diff options
| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-04 02:39:22 -0800 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-04 02:39:22 -0800 |
| commit | ee434e10f5772d5ffc3c730c6bd6373e80ab3d64 (patch) | |
| tree | 8a64ba45c880741cb408c81409c6895e62604f5c /old/62817-0.txt | |
| parent | be5f711d6b3390f3fb278f0e38be796e7a553519 (diff) | |
Diffstat (limited to 'old/62817-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/62817-0.txt | 19442 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 19442 deletions
diff --git a/old/62817-0.txt b/old/62817-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2c98abe..0000000 --- a/old/62817-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19442 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Revolutionary Europe 1789-1815, by H. Morse Stephens - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Revolutionary Europe 1789-1815 - -Author: H. Morse Stephens - -Release Date: August 1, 2020 [EBook #62817] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REVOLUTIONARY EUROPE 1789-1815 *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Robert Tonsing, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - PERIODS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY - REVOLUTIONARY EUROPE - 1789–1815 - - - - - REVOLUTIONARY - EUROPE - 1789–1815 - - BY - - H. MORSE STEPHENS, M.A. - BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD - PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, U.S.A. - AUTHOR OF ‘A HISTORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION,’ ETC. - - _PERIOD VII_ - - London - RIVINGTON, PERCIVAL, & CO. - 1896 - - _Third Edition_ - - _All Rights Reserved_ - - - - - AUTHOR’S PREFACE - - -In this volume I have endeavoured to write a history of Europe during -an important period of transition. I have reduced military details to -the smallest possible limits, and have preferred to mention rather -than to describe battles and campaigns, in order to have more space -to devote to such questions as the Belgian revolution of 1789, the -reorganisation of Prussia in 1806–12, and the Congress of Vienna. -I have throughout tried to describe the French Revolution in its -influence on Europe, and Napoleon’s career as a great reformer rather -than as a great conqueror. The inner meaning of the period and its -general results I have sketched in a short introductory chapter, on -which the rest of the volume is really a detailed historical commentary. - -The maps which accompany the volume are intended to show the changes -in the boundaries of States, and not to give the position of places -mentioned in the text. Every one who reads such a volume as the -present must use an atlas as his constant companion, for no book of -this size could possibly contain a sufficient number of maps adequate -to the illustration of the events narrated. - -In conclusion, I must express my thanks to Mr. W. R. Morfill, Reader -in Slavonic to the University of Oxford, for giving me a canon for -the spelling of Russian proper names, and to the Editor, Mr. Arthur -Hassall, for willing assistance and friendly encouragement. - - H. MORSE STEPHENS. - - CAMBRIDGE, 1893. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - INTRODUCTION - - PAGE - - The Period from 1789 to 1815 an Era of Transition—The Principles - propounded during the period which have modified the - political conceptions of the Eighteenth Century: I. The - Principle of the Sovereignty of the People; II. The Principle - of Nationality; III. The Principle of Personal Liberty—The - Eighteenth Century, the Era of the Benevolent Despots—The - condition of the Labouring Classes in the Eighteenth Century: - Serfdom—The Middle Classes—The Upper Classes—Why France - led the way to modern ideas in the French Revolution—The - influence of the thinkers and writers of the Eighteenth - Century in bringing about the change—Contrast between the - French and German thinkers—The low state of morality and - general indifference to religion—Conclusion, 1 - - CHAPTER I. - - 1789 - - The Treaty of 1756 between France and Austria—The Triple - Alliance between England, Prussia, and Holland, 1788—The - Minor Powers of Europe—Austria: Joseph II.—His Internal - Policy—His Foreign Policy—Russia: Catherine—Poland—France: - Louis XVI.—Spain: Charles IV.—Portugal: Maria I.—Italy—The - Two Sicilies: Ferdinand IV.—Naples—Sicily—Rome: Pope Pius - VI.—Tuscany: Grand Duke Leopold—Parma: Duke Ferdinand—Modena: - Duke Hercules III.—Lombardy—Sardinia: Victor Amadeus - III.—Lucca—Genoa—Venice—England: George III.—The Policy - of Pitt—Prussia: Frederick William II.—Policy of - Prussia—Holland—Denmark: Christian VII.—Sweden: Gustavus - III.—The Holy Roman Empire—The Diet—The Electors—College - of Princes—College of Free Cities—The Imperial - Tribunal—The Aulic Council—The Circles—The Princes of - Germany—Bavaria—Baden—Würtemburg—Saxony—Saxe-Weimar—The - Ecclesiastical Princes—Mayence—Trèves—Cologne—The - Petty Princes and Knights of the - Empire—Switzerland—Geneva—Conclusion, 11 - - CHAPTER II - - 1789–1790 - - The Empress Catherine and the Emperor Joseph II.—The Turkish - War—Campaign of 1789 against the Turks—Battles of Foksany and - the Rymnik—Capture of Belgrade—Revolution in Sweden—Affairs - in Belgium—Policy of Joseph II. in Belgium—Revolution in - Liége—Elections to the States-General in France—Meeting - of the States-General: struggle between the Orders—The - Tiers État declares itself the National Assembly—Oath of the - Tennis Court—The Séance Royale—Mirabeau’s Address to the - King—Dismissal of Necker—Riot of 12th July in Paris—Capture - of the Bastille—Recall of Necker—Louis XVI. visits - Paris—Murder of Foullon—Session of 4th August—Declaration - of the Rights of Man—Question of the Veto—March of the - women of Paris to Versailles—Louis XVI. goes to reside in - Paris—Effect of the Revolution in France on Europe—The - Revolution in Belgium—Formation of the Belgian Republic—Death - of the Emperor Joseph II.—Failure of his reign—The attitude - of Louis XVI. to the French Revolution—The new French - Constitution—Civil Constitution of the Clergy—Measures of the - Constituent Assembly—Mirabeau—Danger threatened to the new - state of affairs in France by a foreign war—Mirabeau and the - French Court—Probable causes of a foreign war—Avignon and the - Venaissin—Affair of Nootka Sound—The Pacte de Famille—Rights - of Princes of the Empire in Alsace—The Emperor Leopold master - of the situation, 42 - - CHAPTER III - - 1790–1792 - - The Emperor Leopold—His Internal Policy—The Policy of - Prussia—Leopold’s Foreign Policy—Conference of - Reichenbach—Leopold and the Turks—Treaty of Sistova—Leopold - crowned Emperor—Leopold and Hungary—State of Parties - in Belgium—Their Internal Dissensions—Congress at the - Hague—Leopold reconquers Belgium—War between Russia - and Sweden—Treaty of Verela—War between Russia and the - Turks—Capture of Ismail—Treaty of Jassy—Position of - Leopold—The State of France—Mirabeau’s advice—Death of - Mirabeau—The Flight to Varennes—Its Results: in France—The - Massacre of 17th July 1791—Revision of the Constitution—Its - Results: in Europe—Manifesto of Padua—Declaration of - Pilnitz—Completion of the French Constitution of 1791—The - Polish Constitution of 1791—The Legislative Assembly - in France—The Girondins—Approach of War between France - and Austria—Causes of the War—Attitude of Europe—Death - of the Emperor Leopold—Murder of Gustavus III. of - Sweden—Policy of Dumouriez—War declared by France against - Austria—Invasion of the Tuileries, 20th June 1792—Francis - II. crowned Emperor—Invasion of France by Prussia and - Austria—Insurrection of 10th August 1792—Suspension of Louis - XVI.—Desertion of Lafayette—The Massacres of September - in the prisons—Battle of Valmy—Meeting of the National - Convention—The Girondins and the Mountain—Conquest of - Savoy, Nice, and Mayence—Battle of Jemmappes—Conquest - of Belgium—Execution of Louis XVI.—War declared against - Spain, Holland, England and the Empire—Catherine invades - Poland—Overthrow of the Polish Constitution—Second Partition - of Poland—Contrast between the resistance of France and - Poland, 82 - - CHAPTER IV - - 1793–1795 - - France at War with Europe—Altered Character of the War—The - Revolutionary Propaganda—First Campaign of 1793—Battle of - Neerwinden—Desertion of Dumouriez—Creation of the Committee - of Public Safety—Insurrection in La Vendée—Creation of - the Revolutionary Tribunal—Struggle between the Girondins - and the Mountain—Overthrow of the Girondins—Second - Campaign of 1793—Loss of Valenciennes and Mayence—Civil - War in France—Royalist and Federalist Risings—Loss - of Toulon—Constitution of 1793—The work of the first - Committee of Public Safety—The Great Committee of Public - Safety—Growth of its Power—Position of Robespierre—The Reign - of Terror—The Committee of General Security, the Deputies - on Mission, the Revolutionary Tribunal, the Laws of the - Suspects and the Maximum—Results of the Terror—Battles - of Hondschoten, Wattignies, and the Geisberg—Relief of - Maubeuge—Recovery of Lyons and Toulon—Fall of the Hébertists - and the Dantonists—Campaign of 1794—Battles of Fleurus, - Kaiserslautern, and 1st June 1794—Fall of Robespierre—Rule - of the Thermidorians: First Phase: the Survivors of the - Mountain—Conquest of Holland—The Batavian Republic—Successes - on the Rhine, in Savoy, Italy, and Spain—Insurrection - in Poland—The Campaign of Kosciuszko—Third and Final - Partition of Poland—Contrast between the Polish and - French Revolutions—Its Causes—Change in the Attitude of - the Continental Powers to the French Republic—Rule of the - Thermidorians: Second Phase: the Survivors of the Girondins - and Deputies of the Centre—Insurrections of 12th Germinal - and 1st Prairial in Paris—The Constitution of the Year III. - (1795)—The Treaties of Basle—France again enters the Comity - of Nations, 124 - - CHAPTER V - - 1795–1797 - - Results of the Treaties of Basle on the Foreign Policy of - France—Constitution of the Year III.—The Directory—The - Legislature: Councils of Ancients and of Five Hundred—Local - Administration of France—The Insurrection of Vendémiaire—The - Rising of 13th Vendémiaire in Paris—The First French - Directors, Councils, and Ministers—Dissolution of - the Convention—England and the _Émigrés_—Treason of - Pichegru—Exchange of Madame Royale—Desire for Peace in - France—France and Prussia—Suggestion of Secularisations in - Germany—France and the Smaller States of Europe—Attitude of - Russia—Campaign of 1795 in Germany—Bonaparte’s Campaigns - of 1796 in Italy—Battle of Montenotte—Armistice of - Cherasco—Battle of Lodi—Armistice of Foligno—Conquest of - Upper Italy—Battles of Castiglione, Arcola, and Rivoli—Peace - of Tolentino with the Pope—Campaign of 1796 in Germany—Battle - of Altenkirchen—Retreat of Moreau—Effects of the Campaign - in Germany—Treaty between Prussia and France—Internal - Policy of the Directory—Pacification of La Vendée—The - State of France—The Directory, Councils, and Ministers in - 1796—Creation of the Ministry of Police—Alliance between - France and Spain—Treaty of San Ildefonso—Battle of Cape - Saint-Vincent—The Batavian Republic—Negotiations between - England and the Directory—Death of the Empress Catherine of - Russia—Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1797 in the Tyrol—The Campaign - of 1797 in Germany—Preliminaries of Leoben between France and - Austria, 158 - - CHAPTER VI - - 1797–1799 - - Elections of 1797 in France—Policy of the Clichians—Struggle - between the Directors and the Clichians—Negotiations for - Peace between England and the Directory—Changes in the - French Ministry—Revolution of 18th Fructidor—Bonaparte - in Italy—Occupation of Venice—The Ligurian and Cisalpine - Republics formed—Annexation of the Ionian Islands by - France—Treaty of Campo-Formio—Capture of Mayence—The - Batavian Republic—Battle of Camperdown—Bonaparte’s - Expedition to the East—Capture of Malta—Conquest of - Egypt—Battle of the Nile—Internal Policy of the - Directory after 18th Fructidor—Foreign Policy—Attitude - of England, Prussia, Austria, and Russia—The Helvetian - Republic—Italian Affairs—The Roman and Parthenopean Republics - formed—Occupation of Piedmont and Tuscany by France—The - Law of Conscription—Outbreak of War between Austria and - France—Murder of the French Plenipotentiaries at Rastadt—The - Campaign of 1799—In Italy—Battles of Cassano, the Trebbia - and Novi—Italy lost to France—In Switzerland—Battle - of Zurich—In Holland—Battles of Bergen—Results of the - Campaign of 1799—Policy and Character of the Emperor Paul - of Russia—Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1799 in Syria—Siege of - Acre—Battle of Mount Tabor—Struggle between the Directors and - the Legislature in France—Revolution of 22d Prairial—Changes - in the Directory and Ministry—Bonaparte’s return to - France—Revolution of 18th Brumaire—End of the Government of - the Directory in France, 187 - - CHAPTER VII - - 1799–1804 - - Constitution of the Year VIII.—The Consulate—The Council of - State—The Tribunate—The Legislative Body—The Senate—Internal - Policy of the Consulate—General Reconciliation—The - Code Civil—Ministers of the Consulate—Foreign Policy - of the Consulate—Russia—Prussia—The Pope—Campaign of - Marengo—Campaign of Hohenlinden—Winter Campaign of Moreau - and Macdonald—The Treaty of Lunéville—Arrangements in - Italy—Policy and Murder of the Emperor Paul of Russia—The - Neutral League of the North—Battle of Copenhagen—War - between Spain and Portugal—Treaty of Badajoz—Campaign - of 1801 in Egypt—Peace of Amiens between England and - France—Reconstitution of Germany—Secularisation of - the German ecclesiastical dominions—Reconstitution of - Switzerland—Concordat between the Pope and Bonaparte—Internal - Organisation of France under the Consulate—The new - Departments—Annexation of Piedmont—The Préfectures—System of - National Education—Constitutional Changes in France—Bonaparte - First Consul for life—Recommencement of War between - England and France—Causes—Position of Affairs on the - Continent—Plot of Pichegru and Cadoudal—Execution of the Duc - d’Enghien—Bonaparte becomes Emperor of the French—Francis II. - resigns the title of Holy Roman Emperor for that of Emperor - of Austria, 212 - - CHAPTER VIII - - 1804–1808 - - Napoleon, Emperor of the French—His Coronation as Emperor and - as King of Italy—The Imperial Court—The Grand Dignitaries, - Marshals, and Imperial Household—Institutions of the - Empire—Ministers and Government—The Camp at Boulogne—Pitt’s - last coalition—Campaign of 1805—Capitulation of Ulm—Battles - of Austerlitz and Caldiero—Battle of Trafalgar—Treaty of - Pressburg—Death of Pitt—Prussia declares War—Campaign of - Jena—Campaign of Eylau—Campaign of Friedland—Interview - and Peace of Tilsit—The Continental Blockade—Capture - of the Danish Fleet by England—French Invasion and - Conquest of Portugal—State of Sweden—The Rearrangement - of Europe—Louis Bonaparte King of Holland—Italy—Joseph - Bonaparte King of Naples—Battle of Maida—Rearrangement of - Germany—Bavaria—Würtemburg—Baden—Jerome Bonaparte King of - Westphalia—Murat Grand Duke of Berg—Saxony—Smaller States of - Germany—Mediatisation of Petty Princes—Confederation of the - Rhine—Poland—The Grand Duchy of Warsaw—Conference of Erfurt, 237 - - CHAPTER IX - - 1808–1812 - - Napoleon’s two reverses between the Treaty of Tilsit and the - Congress of Erfurt—England sends an army to Portugal—Campaign - of Vimeiro and Convention of Cintra—The Revolution in - Spain—Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain—Victory of Medina del - Rio Seco and Capitulation of Baylen—Napoleon in Spain—Sir - John Moore’s advance—Battle of Corunna—The Resurrection - of Austria—Ministry of Stadion—Campaign of Wagram—Treaty - of Vienna—Campaign of 1809 in the Peninsula—Battle - of Talavera—Expedition to Walcheren—Napoleon and the - Pope—Annexation of Rome—Revolution in Sweden—Revolution in - Turkey—Treaty of Bucharest—Greatest Extension of Napoleon’s - dominions—Internal Organisation of the Empire—The new - Nobility—Internal reforms—Law—Finance—Education—Extension - of these reforms through Europe—Disappearance of - Serfdom—Religious Toleration—Reorganisation of - Prussia—Reforms of Stein and Scharnhorst—Revival of - German National feeling—Marriage of Napoleon to the - Archduchess Marie Louise—Birth of the King of Rome—Steady - opposition of England to Napoleon—Policies of Canning and - Castlereagh—Campaigns of 1810 and 1811 in the Peninsula—Signs - of the decline of Napoleon’s power between 1808 and 1812, 263 - - CHAPTER X - - 1810–1812 - - Causes of Growing Disagreement between Alexander and - Napoleon—Intervention of Castlereagh and Bernadotte—The - Attitude and Internal Policy of Prussia—Invasion of Russia - by Napoleon—Battle of Borodino—Retreat of the French - from Russia—Campaign of 1812 in the Peninsula—Battle of - Salamanca—Policy of Bernadotte—Prussia declares War—First - Campaign of 1813 in Saxony—Armistice of Pleswitz—Convention - of Reichenbach—Congress of Prague—Austria declares War—Second - Campaign of 1813 in Saxony—Battle of Dresden—Treaty of - Töplitz—Battle of Leipzig—General Insurrection of Germany - against Napoleon—Campaign of 1813 in the Peninsula—Battle - of Vittoria—Wellington’s Invasion of France—Negotiations - for Peace—Proposals of Frankfort—The Allies invade - France—Napoleon’s first Defensive Campaign of 1814—Other - Movements against Napoleon—Bernadotte—Holland—Battle of - Orthez—Italy—Congress of Châtillon—Attitude of France towards - Napoleon—Treaty of Chaumont—Napoleon’s Second Defensive - Campaign of 1814—Occupation of Paris by the Allies—The - Policy of Talleyrand—The Provisional Government—Alexander’s - Speech to the French Senate—Napoleon declared to be no - longer Emperor—Abdication of Napoleon—Provisional Treaty of - Paris—Battle of Toulouse—Arrival of Louis XVIII., and his - Assumption of the Throne of France—First Treaty of Paris, 299 - - CHAPTER XI - - 1814–1815 - - The Congress of Vienna—Monarchs and Diplomatists - present—History of the Congress—Treaty between France, - Austria, and England—The Questions of Saxony and - Poland—The German Confederation—Disposition of the - provinces on the left bank of the Rhine—Mayence and - Luxembourg—Reconstitution of Switzerland—Rearrangements - in Italy—Questions of Murat, Genoa, and the Empress Marie - Louise—Sweden—Denmark—Spain—Portugal—England’s share - of the spoil—The Questions of the Slave Trade and the - Navigation of Rivers—Close of the Congress—Preparations - against Napoleon—The first reign of Louis XVIII. in - France—Napoleon’s return from Elba—The Hundred Days—The - Campaign of Waterloo—Occupation of Paris—Second Treaty of - Paris—Napoleon sent to St. Helena—The Holy Alliance—Return - of Louis XVIII.—Government of the Second Restoration—The - Chambre Introuvable—Reaction in Spain and Naples—Territorial - Results of the Congress of Vienna—The Principle of - Nationality—Permanent Results of the French Revolution - in Europe—The Problem of harmonising the Principles of - Individual and Political Liberty with that of Nationality, 336 - - - APPENDICES - - APPENDIX I. The Rulers and Ministers of the Great Powers of - Europe, 1789–1815, 364 - - APPENDIX II. The Rulers of the Second-rate Powers of Europe, - 1789–1815, 366 - - APPENDIX III. The Family of Napoleon, 368 - - APPENDIX IV. Napoleon’s Marshals, 370 - - APPENDIX V. Napoleon’s Ministers during the Consulate and - Empire, 1799–1814, 372 - - APPENDIX VI. Concordance of the Republican and Gregorian - Calendars, 374 - - INDEX, 377 - - - MAPS - - Europe in 1789.} - Europe in 1802.} _At end of book._ - Europe in 1810.} - Europe in 1815.} - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - The Period from 1789 to 1815 an Era of Transition—The Principles - propounded during the period which have modified the - political conceptions of the Eighteenth Century: I. The - Principle of the Sovereignty of the People; II. The Principle - of Nationality; III. The Principle of Personal Liberty—The - Eighteenth Century, the Era of the Benevolent Despots—The - condition of the Labouring Classes in the Eighteenth Century: - Serfdom—The Middle Classes—The Upper Classes—Why France - led the way to modern ideas in the French Revolution—The - influence of the thinkers and writers of the Eighteenth - Century in bringing about the change—Contrast between the - French and German thinkers—The low state of morality and - general indifference to religion—Conclusion. - - -[Sidenote: A Period of Transition.] - -The period from 1789 to 1815—that is, the era of the French Revolution -and of the domination of Napoleon—marks one of the most important -transitions in the history of Europe. Great as is the difference -between the material condition of the Europe of the nineteenth century, -with its railways and its electric telegraphs, and the Europe of the -eighteenth century, with its bad roads and uncertain posts, it is not -greater than the contrast between the political, social, and economical -ideas which prevailed then and which prevail now. Modern principles, -that mark a new departure in human progress and in its evidence, -Civilisation, took their rise during this epoch of transition, and -their development underlies the history of the period, and gives the -key to its meaning. - -[Sidenote: The Sovereignty of the People.] - -The conception that government exists for the promotion of the -security and prosperity of the governed was fully grasped in the -eighteenth century. But it was held alike by philosophers and rulers, -alike in civilised England and in Russia emerging from barbarism -that, whilst government existed for the good of the people, it -must not be administered by the people. This fundamental principle -is in the nineteenth century entirely denied. It is now believed -that the government should be directed by the people through their -representatives, and that it is better for a nation to make mistakes -in the course of its self-government than to be ruled, be it ever so -wisely, by an irresponsible monarch. This notion of the sovereignty of -the people was energetically propounded during the great Revolution in -France. It is not yet universally accepted in all the states of modern -Europe. But it has profoundly affected the political development of -the nineteenth century. It lies at the base of one group of modern -political ideas; and, though in 1815 it seemed to have been propounded -only to be condemned, one of the most striking features of the modern -history of Europe since the Congress of Vienna, has been its gradual -acceptance and steady growth in civilised countries. - -[Sidenote: The Principle of Nationality.] - -The second political belief introduced during the epoch of transition -from 1789 to 1815 was the recognition of the idea of nationality in -contradistinction to that of the State, which prevailed in the last -century. In the eighteenth century the State was typified by the -ruling authority. National boundaries and race limits were regarded as -of no importance. It was not felt to be an anomaly that the Catholic -Netherlands or Belgium should be governed by the House of Austria, -or that an Austrian prince should reign in Tuscany and a Spanish -prince in Naples. The first partition of Poland was not condemned as -an offence against nature, but as an artful scheme devised for the -purpose of enlarging the neighbouring states, which had appropriated -the districts lying nearest to their own territories. But during the -wars of the Revolution and of Napoleon the idea of nationality made -itself felt. France, as a nation in arms, proved to be more than a -match for the Europe of the old conceptions. And it was not until her -own sense of nationality was absorbed in Napoleon’s creation of a new -Empire of the West that France was vanquished by coming in contact with -the Spanish, the Russian, and the German peoples in the place of her -former foes, the sovereigns of Europe. The idea of nationality, like -the idea of the sovereignty of the people, seemed to be condemned in -1815 by the Congress of Vienna. The Catholic Netherlands were united -with the provinces of Holland; Norway was forcibly separated from -Denmark; Italy was once more parcelled out into independent states -under foreign princes. But the Congress of Vienna could not eradicate -the new idea. It had taken too deep a root. And another striking -feature of the European history of the nineteenth century has been the -formation of new nations, resting their _raison d’être_ on the feeling -of nationality and the identity of race. - -[Sidenote: The Principle of Personal Liberty.] - -The third modern notion which has transformed Europe is the recognition -of the principle of personal and individual liberty. Feudalism left the -impress of its graduation of rights and duties marked deeply on the -constitutions of the European States. The sovereignty of the people -implies political liberty of action; feudalism denied the propriety and -advantages of social and economical freedom. Theoretically, freedom -of individual thought and action was acknowledged to be a good thing -by all wise philosophers and rulers. Practically, the poorer classes -were kept in bondage either as agricultural serfs by their lords or as -journeymen workmen by the trade-guilds. Where personal and individual -liberty had been attained, political liberty became an object of -ambition, and political liberty led to the idea of the sovereignty of -the people. The last vestiges of feudalism were swept away during this -era of transition. The doctrines of the French Revolution did more -than the victories of Napoleon to destroy the political system of the -eighteenth century. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 might return to the -former notions of government and the State, but it did not attempt -to restore the old restrictions on individual liberty. With personal -freedom acknowledged, the reactionary tendency of the Congress of -Vienna was left of no effect. Liberty of thought and action led to the -resurrection of the conceptions of nationality and of the sovereignty -of the people, which were but for the moment extinguished by the defeat -of France in the person of Napoleon by the armies of united Europe. - -[Sidenote: The Benevolent Despots.] - -The period which preceded the French Revolution and the era of -war, from the troubles of which modern Europe was to be born, may -be characterised as that of the benevolent despots. The State was -everything; the nation nothing. The ruler was supreme, but his -supremacy rested on the assumption that he ruled his subjects for their -good. This conception of the _Aufgeklärte Despotismus_ was developed -to its highest degree by Frederick the Great of Prussia. ‘I am but the -first servant of the nation,’ he wrote, a phrase which irresistibly -recalls the definition of the position of Louis XVI. by the first -leaders of the French Revolution. This attitude was defended by great -thinkers like Diderot, and is the keynote to the internal policy of the -monarchs of the latter half of the eighteenth century towards their -people. The Empress Catherine of Russia, Gustavus III. of Sweden, -Charles III. of Spain, the Archduke Leopold of Tuscany, and, above -all, the Emperor Joseph II. defended their absolutism on the ground -that they exercised their power for the good of their subjects. Never -was more earnest zeal displayed in promoting the material well-being -of all classes, never did monarchs labour so hard to justify their -existence, or effect such important civil reforms, as on the eve of the -French Revolution, which was to herald the overthrow of the doctrine -of absolute monarchy. The intrinsic weakness of the position of the -benevolent despots was that they could not ensure the permanence of -their reforms, or vivify the rotten fabric of the administrative -edifices, which had grown up in the feudal monarchies. Great ministers, -such as Tanucci and Aranda, could do much to help their masters to -carry out their benevolent ideas, but they could not form or nominate -their successors, or create a perfect body of unselfish administrators. -When Frederick the Great’s master hand was withdrawn, Prussia speedily -exhibited a condition of administrative decay, and since this was -the case in Prussia, which had been for more than forty years under -the rule of the greatest and wisest of the benevolent despots, the -falling-off was likely to be even more marked in other countries. The -conception of benevolent despots ruling for their people’s good was -eventually superseded, as was certain to be the case, owing to the -impossibility of their ensuring its permanence, by the modern idea of -the people ruling themselves. - -[Sidenote: The Condition of the Labouring Classes.] - -[Sidenote: Serfdom.] - -And, in truth, while doing full justice to the sentiments and the -endeavours of the benevolent despots, it cannot honestly be said that -their efforts had done much to improve the condition of the labouring -classes by the end of the eighteenth century. The great majority of -the peasants of Europe were throughout that century absolute serfs. To -take once more the example of Prussia, the only attempts to improve -the condition of the peasants had been made in the royal domain, and -they had only been very tentative. The dwellers on the estates of the -Prussian nobility in Silesia and Brandenburg were treated no better -than negro slaves in America and the West Indies. They were not allowed -to leave their villages, or to marry without their lords’ consent; -their children had to serve in the lords’ families for several years at -a nominal wage, and they themselves had to labour at least three days, -and often six days, a week on their lords’ estate. These _corvées_ or -forced labours occupied so much of the peasant’s time that he could -only cultivate his own farm by moonlight. This state of absolute -serfdom was general in Central and Eastern Europe, in the greater part -of Germany, in Poland and in Russia, and where it existed the artisan -class was equally depressed, for no man was allowed to learn a trade -without his lord’s permission, and an escaped serf had no chance of -admission into the trade-guilds of the cities. Towards the west a -more advanced civilisation improved the condition of the labourers; -the Italian peasant and the German peasant on the Rhine had obtained -freedom to marry without his lord’s interference; but, nevertheless, it -was a leading prince on the Rhine, the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, who -sold his subjects to England to serve as mercenaries in the American -War of Independence. In France the peasant was far better off. The only -serfs left, who existed on the domain of the Abbey of Saint-Claude -in the Jura, on whose behalf Voltaire wielded his powerful pen, were -in a far happier condition than the German serfs; they could marry -whom they pleased; they might emigrate without leave; their persons -were free; all they were deprived of was the power of selling their -property or devising it by will. The rest of the French peasants -and the agricultural classes generally were extremely independent. -Feudalism had left them some annoyances but few real grievances, and -the inconveniences they suffered were due solely to the inequalities -of the copyhold system of tenure and its infringements of their -personal liberty. The French peasants and farmers were indignant at an -occasional day’s _corvée_, or forced labour, which really represented -the modern rent, and at the succession-duties they had to pay the -descendants or representatives of their ancestors’ feudal lords. The -German, Polish, and Hungarian peasant, on the contrary, crushed beneath -the burden of his personal servitude, did not dream of pretending to -own the plot of land, which his lord kindly allowed him to cultivate in -his few spare moments. - -[Sidenote: The Middle Classes.] - -The mass of the population of Central and Eastern Europe was purely -agricultural, and in its poverty expected naught but the bare -necessaries of existence. Trade, commerce, and manufactures were -therefore practically non-existent. This meant that the cities, -and consequently the middle classes, formed but an insignificant -factor in the population. In the West of Europe, on the Rhine, and -more especially in France, where the agricultural classes were more -independent, more wealthy, and more civilised, existence demanded more -comforts, and a well-to-do and intelligent commercial and manufacturing -urban element quickly developed to supply the demand created. Commerce, -trade, and the concentrated employment of labour produced a prosperous -and enlightened middle class, accustomed for generations to education -and the possession of personal freedom. With wealth always goes -civilisation and education, and as there was a larger middle class in -France and Western Germany than in Central and Eastern Europe, the -peasants in those parts were better educated and more intelligent. - -[Sidenote: The Upper Classes.] - -The condition of the upper classes followed the same geographical -distribution. The highest aristocracy of all European countries was -indeed, as it has always been, on much the same intellectual and social -level. Paris was its centre, the capital of society, fashion, and -luxury, where Russian, Austrian, Swedish, and English nobles met on an -equality. But the bulk of the German and Eastern European aristocracy -was in education and refinement inferior to the bulk of the French -nobility. Yet they possessed an authority which the French nobility had -lost. The Russian, Prussian, and Austrian nobleman and the Hungarian -magnate was the owner of thousands of serfs, who cultivated his lands -and rendered him implicit obedience. The French nobleman exacted only -certain rents, either copyhold quit-rents or feudal services, from the -tenants on his ancestral estates. His tenants were in no sense his -serfs; they owed him no personal service, and resented the payment -of the rent substituted for such service. The patriarchal feeling of -loyalty to the lord had long disappeared, and the French peasant did -not acknowledge any subjection to his landlord, while the Prussian and -Russian serf recognised his bondage to his master. - -[Sidenote: Why France experienced the Revolution.] - -These considerations help to show why the Revolution, which was after -twenty-six years to inaugurate modern Europe, broke out in France. It -was because the French peasant was more independent, more wealthy, and -better educated than the German serf, that he resented the political -and social privileges of his landlord and the payment of rent, more -than the serf objected to his bondage. It was because France possessed -an enlightened middle class that the peasants and workmen found -leaders. It was because Frenchmen had been in the possession of a great -measure of personal freedom that they were ready to strike a blow -for political liberty, and eventually promulgated the idea of social -equality. The ideas of the sovereignty of the people, of nationality -and of personal liberty, did not originate in France. They are as -old as civilisation. But they had been clouded in the Middle Ages by -feudalism, and, after the Reformation, had been succeeded by different -political conceptions, which had crystallised in the eighteenth century -into the doctrines of the supremacy of the State, of the arbitrary rule -of benevolent or enlightened despots. England and Holland had developed -separately from the rest of the Western World. For reasons lying deep -in their internal history and their geographical position, they had rid -themselves alike of feudalism and absolute monarchy; they had developed -a sense of their independent nationality, and had recognised the -importance of personal freedom. In England especially, the abolition -of the relics of feudalism in the seventeenth century had placed the -English farmers and peasants in a different economical position from -their fellows on the Continent. There existed in England none of the -invidious distinctions between nobleman and _roturier_ in the matter -of bearing national burdens, which had survived in France, and, though -owing to the curiosities of the franchise the larger proportion of -Englishmen had but a very small share in electing the representatives -of the people, the government carried on as it was by a small oligarchy -of great families possessed an appearance of political liberty, and of -a wisely-balanced machine for administrative purposes. - -[Sidenote: Intellectual movement of the eighteenth century.] - -Nor must the influence of intellectual ideas, as bearing on problems -which the French Revolution was to force on the attention of the more -backward and more oppressed nations of Europe, be underrated. The -great French writers of the eighteenth century—Voltaire, Montesquieu, -Diderot, and Rousseau—had been deeply impregnated with the ideas of -Locke and the English political thinkers of his school. In their -different lines they insisted that government existed for the good -of the governed, and investigated the origins of government and the -relations of man in the social state. It was their speculations which -altered the character of absolute monarchy and based its retention on -its benevolent purposes; they, too, insisted upon the rights of man to -preserve his personal freedom, as long as it did not clash with the -maintenance and security of civil society. The great French writers of -the eighteenth century exercised by their works a smaller influence on -the outbreak and actual course of the French Revolution than has been -generally supposed. The causes of the movement were chiefly economical -and political, not philosophical or social: its rapid development was -due to historical circumstances, and mainly to the attitude of the -rest of Europe. But the text-books of its leaders were the works of -the French thinkers of the eighteenth century, and if their doctrines -had little actual influence in bringing about the Revolution, they -influenced its development and the extension of its principles -throughout Europe. It is curious to contrast the opinions of the great -French writers of the middle of the eighteenth century, whose arguments -mainly affected the general conceptions of man living in society, -that is, of government, with the views advocated by the great German -writers of the end of the century, who concentrated their attention -upon man in his individual capacity for culture and self-improvement. -Schiller, Goethe, Kant, and Herder were, further, more cosmopolitan -than German. The problems of man and his intellectual and artistic -development proved more attractive to the great German thinkers than -the difficulties presented by the economical, social, and political -diversities of different classes of society. Goethe, for instance, -understood the signification of the French Revolution, and was much -interested in its effects on the human race, but he cared very little -about its impression on Germany. - -[Sidenote: Morality and Religion in the eighteenth century.] - -Finally, the low state of morality in the eighteenth century had sapped -the earnestness in the cause of humanity of men of all classes in all -countries. Disbelief in the Christian religion was general in both the -Protestant and Catholic countries of the Continent. The immorality -of most of the prelates in Catholic countries was notorious, and was -equalled by their avowed contempt for the doctrines of the religion -they professed to teach. The Protestant pastors of Germany were quite -as open in their infidelity. In the famous case of Schulz, the pastor -of Gielsdorf, who openly denied Christianity, and taught simply that -morality was necessary, the High Consistory of Berlin held that he was, -nevertheless, still fitted to hold his office as the Lutheran pastor of -his village. Christianity in both Catholic and Protestant countries was -replaced by the vague sentiments of morality, which are best presented -in Rousseau’s _Profession de Foi du Vicaire Savoyard_. In reaction to -this vague and dogmaless morality, there existed many secret societies -and coteries of mystics, such as the Rosati and the Illuminati, who -replaced religion by ornate and symbolical ceremonies. - -Such was the political, economical, intellectual and moral state -of Europe in 1789, on the eve of the French Revolution. The whole -continent was to pass through twenty-six years of almost unceasing -war, at the end of which it was to emerge with new conceptions and new -ideals of both political and social life. The new ideas seemed indeed -to be checked, if not destroyed, in 1815, but once inspired into men’s -minds they could not be forgotten, and their subsequent development -forms the history of modern Europe in the nineteenth century. - - - - - CHAPTER I - - 1789 - - The Treaty of 1756 between France and Austria—The Triple - Alliance between England, Prussia, and Holland, 1788—The - Minor Powers of Europe—Austria: Joseph II.—His Internal - Policy—His Foreign Policy—Russia: Catherine—Poland—France: - Louis XVI.—Spain: Charles IV.—Portugal: Maria I.—Italy—The - Two Sicilies: Ferdinand IV.—Naples—Sicily—Rome: Pope Pius - VI.—Tuscany: Grand Duke Leopold—Parma: Duke Ferdinand—Modena: - Duke Hercules III.—Lombardy—Sardinia: Victor Amadeus - III.—Lucca—Genoa—Venice—England: George III.—The Policy - of Pitt—Prussia: Frederick William II.—Policy of - Prussia—Holland—Denmark: Christian VII.—Sweden: Gustavus - III.