more perfect school organisation, -we must still hold their memory in respect, for they can show a good -record. It is their merit that at a time when no schoolmistress had a -College training and no University examiner ever entered a girls’ -school, they supplied a slender link between the school and the -university, and when there was no standard for girls’ education, and -often neither organisation nor curriculum, they did afford an aim and a -stimulus, which, if not absolutely the best, proved at any rate -trustworthy guides. If examination is not education it has often led to -it, and never more successfully than in the case of girls and women. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - THE HIGH SCHOOLS - - -The Report of the Schools’ Inquiry Commission in 1867 served as a -revelation, for it brought home to the general public the exceedingly -unsatisfactory condition of middle-class education for both boys and -girls. Its immediate outcome was an examination and redistribution of -endowments, in which for the first time the claims of girls were -considered. But it was evident that even the most judicious application -of existing endowments could not suffice to fill all the educational -gaps in the country. The Commissioners had therefore included among -their recommendations the following:—1. To offer proprietary and private -schools the same inspection and examination as were required in public -schools, and to make their position more assured by a system of school -registration. 2. To give power to towns and parishes to rate themselves -for the establishment of new schools. These suggestions remained a pious -opinion, for no action was officially taken, but (as so often happens in -England) private enterprise stepped in, and compensated for public -laxness. The inquiry had done good service in throwing light on the -inefficient condition of small and cheap private schools for girls, of -which there were such large numbers in the country. Clearly what was -wanted was a system of schools large enough to permit of low fees and -satisfactory grading. Much of the evidence had been negative, and showed -what to avoid. Happily there were a few schools in existence which could -serve as beacon lights. Of these the North London Collegiate and the -Cheltenham Ladies’ College took the first rank. The former, though -really a large private school, had been organised by Miss Buss on public -lines, with a view to being ultimately placed on a sound and permanent -footing. The latter was a large proprietary school, so planned as to be -in no need of public money. Both Miss Buss and Miss Beale were unanimous -in urging the establishment of large public schools for girls. Speaking -of London, Miss Buss had said, ‘I think, in the first place, there are -scarcely any good schools; in the next place, there are very few good -teachers; and in the third place, there is no motive offered to the -girls for study nor to their parents to keep them at school.’ Miss Beale -considered that schools were preferable to private teaching at home, -because one person could not be mistress of all the subjects to be -taught, ‘and a good teacher can scarcely continue so when condemned to -the monotony of the ordinary private school-room.’ Small schools could -not be properly graded except when very high fees permitted of small -classes. - -Large day-schools with low fees for girls were called for. This much was -agreed on, but where was the necessary capital to be found? Among the -public-spirited men and women who set themselves to answer this -question, the foremost place belongs to Mrs. William Grey. She had for -some time been working to get a share of educational endowments for -girls. ‘Let me remind you,’ she wrote at this time, ‘that while there -are in or near London alone the magnificent first-grade endowed schools -for boys of the Charterhouse, Merchant Taylors, St. Paul’s, Harrow, and -Eton, besides King’s College and University College schools, there is -not in the whole of London an endowed school of a similar class for -girls, and that while the proportion of educational endowments for girls -to those for boys is as 1:92, the proportion of women supporting -themselves is to men as 1:7.19; that is, to quote the words of Mr. -William Brook, “seven times as many men are employed as women, but men -have ninety-two times as much money as women, to arm, equip, and qualify -themselves for the battle of life.”’ - -Failing endowments, or even side by side with them, capital must be -obtained from other sources: this was the problem which had now to be -faced. On May 31st, 1871, Mrs. Grey read a paper before the Society of -Arts on the Education of Women. She described its extremely -unsatisfactory condition, and suggested three remedies. (1) The creation -of a sounder public opinion respecting the need and obligation of -educating women. (2) The redistribution of educational endowments so as -to give a fair share of them to girls. (3) The improvement of female -teachers by their examination and registration according to fixed -standards. - -In the following October, at the Social Science Congress at Leeds, she -proposed the establishment of a national Union for the improvement of -the education of women of all classes. Its objects should be—(1) To -enlighten the public mind, through meetings and lectures throughout the -country, on the present state of female education, on the national -importance of improving it, and on the measures required for that end. -(2) To collect and disseminate information respecting the best methods -of education, the comparative advantages of large and small schools, the -influence of endowments, and generally all questions connected with the -training of girls. (3) To promote measures for the better training of -female teachers, and especially for their examination and registration -by fixed standards, so as to secure a measure of competency. (4) To -assist the formation of councils similar to the North of England Council -for the Education of Women in other divisions of the country, and, while -endeavouring to multiply local centres of activity, to afford all -workers in the same cause a common bond of union, and a means of -intercommunication and combined action. - -The proposal was favourably received; 300 names were at once given in -for membership, and a provisional committee formed. Individual -subscriptions were fixed at five shillings; and an affiliation fee of -not less than a guinea annually entitled corporate associations to be -represented on the annual general council, and to all the privileges of -membership. This National Union supplied a real need. Members poured in -fast. The Princess Louise consented to become president, and the roll of -vice-presidents was a distinguished one. Branch unions were formed, and -associations already existing at Belfast, Dublin, Birmingham, Cambridge, -Clifton, Falmouth, Guernsey, Huddersfield, Norwich, Plymouth, -Northampton, Wakefield, Winchester, and Windsor were brought into -membership with the Union. Many of the Schoolmistresses’ Associations -sought affiliation: the Ladies’ Council of the Yorkshire Board of -Education, and the North of England Council also joined the Union, and -consented to appoint representatives to the central committee. With -admirably organised machinery directed by knowledge and enthusiasm, -great reforms seemed possible, and in 1872 the Union proceeded to its -first piece of constructive work, the establishment of the Girls’ Public -Day School Company. - -Proceedings were inaugurated at a meeting at the Albert Hall, with Lord -Lyttelton in the chair. Proposals were brought forward for starting a -shareholding company ‘for the purpose of establishing and maintaining in -London and the provinces superior day-schools, at a moderate cost, for -girls of all classes above those provided for by the Elementary -Education Act.’ A capital of £12,000 was to be raised in 2400 shares of -£5 each. The proposal found favour, prospectuses were sent out, -accompanied by a letter from Princess Louise; 800 shares were at once -taken up, and the company was floated. Among the earliest members of its -council were the Marquis of Lorne, the Dowager Lady Stanley of Alderley, -Sir J. K. Shuttleworth, Mrs. William Grey, Miss Mary Gurney, and Miss -Shirreff, Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., and Mr. C. S. Roundell. - -The next step was to open schools, and Chelsea was chosen as the scene -of the first experiment. Miss Porter was appointed head-mistress, and a -suitable house was hired. The school began with twenty-five girls, and -rapidly increased. A few months later a second one was opened at Notting -Hill with Miss Jones as head. For these first experimental schools no -shares were specially taken up in the neighbourhood. In future, any -place that wished for a high school was usually required to take up a -certain number, as a definite assurance of local interest. Croydon was -opened on these conditions in 1874, with twenty pupils. Then followed, -in 1875, Clapham, Hackney, Bath, Oxford, and Nottingham; in 1876, -Brighton, Gateshead, and St. John’s Wood; in 1878, Dulwich, Ipswich, -Maida Vale, Sheffield. At present the schools number thirty-four. They -are at Bath, Blackheath, Brighton, Bromley, Carlisle, Clapham (High and -Modern), Clapton, Croydon, Dover, Dulwich, Gateshead, Highbury, Ipswich, -Kensington, Liverpool, East Liverpool, Maida Vale, Newcastle, Norwich, -Nottingham, Notting Hill, Oxford, Portsmouth, East Putney, Sheffield, -Shrewsbury, South Hampstead, Streatham Hill, Sutton, Sydenham, Tunbridge -Wells, Wimbledon, York. - -The fees are: for pupils under ten years of age, £10, 10s. a year; -entering the school between ten and thirteen, or remaining after ten, -£13, 10s. a year; entering after thirteen, £16, 10s. a year. The company -is on a sound financial basis, since the larger and more flourishing -schools make up for the deficiencies of the smaller ones. Until 1896 a -dividend of five per cent. was paid, now limited by resolution of the -shareholders to four per cent. The capital has been increased to -£150,000. - -Meantime similar schools were springing up all over the country. At -Plymouth one was started by a local branch of the National Union, at -Huddersfield by a local company, at Southampton by the Hampshire -Association, at Manchester by private subscription, at Bradford by an -endowment. The impulse given by the Union and its pioneer schools was -felt everywhere, and it seemed as though before long every large town in -England would have a proprietary or public school for girls. A rival -company was founded in 1883. The Church Schools Company differed from -the Girls’ Public Day School Company in making definite Church teaching -one of its objects, while the religious instruction of the Girls’ Public -Day School Company had always aimed at being, as far as possible, -undenominational. The promoters of the Church Schools thought that as -there was room for voluntary schools side by side with board schools, so -there might also be scope for Church High Schools in spite of the -existence of the Girls’ Public Day School Company. Their original -proposal was to start schools of various grades for boys and girls above -the class attending elementary schools, where a general education should -be given, in accordance with the principles of the Church of England, at -a moderate cost. - -A beginning was made with day-schools for girls, and hitherto little -else has been done. It is probable that this Church Company did, to some -extent, meet a need, but it was not a very large one. The majority of -the Church of England parents are perfectly satisfied with the religious -instruction of the Girls’ Public Day School Company schools, and the new -schools drew their pupils, not so much by an appeal to those who -disapproved on principle of the existing high schools, as by -establishing themselves in towns which the other company had not -entered. Naturally they appealed to a smaller class, and can never -expect to attain the numbers of the undenominational high schools. Hence -they have always been, to some extent, hampered, for though the company -is financially sound, and gives a small dividend to shareholders, it has -had to economise very severely in the matter of salaries and buildings. -This must always re-act to some extent on the education, and it is -probably for this reason that these Church Schools have never attained -the high position of their rivals. The fees paid vary according to the -locality, some being as low as £4, 4s., others as high as £18, 18s.; £9, -9s. to £12, 12s. seems the commonest fee. Many of the schools are very -small. At present the number is twenty-six, and they are situated at -Bournemouth, Brighton, Bury St. Edmunds, Derby, Dewsbury, Durham, -Gloucester, Guildford, Hull, Kendal, Kensington, Leicester, -Newcastle-on-Tyne, Northampton, Reading, Reigate, Richmond, St. Albans, -Streatham, Stroud Green, Sunderland, Surbiton, Wigan, Woolwich, Great -Yarmouth, York. - -High Schools can now trace back their history for a quarter of a -century. In that time more than a hundred have been founded in England. -They have become the typical girls’ schools of this country, private -schools have been organised on the same lines, and the scheme of large -day schools with no distinction of class, giving a good education at a -low fee, has been almost universally accepted. It seems so simple and -natural, that it is hard to realise that twenty-five years ago it was a -strange and therefore a dangerous innovation. After all what do we mean -by a High School? There is a general impression of the meaning of the -term, though it would not be easy to define it. In the United States, a -High School is an advanced school, which can only be entered by pupils -who have already passed through the Primary and Grammar Schools; that -is, do not enter before the age of fourteen or fifteen. It is thus a -Secondary School, forming the link between the primary institutions and -the University. Our English High Schools provide both elementary and -secondary instruction, and the ages of the pupils range from seven to -nineteen. Hence, although there is a natural division between the Lower -and Upper School, the work is closely connected; the same mistresses -teach in both, and subjects such as Latin and French are usually carried -down into the lower classes. The lower part of a High School is not -exactly parallel to an Elementary School; the pupils have begun more -subjects, they have been taught in smaller classes, and by different, -less rigid methods. The High School cannot therefore at present be -regarded as the middle rung of the educational ladder. In England there -is a gap between it and the Elementary School, which is sometimes -successfully bridged by special means, but the existence of which cannot -be disregarded in any general scheme of English education. As the need -of secondary education is more generally felt, a system of schools -leading upward in direct line from the elementary school is being -naturally evolved, and connection between the two lines is being -provided by scholarships and other means. But if we disregard a few -exceptional cases, it seems best to look on the High School as an -organic whole, taking the child from the nursery to the university, and -sometimes even helping out the nursery by means of the kindergarten. - -It is not uncommon to hear people talk of the High School system, but -this is misleading. In so far as the High Schools have a special system, -it is the natural outcome of the scheme of large classes and careful -gradation. Hence it resembles in many respects that which has long -prevailed in Germany and the United States. There is no High School -Code, and even under the same management, _e.g._ in the Girls’ Public -Day-School Company Schools, considerable latitude is left to the -individual head-mistress; but there are certain arrangements which are -found convenient in the organisation of large day schools, and which -prevail with modifications in all the High Schools, as well as in many -large private institutions. - -The morning hours are given to class teaching; from 9 to 1, or 9.15 to -1.15, being the usual times. Subjects requiring individual instruction -(which are usually extras), _e.g._ piano, solo singing, advanced -drawing, and painting, are taught in the afternoons, also Greek in some -schools, special coaching in advanced Latin or Science, and so forth. -The principle underlying this arrangement is that of giving the best -working hours to serious mental work, and reserving accomplishments -which are rather the ornament than the essentials of education, for the -latter part, thus assigning to the subjects of instruction their proper -relative importance, and keeping the real work of the school -undisturbed. This arrangement seems so easy and natural that it would be -hardly necessary to dwell on it, were it not that until very lately the -opposite system prevailed in some schools that otherwise aimed at -thoroughness, and it was not unusual for a girl to be called away in the -middle of an important lesson in history or arithmetic, and sent to her -music. Under the present plan, the greater part of the girls have -finished their school work by one o’clock, and have the afternoon and -evening free to divide between preparation of lessons (two to three -hours), exercise, and home duties. For the benefit of those who require -help in their lessons, or cannot get a quiet room at home, a system of -afternoon preparation at school is organised. This generally lasts an -hour and a half to two hours—most schools provide a dinner for girls who -come from a distance. A whole holiday on Saturday seems the rule -everywhere. - -Some schools have a kindergarten department attached, where little boys -are taught along with the girls, and a transition class where the -children learn to read before passing into the school proper. The -division is into forms, I. being the lowest, and VI. the highest. Large -schools divide the forms into Upper and Lower. Where a school is fully -organised, it is usual for a whole class to move up together. Backward -girls may remain in the form another year. Unfortunately many high -schools are too small to be fully organised, and in these the gaps -between the classes are too large, and general promotion impossible. -Clever girls spend one year in a class, slower ones two, and the -disadvantage for the latter is very serious, since there is a weariness -about going over the same ground twice, which is the reverse of -stimulating. Large classes can progress as quickly as smaller ones when -they are very carefully grouped. Where the pupils are at different -stages there is much waste of time, and either the weak go to the wall, -or the strong get less than their due. It is, therefore, the first -essential of a high school that the numbers should be large, not much -under two hundred. - -Even when the school is large and the classes work smoothly together, -the girls do not all work evenly in every subject. To prevent waste, it -is usual to let certain subjects, perhaps Arithmetic and English, -determine promotion, and to teach the others in divisions. Two or three -forms may take French at the same time, and be rearranged for that -lesson, returning to their own rooms when it is over. This moving about -affords a pleasant change, and is quite easy when the building is a -convenient one. Indeed, suitable premises are almost as important for -the harmonious working of a school as large numbers and careful -classification. Long narrow corridors and awkward staircases are fatal -to order. Ordinary dwelling-rooms adapted for school purposes can seldom -be properly ventilated, and according to their position in the room, the -pupils suffer from draught or heat, the light falls the wrong way upon -their work, the classes have to be graded to suit the size of the rooms -rather than the abilities of the pupils. In fact nothing can be more -unsatisfactory than the adaptation as a school of an ordinary -dwelling-house. - -The arrangement that seems to answer best is that of a large central -hall used for prayers and general gatherings, out of which some of the -form-rooms open, whilst the rest, with extra rooms for small divisions, -are upstairs. Of this construction the Blackheath and Sheffield High -Schools are good examples. The finest girls’ buildings are naturally -found where there is an endowment, as at the North London Collegiate, -the Bedford, and Manchester High Schools. Few, if any of the Church -schools have specially constructed buildings, and several of the Girls’ -Public Day School Company’s Schools are carried on in adapted premises. -Some grant of public money for buildings to really efficient proprietary -schools would probably be the cheapest and most effective way of helping -girls’ education in many of our large towns. - -The North London Collegiate, both in point of time and in importance, -claims precedence as the pioneer high school. It was in working order -when the Girls’ Public Day School Company started, and was doubtless the -model set before its promoters. The following account written in 1883 by -Mrs. Bryant, who is now head-mistress, is in many ways typical, and -applies _mutatis mutandis_ to the general routine of all fully equipped -high schools. - -‘Entering the school with the girls in the morning, we should proceed -first through the entrance hall down to the basement, and into the -cloak-rooms. Here each girl has a numbered place provided with hooks for -cloak and hat, umbrella-stand, boot-rack, and bag for the house-boots, -which she always wears while in school. There are also shelves for books -while dressing is going on, and forms for use in changing boots. Since -the space allotted is ample, and the girls come in relays, both before -and after school, crowding is avoided. - -‘When ready, each girl goes upstairs with her books to the great hall, -where the rule of silence is strictly enforced. At 9.15, all are -assembled for prayers, each form in its place, while the prefects, who -are members of the sixth form, and are elected by it and the teachers of -the upper division of the school, are scattered among the other forms, -as guardians of public order, during the interval of waiting. After -prayers, each form marches out with its mistress to its own room. Five -class-rooms open out of the hall on the ground floor; these are used by -the upper division of the school, including the sixth form, and four -sub-divisions of the fifth form. Five more open out of the hall gallery, -used by all the sub-divisions of the fourth form, which constitute the -middle division of the school. Above these two tiers, there is a third -set of rooms, three class-rooms and the drawing school. The lower -divisions of the school use these four rooms, besides one of the -irregularly placed rooms. Of the latter there are several, lying with -the laboratories, lecture-room, libraries, and music-rooms, on the side -of the great stone staircase, opposite the Clothworkers’ hall. - -‘Each class room contains 5600 cubic feet, and is fitted for thirty-two -girls. All have Swedish desks, except the elder girls, who have separate -desks with chairs. There is a raised platform for the teacher, with a -chair and table. All the rooms are fitted with cupboards, and in most -there is a small circulating library, which the girls can use on payment -of a small subscription. The pine wainscot, brick walls, and tiled -fire-places of the class-rooms, make a good background for the -decorations of the Kyrle societies, which exist in each class; and all -the rooms have pictures on the walls, as well as notice-boards and -time-tables. Another institution of the decorative kind is the window -garden, with which many of the rooms are provided, and in which the -girls take, for the most part, great pride. - -‘In these rooms the hard work of the day goes on till 1.30, with an -interval, as near the middle as possible, of twenty-five minutes, for a -light lunch and drill. In five separate relays, the girls proceed to the -dining-hall, which, with the kitchens and housekeeper’s room, lies under -the great hall. Here they can buy buns, biscuits, bread and butter, -fruit, coffee, milk, and lemonade, and, while talking as loudly and as -much as they please, they are required to take their stand in orderly -lines across the room. From the dining-hall the girls proceed to the -gymnasium, a very fine room, 100 feet long by 30 feet broad, where they -have musical drill for a quarter of an hour. Monday and Thursday, -however, are days for special calisthenic exercise, lasting half-an-hour -each day. Then work is resumed till 1.30, when the school is dismissed -in relays, as before stated.’ - -Even more important than the routine of a school is its curriculum; and -here the need of the reformer’s hand is still felt acutely. The subjects -included in the Girls’ Public Day School Company prospectuses are the -following—Religious Instruction, Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, -Mathematics, Book-keeping, English grammar, composition, and literature, -History, Geography, French, German, Latin, the elements of Physical -Science, Social Economy, Drawing, Class-singing and Harmony, Gymnastic -Exercises, and Needlework. To these Greek must now be added, since it is -taught in every school that prepares for college. The prospectus says -‘any or all of these may be taught,’ which means that the head-mistress -has, within certain limits, a right of selection. Hence the tendency of -schools, even under the same management, to vary greatly. Not only is -there as yet no consensus of opinion in England as to the best -curriculum for girls’ schools, but even the general aim to be kept in -view seems by no means determined. Mrs. Bryant lays down the -incontrovertible dictum that ‘the ideal of the curriculum is a balance -of subjects so that all normal faculties and interests may be -cultivated.’ But there is another side which cannot be neglected, and -the claims of the ideal vanish into insignificance before the demands of -practical life and outside examination. In spite of the repeated -promises that examination is to be servant and not master we must not -hope to escape from its dominion as long as it is the ‘open sesame’ of -colleges and professions. A rough test, it is still the best hitherto -devised, and serves on the whole to separate the sheep from the goats. -Since we must, therefore, acknowledge its sovereignty, it behoves us to -see that it exercises a wise and benevolent tyranny. However much we may -protest, the curriculum of a school will always be largely determined by -the nature of its leaving examination, since this regulates the work of -the upper forms, and these more or less mould the lower. Some schools -reduce this examination work to a minimum, reserving it entirely for the -highest form, while others use the machinery of outside examinations to -determine the whole of their work. The North London Collegiate belongs -to this latter class. The upper part is organised according to two -parallel courses. Of these _A._ leads to the London degree examinations, -that is to Matriculation or in some cases Intermediate Arts, and Course -_B._ to the Cambridge Senior and Higher Locals. All these examinations -under certain conditions admit to the Women’s Colleges at Oxford and -Cambridge, and hence act the double part of a leaving and entrance -examination, but this school also makes use of the lower examinations, -_e.g._, the Preliminary and Junior Locals. Hence the work of these -classes must be directed to the set subjects required for these -examinations, and must include the particular periods of history, works -in literature, and French and German books that are laid down by the -examiners, even though they may not seem the most suitable in other -respects. Many educationalists think this disadvantageous to the general -plan of a girls’ school, which should proceed on stated harmonious lines -from the lowest to the highest class. Mrs. Bryant, however, thinks that -the advantages outweigh the disadvantages, since ‘by their means the -more advanced body of opinion can be brought to bear on the inert or -prejudiced mass, which lags behind in the movement of educational -progress.’ In spite of this valuable testimony the consensus of opinion -is rather on the other side. The schools of the Girls’ Public Day School -Company have almost entirely abandoned the miscellaneous junior -examinations, which lead to nothing, in favour of those conducted by the -Joint Board of Oxford and Cambridge. This is the test applied to the -leading boys’ public schools since 1873, and it is the nearest approach -in England to an _Abiturienten_ examination, since the higher -certificate, if taken in the required subjects, exempts its holder from -the first public examination at Oxford and Cambridge. The Board awards -higher and lower certificates, and undertakes a general examination of -the schools. The papers are sent to the school, and the examination is -conducted there under the supervision of the head-mistress. The lower -forms are also examined _viva voce_ by a delegate of the Board, and -reports on the general condition of the school and on the paper work are -sent to the governing bodies. In this way the progress of different -schools can be compared, and a general control kept, while there is -little disturbance to the school course, since the questions are set on -the work actually done. The Council of the Girls’ Public Day School -Company itself awards certificates to girls who gain sixty per cent. of -the marks in five papers. - -The subjects of the higher certificate examination are arranged in four -groups:— - - GROUP I. - - (1) Latin. - (2) Greek. - (3) French. - (4) German. - - GROUP II. - - (1) Mathematics (elementary). - (2) Mathematics (additional). - - GROUP III. - - (1) Scripture Knowledge. - (2) English. - (3) History. - - GROUP IV. - - (1) Natural Philosophy (Mechanical Division). - (2) Natural Philosophy (Physical Division). - (3) Natural Philosophy (Chemical Division). - (4) Physical Geography and Elementary Geology. - (5) Biology. - -All candidates for a higher certificate must satisfy the examiners in at -least four subjects taken from not less than three different groups, -unless they take one subject in II. or IV., in which case they can -choose three from I. No one may offer more than six subjects. The -examination is so arranged as to hamper the school work as little as -possible. Thus in languages great stress is laid on grammar, -composition, and unprepared translation, while the set books can be -selected from a long list; or (to give even greater freedom) it is -allowed to ‘substitute with the consent of the Board other portions or -periods which are at least equivalent to those specified in the -prescribed list, provided that the extra expense involved be defrayed by -the school authorities.’ This privilege of choice is extended also to -Scripture, English and History. - -The subjects for the lower certificate are:— - - GROUP I. - - (1) Latin. - (2) Greek. - (3) French. - (4) German. - - GROUP II. - - (1) Arithmetic. - (2) Additional Mathematics. - - GROUP III. - - (1) Scripture Knowledge. - (2) English. - (3) English History. - (4) Geography. - - GROUP IV. - - (1) Mechanics and Physics. - (2) Physics and Chemistry. - (3) Chemistry and Mechanics. - -The higher certificate is often taken by girls in Form Lower VI., and -they are then free in their last year to prepare for university -scholarships or do other special work. The lower certificate is less -popular, but it is sometimes taken in Form V. - -Unquestionably the real problem before our girls’ schools is to plan a -curriculum which, while keeping in view the harmonious development of -mind and body, and the preparation for a girl’s future life, shall yet -give the necessary preparation for these final examinations. The -reformers see hope in a more careful grouping of studies which shall -break down the barriers between them, so that the subjects learnt at the -same time should be allies rather than rivals. If fewer were taken up -simultaneously, more time and interest might be given to each new -requirement when it first appears on the scenes. After a couple of -years, when considerable advance had been made, it might be relegated to -a less important place and a fresh central study chosen. In the higher -forms the threads would be once more drawn together, for then a pupil -must be prepared to marshal all her forces for one great occasion. -Experiments of this kind have been tried with much success in America, -and there is a scheme for doing something of the kind in England. There -is a plentiful field for experiments, and no doubt the curriculum -question will be discussed at many a teachers’ meeting before the -problem is solved. The High Schools will contribute their share to the -work if they are to remain in the van as they have hitherto done. - -Since the very establishment of the High Schools was a protest against -the superficiality and showiness condemned by the Royal Commission, -their main endeavour was to avoid the mistakes of their predecessors. -Accomplishments were relegated to the background. Arithmetic and -mathematics were taught for their mental training and the development of -accuracy. ‘The noxious brood of catechisms’ was abandoned in favour of a -system of oral teaching: object lessons were introduced into the lower -forms to induce observation, and in the science lessons facts were -taught first-hand and not through the medium of books. The slipshod -French chatter of the boarding-schools gave way to stricter grammatical -training; parsing and analysis took the place of rote repetition of the -parts of speech. Accuracy and thoroughness were the aim everywhere. At -first the instruction was attended with many difficulties. There were -few well-educated and no trained teachers, and very little agreement as -to the really best methods. Hence it was natural that the revolt against -the abuses of the past should produce some fresh faults. The reaction -against the old text-books caused the introduction of a lecture-system; -an excessive amount of note-taking, writing out, and correction by the -teacher seemed to afford both parties the maximum of effort with the -minimum of result: books were shunned as though the printed word were in -itself hurtful, and much matter was laboriously dictated that might have -been taken from any intelligent hand-book. The girls spoiled their -handwriting, instead of straining their memories; that was the chief -difference. Happily this plan has given way to more intelligent -inductive methods, though even now there is a tendency in some schools -to rely too much on written notes and too little on training the -attention and memory. High School girls still need to learn how to use a -book intelligently, and to appreciate knowledge that comes to them in an -unaccustomed fashion. They have learnt the use of writing, to make ‘an -exact man,’ but reading as a means of producing the ‘full’ woman has -hardly as yet touched the High School system. This defect is now being -realised and efforts will doubtless be made to remove it. Already the -improvement in the teachers has produced a beneficent revolution in -girls’ schools. To their inadequate education the Royal Commissioners -largely attributed the unsatisfactory state of things they found. Side -by side with the growth of the high schools went the movement for -admitting women to the universities, both acting and re-acting on each -other, since the high schools sent up their best pupils to college and -the college sent them back to teach and train future students. A great -proportion of the mistresses are now university women, while a smaller -number have been trained at the Cambridge Teachers’ College or the Maria -Grey or other Training Colleges—Kindergarten Colleges provide teachers -for the little ones. - -While the High School puts intellectual subjects first, it does not -disregard accomplishments, though it seldom uses that word. Music is -taught to all in the form of class-singing; piano and violin and solo -singing are ‘extras,’ and do not belong to the general school work. -Drawing has really won a more important place than before, because it is -used as an educational factor, and not merely for purposes of show. The -scheme of the Royal Drawing Society, organised by Mr. Ablett, is in use -at nearly all the high schools. It is essentially a class system, and -aims at training the eye, hand, and memory, rather than producing mere -technical skill. The little ones in the first form are taught to present -graphically objects interesting to themselves, by means of simple -ruling, memory, and brush-work exercises. Special features are judgment -at sight, memory and dictated work, the early introduction of drawing -from objects and simple geometrical design. The schools are examined -once a year. The examination takes place in the school itself under the -superintendence of the head-mistress and drawing teacher, the work is -sent up to London, and promotion to the next division depends upon the -pass. Pupils who pass all the six divisions with honours are entitled to -a full Drawing Certificate which has a commercial value for teaching -purposes. Drawing, a little modelling, and needlework in the lower -forms, represent at present the manual side of High School teaching. -Cookery, dressmaking, etc. though popular in a different class of -school, have hardly as yet been able to effect an entrance, nor does it -seem altogether desirable that they should. That every school cannot -teach everything is an axiom long ago accepted for boys’ education, and -it must be realised for girls too, if the outcry against overstrain is -to cease. Differentiation is the only safe course. It is partly the -strength and partly the weakness of the High School that it represents, -in fact, two schools: the first grade for girls who are to proceed to -the university, and whose life at home makes a certain amount of -literary and linguistic attainment desirable, and the second grade for -those who must leave at fifteen or sixteen, and look forward to a career -in business or to practical utility at home. In the lower forms the need -of both is the same: a good general education; afterwards bifurcation -seems desirable. When a school is not large enough to allow of this, it -is the early-leaving girls who go to the wall. For these an entirely -different scheme of education might be best—this too is a problem that -will have to be faced. Physical training is also considered at most of -the High Schools. Generally, fifteen minutes in the middle of the -morning is given to some form of drill. In a few large schools, _e.g._, -the North London Collegiate, this daily drill is undertaken by a -specialist. Usually it falls to one of the assistants, though it is very -common for a special teacher of Swedish drill to visit the school once -or twice a week, and take all the girls in divisions. The North London -Collegiate and the Sheffield High School have gymnasiums, and take this -side of the work very seriously. A physical-record book is kept, and -every child on entering is examined by a lady doctor attached to the -school. Particulars of sight, hearing, throat, breathing, lungs, heart, -chest, and waist measurement are recorded, with any observations -considered necessary. Suitable gymnastic exercises are then prescribed, -and the examination repeated from time to time, and note made of any -changed condition. Some such plan might be tried in all High Schools, -were the parents willing to pay for it. The low fees charged cannot be -expected to include medical supervision as well as all the other -advantages. At present Sheffield and the Camden Schools are almost the -only day-schools that consider the physical training as systematically -as the intellectual. Still, the Girls’ Public Day School Company has now -appointed a qualified lady inspector of physical training. Exercise -doubtless plays an important part in every high school, but it is -sometimes pursued with more zeal than knowledge. Just now athletics are -taking a very prominent place. School playgrounds and playing fields -have become a necessity. Girls have learned to play cricket, hockey, and -rounders; they choose their elevens, elect their captains, and have -their practices and matches much like their brothers. How far this -particular kind of exercise is conducive to a girl’s health is another -of the still unsolved problems. One thing is certain: these games do -much to improve the general tone of a school. Their effect in producing -loyalty and public spirit and promoting cheerfulness is quite as marked -in girls as in boys, and the development of the play side, along with -the greater liberty, the giving of responsibility as a reward, and all -that belongs to a real public school are features at least as valuable -as the improvement in the teaching. The High Schools have produced a new -type of girl, self-reliant, courageous, truthful, and eager for work. A -full record of their after careers would prove interesting. Many pass -straight from school to Oxford or Cambridge, a great many have gained -scholarships, and the women’s colleges are largely recruited from their -ranks. Some pass on to the medical schools, others gain County Council -scholarships for technical or scientific work, large numbers are engaged -in teaching, one or two have taken up gardening at Swanley Horticultural -College, and a good many are making themselves generally useful at home -as wives or daughters. Almost everywhere the High School girl proves -herself capable, accurate, and trustworthy. She is sometimes blamed for -a want of grace, such as belonged to a few rare ladies of the olden -time, but she also lacks the helplessness and silliness that were -prevalent then. Physically, morally, and intellectually, these schools -may claim that they are improving large numbers, and with them surely -the race. - - - - - CHAPTER V - ENDOWMENTS FOR GIRLS - - -The history of endowed schools carries us far away into the misty realms -of the past, before ever the Conqueror set foot in England and put back -the clock of civilisation a hundred years. The earliest schools of which -we have any knowledge were attached to the chief collegiate churches, -where one officer would be specially told off to teach the boys, just as -another would conduct the singing. Convent and school or church and -school were invariably allied. The first separable school endowments -were merely assignments of a specific part of the general endowment for -the support of the chancellor or his deputy, the grammar school master. -Like the earliest colleges these schools were founded ‘for prayer and -study.’ The first person to reverse this order, and endow an independent -school, was William of Wykeham, when in 1393 he founded Winchester -College, to give free instruction to seventy poor boys, and so help them -to holy orders or the university. Thus the new school became ‘a -sovereign and independent corporation existing of, by and for itself, -self-centred, self-controlled.’ ‘To make education, and that education -not the education of clerics in theology or the canon law, the paramount -and pronounced object of an ecclesiastical institution, with all the -paraphernalia of Papal bull and royal and episcopal license, was no -small innovation. It was a new departure, which opened a new era in the -world of education, and therefore of thought.’[13] Later founders, -following in the steps of William of Wykeham, gave sums of money for the -training of youth in ‘grammar and good manners.’ Grammar meant Latin and -Greek, the ‘key to all the sciences’; the manners were to be those of a -true gentleman, ‘trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisie.’ - -Following on these came the schools of the Reformation age, of which the -most familiar example is Dean Colet’s foundation of St. Paul’s. These -were established or assisted by the gifts of ‘pious founders,’ or -sometimes by diverting old funds originally destined for other purposes. -Reading school was founded out of funds obtained by suppressing an -almshouse for poor sisters, and under Elizabeth made into a grammar -school ‘for educating the boys of the inhabitants of the said borough -and others in literature.’ Such schools were often placed under lay -control, but the clerical idea was still in the background. Not priests, -but ministers of the reformed religion, were needed, and learning became -even more essential for men who had to make knowledge take the place of -tradition. - -The clerical purpose of most of these schools naturally tended to -exclude girls or make them of secondary importance. What place was -actually assigned to them in the 353 schools founded between the -accession of Henry VIII. and the death of James I. is a problem that -must be left to antiquarians. Certain it is that in the ensuing period -the education of both sexes was more on an equality, since the standard -was one of inferiority. An age of political disturbance was followed by -an epoch of frivolity. Learning fell into contempt. The foundations of -the eighteenth century were not grammar but charity schools, and though -girls were not forgotten, it was with the hope of training servants for -themselves that rich persons supported these schools. Not to give a -liberal training, but to teach the poor to ‘keep their proper station,’ -was the aim of eighteenth century founders. - -Thus it came about that the Schools’ Inquiry Commissioners found a -goodly number of girls in endowed schools of an elementary character, -which would hardly bear comparison with the poorest of our modern board -schools. While the King Edward Schools at Birmingham were giving 290 -boys a classical and 300 a sound English education, none of these -benefits fell to girls. In the elementary schools of the same foundation -were 655 boys and 630 girls. At Christ’s Hospital, distinctly founded -for both sexes, there were but 18 girls as against 1192 boys. Perhaps -even the eighteen would have been better off elsewhere. They occupied a -part of the junior boys’ school at Hertford; they had one ward under the -charge of a nurse, their playground was a little over a quarter of an -acre, they took their walks abroad under care of the nurse, they had no -calisthenics or other physical training; their diet was bread and milk -for breakfast, bread, meat, potatoes, and porter for dinner, bread and -butter, milk and water for supper. There was no admission examination, -no leaving standard of attainment; they learned a little Scripture, -English (so-called), and History and Geography from abridgments. On -leaving, at about fifteen, most of them were apprenticed to business. It -did not prove easy to place them. No wonder! - -A similar tale might be told of Bedford School. It was established in -1566 by Sir William Harpur and Dame Alice, his wife, ‘for the education, -institution, and instruction of children and youth in grammar and good -manners, to endure for ever.’ Did child mean ‘boy’ in the minds of the -founders? It seems uncertain; for, as the endowment increased in value -and some of it became available for purposes other than the free grammar -school, the interests of girls were also considered. At various periods -of the eighteenth century fresh uses were found for the surplus money, -and it is characteristic of the age that the feminine equivalent for a -sound education was a dowry. £800 a year was set aside for -marriage-portions for forty poor maids of the town of Bedford, to be -distributed by lot, provided that a successful candidate was married -within two calendar months of drawing the lot, and not to ‘a vagrant or -other person of bad fame or reputation.’ Naturally there was not much -difficulty about claiming the lot. Young men came from far and near to -woo the ‘maids of Bedford.’ Any residue was given to poor maid-servants -who had resided five years at Bedford and were married within a year. -The next addition was a hospital for boys and girls, an allotment of -£700 to apprentice fifteen boys and five girls, and almshouses for ten -old men and ten old women. Early in this century preparatory and -commercial schools were added; and girls were considered to the extent -of a foundation where the head-mistress received £80 per annum as -against the headmaster’s £1000. Which figures very eloquently sum up the -relative estimation in which girls’ and boys’ education was held before -1848. - -The Schools’ Inquiry Commission had made it abundantly clear that the -educational endowments of the country needed overhauling. Not only had -many of them increased greatly in value, but the establishment of public -elementary schools was making the appropriation of endowments for -elementary schools unnecessary. Again, many free schools were giving a -liberal education to the sons of rich men. By the institution of even a -low fee considerable sums would become available for the improvement of -existing schools and the establishment of new ones. Then there were the -various charitable endowments left for special purposes which no longer -existed. In some cases money had been bequeathed to the poor in a -parish, and was simply used for the relief of the rates. In London alone -there were sums of £1500 a year given for the relief of poor prisoners -from debt. Among other out-of-date purposes were the ransom of Barbary -captives, the destruction of lady-birds in Cornhill, etc. In a certain -part of Worcestershire money had been left in 1620 for distributing -bread among the poor of seven parishes and, as a secondary purpose, -supporting a free grammar school, the surplus to be applied to repairing -the church and bridges, and increasing, if expedient, the salary of the -schoolmaster. By 1867 the total income had increased to £657, and was -applied to elementary schools and a free grammar school for fourteen -boys. In other cases money was left for doles; with the result that in a -certain parish, too richly endowed, extra waiters had to be put on at -the gin-shops for two weeks before and after the distribution. In fact -it was a case of money in the wrong place; education starving for want -of funds that were only doing mischief. The regulation of the -educational charities, and appropriation of those others which were -doing more harm than good, was becoming an urgent necessity. Some -changes had already been made under the Charitable Trusts Acts, but -these were a good deal limited in their operations, and a more -systematic reorganisation was undertaken under the Endowed Schools Act -of 1869. This appointed three commissioners for four years to inquire -into the endowments of England and Wales, and the first to hold this -office were Lord Lyttelton, Canon Robinson, and Arthur Hobhouse, Q.C. In -1874 this Commission was merged in the Board of Charity Commissioners -for England and Wales. - -‘In framing schemes under this Act, provision shall be made as far as -conveniently may be for extending to girls the benefits of endowments.’ -This clause is the Magna Charta of girls’ education, the first -acknowledgment by the State of their claim to a liberal education. This -result was in great part due to those same men and women who had brought -about the opening of the local examinations, and induced the Commission -to take cognisance of girls’ schools, and were striving, in face of all -opposition, to win something like a university education for girls. As -early as 1860 at the Social Science Congress Madame Bodichon had entered -a strong protest against the theory that boys’ education must be -assisted and girls’ self-supporting. ‘Magnificent colleges and schools, -beautiful architectural buildings costing thousands and thousands of -pounds, rich endowments all over England, have been bestowed by past -generations as gifts to the boys of the higher and middle class, and -they are not the less independent and not a whit pauperised.’ At first -this was but a voice crying in the wilderness, but the cry was taken up -first by a few supporters, then by the whole country, and at last the -_Times_, certainly not a revolutionary organ, declared that, ‘This -country is most abundantly and redundantly endowed for men and boys, as -if they were unable to take care of themselves, whereas there is -little—indeed nothing, we may almost say—for that which is -contemptuously called the weaker sex.’ - -An Association for Promoting the Application of Endowments to the -Education of Women was formed, and offered to assist trustees of schools -and other persons interested in education by supplying information and -suggesting plans whereby available funds might best be applied to the -education of women. It had a strong committee, which numbered among its -members Miss Davies, Miss Clough, and Miss Bostock, as well as Mr. Bryce -and Mr. Fitch, those constant and helpful supporters of all efforts to -improve the education of girls. At this time the needs of the middle -class seemed most urgent, since the State-aided schools were coming to -the aid of the very poor, and the rich could pay the high terms that -were then demanded by the better private schools. The immediate need -seemed to be for schools of the second or third grade, _i.e._ those -meant for girls who would leave school some time between fourteen and -seventeen, and might be expected to pay fees ranging from £4 to £10 per -annum. - -Of such schools the first were founded out of the surplus revenues of -King Edward’s Schools at Birmingham. Here four schools of the second -grade were opened, each to accommodate about 160 pupils. These not only -filled at once, but had to refuse admission to 500 candidates. In 1870 -the Grey Coat Hospital at Westminster was opened; but on the whole -progress was slow, and Mr. Roundell’s estimate in 1871 that there were -in England and Wales 225,000 girls waiting for secondary education was -probably not wide of the mark. - -In that same year an event occurred of far-reaching importance. The -admirable institution so long associated with the name of Miss Frances -Buss was transformed into a public school for girls. Readers of her -interesting biography now realise, what had long been known to her -friends, with what a single mind and earnest devotion she had worked for -the cause nearest her heart—the establishment of public schools for -girls. As early as 1850, her own private school had been reconstituted -on public lines, with the help of the Rev. David Laing, one of the -promoters of Queen’s College, but her ambition was to make it public in -fact as well as in its methods. Attention had been drawn to her work by -her evidence before the Schools’ Inquiry Commission, and now some of its -members themselves came forward to help her. If ever a school could lay -claim to public aid, it was this one; and as soon as the enabling act -was passed, active measures were taken to secure for it an endowment. -With rare clear sight Miss Buss realised that a fully equipped school -can only be self-supporting by the sacrifice of either suitable -buildings, adequate salaries, or a scale of fees suited to the -neighbourhood. She wanted to organise a pioneer school in which none of -these good things should be lacking; nothing less than the best seemed -good enough. Her enthusiasm and confidence were not to go unrewarded. In -December 1870, a public meeting was held in the St. Pancras Vestry Hall, -to announce the formation of a trust for carrying on the existing -school, and starting another of a lower grade in connection with it. The -upper school thus constituted took the name of the North London -Collegiate, and in January 1871 removed with its two hundred pupils to -202 Camden Street, and at the same time the Lower or Camden School came -into existence. According to Miss Buss’s principle, the fees under the -new trust were calculated to meet current expenses only. The building -was to be provided from other funds, as was done in boys’ public -schools. A subscription list was opened, and every possible endeavour -made to win public support. These were anxious years for Miss Buss; -money came in slowly, and rather than abandon her principle she chose to -sacrifice her salary. Nor did she wait in vain; the excellent work of -the school won it recognition, and when in 1874 the Charity -Commissioners were called upon to dispose of the Platt Charity derivable -from property in St. Pancras, belonging to the Brewers’ Company, they -recommended that £20,000 be given to the North London Collegiate and -Camden Schools. Thus building funds were secured, afterwards -supplemented by a generous donation from the Clothworkers’ Company. The -scheme became law in 1875, and the two schools have continued since then -to work side by side as endowed schools of the first and second grade, -with different principals, but both under the superintendence of the -head-mistress of the upper school. This arrangement has proved most -valuable, as it promotes co-ordination instead of rivalry between the -two schools. In other places where two grades exist side by side, it is -not uncommon to find the lower one attempting with inadequate means to -imitate the upper. The special needs of the class attending it are then -neglected, and undue attention given to a few clever girls, for whom -leave is sometimes obtained to stay beyond the appointed age. At the -Frances Mary Buss Schools (as the two are now called in memory of their -founder), this danger is obviated by a good system of scholarships from -the lower to the upper. - -At the Camden School girls may attend from seven to seventeen. The fees -range from £5, 2s. to £8 per annum. The subjects taught are the usual -English ones, with Class-Singing, Needlework, Drawing, and Book-keeping, -and the elements of Science. Special attention is given to theoretical -and practical Domestic Economy, and these classes receive assistance -from the London County Council. French is the only foreign language -taught. At the North London Collegiate, girls may attend between eight -and nineteen, the list of subjects is much wider, and selections have to -be made under the direction of the head-mistress. French, German, Latin -and Greek, are included in the curriculum, and the practical subjects -either omitted or reduced to a minimum. Since the work of the school is -directed to the London University Examinations and the Cambridge Higher -Locals, the course is necessarily laid out for girls who can stay long -enough to enter the upper forms, and perhaps proceed to college. The -fees range from £17, 11s. to £19, 14s. But girls over sixteen proceeding -from the lower to the upper school pay only £14, 8s. Many pass up by -means of scholarships. - -These two schools with their thousand pupils, fine buildings, and noble -roll of honours won by old pupils stand pre-eminent among girls’ -endowments. The principle that with a scale of fees adapted to meet -current expenses the endowment should provide buildings and scholarships -has been triumphantly vindicated by the Frances Mary Buss Schools. - -Almost simultaneous with the endowment of these schools was the -appropriation of some part of the funds of the Bradford Grammar School, -‘to supply a liberal education for girls by means of a school or schools -within the borough of Bradford.’ Public opinion was, however, hardly -ripe for such a diversion of any large part of an old endowment, and -although, as Mr. Forster pointed out at the inaugural meeting, a charter -of Charles II. had assigned the land ‘for the better teaching, -instructing, and bringing up of children and youth,’ ‘which terms are of -common gender,’ the money assigned to the girls would not have been -sufficient to start the school, but for the generosity of the Ladies’ -Educational Committee, which raised a sum of £5000 for purchasing the -buildings. Thus the Bradford Girls’ Grammar School came into being. The -fees are £12 to £15, 15s., and girls may stay till eighteen or nineteen. -It is thus technically of the first grade, and as such prepares the -pupils in the highest class for the university. Many, however, leave -school long before attaining this stage, and this appears to constitute -one of the special difficulties of North of England schools. There is, -however, a wide list of subjects which may be taught, and from these the -head-mistress arranges each pupil’s curriculum. As the fees are the same -as those of a high school, the endowment fund helps to supply better -salaries, apparatus, etc. and thus to increase efficiency. A scholarship -fund of £1000 has been provided by the generosity of two private donors, -and forty-one scholars have by its help already proceeded to the -university. - -Manchester also has a first-grade endowed school, which originated like -so many others in those active years that followed 1870. Here too the -initiative was taken by an association for promoting the higher -education of women. The school was started in 1873 by subscription, and -in 1876 the present site in Dover Street was secured for building, and -over £5000 raised for the purpose. A few years later, an opportunity -occurred of securing some public money, as the wealthy foundation of -Hulme’s Charity was to be reorganised. The school secured a share, -receiving a capital grant of £1500, and £1000 a year on condition that -the governing body should be reconstituted to give it a more -representative character. Under the new arrangement, there are -representatives of the Hulme Trustees, Oxford, Cambridge, Victoria, and -London, Owens College, and the Manchester School Board, as well as other -co-opted members. This representative character has proved of the -greatest value to the school, which takes rank as one of the first in -the country. The buildings are admirable in convenience and arrangement, -and the scholarship fund amounts to £640 a year. Two smaller schools -lately established by the governors at Pendleton and North Manchester -have somewhat diminished the numbers of the parent school, but prove a -boon to girls in those parts, since the means of communication at -Manchester are somewhat inadequate. Only Manchester girls are received -in the High School, or those residing with near relations. There are no -boarding-houses; it is a purely local school. The fees are nine to -fifteen guineas per annum. Manchester has been specially successful in -‘assimilating’ those girls that enter the high school from the -elementary schools, several of whom have passed on to the university -with scholarships, and been very successful in their after careers. Its -chief want is a system of scholarships from the elementary schools, to -enable it to extend its useful work, and take a place in a national -system of education. - -The most complete schemes of endowed schools for girls are at Birmingham -and Bedford, and they are typical of two different systems. The King -Edward’s endowment, one of the largest in England, had been so -mismanaged that in 1828 only 115 boys were being educated on it, and the -school building was in ruins. In 1831 by a Chancery scheme, two new -schools, Classical and English, were established, and twenty years later -there were sufficient funds to maintain eight elementary schools as -well. Immediately after the passing of the ‘Endowed Schools Act’ further -changes were made. The schools were reorganised in three grades (high, -middle, lower middle), and four grammar schools founded for girls. When -the spread of State-aided elementary schools made the third class -unnecessary, these were abolished, and a girl’s High School substituted. -This forms the last link in the chain; and a close connection between -different grades by means of scholarships, leading gradually upward from -the elementary school to the university, gives the necessary cohesion to -the system. The High School can accommodate 260 girls, and the four -grammar schools 780. Fees are charged in all, but not so high as to -cover the cost of education. At the High School it is calculated that -the expense of each pupil is £20 per annum, while the fee is £9. The -endowment makes up the deficiency, and permits the reservation of -one-third of the places for foundation scholars. Further, it enables the -governors to offer their teachers good salaries, and to conduct the -whole on those generous lines without which it is impossible to provide -a liberal education for either girls or boys. In educational -organisation as in municipal matters, Birmingham is a model to the rest -of the country. It shows how an old endowment, sufficiently large and -carefully distributed, can be made to meet the needs of all classes of a -community. ‘We cannot reform our ancestors,’ as George Eliot so -pertinently remarks, nor can we set down rich old endowments in the -midst of places that have never known such benefactions. But fresh money -is coming in from new sources, and we want object lessons in its -application. Birmingham teaches the value of co-ordination, and -incidentally the use to which public funds may be put in bringing a good -education within the reach of the largest possible number. - -The position of Bedford is different. A small town with no special -industry happens, through the munificence of one of its ancient -citizens, to be possessed of one of the largest endowments in the -kingdom. For many years its benefits were confined to the inhabitants of -Bedford, and as a result the population was constantly increased by -persons who were glad to get free education for their sons. Many, no -doubt, were well able to pay for it, but preferred, naturally enough, to -get it for nothing. At the time of the Schools’ Inquiry Commission, the -endowment was maintaining:—(1) A grammar school with 204 boys. (2) A -commercial school with 358 boys. (3) A preparatory commercial school -with 237 boys; as well as elementary schools for nearly 1200 children -and a hospital for 13 boys and 13 girls, almshouses, etc. Considerable -as were these numbers, they fell far short of the possibilities of the -endowment. The institution of a fee, even a low one, would at once set -free a goodly sum, and something, if only as compensation for the -marriage portions, was due to the girls. A new scheme providing for a -fresh distribution of the funds was drawn up in 1873, but the girls’ -schools did not come into existence till 1882. Under the present -arrangement one-eleventh of the available funds is used for eleemosynary -purposes, two-elevenths go to the elementary schools, which until quite -lately have served all the needs of the town and rendered a schoolboard -unnecessary. The remainder is divided equally between the two higher -schools—boys’ Grammar and girls’ High—and the two Modern schools. This -looks very much like putting girls and boys on an equality, but a clause -in the scheme explains that three boys are to be considered equal to -five girls. In other respects the money is evenly divided; it is shared -out annually ‘in proportion to the average number of scholars attending -the said schools respectively during the preceding year,’ a curious -application of a Scriptural doctrine, by which a rise in numbers in the -boys’ school entails a corresponding deficit in the exchequer of the -girls’ school and _vice versa_. Still, rightly managed, there is enough -for all. - -At Bedford no attempt is made to co-ordinate the work of the two -schools, or to establish any but the very slightest connection—by means -of a few scholarships—between the elementary and modern schools. Hence -the benefit of co-operation is lost. The great difference between the -fees—£9 to £12 at the High, £4 at the Modern school—makes active rivalry -impossible. It is the state of the home exchequer that settles the -choice of a school, far more than the preference for one system of -education or a girl’s probable after-career. It is curious that, in -spite of the general outcry for cheap schools, the low fee of the Modern -School has not proved as great an attraction as was expected; it has -filled but slowly, and is only now approaching 200, while the High -School averages an attendance of 600. To some extent the curriculum of -both schools is the same, but the greater economy requisite in the -Modern school necessitates larger classes, less complete equipment, and -lower salaries for the teachers. To families in straitened -circumstances, local shopkeepers, and small farmers within a short train -journey of the town, the school is a great boon; but it seems certain -that at Bedford, whatever may be the case elsewhere, all who can afford -the higher fee are willing to pay it for the sake of the greater social -prestige of the High School. Prejudice of this kind must always be -reckoned with, however carefully Parliament or Royal Commissioners may -provide on paper for the needs of each class of the population. - -On the other hand, the High School has more than fulfilled -anticipations. Not only does it provide a first-class education for the -sisters of grammar school boys, it has won a position and prestige of -its own which attract considerable numbers from a distance. There are -now several flourishing boarding-houses, all working in close connection -with the school, and under the superintendence of the head-mistress. In -this way Bedford High School, like the Cheltenham Ladies’ College, St. -Leonard’s School at St. Andrews, and a very few others, has taken a -position somewhat analogous to that of a boys’ public school, sought for -its own sake, and not merely on account of its nearness or cheapness. -The large numbers, ample staff, and sufficient funds enable the -head-mistress to consider the needs of individual pupils more carefully -than could be done in a small school. Forms are joined and subdivided -lengthwise and crosswise, so as to bring together in small groups girls -who are to give a good deal of time to Classics, Modern Languages, -English, Drawing or Science, or any other special subject, thus avoiding -the scrappiness with which the modern curriculum is sometimes charged. -The girl who aims at the university is prepared for it, the girl who has -a real taste for accomplishments receives first-rate instruction in -music, drawing, etc. and at the same time is encouraged to give special -attention to English. There is no attempt to force all through the same -mill. The school is most fortunate in its buildings, which are beautiful -as well as convenient. Hall, gymnasium, studio, laboratory, padded rooms -for practising, nothing seems wanting to the equipment. It is pleasant -to wander through the airy and tasteful class-rooms and realise that -this is one of the many good things which the redistribution of -endowments has given to girls. At Bedford there is not much risk of -forgetting whence the money comes. The Harpur Trust seems to give its -character to the town. The numerous schools, the Harpur Trust offices, -the rows of almshouses, the ‘Harpur’ and ‘Dame Alice’ streets are -suggestive of a town that has grown up about its schools, almost as -Oxford and Cambridge have about their colleges. In the old church close -by the founders lie buried; ever succeeding generations of boys and -girls are entering into their inheritance. - -Among the eight largest endowments of which the Commissioners had to -take cognisance was that of Dulwich. In few places was the reformer’s -hand more needed than in the assignment of those large sums which had -accumulated under the charity of Alleyn’s College of God’s Gift. At the -time of the Schools’ Inquiry Commission—that date which marks a new -starting-point in educational chronology, it maintained only an upper -school with 130 boys, and a lower school with 90. In 1895 when some of -the results of twenty-five years were summarised, it was supporting:—(1) -A first-grade boys’ school—Dulwich College—with 630 scholars. (2) A -second grade boys’ school—Alleyn’s School—with 540 boys; and -contributing, (3) To James Allen’s Girls’ School a capital sum of £6000, -and £650 a year. (4) To the Central Foundation Schools—boys and girls—a -capital sum of £11,000 and £2300 a year. (5) To St. Saviour’s Grammar -School, Southwark, a capital sum of £20,000 and £500 a year. - -This is a result that should please all parties. In spite of the -additional advantages given to boys, the girls gain two schools; for -although the James Allen school had been founded as early as 1741 by -James Allen, master of Dulwich College, it was really nothing more than -an elementary school until its reconstruction in 1882 with a part of the -Dulwich endowment. It can accommodate 300 girls, has eight class-rooms, -laboratory, assembly hall, dining-room, recreation ground of two and a -half acres, and a completely equipped gymnasium where lessons are given -by an expert teacher. With a £6 fee it is always full, and admirably -serves its purpose of ‘supplying to girls of the middle class a sound -practical education.’ - -The fourth of the large endowments belongs to St. Olave’s Grammar -School, and a school for girls is in course of establishment here. - -The Tonbridge endowment, administered by the Skinners’ Company, now -supports a school for girls at Stamford Hill. - -The Manchester Grammar School fund has of late decreased in value, and -has nothing to offer girls; but here they have had help from another -quarter. - -The Jones foundation at Monmouth now provides for 500 boys, and 100 -girls, besides 50 elementary scholars, in place of 180 boys at the date -of the Commission. - -Of the eight endowments, by far the largest was that of Christ’s -Hospital, and here there was no question as to the original intentions. -The treatment of girls had been so unfair as to arouse general -indignation. But the whole foundation really needed overhauling. After -long delays an elaborate scheme was drawn up, providing for the removal -into the country of the boys’ school, proper boarding-school provision -for girls, and large day-schools in London for both sexes. Of all this, -now nearly twenty years after the passing of the Endowed Schools Act, -very little has been done, though the removal of the boys’ school from -London to Horsham is now definitely settled. At Hertford the girls’ -school has been reformed in its methods, and additional ward -accommodation provided, but by a perverse system of election it is made -very difficult to fill even that space. Girls can only be admitted on -presentation of a governor—very difficult to obtain—or by a competition, -to which only three classes are admitted. They must come either from—(1) -Certain endowed schools in England and Wales, or (2) Public elementary -schools in the London School Board district, or (3) Certain parishes -which have hitherto exercised the right of presentation. As (1) and (2) -represent the classes which are best provided, and least in need of the -benefits of a cheap boarding-school, and (3) is, by its nature, very -restricted, it is not strange that it has hitherto proved impossible to -fill even the 140 available places, though there are thousands of girls -in rural districts to whom a school of this kind would prove a priceless -boon. There seems a curious irony about offering such nominations to the -Bedford Modern School where girls are receiving an excellent education -for £4 a year, and taking no thought for those less favoured places, -which, because they have no endowment of their own, are therefore shut -out from one that they could use. Of course all this is only temporary, -but the transition stage seems a very long one. As far as girls are -concerned, the chief needs seem to be the establishment of several cheap -boarding-schools, the election of some women on the council of almoners, -and a change in the present system of electing scholars. Let us hope -that when the reforms come at last, they may prove to have been worth -the waiting. - -Besides these eight chief endowments, there are many others of which -girls have now received a share. There are now in England and Wales over -eighty girls’ endowed schools of a secondary type, though the -distribution is curiously uneven; _e.g._ the West Riding of Yorkshire -has nine, while Surrey has only one. Much has been done, and much -remains to be done, but it is well that every kind of experiment should -be tried, so that the newer schemes may be improved by the experience of -the older ones. - -Endowed schools are technically supposed to be of three grades, -according to the age at which the pupils usually leave. For the first -the limit is eighteen or nineteen; for the second, sixteen or seventeen; -for the third, fourteen or fifteen. All admit them at seven or eight. -There is something peculiarly English about this arrangement, which, on -paper at any rate, appears needlessly wasteful. The natural division -seems the American one. Here there are three successive grades, -organically connected, by which a child may go through his whole school -career, passing, as it were, from the kindergarten at one end to the -university at the other. This arrangement of schools, all free, and -meant for all the children of the community, is in harmony with the -American democratic idea, but would be impossible in the midst of -English class prejudice. Still even our social exclusiveness does not -require such extreme differentiation, and experience shows that a system -of three parallel lines, distinguished chiefly by breaking off at -different points, is not altogether necessary. The problem, as it -presents itself for girls, is not, however, the same as for boys. Boys’ -schools of the highest grade naturally prepare their pupils for the -university, and as most of them are boarding-schools, they are exempt -from considering local needs. The first public schools for girls were -day schools. At the time of the first Endowed Schools Act, university -education for girls had hardly made any way. Girton was just struggling -into existence, the other colleges were but a dream of the future. -London still withheld its degrees. What girls needed most was a sound -general education given cheaply in day schools. Hence the low fees fixed -by the Girls’ Public Day School Company, and the still lower ones -charged at the endowed schools of the second and third grades, which at -that time met the most crying want. By 1883 ten of these third grade -schools in London were educating over two thousand girls. Among them -were the Greycoat Hospital at Westminster, and the Roan School, -Greenwich, and others that have since extended their sphere of work up -to the second grade limit. - -The course of events during the last few years has necessitated these -and many other changes. The Elementary Schools Act of 1870, and the -spread of Higher Grade schools, while largely removing the need for the -third grade, have necessitated some means of transition from the primary -to the secondary school. On the other hand, the rise of women’s -colleges, technical institutes, etc. and the increasing number of girls -who, whether from choice or necessity, expect to earn their own living, -necessitates a levelling-up of schools, and a closer connection with -places of higher education. Direct connection with the primary schools -on the one hand, and the women’s colleges on the other, is now a -necessity. Many of the Charity Commissioners’ schemes have attempted to -supply this. The Roan School at Greenwich is a good instance. It was -founded in 1643 out of money left by John Roan to clothe and educate -poor children, and reorganised in 1873, the income of £2000 being -divided between 350 boys and 320 girls. There is a special fund for -foundation exhibitions for elementary scholars, and others are admitted -on passing an examination, at half-fees—£3 instead of £6. Of the total -number of pupils, about two-fifths come from the elementary schools. -Thus the work of the two is brought into very close connection, and the -Roan School includes in itself both second and third grade functions. It -provides for the upward passage by exhibitions, many of which are held -at Bedford College, or in Wales. - -Scholarships of both kinds are also given by the Skinners’ School at -Stamford Hill. Some of the entrance exhibitions are restricted to pupils -from elementary schools, others are awarded by open competition. The two -leaving exhibitions, of the value of thirty-three and thirty guineas -respectively, are tenable for four years, at any place of advanced -education approved by the governors. The school fees range from £6 to -£10. The work of the Sixth Form leads to the higher certificate of the -Joint Board or the London Matriculation, both of which serve the -purposes of a leaving and entrance examination. This school might -therefore be regarded as a combination of the three grades. Similar work -is done by the Mary Datchelor School at Camberwell, the Aske’s School, -Hatcham, and several others. Such schools, with a definite connection -upward and downward, are among the chief educational needs of the day. -Those now at work seem to be always full, and they draw their pupils -from a class that look forward to a career of steady work. Clerks, civil -servants, teachers, typists, telegraphists, milliners, nurses; these, -and many others, occur in the lists of old pupils’ occupations. A useful -general education, either as an end in itself or as a basis for higher -or technical education, is given, and these schools have taken the place -of the third rate private schools, which was all that had previously -been offered to middle class girls. The expression of opinion by the -Royal Commissioners, in 1895, that ‘a second grade school, which -prepares for the local University College is often more suitable for a -certain section of the population than a first grade school linked to -Oxford and Cambridge,’ applies, _mutatis mutandis_, to girls as well as -boys. For both, a part of the highest work must be supplied by -boarding-schools. - -But when all the endowments hitherto made available are considered, the -share of the girls is still far too small. In some counties there is -hardly anything available for them. Against this disparity must be set -the benefactions of recent years, many of which are specially meant for -girls and women. The foundation of the City of London Girls’ School, by -William Ward, in 1881, with an endowment of £20,000; the Pfeiffer -Charity of £59,000, for the benefit of women’s education, the numerous -scholarships given by city companies, the establishment of Holloway and -Westfield Colleges, and of many other foundations for both sexes, belong -to the twenty years between 1875 and 1895. If girls have lacked much in -the past, they are inheriting the present. As the Charity Commissioners -remarked, when reviewing a record of a quarter a century: ‘As to one -particular branch of educational endowments, viz. that for the -advancement of the secondary and superior education of girls and women, -it may be anticipated that future generations will look back to the -period immediately following upon the Schools’ Inquiry Commission, and -the consequent passing of the Endowed Schools Act, as marking an epoch -in the creation and application of endowments for that branch of -education, similar to that which is marked for the education of boys and -men by the Reformation.’ - - - - - CHAPTER VI - THE WOMEN’S COLLEGES - - -The chief gain that this half-century has brought to women’s education -is their admission to the universities. It is the key-stone of the arch, -without which the rest of the fabric could have neither stability nor -permanence. The schools look to them for their teachers and their -standard, and gain thereby an element of fixity hitherto lacking. If -boys’ education may be blamed for excessive conservatism, that of girls -has suffered from extreme mobility. Since girls’ schools led nowhere, -and acknowledged no outside guidance, their aim was perpetually -changing, according to the ever-varying dictates of sentiment or -expediency. Independent and unorganised, they lacked all connection with -past and future; and it is this that the universities are now giving -them. - -Apart from its intrinsic importance, this reform is remarkable for the -speed and completeness with which it has been accomplished. Thirty years -ago it had hardly been seriously contemplated; now eight of the ten -universities of Great Britain teach their students without distinction -of sex, while two others admit them to lectures, examinations, and many -other privileges. All this has not been brought about without hard work -and persevering effort; and it would be vain to seek the origin of all -the separate forces that, acting and re-acting on one another, have -produced this result. Many were the workers, and the honours of the -pioneers must be shared, but among those who led the way a chief place -belongs to Miss Emily Davies. From the first she realised that the -reform in girls’ education must begin at the top. To quote her own -words: ‘The incompleteness of the education of schoolmistresses and -governesses is a drawback which no amount of intelligence and goodwill -can enable them entirely to overcome. It is obvious that for those who -have to impart knowledge the primary requisite is to possess it; and it -is one of the great difficulties of female teachers that they are called -upon to instruct others while being inadequately instructed themselves. -The more earnest and conscientious devote their leisure hours to -continued study, and no doubt much may be done in this way; but it is at -the cost of overwork, often involving the sacrifice of health, to say -nothing of the disadvantages of working alone, without a teacher, often -without good books, and without the wholesome stimulus of -companionship.’[14] - -But, important as was the improvement in the education of the teachers, -Miss Davies had a wider aim in view for the college she meant to found. -It was to bring a really liberal education within reach of all women, -apart from any special professional aim. Girls, as well as boys, should -have opportunities given them to carry on their studies in congenial and -stimulating surroundings, unhampered by the cares of earning and -unhindered by conflicting duties. To them, too, the college life was to -bring that joyous spring-time of youth, friendship, and unfettered -delight of study and leisure which had hitherto been withheld from them. -Such was the generous purpose in the minds of a few men and women who -were trying to fire others with their own enthusiasm. - -Even at the time of the Schools’ Inquiry Commission this question had -been mooted, and a memorial had been sent up pointing out the want of a -system of ‘instruction and discipline adapted to advanced students, -combined with examinations testing and attesting the value of the -education received.’ The report of the Commission and the discussion it -aroused helped to give publicity to the proposal, and at last it was -resolved to test the feasibility of the scheme by actual experiment. In -1867 a committee had been formed to consider the possibility of founding -a college ‘designed to hold in relation to girls’ schools and home -teaching a position analogous to that occupied by the universities -towards the public schools for boys.’ It was resolved to try an -experiment on a small scale, and proceed further as funds became -available. At Hitchin, near Cambridge, a small house was hired for the -six students who presented themselves, and in October 1869 they began -the work prescribed to candidates for degrees by the University of -Cambridge. Insignificant as these beginnings may seem, they were of -momentous importance in the history of women’s education. The founders -of this, the first women’s college in England, had to choose once for -all between a women’s university, with its exclusive studies and -degrees, and admission to the great universities of the country. The -question of a women’s university debated and vetoed in 1897 had really -been finally settled in 1870, when the first lady students requested and -received permission to be examined in the papers set for the Previous -Examination. - -The prospectus of the new college issued in the autumn of 1869 contained -this clause: ‘The Council shall use such efforts as from time to time -they may think most expedient and effectual to obtain for the students -of the College admission to the examinations for the degrees of the -University of Cambridge, and generally to place the College in -connection with the University.’ This ambitious programme thus early -laid down for the infant College must have provoked many smiles; and -looking back now after the lapse of nearly thirty years, we hardly know -whether to wonder most at the confidence placed by the founders in the -hitherto untried abilities of girls or at the success which so -abundantly justified their anticipations. - -It was thus made clear from the outset that the new college was to be no -self-centred institution, but was to derive its teaching, inspiration, -and standard from Cambridge, provided always that the University were -willing to accept the new responsibilities thus proposed. For this end -it seemed desirable to make an informal experiment, and through the -kindness of the individual examiners five of the students were submitted -to the test of the Previous Examination. All were successful; four -attained the standard required for a First Class, and one that of a -Second. Two years later three students entered for Tripos Examinations -in the same informal manner, two passing in classics and one in -mathematics. Thus three years after the opening of the College three of -its students had fulfilled all the conditions required by the University -of Cambridge for a degree in Honours. That was a sufficient answer to -the doubters; the founders had justified their action. Henceforth the -future of the College was fixed. - -Meanwhile vigorous efforts were being made to raise money for the -permanent building to be erected in or near Cambridge. This was no easy -task. Generous donations for the needs of women were at that time -unknown. The _Quarterly Review_ recommended ‘simplicity of living and -the strictest economy’ as alone suitable for women who might have to -earn their own living, and desired to combine with this ‘training in -housekeeping, regular needlework ... such cultivation as will make a -really good wife, sister, and daughter to educated men.’ Against such -selfish and confused notions it was difficult to contend. As Miss -Shirreff wrote at the time: ‘Never yet have a company of women been able -to scrape together funds for an object specially their own, be it club, -or reading-room, or hospital, or, as now, a college.’ It is pleasant to -realise that this is no longer true, and that the writer of these -despairing words lived to see the change she had helped to bring about. - -The money came in, though slowly. Madame Bodichon generously gave the -first thousand pounds, and among the earliest subscribers was George -Eliot. Lady Stanley was another who gave liberal aid. The subscription -list gradually grew longer; a piece of land was secured at Girton, near -Cambridge, and building began. In 1873 it was ready for occupation, and -henceforth became the home of the Ladies’ College, now incorporated as -Girton College, with Miss Davies installed as Mistress. As the numbers -increased, fresh additions were made to the building, but the aim and -work of the College remained unchanged. Students were prepared for the -Ordinary and Honours Degree Examinations by means of lectures given at -Girton, and, as these were gradually opened to women, by attendance at -some of the professorial and intercollegiate lectures in Cambridge. They -were informally examined with the same papers as were set to the men, -and in every detail of preliminary test, length of residence, etc. they -conformed to the rules laid down by the University for its members. In -lieu of the degree, which could not be conferred upon them, they -received from the College a ‘degree certificate,’ and year by year fresh -proofs were given of the general efficiency of the College and its -students. In this way informal connection with the University was -combined with formal adherence to its regulations. Thus matters -continued till 1881. - -Side by side with the beginnings of Girton, another movement had been at -work. This was largely due to the North of England Council, which by -promoting examinations for women over eighteen, had been establishing a -fresh link between the University of Cambridge and the education of -girls. A Cambridge committee established courses of lectures in all the -subjects of examination. These naturally attracted many students from a -distance, and the same persons who had organised the lectures, soon had -to face the problem of housing the audience. Mr. Henry Sidgwick, to -whose generous and unfailing assistance women owe so much, invited Miss -Clough to come and take charge of a house of residence for women -students. This house—No. 64 Regent Street—became the germ of Newnham. As -the numbers increased, removal to larger premises became necessary, and -Merton Hall was taken. When this too had to be abandoned it was resolved -to build. Funds were raised by the Newnham Hall Company, and eventually -this was amalgamated with the association which had charge of the -lectures, and the two were incorporated as Newnham College. This -development from small beginnings, under the Principal’s able management -with the constant help and sympathy of Mr. and Mrs. Sidgwick, has now -been fully made known through Miss A. B. Clough’s interesting biography -of her aunt. Newnham has seen some changes of policy and programme since -its first beginnings in 1870, but its true aim, to advance the education -of women at Cambridge, has always remained the same. - -Since Newnham originated in a house of residence for girls preparing for -the Higher Local Examination, this was naturally the goal set before the -first students; but very early in its history some few who were more -ambitious or better prepared, found this aim insufficient, and began, -like the Girton students, to study for the degree examinations. The -Higher Local, at first the goal, gradually receded in importance, and -became a preliminary instead of a final, but it was not made compulsory -to follow the Cambridge curriculum exactly, and in those early days -great latitude in choice of subjects, examinations, length of residence, -etc. was allowed to Newnham students. - -Thus matters continued till 1880, when special attention was called to -Girton by the distinguished success of one of its students, who was -declared by the examiners in the mathematical Tripos to be equal to the -eighth wrangler. There was now a ten years’ record of good work to show, -and the time seemed opportune for bringing about a more formal -connection with the University. A memorial was drawn up and presented, -which called attention to the ‘repeated instances of success on the part -of students of Girton and Newnham Colleges, in satisfying the examiners -in various degree examinations at Cambridge,’ and praying the Senate to -‘grant to properly qualified women the right of admission to the -examinations for University degrees, and to the degrees conferred -according to the result of such examinations.’ This was signed by 8500 -persons; other petitions to the same effect were received, and as a -result a syndicate was appointed to consider the matter. Their report -advocated the formal admission of women to the Honours examinations of -the University, and the publication of a separate class-list, indicating -the position of each in the general list. They did not, however, -recommend conferring degrees on women, nor did they advise admitting -them to the Ordinary Degree examinations. The recommendations were -embodied in three Graces, passed by the Senate on February 24, 1881, a -red-letter day in the annals of College women. These are the most -important:— - -‘1. That female students who have fulfilled the conditions respecting -length of residence and standing which members of the University are -required to fulfil, be admitted to the Previous Examination and the -Tripos Examinations. - -‘2. That such residence shall be kept—(_a_) at Girton College; or (_b_) -at Newnham College; or (_c_) within the precincts of the University, -under the regulations of one or other of these Colleges; or (_d_) in any -similar institution within the precincts of the University which may be -recognised hereafter by grace of the Senate. - -‘3. That certificates of residence shall be given by the authorities of -Girton College or Newnham College or other similar institution hereafter -recognised by the University, in the same form as that which is -customary in the case of members of the University. - -‘4. That except as is provided in regulation 5, female students shall, -before admission to a Tripos Examination, have passed the Previous -Examination (including the Additional subjects), or one of the -examinations which excuse members of the University from the Previous -Examination. - -‘5. That female students who have obtained an Honour certificate in the -Higher Local Examination, may be admitted to a Tripos Examination, -though such certificate does not cover the special portions of the -Higher Local Examination, which are accepted by the University in lieu -of parts or the whole of the Previous Examination; provided that such -students have passed in Group B, (Language): and Group C, (Mathematics). - -‘6. That no female student shall be admitted to any part of any of the -examinations of the University who is not recommended for admission by -the authorities of the College, or other institution, under whose -regulations she has resided. - -‘7. That after each examination a class-list of the female students who -have satisfied the examiners shall be published by the examiners at the -same time with the class-list of members of the University, the standard -for each class, and the method of arrangement in each class being the -same in the two class lists. - -‘8. That in each class of female students in which the names are -arranged in order of merit, the place which each of such students would -have occupied in the corresponding class of members of the University -shall be indicated. - -‘9. That the examiners for the Tripos shall be at liberty to state, if -the case be so, that a female student who has failed to satisfy them, -has in their opinion reached a standard equivalent to that required from -members of the University for the ordinary B.A. degree. - -‘10. That to each female student who has satisfied the examiners in a -Tripos Examination, a certificate shall be given by the University -stating the conditions under which she was admitted to the examinations -of the University, the examinations in which she has satisfied the -examiners, and the class and place in the class to which she has -attained in each of such examinations.’ - -This was followed in 1882 by permission to pass the examinations for -degrees in Music. - -The Colleges and their students thus received formal acknowledgment from -the University, and the status then conferred remains unchanged to this -day. Two attempts have since been made to induce the University to carry -its concessions to their logical issue, and confer degrees on women. -That of 1887 came to an untimely end, as it was not even considered by a -syndicate; the events of 1897 belong to recent history, and are too -fresh to allow a proper estimate of their significance. The facts are -these. In 1896 four memorials were presented to the Council, asking for -the nomination of a syndicate ‘to consider on what conditions and with -what restrictions, if any, women should be admitted to degrees in the -University.’ The syndicate was appointed, and reported in favour of -conferring ‘the title of the degree of Bachelor of Arts’ by diploma upon -women, ‘who, in accordance with the now existing ordinances, shall -hereafter satisfy the examiners in a final Tripos Examination, and shall -have kept by residence nine terms at least; provided that the title so -conferred shall not involve membership of the University.’ This seemed a -very moderate proposal, since it only involved a formal acknowledgment -of privileges already conferred, but somehow the University took fright. -Perhaps it now for the first time realised what had already been done, -and determined to allow no more concessions; perhaps an element of -jealousy was beginning to play a part among the younger members who had -appeared in the same class lists as the women, and not always in the -highest places; certain it is that while the best weight and learning in -Cambridge were in favour of the proposals, numbers were ranged on the -other side; and the voting resulted in a majority of more than a -thousand against the proposal. In estimating this result it is well to -remember that the women’s colleges had met with far more rapid success -than even their founders had anticipated. They had produced a Senior -Wrangler and a Senior Classic, and a formidable list of first classes in -these and other Triposes. It was no longer possible to put aside their -achievements with the old contemptuous formula, ‘very good considering.’ -The movement had succeeded beyond all hope or fear, and while its true -friends remained staunch, many of the indifferent now ranged themselves -among the open enemies. Events had moved too fast for the rearguard of -public opinion to keep up with them. At any rate the refusal was -decisive, and matters settled down once more to the _status quo_ of -1881. - -Anomalous as is their position, the students of Girton and Newnham have -many and great advantages. For a comparatively low fee they receive all -the advantages of a University education; they enjoy the manifold -privileges that belong to residence in Cambridge, they may attend nearly -all professorial and very many college lectures, their own colleges also -provide excellent lecturing and coaching; and they may enter for any of -the Tripos Examinations, and for those that lead to the degrees of Doc. -and Bac. Mus. They have the advantage of life in beautiful buildings, -with plentiful opportunities for recreation, exercise, and social -intercourse, while the very fact of belonging to Girton or Newnham -confers a certain prestige which is an advantage professionally and -socially. However much we may desire the degree, and regret its -indefinite postponement, it may yet safely be said that nowhere else can -women obtain such advantages as at Cambridge. No anxiety need be felt -about the future of the colleges. The success of their students, the -influence their ‘graduates’ have had on the teaching profession, and the -good work done by them in other fields, have amply justified the new -departure. If success has come too quickly, public opinion may lag -behind a few years longer. Meantime the work goes on. - -At this period of their history it is no longer necessary to describe -the colleges. Everybody who knows Cambridge is familiar with them. Both -have increased greatly since their first beginnings. Girton has added -fresh wings and a tower; changed its entrance and built a library which -is full to overflowing. The trees have grown up around it and offer -pleasant shade to summer tea-parties and afternoon loungers, the -‘woodland walk’ that encircles the grounds is gay at almost all seasons -with pretty blossoms and flowering shrubs. Newnham has enlarged its -first (Old) hall and built two new ones, called by names that will ever -be held in honour, Clough and Sidgwick Halls. One library has been -outgrown, and another—a generous gift—has been lately added; a road has -been diverted allowing an addition to the grounds, and a fresh approach -made under a tower gateway with beautiful iron gates presented by old -students in memory of their first Principal. Girton has once more -outgrown its accommodation, and is appealing for building funds. The -colleges are growing both outwardly and in their aims. Not the least -hopeful feature is the number of ‘graduate’ students who continue their -studies in Cambridge or at one of the foreign universities, or devote to -research or social problems that leisure and freedom from responsibility -which women possess in a greater share than men. The founders have been -abundantly justified in their resolve to establish no mere -training-school for governesses, but to offer a wide and liberal -education to all. - -There are some differences in the arrangements of the two colleges. At -Girton each student has two rooms, at Newnham one. The Girton fees are -£105 per annum including coaching and examinations; at Newnham they are -£75, but these items are not in all cases included. Girton supplies cabs -for students who attend lectures in Cambridge; Newnham, being in the -town, is within a walk. Both require every one who has not taken an -equivalent, _e.g._ the higher certificate of the Joint Board, to pass an -entrance examination. Both colleges award scholarships, though scarcely -sufficient to meet the many demands from girls whose parents cannot -afford the payment of full fees. Miss Welsh, one of the early Hitchin -students, is now mistress of Girton; Newnham has a Vice-principal for -each of the halls, and a Principal over the whole. In this post Mrs. H. -Sidgwick succeeded Miss Clough, when the true foundress of Newnham died -in 1892. - -There is a good deal of resemblance between the Cambridge colleges and -the Oxford halls, though these latter have a different history. As early -as 1865 a scheme for lectures and classes at Oxford had been organised -by Miss Smith, and remained in operation for several years. In 1873 -another similar scheme was set on foot by a committee of ladies, with -Mrs. Max Müller as treasurer, and Mrs. H. Ward and Mrs. Creighton, -followed by Mrs. T. H. Green, as secretaries. The outcome of this was -the Association for the Education of Women, organised in 1878, its -object being ‘to establish and maintain a system of instruction having -general reference to the Oxford examinations.’ Here as at Cambridge the -next step was to found halls of residence to accommodate students from a -distance. Two of these, Somerville and Lady Margaret, were opened in the -same year, 1879; since then two more, St. Hugh’s and St. Hilda’s, have -been added. The great difference, however, between the arrangements at -the two Universities is that the Oxford Association, instead of -amalgamating with the halls, has continued an independent existence, -taking the lead in all matters concerning women’s education. Most -associations of this kind were temporary bodies, which dissolved when -the college or school for which they were working was established, or -when the particular institution with which they were connected had -opened its doors to women. But the Oxford Association has increased in -importance with the development of the colleges, and has become a Board -of Studies for their students, and a means of communication between them -and the University. One of its functions is to organise lectures, to -which members of the University not infrequently request and obtain -admission. It also undertakes the negotiations with the various -professors and colleges that admit women to lectures, and it is thanks -to its exertions that they may now attend under certain regulations -lectures at almost every college in Oxford. Similarly their admission to -university examinations is the work of the Association. In fact, it acts -almost as a feminine department of the University, since it has to -sanction the establishment of halls, make itself responsible for the -studies and discipline of its students, and generally establish their -connection with the University. This connection received its formal -acknowledgment in 1893, when the Dean of Christchurch was appointed to -represent the Hebdomadal Council on the Council of the Association, and -a room in the Clarendon Building was lent it as an office. - -There are some other technical differences between the position of women -at Oxford and Cambridge. The latter directly acknowledges the women’s -colleges, the former in theory knows nothing of its women students, but -leaves the Delegacy for Local Examinations to arrange for their -examination. The delegates are allowed for this purpose to use the -papers set by the University examiners for men, and, of course, the -examinations are conducted simultaneously and under exactly the same -conditions. Women may enter for every examination—whether Pass or -Honours—leading to the B.A. degree, and it is this Delegacy which lays -down the special conditions. In all cases a Preliminary examination is -compulsory and in some an Intermediate, but neither the Delegacy nor the -University demands that they should conform to the regulations imposed -on men in regard to duration of study, preliminary examinations and -residence. This has led to greater freedom in work; but, as often -happens, this greater liberty has proved somewhat detrimental. It was -difficult to gauge the value of work done under such conditions, since -some students would end a four years’ course with Moderations and others -at once begin working for the Final Schools. Then there were some -special examinations for women, which by that very restriction failed to -win even the prestige they deserved, and an impression, not quite -unfounded, spread abroad, of a certain vagueness in the Oxford work, -which lessened its value in the eyes of the general public. There was no -real gain in making a selection from a course that had been carefully -planned out by the University for its members, and as this anomalous -state of things had really been brought about by the gradual opening of -the examinations, which made the regular course at first inaccessible to -women students, there seemed no reason for continuing it when once this -difficulty was removed. Oxford women got less credit often than was -their due, simply because some little preliminary formality had been -omitted. - -In order to remedy this, and put the whole work on a firmer basis, the -Association decided to institute a system of diplomas for those of its -students who have taken the full course required of members of the -University. This certificate is awarded only to students who have -entered their names on the register qualifying for it, have kept their -residence after date of entry, and passed the examinations of the B.A. -course in the order and under the conditions as to standing prescribed -for members of the University. Another diploma is also offered to those -who have passed a course of three examinations approved by the council. -Though equivalent to the B.A. diploma as regards difficulty of -attainment, there appears to be little demand among recent students for -this alternative course; and it will probably be regarded as a survival -from the days when, the University examinations being only partially -open to women, substitutes had in some cases to be devised. Certificates -are also awarded to those students who have resided not less than eight -terms, and have obtained a class in an Honour Examination of the -University or of the Delegates of Local Examinations. These diplomas and -certificates offer a definite incentive to regular study, and serve at -once to show the value of the work done in each case. - -At Oxford, as at Cambridge, an attempt has been made to win complete -acknowledgment for women students by the conferment of the degree. An -appeal was made to the University in 1895. The question came to the vote -in 1896, and here, as afterwards at Cambridge, the proposal was thrown -out by a considerable majority. Oxford women, like their sisters at -Cambridge, must therefore wait a while longer for complete recognition. -The attempt here may have been a little premature, since, owing to the -late opening of the examinations and the latitude allowed to students, -there were at that time very few who had fulfilled all the necessary -conditions. Still the reason of the refusal was probably identical in -both cases, and indicated a deep-rooted prejudice that must be overcome -before further steps can be taken. Meantime the institution of the -degree-certificate is giving fresh impetus to the work, and attracting -larger numbers to the colleges. - -Of these Somerville and Lady Margaret were founded almost -simultaneously, but with somewhat different aims, the former being -undenominational, the latter distinctly Church of England. Both were -intended as halls of residence for Association students, but in 1881 -Somerville was incorporated as a college ‘to provide for the residence -of women students’ as well as ‘for the instruction of women students and -for the delivery of lectures to such students’; it was not, however, -till 1894 that the term ‘college’ came into general use. Like the -Cambridge colleges it has grown from small beginnings; it has been -enlarged four times, not on one plan but by the addition of fresh -buildings, so that it does not present the appearance of a connected -whole. But standing in pleasant grounds among fine old trees, this very -medley gives it a certain charm. It can now accommodate over seventy -students, besides the Principal, secretary, and four resident tutors. -Many of its old students have gained honourable positions for -themselves; indeed the Principals of two leading women’s colleges, -Holloway and Bedford, were chosen from the ranks of old Somerville -students. - -Lady Margaret was founded by the Bishop of Rochester and others, and has -adhered to its original plan of supplying residence to Church members of -the Association. It undertakes no part of the instruction, but makes use -of the Association’s tutorial and lecturing staff. For some years the -numbers continued small, but as they gradually increased it became -necessary to construct an additional hall. Part of this, the Wordsworth -building, was occupied in 1896, when the numbers went up to forty-nine, -and the council are now appealing for additional funds with which to -build a chapel and the central block, to contain the library and -permanent dining-hall. A pretty thatched boat-house on the Cherwell is -an attractive feature of the grounds, and Lady Margaret is proud of its -rowing club. The Principal is Miss Wordsworth, daughter of the late -Bishop of Lincoln and great-niece of the poet. The hall takes its name -from Lady Margaret Beaufort, that renowned patroness of learning, and -there is a cast from her effigy in the tiny college chapel. - -In close connection with Lady Margaret is St. Hugh’s. It was founded in -1886 by Miss Wordsworth to provide a more economical residence for women -students. By a system of sharing bedrooms and using common -sitting-rooms, somewhat lower fees became practicable for those who -could not afford the ordinary terms. The plan does not seem to have -proved very successful, and St. Hugh’s has developed into a small -independent hall for twenty-five students, on the same lines as Lady -Margaret, but with a graduated system of fees according to the room -occupied. Like Lady Margaret it is conducted according to the principles -of the Church of England, with liberty for other denominations. It also -uses the tutorial staff of the Association. All students are expected to -read for some University examination unless specially exempted by the -Council. The Principal is Miss Moberly, daughter of the late Bishop of -Salisbury. - -The youngest of the Oxford halls is St. Hilda’s. It was founded by Miss -Beale in 1893, and meant in the first instance for students passing on -from Cheltenham to Oxford. This exclusive character has, however, been -abandoned, and it is now formally recognised under the rules of the -Association for the Education of Women. It still receives the greater -part of its students from Cheltenham, though there is nothing now to -exclude others. As yet the numbers are very small. The Principal is Mrs. -Burrows. - -Of these four institutions, Somerville, the largest and most -distinguished, is the only undenominational one. All four have the -combined bedroom-studies, with common dining-halls, libraries, etc. -Out-door games, debating societies, college clubs, etc. are as popular -as at Cambridge. All the colleges require an entrance examination or an -alternative, and all give scholarships according to ability. The fees at -Somerville (including board, lodging, tuition and lectures) range from -£78 to £90 according to the room occupied. At Lady Margaret they are -£75, exclusive of tuition, which involves another £20 or £25. At St. -Hugh’s the inclusive terms range from £70 to £90; at St. Hilda’s as at -Lady Margaret, there is a charge of £75, which does not include tuition. - -Besides those who reside at the halls other women are frequently -attracted to Oxford. For these, too, the Association makes provision. -Those who avail themselves of the lectures and direction of the -Association, but do not reside in a hall, are registered as home -students, and are placed under the care of a Principal and a committee -of the Council of the Association. They are required to reside, with the -Principal’s approval, in a house sanctioned by the committee, and to -conform to certain rules corresponding to those laid down for hall -students. The Principal performs some of the functions of a tutor. -Students call upon her at the beginning and end of each term, and submit -to her their lists of lectures before sending them in to the office. The -home students are doubtless able to pursue their studies more -economically. The tuition fees seldom exceed £25, and board and lodging -may be had for 25s. a week and upwards. As Oxford terms rarely exceed -eight weeks it is possible by very careful management to keep expenses -down to £50 to £60. As a matter of fact a large proportion of these -students are daughters of Oxford residents. The arrangement is also a -convenient one for foreigners who come to Oxford for a short time only. -Many come in this way from America, after taking a degree in one of -their own colleges. French, German, Russian, Roumanian, Danish, Swedish, -and Norwegian students have at different times resided in Oxford, -working at English language and literature, for the teaching diplomas of -their own country. By helping these the Association can considerably -increase its sphere of usefulness, and without disturbing the work of -the halls it introduces a wider outlook into the lives of the students. -At the same time it is open to home students to take the regular course, -and several of them do so. The committee only registers those who take -up a systematic course of study, extending over at least three terms, -but even those who come for a shorter time can attend its lectures and -profit by its help. - -By these varied means the Association is able to draw together all the -agencies for women’s education at Oxford; in 1897 the number of students -on its books was 202, and there is every reason to expect a considerable -increase now that the institution of the degree-diploma has given a -fresh impulse to the work. The steady flow from our girls’ schools to -both Universities proves that the colleges have won appreciation through -the whole of the country. Happily many of the founders are yet among us -to enjoy the fruits of the labours. Girton and Newnham, Somerville and -Lady Margaret, bear eloquent testimony to the truth that the dreamers of -visions are often those who see furthest and best. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - ADMISSION TO UNIVERSITIES - - -The position of women at Oxford and Cambridge is so anomalous as to -require a good deal of explanation, and indeed it is sometimes said that -the only real grievance these students have is the difficulty of making -people understand what they may and what they may not do. There is no -such difficulty when we come to the newer universities. Here the course -has been one of steady progress, and one after another all the barriers -have fallen. - -London was the pioneer in this reform, and its exceptional position made -it an excellent field for experiment. A mere examining and -degree-conferring body, the London University was not obliged to face -those difficult questions of residence, teaching, and discipline which -had to be considered elsewhere. It was natural that women who desired to -obtain professional qualifications without being compelled to seek them -outside their own country, should apply to London for help. As early as -1856 Miss J. M. White had addressed a letter to the Registrar, inquiring -whether a woman could become a candidate for a diploma in medicine. -Counsel’s opinion was taken in the matter and proved adverse. In 1872 it -was again raised by Miss Elizabeth Garrett (now Mrs. Garrett Anderson) -who requested admission as a candidate for matriculation. She was -refused on the same ground. Since it appeared that the University had -not power to accede to these requests, a memorial was drawn up begging -it to seek for such modifications in its charter as would enable it to -admit women to examination. The motion was brought before the Senate, -and lost by the casting vote of the Chancellor. With success so nearly -attained the advocates of the change determined not to let the matter -drop, and after a while a modified proposal was made. It was thought -that a special examination for women might meet the case, or at any rate -serve as an experiment in what was then a very new field. The first was -held in May 1869, and followed the lines of Matriculation with some -modifications. As an isolated examination of no special difficulty and -leading nowhere, it did not attract large numbers, and it became more -and more clear that what women needed was not so much a special course -of study as—to quote the words of the Calendar—‘to have access to the -ordinary degrees and honours, and to be subject to the same tests of -qualification which were imposed on other students.’ The result of this -conviction was that in 1878 it was decided to accept from the Crown ‘a -supplemental charter, making every degree, honour, and prize awarded by -the University accessible to students of both sexes on perfectly equal -terms.’ The charter, however, declared that no woman should be a member -of Convocation until Convocation should itself pass a resolution -admitting them. In 1882, almost as soon as there was any woman eligible, -this resolution was passed, and henceforth both sexes were placed on an -absolute equality in their treatment by London University. - -There is no need to dwell on the success of this new departure. The -London degrees have been eagerly sought by women, and they have won -distinguished places in the class lists. Among its graduates London -numbers over fifty female M.A.’s, six D.Sc.’s, one D.Lit., to say -nothing of many hundred B.A. and B.Sc., as well as all the medical -degrees. Class lists show no special division into masculine and -feminine studies, since women have won high honours in classics, and men -in modern languages. Even on Presentation-Day special allusions to the -lady-graduates are seldom made in the speeches; it is no longer -considered a matter of surprise that women should hold their own -intellectually. The London class lists with their rigid equality have -proved to demonstration the equality of the sexes as far as concerns the -domain of examination. And at the particular moment when this was done, -it was the greatest service that could be rendered to the cause of -women’s education, since it settled once and for all the question of -making special conditions for them. - -But throwing open the examinations and degrees of London was only an -indirect assistance to their education, since the University examines -all who come, but asks no questions as to how or where they gained their -teaching. There was one institution already in existence which was only -waiting for this new impulse to enlarge the scope of its work. Bedford -College had been gradually developing from humble beginnings into an -institution of first-class educational importance. In 1874 it had been -removed from Bedford Square to its present premises in York Place, Baker -Street, and here it has been gradually expanding, adding another house, -building on at the back, supplying now one laboratory now another, until -it has reached its present condition of efficiency, taking its place as -the leading women’s college of London. Its success is probably due to -the progressive action of its council, ever ready to realise new needs -and meet each fresh demand as it arose. Recognising the transformation -which the opening of the London degrees must effect in women’s -education, they at once proceeded to open classes in the subjects of the -examinations. At the first Matriculation Examination to which women were -admitted, five Bedford College students presented themselves, and all -took Honours. In due course classes for B.A. work were added, then -B.Sc., then M.A., and in all these Bedford College students acquitted -themselves well. The college had now won an honourable place among -university colleges, and in 1894 it was included among the list of those -entitled to a share of the annual grant of £15,000 to university -colleges in Great Britain. From this source it received £700, since -increased to £1200, and it now receives also an annual grant of £500 -from the London Technical Education Board, for the further equipment of -the laboratories and development of practical work in science. This is a -speciality of Bedford College. Its laboratories for biology, botany, -chemistry, geology, physiology, and physics meet every requirement. - -The college is still open to girls who attend only single courses, but -the majority enter as regular students, and work either for a London -degree or the alternative college course. Bedford has also added other -departments of study to the ordinary curriculum. It has an art school, a -training department for teachers, and a special hygiene course, for -which certificates are conferred. And finally it has developed, as far -as its accommodation will permit, into a residential college. The -old-fashioned dormitory boarding accommodation has been abolished in -favour of students’ rooms in the bed-study fashion so familiar at -Newnham and Oxford, and the general management has been placed in the -hands of a Principal. Miss Emily Penrose, the first to fill this post, -has now become Principal of Holloway, and her place is taken by Miss -Ethel Hurlbatt, late Warden of Aberdare Hall. - -Bedford College, true to its undenominational principles, has never -introduced religious instruction into its curriculum. It is not -unnatural that a wish has been expressed in some quarters for a -residential college, which should prepare its students for London -degrees and at the same time take cognisance of their religious -training. It was for this end that Westfield College at Hampstead was -founded in 1882. Its benefactor was Miss Dudin Brown, who made over to -trustees the sum of £10,000 ‘for the establishment of a college for the -higher education of women on Christian principles.’ The Principal is -Miss Maynard, one of the early students of Girton, who has introduced -into Westfield many of the arrangements of the parent college. The -two-room plan, which has found too few imitators, is the rule here. -Inclusive fees, as at Girton, are £105 a year. The conditions for -admission are similar. There are three entrance scholarships, open to -girls who have passed the London Matriculation in Honours or in the -first division. - -The college began its work in hired houses at Hampstead, but building -soon became necessary. It is pleasantly situated in that most attractive -of the London suburbs, and combines some advantages of both town and -country. Though it has no laboratories of its own, students can easily -reach those of Bedford College to which they have access; and similarly -it is easy to supply from London such teaching as cannot be undertaken -by the resident staff. Westfield students take high places in the class -lists, and it supplies an important addition to the London colleges. - -In enumerating these we cannot omit Holloway, for though far beyond the -borders of the metropolis, it is more and more assimilating its teaching -to the London work. Such was not, however, its original purpose. Among -those who attended the meeting in 1867 to consider the foundation of a -women’s college, was Mr. Thomas Holloway, and at one time it was hoped -he would prove a benefactor to it. But Mr. Holloway preferred the idea -of an independent college unconnected with a university, like Vassar and -others in the United States, and his wishes were thus expressed: ‘It is -the founder’s desire that power by Act of Parliament, Royal Charter, or -otherwise, should ultimately be sought, enabling the college to confer -degrees on its students after proper examination in the various subjects -of instruction.’ With this end in view he chose a beautiful site near -Egham, and built upon it a most elaborate and fully equipped college, -which should some day develop into a women’s university. Nothing was -spared that could contribute to the comfort and well-being of the -students. Each has two rooms; and the magnificent dining-hall, museum, -picture-gallery, etc. prove that no pains were spared to make the new -college attractive as well as efficient. For all that, it was viewed at -first with some misgivings, for it seemed to lack a definite aim. It was -formally opened by the Queen in 1886, and in the following year Miss -Bishop was appointed Principal, but students came in slowly. A liberal -provision of scholarships, and the beauty and healthy situation of the -college did much to dispel the first misgivings, especially when it -began to appear from results that the teaching too was of the best. The -founder had himself directed that until the power to confer degrees -should have been obtained ‘it is intended that the students shall -qualify themselves to take the degrees at the University of London or -any other university of the United Kingdom whose degrees may be obtained -by them, or to pass any examination open to them at any such university, -which may be equivalent to a degree examination.’ In accordance with -this permission the first students were prepared for the London degrees, -and also for the examinations of the University of Oxford, which under -present conditions are open to all comers, since the delegacy takes no -cognisance of residence. Holloway students may therefore, if they -please, present themselves for examination in Moderations and Final -Schools just as if they were residing at the Oxford halls. They cannot, -of course, obtain the Association’s diploma, and miss the advantage of -the Oxford lectures. - -On these lines the college worked for ten years, when circumstances made -it necessary to reconsider its position. At both Oxford and Cambridge -the degree had been refused, and it seemed desirable for the friends of -women’s education to come to some decision on their future policy. Once -again the scheme of a women’s university was raised; and Holloway -College took the lead in calling a meeting to discuss the question. -Opinions were invited as to the future action of the college, and three -propositions were made: (1) That Holloway College should, in accordance -with the founder’s will, seek powers to confer its own degrees. (2) That -a Federal University should be founded, to include in its jurisdiction -all the women’s colleges. (3) That Holloway should associate itself more -closely with London, and seek admission into its teaching University -when this should be founded. The discussion showed a strong consensus in -favour of this last proposal, and it is probable that henceforth the -work of Holloway College will be chiefly directed towards the London -courses. If so, it will be safe to predict for it a brilliant future. -Its healthy situation, delightful grounds, beautiful buildings, and -large endowment, with the prospect of receiving full recognition for -work done, will attract large numbers; indeed with Holloway, Bedford, -and Westfield for their own, London women have little left to desire. -Whatever they may lack elsewhere fullest measure is dealt to them here. - -Nor are they even restricted to their own special colleges. The classes -at University College are open to all who care to attend; indeed this -was one of the first, if not the very first, of our English colleges to -try the co-education experiment. After experimenting by holding some -classes for women separately, and admitting them temporarily to others, -the professors decided in favour of joint classes, and the result was -the opening of all except the departments of Medicine and Engineering. -The results proved altogether satisfactory, and this end has been helped -by the appointment of a lady-superintendent, who holds the same position -towards the women students that a vice-dean does to the men. No woman is -admitted as a student except upon her recommendation, and upon -production of satisfactory references. In this way their special -interests are safeguarded, and girls far from home may always secure -friendly advice and guidance. Further, there is a special residence -provided at College Hall, Byng Place, where students may have some of -the advantages of college life while pursuing their studies at -University College, or the Woman’s Medical School close by. With Miss -Grove as Principal, and Miss Morison, superintendent of the women -students, as Vice-Principal, it offers a bright and cultivated home to -its inmates, and keeps up the collegiate idea by admitting only such as -have already passed Matriculation or an equivalent examination, and are -pursuing a regular course of study. The fees for board and residence -vary, according to the room occupied and the length of the term, from -£51 to £90 the session. - -To give a complete list of the institutions that prepare students for -the London degrees, would be impossible, since it is open to any person -in any place to hold such classes. A few work for them at the ladies’ -department of King’s College, but on the whole the work of this branch -is more on the lines of miscellaneous lectures and general culture. Some -schools, _e.g._ the North London and the Bedford High School, also carry -on their pupils beyond Matriculation to the Intermediate examinations, -or even further. The Ladies’ College, Cheltenham, provides instruction -for the full Arts course. Most of the provincial university colleges -have London degree classes, and many candidates, who cannot get oral -teaching, make use of the University Tutorial and other correspondence -classes. - -A new development on fresh lines is supplied by the Polytechnics. In -most of these, whether in London or other large towns, classes are held -in all the subjects of the London examinations with particular -assistance for Science. With fully equipped laboratories, a large staff -of teachers, and considerable funds at their disposal, the Polytechnics -may yet become formidable rivals to the other London colleges. Some -regret this new departure, and believe that such institutions would be -better employed in confining themselves to their original function, the -encouragement of handicraft; on the other hand, a system of cheap local -colleges is so valuable to large numbers that it is not likely to be -abandoned. Some place must be found in the new organisation of the -London University for these institutes, if they themselves desire it; -but perhaps we shall see, instead of this, a federation of these great -science and handicraft schools into some fresh University of their own. - -The example set by London in 1879 was soon to be imitated. Only a year -afterwards a new University was founded, and the principle of including -women was at once adopted. The charter of Victoria University distinctly -stated that its degrees and distinctions might be conferred ‘on all -persons, male or female, who shall have pursued a regular course of -study in a College in the University, and shall submit themselves for -examination.’ The degree is somewhat on the lines of the London, but -attendance at certain prescribed courses of study is required. These -courses must be continued for three years at least. Hence admission to -the Victoria degrees really depends on the action of the individual -colleges, which are quite unfettered by the University. These are—(1) -Owens College, Manchester; (2) University College, Liverpool; (3) -Yorkshire College, Leeds. - -The first of these had been in existence as a men’s college some years -before the establishment of the University, and it has not seemed -anxious to make changes in its original constitution. It became -necessary to organise a special department for women, in connection with -which they still receive some of their instruction. But the teaching for -the higher examinations, _i.e._ those beyond the Victoria Preliminary, -is received in the ordinary college classes. As a matter of fact, men -and women are taught together in nearly all the B.A. and B.Sc. classes; -and the Preliminary, like the London Matriculation, belongs to school -work, and has no proper place in a college curriculum at all. Owens -still follows the old plan, now almost everywhere discarded, of offering -special certificates to women on easier terms; but for these there is -little demand. - -Since University College, Liverpool was not incorporated till 1881, -_i.e._ after the constitution of the University, it was natural that it -should follow its lead in the recognition of women, but this was not yet -full and ungrudging. The charter says: ‘female students may be admitted -to attend any of the courses of instruction established in the college, -subject to such restrictions and regulations as statutes of the College -may from time to time prescribe.’ At present the regulations stand thus: -‘Female students may be admitted to the classes of the College, except -those of the Medical School, under regulations to be framed by the -Senate and approved by the Council.’ In theory, therefore, University is -a men’s college that admits women. In fact, with the exception of the -medical classes, the two are pretty much on an equality. Men and women -are admitted on the same terms to the day and evening classes; -throughout the regulations the words ‘his or her’ are used. Rules apply -to both sexes alike. Hitherto the college has been of use chiefly to -Liverpool residents, and for such it was doubtless intended, but it is -just about to extend the sphere of its usefulness by opening a Hall of -Residence for Women. The fees for residence are to be £40 to £55 per -annum. College tuition fees are about £20 to £25. The total expenses -would therefore be a little less than at Newnham. Liverpool can hardly -offer the attractions of Cambridge, but the hall should prove useful for -girls in the North who do not wish to go too far from home, or to whom -the right to use the degree letters is of some special value. And since -Cambridge and Oxford can by no means attempt to accommodate the whole of -the ever-increasing contingent of women students, it is well that there -should be many and varied opportunities of study offered them elsewhere. - -At the Yorkshire College, Leeds, all the classes are open to women as to -men, and all have been attended by them except the purely professional -ones and the medical school. This college chiefly supplies local needs, -as far, at any rate, as girls are concerned; for its specialities, such -as coal-mining, dyeing, leather, and textile industries, etc. naturally -do not appeal to women. It is to a great extent a technological college, -receiving assistance from the Clothworkers’, Skinners’, and other city -companies. But it has also an Arts department, where students can be -prepared for Victoria or London examinations, and this is of great use -to boys and girls who pass on from their respective schools. - -The last of the English Universities to admit women was Durham. As -compared with Oxford and Cambridge, it is a recent foundation, since it -received its charter in 1837. Since one of its most important faculties -is Divinity, it seemed a less suitable field than others for feminine -study, but a change was effected by the foundation, in 1871, of the -Newcastle College of Science, in connection with Durham, which admitted -students of both sexes to scientific and medical classes. It then became -important to win the University hall-mark for the women, and after a -while Durham was induced to apply for the necessary powers. In 1895 it -received a supplementary charter, giving power to confer degrees on -women in all faculties except divinity. With this exception, women are -admitted as members of the University on the same terms as men. All -lectures are open to them. Male students reside for the most part in -college as at Oxford and Cambridge; the women studying at Durham are -therefore at present unattached members. This state of things will be -remedied as soon as a regular women’s college is opened at Durham; -special scholarships for women are already offered, to attract larger -numbers. At Newcastle, which at present receives the majority of the -women students, a hostel has been opened for them. The number of lady -graduates is as yet of necessity small. - -It is significant of the steady advance of public opinion on the subject -of women’s education, that the youngest of all our universities is the -one to do them fullest justice. It is the proud boast of the University -of Wales that its charter contains the following clause: ‘Women shall be -eligible equally with men for admittance to any degree, which the -University is, by this our Charter, authorised to confer. Every office -hereby created in the University, and the membership of every authority -hereby constituted, shall be open to women equally with men.’ - -The University of Wales is a federation of three constituent colleges, -all much older than the University itself, and they in their turn -represent aspirations which the fable-loving Cymry trace back to hoary -days of antiquity. Caerleon-on-Usk, they tell us, was the precursor of -the present _Prifysgol Cymru_; and when in the ninth century Alfred the -Great determined to found the comparatively modern University of Oxford, -it was to Wales he sent for professors. When, in 1893, the royal seal -was set to the charter of the Welsh University, it symbolised the -revival of ancient and departed glories. - -However little faith we may attach to some of these tales, one thing is -certain. The aspirations which expressed themselves in the foundation of -Aberystwyth College had dwelt among the people for many generations. At -last, in the early fifties, it was resolved to found a University -College for Wales, but the problem whence to obtain the funds was not -easy to solve. Appeal was made for voluntary contributions, and they -came, some large, some small, all giving according to their means. Still -it was not till twenty years after the first suggestion that the college -came into being. In 1872, when Aberystwyth was opened, Girton had -already made its first start at Hitchin, and the house of residence, -that was to develop into Newnham, had been opened at Cambridge; but -these beginnings were too small to attract general attention, and the -new college became, as a matter of course, an institution for male -students only. There was nothing to forbid the admission of women, it -was simply a thing no one had contemplated; and when, at last, in 1883, -a few women students did present themselves, no one thought of shutting -the door on them. When the college charter was conferred in 1889, it -simply recognised the fact of their presence by the clause: ‘Female -students shall be admitted to all the benefits and emoluments of the -College, and women shall be eligible to sit on the Governing body, on -the Council, and on the Senate.’ - -Prosperity did not come all at once to Aberystwyth. It had at first to -struggle against two great evils: lack of funds, and the insufficient -preliminary training of its students. Appeal was made for Government -help in both directions, and the result of frequent representations was -the appointment, by the Lord President of the Council, of a departmental -committee, to inquire into the whole state of Welsh education. In 1881 -this committee reported that a case had been made out for Government aid -to both secondary and higher education in Wales, and recommended the -establishment of two colleges, one in North and one in South Wales, and -the eventual foundation of a Welsh University. A grant of £2500, -afterwards increased to £4000, was at once made to Aberystwyth; in 1883 -the South Wales College was founded at Cardiff, and in the following -year the Northern College was begun at Bangor, each receiving an annual -grant of £4000. Both, from the first, opened their doors to women. - -For the first ten years the colleges directed their courses of study -towards the degrees of the University of London. Their students did -well, but the desire for their own University and their own degrees -never faded from the minds of Welshmen. A few eager spirits met again -and again in conference, then followed meetings of educationalists all -over the principality, and in 1891 the main lines of a university were -laid down by public conference, details were discussed by a -representative committee, referred back to the conference, then to the -colleges, and the sixteen Welsh county councils; lastly, the press and -the general public were called upon for an opinion, and then the scheme -was laid before the President of the Council. If ever there was a -national University, the Welsh may claim to have established one. In -November 1893 the royal seal was affixed to the charter, and in June -1895 the University held its first Matriculation Examination. - -The degree course of the University of Wales is a complicated one, and -is by no means planned so that he who runs may read. It has a twofold, -or rather a threefold aim. The University not only takes cognisance of -residence, but also lays down very careful directions as to the manner -in which students shall obtain their knowledge. Not only does it demand -a three years’ course in a constituent college of the University, but it -also prescribes the nature of the courses, and the number of lectures to -be attended. After Matriculation, which must be passed in five subjects, -three compulsory, and two optional, and may be taken in one year or in -two, the regulations require each student to pursue not less than ten -courses, of which one must be in elementary Logic, and one, at least, a -course of Latin or Greek. Apart from the Logic, the nine courses must be -chosen in not less than three, or more than six departments. The -possible courses are designated according to their degree of difficulty, -as intermediate, ordinary, and special; four, at least, must be of -higher grade than intermediate. In order to distribute them evenly over -the whole term of residence, no candidate may take more than four in any -one year, or more than seven in the first two years. A course is held to -include not less than eighty lectures, and the corresponding -examination; and since, in most subjects, the intermediate course must -be pursued before the higher ones are attempted, every student has to -attend some very elementary lectures before proceeding to anything at -all like university work. As sixteen is the college age of admission, -this arrangement is probably intentional; the colleges are meant to -continue school work for one year at least, and gradually lead the -student on to more arduous labours. - -Since the colleges are independent institutions, they have a good deal -of freedom in the organisation of their work, and may, if they please, -submit new schemes for the consideration of the Senate, the other two -colleges, and the University Court. Without the sanction of all these -they cannot attempt any innovation. The superior stress laid on the -actual instruction rather than on the ensuing examination is emphasised -by appointing the three professors of each subject as examiners, with -the help of one outside person, who must be some one of distinguished -attainments and authority. - -Thus the University of Wales proceeds on lines which, though new to us, -bear considerable resemblance to the plan of many American colleges, -where the number of hours to be spent weekly in the lecture-room counts -as part qualification for the degree, and the examinations are spread -out over the whole term of residence, and not concentrated into one or -two supreme efforts. Of course this greatly relieves the strain, and it -is too soon to say whether the degree will at all lose in prestige from -the numerous efforts made to clear the student’s path of thorns. It is -probably the best system for Wales, where the Intermediate schools only -profess to keep their pupils till seventeen, and there is nothing to -prevent able students from competing for scholarships, which shall -enable them to continue at Oxford or Cambridge the studies begun in one -of their own colleges. Eventually it is probable that facilities will be -offered for doing advanced work without forsaking their own country. - -Even before the establishment of the University, the colleges attracted -many women students from England as well as Wales. All three are -pleasantly situated in healthy spots, and the cheapness of both teaching -and living helped to attract many girls. It thus soon became necessary -to consider the question of a mixed university, which had no residential -colleges to simplify the problem. Soon it became clear that, where young -people of both sexes were very frequently thrown together, it was -desirable in the interests of all concerned to exercise some sort of -control. A hall of residence for the women seemed the best way out of -the dilemma, and it had the advantage of drawing them away from lonely -and often uncomfortable lodgings, and giving them some of that feeling -of corporate life which is valued so highly at the older universities. -Still it is noteworthy that, to make the plan a success, residence has -had, under certain conditions, to be made compulsory. The first attempt -at Aberystwyth was a failure, but in 1887 another house was taken, and -compulsory residence required. This arrangement seemed to attract -students; in the following session their numbers increased, and -continued to average about forty, till in 1891 it was resolved to build -a large new hall. The numbers then again went up, and have already -reached 175. Alexandra Hall was opened with much state by the Princess -of Wales in June 1897. It can accommodate 200, a number which must soon -be reached. - -Neither Bangor nor Cardiff can boast such numbers, but in both the -hostels are doing well. At Bangor, after a few years’ experiment, it was -decided to make residence compulsory for all girls under twenty-one. The -hall and college were brought into close connection by the appointment -of a lady, who was also an officer of the college, to act as -superintendent of all the women students. Permission is given to women -to reside in any house which, in the judgment of the Principal and -Lady-superintendent, provides hostel conditions of supervision. At -Aberdare Hall, Cardiff, there is compulsory residence for women who do -not live in their own homes. At all three halls the fees are very low, -forty guineas being the usual annual payment for board and residence, -and £10 for the composition tuition charge. At Bangor and Cardiff there -are also a few cubicles, for which the charge is only thirty guineas. -This plan hardly appears to answer, nor does it seem desirable to let -the standard of comfort fall below a certain minimum. There is a talk of -abandoning it. - -In estimating the numbers at these colleges, we must remember that they -do not represent only students in Arts and Science. All three have -established day training-departments, and to these students, too, the -halls are open, as well as to those who attend the Cardiff Cookery -School. In attempting to put the training for domestic economy and -elementary school teaching on the same footing as university work, Wales -is acting in accordance with its democratic traditions, and trying also -to induce a higher class of students to take up the elementary teaching. -The experiment is certainly worth making, and it will be interesting to -watch its success. English high school girls who wish to take up -elementary teaching might here combine their training and their work for -the Welsh degree in a three years’ course. - -With the help of the wardens of halls and the ladies’ committees, the -colleges are able to face the complications of joint clubs and societies -for both sexes. All these involve some special regulations, in regard to -the composition of committees, the return from evening meetings, etc. -but the difficulties have not proved insuperable. It would hardly be -going too far to say that the women’s halls of residence have saved the -situation in Wales, and made this most complete example of co-education -possible. It is not surprising that they are being adopted elsewhere. -The advocates of educational equality for the sexes, even where the -instruction is given to both together, have assuredly no desire to -complicate or revolutionise social relations, nor yet to confer full -liberty on those who are hardly emerged from the schoolgirl stage. For -both sexes the residential arrangement seems on many grounds desirable, -and while congratulating the women on their pleasant halls of residence, -we can but hope that the male students may not be left out in the cold -much longer, without the chance of learning for themselves the true -meaning of collegiate life. - -The opportunities for advanced study open to women have indeed increased -and multiplied at a rapid rate during the last few years. Beyond the -northern boundary we find all the Scottish Universities have admitted -them freely to membership, and if we cross St. George’s Channel, the -Royal University of Ireland—like London, only an examining body—takes no -note of sex, and even Trinity College, Dublin, is making some tentative -essays in the teaching and examining of women. This represents what has -been done in our own islands, but the same movement has been going on -simultaneously all over the world. Thanks to Mr. M. E. Sadler,[15] we -are now in a position to compare the position of women at a hundred and -thirty-nine different Universities. Questions were sent to the -Universities of Great Britain and Ireland, the continent of Europe, the -United States of America, Canada, India, and Australia. ‘It appears,’ -says Mr. Sadler, ‘that at a hundred of these, the distinctions between -men and women students are, if any, comparatively unimportant; at seven -Universities women students are admitted, by courtesy or special -permission, to some lectures and examinations; at twenty-one others -women are, by like favour, admitted to some of the lectures; and at -eleven Universities they are not admitted at all.’ Of the exceptions -five are in Germany, three in Russia, one in Ireland, one in Belgium, -one in the United States. France and Italy are specially remarkable for -their generous recognition of women, and Germany, long obdurate, is -making constant fresh concessions; but intending students should study -the special conditions of the one they wish to attend, since many of the -regulations are most complicated.[16] - -This general advance all over the civilised world is the chief gain this -half century has brought to women’s education. Though each country has -proceeded on its own lines the movement has unconsciously been an -international one. That gives it a strength which will make it -permanent. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - BOARDING AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS - - -Once more our chronicle takes us back to 1867. A new era was then -inaugurated, that of girls’ day schools. Not that these were anything -new; small cheap day-schools for girls abounded, but the majority of -them were bad. With fees ranging from £3 to £10 a year, and pupils of -every variety of age, a little simple arithmetic will prove that the -mistress had not sufficient funds at her disposal to pay for suitable -premises and adequate teaching, to say nothing of winning a modest -competence for herself. From all parts of the country came condemnation -of these small, cheap schools. The opinions about boarding-schools were -by no means so unanimous. They were censured for the excessive attention -given to accomplishments, the insufficient education of the teachers, -and their neglect of physical training; but these were faults common to -nearly all the schools of that day, and not characteristic of -boarding-schools as such. A careful perusal of the Commissioners’ report -leads to a far more favourable impression of boarding than day-schools, -due, probably, to their being less hampered for funds. But the general -public is influenced by impressions rather than facts; and certainly an -impression did gain ground that a day-school was in itself a good and a -boarding-school an evil. - -Unquestionably the reformers were right in first turning their attention -to the former. Large schools of this kind were easier to organise, and -really made for efficiency and economy, that much desired combination, -which in this case is not, as so often, a mere contradiction in terms. -The establishment of high and endowed schools has brought a good -education within reach of thousands of girls who could by no other means -have obtained it. The extinction of the small, cheap boarding-school -which for the past century had been struggling to give the lower middle -classes a poorer imitation of the poor education given elsewhere to -their social ‘superiors,’ is a thing no one can seriously deplore. -Painless extinction is, unhappily, impossible. The suffering which such -changes bring in their train is to be deplored, but the article itself -may be relegated to the class of those that ‘never will be missed.’ - -The new day-schools met a real want, and success came to them at once. -It was natural they should attract the first relays of the ‘graduates’ -that the women’s colleges were beginning to send out. Thus they were the -first to introduce improved teaching, and for a while they were supposed -to have a monopoly of it. In the prevailing dearth of good mistresses -they were able to get first choice; now, after the lapse of thirty -years, the supply exceeds the demand, and a good teacher is attainable -by any school of any grade that can satisfy the very moderate demands of -university women. - -The high schools started with a very definite principle—the combination -of school teaching with home influence—doubtless the ideal for all -girls, supposing that each side duly fulfils its share of the -obligation. But now, in 1898, it is curious to note how far the high -school has travelled in twenty-five years. The original scheme of -morning-school, from nine to one, and afternoon preparation for a few -girls who had no quiet room at home, still prevails in theory, but -_quantum mutatus ab illo_ can best be realised by tracing a day’s -routine in school. First come the morning lessons, usually five in -number, with the short break for play or drill, then the school dinner, -to which over fifty girls sometimes sit down; again a short interval -before the afternoon classes, music lessons and preparation, which -usually go on till four, though girls who have no special duties at the -time may be found at play in the playground. Still later, if it be -summer, there may be an adjournment to the school field, often at a -considerable distance. Not till darkness sets in can it be said that the -day’s school life is over; and the elder girls still have some lessons -to prepare before bed-time. A healthful, well-filled happy day is behind -them, but where does the home influence come in? The girls might as well -be weekly boarders for all the share they have in the real life of home. -Saturday may see a cricket practice or a work party, or a school -committee, or a sketching expedition, or a match with some distant -school. Sunday alone belongs to the home. The numerous clubs, charities, -old girls’ meetings, etc. fill up all the time the girls can spare from -their lessons. Girls who do not live quite near frequently become -day-boarders, though the word is not used, and take dinner, and -sometimes even tea, at school. In some few cases the school even -undertakes to supply medical supervision and the general direction of -the pupil’s health, thus relieving parents of one more responsibility. -In fact the day-school is well on the road to become a boarding-school, -and the establishment of boarding-houses more or less loosely connected -with it is a further step in the same direction. - -How far these schools have travelled from their original intentions -becomes evident if we refer back to a controversy on school hours that -took place in 1880 in consequence of some strictures passed by Mrs. -Garrett Anderson on the arrangements in the High Schools. She considered -the strain of the four hours’ morning excessive, and proposed reducing -it, introducing afternoon school and a considerable interval for outdoor -games between the two. This was met with general opposition by -headmistresses. Day-schools, it was said, could not be expected to -provide dinner, it was most undesirable for girls to return from school -as late as four or five on cold winter afternoons, teachers could not be -expected to undertake so much afternoon work, while the strongest -opposition of all was made to the games. Miss Buss pointed out that the -mixture of classes which was unobjectionable as long as girls only met -at lessons where talking was forbidden, or in the short intervals which -were largely devoted to lunch and drill, might cause serious -difficulties if the whole day were spent in school. She also thought the -games would be a difficulty; only rough girls would take part in them, -and the rest simply lounge about. - -How wrong these predictions have proved we all know. Girls’ athletics -have made startling progress during the last ten years; cricket and -hockey, seemingly rough games, have found favour with the most feminine -of girls; the school dinner is a regular institution, and is accompanied -by pleasant chat about practices, matches, election of club officers, -etc. A new feature, never contemplated by the promoters, has entered -these day-schools; and, oddly enough, is doing more than anything else -to bring back to favour the once despised boarding-school. - -Those that now originated were of a new kind, at least for girls; -schools where the boarding-houses form part of the regular organisation, -and the whole life and development of the girls is under the charge of -the mistresses. Something of the sort had already been done at -Cheltenham, and doubtless the College owed much of its success to its -boarding-house system. Although a general English education, which is -wanted by all alike, can be supplied in any town capable of supporting a -large day-school, the very special teaching wanted by a few girls -working for scholarships or specially advanced examinations causes a -severe strain on the resources of a moderate-sized school, is impossible -for financial reasons in a small one, and quite inaccessible to those -girls with country homes from whom a considerable proportion of college -students is drawn. Hence there arose a new type of school. - -The first of this kind originated in Scotland, at St. Andrews. It was -founded in 1877 by a local company with a view to educating their own -daughters; but arrangements were at once made for taking boarders, and -these were placed under the immediate charge of the head-mistress. As -the numbers increased, other houses were taken and placed under charge -of senior mistresses; and as more and more girls were attracted from a -distance, the boarding element began to predominate. With Miss Lumsden, -one of the ‘Girton pioneers,’ as first head-mistress, and Miss Dove, -another student of Hitchin days, as her successor, the school very -quickly settled down into lines very closely resembling those of a boys’ -public school. The boarding-houses became an integral part of the -institution, the school-house being under the charge of the -head-mistress, and the others under the senior assistants. In this way -the staff of the school was strengthened by the encouragement thus -offered to women of ability to remain in the school instead of seeking -their promotion elsewhere. The boarding-houses are also valuable in -ensuring regular attendance and proper home preparation, since the -day-girls, being in a minority, cannot introduce those lax ideas of -attendance which are in some places unfortunately the result of the much -vaunted home influence. - -The numbers in the school are limited to 200. The admission age is -thirteen or fourteen, no girl can be admitted who has turned seventeen. -All must pass an entrance examination, graduated according to age, but -always including a certain amount of Arithmetic, English, Latin and -French. A school of 200 girls, all between thirteen and nineteen, and -all with a sufficient preparatory training, can genuinely concentrate -its efforts on higher teaching. The classes become easier to group, and -with a large staff which allows of careful subdividing, all the ordinary -hindrances to progress are removed, and a school is enabled to work -under the best possible conditions. It can, if it is desired, make a -speciality of certain branches of study. At St. Andrews classics take an -important place; of the present staff five have passed the Classical -Tripos. Among the honours won by old pupils are first classes in -Classical Moderations and Final Classical Schools at Oxford, and in the -Classical Tripos at Cambridge. The school distinctly aims at a literary -curriculum, with the higher certificate of the Joint Board to fix the -standard, and Oxford or Cambridge as the goal for those girls whose -education is to be continued. - -St. Leonard’s School, as it has been called since it acquired the old -buildings and beautiful grounds of the ancient St. Leonard’s College, is -organised with a school-house and seven boarding-houses, each under the -charge of a mistress. With all the girls under the control of the -head-mistress it is possible to carry out the prefect system, and, by -giving a good deal of responsibility to the Sixth Form, remove that -element of excessive supervision which was often a harmful element in -the old-fashioned boarding-school. Each house constitutes a small -community, with its separate dining-room and study, where each of the -elder girls has a small writing-table and bookshelf. Some rules prevail -in all, _e.g._ that no work shall be done before breakfast or after 8.30 -P.M. School hours are from 9 to 12.30 every day, with special subjects -in the afternoon. After dinner about one and a half hours are given to -games under charge of a special mistress. There is a playground of -sixteen acres, which comprises cricket-field, golf-course, lawn and -gravel tennis-courts, large hockey-courts and fives-courts, etc. The St. -Leonard’s girls are renowned for their skill in games. - -With a school thus organised the life of the girls is made easier. There -is no conflict of aims; in term-time the school claims its due, in -holidays the home. Whether this is theoretically the best plan is an -academic rather than a practical question, but it is undoubtedly -beneficial to the studies and health of the girls. A mistress who is -intimately acquainted with the work of every Form can check overwork -more effectually than the most anxious mother, who is incapable of -judging from that school point of view which looms so large in the young -girl’s mind. Loyalty and public spirit, developed by this joint life of -small communities within a large one, are important factors in forming -character, and the general atmosphere of alternate work and play without -the excessive excitement of home gaieties and the distraction of -domestic interests unquestionably facilitates study. Whether the gains -to character really outweigh the advantages of the family life depends -so entirely on the arrangements and atmosphere of each particular home, -that it is impossible to give any general opinion. At any rate results -seem to show that this class of school is one of the chief needs for -girls at the present time. A good deal of attention had been drawn to -St. Leonard’s School in England, and in spite of the distance many girls -were in the habit of journeying northwards three times a year for the -sake of sharing in its advantages. At last a number of educationalists -decided to establish a school of this kind in England, and induced Miss -Dove, who had now placed the Northern school on a thoroughly -satisfactory basis, to organise a similar one in the South. The -Education Company, Limited, was formed, with a council of which the -Master of Trinity became president. It was fortunate enough to secure -for its first school the beautiful house and grounds of Wycombe Abbey. -Situated in lovely country, with thirty-six acres of its own, and the -rest of the park stretched all about it, the old trees, the historic -memories and dignified surroundings help to shed over the school some of -that feeling of tradition and veneration for the past, which all girls’ -institutions must of themselves lack for some time to come. - -The school resembles St. Leonard’s in its organisation, with some slight -differences. There are no day pupils and, as the Abbey is itself capable -of accommodating a hundred girls, it is divided for school purposes into -four divisions, technically known as ‘houses.’ Each house is in the -special charge of its tutor, and has its own sitting-room and -dormitories, and its table in the dining-room. The house-colour is -carried out in the cubicles; cretonnes, bed-spreads, tiles, etc. being -red, blue, green, or yellow, according to the special house in which the -dormitory is situated. All this prettiness serves as an attractive -background for hard work and healthy play. It is pleasant to find the -modern school catering for all the sides of a girl’s nature. - -It very soon became necessary to build, and with the help of the new -houses two hundred can now be accommodated. Beyond this it is not -proposed to go; but should the system prove as popular in England as in -Scotland, it is probable that the Education Company might open more -schools. The conditions of admission, entrance examination, etc. are the -same as at St. Andrews. Physical exercise plays an important part, and -about two hours every day are given up to games or country walks, which -groups of girls are allowed to take together. Each term has its own -special game; lacrosse is the favourite in the autumn, hockey in winter, -and cricket in summer. The heavy work of the day is thus broken up into -two parts, and Wycombe, unlike the majority of girls’ schools, does not -rigidly divide these into morning classes, afternoon preparation. -Lessons and study hours alternate during the day. This is an attempt to -relieve the strain of the long morning, against which many voices are -again being raised. Physical and manual training come in for a share of -attention, two hours a day in the upper, and three in the lower school. -Under these headings come drawing and painting, part-singing, -practising, dancing, gymnastics, carpentry, gardening, and needlework. -All these are taught by expert teachers, and are treated as an integral -part of the general education. In the upper forms six hours a day are -given to actual study, in the lower only five. As this includes -preparation, and the day is so fully occupied that there is not much -chance of stealing odd half hours for work, it will be interesting to -see whether this short allowance, with the help of careful arrangement -and healthful surroundings, will prove sufficient to prepare girls -adequately for college. It is too soon to ask for results, but if this -plan succeeds, a problem which engages much attention at present will -have been greatly helped towards solution. - -Another school that is doing useful work, as what our American cousins -would call an ‘experiment station,’ is the one at Brighton now known as -Roedean. It was founded in 1885, by the Misses Lawrence, with three -distinct aims: (1) to give a due importance to physical education and -outdoor games in every girl’s life; (2) to regulate the school -discipline in such a way as to develop trustworthiness and a sense of -responsibility in the pupils; (3) to give girls a sound and careful -intellectual training. The order in which these are stated indicates the -growing importance attached to physical training and public spirit, and -explains the lines on which what might be called the reformed -boarding-school is proceeding. - -This Brighton school is just about to take a fresh departure. It has -raised money by shares for a new building on a magnificent site between -Brighton and Rottingdean. The new premises consist of a convenient -school-house and four separate boarding-houses connected by covered -passages with the central building. Something of college methods is to -be brought into school by giving each girl a separate bedroom, while the -eight seniors in each house are to have a study as well. Here they may -give their Saturday tea-parties, entertain their friends, and learn to -take the responsibility of their own little domain. The special -characteristics of the school are the large amount of responsibility -given to the girls and their success in games, of which they are not a -little proud. The curriculum resembles that of a high school, with more -scope for individual tuition, and most of the teachers are graduates. -Wimbledon House School, as it was called before the change in site -necessitated a change in name, was one of the pioneers in bringing about -the newer view of girls’ education. These views are being widely -adopted. The increased freedom, the more active life, the great stress -laid on the _corpus sanum_ as one means of developing the _mens sana_, -are all part of the new order of things, and a recognition that the -wider life led by the women of to-day needs its own special preparation. - -A new school of a similar kind has been started at Aldeburgh, and is -being carried on in temporary premises at Southwold on the East Coast. -It is proposed to acquire a site here or in some other part of Suffolk, -and raise money for building by means of a company. The plan is similar -to the Brighton one: a school-house and boarding-houses under the charge -of teachers, with plenty of freedom and individual responsibility for -the girls. The daily hour and a half of outdoor exercise, the adoption -of hand and eye training in the regular curriculum, and the medical -inspection of the girls by a lady doctor, are among the more modern -methods that distinguish it. - -In their fundamental aims there is a close resemblance between these -schools. They represent a fresh break with the past. The false ideal of -showy accomplishment had already given way to the worthier aim of -thoroughness and a more serious mental development. With the -intellectual aims came a change too in the moral. The larger life of the -day school of itself promoted more freedom and a greater sense of -responsibility in the girls, but their moral training was divided -between the school and the home, and sometimes suffered from a lack of -co-operation between the two. As Mrs. Sidgwick pointed out, when laying -the foundation stone of the Roedean buildings:—‘Boarding-schools have a -wider function, a more responsible task than day-schools. They have to -care for pupils in play-hours as well as work-hours; they have, far more -than day-schools, to superintend their development in matters moral and -physical as well as intellectual.’ It is therefore largely in -boarding-schools that the newest ideas can be worked out. The worst -feature of the old boarding-school was the excessive supervision, and -the deceit and silliness it engendered. _Punch’s_ immortal direction, -‘Go and see what Baby’s doing, and tell her not to,’ might stand as the -rule of conduct in many a seminary for young ladies. The atmosphere of -suspicion engendered the very faults it was intended to obviate. The -giggling boarding-school miss was a type it was not desirable to -perpetuate. What was wanted was something that should prepare girls for -life and its responsibilities, as boys were prepared at public schools. -This term ‘a public school’ is curiously difficult to define, though we -all know pretty well the meaning attached to it in England. It has -perhaps been best described as ‘one where the government is administered -in a greater or less degree by the pupils themselves.’ The true ‘public -spirit’ could only develop as the schools became centres of something -besides study. With the increase in their sphere of action the high -schools have fostered its growth; to bring it to its full perfection -must be the task of the modern boarding-school. - -Another, and an essentially practical advantage of boarding-schools, is -the facilities they offer for differentiation. We are coming to realise -that all schools cannot teach all things, unless indeed like Cheltenham, -they are really a number of different schools under one head. While many -new subjects have been drawn within the sphere of a girl’s curriculum, -the old still keep their place. The only escape from smatter and -overstrain lies in a wise selection, and a girl’s general education may -gain almost as much by the exclusion of some subjects as by the -inclusion of others. With the constant increase of science schools, -technical institutes, special endowments for science, etc., selection -and differentiation are rapidly increasing in one direction, and it -becomes essential to provide elsewhere against the complete neglect of -the literary side. This the boarding-school may do without inflicting -any injustice, since it does not profess to supply all the local needs. -Up to the age of fourteen there can be no thought of specialising; by -that time most parents have some general idea about their daughter’s -probable future and special inclinations. If it is a question of a -definite career, the choice becomes easier, because confined within -narrower limits. - -Yet after all, when we have reviewed in our minds all the careers open -to women, and the great social changes due to their entering the lists -with trained instead of unskilled labour, the fact still remains that, -at any rate in the upper and upper-middle classes, the majority of women -do not earn their own living. As Hannah More reminded us long ago, their -profession is to be that of ‘wives, mothers, and mistresses of -households,’ and to this we must now add the duties of a philanthropic -and public character that social position brings with it. What is -commonly called ‘a life of leisure’ may be an exceedingly busy life, and -nowhere do the advantages of mental training, habits of accuracy, and a -disciplined will tell to more advantage than in promoting the happiness -of others. Most of these girls must receive any education, beyond the -early part which a private governess can undertake, in boarding-schools, -if only because the leisured classes to which they belong seldom live -near enough to towns to make use of day-schools. To quote a very able -and experienced schoolmistress:—‘The demand for private schools and for -the individual attention which girls require has been increased by the -habits of modern life among the upper and upper-middle classes. From my -own personal knowledge there are many parents who spend nearly the whole -year away from home or in entertaining a “house party” when they are at -home. There is really no place at home for the poor girls who have not -“come out.” What the parents seek for them is a school that can supply -the place of a home, where they can receive individual attention, -cultivation, training, and be prepared for society.’ She might have -added that, even when there is a place at home for them, they may gain -considerably by spending part of two or three years away from it, amid -the more studious atmosphere and the numerous interests characteristic -of these modern boarding-schools. - -The reform in teaching unquestionably began in the public schools, but -the best private schools have not been slow to bring themselves into -line. Within the last few years several have been either founded or -taken over by ladies who have studied at Oxford or Cambridge, or such as -have occupied posts as heads or assistants in high schools, and have -been drawn into the line of progress, while older institutions have held -their own by the introduction of modern methods. Thus, while the old -boarding-school was specially condemned for its stuffy rooms, inadequate -dormitory accommodation, insufficient food and crocodile form of -exercise, the new one, with a rather lower fee, devotes special care to -buildings, bedrooms, diet, games, and gymnastics. Here are a few -quotations from prospectuses:—‘There is a large playground at a short -distance from the school, in which are five lawn-tennis courts and space -for cricket, hockey, croquet, and other games.’ This school has a -certificated trained nurse and a sanatorium specially fitted up for -illness. The Principal was for many years assistant mistress at a large -high school. - -‘There are gardens with tennis-lawn, a gymnasium, a fives-court, an -isolation ward and a playing field at a short distance from the house. -Arrangements are made for riding and cycling.’ The Principal is a -distinguished graduate of one of the women’s colleges. - -‘The buildings have been certified by a sanitary officer, and are fitted -with every modern convenience. Arrangements have been made for cricket, -tennis, and other healthful games, which are greatly encouraged.’ - -‘The house stands in its own grounds of fourteen acres, which include -garden, shrubbery, tennis-courts, and recreation field.’ - -These are samples taken at random. - -Closely connected with regard for healthful conditions is the endeavour -to avoid overstrain, and this has led to a not unnatural reaction -against the excessive burden of outside examination. We find such -sentences as ‘particular care is taken to prevent over-pressure.’ ‘For -the younger or weaker of the party we provide extra half hours of rest -or recreation in the garden.’ ‘There is no cramming for examinations, -and the object set before each girl is to do her daily work as well as -she possibly can from an honourable sense of duty,’ etc. It is often -stated that pupils can be prepared for university or other examinations -if desired, but although some few private schools of this type -distinctly aim at the certificate of the Joint Board, the majority work -on more general lines, while ensuring a high standard of efficiency by -submitting the school annually to inspection by university examiners. -The fees in schools of this grade vary from about £90 to £135 per annum, -with so-called ‘extras.’ These are reduced in the more modern -institutions to such subjects as piano, violin, and dancing, which -require individual instruction, while the more old-fashioned include -languages, even French, under this heading. But both terms and curricula -in private schools are adapted to special cases, and it is impossible to -generalise on them. For girls, as for boys, the statement made by the -Secondary Commission is probably correct, that ‘the large private -schools, usually with boarders, are the private schools which do most -for secondary education. They are often conducted on lines similar to -those of public schools; but they are less bound by heredity, and the -larger scope for experiment which they afford has, there is reason to -believe, contributed to noteworthy improvements of methods.’ - -Probably this class of school is in greater demand than ever before; but -though there are not a few who can enjoy its benefits, it must always be -a luxury for the rich, while there has been no corresponding improvement -in the cheaper type of boarding-school. To provide board, lodging, and -tuition, at fees ranging from £30 to £50, is a difficult problem, and -can hardly be solved without the infliction of some suffering or -injustice. Yet even these fees are beyond the reach of many whose homes -are far away from towns. There is urgent need for some scheme of -boarding-houses (not self-supporting) in connection with the cheaper -endowed schools, and the application of some public money to the -establishment of a few large boarding-schools in different parts of the -country. Private effort cannot meet these cases. - -Private day-schools involve a much smaller risk, and in these large -numbers of well-educated women are now at work. In a place too small to -support a high school, schools of this kind often supply all needs; but, -oddly enough, they seem to flourish best where they exist side by side -with good public schools. Bedford is an instance of a town well supplied -with both. Sometimes the head-mistress takes a few boarders, and is thus -enabled to provide better premises. The fees range from about £12 to £30 -per annum, and the curriculum is not unlike that of a high school, -though the more expensive subjects, such as certain branches of science, -are often omitted. The Junior and Senior Local Examinations and those of -the College of Preceptors are a good deal used by these schools, and -help to keep up a standard, where a regular external examination is not -practicable. Small, cheap day-schools still abound, though happily in -nothing like the old numbers. Even these have undergone some -improvement, though rumour maintains that _Mangnall’s Questions_ and -_Child’s Guide_ may still be found here, if we only dig deep enough. The -lowest class of private school is attended by children who ought to be -in the public elementary schools. The extinction of these, which is -rapidly proceeding, can only be hailed with general satisfaction. - -Much has been said of late about the necessity of finding a place in any -general system of education for private schools, but surely their proper -function is so clearly defined that there is no fear of a day dawning -when they are no longer needed. A further increase in cheap public -day-schools may lessen the numbers, and it is hardly to be expected that -in ten years’ time the present conditions, under which 70 per cent. of -our girls who are receiving secondary education are in private schools, -shall still prevail. The true function of the private school is to offer -an educational luxury to those who can pay for it, and on these lines, -without coming into competition with public school work, it is likely to -develop. The more public schools are established in a district, the -greater becomes the field for first-grade private schools. This is well -illustrated by the case of the United States, where the universal -diffusion of the public schools seems to favour the growth of private -ones. They can charge high fees, because the public schools are always -available for those who cannot afford these. They can try experiments -and adopt new methods, because they are not subject to the rigid -direction and supervision to which public schools are liable. A great -deal of the preparation for college falls to them, and they enjoy a very -different reputation and position from the Prussian private schools, -which are obliged to adopt the same ‘code’ as the public. Cheap schools, -to be efficient, must receive help with their finances; such help can -hardly be given to private schools while they retain the freedom which -is one source of their strength. It is probable, therefore, that they -will more and more become schools for the well-to-do classes only. There -must be some suffering involved in the changes which the near future is -likely to bring, even if local educational authorities do all in their -power to minimise this, and eventually the lower class of private school -will probably go to the wall. But not till the Anglo-Saxon nature has -undergone a complete transformation will there cease to be a place in -England for private enterprise; and private schools, even though they -may be deemed a luxury, will still rank among us as a necessity. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - THE TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION ACTS - - -On June 24, 1890, a curious scene took place in the House of Commons. -The Customs and Excise Bill had been dragging its weary way in -committee, and making very small progress. The question under debate was -the disposal of a residue of £350,000, available from the new duty on -beer and spirits. This Mr. Goschen proposed to apply to compensating -publicans whose licenses should be refused, but the Government did not -care to press the point in face of opposition in the country and small -majorities in the House. Mr. Goschen therefore proposed to shelve the -matter till the next session, merely ‘ear-marking’ the money for the -purpose indicated. Thereupon Mr. Healy got up on a legal point, and -reminded the House that the Budget Bill, which had already become law, -expressly stated that the duties in question were to be dealt with in a -particular way, and that the proceeds were to be appropriated ‘as -Parliament may hereafter direct by any Act passed in the present -session.’ Under these circumstances, he asked, had they power to -postpone that appropriation? The Speaker thought they had not, and his -ruling prevailed. The result was the acceptance, on August 1, of Mr. -Acland’s proposal to apply the money in England ‘for the purposes of -agricultural, commercial, and technical instruction, as defined in -Clause 8 of the Technical Instruction Act, 1889,’ and in Wales either -for technical instruction or for purposes defined by the Welsh -Intermediate Education Act. - -This sudden turn of affairs took the country by surprise. The county -councils, to whom this money was assigned, were now expected to devote -to educational purposes the money and energy which were to have gone to -the extinction of licenses. From these events date the educational -functions of the county councils. It was this ‘whisky-money’ which gave -the impetus to technical education, a term which had been defined by the -Act of 1889. Prolonged agitation throughout the country, due to the fear -of foreign competition and the rumours of superior education given to -the mechanics of other countries, had led to the appointment in 1884 of -a Commission to consider the question, and to their report the Technical -Instruction Act of 1889, and the amending Act of 1891, were due. - -Among the recommendations of the Commissioners were the following:— - -1. That steps be taken to accelerate the application of ancient -endowments, under amended schemes, to secondary and technical -instruction. - -2. Provision by the Charity Commissioners for establishing in suitable -localities, schools or departments of schools, in which the study of -natural science, drawing, mathematics, and modern languages, should take -the place of Latin and Greek. - -3. Giving power to local authorities to establish, maintain, or -contribute to the establishment of secondary and technical schools and -colleges. - -Following these lines, the Act defined technical instruction as -‘instruction in the principles of Science and Art, applicable to -industries, and in the application of special branches of Science and -Art to specific industries or employments.’ It was not to include -teaching the practice of any trade or industry, but it might include any -branch of instruction (including modern languages, and commercial and -agricultural subjects), which were at any time sanctioned by the Science -and Art department of South Kensington. The means of doing all this was -a penny rate which local authorities were permitted to raise. Unaided -this could not have done much, and very few places took advantage of -this power, until the Local Taxation Act of the following year changed -the whole aspect of affairs. - -The movement in favour of technical education was one that had been -slowly gathering force. At first, as so often happens, the blame for the -unsatisfactory state of things was laid at the door of the elementary -school. It was pointed out that the education given there was not -sufficiently practical; drawing was little taught, and that little -badly, while science fared even worse. Modelling was almost unknown, -manual instruction had scarcely been heard of, ‘the pen was the only -industrial weapon that boys intended for handicraftsmen were taught to -use,’ and, except needlework, domestic subjects for girls were terribly -neglected. This was true enough, but it was absurd to suppose that a -remedy could be found in the schooling given to children under twelve. -Such benefit as might be derived from a change in their curriculum was -quite inadequate for the end in view. The real need was for a longer -school life, with technical training based on a proper foundation of -general knowledge. Hence the National Association for the Promotion of -Technical Education adopted into its programme: ‘the development, -organisation, and maintenance of a system of secondary education -throughout the country, with a view to placing the higher technical and -commercial education in our schools and colleges on a better footing.’ -It was doubtless for a similar reason that the Act excluded from its -benefits scholars receiving instruction in elementary schools. - -The money thus provided almost by accident, became a new and valuable -source for endowing secondary education; and on all hands claims of the -most varied kind were made on it. Administered by bodies of non-experts, -who had to learn their business by doing it, much of it was misapplied; -mistakes, often of a ludicrous character, were made, and there was some -excuse for those producers and consumers of spirits who thought the -money would have been better applied in relieving the tax. But in spite -of repeated appeals by specially interested persons, Parliament kept -firm in the matter; the money must be given to County Councils, and they -must learn to use it. How well many of them have learnt can best be -realised by a series of visits to the polytechnics of London and the -large provincial towns, to the laboratories constructed in public -schools, to the ambulatory dairy classes in village schoolrooms, to the -beautifully equipped laundries, kitchens, and dressmaking schools all -over the country. - -Long before these Technical Instruction Acts were passed, isolated -action had been taken. The Regent Street Polytechnic, long known as -_the_ Polytechnic, was already in full work. It originated in a Young -Men’s Institute, privately founded by Mr. Quentin Hogg, with the large -aim of providing a place where a young man could develop all the sides -of his nature, and ‘find a reasonable outlet for any healthy desire, -physical, spiritual, social, or intellectual, which he possesses.’ For -some years the Institute flourished in Long Acre, and it happened that, -just when increased accommodation became necessary, the old Polytechnic, -long the home of Pepper’s Ghost, the diving-bell, and other joys and -terrors of our young days, came into the market. It was at once secured, -and the result was an unprecedented rush for membership. Mr. Hogg, who -was the life and soul of the Institute, made a point of himself seeing -every boy on joining, and on the first night in Regent Street, he began -to interview new members at five o’clock. There he was kept at his desk, -unable even to get a cup of tea, till a quarter to one in the morning, -and by that time a thousand new members had been enrolled. With such -encouragement, it was possible to try fresh experiments, and for the -first time trade-classes and workshop practice were added to the -programme. The Polytechnic thus became a pioneer in technical work. The -London Trades Council in 1883 recommended its system of trade teaching -to the London trades; members of the Technical Instruction Commission -gave it their warm commendation. - -Meantime other institutes were growing up. If Mr. Hogg claimed that the -Polytechnic began its labours when he took two crossing-sweepers into -the Adelphi arches, and made them the nucleus of a ragged school, the -People’s Palace had an even more romantic origin. It was inspired by the -picture, in _All Sorts and Conditions of Men_, of the Palace of Delight, -of ‘the club of the working-people,’ where ‘we shall all together -continually be thinking how to bring more sunshine into our lives, more -change, more variety, more happiness.’ Here, even more than at Regent -Street, the recreative side was to the fore, and the main feature was -the Queen’s Hall, in which public entertainments were organised. It had -a chequered career, and finally was saved to the East End by the -liberality of the Drapers’ Company. Since then the educational side has -been more fully developed, but apart from the recreative, which is -absolutely independent of the East London Technical College. This is an -unusual condition, since, as a rule, the Polytechnics, mindful of their -double origin, aim at being centres of both work and play. They have a -tendency to fall into two classes: those that began as social clubs, and -added the classes to their programme, and those that began with classes, -and then encouraged the students to form clubs for literary, athletic -and recreative purposes. - -The greater stress laid on the educational side by the more recent -institutions was due to two causes. In 1883 the London Parochial -Charities Act gave the Charity Commissioners powers to deal with certain -sums, which had been left by benefactors long deceased, for purposes -which had actually ceased to exist. It was lucky that this sum of money, -which may be capitalised at over three millions, became available for -public purposes at the very time when all this stir about technical -education was taking place. The Regent Street Institute was chosen as a -model. London was mapped out into twelve districts, and a Polytechnic -was to be supplied for each, on condition of local aid supplementing -certain sums which were offered conditionally. It was not long before -this proposal brought munificent private donors into the field. The -Marquis of Northampton and Lord Compton gave a site of the value of -£30,000, Earl Cadogan gave ground of the value of £10,000; others gave -less, according to their means. Eleven of these Polytechnics are already -in existence; Paddington alone is waiting for the private benefactors -who shall establish the claim to public help. The second impetus came -from the Technical Education Board of the London County Council. The -metropolis had been slow in following the lead of other counties, and it -was not till 1892 that it resolved to apply its share of the whisky -money to purposes of technical education. But when it did move it did so -in good earnest. The Council conferred full executive power on a Board -consisting of twenty of its own members, thirteen representatives of -other bodies and two experts, one being a woman, co-opted by the Council -itself. The bodies thus represented are: the London School Board, the -City and Guilds of London Institute, the London Parochial Charities -Foundation, the Headmasters’ Association, the National Union of -Teachers, and the London Trades Council. Mr. Sidney Webb was elected -chairman, Dr. W. Garnett was appointed secretary and organiser, and the -superintendence of the domestic economy work was given to Miss Ella -Pycroft. The Board has been most successful in its work, and a very -complete scheme of technical instruction in London is being gradually -evolved. Since the Board’s work is educational it is natural that this -side has been specially emphasised in those Polytechnics which have been -founded since its establishment, _i.e._ those at Battersea, Chelsea, -North London and the City. - -The help given by the Board to Polytechnics may be thus stated: - -1. Equipment grants made from time to time for specific purposes. - -2. A fixed contribution of £1000 a year. - -3. Three-quarters—not exceeding £500 a year—of the principal’s salary. - -4. 10 per cent. on the fixed salaries of the teachers. - -5. 1d. for each hour’s attendance of each student. - -6. 15 per cent. on all voluntary subscriptions and donations from -private sources. - -Provided that the total payment to any Polytechnic under 2, 3, 4, and 5 -does not exceed £3000, and under 6 does not exceed £2000. - -The Polytechnics are really subsidised from five different sources: -private generosity, city companies, ancient and hitherto misapplied -charities, part of the proceeds of the ‘beer and spirit tax,’ grants -from the South Kensington Department. - -Dreary as are such enumerations of names and figures, there is a special -interest attaching to this particular set. The aggrieved ratepayer is -apt at times to point to these splendid buildings as an example of the -way in which his hard won money is being squandered, quite regardless of -the fact that those papers he abhors have never contained any appeal for -money for this purpose. London has never levied a technical education -rate, thanks to these other sources of income which have given her -citizens so much without any sacrifice on their part. The beer and -spirit money has acted the part of a fairy godmother to London men and -women. - -It was made clear from the outset that both sexes were alike to benefit, -and thus the Polytechnics have become what our American cousins call -‘co-educational.’ But the needs of men and women are not always the -same, and the special wants of women were considered in the -establishment of a domestic economy side, though they are not limited to -this. Practically the whole field of education beyond the elementary is -open to county council action, provided no aid is given to institutions -with a definite religious bias or conducted for private profit. The only -subjects distinctly excluded by the Acts are classics and literature. -The money is therefore available for purposes of—(1) definite Trade -instruction; (2) day and evening classes in Science, both theoretical -and applied, and Domestic Economy; (3) secondary education of a modern -character. - -Under these two last headings great things have been done for girls and -women. In spite of the recent introduction into the elementary school -code of such subjects as cooking and laundry, it is becoming more and -more clear that the brief time allotted to the Standards is not too much -for a grounding in general subjects, and that after this should come the -preparation of a girl to be useful at home or to earn her living by -domestic work. The elementary school girl is too young, the high school -girl too busy, to gain much from the wedging of a little domestic -teaching into the mass of the ordinary school work. Nor is a cookery or -a laundry lesson once a week of much use in giving the necessary skill -and practice. Domestic work wants continuous and consecutive practice, -for the acquisition of that ‘touch’ and ‘knack’ on which so much -depends; and the domestic economy schools come in here to supply what is -really wanted. - -This type of school did not originate in London, though it has taken -very firm root there. Some very interesting experiments had been made in -other parts of the country, notably Yorkshire, before Battersea, the -Borough, and Regent Street Polytechnics in 1894 opened their domestic -economy schools, with fifty-four scholars nominated by the Technical -Education Board, and the addition of a few paying pupils. This example -was soon followed by the other Polytechnics, and the Board now elects -386 scholars annually, who are distributed among nine schools. The -course lasts five months, and during this time the scholars receive free -tuition, two free meals daily, and the material required for making -dresses or other garments. They attend from 9.30 to 12.30 and 2 to 4.30 -every day except Saturday. During that time they get a continuous and -thorough training in cookery, needlework, dress cutting and making, -laundry work and housewifery, with some gymnastics and singing. In -addition to these scholarships second courses of five months’ -instruction, with the opportunity of specialising in one particular -branch, are now awarded to eighty-four scholars each half-year. The -first course is not meant to train a cook or a dressmaker, but any girl -who wishes to qualify herself for such a post gets a capital chance of -testing her own abilities and inclination, and there are further -opportunities of training open to her, if she desires them, in the -second course or at the National Training School of Cookery. Last year -four girls were apprenticed in good dressmaking firms on leaving the -school. - -Mrs. Pillow, lately employed by the Education Department to prepare a -special report on the teaching of Domestic Economy, gives an account of -the work of these schools. She says: ‘Housekeeping and cookery are -treated as part of the everyday life of the girls, and not merely as -school lessons. The girls cook the meals which they are to eat; they -learn to measure and fit themselves for the dresses which they are -taught to make, and they are instructed in laundry work in such a way -that they can quite well apply their knowledge to the “family wash” in -their own homes. The cookery syllabus contains dishes which are well -within the reach of the working man earning an average wage; the using -up of odds and ends, bones, crusts, and cold vegetables, scraps of meat, -etc. receives attention, and the utensils and stoves provided for the -girls are similar[17] to those found in the majority of artisans’ homes. - -‘The laundry work is taught on simple and common-sense principles, the -only extra aid to speed and efficiency being a wringer and mangle, and, -as these are now so frequently found in the homes of the more thrifty -housewives, it is well that the girls should be taught to use them -properly. The processes of steeping, washing, boiling, rinsing, blueing, -wringing, drying, folding, mangling are all thoroughly taught. The -washing of flannels and woollens, a part of laundry work which is -frequently very badly done by laundry women, receives special attention, -and starching and ironing are exceedingly well done by the girls at the -conclusion of their course of training. - -‘The girls are taught the market value of foods. In some of the schools -special arrangements are made for this. At Battersea they are taken out -to purchase meat, greengrocery, etc. When the girls cannot be taken out -to market, they are sometimes allowed to purchase from the teacher in -charge of the stores. They are taught to compare prices, to judge of the -freshness and quality of commodities, to expend a given sum to the best -advantage in the cheapest market, and how to prepare and cook their -meals in the shortest time possible.’ - -The fee for the complete course is £1, 10s., or 7s. 6d. per month, and -this includes the cost of all books and materials. The greater part of -the pupils come from the elementary schools, but surely they are not the -only girls who need such teaching. Many pupils leave the high schools at -fourteen or fifteen to live at home in somewhat straitened -circumstances. To them such a training as this would indeed be a boon. -It would even be worth the sacrifice of the last six months at school, -since they must in any case leave without getting the best it can -afford, the teaching in the fifth and sixth forms. Girls attending -second grade schools, who naturally leave early, would find these -domestic economy courses an admirable means of transition between school -and home life; while those, whose bent lies in this direction, can go on -to the training schools, and either become teachers of these subjects, -or earn a living by their practical application. In fact, the domestic -economy school is fast helping to raise the home arts into their proper -educational place, as affording one among many suitable careers for -women, no longer the Cinderella among occupations, who sits among the -ashes, because the prince has not yet come to claim her. The neglect of -the middle class to use these schools is another instance of their -proverbial apathy; meantime, these good things are ready for them as -soon as they will take the trouble to grasp them. Of course there is no -reason why such teaching should be given free, except to a minority. - -Even more widespread than these day-schools are the evening classes in -the same subjects. These are found throughout the country, in towns at -technical institutes, in villages in little classes taught by -peripatetic teachers, who are sent from place to place by the county -councils. In fact, ‘county council dressmaking’ has become such a -feature, that it might be taken for a special system of cutting and -fitting. The persons for whose benefit this instruction is given are -young women who have left school, wives, and mothers of families. If -experience has taught them their own deficiencies, they have now the -opportunity of making up lost ground. Cookery, dressmaking, and nursing -often attract large numbers. The teaching has no professional purpose. -It is simply ‘for home use,’ as the Germans say, and has its place in a -wide scheme of general education, which includes training the hand as -well as the mind. - -This village work must, to some extent, be desultory, while, in the -large town institutes, it can be made more systematic. Its value is -considerably affected by the construction of the board which controls -it. A council which places experts on its technical education committee -generally does better than one that simply adds education to its other -manifold functions. Women are able to sit on these committees, and it is -of great importance, for the more feminine side of the work, that they -should be appointed in larger numbers than has hitherto been the case. - -The female element is represented at some of the institutes by the -appointment of a lady-superintendent of the women’s department. This is -the case in the London Polytechnics, where the women’s work is very -fully equipped. At Battersea, which may be taken as typical, the -subjects taught in this department are: cookery, needlework, dress -cutting and making, millinery, fancy needlework and embroidery, laundry -work. In most of these subjects pupils can be prepared for the -examinations of the City and Guilds of London Institute. The fees are -low, and the courses carefully graduated. There is an interesting class -in ‘homekeeping,’ intended for students whose occupation prevents them -from getting the necessary knowledge of housekeeping during the day. -This includes such items as spring cleaning, ordinary household duties -and daily routine, and is probably of special use to that large class of -housekeepers who, having learnt their own deficiencies from bitter -experience, can value this opportunity of remedying them. Another useful -course is elementary political economy, which includes value and -distribution of wealth, rent, wages, and other similar problems. This -instruction, to which both mistress and maid might listen with profit, -can be had by Polytechnic members for 1s., and for 1s. 6d. by outsiders. -Members may also join a reading circle and a first-aid class; they can -use the beautiful gymnasium, and refresh their cramped limbs with -musical drill. All this, with the social advantages which are manifold, -is within reach of those girls and women who are lucky enough to live in -the neighbourhood of a Polytechnic, and have some free evenings to spend -there. - -Institutes of this kind are fast being brought within reach of all -dwellers in towns. The municipal schools of Manchester and Brighton need -hardly shrink from comparison with those of the metropolis. In fact, -when we look at the sumptuous equipment of such schools, we are tempted -to exclaim that Cinderella has indeed left the ashes, and ascended into -her palace. But these glories are not hers by sole right. The men’s -department (of mechanics, engineering, etc.) is far larger than the -women’s, and besides these two, where the sexes are of necessity kept -apart, there are numerous classes where they meet on common ground. At -Battersea the art department is open three days and five evenings a -week, and the general scheme includes a thoroughly practical knowledge -of designing, drawing, painting, and modelling, especially in its -various applications to trades and industries, as well as life classes, -and the commoner features of such schools. In the commercial school, -arithmetic, book-keeping, typewriting and shorthand are taught, as well -as French. There are classes in pure and applied mathematics, and every -branch of science is taught with such advantages in the way of -laboratories and appliances, as no private or self-supporting -institution could attempt to supply. Most Polytechnics are centres for -University Extension, some have fine gymnasia, some have swimming-baths; -nearly all have a long list of social, athletic, and recreative clubs. -In fact, a well-equipped Polytechnic is a kind of popular University, -which provides for all the needs of its members, though with some -neglect of the literary side. This, too, might be supplied by the -omission or insertion of a few words in an Act of Parliament. The -Polytechnics and Technical Institutes would thus at once be transformed -into the most completely equipped and endowed scheme of secondary and -higher education in this country. - -With such resources at their disposal, it is natural that Technical -Instruction boards and Polytechnic governors should have gone a step -further, and tried to utilise their spacious premises and admirable -teaching staff for the ordinary purposes of a day-school. Experiments on -these lines are being tried in several places. It is thought that by -establishing such schools, the polytechnic both gives and receives; if -it helps the schools by allowing them to use its premises and staff, it -is helped in turn by the training given to a number of boys and girls, -who will some day be properly equipped to profit by the more advanced -instruction in the evening. The school is largely a feeder for the -polytechnic, and will help in time to raise the standard of its work. As -such it should be judged rather than as an independent experiment in -secondary education. - -A joint school for boys and girls need excite no surprise in an -institution that started at once as ‘co-educational.’ But unfortunately, -in schemes of this kind there is always a tendency to let the girls come -off second-best. This certainly applies to the arrangement of an -‘Organised Science School,’ which is the scheme usually adopted, both on -account of its bias in favour of the scientific side and the power it -confers to earn grants from South Kensington. Probably the admission of -girls was to some extent an afterthought. The Battersea school had been -open over a year before girls were admitted as an experiment. The -present numbers are about one hundred and thirty, of whom two-thirds are -boys. The average age of the junior division is fourteen, and of the -senior fifteen. The fees are £1 a term, including books and stationery. -The school hours are 9.30 to 12.30, and 2 to 4.30, five days in the -week. The work of the three divisions is arranged thus: - -1. Mechanical Division. Mathematics, five hours; Mechanics, three and a -half hours; Physics, three and a half hours; Drawing, four hours; -English subjects, four hours; French, two hours; Manual training, four -and a half hours; Drill, one hour. - -2. Science Division. Mathematics, five hours; Mechanics, two and a half -hours; Physics, three and a half hours; Chemistry, four and a half -hours; Drawing, three hours; English subjects, four hours; French, two -hours; Manual training, two hours; Drill, one hour. - -3. Elementary Division. Mathematics, five hours; Physics, three hours; -Chemistry, two and a half hours; Drawing, three hours; English subjects, -five hours; French, three hours; Art, two hours; Manual training or -Domestic Economy, three hours; Drill, one hour. - -Its aim is described as the imparting of ‘a thoroughly sound secondary -education, with special provision for the study of pure and applied -science, manual training, workshop practice and domestic economy.’ This -school is interesting apart from its curriculum, owing to the efforts -made by Mr. S. H. Wells, Principal of the Polytechnic, who acts as -headmaster, to make it ‘secondary’ in the full sense, and introduce some -of the _esprit de corps_ and out-of-school life which are such marked -features in boys’ ‘public’ and girls’ high schools. The school is -divided into forms with a form-master; ‘each form meets in its form-room -for call-over before school opens for the day, after which they assemble -for prayers, which are read by the Principal. These are confined to a -few verses of Scripture and the Lord’s Prayer; and exemption from -attendance is granted when requested by the parent, although only two -such requests have been made. In matters of discipline the students have -been taught to realise that having ceased to be children they should -have given up childish things; they are present to work not to play, and -their duty to their parents and themselves calls them to take every -advantage of the opportunities afforded; in a word, they are not -expected to commit acts against discipline—they are trusted.’ Mr. Wells -further tells us that ‘senior students are told off every day to -ascertain the chief events recorded in the newspapers, and to record -them on a blackboard, which all the school are expected to read, to be -afterwards questioned on the event in their English classes. In the same -way a record is made of daily weather observations. All boys are -required to wear the school cap, and the habit of “capping” the teachers -outside the school is willingly adopted. Each term sees its “drill -competitions” between the different forms for a shield presented by the -Principal, its inter-form cricket or football matches for a challenge -cup presented by the masters, and matches between the masters and -school. The end of term sees its gymnastic displays or concerts with -acting and recitals, to which parents and friends are invited. Three -school captains are elected each term, the method being that they are -proposed and seconded, and voted for by the whole school. The captains -have authority outside the class-rooms, and their position is readily -and loyally acknowledged.’ The girls have their games among themselves, -though now and then they play a boys’ team at hockey. They have their -own captain, and are assembled for call-over by a mistress, who has a -general control over them, and is always ready to help them with advice -and sympathy. Women, of course, give the lessons in cooking, etc., which -are the feminine counterpart of manual training; else all the teaching -is in the hands of men. The intellectual results appear to be -satisfactory, and here, as in other co-educational institutions the -girls are quite able to hold their own in class. Of the moral and -hygienic results it is far more difficult to judge. Whether girls -between fourteen and sixteen would not be better under the care of a -woman, whether they do not miss some of that moral influence which can -only be exercised by a form-mistress who also takes part in the -teaching, are questions that must come up in the near future, should -there be any disposition towards co-education in this country. As yet it -has generally been adopted rather from motives of economy than on -grounds of principle. Institutions like those at Battersea, Chelsea, and -Wandsworth are boys’ schools to which girls are admitted; although, as a -matter of fact, at Chelsea the girls outnumber the boys. The amount of -time given to science would never have been allotted had the real needs -of girls been considered. It is an interesting experiment, but it will -not do much towards solving the problem of Modern Schools for girls. - -Even more one-sided in its aims is the type of school which the Surrey -County Council is starting. This county is specially deficient in girls’ -schools of a middle grade, though it contains several good proprietary -high schools, and the technical committee is therefore applying some of -its funds to the supply of this want. The Wimbledon school is the first -attempt of the kind, and must be regarded as still in an experimental -stage. Girls who enter are supposed to have attained to the requirements -of the Sixth Standard, but in a district where there are no Board -schools even this is not always attainable. Hence there are many gaps to -fill up, before a proper foundation is laid for the new studies. It is -supposed that girls will stay for four years, and should they do so, a -most valuable experiment might be made in devising a ‘modern’ -curriculum, essentially adapted for girls. Hitherto in this first year’s -work the course of study is exceedingly meagre; neither science nor -literature is taught; there is a little English history and geography, -but the bulk of the time goes to shorthand, book-keeping, commercial -arithmetic, cooking, laundry and dressmaking. All excellent things, but -surely this is not sufficient intellectual fare for these -twelve-year-old children. Another two years at general subjects would -help to lay a really good foundation on which the special work could be -built up; and it is probable that the shorthand and double entry, and -even the puddings and clear-starching, will not suffer in the end for -this little delay at the beginning. This kind of work is none the better -for being spread out over so many years. It cannot, like the more -intellectual subjects, be perpetually presenting fresh developments, -which give it the charm of novelty. There seems some danger lest, in -trying to elevate the status of the domestic and commercial arts, we -should forget that they cannot satisfy all sides of our nature. Girls -want something different from the science school, but it must not be a -purely utilitarian training. In the true modern school they will learn -subjects of daily utility; but just because so much time is given to -these, there must be special prominence for all that makes for culture. -To the Spencerian dictum that education must prepare for the business of -life, we should add Aristotle’s wise admonition, that it should teach -the right use of leisure. Keeping both these in view we may yet discover -the ideal ‘Modern School.’ - -It would not be fair to blame technical education boards because they -have not yet solved this difficult problem. Their experience in -education is still new, and as far as schools are concerned their best -work has been done in subsidising those that already exist. On this -large sums are now being spent. To be exact, we may state that during -the year 1896–97, sixty-three councils, (forty-two county, and -twenty-one county borough) gave direct or indirect assistance to three -hundred and twenty-eight secondary schools to the amount of £144,871, -2s. 2d., this sum including the scholarships and exhibitions granted to -pupils proceeding to or from secondary schools. How much of this goes to -girls does not appear, certainly not half, but at any rate enough to -make a very appreciable difference to their education. - -Of course, this help is not given unconditionally. It usually implies -the representation of the local authority on the governing body of the -school, the application of the entire subsidy to purposes of technical -education, and observance of the clauses abolishing religious tests. -Some counties have special requirements, without which no subsidy can be -given. _E.g._ Cheshire demands: - -(1) That drawing shall be taught to every pupil except any whose -exemption may be approved by the committee. (2) That at least two -science subjects shall be taught to all pupils over ten. (3) That one -modern language shall be taught, and regular instruction given in some -commercial subjects. (4) That each student shall receive instruction for -at least three hours a week in mathematics. (5) That the pupils shall be -annually examined, and at least twenty-five per cent. of them sit for -the examinations of the Science and Art Department, or such other -examination as the Technical Instruction Committee may from time to time -approve. - -Other counties are less rigid in their demands. In London, where endowed -schools for girls have been greatly helped with grants, some special -condition often accompanies a subsidy. Thus the Owens girls’ school at -Islington received £300 ‘to be expended in fitting up the new laboratory -and art-room,’ the Central Foundation school was charged to spend its -grant on fitting up another room for work in practical physics and -appointing an assistant science mistress. At the Camden school the board -provided an Arts and Crafts room, where cookery and dressmaking are -regularly taught; at the James Allen’s school, Dulwich, a laboratory has -been built, and a subsidy given for an assistant science mistress. Such -subsidies, even when given for a specific purpose, help the whole school -indirectly, since they set free money from the general funds for the -benefit of what cannot be included in that elastic term ‘technical -education.’ - -Perhaps the chief benefit yet conferred by county councils on secondary -education is the gift of scholarships. It has been left to the technical -instruction committees to frame that ‘ladder’ of which so much is heard -on educational platforms. Thanks to a system of graduated scholarships, -it is now possible for an intelligent boy or girl to pass from a primary -to a secondary school, and thence even to the university. Of course this -has been done before now, but never on such a large scale. Since each -county is a law unto itself, a girl’s chances depend greatly on the -place where she happens to live. A girl living in Bedfordshire has no -county council scholarships open to her, but the Harpur Trust schools at -Bedford receive girls with scholarships from other counties. A Surrey -girl has a good chance of winning a scholarship, but, owing to the -dearth of girls’ public schools in that county, she may not be able to -make the best use of it. Happily, there are many parts of England where -both schools and scholarships are available, and there will soon be -more, if one of the difficulties in the way of the girls’ ‘ladder’ is -removed, by the recognition of proprietary high schools as public -institutions at which scholarships can be held. This is now being done -in some places, to the great advantage of the scholars. - -Some counties, _e.g._ Derbyshire, Durham, and Yorkshire, have a very -complete system of scholarships, accompanied by maintenance grants, -without which they would in many cases be useless. There are few -counties that do nothing in this way. The London Technical Education -Board regards its scholarship scheme as the basis for nearly all its -work. ‘The award of junior and intermediate county scholarships -necessitates such grants to secondary schools as will enable them to -make proper provision for the technical training of the scholars. -Similarly, the award of intermediate and senior county scholarships -compels the Board to see that the training afforded in institutions for -higher education is suitable for scholars of seventeen years of age and -upwards.’ - -The Board gives three classes of scholarships:—(1) Junior county -scholarships, intended chiefly for pupils of public elementary schools -working in the fifth or higher Standards, tenable for two years and -renewable. Of these six hundred are given annually, and fifty are open -to candidates from other than elementary schools, whose parents have an -income below £150. These scholarships give their holders free education -at any approved secondary or upper standard school, with money payments -of £8 for the first year, and £12 for the second. - -2. Intermediate county scholarships are open to boys and girls under -sixteen who come from any school, secondary or upper standard. They give -free education to the age of eighteen or nineteen, with money payments -rising from £20 to £35 a year. The income limit is £400. They are -tenable at public secondary schools and places of higher learning. - -3. Senior county scholarships. These are few in number, and intended to -provide for specially promising students a training of university rank. -They give free education at a college or technical institute, with money -grants of £60 a year, and are tenable for three years. Here, too, the -income limit is £400. - -In 1896–97 London had a thousand junior scholars in fifty secondary, and -two hundred and ninety-four in thirty-six upper standard schools. Of -this total four hundred and eighty-five are girls. The intermediate -scholars, of whom there were a hundred and eighty, were in the following -institutions: three university colleges, five technical and science -colleges, one training department of a polytechnic, fourteen first-grade -public secondary schools, twenty-one second grade public secondary -schools. Sixty-two of these scholars were girls. Of the senior scholars -only two were women. They pursued their studies at Holloway and the -Central Technical Colleges. - -All this is, of course, in addition to the special scholarships for Art, -Science, Domestic Economy, etc., which come more directly under the -heading of ‘technical.’ - -If we turn away from these lists of names and figures to consider how -wide a field has been covered by this work in London and the provinces, -we cannot but be struck by the developments of these eight years. A -system of universities for the people has been started, technical and -commercial education have received an enormous impetus, secondary -instruction has been brought within reach of large numbers by whom it -was hitherto unattainable, numbers of already existing schools have been -placed on a firm financial basis, and throughout the special needs of -women have been considered. With better building and plumbing, better -cooking and washing, we certainly may hope for more creature comforts in -the good time coming. But this is a small thing compared with the -brightening of homes by the gift of those higher pleasures, without -which it has been truly said that life is not truly life at all. - -Surely whisky-drinkers need not grudge the extra sixpence which has done -all this! - - - - - CHAPTER X - STATE AID FOR GIRLS - - -While private effort in the form of companies, endowments, and -individual enterprises was building up a complete, though unorganised, -system of girls’ education, another system totally unconnected was being -gradually developed by aid of the State. For a long time the two were -regarded as parallel, with no possible point of contact, except such as -might be artificially established by means of scholarships. Now we are -beginning to think that we may have mistaken the direction of the lines, -and that there are some points of connection between the Board School -and the High School pupil. - -This change is due to the growing conviction that the education of its -citizens is a matter of which a State should take cognisance. Far behind -Germany in its adoption of this principle, England did at last wake up -to the necessity of educating all her citizens. Whether out of -self-defence, to ‘educate our masters,’ as Mr. Lowe bade us do, or, as -Plato would have counselled, to make the men and women of the State as -good as possible, the idea of universal education has at last gained a -hold in this country. Very slowly, and with immense opposition on the -part of the classes who regarded learning as their own peculiar -privilege, and were jealous of any intrusion in what they considered -their private domain. But they were powerless to hinder; when once the -little flame was kindled, no force could avail to extinguish it. From -the moment that one generation educated in the new schools took their -place as voters, the system was secured. The democracy soon realised -that education was a levelling agency, and that it was their interest -both to maintain and improve it. - -It is difficult for those who are familiar with our elementary education -to realise how recent is its establishment in England, and how still -more a matter of yesterday the full use of the opportunities offered. -England was the last of the great European countries to accept the -doctrine of the responsibility of the State for education. Schools for -the poorer classes were for a long time either non-existent or a matter -of local, largely denominational, effort. The first grant of public -money to schools was made in 1832, when, without any previous -legislation on the subject, the sum of £20,000 for this purpose appeared -in the Estimates. Seven years later this was increased to £30,000, and -by an order in Council a special committee of the Privy Council was -established, with its own staff of officers to supervise the work. This -was the first beginning of the Education Department. Thus gradually, -almost imperceptibly, the State was beginning to intervene in education. -When in 1858 the Duke of Newcastle’s Commission was appointed to inquire -into the whole state of popular education, it found that much had -already been done, but the great need was for some systematic control. -The result of its findings was the celebrated Revised Code of 1861, -whose main provisions were:— - -‘1. That a school must be in approved premises. - -‘2. That each child must make a certain number of attendances. - -‘3. That children must pass individual examinations in reading, writing, -and arithmetic.’ - -Thus originated the much praised and much abused system of ‘payment by -results,’ about which so many a contest has waged. - -Up to 1870, the whole system had grown up out of administrative -machinery, without direct intervention of the legislature. Voluntary -effort originated the schools, Treasury grants assisted them. The -Education Act of 1870 was intended, to quote the words of its author, -Mr. Forster, ‘to complete the voluntary system, and to fill up gaps.’ -Its object was not so much to create schools as School Boards. Where -voluntary effort was, by inspection, proved insufficient, a district -could be called upon to elect a School Board, with power to raise a -rate. A subsequent Act, by establishing school attendance committees for -non-School Board districts, completed the system of local control; and -the 1880 Act made attendance compulsory on all children up to ten (since -altered to eleven), and forbade the employment of any children between -ten and thirteen who had not reached a standard to be fixed for each -district by its own local authority. Those who could not reach this by -fourteen might claim the dunce’s privilege. - -The School Boards found plenty of work before them. For some years they -were chiefly occupied in drawing into the schools the great masses of -the entirely uneducated; and the three R’s, which was all they could aim -at, came to be regarded in many quarters as the ultimate aim of -elementary school instruction. But this was a temporary stage, which had -to be gone through before the red-brick school-house had become a -regular feature of town and village throughout the kingdom. Education -was compulsory till the age of ten; children who passed through all the -standards would remain at school till about twelve or thirteen. For the -masses that might be sufficient; for a select few it was either too -little or too much. It served to kindle in their minds a love of -knowledge, and to reveal a special inclination for intellectual -pursuits, without offering the means of satisfying it. Gradually the -need of building a second story on this lower edifice became manifest. A -subject much debated during the last few years is the question whether -this should be planted on the top of the primary building, or provided -by special avenues leading from the elementary schools to existing -secondary institutions. But while educationalists were discussing -matters in the abstract, the necessities of the case were compelling the -existing schools to build their own top story. When the Secondary -Education Commission of 1894 came to discuss the best methods of -establishing continuation schools, they found that a considerable number -were already at work in different parts of the country. The change had -come about little by little. Clever children had passed through the -standards at an age when it was impossible or inadvisable to set them to -work; it was natural that the school should be unwilling to turn them -away. Thus originated an ex-sixth standard, and gradually the pressure -of the Boards upward brought about the extension of the parliamentary -grant to a new standard—the seventh—in which more advanced subjects of -study received recognition. Thus while the obligatory subjects still -remain reading, writing, and arithmetic, with needlework for the girls -and drawing for the boys, the optional and specific subjects—of which, -however, no child may take more than a very limited number—now range -over several sciences, languages, and mathematics, as well as what are -popularly called technical subjects. The great mass of schools are still -obliged to confine themselves to elementary work; but with the -introduction of other subjects into the code, a new element has entered -the schools, and has without doubt ‘come to stay.’ The next development -after the seventh standard was a system of ex-standard classes, which in -large schools could be worked without a great addition to the staff. In -particular, the instruction of the pupil-teachers introduced some more -advanced classes; and as time went on, parents who had themselves -enjoyed the benefits of education showed themselves more and more -willing to leave their children at school as long as the school was -willing to keep them. In this way the ex-seventh standard developed into -the Higher Grade Elementary school. - -This name belongs properly to two different types of school. The Higher -Grade proper begins at the fifth standard, and gives an education for -three or four years beyond the seventh. But the term is also applied to -a school which includes all the standards, and gives more advanced -instruction to a small number of pupils who remain after passing through -these. The latter is the kind usually found in London; the former is -popular in large manufacturing towns, especially in the north, and it is -this which is stepping in to fill an important gap in the secondary -system of the country. - -These schools mark the existence of a new and vigorous educational -impulse arising from below. They are a natural, though apparently -unexpected, development of the elementary school, which, according to -the words of the Act, is one ‘at which elementary education is the -principal part of the education there given.’ Since the great mass of -children do not go beyond the fifth standard, it is convenient in large -towns to draw into a single school all who propose to continue their -education, and by a systematic course of further study to encourage them -to stay on as long as possible. Thus a secondary school has grown up so -naturally and quietly on the top of the elementary, that many persons -are hardly aware of its existence. - -This sudden addition of a four years’ advanced course would obviously be -impossible without funds, and the Education Department is officially -unaware of the existence of any pupils beyond the seventh standard. The -good fairy who steps in here is none other than that much abused South -Kensington Department of Science and Art. This department, which, justly -or unjustly, has come to be regarded as a red-tape-bound machine for -examining and conferring grants by a sort of automatic process, has only -of late years been brought into connection with day-schools. Though its -grants began as early as 1837, their object was chiefly to encourage -evening classes, and make cheap instruction possible for those men and -women whose occupation or income shut them out from the ordinary means -of education. An examination which could be used for the purpose of -earning income naturally became popular; and in spite of protests from -many quarters, in particular from some artists, who regarded the system -of drawing-teaching as mechanical and cramping, there has been little -diminution in its popularity as a money-producing agency. The -establishment of technical institutes gave it a fresh impulse, since the -adoption by these of the South Kensington examinations gave a welcome -addition to the institute’s funds; and as the money for this purpose is -supplied by annual votes in the Estimates, and not by a rate, it -provokes none of that opposition which a local rate for any object, no -matter how desirable, is sure to encounter. - -The connection between South Kensington and the day-schools has grown -little by little. The grants were originally meant for evening-schools, -but there appeared no reason why day-schools should not also earn it, -provided they were willing to send in their pupils for the evening -examinations, which for some years were the only ones held. As early as -1872, the department had devised a regular scheme of instruction for -schools that systematically followed its courses. Under certain -conditions, schools under local management, approved by the department, -might be registered as ‘Organised Science Schools.’ A certain class -stamp was given them by requiring that the pupils should as a whole -belong to the ‘industrial classes,’ the £400 income limit being used to -define the term. Payments were made for success in examination: for -Science, £2 for a pass in an elementary subject; £2, 10s. and £5, -respectively, for a second or first-class in an advanced stage; and £4 -and £8 for a second and first in honours. Extra grants were made for -certain subjects. No payment was made unless at least twenty-eight -lessons had been given to the class, or unless at least twenty had been -attended by the individual pupil. Payments on similar principles were -made for Art. The Organised Science School could also claim an -attendance grant, which made it a more profitable undertaking. In -return, a school was bound to allot fifteen hours a week to subjects -taken under the department. As a matter of fact most schools gave more. -There was money in Science, Mathematics and Drawing. Geography, History, -Languages and Literature were unremunerative. They must go to the wall. - -Such was the course which, originally designed for evening students, was -gradually gaining favour in day-schools. A child who passed beyond the -standards must still earn money for his school, and this could only be -done by means of these South Kensington grants. Hence the wide diffusion -of the Organised Science School, in spite of its too early -specialisation, and the undue stress laid on grant-earning. - -This arrangement marked the triumph of red-tape and apotheosis of the -examination system. The narrowness of the curriculum made it unsuitable -for many boys, and almost all girls. As attempts were made to adopt it -more generally for the sake of the grant, condemnation became frequent. -The obligatory fifteen hours’ Science were complained of; in 1895 new -regulations reduced them to thirteen, and introduced a general _viva -voce_ inspection, which was to take cognisance of literary subjects as -well. Grants are still given only for Science and Art, but the other -side is not wholly neglected. Ten hours must nominally be given to -literary subjects, though this is held to include manual instruction for -boys and cookery or needlework for girls. Less stress is laid on -examination. In the elementary course, payments are made wholly on the -results of inspection, and in the advanced course partly on inspection -and partly on examination. The arrangements are extremely complicated, -but they amount to—(1) an attendance grant on all students who have -attended a minimum number of times; (2) a variable grant on each -student; (3) grants for practical work; (4) payments on examination -results in the case of advanced students of Science and Art; (5) -payments for manual instruction, cookery, needlework, etc. Such are the -means of financing a Science School (the term now adopted), and schools -of this description are often found serving the purpose of continuation -departments to elementary schools. Since 1897 examinations have also -been held in the day-time. - -A higher grade school which systematically organises its upper -department is divided into upper and lower school, the former under the -cognisance of South Kensington, and the latter of the Education -Department. A four years’ course in the upper school usually leads to -matriculation. But although they are in a sense two distinct schools, -they fit into each other as the primary and grammar schools do in -America. The methods are the same in both, the organisation similar, and -children pass from one to the other without that breach of continuity -which makes the transition from the elementary to the high school so -sudden, and often so unprofitable. It is this continuity which conduces -so largely to the success of the higher grade schools, and accounts for -the extraordinary rapidity of their growth. As many as seven or eight -hundred pupils have been known to enter one of these schools on the -opening day; three hundred of these had free places, the rest paid small -fees. - -There are at present in England 169 Schools of Science, with an -attendance of 20,879. What proportion of these are girls it is -impossible to ascertain. A large proportion of these science departments -are in higher grade schools. Although a higher grade school is not -necessarily a science school, while science schools are sometimes found -as departments of grammar schools or other institutions, the two are -found in such frequent combination that the terms Higher Grade and -Science School are not infrequently used as synonymous. - -Of these schools the best known is probably the one at Leeds so ably -directed by Dr. Forsyth. It is established in a huge block of buildings, -and has two divisions—one for boys and one for girls—with a central -double staircase opening into long corridors, separated from class-rooms -by glass partitions. Its class-rooms are large and airy; it is admirably -equipped with apparatus, etc., and has a good playground for the boys, -though the girls are restricted to the use of the roof. With its -chemical laboratory for 120 students, its physical laboratory, large -lecture-room, workshop, gymnasium, etc., its large staff, and 1800 -pupils, of whom about half are in or over Standard VII., it testifies -with all the eloquence of material fact to the vigorous development of -this new educational force. The nature of the work done in these -propitious surroundings is best described in the Principal’s own -words:—‘On a basis of elementary education it is intended to superadd a -system of higher education which, at a moderate charge, will train -pupils for industrial, manufacturing, and professional pursuits. This -system of instruction will have its beginnings in the elementary school, -but will be practically carried out in a three years’ course beyond the -standards. It will embrace such courses as:— - -1. The Classical (or Professional), in which Latin, Mathematics, -Science, and Drawing form the chief subjects. - -2. The Modern (or Mercantile), in which French or German, Commercial -Geography, Mathematics, Science, and Drawing will receive most -attention. - -3. The Scientific (or Technical), in which Mathematics, Science, and -Drawing form the leading subjects. - -A school of this size can, of course, be broken up into a number of -separate departments, since these numbers would, in any case, -necessitate parallel classes, and the work of the upper school is -greatly facilitated by carrying down such subjects as Latin, French, and -Elementary Science as low as the fifth standard. This school takes -pupils from the second standard. The fee throughout is 9d. a week. It -contains a very important Organised Science department, but this only -represents part of the work of the school. The curriculum of the girls -differs but slightly from that of the boys. They take cookery and -similar subjects instead of manual instruction, and calisthenics instead -of gymnastics. At one time they were allowed to substitute botany for -some of the mathematics, apparently with excellent results. - -Similar schools, though not quite so large, are in existence at -Manchester, Cardiff, Gateshead, etc.