—The Holy Roman Empire—The Diet—The Electors—College - of Princes—College of Free Cities—The Imperial - Tribunal—The Aulic Council—The Circles—The Princes of - Germany—Bavaria—Baden—Würtemburg—Saxony—Saxe-Weimar—The - Ecclesiastical Princes—Mayence—Trêves—Cologne—The - Petty Princes and Knights of the - Empire—Switzerland—Geneva—Conclusion. - - -[Sidenote: The Treaty of 1756.] - -The states of Europe at the commencement of the year 1789 were ranked -diplomatically in two important groups, the one dominated by the -connection between France, Austria, Spain, and Russia; the other -by the alliance between England, Prussia, and Holland. The great -transformation which had been effected by the treaty between France -and Austria in 1756 in the relationship between the powers of Europe -was the crowning diplomatic event of the eighteenth century. The -arrangements then entered into and the alliances tested in the Seven -Years’ War still subsisted in 1789. But the spirit which lay at the -root of the Austro-French alliance was sensibly modified. The Treaty -of 1756 had never been really popular in either country. In France, -Marie Antoinette, whose marriage with Louis XVI. had set the seal -on the Austrian alliance, was detested as the living symbol of the -hated treaty, as _l’Autrichienne_, the Austrian woman, and the most -accredited political thinkers and writers were always dwelling on -the traditional policy of France, and on the system of Henri IV., -Richelieu, and Louis XIV., which held the House of Hapsburg to be the -hereditary and the inevitable enemy of the House of Bourbon and of -the French nation. The dislike of the alliance was felt with equal -intensity in Austria by the wealthy and the educated classes. The -Austrian generals resented the inefficacy of the French intervention -during the Seven Years’ War, and the Austrian people attributed its -reverses in that war to it with as much acrimony as if France had -acted as an enemy instead of as an ally. The same sentiment actuated -even the Imperial House. ‘Our natural enemies, travestied as allies, -who do more harm than if they were open enemies;’[1] such is the -language in which Leopold of Tuscany, brother of Marie Antoinette, -characterised the French in a letter written in December 1784 to his -brother, the Emperor Joseph II. The Emperor Joseph was himself of the -same opinion. He preferred his Russian ally, the Empress Catherine, -to his brother-in-law, Louis XVI., King of France, and the tendency -of his foreign policy was to strengthen his friendship with Russia, -even at the expense of sacrificing his alliance with France. Russia, -whose expansion under the great Empress had been enormous since the -conclusion of the Seven Years’ War, cared but little for either of the -allies, and pursued independently its course of steady development. -Catherine had, indeed, during most of the later years of Frederick -the Great, remained in alliance with Prussia, and to some extent had -been on friendly terms with England. But her natural tendency was to -distrust England. In 1780 she had placed herself at the head of the -‘Armed Neutrality,’ which opposed the naval pretensions of England, -and in 1788 she had formally proposed a close quadruple alliance -between Russia, Austria, France, and Spain. - -[Sidenote: Prussia, England, and Holland.] - -If the relations between France, Russia, and Austria were unsettled, -the Triple Alliance between Prussia, Holland, and England was hardly on -a more stable footing in 1789. Prussia, since the death of Frederick -the Great, had become really decrepit, while apparently remaining a -first-rate military power. Though still preserving the prestige of -its famous King, who died in 1786, and recognising its alliance with -England, Prussia in 1789 exhibited a decaying internal administration, -and a vacillating foreign policy. England had received a heavy blow by -the success of the colonists in North America, and by the Treaty of -Versailles, and the powers of the Continent, while envying her wealth, -held her military power of but small account. This opinion prevailed -even at Berlin, and the new King of Prussia gave many evidences that -the alliance of England was rather distasteful to him than otherwise. -The third member of the alliance, Holland, was in the weakest condition -of all, and it was only by invoking the armed interference of Prussia -that England had maintained the authority of the Prince of Orange, as -Stadtholder, in 1787. Though this interference had led to the formation -of the famous Triple Alliance of 1788, in reality the English and -Prussian statesmen profoundly distrusted each other, while the forcing -of the yoke of the Stadtholder upon them caused the Dutch democratic -party in Holland to abhor the allies and to look for help to France. - -[Sidenote: The Minor Powers of Europe.] - -The rest of the European states were bound more or less firmly to -the one or the other of the two coalitions. The smaller states of -Germany, aggravated or intimidated by the measures of the Emperor -Joseph II., had rallied to the side of Prussia. In the north, -Denmark, whose reigning house was connected by family ties with the -royal families of England and Prussia, was completely under Russian -influence, while Sweden, under Gustavus III., was actually at war with -Catherine II. Poland, torn by internal dissensions, and threatened -with complete destruction by its neighbours, was awaiting its final -partition. The southern states of Europe were almost entirely bound -to the Franco-Austrian alliance. Spain had been united to France by -the offensive and defensive treaty, known as the ‘Pacte de Famille,’ -concluded by the French minister, Choiseul, in 1761, and tested in the -war of American Independence. Portugal, though connected with England, -commercially by the Methuen treaty, and politically by a long course -of protection against Spanish pretensions, was striving by a series -of royal marriages to become the ally of Spain. In Italy, Naples was -ruled by a Spanish prince married to an Austrian princess; Sardinia -was closely allied with France, and the remainder of the peninsula was -mainly under Austrian influence. Turkey, now travelling towards decay, -was looked upon by Russia and Austria as their legitimate prey, and -met with encouragement in resistance, but not with active help, from -England and France. - -After thus roughly sketching the general attitude of the powers of -Europe to each other in 1789, it will be well to examine each state -separately before entering on the history of the exciting period which -followed. Great and sweeping alterations were to be effected; many -diplomatic variations were to take place. The most important result of -the period of the French Revolution and of Napoleon was its influence -upon the minds of men, as shown in the growth of certain political -conceptions, which have moulded modern Europe. But great changes were -also brought about in dynasties and in the geographical boundaries of -states, which can only be understood by a knowledge of the condition of -Europe in 1789. - -[Sidenote: Austria: Joseph II.] - -[Sidenote: Joseph II.: Internal Policy.] - -The figure of most importance in the beginning of the year 1789 was -that of the Emperor Joseph II., and his dominions were those in which -an observer would have prophesied a great revolution. Joseph was at -that date a man of forty-seven; he had been elected Emperor in the -place of his father, Francis of Lorraine, in 1765, and succeeded to -the hereditary dominions of the House of Austria on the death of his -mother, Maria Theresa, in 1780. He was, perhaps, the best type of the -class of benevolent despots. A singularly industrious, enlightened, and -able ruler, his ideas were far in advance of those of his age,—so much -in advance, indeed, that his efforts to impose them upon his subjects -brought upon himself hatred instead of gratitude, and among the people -turbulence and insurrection instead of peace and tranquillity. The -history of the Emperor Joseph’s reforms, and of the disturbances which -resulted from them, belongs to an earlier volume of this series. In -1789 the whole of the hereditary dominions of the House of Hapsburg -were in a state of ferment. The Emperor’s scheme of welding them into -an Austrian nation, by insisting on the use of the German language, -by simplifying the state of the law and the administration, and -assimilating the various religious and educational institutions, had -roused the fire of local patriotism. In Hungary and in the Tyrol, in -Bohemia, and, above all, in the Austrian Netherlands, or Belgium, -there was declared rebellion, fanned by local prejudices, religious -fanaticism, and the spirit of caste. The first and second of these -causes were chiefly responsible in the Austrian Netherlands, the third -in Hungary. The Belgians, and more especially the Brabançons, were in -arms for their local rights and ancient constitutions, which had been -infringed by the Emperor’s decrees. The Belgian clergy, who looked upon -Joseph as worse than an infidel for his treatment of the Pope and his -suppression of religious houses, were inflamed at the establishment -of an Imperial Seminary in Brussels as a rival to the Roman Catholic -University of Louvain. But in Hungary it was the magnates of the -country who had fought so gallantly for Maria Theresa and saved her -throne, who were in an attitude of open disaffection. This was partly -due to Joseph’s infringement of their Constitution and his removal of -the Iron Crown to Vienna, but still more to his abolition of serfdom. -As has been already stated, serfdom in Europe was practically extinct -in the western part of the Continent, that is, in France, in Belgium, -and on the Rhine, while it increased in intensity steadily towards -the east, and was as bad in Prussia Proper, Poland, and Hungary, as -in Russia. ‘Most merciful Emperor,’ ran a petition from an Hungarian -peasant to Joseph, ‘four days’ forced labour for the seigneur; the -fifth day, fishing for him; the sixth day, hunting with him; and the -seventh belongs to God. Consider, most merciful Emperor, how can I -pay dues and taxes?’[2] The iniquity of serfdom, with its practice of -forced labour, was accentuated in Hungary by the constitutional custom -which exempted the nobility from all taxation. The Emperor Joseph -abolished serfdom in Hungary on 22nd August 1785, and inaugurated a -system of removing feudal burdens, and converting forced labour, by -means of a gradually diminishing tax. The condition of the hereditary -dominions of the House of Hapsburg was thus, in 1789, one of seething -discontent where it was not open rebellion; Belgian burghers and -Hungarian magnates were alike infuriated by the Emperor’s efforts at -reform; and the poor serfs of Hungary and Bohemia and the working men -of Belgium, whom he designed to benefit by direct legislation and -financial measures, were too weak to render him any help. His hope of -creating an Austrian state and an Austrian people out of his scattered -dominions was fated to be thwarted; obstacles of distance, race, and -language, cannot be overcome by legislation, however wise; and the -Emperor’s well-intentioned endeavours nearly lost his House its ancient -patrimony. - -[Sidenote: Joseph II. Foreign Policy.] - -The foreign policy of the Emperor Joseph II. was dictated by the same -leading principle as his internal reforms—the desire to form his -various territories into a compact state. His schemes to exchange the -Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria in order to unite his possessions in -Swabia with the nucleus of the Hapsburg territories were frustrated by -the policy of Frederick the Great. His attempt to make his authority as -Emperor more than nominal, and to create a real German empire based on -a German patriotic feeling, proved an utter failure. Foiled in these -two projects, the creation of an Austrian compact state, which he -deemed practicable, and the resurrection of a mighty Germany under his -headship, which he acknowledged to be but a dream, Joseph II. turned -his thoughts towards Russia. The ideal of his early manhood had been -his mother’s foe, Frederick the Great of Prussia; the ideal of his -later years was the Empress Catherine of Russia. Both were specimens of -the enlightened despots of the age; both had extended the realms they -ruled; both endeavoured to form their states into compact entities; -both had succeeded in administration and in war; and both were -cynical disciples of the eighteenth-century philosophers. They were -successively his models. It is characteristic of the Emperor Joseph II. -that the only picture in his private cabinet in the Hofburg at Vienna -was a portrait of Frederick; the only picture in his bedroom one of -Catherine. After the death of Frederick the Great, the Emperor Joseph -II., despising his successor, expressed more loudly his admiration for -Catherine. In 1787 he accompanied her in her famous progress to the -Crimea. Fascinated by her personality and dazzled by her projects, the -Emperor was persuaded to ally himself with Russia against the Turks, -and hoped to partition Turkey with her, as his mother, Frederick, and -Catherine had accomplished the first partition of Poland. In 1788 he -accordingly declared war against the Sublime Porte. But he found that -the Turks, in spite of the corruption of their government, were still -no contemptible foes. His own army was demoralised by the misconduct -of the aristocratic officers; disease decimated his troops; and the -Emperor Joseph returned from the campaign of 1788 with the seeds of -mortal illness in his system, but with his determination to pursue the -war unabated. - -[Sidenote: Russia: Catherine.] - -[Sidenote: Poland.] - -Russia, the chosen ally of Joseph II., was in 1789 ruled by the Empress -Catherine II. This great monarch, though by birth a princess of the -petty German state of Anhalt-Zerbst, ranks with Peter the Great as a -founder of the Russian Empire; more Russian than the Russians, she -understood the importance of the development of her adopted country -geographically towards the Baltic and the Black Sea, and the capacity -of her people to support her in her enterprises. She was at this time -sixty years of age, in full possession of her remarkable powers, and -having ruled for twenty-seven years, she had fortified her authority -by experience. Peter the Great had seen the absolute necessity that -the Russian Empire should have access to the sea, and had built Saint -Petersburg; Catherine had moved southward and extended her dominions -to the Black Sea. She hoped to make the Baltic and the Black Sea -Russian lakes, and on that account was the consistent and watchful -enemy of Sweden and the Turks. Upon the western frontier of Russia -lay Poland. The natural policy of Russia was to maintain and even to -strengthen Poland as a buffer between Russia and the military powers -of Austria and Prussia. But the extraordinary Constitution of Poland, -which provided for the election of a powerless king, and recognised -the right of civil war and the power of any nobleman to forbid any -measure proposed at the Diet by the exercise of what was called the -_liberum veto_, kept the unfortunate country in a state of anarchy, -unable either to defend or to oppose. It might have been possible to -reform the Constitution, and make the Poles an organised nation, but -the neighbouring monarchs considered it easier to share the country -amongst them, and had, under the guidance of Frederick the Great, -carried out in 1772 the first partition, which excluded Poland from the -sea, brought the borders of the three powers, Austria, Prussia, and -Russia, nearer to each other, and caused Russia to become an European -instead of essentially an Eastern monarchy. Catherine grasped the -fact that in her present position Russia must intervene in European -politics, owing to the condition of Poland, and decided to derive what -benefit she could from this circumstance. In her internal government -Catherine was one of the benevolent despots. The patroness of Diderot, -she expressed her admiration for the new doctrines of the Rights of -Man, and even summoned a convention to draw up a Russian constitution. -But she knew that the new doctrines were not applicable to the Russian -people, and would be absurdly inappropriate to the nomad Tartar tribes -which wandered over the southern districts of the Russian Empire. She -was fully aware that their village organisation protected the peasants -from many of the evils which prevailed in seemingly more enlightened -countries, and gave them a right and interest in the soil to which -they were attached. Russia, in fact, had experienced no Reformation, -no Renaissance, no awakening of the ideas of individual and political -liberty, and therefore was eminently fitted for the rule of a -benevolent despot. - -[Sidenote: France: Louis XVI.] - -Next to the Austro-Russian alliance, the Austro-French alliance, sealed -by the Treaty of 1756, was of the greatest significance to the peace -and welfare of Europe in 1789. As has been said, in neither country -was the alliance popular; France and Austria were hereditary enemies; -classical policy in both courts favoured a resumption of this enmity; -the friendship was rather dynastic than national, the work of Kaunitz -and Maria Theresa, the Abbé de Bernis, Madame de Pompadour, and Louis -XV. France still appeared a very powerful nation. Its intervention in -the American War of Independence had largely contributed to England’s -loss of her American colonies, and the Treaty of Versailles in 1783 had -involved a confession that England was beaten by her cession of the -West India islands of St. Lucia and Tobago. But in spite of her seeming -power, France was from political and economic causes really very weak. -She had been unable in 1787 to effectually support the republican and -French party in Holland, and had been forced to allow England and -Prussia to reinstate the Stadtholder, the Prince of Orange. In spite -of her alliance with Austria, she had been obliged in pursuance of -a peace policy, made necessary by her financial condition, to draw -near to England, and had made a commercial treaty with her in 1786. -The weakness of France arose from internal circumstances. The State -and the Court were financially identical. The Court was extravagant, -and the result was a chronic national deficit. Efforts had been made -to meet this deficit, but all expedients, even partial bankruptcy, -had failed. It was evident that a systematic attempt must be made to -rearrange the finances by introducing a regular scheme of taxation -to take the place of the feudal arrangements for filling the royal -treasury, which with some modifications still survived. But a regular -scheme of taxation, which should abolish feudal privileges, and make -the government responsible to the nation for its expenditure, could -not be established without the consent of the people, and the educated -classes, who were both numerous and prosperous, claimed a voice in its -establishment. The feeling of political discontent went deeper. The -French people had outgrown their system of government; the peasants and -farmers resented the existence of the economic, social, and political -privileges dating from the Middle Ages, which had survived the duties -originally accompanying them; the bourgeois argued that they should -have a share in regulating the affairs of the State; the educated -classes sympathised with both. The day for benevolent despotism was -over in France; Louis XVI. was benevolent in disposition, but too weak -to reform the system under which he ruled; and it was the system, not -the person of the monarch, which the French people disliked; it was the -system as a whole which they had outgrown. - -[Sidenote: Spain: Charles IV.] - -Much of the strength of France rested on its intimate alliance with -Spain. The two great Bourbon houses had been closely united by the -‘Pacte de Famille’ concluded in 1761, which bound them in an offensive -and defensive alliance. Spain had loyally fulfilled her part of the -bargain, and had suffered much in the War of American Independence -against England. Spain had had the good fortune to be ruled by one of -the most enlightened of the benevolent despots, Charles III., whose -minister, Aranda, was one of the greatest statesmen of his century. -Aranda is best known from his persecution of the Jesuits, who had -spread their influence over the minds of the Spanish people so far -as to be the dictators of education and opinion. Their expulsion -contributed to the power of the Crown, which undertook the direction -of every form of national energy. Aranda was a great administrator; -he spent vast sums on the improvement of communications and on public -works, and he built up a powerful Spanish navy. The two evils which -had depressed the fame of Spain, the personal lethargy of the people, -due to the stamping out of liberty of thought by the Inquisition, and -the poverty, caused by the influx of gold from the Spanish colonies, -which prevented any encouragement of national industry, were however -too great for any administrator to subdue, without a national uprising -and the development of a national love for liberty. Aranda was ably -helped by Campomanes, who founded a national system of education to -take the place of the Jesuits’ schools and colleges, by Jovellanos, a -great jurist and political economist, by Cabarrus, a skilful financier, -who founded the bank of St. Charles, and developed a system of national -credit, and by Florida Blanca, who superintended the department of -foreign affairs, and succeeded Aranda in supreme power in 1774. Charles -III. died on 12th December 1788, and his successor, Charles IV., whose -weakness of character was manifested throughout the period from 1789 to -1815, commenced his reign by maintaining Florida Blanca at the head of -Spanish affairs, with Cabarrus and other experienced ministers. - -[Sidenote: Portugal: Maria I.] - -Portugal was the intimate ally of England as Spain was of France. The -hereditary connection of Portugal and England dated back for many -centuries, and had been strengthened by the Methuen Treaty in 1703, -which had made Portugal largely dependent on England. The great -Portuguese minister, Pombal, who had commenced the persecution of -the Jesuits and had effected internal and administrative reforms, -comparable to those of Aranda in Spain, had been disgraced in 1777, -but the offices of State were filled by his pupils and managed on the -principle, which he had initiated, of advancing the prosperity of the -people. Pombal, while holding the strongest views on the importance -of maintaining the royal absolutism, believed in the modern doctrines -of reform; he had abolished slavery, encouraged education, and in -the received ideas of political economy had encouraged by means of -protection manufactures and agriculture. The essential weakness of -Portugal rested, like that of Spain, on the exhaustion and consequent -lethargy of its people; the Jesuits and the Inquisition had stamped out -freedom of thought. Financially, also, its condition resembled that -of Spain, for the sovereign derived such wealth from Brazil as to be -independent of taxes, levied on the people. Politically the aim of the -House of Braganza, during the latter part of the eighteenth century, -had been to endeavour to free itself from dependence on England by -uniting closely through inter-marriages with the reigning family in -Spain. Queen Maria I., who had succeeded Joseph, the patron of Pombal, -in 1777, was a fanatical lady of weak intellect, and in 1789 the royal -power was in the hands of the heir-apparent, Prince John, who was -recognised as Regent some years later, and eventually succeeded to the -throne in 1816, as John VI. - -[Sidenote: Italy.] - -[Sidenote: Naples: Ferdinand IV.] - -[Sidenote: Sicily.] - -[Sidenote: Rome: Pope Pius VI.] - -[Sidenote: Tuscany: Grand Duke Leopold.] - -[Sidenote: Parma: Duke Ferdinand.] - -[Sidenote: Modena: Duke Hercules III.] - -[Sidenote: Lombardy.] - -[Sidenote: Sardinia: Victor Amadeus III.] - -[Sidenote: Lucca: Republic.] - -[Sidenote: Genoa: Republic.] - -[Sidenote: Venice.] - -Italy, in the eighteenth century, was composed of a number of small -states. The idea of Italian unity lived only in the minds of the great -Italian writers and thinkers; it met with no support from the powers -of Europe. Italy was still the home of music and the arts, which -were fostered by the numerous small Courts; but politically, owing -to its subdivision, it hardly counted as a power, and its diplomacy -had little weight in the European State system. It was entirely under -the influence of France and Austria, and showed the tendencies of the -century in the good government of most of the petty rulers. The most -important of the Italian states was the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, -which comprised the southern part of the peninsula and the island of -Sicily. The kingdom had been granted to Ferdinand IV., when his father, -the celebrated Don Carlos, succeeded as Charles III. to the throne -of Spain in 1759. It was in Naples that Charles III. had commenced -his career as a reforming monarch, and the great Neapolitan minister, -Tanucci, continued to administer the affairs of the kingdom in a most -enlightened fashion during the early years of the new monarch’s reign. -His policy was to check the feudal instincts of the Neapolitan barons, -whom he deprived of the lucrative right of administering justice, and -thus to strengthen the influence of the Crown; and he also opposed -the pretensions of the Pope, and concurred in the suppression of -the Jesuits. The power thus acquired for the Crown was wisely used; -the financial system was revised, education was encouraged, and an -attempt was made to procure a general reform of the laws. The young -publicist, Filangieri, whose _Science of Legislation_ contained the -most enlightened views on political economy and government, and who -ranks next to Montesquieu as a typical political thinker of the -eighteenth century, was a Neapolitan, and his speculations largely -influenced the current of Italian thought. Sicily, however, remained -to a great extent untouched by the influence of the great Neapolitan -minister owing to its insular jealousy and the maintenance of its -mediæval parliament. Ferdinand IV., in 1768, married Maria Carolina, -the ablest daughter of the Empress Maria Theresa, who at once assumed -the most entire sway over her ill-educated and indolent husband. She -secured the dismissal of Tanucci, whom she disliked on much the same -grounds that her sister, Marie Antoinette, disliked the reforming -French ministers, Turgot and Necker, in 1776, and after an interval -replaced him by Acton, a native of France of Irish descent, who, owing -to the temper of his patroness, was not able to continue efficiently -the work of Tanucci. The States of the Church, including the Legations -of Bologna and Ferrara and the principalities of Benevento and Ponte -Corvo, were also governed in accordance with the enlightened ideas of -the eighteenth century. The Papacy had much fallen in influence, and -had been forced to comply with the demands of Pombal, Choiseul, Aranda, -and Tanucci for the suppression of its spiritual mainstay, the order of -the Jesuits; but it nevertheless maintained its temporal sovereignty -in Italy. Giovanni Angelo Braschi, who had been elected Pope in 1775, -and taken the title of Pius VI., was a man of singular ability and -courtly manners. But he had to assent to vast reforms in Tuscany, -which seriously affected the wealth of the Church in that part of the -country, and had been unable, in spite of a personal visit to Vienna, -to persuade Joseph II. to alter his policy towards the Papacy. His most -notable internal measures in the Papal States were the draining of the -Pontine marshes, and his reconstitution of the Clementine Museum at -Rome, which he placed under the charge of the eminent antiquary, Ennius -Quirinus Visconti. Tuscany flourished under the rule of the Grand Duke -Leopold, brother and eventual successor of Joseph II., the ablest -administrator of all the benevolent despots. His reforms extended in -every direction; with the help of Scipio de Ricci, Bishop of Pistoia, -he reduced the number of bishoprics and monasteries; he drained many of -the marshes, and so benefited agriculture; he reorganised education and -encouraged the Universities of Pisa and Siena. But his greatest reforms -were legal and economic. Tuscany having originated from a number of -mediæval republics, had been hitherto administered as a collection of -semi-independent cities and districts, with their own laws and local -finances. Leopold was one of the first monarchs to project a uniform -code of laws for his state, which he intrusted to the great jurist, -Lampredi, to compile, and he abolished all personal privileges before -the law, torture, the right of asylum for malefactors, confiscation of -the property of condemned malefactors, and secret denunciations. In -economics he was the pupil of the French physiocrats, and the friend of -the Marquis de Mirabeau, the ‘Ami des hommes,’ and in consonance with -their doctrines he swept away all the internal customs duties and other -restrictions on industry and commerce. Lastly, Leopold, seeing that -his state was not strong enough to carry on a real war, abolished the -Tuscan army, to the great advantage of his finances. Next to Tuscany, -the best-governed state in Italy was Parma. Ferdinand, Duke of Parma -and Piacenza, was the only son of Don Philip, the second son of Philip -V. of Spain and Elizabeth Farnese, by Elizabeth of France, daughter -of Louis XV. He was educated by the celebrated French philosopher, -Condillac, and early in his reign showed the influence of the best -eighteenth century ideas. He had succeeded his father in 1765, and -continued his minister, a Frenchman, Du Tillot, Marquis of Felino, in -office. Du Tillot, though working in a smaller sphere, was as great a -reformer as Pombal and Tanucci. He brought about the suppression of -the Inquisition in Parma, improved the internal administration, and -encouraged education so greatly that the University of Parma, under the -management of the learned scholar, Paciaudi, became one of the most -famous in Europe. In 1769 Duke Ferdinand married Maria Amelia, daughter -of the Empress Maria Theresa, who two years later secured the dismissal -of Du Tillot from office. This dismissal was not, however, followed -by a reaction, though it put a close to the progress of reform, and -Parma, under the administration, first of a Spaniard, Llanos, and then -of a Frenchman, Mauprat, retained its reputation as a well governed -state. It was otherwise with Modena, where the last Duke of the House -of Este, Hercules III., reigned. This prince had succeeded to the -duchies of Modena, Reggio, and Mirandola in 1780, when already a man -of fifty-three, and had added to them by marriage the principalities -of Massa and Carrara. His only daughter and heiress, Maria Beatrice, -was married to the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand, younger brother of -the Emperor Joseph, and Governor-General of Lombardy. Duke Hercules -was a superstitious and avaricious ruler, whose chief care was to -amass money, and, politically, he followed out the wishes of Austria. -While the House of Austria, by its scions or by marriages, ruled the -greater part of Italy indirectly, it possessed the direct sovereignty -of Lombardy, or, more accurately, of the Milanese and Mantua. This -province profited by the salutary policy of Joseph II., and was -administered, under the governor-generalship of the Archduke Ferdinand, -by a great statesman, Count Firmian, who understood and carried out the -most important reforms. His patronage of the arts and of education was -especially remarkable; he laboured ardently to restore the efficiency -of the Universities of Milan and Pavia, and appointed Beccaria, the -celebrated philanthropist, Professor of Political Economy at the -former, and Volta, the equally celebrated man of science, Professor -of Physics at the latter. The only other monarchy of Italy, that of -Sardinia, was more closely related to France than to Austria. Its -king, Victor Amadeus III., had married a Spanish princess, and two -of his daughters were married to the two brothers of Louis XVI. of -France—Monsieur, the Comte de Provence, and the Comte d’Artois. His -dominions comprised the island of Sardinia, Piedmont, Savoy, and Nice, -and it was a great subject of complaint to his Piedmontese subjects -that he unduly favoured his French-speaking province of Savoy. He, too, -was influenced by the spirit of his century; he encouraged agriculture -and commerce; he patronised literature and science; he built the -Observatory at Turin, and founded academies of science and fine arts; -and he undertook great public works, of which the most important was -the improvement of the harbour of Nice. But in one matter he pursued an -opposite policy to the Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany, for he increased -and reorganised his army, and constructed fortifications of the most -modern description at Tortona and Alessandria. Lastly must be noticed -three Italian republics, survivals of the Middle Ages. Of these the -smallest was the Republic of Lucca, which was entirely surrounded by -the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Its trade suffered from the encouragement -given by the Grand Duke Leopold to Leghorn; but, on the whole, it was -well governed and prosperous. It was otherwise with the two great -aristocratic republics, in which the long continuance of oligarchical -government had stamped out all vestiges of political liberty. The -Republic of Genoa, of which Raphael di Ferrari was Doge in 1789, was in -utter decay. Its people were poverty-stricken; its trade had gone to -Leghorn and Nice; and its laws and customs were unreformed. It was so -weak that it had been unable to subdue the rebels in Corsica, who had -risen under Paoli for the right of self-government, and it had ended by -ceding the island to France in 1768. The Republic of Venice, of which -the Doge in 1789 was Paul Renier, had not fallen so low in the eyes of -Europe. Its possessions on the mainland, which extended from Verona to -the Tyrol and along the east coast of the Adriatic Sea, and included -the Ionian Islands, were administered for the benefit of the Venetian -oligarchy, and supplied it with wealth. From Dalmatia was raised a -considerable army, but the administration was wholly selfish, and did -not keep pace in enlightenment with that of Lombardy, Parma, Tuscany, -and Naples. On the whole, where monarchy existed in Italy, it tended in -the eighteenth century to benevolent despotism; and such rule was far -more beneficial to the people than that of the antiquated republics. -Politically, the whole country might be reckoned as a factor in the -Franco-Austrian alliance. - -[Sidenote: England: George III.] - -[Sidenote: The Policy of Pitt.] - -The chief power of the Triple Alliance, which balanced the -loosely-defined league of Russia, France, and Austria, was England. -The severe blow which had been struck by the revolt of her American -colonies had made Great Britain appear weaker than she really was to -the powers of the Continent. The Treaty of Versailles, by which she -had been obliged to make cessions to France, seemed to have set the -seal on her humiliation. But in reality her finances were more affected -than her fighting strength, and the English navy, which, from her -insular position, must always constitute the principal element of her -force, was as excellent as ever. The policy of the younger Pitt, who -had come into office in 1783, was one of peace and retrenchment. The -country had lasted well through the financial strain of the American -War, and the chief aim of the minister was to allow its vast commercial -and industrial resources to expand. As a pupil of Adam Smith, Pitt -understood the great principles of political economy, and the most -significant part of his foreign policy was his conclusion of the -Commercial Treaty with France. A fiscal system, far in advance of that -in any continental country, enabled the English Government to draw on -the wealth of the nation more effectively than any other government, -if the money was needed for patriotic purposes. In spite of his love -of peace, Pitt was induced by his first Foreign Secretary, the Duke of -Leeds, to take an active part in European politics, and was eventually -led by the state of affairs in Holland to enter into the Triple -Alliance. At home, England was unaffected by the intellectual movement -which led to the French Revolution. She had in the previous century -got rid of the relics of feudalism, which pressed so heavily on the -continental farmer and peasant, and had won the boons of individual and -commercial liberty, and of equality before the law; while politically, -though her government was an oligarchy, supported by the class of -wealthy merchants and traders, an opportunity was afforded through -the existence of a free press and of the system of election, however -hampered by antiquated franchises, for public opinion to make itself -felt. - -[Sidenote: Prussia: Frederick William II.] - -Prussia, the other principal member of the Triple Alliance, contrasted -in every way with England. Seemingly, owing to the prestige of -Frederick the Great’s victories and that able monarch’s careful -organisation of his army, Prussia was the first military state in -Europe; in reality, her reputation was greater than her actual power. -Prussia was weak where England was strong. Prussia had no financial -system worthy of the name, no industrial wealth, and no national bank; -her only resources for war were a certain quantity of specie stored -up in Berlin. The Prussian Government was an absolutism, in which the -monarch’s will was supreme; its administration was based on feudalism, -of which England had entirely and France had practically got rid, with -all its mediæval incidents of serfdom, privilege of the nobility, and -social and commercial inequalities. The Prussian army was not national; -the soldiers were treated as slaves, and the officers, who were all of -noble birth, were tyrants in the maintenance of military discipline. - -[Sidenote: Policy of Prussia.] - -Frederick the Great was one of the finest types of the benevolent -despot of the eighteenth century, but in him the belief in the -importance of his despotic power outweighed his benevolence. While -wishing for the prosperity of the people, he deliberately maintained -the authority of the nobility, and discouraged any desire for change -on the part of the agriculturists or citizens. The former were left -at the disposal of their lords, the latter trammelled by antiquated -civic constitutions. The weakness of Prussia was not only inherent in -its government, but was also due to geographical causes. Its component -parts were scattered; its Rhenish duchies and East Friesland were -separated from its main territories by many German states; its central -districts, the Marks of Brandenburg, were sparsely populated, and cut -off from the sea; its largest provinces, Prussia Proper, Pomerania, -Silesia, and Prussian Poland were, in spite of German and French -Huguenot colonies, mainly Slavonic, and as backward in civilisation as -other Slavonic races in the eighteenth century. In Russia, however, -the Slavonic population in its barbarism yet retained sufficient local -organisation to make its lot fairly endurable; in eastern Prussia, -and especially in Prussian Poland, the people had been brought -into contact with the mediæval and Latin civilisation, and were -consequently treated as absolute serfs without the relief afforded by -local institutions. The policy of Prussia, as laid down by Frederick -the Great, had both Prussian and German aspirations, and in both was -utterly selfish. The example set by the cynical monarch in the Silesian -wars had left a deep impress on the minds of Prussian statesmen, and -the maxims of justice and international law were subordinated by them -to expediency. The Prussian policy of Frederick the Great culminated -in the first partition of Poland, which he had suggested, by means -of which Prussia united her eastern province of Prussia Proper to -Brandenburg, and cut off Poland from the sea, and the aim of his -successors was to pursue this path of aggrandisement, and, by further -annexations, to connect Silesia directly with Prussia Proper. The -German policy of Prussia was to assume the leadership of the Empire -by pretending the greatest zeal for the rights of the Princes of the -Empire, and posing as their protector, and it was on this ground that -Frederick the Great formed the League of the Princes. The hereditary -enemy of Prussia was Austria, which, though distinctly injured by -the conquest of Silesia, still retained the chief influence over the -Empire, and also showed a tendency to check the designs on Poland. -It was Frederick the Great of Prussia who had thwarted the Emperor’s -scheme of exchanging the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria, and he -intrigued against Austria at the Courts both of Russia and France. It -was as a counterblow to the Franco-Austro-Russian alliance that Prussia -intervened in Holland, at the request of England, and formed the Triple -Alliance with England and Holland in 1788. King Frederick William -II. of Prussia, who succeeded his famous uncle in 1786, was a man of -feeble intellect and undecided nature, but he had thoroughly imbibed -the classic ideas of Prussian policy, and regarded Austria as the -inevitable foe of Prussia, to be duped and taken advantage of on every -possible occasion. His chief minister, Hertzberg, was a consistent -enemy of Austria, but owing to the curious character of the king, the -real power of the State rested not with the minister but with the royal -favourites, of whom the chief at the end of 1788 were Bischofswerder -and Lucchesini. - -[Sidenote: Holland.] - -Holland was the link which bound England and Prussia together. Its -military power was of no account, but the wealth of its inhabitants, -derived from their vast commercial expansion in Asia and aptitude -for banking, made the Republic of the United Provinces of the -greatest importance. The Seven Provinces preserved the most complete -autonomy; only the veriest semblance of federation held them -together. Practically, the only bond of union was in the power of the -Stadtholder, which had been restored in 1747. In the more wealthy -provinces, such as Holland, the commercial aristocracy, which filled -the ranks of the local governments, resented the position of the -Stadtholder, who held the command-in-chief of the army and navy; but in -the poorer and agricultural provinces, such as Friesland and Groningen, -the landed aristocracy generally supported the Stadtholderate. In 1780 -the United Provinces had joined in the Neutral League of the North, -invented by Catherine of Russia to break the commercial supremacy of -England, and in the war which followed they had suffered severe losses, -and had been compelled to cede Negapatam in India to England in 1783 on -the conclusion of peace. The Stadtholder, William V., Prince of Orange, -in whose family the office had been declared hereditary, was vehemently -accused of favouring England during this war, and when peace was -declared a movement was set on foot, headed by the authorities of the -Province of Holland, to oust him from his position, and to draw up a -new constitution for the Dutch Netherlands on the same lines as that of -the United States of America. This movement grew to its height in 1786; -a French Legion, commanded by the Comte de Maillebois, was raised; the -Stadtholder had to fly from the Hague, and the armed intervention of -France was requested. But, as has been said, France, in spite of her -seeming power, was too weak to intervene, and the Dutch patriots were -abandoned to their fate. On the other side, that of the Stadtholder, -England, through its able ambassador at the Hague, Sir James Harris, -afterwards Lord Malmesbury, induced Prussia to act. England and Prussia -had dynastic and political reasons for this conduct. The Stadtholder -was, through his mother, a first cousin of George III., and had married -a sister of Frederick William II., while politically, the acquisition -of Holland to the Franco-Austrian alliance, through the expulsion of -the Stadtholder, would bring nearly the whole of Europe into that -system, and would practically enclose the Austrian Netherlands or -Belgium. In September 1787, therefore, a Prussian army, under the Duke -of Brunswick, had occupied Amsterdam, and placed the Stadtholder firmly -in power; the Dutch patriots fled to France; the Legion of Maillebois -was disbanded; and in 1788 the work was consummated by the signature of -the Triple Alliance. - -[Sidenote: Denmark: Christian VII.] - -[Sidenote: Sweden: Gustavus III.] - -The two northern kingdoms, Denmark and Sweden, had adhered to the -Neutral League against England in 1780, but for generations a bitter -animosity had existed between them. Denmark, which in 1789 included -Norway, was in an extremely prosperous condition. The philanthropic -ideas of the eighteenth century had made great way, and on 20th -June 1788 a royal ordinance had destroyed the last vestige of -serfdom. Efforts were made to improve the condition of the people by -reorganising the state of the finances, law and education, and progress -was made in every direction. These reforms were not the work of the -King, Christian VII., who had fallen into a state of dotage, but of -the Prince Royal, afterwards Frederick VI., and of his minister, Count -Andrew Bernstorff, the nephew of the greatest Danish statesman of the -eighteenth century. Sweden, which in 1789 included the greater part -of Finland as well as Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen, was -under the sway of one of the most enlightened rulers of the century, -Gustavus III. That monarch had in 1772, by a _coup d’état_, overthrown -the power of the Swedish Estates, with their division into the two -parties of the Caps and the Hats, subsidised respectively by Russia -and France. He had made use of his absolutism