—in fact, almost every large town in -England now has, at least, one school of this kind. At Leeds boys and -girls are separated in the standards, but work together in the upper -school, where the proportion of girls is very small. At Cardiff the two -schools are distinct and under different heads, but the highest -(matriculation) class is mixed. The plan of putting boys and girls -together under the headmaster in the upper school appears to be gaining -ground. This seems a mistake, since in schools of this kind the needs of -boys and girls are of necessity very different. As far as boys are -concerned, the continuation school of the working classes is bound, in -fulfilment of its twofold function, ‘to carry on education beyond the -elementary stage without breach of continuity, and to fit children for -their future occupation’; to lay the chief stress on science, mechanical -drawing, and similar subjects, which may help the future artisan to take -a higher place in his trade. For girls the position is different. In -fact, science schools were never meant for them, but they gradually -gained admittance for want of a corresponding school of their own. Some -persons think it a good course for intending teachers; for the general -run of girls it cannot be considered suitable. The most crying need for -them just now seems complete separation from the boys’ department, and -some other scheme than that of science examinations for purposes of -financing. A girls’ continuation school can hardly be a place for -specialising. With due allowance for all possible outlets for feminine -energy, it still remains a fact that the great mass of women are likely -to lead a more or less domestic life, and the special training for what -has been called the trade of ‘home-making’ does not necessitate a four -years’ course of arduous study. A girl’s future, too, is harder to -anticipate. She may marry and keep house, or she may work for her -living, or she may do both, either successively or simultaneously. What -she needs is good all-round training; if along with this she can get -some good practical and theoretical instruction in domestic economy so -much the better. But cooking and washing must not absorb as much time as -boys give to chemistry and physics, else we run the risk of disgusting -our girls for ever with household work. It is absurd to confound a -domestic art with a theoretical and practical science, for it can only -to a very limited degree replace mental training. This a girl can get -from a variety of studies. The more general her curriculum, the better -will she be prepared for the very miscellaneous demands of her after -life. A certain number will doubtless pass through the intermediate -school to the university college, but this may be done without excessive -specialisation, and the number who remain long enough to make use of -such opportunities is likely to be much smaller in the case of girls -than boys. If a fair proportion stay for two years after the seventh -standard, we should be well satisfied. If the parents have made -sacrifices in order to keep them at school till fifteen, it is time for -the majority at any rate to be apprenticed for their future work, or -make a place for themselves in their own homes. A girl’s preparation for -life is not entirely to be sought at school; matriculation is not an end -in itself, and a girl who has not sufficient ability to win a -scholarship to a secondary school, or a special aptitude for teaching, -will do better to turn her attention to more lucrative fields of manual -or commercial work. The school that, failing to recognise this, -endeavours to drive all its pupils through the same examination mill is -neglecting part of its duty, and taking too narrow a view of education. -A two years’ course is what the majority of girls need to fill the -interval between the seventh standard and the age of apprenticeship. If -we could give this to all, and something more to the few, the State -would not be neglecting its daughters. - -Since under present circumstances these schools cannot be worked without -some help from South Kensington, various experiments are being tried in -organisation, to enable a school to earn some grant and yet pay more -regard to the needs of girls than is usually done in higher grade -schools. Some adopt the plan of Science Classes instead of Science -Schools, registering for examination purposes the classes in science, -drawing, etc., without offering up the thirteen obligatory hours on the -altar of money earning. Unfortunately this plan is less advantageous -from the pecuniary standpoint, and many a schoolmistress will declare -with a sigh that there is nothing for it but to resort to the Science -School. It is not so good for the girls, but it pays better. - -Some day, before too long, a Secondary Education Act may enable us to -change all that. Meantime we must give to South Kensington the honour of -stepping in when education was languishing for want of funds, and -helping us to build the upper story for our board school boys and girls. -This department, like the county councils which administer the Technical -Instruction Acts, has no power to subsidise subjects outside its own -lawful purlieus, nor can it, while we lack a recognised educational -authority, award its money grants by other means than inspection and -examination. Thus the intermediate school is being forced through the -mill of ‘payment by results,’ from which the elementary school has at -last escaped. Perhaps this was a necessary stage for both to pass -through; and though some victims fell by the way and there was some -injustice done, yet it served to establish the general standard of -efficiency which has made the institution of more liberal methods in -board schools possible. Similarly the stern South Kensington Department -may help to establish a better system of science teaching through its -careful inspection and insistence on practical work, and it may -certainly claim to have ‘succeeded in doing what no other system could -have done, carrying science instruction all over the country without -ever raising any sectarian difficulty of any kind.’[18] The county -councils and the Science and Art Department have become our most -important educational authorities, for the very simple reason that they -alone have money at their disposal. Both are limited in their operations -in a manner that forces them to be unjust to some most important -branches of study. Legislation can and must alter this in the immediate -future. Meantime the result is to emphasise a class distinction between -literary and scientific schools. In making science the distinctive mark -of the lower-class school, the Department has brought about the somewhat -anomalous result of degrading in the public estimation those very -studies which it designed to elevate. An attempt is now being made to -improve the prestige of the science school by raising the income limit -to £500, in accordance with the new income-tax regulations, and -including among schools acknowledged by the Department those ‘managed by -a public company in the articles of association of which provision is -made that no dividend shall be paid exceeding five per cent.’ Under this -heading come the greater part of our best girls’ schools, and this -regulation would place it in the power of the governors of these to turn -a part of their school into a Science School, or to register separate -classes with a view to examination and grant-earning. It would be a -convenient way of adding to their income, but whether it is desirable to -complicate the harmonious working of a high school by a plan of dual -control and a very exacting system of outside inspection and examination -seems very doubtful. Should it ever be largely adopted the chief gainers -would probably be the private schools, which would alone be left free to -take a wide view of the present and future needs of their pupils. There -would be a curious irony in such an outcome of all the efforts to -improve girls’ education by making it a public concern; but as long as -there is no compulsion beyond the elementary stage, we may always reckon -on a healthy reaction and a revolt against excessive red-tape. Britons -never will be slaves, not even to a Department which helps them to -educate their children more cheaply. - -While the higher grade school is designed to give more advanced -instruction to those children from the elementary schools who can afford -to postpone their working life till fifteen or later, it has also become -necessary to do something for those whose occupations will not allow of -continued day-time instruction. The Evening Continuation schools are -intended to supply this want. The original night-school of olden time -was one where the unlettered rustic or mechanic came to spell out his -primer and laboriously manufacture his pot-hooks. Though election -statistics show that the absolutely illiterate voter is gradually -vanishing from the scenes, his complete extinction cannot be far off, -and in catering for after-instruction the amount of schooling -represented by three standards may as a rule be assumed. But in early -days the school boards had to cater for a very ignorant class of evening -pupils, and the work of the continuation schools was to a great extent -parallel with that of the day-schools. For many years the codes insisted -that pupils in night-schools earning grants should undergo examinations -in the three elementary subjects—reading, writing, arithmetic. As the -numbers who passed through the day-schools increased there was a -corresponding diminution in evening attendances, and it became clear -that the proper use of the evening-school was as a place of more -advanced instruction. Accordingly in the 1890 Code the clause, that -elementary education should be the principal part of the education there -given, was omitted. In 1893 Evening Continuation schools received fresh -stimulus and importance from an entirely new Code dealing with them -separately. Its declared aim was to give ‘freedom to managers in the -organisation of their schools’ by offering a wide choice of subjects -with suggested syllabuses in some subjects. The aims of these schools -were now declared to be twofold:—(1) to supply defects in early -elementary instruction; (2) to prolong the general education of the -scholar, and combine with it some form of interesting employment. - -The effect of this new Code was remarkable. The total number of scholars -on evening-school registers increased from 115,000 in 1892–1893 to -266,000 in 1893–1894. No less important was the change in the character -of the work. To a great extent it has become secondary, although primary -instruction is still necessary for many pupils, who are removed early -from the day-school and have spent the interval in purely mechanical -occupations. - -Evening-schools have to contend against several obstacles. Chief among -them is the diminished fitness for receiving instruction after the -fatigues of the day’s work. This seems to vary with different persons, -and to be largely a matter of temperament, sometimes of habit. The -majority of persons certainly work better in the day-time. Another -difficulty is the irregular attendance due to the absence of compulsion -and the lack of special inducements. Nothing but the intrinsic -attractiveness of the class will induce most pupils to study any other -subject than those practical ones, like shorthand, mathematics, etc., -which may help them to earn a better living. The framers of the Code, -recognising this, suggested the introduction of popular elements in the -shape of ‘lantern illustrations, music, manual work, discussion of some -book which has been read by the class, field naturalist or sketching -clubs, gymnastics or other employments of a more or less recreative -character.’ ‘For many of these purposes grants cannot be given, but -provided that the managers take care that at least one hour at each -meeting is devoted to the teaching of the subjects mentioned in Article -2 of this Code, and that the instruction is systematic and thorough, -every arrangement for making the school attractive should be carefully -considered.’ - -The subjects recognised by the Code range from the elementary ones, -practically the three R’s, over languages and sciences, commercial and -miscellaneous subjects, drawing, domestic economy, cookery, laundry work -and dairy-work, and needlework. Indeed, it would be hard to find a -subject not included, always excepting literature, that step-daughter of -English schools. Even this is now being taught under the London Board. - -The scientific and technical subjects bring the schools into competition -with technical institutes, with the result that in some towns there is -an undue rivalry between the various educational agencies. To obviate -this, the Science and Art Department has drawn up a new regulation, -recognising an organisation for the promotion of secondary education in -any county or county borough in England as the local authority for -administering the Science and Art grants in its own district. As many -towns other than county boroughs have classes working for the grants of -the Department, this arrangement is only partially helpful, and there is -still much undue rivalry. Where this prevails it usually falls to the -lot of the School Board to attract the younger and more casual students, -a class that is not altogether welcome at the more serious Institute. - -Hitherto the work of the evening-school has been of necessity more or -less desultory; and of the two agencies for prolonging the education of -our working-class children, the higher grade school seems as yet to -answer best. That the other plan has possibilities is proved by the -example of Germany and the success of our own Polytechnic classes. A -definite place for the evening-school may yet be found in our system. -Meantime the school boards hold out the opportunities and invite, though -they cannot compel, the multitude to come in. The improvement in the -day-school will give a fresh impetus to the evening-school. This much at -least it is safe to prophesy. - - - - - CHAPTER XI - THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS OF WALES - - -A land of mountains seems to be a land of ideals. Separated by the -elementary forces of nature from many of the currents of life that flow -beyond it, thrown on itself, its own resources and its past, it -cherishes its individuality with a fervour unknown to the people of a -plain. Even ruthless modernity, with its complex train systems and -mountain-borings, serves but to invade its privacy, not to change its -character. Patriotism is stronger, national feeling more tenacious, the -practical side of life has man less firmly in its grip. The Welsh -people, with their proud claim to represent the original inhabitants of -the island, their long roll of story and legend, their ‘estranging’ -language, incomprehensible a few miles across the border, are still a -race apart. Neither Saxon nor Norman, legislation nor intercourse, has -ever been able to degrade them into a mere appanage of the English -nation. - -Among the ideals long cherished here in vain by all classes, was that of -a national system of education. It would not be fair to describe the -country which produced the sweetest and best-trained singers in the -United Kingdom, and could organise and carry out such elaborate musical -and artistic competitions as those of the Eisteddfodd, as wholly -uneducated, and yet until very recently it was undoubtedly lacking in -schools and colleges. Like England, it benefited by the Education Act of -1870, which brought instruction to the children of the wage-earners, but -it was the class above these, the professional and commercial, whose -means or whose patriotism forbade their sending their sons and daughters -to England, that felt the deficiency most keenly. Drawn into the stir, -which in England followed on 1870, Wales began to move on her own lines; -numerous educational societies were started, conferences held, and every -effort made to fan the feeble spark till it should have strength enough -to kindle public opinion as well as private enthusiasm. The country was -too poor to supply its own needs by voluntary effort. For that very -reason it offered a useful field for experiment. Vested interests were -not numerous; there were a few grammar schools for boys; but for girls -only three endowed schools, and one proprietary, belonging to the Girls’ -Public Day-School Company. Private schools, mostly inefficient, filled -some of the gaps, the rest remained empty. - -The last five years have wrought a transformation. Throughout the length -and breadth of Wales, whether in large towns or small, there may be seen -in a conspicuous spot, looking down on the place from some hill-top hard -by, a grey stone building, which a large board informs us is the local -County School. The pride with which the inhabitants point it out recalls -American enthusiasm; to many it is the chief sight of the place. Here is -the goal on which their hopes have been set for years; these school -buildings testify to attainment. ‘_O fortunati quorum jam mœnia -surgunt_,’ we are tempted to exclaim. - -This transformation has been brought about by the Welsh Intermediate -Education Act of 1889, itself the outcome of that same departmental -committee which recommended the establishment of a Welsh university. Its -financial contribution, a half-penny rate, and a Treasury grant of -corresponding amount, would in itself have been too meagre to produce -much result, but when in the following year the Local Customs and Excise -Act was passed, it contained a clause permitting Wales to use its share -of the money for purposes of Intermediate as well as Technical -instruction. In this way the public resources, _i.e._ the rate, the -Treasury grant, and the technical money, could be administered in one -fund, and for the general purpose of education, with no express -exclusion of literature or culture. The tiresome restrictions, the -overlapping of authorities, from which we are still suffering in -England, were never to be introduced into Wales; its very poverty proved -its salvation; there was a _tabula rasa_ on which no characters had been -as yet inscribed. Both on account of its own needs, and as an untried -field for operation, Wales was chosen as suitable ground for an -experiment in secondary education, at the very moment when the -institution of a fresh educational authority in England came to -complicate existing conditions yet further. - -It is an accusation often brought against English education, that we -have no system which looks well on paper. This cannot be said of Wales. -The system there is perfectly simple. It applies to the whole country, -and to girls and boys alike. The money is raised from three sources:— - -1. A half-penny rate—the County contribution. - -2. A Treasury grant, equal to the amount produced by the rate—the -Treasury contribution. - -3. The local share of the money from the Customs and Excise Act—the -Exchequer contribution. - -The educational unit is the county, and the governing body consists -partly of members of the county council, representing the separate -school districts, partly of members chosen by school boards, university -colleges, etc. A very few are co-opted. Each school also has its own -body of managers, chosen in somewhat similar fashion from local bodies, -while the county council appoints one of the members sent up to it from -each district to be its own representative on that particular governing -body. The duties of the managers are chiefly confined to carrying out -the provisions of schemes, and promoting healthy local interest in the -school, for they have little power of initiative, and not always even -the choice of a headmaster. All matters of essential importance, _e.g._ -whether the schools shall be separate for boys and girls, or mixed, the -subjects of instruction, the salary of the headmaster, the limits within -which fees may be charged, and the proportion of scholarships to be -awarded, are laid down in advance in the county scheme, which can only -be altered by appeal to the Charity Commissioners. The action of both -county and district bodies is therefore confined within very narrow -limits, too narrow, in fact, considering the experimental stage of the -schools, and the unwisdom of crystallising initial mistakes into -permanent form. - -These schemes were drawn up, subject to the approval of the Charity -Commissioners, by the Joint Education Committees, which received their -authority directly from the Act. They consisted in each case of five -persons, three nominees of the county council, and two persons ‘well -acquainted with the condition of Wales and the wants of the people.’ -Though the interests of girls as well as boys had to be considered, few -if any women seem to have been on these committees, and it is difficult -not to connect this omission with the injustice with which they have, in -many cases, been treated. This was hardly intentional, but it should -have been possible to negative at the outset every proposal for making a -girls’ school a mere subordinate department of the boys.’ These -committees were only temporary, to exist until the schemes could be -floated, and the control handed over to the county governing bodies. But -they led to the formation of a permanent board, not contemplated by the -Act. Frequent meetings between groups of these committees, with a view -to promoting uniformity of action, led to a series of general -conferences at Shrewsbury, which, though not in Wales, is the most -conveniently accessible point from north and south. At a series of -meetings held here, it was decided to establish a central body, and call -upon the Treasury to acknowledge it as the central authority for -inspection and examination, and for the payment of the Government grant -to the various counties. After the usual negotiations and delays, a -scheme establishing the Board was approved by the Charity Commissioners, -and became law in 1895. In this informal manner originated what has -practically become the secondary education authority for Wales. - -The Board consists of eighty members, representative of various local -and educational bodies: the Principals of the three Welsh colleges, -twenty-one representatives of county councils, twenty-six of county -governing bodies, five of headmasters and mistresses of intermediate -schools, five of certificated teachers in public elementary schools, -three of councils of university colleges, three of the senates, two of -Jesus College, Oxford, six of the court of the University of Wales, and -six co-optative members, three of whom must be women. The bulk of the -work devolves on the executive committee of fifteen. - -The establishment of this Central Board marks the completion of the -Welsh secondary system. It furnishes a link between all the counties and -schools, and exercises over these that general supervision which, in the -initial stages, had devolved on the Charity Commissioners. Since the -subjects to be taught had been prescribed by the Act generally, and by -the schemes specially, the duties of the Central Board were not so much -to lay down a scheme of studies, as to see that the course already -prescribed was duly followed, that each school was in a state of general -and educational efficiency, and that the provisions of the schemes were -observed. For these purposes they arranged a system of inspection and -examination. The Act had defined intermediate education as ‘a course of -education which does not consist chiefly of elementary instruction in -reading, writing, and arithmetic, but which includes instruction in -Latin, Greek, the Welsh and English language and literature, modern -languages, mathematics, natural and applied science, or in some of such -studies, and generally in the higher branches of knowledge,’ and the -schemes fixed more precisely which of these were to be in each case -compulsory. The Glamorgan scheme, which is in many respects typical, -prescribes geography, history, English grammar, composition, and -literature, drawing, mathematics, Latin, at least one modern language, -natural science, vocal music, drill or other physical exercise, and such -other scientific or technical subjects, including shorthand, as the -school managers may determine. Scripture is not obligatory, but if -included, it must be taught by a member of the staff. Some manual -instruction must also be offered the boys, and a little cookery to the -girls, but, as is inevitable, where the programme is already overloaded, -this side of the work takes a very subordinate place. In all schools -Welsh must be taught as an optional subject; in a stated few Greek may -be introduced. But even without these additions, the compulsory -curriculum is a very heavy one, when it is borne in mind that a large -proportion of pupils come from the elementary schools, where the girls, -at any rate, have been hitherto confined to reading, writing, -arithmetic, and needlework, with possibly a little French and domestic -economy. Even English history and geography are unfamiliar ground. - -The aim of the Welsh Intermediate, as of the English High Schools, is to -give a liberal education cheaply in day-schools; but there is one -essential difference between them. While the high school is an organised -whole, leading the pupils by gentle gradations from the primary -department to the lower school, and thence on to the upper, the -intermediate school receives no pupils below the age of ten. Since the -majority are between twelve and sixteen, they break up naturally into -two classes, according as they have received their preliminary training -at a public elementary school or elsewhere. This division is by no means -so sharply defined in Wales as in England. Wales is both poor and -democratic, and inclines to the doctrine, familiar in the United States, -that no stigma should attach to attendance at a school supported out of -the rates, since the parents do in fact contribute towards the expenses, -though indirectly. Hence we find a mixture of class in both elementary -and intermediate schools, which in England would be neither possible nor -desirable. The omission of the primary department in the new schools is -in fact deliberate. There is already one kind of school assisted out of -public funds and accessible to all, and it is therefore not thought -necessary to subsidise primary instruction in another set of -institutions. The intermediate school is so constituted as to fit -straight on to the elementary, and in each school a certain proportion -of scholarships must fall to elementary pupils. In accordance with the -opinion of many authorities that the transplanting from an elementary to -a secondary school, always a difficult process, should not take place -too late, the admission age and requirements are put low, and the -intermediate school is supposed to branch off from the elementary at -about the fifth standard. In Wales, where poverty and dearth of -educational opportunities have induced many persons of middle rank to -make use of the free public schools, the difference between the two sets -of pupils is by no means so strongly marked as it would be in England, -but even here schools have two different characters, according as one or -the other of these elements predominates. In a district where the -population is largely industrial, the lowest possible tuition fee is -chosen, and the largest possible amount of scholarships given to -elementary pupils. Thus one scheme requires that not less than ten per -cent. and not more than thirty per cent. of the pupils in each school, -shall hold scholarships, and at least half of the number awarded shall -go to pupils from public elementary schools, but there is nothing to -prevent the whole number from being so given. In fact, several schools -have more scholarships than candidates for them. According, therefore, -to the interpretation of the clause adopted, the elementary scholars in -a school of a hundred may vary from five—the minimum, to thirty—the -maximum. In the latter class of school, the fees are usually low enough -to attract paying pupils from the elementary schools; hence these -furnish a majority of the pupils, and the school becomes a continuation, -often a finishing-school for elementary pupils, many of whom stay one -year, sometimes only a term or two, to get what prestige they can from -attendance at a school of a higher grade than the one to which they have -been accustomed. Those that remain for two years or longer usually do -well, if their health is strong enough to bear the severe strain. - -The other classification into separate and mixed schools is apt to -coincide with this distinction. Of the eighty-four schools now in -existence, there are twenty for boys and twenty for girls, while the -remaining forty-four are mixed. This wholesale adoption of a principle -popular in the United States, but regarded hitherto askance by England, -in common with other European countries, is due, as in Scotland, to the -force of necessity. It is not as a counsel of perfection, but as a means -of economy, that the plan has been adopted in Wales. In a country -intersected by mountains, and inadequately supplied with means of -locomotion, where distances should, as in Switzerland, be counted by -hours and not by miles, access to places that look near enough on the -map is often exceedingly difficult; and it is useless to plant a large -school-building in a central district in the hope of drawing in pupils -from a radius of a few miles. The alternative lay between frequent small -day-schools and a liberal sprinkling of boarding-schools. The former -carried the day, on the ground that they were more equitable to -ratepayers, and more democratic. In almost every county, the committee -adopted the more expensive and troublesome plan of establishing and -maintaining a large number of small schools, and most of the -difficulties with which Welsh intermediate education has to contend are -due to that decision. In some places there are schools of forty, or even -less, difficult to finance and to organise. These might work for a year -or two, but as pupils stayed on and began to range from the Fifth -Standard scholar at one end to the Matriculation student at the other, -with all the varying intermediate grades, failure became inevitable. One -remedy in the case of those small schools which were not rich enough to -provide a liberal staff for small classes, was to arrange from the first -to mix the boys and girls, thus facilitating the grading by increasing -the numbers in each class. In this way better results could be obtained -with small means, at any rate as far as class lists and examination -statistics were concerned. - -Owing to the difficulties of grading, this system is being gradually -introduced in many places where it was not originally contemplated; but -the typical Welsh school, according to the first plan, was the dual. -This was to consist of two distinct schools, one for boys and one for -girls, built side by side, in such a way that they might have assembly -hall, gymnasium, laboratory, etc., in common, and by the economy thus -effected in site, buildings, apparatus, etc., it was hoped that the -efficiency of small schools would be maintained. Unfortunately, the -advocates of this system went a step further, and arranged to complete -their economies by appointing a single head for both schools, to take -the superintendence of both boys and girls. Obviously this head must be -a man. Though some schemes contain the words ‘headmaster or -head-mistress,’ it is at once explained to feminine applicants that the -words are a mere matter of form. Indeed, it would be far better to omit -them. The most ardent advocates of women’s equality would hardly propose -to give a mistress full authority over boys of twelve to seventeen. -However excellent feminine influence may be in a boys’ school, no one -wants to see it supreme there. Though paramount masculine influence in a -girls’ school is anything but desirable, it seemed the lesser of two -evils; and both custom and convenience pointed to the selection of a -master. This initial injustice paved the way for many others. Though -most schools appoint a senior mistress, who is supposed to have a -general control over the girls, it is out of the managers’ power, when -once they have made the headmaster supreme, to make her position one of -any authority. Like all the rest, she is appointed by the headmaster; -she has no place in the scheme, nor status in the school, except what -may be given her by courtesy. She has no voice in choosing her -assistants, nor in making the time-table; her position is often inferior -to that of a second mistress in an English high school. This kind of -dual school was a new experiment, and it cannot be pronounced a -successful one. Where the two departments were kept distinct, except for -an occasional interchange of teachers, the real difficulties of -classification were not obviated; and one set of managers after another -took the final step, availing themselves of the permission accorded in -most schemes, to ‘make arrangements for boys and girls being taught -together in all or any of the classes.’ The forms are then mixed -throughout, and assigned in turn to men and women teachers. Here the -senior mistress loses even her semblance of authority, and the school is -under the supreme and undisturbed sway of the headmaster. What number of -schools have already taken this final step is nowhere definitely stated, -but, as far as can be ascertained, it appears to be a majority. It is in -fact the logical outcome of the dual plan, and since the tendency of the -change is to diminish the proportion of girls, we may look upon these -schools as organised for boys, but admitting girls as well. - -The whole question of co-education is so exceedingly difficult that it -is unfortunate that Welsh educationalists should have been compelled to -add it to the number of complex problems with which they had already to -deal. The small schools have necessitated this among other problems. Its -warmest advocates do not deny that it makes discipline more difficult: -constant supervision becomes necessary; boys and girls have to be kept -apart out of class, and an attempt, usually doomed to failure, is made -in some schools to control the walk home. The freer intercourse, the -element of trust, and the bright out-of-school life, which in England -have come to be considered as important a part of a secondary school as -the Mathematics or Latin taught there, have little chance of development -in the mixed school. That valuable moral impetus given by the direct and -constant intercourse between the master and boys, mistress and girls, is -missing. Thus they lose what is often the best effect of school life -upon our boys and girls: the schools become places of mere instruction, -not education; they are but elementary schools with advanced subjects in -the curriculum; rivals, and not always successful ones, of the higher -grade. Of course this is not solely due to the co-education scheme, but -it has tended further to emphasise the social difference between the two -classes of schools, and also to put women at a disadvantage in Welsh -education, which could hardly have been contemplated by the original -promoters. Yet now that this arrangement has been fixed by scheme and -made fast by yards of red-tape, it must remain as it is, until some -energetic band of reformers shall arise determined to end it. But that -cannot be as yet. - -The second class, the distinct schools for boys and girls, resemble our -English high schools; in fact Swansea, one of the most successful, was -actually founded by the Girls’ Public Day-School Company, and taken over -by the Intermediate Board. The money supplied by the county grant makes -up for the diminution of the fees, and the work proceeds with little -change. Cardiff is also organised on the lines of a high school, with -the chief intellectual work in the morning, considerable attention to -games and physical training, and a liberal allowance of teachers. In -these separate schools the fees range from about £5 to £9, being -slightly lower than those of the corresponding schools in England. The -allowance of mistresses to pupils is adequate, the elementary scholars -are a small proportion, not enough to set the whole tone of the school. -In the mixed or dual school the fees are usually low, sometimes even as -little as £2 per annum, scholarships are more numerous, and the -sprinkling of scholars from other than elementary schools is very small. -Both kinds of schools doubtless have their use, though their aims are -very different. - -With all these varieties of organisation and character, the schools have -a unifying influence in the general control of the Central Board, since -all are subject to its examination and inspection. The latter is -undertaken by the Chief Inspector, who visits each school in the course -of the year, and reports specially on the following heads— - -1. Character, suitability, and capacity of school premises. - -2. School furniture and apparatus. - -3. Facilities for recreation and physical training. - -4. The relation between the administration of schools and the schemes -under which they are established. - -5. The organisation of classes. - -6. The school discipline. - -7. Courses of instruction. - -If a school prove deficient in any of these respects, the managers -receive a warning from the Board that future negligence will entail a -diminution of the grant. This is a useful check, and a form of payment -by result which can only do good, for it counteracts that uneconomical -form of economy, which declines to spend on proper building and -apparatus and salaries. An element of control which requires more -careful exercise is the threat of a diminished grant, should a school -fail to do well in the annual examination. This, which is conducted by -the Central Board, was in the first place inspectional, and was meant to -give the schools the necessary outside impulse. In order to carry out -the principle of letting the examination follow the teaching instead of -the teaching the examination, each school was invited to send up its own -syllabus of work done, but this led to so much needless expense, since -there were as many as fifty-three Latin papers set in one year, that -some kind of uniformity became indispensable. The present regulations -prescribe that only pupils who have been a full year in a school shall -be presented for the written examination, and in at least five subjects. -Forms which do not take papers are examined orally in one or other of -the subjects studied during the school year. The scheme bears some -resemblance to the school examinations of the Joint Board, but a new -feature is the test in languages of ‘ability to read fluently, -intelligently, and correctly, passages chosen from prepared and -unprepared texts.’ The papers set are of varying grades of difficulty, -and the schools choose which they will take. Thus in Latin there were -seven papers set in 1898, of which the fourth is supposed to be -equivalent to the standard of the Welsh Matriculation. Not many pupils -are likely to go beyond this, since the schools are distinctly -preparatory to the university colleges, which a matriculated pupil can -enter. If this standard should in a few years be reached by a fair -proportion of pupils in each school, the intermediate system can claim -to be successful, for it will be accomplishing its avowed purpose, to -carry its pupils from the Fifth Standard to the Constituent College of -the University of Wales. For pupils who aim at the Welsh Matriculation -these annual tests should be sufficient, but experience shows that there -is a tendency to aim at results earlier in the school career; and the -chaos of external examinations, from which many English schools are not -yet completely emancipated, should be a warning to Wales to be wise in -time, and from the beginning concentrate efforts on the same lines. This -seems to be best effected by following the example of the Joint Board, -and combining school examinations with the awarding of certificates. A -scheme on these lines is now in course of preparation, and will probably -come into operation in 1899. The subjects of the general examination are -to be arranged in groups: _A._ Scripture and English; _B._ Mathematics; -_C._ Languages; _D._ Science; _E._ Practical subjects. Within certain -limits a choice is allowed from these five groups. Junior and senior -certificates are to be awarded on papers of different grades of -difficulty. The senior standard is to be carefully approximated to that -of Welsh Matriculation, in the hope that the University may be willing -to accept it as an equivalent. There should not be much difficulty about -this, since the University Court is represented on the Central Board, -and the Board in its turn on the Court, so that very close and -sympathetic relations are maintained between the two bodies that have -charge of the educational interests of the country. The next step would -be to win acknowledgment for it as a substitute for the Medical and -other preliminaries, and a further stage would be an Honours grade that -might replace the higher certificate of the Joint Board as an admission -examination to English colleges, and a substitute for the Previous and -Responsions. Even this might in time be attained, and the Welsh Board -would then have fulfilled its mission of making one school stage lead -harmoniously and naturally to the next. - -Such is the scheme as it presents itself to the minds of the promoters, -who look far away beyond the present troubles of small schools, -irregular attendance, and inadequate funds, and see in the distant -future the glorious fabric of their dreams: one system of schools for -both boys and girls, leading them on step by step till they are ready to -enter their own colleges, and thence, if more adventurously inclined, -cross the border and ask the hospitality of the ancient English -universities. The ladder in its widest acceptation is to be set up in -Wales, so close to the home of every boy and girl that none may plead -inaccessibility as an excuse for the failure to mount. And this system -is to be worked by popular bodies, touching at one end the local -schoolboard, at the other the university colleges, so that its -foundations may be firm and lasting, ‘broad-based upon the people’s -will.’ - -Such is the ideal; how far is it reflected by the reality? Of actual -results it is too soon to speak, since the oldest school is not yet five -years old, and the numbers in them are so small that the whole -eighty-four now in existence, including boys and girls, have not -together as many pupils as the thirty-four schools of the Girls’ Public -Day-School Company. There were many difficulties to be met. The ground -was new and unbroken, the meaning of secondary education, except in so -far as it was expressed by a higher grade school, was hardly understood -by the mass of the people. Some schools won a too hasty popularity, -owing to the impression that they were ‘finishing’ institutions for -elementary scholars, hence the one-year or one-term pupils of whom so -much has been heard. This mistaken notion will be but slowly dispelled, -and it is not impossible that in a few years’ time, should the Central -Board prove successful in its attempts to ‘level up,’ the number of -schools may prove too large for the demand. Many boys and girls who must -begin to prepare for their life work at fourteen or fifteen would be -better off in a higher grade school than struggling to find their depth -in these new waters. The elimination of these would prove no serious -loss, and it would clear the ground for a fairer treatment of those -pupils, whether from elementary or other schools, who are really able to -profit by secondary education. The Welsh system cannot be considered -complete while so many of the well-to-do and educated classes hold -aloof, helping, it is true, with money and sympathy, but sending their -children to be educated across the border. Who shall blame them for not -offering up their own boys and girls as _corpora vilia_? Yet, until the -schools can offer something to such pupils as well, they must remain -one-sided. - -Still, with all its flaws, and they are not a few, the system has -something to teach England. The love of knowledge, noted even in the -days of darkness, the willingness to make sacrifices, evinced by gifts -of land and money to new schools, the keen interest in their welfare -felt by all grades of the community, and the absence of that class -jealousy which tends to check the spread of popular education in -England—all these we should do well to note, and copy if we can. Then we -may be prepared to thank Wales for teaching us both what to do and what -to avoid. - - - - - CHAPTER XII - 1898 - - -Such is in brief the story of the last half-century, 1848 to 1898. -Looking back on what is in the main a line of progress, there seems now -and then a check, here and there a retrograde movement under the guise -of a new discovery. All this is inevitable, since we are but human. But -taking the period as a whole, none can doubt that it marks a very real -advance; and this end of a century seems a fitting time to pause and -rest on our oars, while we survey the breakers through which we have -passed; then once more set forth on our onward path, assured that there -can be nothing worse before us than what is already behind. - -It is not only for girls’ education that the revival has come. A general -awakening has passed over the country: men and women, boys and girls, -rich and poor, the lady of leisure and the hard-working mechanic, all -have had something brought within their reach that formerly belonged -only to the few. Three years ago these gains were summarised in -convenient form by the Royal Commission on Secondary Education, -appointed ‘to consider what are the best methods of establishing a -well-organised system of secondary education in England, taking into -account existing deficiencies, and having regard to such local sources -of revenue from endowments or otherwise as are available, or may be made -available, for this purpose.’ Even now the country is waiting for -legislation on the findings of that Commission. When we remember that we -have really been waiting ever since 1867, we do not feel over-sanguine -of results; but happily events have since then moved in many directions, -and the Commission, before proceeding to recommendations for the future, -was able to draw up a long list of reforms that had already come about -and changed the whole face of education in England in less than thirty -years. - -First in order of time stands the Endowed Schools Act, which did so much -for boys, and rescued something from the spoils for the benefit of -girls. Next came the Elementary Education Act, which brought primary -instruction within the reach of every boy and girl in the land, and set -a new machinery in motion destined to change the whole face of the -country. In 1888 the institution of county councils provided that local -authority which was to make a system of decentralisation in education -possible, while the Technical Instruction Acts of 1889 and 1891 and the -Local Customs and Taxation Act of 1890 at once brought these new powers -into play, and originated a fresh set of educational institutions in the -Polytechnics and other similar colleges. Lastly, the Welsh Intermediate -schools, established by the Act of 1889, were providing an object-lesson -in the organisation of secondary education. - -Besides this public work, the Commission had to take cognisance of the -enormous changes in the education of girls, due to the wide diffusion of -High Schools and the admission of women to the Universities. ‘There has -probably been more change in the condition of the secondary education of -girls than in any other department of education,’[19] say the -Commissioners, and they also note that ‘the idea that a girl, like a -boy, may be fitted by education to earn a livelihood, or, at any rate, -to be a more useful member of society, has become more widely diffused.’ -Various other changes came under their cognisance: the gradual rise of -Higher Grade schools, evolving themselves through inherent necessity -with no impulse and little encouragement from without; the many attempts -at what has been called Continuative education by means of evening -classes; the help afforded to large numbers by University Extension; the -improved status of the teachers; the various colleges established for -their training, and the many educational societies which have grown into -powerful forces during the last twenty years. After taking due note of -all this, they declare that the time has come to weld these various -organisms into one consistent whole. They anticipate no easy task. ‘The -ground of secondary education is already almost covered with buildings -so substantial that the loss to be incurred in clearing it for the -erection of a new and symmetrical pile cannot be contemplated. Yet these -existing buildings are so ill-arranged, so ill-connected, and so -inconvenient, that some scheme of reconstruction seems unavoidable.’[20] - -This touches the key of the situation. The reconstruction must at any -rate begin with adaptation, then the gaps may be filled with new and -convenient edifices. However much such a plan offends our notions of -order and logic, we do well to remember that every one of these -structures, jerry-built though they may be, has grown up out of some -real need; and before we propose to fit all their tenants into neat -little model dwellings, it behoves us to be quite sure that such a plan -would be as satisfactory in the working as it looks on paper. The mere -fact that of the girls receiving secondary education in England seventy -per cent., and of the boys thirty-eight per cent., are in private -schools, often in towns where there are grammar and high schools with -plenty of empty places, should make the advocates of ruthless innovation -pause and stay their hand. The public must in the last resort determine -what it wants, and though demand sometimes follows supply, the opposite -process is a constant one. However much theorists may inveigh, according -to their special prejudices, against higher grade or ‘private adventure’ -or any other kind of school, the fact of their successful existence, -even in the face of rivals, shows that they do supply a want; and the -only prudent course is to find them a place in our system. - -This has been fully recognised by the Commissioners, who wisely suggest -proceeding on lines similar to those on which elementary education was -at first organised. The local authority proposed in 1867 can now be -easily constituted, since we have the county councils to supply a -nucleus to which educational experts can be added, as is already done on -some technical instruction committees and in the Welsh county governing -bodies. The local authority would proceed ‘to inquire how far the -schools within its area provide secondary instruction adequate in -quantity and quality to the needs of each part of that area.’ In doing -this, regard is to be had to proprietary and private as well as endowed -and other public schools, and the report adds the following significant -comment: ‘We are far from desiring to see secondary education pass -wholly under public control, and into the hands of those who are -practically public servants, as elementary education has done, and we -believe that where proprietary or private schools are found to be doing -good work, it would be foolish as well as unfair to try to drive them -out of the field.’[21] Where the supply of secondary education is -deficient in any part of the area, the local authority should have power -to establish new schools. - -The functions of these authorities are therefore to fall under four -heads— - -1. The securing a due provision of secondary instruction. - -2. The remodelling, where necessary, and supervision of the working of -endowed (other than non-local) schools and other educational endowments. - -3. A watchful survey of the field of secondary education, with the -object of bringing proprietary and private schools into the general -educational system, and of endeavouring to encourage and facilitate, so -far as this can be done by stimulus, by persuasion, and by the offer of -privileges and advice, any improvements they may be inclined to -introduce. - -4. The administration of such sums, either arising from rates levied -within the area, or paid over from the National Exchequer, as may be at -its disposal for the promotion of education. - -In this way these local authorities would receive large powers of -supervision, but comparatively little coercive control, since ‘it is not -so much by superseding as by aiding and focussing voluntary effort that -real progress may be made.’ - -The general guidance and direction of secondary education should be -committed to a central authority, to include the various departments of -Government now concerned with it. - -Further recommendations are: the consolidation of existing sources of -revenue into one fund; and a generous scheme of scholarships for the -poor, in preference to a general lowering of school fees. - -These main recommendations, as well as other subordinate ones, seem wise -and moderate, fair to all classes, and consistent with their professed -aim, ‘to draw the outlines of a system which shall combine the maximum -of simplicity with the minimum disturbance of existing arrangements.’ A -bill drawn up on these lines would probably meet with very general -acceptation from all classes, except those persons, probably few, who -are ready to subordinate the general good to their own private fads. -Unfortunately Parliament has hitherto proved unwilling to give time for -such a bill. The ill-fated Education Bill of 1896 dealt with secondary -education as a sort of accessory to primary; and as, unlike the latter, -it has not yet become a subject for party divisions and acrimonious -controversy, it is not at present sufficiently interesting to the -general run of politicians to call forth any special exertions on their -part. The private bill brought in last session by Colonel Lockwood -expressed the wishes of a large section of the teaching profession. It -proposed to form one central educational authority under the Committee -of the Privy Council on Education, by consolidating powers relating to -secondary education possessed by the Charity Commissioners, the Science -and Art Department, and the present Education Department, and to -establish local secondary education authorities, to consist partly of -members of the county council and partly of other persons with special -educational experience. It also proposes registers of efficient schools -and of persons qualified to teach in them. The ministerial bill -introduced by the Duke of Devonshire into the House of Lords at the -fag-end of the session merely proposed to bring together in one office -the two departments of Science and Art and Education, under the control -of one permanent secretary, and to create a Board of Education on the -model of the Board of Trade. To this new department the supervision of -endowed schools, under schemes framed by the Charity Commissioners, was -to be transferred. The thorny questions of constitution of local -authorities, raising of rates, etc., were left untouched. It was not -proposed to carry the measure, merely to show the country before the -vacation the lines on which the Ministry were inclined to proceed. -Thorny as are many of the points under discussion, such as central and -local authority, amalgamation of existing departments, etc., they are as -nothing to the real difficulties that must follow when these matters of -administrative machinery are settled. The inspection and grading of -schools, the due consideration that must be shown to secondary education -proper and to that part commonly known as technical, the proper respect -for existing schools that are good and the ruthless elimination of such -as are bad—in these lies the true crux of the situation, and under all -circumstances some part of this work will probably fall to the local -authorities. An enormous amount of responsibility must devolve on those -who first take up the arduous task. - -One burning question, which ought to be settled for the whole country -alike, is the relation between the grammar and high schools on the one -hand, and the elementary schools on the other. Are we to have one upper -department for both, or two? Some time ago the consensus of opinion -seemed to be in favour of one; that was on the assumption that the -proportion of children passing beyond the standards would be a small -one. Some such idea seems to have been in the mind of the Duke of -Devonshire when he spoke of ‘a sound system of secondary schools which -will be open alike to the most promising children of the elementary -schools and to the middle classes generally.’ But this view rests on the -assumption that the primary departments of both sets of schools are very -similar in their curriculum and methods. This is very far from being the -case. ‘The elementary schools are not, under the present conditions in -England, the common basis of secondary education, nor, though an -increasing number of pupils proceed from them to secondary schools, are -the public elementary schools the sole, nor, indeed, the chief channels -through which pupils proceed in this country to day or boarding-schools -of the secondary grades.’[22] The changes that would be necessary in the -elementary schools would be so numerous and far-reaching, and the -expense so enormous before they would be able to attract the great mass -of the middle classes, that no one could seriously propose to abolish -the primary departments in secondary schools, as long as parents are -able and willing to pay the school fees. They are a necessity, and would -have to be supplied by private adventure, as is done at Cardiff and -other large Welsh towns, if a public system declined to acknowledge -them. In the interest of what we might call the ‘secondary party,’ the -primary department of the secondary school must be maintained. On the -other hand, the teachers in Government schools seem equally unanimous in -the view that their own special continuation schools are better suited -to the mass of elementary pupils than the grammar or high school. -Neither party seems anxious for the fusion, and so long as a liberal -scheme of scholarships is maintained, it is possible to do full justice -to those elementary scholars who can look forward to a school life -sufficiently long to enable them to reach the highest classes of their -new school. To allow pupils to enter upon an extensive and liberal -curriculum, who are likely to be removed before its real meaning and -unity has dawned upon them, is a thing we should never even contemplate, -were our notions of curricula and grades of schools a little less hazy -than they are at present in England. The board school child, who is sent -at the age of thirteen by her proud parents to have a year’s finishing -at a high school, is typical of the present confusion. There is really -no more urgent problem before us than a scientific differentiation of -schools. - -Still, whatever course legislation may take on this and other problems, -whether funds are raised by fresh rate or merely by adding together -existing sources of income, no matter what are the constitution and -functions of the local authority, this, at least, we may rely on—the -interests of girls will not be forgotten. For that we have to thank that -little band of men and women who have laboured during this last half -century in the face of prejudice, opposition, and indifference to remove -the neglect with which England treated one half of her children. This -much, at least, is established: no future educational legislation will -omit to provide for women and girls. For this we have a pledge in the -appointment of women on this last Commission, in their mention in every -scheme for a new educational institution that now passes through -Parliament, and their recognition on every new elective body -constituted. - -We have gained, gained immensely. Still, we cannot blind our eyes to -some evils the good has brought with it. The very acknowledgment of the -right of girls to as good an education as their brothers has in some -cases, happily rare, led, under the pretence of equality, to a -subordination of the girls’ interests. Thus, some of the recent attempts -to establish joint schools for both sexes, whether on the grounds of -economy or the fanciful plea of imitating the family life in a large -school of over a hundred children, does indirectly involve a fresh -injustice. What the reformers asked for was a share in educational funds -for girls and a better education for the teachers, that they might be -qualified to undertake the very highest teaching in girls’ schools. The -attempts recently made in some schools aided by public money to -economise by teaching boys and girls together, abolishing the -head-mistress and putting a headmaster over boys and girls alike, while -arranging the curriculum and time-table to meet the needs of the boys -and letting the girls do the best they can with it, is only a revival, -under a new guise, of the old idea, that girls are not entitled to the -same consideration as boys. Our modern reformers will not find their -occupation gone while they have this old prejudice to combat. It is -unjust to the teachers as well as to the taught. Hitherto it has been -almost universally acknowledged that teaching was an occupation for -which women were by nature specially suited. Is it really proposed to -oust them from all but the lowest ranks, and reserve the prizes, the -chief inducement to work, for men only? This is what must happen, should -there be any wide spread of the mixed schools. With the disappearance of -the head-mistress we should lose much of that moral training which has -hitherto been regarded in England as no less important than the -intellectual and physical. We have hitherto prided ourselves on being in -advance of Germany in employing women to teach the highest classes in -our girls’ schools. Germany is now beginning to follow suit, and by -means of special courses at some of the universities and at the -Victoria-Lyceum, Berlin, some of the best mistresses are being trained -to take these posts. Surely we in England do not intend, without a -struggle, to take the retrograde path! - -There seems to be another danger imminent, due, perhaps, to the great -speed with which events have moved. At any rate, we have landed -ourselves in a dilemma. The educational movement has been parallel with -many social changes. The fluctuations of business, the lowering of -interest, and other complex causes which make saving difficult to men -engaged in business or professions, have added greatly to the number of -women who must now earn their living. Thirty years ago it was the custom -to wait till the father’s death closed the parental home, when the -daughters, untrained to work, unaccustomed to privation, were sent out -into the world, to seek their bread as best they could. So general was -this practice even among the more enlightened, that the committee who -helped to found Queen’s College expressed their belief and hope that -‘the ranks of that profession (_i.e._ of a governess) will still be -supplied from those whose minds and tempers have been disciplined in the -school of adversity, and who are thus best able to form the minds and -tempers of others.’ We are no longer such stern believers in adversity; -we now realise that training and earning cannot begin simultaneously, -and, further, we have learnt that neither for Adam nor for Eve should -work be accounted a curse. All this has led to a great revolution in -thought. Work has been made honourable in the eyes of girls. Already at -school they are encouraged to choose a profession and to take the steps -that lead to it much as their brothers do. If they marry, the years of -regular disciplined work prove a helpful training for their new duties; -if they remain single, they keep a purpose and an aim in life. This -existence of regular duty, of appointed periods of work and holiday, is -the easier life; and now that remunerative employment has come to be -regarded as a privilege and not a stigma, the ranks of women workers are -fast being overfilled. We have heard much talk of late about _new_ -careers for women; but the very abundance of the talk serves to betray -the poverty of the land. Of new careers there are few. In some cases it -only means that the work is transferred from a man to a woman at a lower -wage. This is no economic gain to either sex. The field should be open -to both alike, but for equal payment. There are also a considerable -number of occupations which, if not performed by women, would remain -undone, or be done less well. Such are nursing, certain branches of -medical work and of factory and sanitary inspection, some kinds of -journalism, the teaching of almost all girls and of little boys, to say -nothing of the wide field of manual and domestic occupations which fall -specially to the woman’s share. Large fields of philanthropic and social -work are their own special domain, but these are usually unpaid. There -is plenty in truth for women to do, but not enough remunerative work ‘to -go round,’ as the saying is. Happily, the working life of many women is -short, since marriage or the claims of relations often bring it to a -premature close, so that the terrible over-supply has not yet made -itself too keenly felt. As yet the sufferers have been chiefly those of -the old school who entered the arena unarmed for the fray, and have -retired to swell the ranks of the ‘necessitous gentlewoman.’ But signs -are not wanting that even the trained and the capable will soon have to -suffer. Worst of all is the pressure in the teaching profession. The -delight of the enthusiast and the child-lover, it is also, -unfortunately, the refuge of the destitute and the one resource of the -unimaginative. The girl who has diligently and successfully pursued her -own studies without ever learning to take an initiative or to turn out -of an appointed groove can contemplate no other way of spending her life -than in passing on to others the knowledge she has herself acquired. If -hers is a rich home, salary is no particular object. So she ruthlessly -spoils the market for her poorer sisters, and takes the bread from -another woman whose very existence depends on her earnings. Meantime the -work in the home, among acquaintances, the poor, the friendless, the -native town, those endless and varied fields of woman’s labour, remains -undone. In preaching to our girls the nobility of work, some of us have -forgotten to speak of its very highest branches. All honour to those -noble women like Miss Clough who never did forget it! - -This rush of all women in the same direction, this excessive -individualism which has given rise to the cant phrase, ‘living one’s own -life,’ is surely a stage through which we have to pass, but which need -not remain permanently with us. Much may be done by mistresses at school -to revive the dignity of home life, to check the untrue notion in the -girls’ mind that no work is worthy of the name unless it is paid for in -coin of the realm. Unpaid service is the pride of Englishmen; why should -it not be honoured by Englishwomen? Still, for most service money is the -fitting reward, and some measure of independence belongs by right to -every adult, whether man or woman. Why do not more parents try to make -life at home a worthy substitute for a professional career? Why not pay -the daughter a fair salary for services rendered, that shall make her as -independent in the matter of pocket-money and holidays as her college -friend who is teaching or writing? Just as important is a certain -liberty of action and a little room, no matter how small, where she can -see her friends undisturbed and have things her own way. Those persons -who are rich enough to leave their daughter a fair income at their death -can surely afford to allow her these little indulgences in their -lifetime. If she is some day to be thrown on the world penniless or with -a mere pittance, then the sooner she sets to work the better. Whenever -it is possible, parents should make up their minds, before a girl leaves -school, what sum of money can be laid aside for her, either for -immediate professional training or with a view to an income in the -future. It is reasonable and right that a girl, like a boy, should -choose her profession, provided the occupations of home are included -among those that are paid and respected. If the growing independence of -girls helps to bring about this change, the family too will benefit by -this quiet revolution that has taken place in our midst. The _Sturm und -Drang_ period will pass away, and the time for the quiet harvest must -succeed it. Enough, then, has been said by the devil’s advocate; it only -remains to enter into the fruits of our Nineteenth Century Renaissance. - - - - - INDEX - - - Aberystwyth College, 6, 9, 10. - - Addison’s Essays, 10. - - Aldeburgh Girls’ School, 160. - - Allen, James, Girls’ School, 96, 191. - - Aske’s School, Hatcham, 101. - - Astell, Mary, 8, 9, 10. - - - Bangor College, 141, 145. - - Beale, Miss, at Queen’s College, 30; - at Cheltenham, 30; - gives evidence before Schools’ Inquiry Commission, 33, 42, 85; - an educational pioneer, 38; - her abstract of the Royal Commission’s Report, 48; - her views on private teaching, 53; - founds St. Hilda’s, Oxford, 122. - - Bedford College, 27, 28, 29, 121, 128, 129, 130, 131. - - —— endowment, 81, 90, 92, 93, 95. - - —— High School, 93, 94, 95, 135. - - —— Modern School, 93, 94, 95. - - Birmingham endowments, 80, 90, 91. - - Blue-stocking Club, 11. - - Board of Education Bill, 240. - - Boarding-houses, 152, 153, 166. - - Boarding-schools, 149, 150, 161, 162. - - Bodichon, Madame, 39, 40, 84, 107. - - Bostock, Miss, 28, 84. - - Bryce, Mr., 47, 84. - - Buss, Miss, at Queen’s College, 30; - gives evidence before Schools’ Inquiry Commission, 33, 42, 85; - an educational pioneer, 38; - President of Schoolmistresses’ Association, 48; - transforms the North London Collegiate into a public school, 85; - procures endowment for it, 86, 87. - - Buss, Frances Mary, Schools, 87, 88. - - - Cambridge Examinations, Junior and Senior, 33, 34, 40, 41, 51, 109, - 167. - - —— —— Higher Local, 34, 51. - - —— position of women at, 113, 114, 126. - - —— Triposes opened to women, 110, 111, 112. - - Camden School, 87, 191. - - Cardiff College, 141, 145. - - Careers open to women, 162, 163, 246. - - Chapone, Mrs., 11. - - Charitable Trusts Acts, 83. - - Charity Commission, 83, 100, 102, 174. - - Cheltenham Ladies’ College, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 53, 94, - 135, 153. - - Christ’s Hospital Girls’ School, 80, 97. - - Church Schools’ Company, 58, 59. - - City of London Girls’ School, 102. - - Clergy Daughters’ Schools, 17, 18. - - Clough, Miss, 38, 49, 81, 109, 116, 247. - - Cobbe, Miss, her reminiscences of school, 15, 16. - - Co-education at University of Wales, 176; - at Polytechnics, 177; - in Organised Science Schools, 187; - in Higher Grade Schools, 206; - in Welsh Intermediate Schools, 224, 227. - - College Hall, London, 134. - - County Councils, educational work of, 172, 177, 237. - - Curriculum of Girls’ Schools, 67, 71, 72, 75, 162. - - - Davies, Miss Emily, an educational pioneer, 38; - Secretary to Local Examination Committee, 40; - gives evidence before Schools’ Inquiry Commission, 42; - works to obtain endowments for girls, 84; - foundress of Girton, 104; - Mistress of Girton, 108. - - Day Schools, 149, 150. - - —— —— at Polytechnics, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188. - - Defoe on Women’s Education, 9, 10. - - Degrees for Women, attempts to obtain, at Cambridge, 110, 113; - at Oxford, 120. - - Domestic Economy Schools, 178, 179, 180, 181. - - —— —— evening classes, 181, 182. - - Dual Schools. _See_ Wales. - - - Edgeworth, Maria, 13, 14, 15. - - Education Bill of 1896, 239; - Colonel Lockwood’s, 240. - - —— Company, 157. - - —— Department, 196. - - Elementary Education Act, 100, 225. - - Elizabeth. _See_ Queen Elizabeth. - - Elizabethan England, 7, 8. - - Endowed Schools before the Conquest, 78. - - Endowed Schools for girls, 85, 91, 97, 100; - three grades of, 99. - - —— —— assisted by grants of Technical Education money, 191. - - Endowments, of Convents, 5; - Association to promote their application to the Education of Women, - 84; - their distribution, 98; - share of girls in, 79, 80, 84, 91, 97, 102. - - Euphues, 7. - - Evening Continuation Schools, 211. - - —— —— —— Code, 212, 213, 214. - - Ex-standard classes, 199. - - - Fitch, Mr., 44, 46, 84. - - - Games for girls, 152, 153, 155, 156, 164. - - Girls’ Public Day School Company, 56, 57, 66. - - Girton College, 106, 107, 108, 110, 114, 115. - - Governesses’ Benevolent Institution, 21. - - Grammar Schools, 6, 8, 80. - - Grey, Mrs. William, 54, 56. - - - High Schools, 59; - difference between English and American, 60; - general features of, 61; - organisation, 62; - buildings, 63; - curriculum, 72; - methods of teaching in, 73; - results on the pupils, 73, 76, 77; - training of the teachers, 73; - after careers of the girls, 77; - hours of work in, 152; - their relation to elementary schools, 241. - - Higher Grade Schools, 199, 200, 201, 203; - at Leeds, 204, 205; - at Cardiff, 206; - needs of girls at, 207, 208. - - Hilda, abbess of Whitby, 3. - - Hitchin Ladies’ College, 105, 106. - - Holloway College, 102, 121, 131, 132, 133. - - - Intermediate Schools. _See_ Welsh Intermediate Schools. - - - King Edward’s Schools. _See_ Birmingham endowments. - - King’s College, Ladies’ Department, 135. - - - Lady Margaret Hall, 117, 120, 121, 123. - - Lecture-system, 25, 72, 73. - - Local Customs and Taxation Act, 169, 217, 235. - - Lockwood, Colonel. _See_ Education Bill. - - - Makins, Mrs., 9. - - Manchester High School, 89. - - Manual training, 74, 158, 171. - - Mary Datchelor School, 101. - - Maurice, F. D., 22, 23. - - Modern Schools for girls, 189. - - Montagu, Mrs., 11. - - Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, 11. - - More, Hannah, 11, 12, 13, 163. - - - National Union for the improvement of Women’s Education, 54, 55, 56. - - Newnham College, 108, 109, 110, 114, 115, 116. - - Norman Conquest, effect on Education, 3. - - North London Collegiate School, 33, 53, 64, 68, 87, 135. - - North of England Council, 48, 49, 50, 108. - - Nunneries, education given in, 3, 5. - - - Organised Science Schools, 187, 201, 202, 204. - - Owens College, Manchester, 136. - - Oxford Association for the Education of Women, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, - 123. - - Oxford Halls for Women, 116, 117. - - Oxford Home Students, 123, 124. - - —— Local Examinations, 40, 50. - - —— Position of Women at, 118, 119, 120, 124, 126. - - —— University Examinations, 132. - - —— and Cambridge Joint Board, 51, 68, 69; - Higher Certificate of, 69, 70, 116; - Lower Certificate, 70, 71. - - - People’s Palace, 174. - - Pfeiffer Charity, 102. - - Physical training, 75, 76, 158, 159, 160. - - Polytechnics, 176, 183, 184, 194. - - —— Battersea, 178, 182; - Borough, 178; - Regent Street, 173, 175, 177, 178. - - Private Schools, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 242. - - - Queen Anne, 10. - - —— Elizabeth, 6. - - —— Victoria, 18, 19, 21. - - Queen’s College, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 245. - - - Reading School, 79. - - Reformation, its effect on Women, 5, 6. - - Reid, Mrs., 27, 28. - - Renaissance, 6. - - Revised Code, 197. - - Revival of Girls’ Education, 1, 19, 248. - - Roedean School, 197. - - - Scholarships at Cambridge, 116; - at Oxford, 123. - - —— of Technical Education Boards, 178, 191, 192, 193. - - —— in Welsh Schools, 223. - - School Boards, 197, 198. - - Schoolmistresses’ Associations, 48, 49. - - Schools’ Inquiry Commission, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 52, 82. - - Secondary Education Commission, 101, 198, 209, 226, 234, 235, 237, 239. - - Sidgwick, Henry, 108, 109. - - —— Mrs., 109, 116. - - Sinclair, Catherine, 16, 17. - - Skinners’ School at Stamford Hill, 96, 101. - - Social Science Congress, at Glasgow, 40, 84; - at Leeds, 54. - - Somerville College, 117, 120, 121, 123. - - South Kensington Department of Science and Art, 200, 201, 202, 203, - 208, 209, 210, 213, 214. - - St. Hilda’s, Cheltenham, 36. - - —— Oxford, 117, 122, 123. - - St. Hugh’s Hall, 117, 122, 123. - - St. Leonard’s School, St. Andrews, 94, 153, 154, 155, 156. - - St. Paul’s School, 79. - - State the, its relation to Education, 195, 196. - - Stuart Court, its influence, 8. - - - Technical Education Acts, 170, 171, 235. - - —— —— Boards, 190, 237; - Cheshire, 190; - London, 129, 175, 176, 178, 192, 193; - Surrey, 188. - - - Universities, rise of, 4; - admission of Women to, 103, 148; - at London, 127; - Victoria, 136; - Durham, 139; - Wales, 139; - Scotland 147; - Ireland, 147; - foreign countries, 147. - - University College, Liverpool, 136, 137. - - University College, London, 26, 134. - - —— Colleges, provincial, 135. - - —— —— of Wales, 140, 141, 143, 144. - - —— Extension, beginnings of, 49, 50. - - —— for Women, 106, 133. - - —— of London, examinations for Women, 35; - degrees, 35, 126, 127, 128, 129, 132; - reorganisation, 135. - - - Victoria. _See_ Queen Victoria. - - —— University, 136. - - - Wales, University of, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143. - - Welsh Intermediate Education Act, 170, 217, 235. - - —— —— Schools, two kinds of, 223; - dual, 225, 226, 227; - curriculum of, 220, 221; - compared with High Schools, 221, 222; - fees, 228; - present condition of, 232, 233; - County Governing Bodies 218, 238; - Joint Education Committees, 219; - Central Board, 220, 228, 229; - its examinations, 230 231. - - Welsh, Miss, 116. - - Westfield College, 102, 130, 131. - - Whisky-money, 170, 217. - - Winchester College, 78, 79. - - Women teachers, 244. - - Wotton, 6. - - Wycombe Abbey School, 157, 158. - - - Yorkshire Board of Education, Ladies’ Honorary Council of, 48, 88. - - —— College, Leeds, 136, 138. - - - Printed by T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty at the Edinburgh - University Press - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - G. Hill, _Women in English Life_. - -Footnote 2: - - L. Eckenstein, _Women under Monasticism_. - -Footnote 3: - - Sir Th. Overbury. - -Footnote 4: - - Mary Astell. _An Essay in Defence of the Female Sex._ - -Footnote 5: - - Defoe. _Essay on Projects._ - -Footnote 6: - - Mrs. Makins. _An Essay to Revive the Ancient Education of - Gentlewomen_, 1673. - -Footnote 7: - - Mary Astell. _A Serious Proposal._ - -Footnote 8: - - Hannah More. _Strictures on Female Education._ - -Footnote 9: - - _The Complete Governess._ A Course of Mental Instruction for Ladies. - -Footnote 10: - - _Autobiography of Frances Power Cobbe._ - -Footnote 11: - - _Examiner._ - -Footnote 12: - - Mr. Hammond’s Report. - -Footnote 13: - - A. F. Leach. - -Footnote 14: - - Emily Davies, _Higher Education of Women_. - -Footnote 15: - - _Special Reports on Educational Subjects, 1896–97._ - -Footnote 16: - - See _Handbook to Courses Open to Women in British, Continental, and - Canadian Universities_, by Isabel Maddison, B.Sc., Ph.D. - -Footnote 17: - - In character, not of course in size - -Footnote 18: - - _Report of Royal Commission on Secondary Education_, vol. i. p. 98. - -Footnote 19: - - _Report_, vol. i. p. 75. - -Footnote 20: - - _Report_, vol. i. p. 1. - -Footnote 21: - - _Report_, vol. i. p. 274. - -Footnote 22: - - Preface to _Return of the Pupils in Public and Private Schools in - England, and of the Teaching Staff in such Schools on June 1, 1897_. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - New One=Volume Novels. - - - _Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. each._ - - - By EDEN PHILLPOTTS. - - Children of the Mist. - - - By CONSTANCE SMITH. - - Prisoners of Hope. - - - By MARGUERITE BRYANT. - - A Woman’s Privilege. - - - By ROMA WHITE. - - The Island of Seven Shadows. - - - By ESTHER MILLER. - - The St. Cadix Case. - - - By FRANCIS GRIBBLE. - - Sunlight and Limelight. - - - By BASIL THOMSON. - - The Indiscretions of Lady Asenath. - - - By A. 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