to carry out some of -the benevolent ideas of the time. He had abolished torture, regulated -taxation, encouraged commerce and industry, and diminished, where he -did not destroy, the privileges of the nobility. Had he contented -himself with these internal reforms he would have won the lasting -gratitude of the Swedish people, but he insisted on playing a part -in continental politics, which involved the maintenance of a large -army and the consequent exhaustion of the people. Though he too had -joined the League of the North in 1780, he afterwards assumed a -strong anti-Russian attitude, and resolved to take advantage of the -Russo-Turkish war in order to regain some of his lost provinces. -Accordingly he invaded Russia in the summer of 1788, while his fleet -threatened St. Petersburg. - -[Sidenote: The Empire.] - -[Sidenote: The Diet.] - -[Sidenote: College of Electors.] - -[Sidenote: College of Princes.] - -[Sidenote: College of Free Cities.] - -Hitherto a sketch has been given of states, which in 1789 possessed a -certain unity, and were able to play a part as independent countries -of more or less weight in European politics. It was otherwise with -the Holy Roman Empire, which still remained in the same condition, -and was ruled in the same manner, as had been arranged at the Treaty -of Westphalia in 1648. True Germany, that is Germany to the west of -the Oder, had been under this arrangement split up into a number of -independent sovereignties, loosely bound together as the Holy Roman -Empire. The number of these petty states caused the Empire to be, from -a military point of view, utterly inefficient; the bond was too loose -to allow of general internal reforms or of a consistent foreign policy; -and the federal arrangements were too cumbrous and unwieldy to allow -of Germany ranking as a great power. The Imperial Diet or Reichstag -consisted of three colleges, and a majority was required in each of -the upper colleges to agree to a resolution, which, when confirmed by -the Emperor, became a _conclusum_ of the Empire. The first of these -colleges was that of the eight Electors, three ecclesiastical, the -Elector-Archbishops of Mayence, Trèves, and Cologne, and five lay, the -Electors of Bohemia, Brandenburg, and Hanover, who were also Kings of -Hungary, Prussia, and England, the Elector of Saxony, and the Elector -Palatine, who in 1789 was also Elector of Bavaria. The president of -this college was the Elector-Archbishop of Mayence, as Chancellor of -the Empire. The second college was that of the Princes, which consisted -of one hundred voices, thirty-six ecclesiastical and sixty-four -lay. In this college all the Electors had voices under different -designations; Hanover possessed six for different principalities, -Prussia six for the duchy of Guelders, the county of Mœurs, etc., -Austria three, and so on, while the Kings of Denmark and Sweden also -were represented as Dukes of Holstein and of Pomerania. Less important -princes differing in power from the Landgraves of Hesse, the Margraves -of Baden, and the Duke of Würtemburg to the petty princes of Salm and -Anhalt, possessed single voices, and made up the number of temporal -voters in the college to sixty. The ecclesiastical princes included -thirty-four of the wealthiest bishops and abbots, many of whom ruled -over considerable territories, and of whom the most important were the -Archbishop of Salzburg, the Bishops of Bamberg, Augsburg, Würtzburg, -Spires, Worms, Strasbourg, Basle, Constance, Paderborn, Hildesheim, -and Münster, and the Abbots of Elwangen, Kempten, and Stablo. The -other six voices were called collegiate, and representatives to hold -them were elected by the petty lay and ecclesiastical sovereigns -who abounded in Franconia, Swabia, and Westphalia, to the number of -four lay and two ecclesiastical representatives. The presidency of -this college was held alternately by the Archduke of Austria and the -Archbishop of Salzburg. The third or inferior college was that of the -free cities, and any opposition on its part could prevent a decision -arrived at by the two upper or superior colleges being presented -to the Emperor for his assent as a _conclusum_ of the Empire. It -consisted of the representatives of fifty-two imperial free cities, -divided into two ‘benches,’ of which the Bench of Westphalia included -Frankfort-on-the-Main, Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Hamburg, Bremen, and -Lübeck, and the Bench of Swabia included Nuremberg, Ratisbon, Ulm, -and Augsburg. The presidency of this college belonged to the city -of Ratisbon, in which the Diet held its sittings. By this elaborate -federative system, all sense of German unity was lost; the electors, -princes, and free cities were represented only by delegates; the -smaller states felt themselves swamped and were obliged to look to a -great power, Austria or France, Prussia or Hanover, to preserve their -political independence. - -[Sidenote: The Imperial Tribunal.] - -[Sidenote: The Emperor.] - -[Sidenote: The Aulic Council.] - -[Sidenote: The Circles.] - -The other important institution of the Empire, the Imperial Tribunal -or Reichskammergericht, which sat at Wetzlar and was intended to -settle disputes between the German sovereigns, had also fallen into -desuetude. Its venality and procrastination became proverbial, and it -possessed no machinery to put its decrees into force. At the head of -the Empire was the Emperor, who was elected and crowned with all the -elaborate ceremonial of the Middle Ages. The office had been, with one -exception, conferred on the head of House of Austria, since the Treaty -of Westphalia, but it brought little actual authority on the holder. -It was as ruler of the hereditary dominions of the House of Hapsburg -that the Emperor exerted some influence, not as an Emperor. Joseph II., -indeed, endeavoured to be Emperor in more than name, with the result -that Frederick the Great was enabled to form the League of Princes -against him. As the chief Catholic state, Austria, however, possessed -a great influence in the Imperial Diet, for the ecclesiastical members -of the Colleges of Electors and Princes naturally inclined to support -her, and it was on their votes that she relied. She even went so far -as to establish the Aulic Council at Vienna, which intervened in cases -between sovereign princes, and usurped some of the prerogatives of -the Imperial Tribunal of Wetzlar. The executive power of the Empire, -when it had come to a decision, was entrusted to the circles. These -circles each had their own Diet, and it was their duty, for instance, -to raise money and troops when the Empire decided to go to war. Of the -ten circles of the Empire, originally created, one, that of Burgundy, -had been extinguished or nearly so by the conquests of Louis XIV., -and those situated in the eastern portion were entirely controlled by -the important states of Prussia, Saxony, and Austria. It was only in -Western Germany, in the circles of Westphalia, Franconia, and Swabia -that the organisation was fairly tried, and the result was signal -failure, whenever those circles put their contingents in the field. -It could hardly be otherwise, when, owing to minute subdivision and -divided authority, a single company of soldiers might be raised from -half a dozen different petty sovereigns, each of whom would try to -throw the burden of their maintenance on his colleagues. The Holy Roman -Empire, in short, like other mediæval institutions, had fallen into -decay with the mediæval systems of warfare and religion; some of its -component states, such as Austria and Prussia, or in a lesser degree -Bavaria, might possess a real power; but, as a whole, it was utterly -inefficient to defend itself, and formed a feeble barrier between -France and the kingdoms of Eastern Europe. - -[Sidenote: The Princes of Germany.] - -[Sidenote: Bavaria.] - -[Sidenote: Baden.] - -[Sidenote: Würtemburg.] - -[Sidenote: Saxony.] - -[Sidenote: Saxe-Weimar.] - -The impotence of the Empire for offensive and defensive purposes did -not, however, greatly affect the German people; the educated classes -prided themselves on being superior to patriotic impulses, and on being -cosmopolitan rather than German; the poorer classes thought more of -the internal administration which affected them than of the attitude -of the Empire to European politics. The tendency towards benevolent -despotism, which distinguished the greater powers, showed itself also -in the petty states of Germany in the diminution, if not the abolition, -of the ancient Estates and in the restraints placed on the authority -of the nobility. The increased power of the sovereign was generally, -if not universally, used to foster the prosperity of his subjects, -or at least to promote literature and art. A notice of a few of the -principal rulers of Germany will justify this view. Charles Theodore, -the Elector Palatine, who in 1778 had succeeded to the Electorate -of Bavaria, and united once more the territories of the House of -Wittelsbach, was a most enlightened sovereign. In the Palatinate he had -founded a brilliant University at Mannheim, and one of the most famous -picture galleries in Europe at Düsseldorf; in Bavaria he suppressed -some of the numerous convents, which stifled progress, in spite of his -sincere Catholicism. He took as one of his ministers the celebrated -American, Benjamin Thompson, whom he created Count Rumford, and that -man of science and learning endeavoured to suppress mendacity, and made -efforts to bring material comforts within reach of the very poorest. -Nevertheless, in some points, the Elector Charles Theodore showed -himself a bigot; he left education entirely in the hands of the Roman -Catholic priesthood and ex-Jesuits, and he allowed the Protestants in -his dominions to be persecuted. The Margrave Charles Frederick, who -in 1771 reunited in his person the two margraviates of Baden-Baden -and Baden-Durlach, was a more thoroughly enlightened prince. He was -truly a benevolent despot; he was a student of political economy, on -which he himself wrote a treatise, and applied its principles to his -little state; he established a scheme of primary education; and on 23d -July 1783 he abolished serfdom in his dominions, while maintaining -the royal _corvées_ and the prohibition for a subject to leave the -country without obtaining his permission. The Duke Charles Eugène of -Würtemburg formed a contrast to his neighbours. He established, like -them, his own absolutism, but he used his power to impose heavy taxes -and raise an army out of all proportion to the size of his duchy. -He treated his subjects like slaves, and his administration was so -cruel that the Aulic Council threatened to take measures against him. -Nevertheless, he was a patron of literature and the arts. He built a -theatre at Stuttgart and founded the Academy of Fine Arts there, and -he defrayed the expense of the education of the poet Schiller, who, -however, afterwards satirised him and fled to Weimar. Yet Charles -Eugène of Würtemburg appears an enlightened monarch to such princes as -Duke Charles of Deux-Ponts (Zweibrücken), whose successor, Maximilian -Joseph, was to succeed the Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore, and -to become the first King of Bavaria, for that prince sacrificed his -people to his passion for the chase, and to William IX., Landgrave -of Hesse-Cassel, who sold his subjects by the hundred to the English -Government to carry on the war in America. Going further east, Saxony, -which had ranked among the great states of Germany, was in a state of -decline. The Electors Augustus II. and Augustus III. had been Kings -of Poland, and had ruined their hereditary dominions to support their -royal dignity and position. Fortunately Frederick Augustus, who was -Elector in 1789, had not been elected to the Polish throne, and had -been able to do something for the prosperity of his subjects. He -formed a commission to draw up a code of laws, he abolished torture, -encouraged industry and agriculture, and founded an Academy of Mines. -But he did not go so far, for instance, as the Margrave of Baden, and -made no attempt to suppress serfdom. The glory of Saxony was not, -however, on the eve of the French Revolution its electoral house; -its intellectual capital was not the beautiful city of Dresden. That -place was taken by Weimar, where Duke Charles Augustus of Saxe-Weimar -collected around him the great philosophers and men of letters who made -the German name famous at the end of the eighteenth century and the -beginning of the nineteenth. To his Court resorted the most illustrious -Germans of the time, Goethe and Schiller, Herder, Wieland, and Musæus; -and the University of his state at Jena became the most famous in -Germany. It is not necessary to particularise the other states; it is -enough to say that those in the north were generally very backward, -especially the duchies of Mecklenburg, and that Hanover was left to the -rule of an aristocratic oligarchy, which allowed no reforms, although -its University at Göttingen, founded by George II., took rank with the -best. - -[Sidenote: Mayence.] - -[Sidenote: Trèves.] - -[Sidenote: Cologne.] - -The Ecclesiastical States followed also the movement of the century. -The ecclesiastical rulers were often enlightened men, but they were -to a great extent the slaves of their chapters. These chapters were -generally filled by younger sons of the smaller princes, who insisted -on the newly-elected prelates entering into the closest bonds with -them to make no changes in the feudal system in the bishoprics. The -prince-bishops and abbots at the close of the eighteenth century were, -therefore, generally scions of noble houses, such as, for instance, -Francis Joseph, Baron of Roggenbach, Bishop of Basle, Baron Francis -Louis of Erthal, Bishop of Bamberg and Würtzburg, the Baron of Rödt, -Bishop of Constance, the Count of Hoensbroeck, Bishop of Liége, -Count Augustus of Limburg, Bishop of Spires, Count Jerome Colloredo, -Archbishop of Salzburg, and the Baron of Plettenberg, Abbot of Münster. -One curious point deserves notice, that in some instances, Protestant -princes had the right to present to Catholic prince-bishoprics, and -in 1789 the Duke of York was Prince-Bishop of Osnabrück, and Prince -Peter Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, Prince-Bishop of Lübeck. Of -higher rank and more independent of their chapters were the three -archbishop-electors, who were therefore more able to rule their states -in consonance with the ideas of the century. The chief of these was -Baron Frederick Charles of Erthal, Archbishop-Elector of Mayence, and -Prince-Bishop of Worms, the Chancellor of the Empire _ex officio_. This -great prelate busied himself mostly with his pleasures, but his rank -caused his countenance to be sought by all parties, and his adhesion -to Frederick the Great’s League of Princes was the greatest gain the -King of Prussia made in his anti-Austrian policy. In 1789 he had -completely abandoned the cares of internal and external politics to his -coadjutor Charles, Baron de Dalberg, who was to play a leading part -in the history of Germany during the period of the French Revolution -and Napoleon. The Archbishop-Elector of Trèves in 1789 was Clement -Wenceslas, a Saxon prince, and an excellent ruler, who, in 1783, -even issued an edict of tolerance, allowing men of any religion to -settle in his state, and exercise any trade or profession there. The -last Elector-Archbishop was the Archduke Maximilian, the youngest -brother of the Emperor Joseph, Archbishop of Cologne, who shared his -brother’s liberal opinions, and patronised his predecessor’s creation, -the University of Bonn, which had been founded in opposition to the -ultramontane University of Cologne, for the encouragement of the modern -developments of science. The tendency of all these governments, lay and -clerical, was to promote the prosperity of the people; Joseph II. was -but the type of the German princes of his time; all wished to do good -for the people, but not by them; their characters differed widely, from -the enlightened Margrave of Baden to the hunting Duke of Deux-Ponts; -but in their different ways and in different degrees they generally -meant well. But, while the more important princes showed the tendency -of the century, their poorer contemporaries were unable to do so. -They were mostly in debt, owing to their efforts to rival the wealthy -princes, and in order to raise money resorted to all the devices of -mediæval feudalism. The few villages over which they ruled suffered -from this tyranny, and it was always possible to know when a traveller -crossed the frontier into one of these ‘duodecimo duchies.’ Beneath the -petty princes were the Ritters or Knights of the Empire, who abounded -in Franconia and Swabia. These knights had no representation in the -Imperial Diet, and were consequently dependent directly on the Emperor. -Their poverty made them take service with the wealthy princes; and -to quote but two instances, Stein, the great Prussian minister, and -Würmser, the celebrated Austrian general, were both Knights of the -Empire. The result of this minute subdivision of Germany was to destroy -the sense of national patriotism; which was not to rise again until -after Germany had passed through the mould of Napoleon’s domination. - -[Sidenote: Switzerland.] - -[Sidenote: Geneva.] - -The other European confederation, Switzerland, presented the same -symptoms of internal decay as the Holy Roman Empire, but it was -preserved from the same political degradation by the consciousness -of its nationality and the persistence of its local governments. The -eighteenth century was marked in Switzerland by struggles between -canton and canton, Catholics and Protestants, nobles and bourgeois. -In some cantons, such as Berne, an oligarchical system was maintained -in the hands of a few noble families; in others, such as Uri, a -purely democratic form of government was preserved, which allowed -every peasant a voice in the local administration. Where feudalism -had been established, the peasants were in no better condition than -in the rest of Europe, but in the mountain cantons such a _régime_ -was impossible, and individual and political freedom still existed. -It must be remembered that the Switzerland of the eighteenth century -was not identical with that of the nineteenth. The Grisons formed no -part of the confederation, Neufchâtel belonged to Prussia, and Geneva -was an independent republic. The part the latter had played in the -intellectual movement of the century was most conspicuous. Rousseau -was born in Geneva, and Voltaire retired and spent his last years in -its neighbourhood. But Geneva had just before 1789 been the scene of a -revolution resembling that in Holland. A struggle broke out between the -bourgeois families, which monopolised the magistracy, and the mass of -the people, which had ended in the victory of the former. The Genevese -democrats were expelled, and many of them, notably Clavière, exercised -a considerable influence on the course of the Revolution in France. - -The state of Europe in 1789 showed everywhere a sense of awakening -to new ideas. The bonds of feudalism were ready to break asunder; -the benevolent despots had recognised the rights of individual and -commercial freedom; the French Revolution was able to sow in ripe -ground the two new principles of the sovereignty of the people and the -sentiment of nationality. - - - - - CHAPTER II - - 1789–1790 - - The Empress Catherine and the Emperor Joseph II.—The Turkish - War—Campaign of 1789 against the Turks—Battles of Foksany and - the Rymnik—Capture of Belgrade—Revolution in Sweden—Affairs - in Belgium—Policy of Joseph II. in Belgium—Revolution in - Liége—Elections to the States-General in France—Meeting of - the States-General: struggle between the Orders—The Tiers - État declares itself the National Assembly—Oath of the - Tennis Court—The Séance Royale—Mirabeau’s Address to the - King—Dismissal of Necker—Riot of 12th July in Paris—Capture - of the Bastille—Recall of Necker—Louis XVI. visits - Paris—Murder of Foullon—Session of 4th August—Declaration - of the Rights of Man—Question of the Veto—March of the - women of Paris to Versailles—Louis XVI. goes to reside in - Paris—Effect of the Revolution in France on Europe—The - Revolution in Belgium—Formation of the Belgian Republic—Death - of the Emperor Joseph II.—Failure of his reign—The attitude - of Louis XVI. to the French Revolution—The new French - Constitution—Civil Constitution of the Clergy—Measures of the - Constituent Assembly—Mirabeau—Danger threatened to the new - state of affairs in France by a foreign war—Mirabeau and the - French Court—Probable causes of a foreign war—Avignon and the - Venaissin—Affair of Nootka Sound—The Pacte de Famille—Rights - of Princes of the Empire in Alsace—The Emperor Leopold master - of the situation. - - -[Sidenote: Catherine and Joseph II. 1789.] - -At the commencement of the year 1789 the thoughts of European statesmen -were mainly turned to the events which were passing in the east of -Europe. The alliance between Catherine of Russia and the Emperor Joseph -II. was regarded with anxiety not only by Pitt in England and by King -Frederick William II. of Prussia, but by the French ministers and by -all the smaller states of Europe. The projects of Russia and Austria -for the extension of their boundaries at the expense of Turkey, Poland, -and Bavaria, were viewed with alarm, and the ambitious ideas of their -rulers with dismay. The attention of educated people, who were not -statesmen or politicians, but disciples of the philosophical teachers -of the eighteenth century, was entirely concentrated on the progress -of the Emperor Joseph’s policy in the Austrian Netherlands or Belgium. -Success seemed to have crowned the warlike measures of General d’Alton; -the Belgian patriots were in prison or in exile; and the philanthropic -and centralising reforms of the Emperor seemed to have ended in Belgium -in the establishment of a military despotism. France was known to be -in an almost desperate financial condition; and the convocation of the -States-General for 1st May 1789, was generally looked upon as a means -adopted by Louis XVI. to obtain financial relief. The great results, -which were to follow the meeting of the States-General, were little -expected by even the most acute political observers, and it was not -foreseen that for more than a quarter of a century the interest of -Europe was to be fixed upon France, and that a series of events in -that country, unparalleled in history, were to bring about an entire -modification in the political system of Europe, and to open a new era -in the history of mankind. - -[Sidenote: The War with the Turks.] - -[Sidenote: Joseph’s prediction.] - -The campaign of 1788 had, upon the whole, terminated favourably for -the Austrians and Russians in their war with the Turks. Loudon, who -commanded the Austrian forces, had taken Dubitza, and penetrating into -Bosnia had reduced Novi on 3d October. Francis Josias, of the House of -Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, commonly known as the Prince of Coburg, at the -head of an Austrian army, had in conjunction with a Russian force under -Prince Soltikov taken Choczim on 20th September. But, on the other -hand, the Turks had overrun and laid waste the Banat of Temesvar and -routed the Austrian army in that quarter, which was under the personal -command of the Emperor. The Russians had also made some progress, and -on 6th December Potemkin, with terrible loss of life, and owing mainly -to the intrepidity of Suvórov and Repnin stormed Oczakoff (Ochakov). -These successes, despite his own failure, greatly inspirited Joseph, -who, in a letter to Prince Charles of Nassau, made the following -curious predictions in January 1789:[3]—‘If the Grand Vizier should -come to meet me or the Russians near the Danube, he must offer a -battle; and then, after having defeated him, I shall drive him back -to take refuge under the cannon of Silistria. In October 1789 I shall -call a congress, at which the Osmanlis will be obliged to beg for peace -from the Giaours. The treaties of Carlowitz and Passarowitz will serve -as the basis for my ambassadors on which to conclude peace; in it, -however, I shall claim Choczim and part of Moldavia. Russia will keep -the Crimea, Prince Charles of Sweden will be Duke of Courland, and the -Grand Duke of Florence King of the Romans. Then there will be universal -peace in Europe. Until then, France will have settled affairs with the -notables of the nation; and the other gentlemen think too much about -themselves and too little about Austria.’ - -[Sidenote: The Campaign of 1789.] - -The campaign of 1789 was far from fulfilling the expectations of -the Emperor Joseph. His own health had suffered too much from the -privations of the previous year to enable him to take the field again -in person, but he was well served by his generals. The Grand Vizier -determined to adopt the offensive, and crossed the Danube at Rustchuk -in March at the head of an army of 90,000 men, with the intention of -invading Transylvania. But an unexpected event led to the recall of -the most experienced Turkish general. The Sultan Abdul Hamid died at -Constantinople on 7th April, and his nephew and successor, Selim III., -at once disgraced the Grand Vizier, and replaced him in the command -of the western army and the office of Grand Vizier by the Pasha of -Widdin. This incompetent commander rashly advanced, and was defeated -by the Prince of Coburg and Suvoróv at Foksany on 31st July in an -attempt to prevent the junction of the Austrians and Russians. The -allies then took the offensive and inflicted a crushing defeat on the -main Turkish army on the Rymnik, in which 18,000 Austrians and 7000 -Russians routed nearly 100,000 Turks, and took all their baggage and -artillery. This great victory was vigorously followed up. Loudon was -appointed Commander-in-chief of the Austrian army, and he took Belgrade -on 9th October, and after occupying the whole of Servia, laid siege -to Orsova. For these services Joseph conferred upon him the title -of generalissimo, which had only been borne before by Wallenstein, -Montecuculi, and Prince Eugène. Among other results of the victory on -the Rymnik, the Prince of Coburg took Bucharest and occupied Moldavia, -while the Prince of Hohenlohe-Kirchberg forced his way into Wallachia. -In the eastern quarter of the Turkish frontier Prince Potemkin was -equally successful. He defeated the Turkish High Admiral, Hassan Pasha, -in a pitched battle at Tobac, and conquered Bessarabia, capturing -Bender, and laying siege to Ismail. - -[Sidenote: Revolution in Sweden.] - -Doubtless Catherine and Joseph would have met with even greater -successes, and perhaps they might have driven the Turks out of Europe, -had not their attention been diverted directly by the affairs of Sweden -and Belgium, and indirectly by the startling events which were taking -place in France. The Triple Alliance looked with great disfavour on the -alliance between Austria and Russia. Pitt, as has been said, prepared -a great fleet, which is known in English naval history as the Russian -Armament, and Frederick William II. began to negotiate an alliance with -Turkey. But they limited their direct interference to inducing Denmark -to make peace with Sweden. Gustavus III. of Sweden had, in 1788, forced -his way at the head of 30,000 men into Russian Finland, and the sound -of his guns had been heard in Saint Petersburg, which, owing to the -absence of the bulk of the Russian troops, was almost defenceless. But -the Swedish nobility had great influence over the army; they disliked -the war with Russia; and took this opportunity to declare themselves. -Under the secret leadership of Prince Charles, Duke of Sudermania, -they refused to obey the king’s orders, and hoped in the embarrassment -which ensued to regain their former power. At this moment Christian -VII., King of Denmark and Norway, at the instance of Catherine, -invaded Sweden and prepared to besiege Gothenburg. Gustavus saw the -opportunity which this invasion offered to rouse the patriotic feelings -of the Swedes. He appealed to the people, and leaving the command of -the army in Finland to the Duke of Sudermania, raised a fresh army of -volunteers to resist the invaders. In spite of his efforts, Sweden was -in great danger of falling before the combined attacks of Russia and -Denmark. The Triple Alliance now intervened promptly and decisively, -and by threatening to attack Denmark by land and sea, they induced -Bernstorff, the Danish minister, to evacuate Sweden and to agree to -an armistice. Gustavus III. returned to Stockholm with the reputation -of having repulsed the invaders, and summoned the Diet to meet on 2d -February 1789. Sure of the support of the Commons he proposed a new -Constitution, or rather a new fundamental law for the Swedish monarchy, -which is summed up in one of the articles: ‘The king can administer -the affairs of the State as seems good to him.’ The nobility opposed a -fruitless resistance; Gustavus imprisoned their leaders and completed -the work of his former revolution of 1772 by this _coup d’état_. He -then renewed the war with Russia, but the military operations of his -campaign in 1789 were not marked by any event of importance. - -[Sidenote: Affairs in Belgium, 1789.] - -While Catherine of Russia was being distracted from the vigorous -prosecution of the war against Turkey by the invasion of the Swedes, -her ally, the Emperor Joseph, was chiefly concerned with the state of -affairs in the Austrian Netherlands or Belgium. It seemed at first -as if he was to be as successful as Gustavus in changing the old -constitution of the country. But there was this difference. Whereas -Gustavus III. was enacting the part of a national deliverer, and -had the Swedish people on his side in his overthrow of the nobility, -Joseph II. was opposed not only by the Belgian nobles, but by the -clergy and the people also. The country seemed quiet enough under -the government of Count Trautmannsdorf and the military rule of the -Captain-General d’Alton. The suppression of the risings at Brussels and -Louvain, Malines and Antwerp seemed to have established the Austrian -sway most firmly, and the leading opponents of the Emperor’s policy -were in exile. The Estates of the different provinces were convoked -as usual, and all of them, except those of Hainault and Brabant, -voted the customary subsidies. The Estates of Hainault were at once -dissolved by a military force, and their constitution abolished on -31st January 1789. By this example the Emperor hoped to overawe the -wealthy and populous province of Brabant, and when it did not have -the expected effect, he directed Trautmannsdorf to summon a special -meeting of the Estates of Brabant, and to require them to increase -the number of deputies of the Third Estate or Commons, and to grant a -permanent subsidy. He also maintained his attitude towards the Church, -and tried to compel Cardinal Frankenberg, the Archbishop of Malines, to -withdraw his opposition to the new Imperial Seminary at Brussels, or -to resign his see. The Archbishop stoutly refused to comply, and the -Estates of Brabant proved equally stubborn. Joseph then decided on a -sudden blow, and by his orders Count Trautmannsdorf, on 18th June 1789, -declared the ‘Joyeuse Entrée,’ or Constitution of Brabant abolished. -The day was the anniversary of the battle of Kolin, in which, at the -crisis of the Seven Years’ War, the Austrians had defeated Frederick -the Great. D’Alton thought he made a happy comparison in saying: ‘The -18th of June is a happy epoch for the House of Austria; for on that -day the glorious victory of Kolin saved the monarchy, and the Emperor -became master of the Netherlands.’ But the victory was not to be won -so easily. The two parties of opposition, the Van der Nootists, or -partisans of Van der Noot, the supporter of the ancient constitutional -rights, and the Vonckists, or followers of Vonck, the advocate of -popular or democratic ideas, united. The Triple Alliance was as glad -to hamper Joseph’s activity in the East by encouraging these Belgian -patriots, as it had been to leave Gustavus free to harass Catherine, by -stopping the interference of Denmark in the north, and the ministers of -England, Holland, and Prussia all entered into relations with Van der -Noot. That partisan, encouraged by hopes of active assistance, formed -a patriotic committee at Breda, on the Dutch frontier, and raised an -army of exiles, which was placed under the command of Colonel Van der -Mersch. Joseph was not to be intimidated. D’Alton put down popular -riots, which broke out in various towns, notably at Tirlemont, Louvain, -Namur, and Brussels, with unrelenting severity. A sweeping decree was -issued on 19th October against the exiles or _émigrés_, declaring that -ordinary emigration would be punished by banishment and confiscation -of property, and that joining an armed force on the frontier for the -purpose of invasion would be punished by death, and that informers -against _émigrés_ would receive a reward of 10,000 livres and absolute -impunity.[4] But all the Emperor’s measures and decrees were of no -effect. The meeting of the States-General in France had been followed -by the capture of the Bastille and the bringing of the King of France -from Versailles to Paris by a Parisian mob; and the effects of the -French Revolution on affairs in Belgium was soon to be perceived. - -[Sidenote: Revolution in Liège.] - -In the bishopric of Liège, which, from its situation, always -reflected and repeated any political troubles that took place in -Belgium, the influence of the French Revolution was immediately -felt. The inhabitants of the bishopric had long resented the rule -of the prince-bishops, and felt the anomaly of being subject to an -ecclesiastical sovereign. Many exiles from the democratic party in -Belgium assembled in the bishopric, and on the news of the capture of -the Bastille, the people of Liége needed little persuasion to renew -their former insurrection. The revolution was carried out without the -shedding of blood. On 16th and 17th August 1789 the people of the city -of Liége rose in rebellion; on the 18th MM. Chestret and Fabry were -chosen burgomasters by popular acclamation, the garrison was disarmed, -and the citadel occupied by bourgeois national guards. On the same day -the Prince-Bishop, Count Cæsar Constantine Francis de Hoensbroeck, was -brought into the city, and he signed a proclamation acknowledging the -revolution and abrogating the despotic settlement of 1684. The other -towns in the bishopric followed the example of the capital, and in each -of them free municipalities were elected and national guards raised and -armed. The Prince-Bishop, after accepting the loss of his political -power, fled to Trèves, and considered himself fortunate to be allowed -to escape. - -[Sidenote: The Elections to the States-General.] - -It is now time to examine the course of the events in France, which -led to such important developments upon its north-east frontier, and -which distracted the attention of all the monarchs and ministers of -Europe, except Catherine of Russia, from the wars in the North and -East. It was owing to the increasing difficulty of raising money for -carrying on the administration of the State and paying the interest -on the national debt, and the consequent necessity for revising the -system of taxation and reorganising the financial resources of France -that Louis XVI., on the advice of his minister, Loménie de Brienne, had -vaguely promised in November 1787 to summon the States-General for July -1792, and had definitely convoked the ancient assembly of France on 8th -August 1788 to meet at Versailles on 1st May 1789. But the arrangements -for the elections were not made by Loménie de Brienne, who retired -from office in the same month as the States-General was convoked, -but by his successor Necker, who was recalled to office as an expert -financier, in view of the fact that the summons of the States-General -was looked on as a purely financial expedient. The procedure to be -adopted in electing deputies gave rise to much anxious deliberation -and heated controversy in the public press, and the Notables of 1787 -were again assembled to give their advice. The burning question was -as to the representation of the Tiers État, Third Estate or Commons. -The ancient representative assembly of France was known to consist -of the three orders of the Nobility, the Clergy, and the Tiers État, -and the disputed question was as to the proportion of the number of -deputies of the Tiers État to that of the two other orders. This and -the other electoral questions were finally settled by the Résultat du -Conseil published on 27th December 1788. It was decreed that the royal -bailliages and royal sénéchaussées, feudal circumscriptions which had -long fallen into disuse, should be treated as electoral units, and that -they should elect, according to the extent of their population, one or -more deputations, each consisting of four members, one chosen by the -Nobility, one by the Clergy, and two by the Tiers État. The elections -were to be made in two and sometimes in three degrees, and at each -stage _cahiers_ or statements of grievances and projects for reform -were to be drawn up by the electoral assemblies.[5] In provinces, where -there were no royal bailliages or sénéchaussées, and consequently -no Grand Baillis or Grand Sénéchals to preside, corresponding -circumscriptions were adopted or invented. During the early months -of 1789 the French people were fully occupied in the election of the -deputies to the States-General. Whatever might be the opinion of the -French Court or the French Ministry, the people,—and more especially -the educated bourgeois of the towns and the country lawyers,—looked -upon the future assembly as something more than a financial expedient; -they trusted to it to draw up a new political system for the State, -which should admit the representative principle and allow the taxpayer -a voice not only in the granting, but in the spending of the national -revenue. The working classes, whether in the towns or the rural -districts, did not take much active interest in the elections, and -their representatives in the secondary electoral assemblies were -generally educated bourgeois, but they vaguely built high hopes on the -meeting of the States-General, and expected it to give them land or -higher wages. Considering the novelty of choosing representatives in -France, it is extraordinary that the electoral operations were carried -out as peacefully and as efficiently as they were. This was mainly -due to the success of a little revolutionary movement in Dauphiné, -where an unauthorised and irregular assembly had met in July 1788 to -protest against the abolition of the provincial Parlements by Loménie -de Brienne. That minister had left office when he was not permitted -to put down the assembly in Dauphiné by force, and Necker hoped to -save the prestige of the monarchy by summoning a new assembly of the -province in its place. But the ruse was quickly perceived; the men who -had sat in the illegal assembly were elected to its successor, and in -the eyes of France the representatives of the Dauphiné had won a signal -victory over the Court. The new assembly in Dauphiné became the court -of appeal in every electoral difficulty, and its secretary, Mounier, -the leader of the Tiers État of France. Owing to his energy and ability -local jealousies of town against town, province against province, -class jealousies and personal rivalry, were set at rest, and it was -more owing to Mounier than to any one else that the deputies to the -States-General were legally and quietly elected, and that the acts of -the future assembly could not be stigmatised as the work of a factious -or unrepresentative minority of the French nation. - -[Sidenote: Meeting of the States-General.] - -On 5th May 1789 the first States-General held in France since the -year 1614 met at Versailles. Barentin, the Keeper of the Seals, and -Necker harangued the collected deputies, and the latter explained -the desperate financial situation of the State and the necessity for -immediate action to relieve the national treasury. The representatives -of the nobility and clergy then retired to separate chambers, -leaving their colleagues of the Tiers État in the great hall. No word -was spoken about the relation of the three orders to each other. -It was assumed that each order was to deliberate separately. The -representatives of the Tiers État were placed in a most difficult -position. There was no advantage in their being as numerous as -the two other orders put together, if the three orders were to be -independent of each other, for in that case the majorities of the -privileged orders could outweigh the opinion of the majority among -themselves. The question of _vote par ordre_, which would give each -order equal authority, or _vote par tête_, which would allow the -numerical preponderance of the Tiers État to take effect, had been -long recognised as crucial. It had been assumed from the grant of -double representation to the Tiers État that the Government intended -to sanction the _vote par tête_, and the tacit acknowledgment of the -separation of the orders and consequent recognition of the _vote par -ordre_ on 5th May disconcerted for the moment the popular leaders. - -[Sidenote: Struggle between the Orders.] - -[Sidenote: The Tiers État declare themselves the National Assembly.] - -But the deputies of the Tiers État, under the guidance of Le Chapelier, -a Breton lawyer from Rennes, and of Rabaut de Saint-Étienne, a -Protestant pastor from Nîmes, proceeded to take up a most skilful -attitude. They resolved on a policy of masterly inactivity. They -refused to form themselves into the assembly of the Order of the Tiers -État; they refused to open letters addressed to them under that title; -they refused to elect a president or secretaries; and stated that -they were a body of citizens, representatives of the French nation, -waiting in that hall to be joined by the other deputies. This attitude -received the unanimous approval of the people of Paris, and threw upon -the Government the onus of declaring that the double representation -of the Tiers État was merely a sterile gift. The representatives of -the two privileged orders treated the situation very differently. The -nobility accepted the separation of the orders to distinct chambers, -and resolved to constitute their chamber by 188 votes to 47, while the -clergy only decided in the same sense by 133 votes to 114. Even this -majority was not really significant. For, owing to a tendency which had -developed during the course of the elections, the greater part of the -deputies of the clergy were poor country curés, who sympathised with -the Tiers État, from which they sprung, and not with the prelates and -dignitaries of the Church, who belonged to the nobility. This tendency -of the true majority of the clergy was well known to the leaders of -the Tiers État and encouraged them in their passive attitude. In -vain the King and Necker attempted to terminate the deadlock; the -deputies of the Tiers État persisted that they did not form an order, -and they were reinforced by the representatives of Paris, where the -elections were not concluded until the end of May. At last, on 10th -June, on the proposition of the Abbé Sieyès, deputy for Paris, a final -invitation was sent to the deputies of the nobility and the clergy to -join the deputies of the Tiers État, and it was resolved that whether -the request was granted or refused the Tiers État would constitute -itself into a regular deliberative body. The invitation was rejected -by the nobility, and only a few curés, including the Abbé Grégoire, -belonging to the Order of the Clergy, complied with it. The deputies -then verified their powers, and elected Bailly, a famous astronomer -and deputy for Paris, to be their president. But what sort of assembly -were they? They denied that they were representatives of an Order, and -they were certainly not the States-General of France. The question was -hotly debated, and on 16th June they declared themselves the National -Assembly. They then declared all the taxes, hitherto levied, to be -illegal, and ordered that they should only be paid provisionally. This -defiant conduct disconcerted the King and his ministers, and it was -announced that a Séance Royale, or Royal Session, would be held by the -King in person to settle all disputed questions. - -[Sidenote: The Oath of the Tennis Court. 20th June.] - -[Sidenote: The Séance Royale. 23d June.] - -On 20th June the deputies of the Tiers État, or of the National -Assembly, as they now termed themselves, were excluded from their usual -meeting-place. They therefore met in the Jeu de Paume or Tennis Court -at Versailles, and, amidst a scene of wild excitement, swore that they -would not separate until they had drawn up a new Constitution for -France. By this act they practically became rebels, and the French -Revolution really commenced. On 22d June they met in the Church of -Saint Louis at Versailles, where they were joined by 149 deputies of -the clergy, who thus recognised the act of rebellion. On 23d June the -Séance Royale was held. In the speech from the throne it was announced -that the King, ‘of his own goodness and generosity,’ would levy no -taxes in future without the assent of the representatives of the -people, but it was also declared that the financial privileges of the -nobility and clergy were unassailable, and that the States-General -was to vote _par ordre_. This was the most critical moment in the -first stage of the Revolution. If the deputies of the Tiers État had -given way, the oath of the Tennis Court would have seemed only an -idle threat. But they found a leader in the Comte de Mirabeau, deputy -for the Tiers État of Aix, a man of extraordinary ability, who in -the course of a tempestuous career had travelled much and learned -much. He courageously faced the situation, and after making a reply -to the Grand Master of the Ceremonies that the deputies of France -would only be expelled by force, he induced the National Assembly to -declare the persons of its members inviolable. Sieyès summed up the -situation by telling the deputies: ‘Gentlemen, you are to-day what -you were yesterday.’ Before this daring opposition the King gave way: -on 25th June the minority of the Order of the Nobility, consisting of -forty-seven deputies, headed by the Marquis de Lafayette, the friend -of Washington, joined the National Assembly, and two days later the -majority of that Order reluctantly followed their example at the -command of the King. - -[Sidenote: Mirabeau’s Address to the King. 9th July.] - -[Sidenote: Dismissal of Necker. 12th July.] - -The rapid transformation of the deputies of the Tiers État into a -National Assembly, which defied the royal authority and spoke of -drawing up a new Constitution for France, exasperated the courtiers, -who looked with disgust at all attempts to modify the _ancien régime_. -The King did not share their feelings; he was honestly desirous of -doing his duty by his people, and preferred the diminution of his -royal prerogative to coming into open conflict with his subjects and -to initiating a civil war. He had hitherto trusted to Necker and -followed Necker’s advice. But the result had not been encouraging. His -minister had repeatedly put him in a false position. He had been made -to speak in a haughty tone to the deputies of the Tiers État at the -Séance Royale on 23d June, and then to eat his words by directing the -deputies of the Nobility to join the self-created National Assembly. -This great concession seemed to have been wrung from him; the deputies -of the Tiers État appeared to have won a great victory in the face of -the royal opposition, when in reality the King had yielded from the -goodness of his heart. Since he found that following the advice of -Necker had only resulted in a loss of authority, combined with profound -unpopularity, without improving the financial prospect, Louis XVI. -not unnaturally turned his attention to the enemies of the minister. -These enemies were headed by the Queen, Marie Antoinette, who resented -Necker’s endeavours to restrain the extravagance of the Court and his -admission of the need to make concessions to the will of the people, -and by the King’s younger brother, the Comte d’Artois, a staunch -supporter of the absolute prerogative of the Crown and of the system -of the _ancien régime_. Yielding unwillingly to the arguments of the -enemies of Necker and of the National Assembly, the King determined -to use force, and he began to concentrate troops in the neighbourhood -of Paris and Versailles. The National Assembly did not know what to -do; Mounier and other leaders had formed a committee to draw up the -bases of a new constitution; but they had no force on which they could -depend to resist the royal troops, and felt that they would probably be -arrested and the Assembly dissolved long before the foundation of the -Constitution was laid. At this crisis Mirabeau again came to the front. -With the most daring audacity he attacked and revealed the policy of -the Court on 8th July, and on 9th July carried an address to the King -on the part of the Assembly, requesting the immediate removal of the -troops collected in the neighbourhood, but protesting the loyalty of -the Assembly to the person of the King. But the King was now under the -influence of the opponents of the Assembly. His answer to Mirabeau’s -address was the dismissal of Necker and his colleagues on 12th July, -the banishment of Necker, and the appointment of the Maréchal de -Broglie, an experienced general, who detested the idea of change, to be -Minister for War and Marshal-General of the troops in the neighbourhood -of Paris. - -[Sidenote: Formation of National Guards.] - -Hitherto the struggle had been between the Court and the deputies of -the Tiers État; the popular element was now to intervene; and the -people of Paris was for the first time to make its influence felt. The -news of Necker’s dismissal was received in Paris with wrath and dismay. -A young lawyer without practice, named Camille Desmoulins, announced -the event to the crowd collected in the Palais Royal and incited his -hearers to resistance. His words were eagerly applauded. The population -of Paris, both bourgeois and proletariat, had watched the course of -events at Versailles with unflagging interest, and the formation of a -camp of soldiers in the neighbourhood with terror. The working classes, -who lived near the margin of starvation, expected that the National -Assembly would cause in some way a rise in wages and a decrease in -the price of necessaries, and were exasperated at the prospect of the -non-fulfilment of their hopes. They had already sacked the house of a -manufacturer, named Réveillon, who was reported to have spoken scornful -words of their poverty, on 28th April, and were ready for any mischief. -From the Palais Royal, excited by the news and the words of Camille -Desmoulins, started a tumultuous procession bearing busts of Necker -and of the Duke of Orleans, a prince of the royal house, who had been -exiled by the King for previous opposition to him, and who was regarded -as a supporter of the popular claims. The procession was charged by a -German cavalry regiment in the French service, commanded by the Prince -de Lambesc, a near relative of the Queen, and the mob dispersed to riot -and to pillage. The more patriotic rioters broke into the gunsmiths’ -shops to seize weapons, the rest pillaged the butchers’ and bakers’ -shops, and burned the barriers where octroi duties were collected. This -scene of riot brought about its own remedy. The bourgeois, terrified -for the safety of their shops, took up arms, and on the following -day formed themselves into companies of national guards for the -preservation of the peace. The guidance of this movement was taken by -the electors of Paris, who, after completing their work of electing -deputies for Paris, continued to meet at the Hôtel-de-Ville. - -[Sidenote: Capture of the Bastille. 14th July.] - -The 14th of July found the capital of France organised for resistance. -The Gardes Françaises, the force maintained for the security of Paris, -were devoted to the cause of the National Assembly, and were resolved -to fight with the people, not against them. And it was ascertained -that the soldiers in the camp were very lukewarm in their attachment -to their officers, and were likely to refuse to attack the citizens. -Under these circumstances an idea arose that an armed demonstration of -the Parisians at Versailles would strengthen the King, whose sentiments -were well known, to resist the Court party and to recall Necker. With -this notion, large crowds approached the Hôtel des Invalides and the -Bastille, the two principal store-houses of arms in Paris. The crowd, -which went to the Hôtel des Invalides, had no difficulty in seizing -the arms there, in spite of the opposition of the Governor. But it was -otherwise at the Bastille. The mob, which collected in the Governor’s -Court in that fortress and shouted for arms, was isolated by the -raising of the outer drawbridge and fired upon by the weak garrison -in the Bastille itself. The sound of this firing brought a number of -armed men from other parts of the city; the outer drawbridge was cut -down, and preparations were being made to force a way into the fortress -itself, when the garrison surrendered. The result of the firing upon -the mob in the Governor’s Court had been to kill eighty-three persons -and wound many others. The sight of the corpses and the cries of the -wounded excited the anger of the successful conquerors of the fortress. -A panic arose, and three officers and four soldiers of the garrison -were murdered. Then the more disciplined of the conquerors started to -take the rest of the defenders of the Bastille to the Hôtel-de-Ville. -On the way the Governor and the Major of the fortress were murdered by -the mob, and M. de Flesselles, the Provost of the merchants of Paris, -who was accused of encouraging the Governor to resist, was also slain. -By these events the people of Paris felt that they had commenced a -war against the Crown; entrenchments were thrown up and barricades -were erected in the streets; all shops were shut up; the barriers were -closed; no one was allowed to leave the city, and preparations were -made to stand a siege. - -[Sidenote: Recall of Necker. 15th July.] - -[Sidenote: The King’s visit to Paris. 17th July.] - -But if the people of Paris were ready to fight, the King was not. As -has been said, he loathed the idea of civil war, and when he heard of -the capture of the Bastille and of the martial attitude of Paris, he -at once gave up the idea of opposing the revolutionary movement by -force. He dismissed his reactionary ministers and recalled Necker, and -he declared himself ready to co-operate with the National Assembly -in restoring order. The first victories of the Assembly had been won -by its statesmanlike inaction in the month of May and its courage on -23d June; the victory over the party of force had been won by Paris -on 14th July. The Assembly prepared to take advantage of this fresh -success. On 16th July it legalised the establishment of National Guards -and elective municipalities all over France, and recognising that the -only way to convince the Parisians that the King had accepted the new -situation and had abandoned the idea of employing force, was to induce -the King to visit Paris in person, it proposed that he should do so at -once. Louis XVI. was not devoid of personal courage, and consented. On -17th July, accordingly, he entered Paris accompanied by 100 deputies, -and amidst wild acclamation put on the tricolour cockade, which the -Parisians had assumed as their badge, and consented to the nomination -of Bailly, the President of the National Assembly, to be Mayor of -Paris, and of Lafayette to be Commander-in-chief of the Paris National -Guard. These concessions, and the victory of the National Assembly -and of Paris threw consternation among the court party of reaction: -the Comte d’Artois and those of his adherents, who were most hated as -conspicuous reactionaries or who had advocated the employment of force, -fled from the country. - -[Sidenote: Murder of Foullon. 21st July.] - -The immediate results of the capture of the Bastille were no less -important in the provinces of France. In every city, even in small -country towns, mayors and municipalities were elected and National -Guards formed; in many the local citadels were seized by the people; -in all the troops fraternised with the people; and in some there was -bloodshed. This movement was essentially bourgeois; where blood was -shed and pillage took place at the hands of the working classes, the -new National Guards soon restored order. The general excitement was so -great that it is surprising that there was not more bloodshed and that -peace was so quickly and efficiently established. Among these outbreaks -the most noteworthy took place in Paris itself, where on 21st July -Foullon de Doué, who had been nominated to succeed Necker on 12th July, -and his son-in-law Berthier de Sauvigny were murdered almost before the -eyes of Bailly, the new Mayor of Paris. But these occasional town riots -were speedily quelled by the armed bourgeois. Far more widespread and -important was the upheaval in the rural districts of France. - -The peasants believed that the time had come, when they were to -own their land free from copyhold rights or the relics of feudal -servitudes. Even the better-educated farmers for their own interests -favoured this idea. The result was a regular jacquerie in many -parts of France. The châteaux of the lords were burnt, or in some -instances only the charters stored in them, and the lords’ dovecotes -and rabbit-warrens were generally destroyed. In certain provinces -the National Guards of the neighbouring towns put down these rural -outbreaks, occasionally with great severity, but as a rule they ran -their course unchecked. - -[Sidenote: The Session of 4th August.] - -On 4th August a deputy named Salomon read a report on these occurrences -to the National Assembly, or as it is generally called from the -Constitution it framed, the Constituent Assembly. His report was -followed by a curious scene, which marked the transition from feudal -to modern France. The scene was opened by the sacrifice by some of the -young liberal noblemen of their feudal rights. Privileges of all sorts, -privileges of class, of town and of province were solemnly abandoned. -Feudal customs and all relics of feudalism were condemned and declared -to be abolished. Even tithes were swept away, in spite of a protest -from Sieyès, and the ‘orgie,’ as Mirabeau termed it, closed with a -decree that a monument should be erected to Louis XVI., ‘the restorer -of French liberty.’ - -[Sidenote: The Declaration of the Rights of Man.] - -[Sidenote: The Suspensive Veto.] - -But it was not possible to restore peace and prosperity to France -by the abolition of the relics of feudalism. Destruction of former -anomalies and of a crumbling system of government would inevitably lead -to anarchy, unless accompanied by the construction of a new scheme of -central and local administration. It was here that the Constituent -Assembly failed. The deputies were quick to destroy but slow to -construct. For two months they wasted time instead of hastening to draw -up a new constitution for France. They first wrangled over the wording -of a Declaration of the Rights of Man, which they resolved to compile -in imitation of the founders of the American Republic. They then -debated lengthily whether the future representative assembly of France -should consist of one or two chambers, and whether the King should have -power to veto its acts. The first question was decided in favour of a -single chamber, more because the English Constitution sanctioned two -chambers, and the deputies feared to be thought imitators, than for -any logical reason. And the debate on the second question terminated -in the grant to the King of a suspensive veto for six months, in spite -of the eloquence of Mirabeau, who saw that a monarchical constitution, -which gave the King no more power than the President of the United -States of America, would prove unworkable, because it would divorce -responsibility from real authority, leaving the former to the King and -the latter to the Legislature. - -[Sidenote: The march of the Women to Versailles. 5th October.] - -[Sidenote: The King brought to Paris. 6th October.] - -During the two months occupied by these debates the situation had -again become critical. Necker’s only idea to relieve the financial -situation was to propose loans, which the Assembly granted, but which -he could not succeed in raising. The King was again being acted -upon by the Court party, which advocated the use of force and the -dissolution of the Assembly, and this party was encouraged by the -Queen and by the King’s sister, Madame Elizabeth. He was also urged -to leave the neighbourhood of Paris and to establish himself in some -provincial town, where the populace could be more easily restrained -by the regular troops. He would not heartily agree to either of these -courses, but weakly consented once more to concentrate troops round his -person. Everything advised at Versailles was soon known in Paris. The -journalists, who had since the capture of the Bastille sprung up in the -capital to advocate the views of the popular party, and of whom the -ablest were Loustalot, editor of the _Révolutions de Paris_, and Marat, -editor of the _Ami du Peuple_, kept warning the people of Paris against -treason on the part of the King, and prophesying dire consequences if -he were allowed to leave the neighbourhood or to concentrate troops. -Their words did not fall on unheeding ears. The working classes feared -a siege of Paris again as they had done in July, and looked on the -King’s presence in Paris as the only means to keep down the price -of necessaries. The thinking bourgeois, whether liberal deputies in -the Assembly or national guards in Paris, feared a sudden forced -dissolution of the Assembly, and not only the loss of the advantages -they had gained but punishment for the part they had played. Both -these elements were perceptible in the movement which followed. The -description given in the popular journals of a banquet at Versailles, -honoured by the presence of the royal family, at which the national -cockade had been trampled underfoot, on 1st October, roused the people -of Paris to a frenzy of wrath and fear. On 5th October a crowd of women -collected in Paris, declaring that they were starving, and were led to -Versailles by Maillard, one of the conquerors of the Bastille, followed -by a mob. The representatives of the women interviewed the King, and -the mob prepared to spend the night outside the palace walls. Late at -night they were followed by a powerful detachment of the National Guard -of Paris, under the command of Lafayette, who protested that he came to -save the King. Nevertheless, owing to bad management, some of the mob -broke into the palace before daybreak on the morning of 6th October and -murdered two of the royal bodyguards. Lafayette came to the rescue and -demanded that the King and royal family should come to Paris and take -up their residence at the Tuileries. The King, horrified by the events -of the morning, and obliged to obey Lafayette, consented, and the royal -family, accompanied by the mob, and escorted by the National Guard, at -once proceeded to the capital. This second victory of the Parisians was -not less important than the first: on 14th July the people of Paris had -terrified the King into abandoning the idea of dissolving the National -Assembly by force; on 6th October they brought him amongst them, so -that if he again conceived the idea, he would be unable to execute it. - -[Sidenote: Effect in Europe.] - -The capture of the Bastille caused the most profound astonishment in -Europe. Where the people possessed some amount of political liberty, -as in the United States of America and in England, it appealed to the -imagination, and the French were regarded as the conquerors of their -freedom. In the neighbourhood of France, in the Rhenish principalities, -in Belgium, and above all in Liège, it caused a general sense of -discontent and even riots. The despotic monarchs of Europe and their -principal ministers did not pay so much attention to the capture of -the Bastille as did the inhabitants of free countries; they did not -for one moment believe that the National Assembly would be allowed to -alter the old constitution of France, and looked upon the whole of the -popular movement with a favourable eye as likely to weaken France and -prevent her from interfering in the affairs of the Continent. They took -care, however, to suppress all similar risings in their own states. The -King of Sardinia and the Elector of Mayence were especially severe; -the Emperor’s General d’Alton was more than severe in Belgium; and the -King of Prussia sent General Schlieffen with a strong force to restore -the authority of the Bishop of Liège. This attitude of the continental -monarchs was encouraged by the first French _émigrés_, who loudly -declared that the success of the Assembly was due to the culpable -weakness of Louis XVI. - -[Sidenote: The Belgian Revolution. Oct. 1789-Jan. 1790.] - -The tidings of the events of 5th and 6th October showed both the French -_émigrés_ and the continental monarchs that they were wrong in their -estimate of the Revolution. That the French royal family should be -triumphantly brought to Paris and be practically imprisoned in the -Tuileries under the eyes of the Parisian populace was a startling -proof of the power of the people. It proportionately encouraged the -supporters of all the popular movements on the French borders. Of -these, the most important was that which had already made so much -progress two years before in Belgium. The first result of the removal -of the King of France to Paris was the Belgian Revolution of 1789, -which filled almost as large a place in the eyes of contemporaries -as the French Revolution itself. Encouraged by the Triple Alliance, -and more especially by Frederick William II. of Prussia, the Belgian -exiles of both wings, the supporters of Van der Noot, the advocate -of the ancient Constitution, and of Vonck, the radical, had formed a -patriotic army at Breda. The news of the events of 5th and 6th October -determined them to act. On 23d October the army under Van der Mersch -crossed the border, and on 24th October Van der Noot issued a manifesto -declaring the Emperor Joseph deprived of his sovereignty over the Duchy -of Brabant for having violated its fundamental charter. - -[Sidenote: Formation of the Belgian Republic, 10th Jan. 1790.] - -The march of the patriotic army was both rapid and successful. Bruges -and Ostend opened their gates to the exiles; the fort of St. Pierre -at Ghent was stormed; and the Estates of Flanders at once assembled, -published a declaration of independence, and called on the other -provinces to join in the movement. In Brabant the excitement was at -its height. Trautmannsdorf in vain promised to restore the ‘Joyeuse -Entrée,’ to abolish the Imperial Seminary at Brussels, and to declare a -general amnesty. The patriots would not trust him, and Van der Mersch -advanced into the Duchy and occupied Tirlemont. The people of Brussels -then rose in insurrection. From 7th to 12th December was a period of -long-continued riot and street fighting. Many of the Austrian soldiers -deserted to the popular side, and those who remained true to their -colours were shot at from windows and refused to charge. The advance -of Van der Mersch set the seal upon d’Alton’s discomfiture. He made a -capitulation on 12th December, and marched out of Brussels, leaving -his guns, military stores, and military chest containing 3,000,000 -florins behind. He retreated to Luxembourg, the only province which -remained faithful to the House of Austria, and his example was followed -by the imperial garrisons of Malines, Antwerp, and Louvain, which -were abandoned to the patriots. D’Alton himself died at Trèves, it is -said by taking poison, on being summoned to Vienna to be tried by a -court-martial, and was succeeded in command of the Austrian troops in -Luxembourg by General Bender. On 18th December the patriot committee -entered Brussels, headed by Van der Noot, who was hailed by the people -as the Belgian Franklin. On 7th January 1790 representatives from all -the provinces of the former Austrian Netherlands met at Brussels under -the presidency of Cardinal Frankenberg, Archbishop of Malines, and -on 10th January they passed a federal constitution for the ‘United -Belgian States,’ resembling that of Holland, under which each province -was to preserve its internal independence, and only foreign affairs -and national defence were left to the central government. Van der Noot -was chosen Minister of State, and he at once asked for the official -recognition of the new Belgian Constitution by the Triple Alliance, -whose ministers at the Hague, Lord Auckland, Count Keller, and Van -der Spiegel had, he asserted, promised to guarantee the independence -of the new United States of Belgium. Frederick William II. of Prussia -endeavoured to carry out this promise. He authorised one of his -officers, General Schönfeld, to organise the Belgian army, and ordered -General Schlieffen at Liége to enter into communication with the new -government. But England and Holland, though approving the insurrection -of Belgium as affording a powerful counterpoise to the Emperor’s policy -in the East, were in no hurry to guarantee the new Republic, and Van -der Noot then determined, under the influence of the radicals or -Vonckists, to solicit the help of France, and announced the new Belgian -Constitution in a significant manner both to Louis XVI. and to the -President of the National Assembly. - -[Sidenote: Death of the Emperor Joseph. 20th Feb. 1790.] - -The news of the declaration of the independence of the Belgian -provinces, and of the revolution which had led to it, proved to be the -death-blow of the Emperor Joseph. To the Prince de Ligne, a native -of Belgium, he said, just before his death, ‘Your country has killed -me; the taking of Ghent is my agony; the evacuation of Brussels is -my death. What a disgrace this is for me! I die; I must be made of -wood, if I did not. Go to the Netherlands; make them return to their -allegiance. If you do not succeed in the attempt, remain there. Do -not sacrifice your fortune for me; you have children.’ The dying -Emperor in his despair made concessions in every direction. He humbled -his pride to entreat the Pope to use his influence with the Belgian -clergy. He gave in to the Hungarian magnates, who demanded the repeal -of his great reforms with threats of insurrection; and on 28th January -1790 he issued his ‘Revocatio Ordinationum quæ sensu communi legibus -adversari videbantur,’ by which he revoked all his reforms in Hungary, -except the edict of toleration and the decrees against serfdom; and -on 18th February he ordered the Crown of St. Stephen to be sent back -to Pesth. He assented to the suspension of his reforming edicts in -Bohemia, and even in the Tyrol, where an insurrection was on the point -of breaking out. Then, feeling his life a failure, he prepared for -death. He confessed and received the ordinances of the Church; the -last words he was heard to say were: ‘I believe I have done my duty -as a man and a prince,’ and on the morning of 20th February he died. -The words he wished to be written on his grave were: ‘Here rests a -prince, whose intentions were pure; but who had the misfortune to -see all his plans miscarry;’ but the people of Vienna, with a deeper -sense of the merits of the great ruler who had lived in their midst, -placed on his statue the inscription, ‘Josepho secundo, arduis nato, -magnis perfuncto, majoribus præcepto, qui saluti publicæ vixit non -diu, sed totus.’ The failure of the career of Joseph, the noblest -sovereign of the eighteenth century,—one of the noblest sovereigns -of any century,—was a proof of the fallacy of the eighteenth century -conception of benevolent despotism. He had tried to accomplish in his -dominions the very measures of reform which the Constituent Assembly -had undertaken in France. The abolition of the relics of feudalism, -the creation of a spirit of nationality, based upon the existence of -uniform laws, the nationalisation of the Church and of education, the -removal of all caste privileges, whether in the payment of taxes or in -eligibility for public employment, and the maintenance of good internal -administration, the primary aims and the great achievements of the -Revolution in France, were also the objects of Joseph’s reforms. But -everything was to be done for the people, nothing by the people, and -it is doubtful whether, if Joseph had been in the place of Louis XVI., -the French people would have relished the advantages he might have -conferred. The spirit of locality was perhaps not so strong in France -as in the hereditary dominions of the House of Austria. Dauphiné and -Burgundy did not differ from Brittany and Normandy as much as Bohemia -and Hungary, Belgium and the Milanese differed from each other. Yet the -abolition of local distinctions might have been resented in France, -as it was in the dominions of Joseph, if it had been accomplished by -the monarch, instead of being the work of elected representatives. -It is indeed remarkable that, allowing for the want of exactness in -the parallel, owing to the difference of local conditions, the very -reforms, which rallied all France to the side of the Revolution, -should have led to the disastrous termination of the Emperor Joseph’s -reign, and it is difficult to avoid coming to the conclusion that the -whole subject illustrates the grand distinction between the eighteenth -and the nineteenth centuries, the distinction between alterations in -the political, social, or economical conditions of a state made by a -monarch for his people, and by a people for itself. - -Louis XVI., indeed, showed himself a very different type of monarch -from Joseph. He wished for the good of his people as ardently as his -brother-in-law, but he had during the early years of his reign been -satisfied with wishing for reforms, instead of energetically initiating -them. When the success of the Revolution was assured by the policy of -the deputies of the Tiers État, by the capture of the Bastille and by -his own establishment at Paris, he never thought of setting himself at -the head of the party of reform. He did not openly ally himself with -the Tiers État, to vanquish the opposition of the nobles, as Gustavus -III. of Sweden had done; he did not dream of outbidding the National -Assembly for popularity by lavish promises, as other monarchs before -and since have done; and he did not even try to share the credit of the -representatives of the people by exhibiting an ardent zeal for reform. -The horror he felt for civil war was not recognised; his partial -yielding to the Court party of reaction in July and October, though at -so late a date and so half-heartedly as to nullify any chance of its -success, was imputed to him as a crime; and the difficulty presented -by the fact that his dearest relatives, his Queen, Marie Antoinette, -and his sister, Madame Elizabeth, were against all reform, was never -fully appreciated. In consequence, the King’s real wishes to please -his people and avoid bloodshed were looked on as simulated by the -members of the National Assembly, and not only Louis himself, but the -very principle of the French monarchy, were regarded as hostile to -representative institutions. Louis XVI. was as weak as Joseph II. was -energetic, but he was equally well-intentioned; and it was a distinct -misfortune, both for himself and for France, that the value of the -passive inertness, which he generally opposed to the reactionary -schemes of his family and of the partisans of the _ancien régime_, was -not adequately recognised. - -[Sidenote: The New French Constitution. 1789–1791.] - -This attitude towards the King had an important effect upon the -constitution which the Constituent Assembly was engaged in framing -during the year 1790. Only the main points in the growth of this -Constitution, which occupied the greater part of the time of the -Assembly from 1789 to 1791, can here be touched upon. But one striking -feature must first be observed, that it was drawn up and applied -piecemeal, not as an organic whole, like the later French constitutions -of the revolutionary period. The first important principle was decreed -upon 12th November 1789, when it was resolved that all the old local -divisions of France, which perpetuated the memory of the gradual -growth of the French provinces into France, should be abolished, and -that the country should be divided into eighty departments of nearly -equal size. It was naturally some months before the new division -was effected, and still longer before the further division of each -department into districts, and each district into cantons was finished. -No wiser step for converting France from a congeries of provinces into -a nation could have been devised. On the basis of the new divisions -a new local government was established. Each department and district -was to be administered by elected authorities, elaborately chosen by a -system of double election. Next to the local government, the judicial -system was reorganised. The Parlements were all abolished, and local -courts, consisting of elected judges of departmental and district -tribunals, and elected justices of the peace, were substituted. A -uniform system of law was projected, and juries were sanctioned in -criminal but not in civil cases. In these sweeping reforms one natural -blemish is perceptible: from having no elected officials the other -extreme was adopted of having all officials elected. - -[Sidenote: The Civil Constitution of the Clergy.] - -The mania for election affected the reform of the ecclesiastical -arrangements of France, and directly brought about the schism, which -so largely contributed to the misfortunes of France during the -revolutionary period. On 2d November 1789 it had been resolved, in -the face of the financial distress, that the property of the Church -in France should be confiscated or resumed, as it was represented by -opposite parties, while acknowledging the duty of providing and paying -curés and bishops. This implied the formation of a State Church, a -measure which needed the most delicate handling. On 13th February 1790 -all monasteries and religious houses were suppressed; but as there had -already been a partial suppression a few years previously, this would -not by itself have caused a schism. It was otherwise with regard to the -Civil Constitution of the Clergy. It was resolved to reduce the number -of bishoprics to one for each department, and that all the beneficed -clergy, from curés to bishops, should be elected. This violation of -a fundamental principle of the Catholic Church could not be allowed -to pass unchallenged, and when the Constituent Assembly found that -opposition was raised, it drove matters to a crisis by ordering that -every beneficed ecclesiastic should take an oath to observe the new -Civil Constitution of the Clergy. This oath was generally refused by -the bishops and dignitaries, and largely by the parochial clergy, and -it was resolved by the Assembly, on 27th November 1790, that all who -refused the oath within one week should be held to be dismissed from -their offices. The King sanctioned this decree on 26th December 1790, -and the great schism in France began. It was doubtful at first whether -apostolical succession could be preserved in the new Church of France. -Only four beneficed bishops, including Loménie de Brienne, Cardinal -Archbishop of Sens, and Talleyrand, Bishop of Autun, out of one hundred -and thirty-five, and three coadjutor bishops, or bishops _in partibus_, -including Gobel, Bishop of Lydda, consented to take the oath, but -by them the first of the elected bishops of departmental sees were -consecrated. - -The measures of the Constituent Assembly in abolishing the old -provincial divisions and law courts, and substituting new and more -modern arrangements for administration, were in the nature of great -reforms, though marred by the mania for election; the attempt to -establish a Gallican Church, though obviously opposed to the discipline -of the Catholic Church, and seriously discounted by the same mania, -was patriotic, if not very wise; but the arrangements for the central -administration were utterly absurd. In their dislike of the system -of the _ancien régime_, and their fear of a strong executive, the -Constituent Assembly thought it could not do enough to hamper the -authority of the throne and of the central administration. The King, -under the new Constitution, was left powerless. He was to be the first -functionary of the State, nothing more. His veto on the measures of the -Legislature was to have effect for only six months; his guards were -suppressed, and his position made untenable for a strong monarch, and -unbearable for a weak one. The ministers were invested with supreme -executive authority, but more regulations were made to ensure their -responsibility and limit their actual power, than to define their -functions. They were to be answerable to the Legislature, in which they -were not allowed to sit; and their measures were to be criticised by -an irresponsible representative assembly. Under such regulations the -King and his ministers, that is, the executive, were put in a position -of inferiority, which no vigorous man could be expected to accept, to -the inevitable derangement of the whole administrative machine. In -addition to the Constitution, the Constituent Assembly carried several -measures of the greatest importance to a free state. All citizens, -of whatever religion or class, were declared eligible for employment -by the State; and on 13th April 1790 a noble decree, declaring the -most absolute and entire toleration of every form of religion, was -carried. The Constitution of 1791 was, on the whole, a praiseworthy -effort of untried legislators to give their country a representative -constitution. It was marred only by the fatal jealousy of giving due -authority to the executive, and the mania for election. But it was -in no way democratic. For the election to all offices was to be by -at least two degrees, and no man was to have a vote unless he was an -‘active citizen.’ To be an active citizen, a man had to contribute to -the direct taxation of the country an amount equivalent in value to -three days’ wages in his locality. Further, to be eligible for office, -a candidate had to pay taxes of the value of a ‘silver mark,’ which -inevitably restricted all offices to the bourgeois, or very prosperous -working men. - -[Sidenote: Other acts of the Constituent Assembly.] - -Though the main occupation of the Constituent Assembly was the -building up of the Constitution of 1791, it interfered only too much -in matters of current administration. It was soon obvious that its -power exceeded that of the King, and it has been observed that Van der -Noot announced the new Belgian Constitution alike to the King and the -President of the Assembly, as to authorities of equal importance. The -mischief produced by this constant interference was perceptible in -every department of government. Mirabeau, who was a profound master of -statecraft, saw through the fallacies of endeavouring to separate the -legislative and executive powers in the State, and, what was implied -in the preponderance of a legislature in which the ministers had no -seat, to divorce authority from responsibility. He understood and -approved of the English system, and as soon as the Constituent Assembly -had removed to Paris in October 1789, after the establishment of the -King at the Tuileries, and he had got the ear of the Court through his -friend, La Marck, Mirabeau proposed the formation of a constitutional -ministry, after the English fashion, from among the leading members of -the Assembly. His scheme got noised abroad: the Assembly in its fear -of the executive, which was afterwards consecrated in the Constitution -of 1791, and stimulated by Lafayette, who dreaded the influence of a -strong ministry, passed a motion on 7th November, that no member of the -Assembly could take office as a minister while he remained a deputy, or -for three years after his resignation. - -The spirit, which lay at the root of this decree, showed itself in -other ways. The fear of the influence of the Crown extended itself -to the army and navy, as the natural instruments of the Crown for -re-establishing its former authority. The army, already disorganised by -the emigration of many of its officers, was practically destroyed in -its efficiency as a fighting machine by the relaxation of discipline -among the soldiers, caused not only by the actual decrees of the -Assembly, but by the impunity allowed to desertion and mutiny. The -Marquis de Bouillé, the general commanding at Metz, did indeed put -down a military mutiny at Nancy on 31st August 1790, but his action, -though applauded by the Assembly, which could not openly encourage -mutiny, was isolated and not imitated. In the navy matters were even -more desperate, for a larger proportion of officers deserted, resigned, -or emigrated than in the army, and loss of discipline is even more -disastrous in a naval than in a military force. The weakness of the -army was intended to be compensated by the enrolment of national -guards. But these citizen soldiers could not be treated with the -strictness of regular troops. They were chiefly of the bourgeois class, -and had the prejudices of that class, caring more for the protection of -their property than for military efficiency. In Paris they were of the -most importance, owing to their numbers, and their commander-in-chief, -Lafayette, probably the most powerful man in France in 1790. The -framing of the Constitution, and the disorganisation of the central -authority and its instruments were the chief results of the labours of -the Constituent Assembly in 1790; but among its minor acts should be -noted the abolition of titles of nobility, liveries and other relics of -social pre-eminence on 13th July 1790, as an evidence of its desire to -extirpate even the outward signs of the _ancien régime_. - -[Sidenote: Mirabeau.] - -Only one man seems to have understood the dangers to which France -was drifting owing to the policy of the Constituent Assembly, and -that man was Mirabeau. He had done more than any man to assure the -victory of the Tiers État in June 1789; he was the greatest orator and -greatest statesman the revolutionary crisis had produced. Mirabeau, -however, hated anarchy as much as he did despotism. He saw the absolute -necessity of establishing a strong executive, if the crisis of 1789, -the dissolution of the old authorities, the unpunished riots in towns, -and the jacquerie in the rural districts were not to lead to anarchy. -Foiled in his prudent scheme of selecting a strong ministry from the -Constituent Assembly[6] by the vote of 7th November 1789, Mirabeau -saw that it was impossible to overcome the distrust of the Assembly -for the executive. He therefore turned to the Court, and in May 1790 -he became the secret adviser of the King through the mediation of -his friend La Marck. In a series of memoirs or notes for the Court -of surpassing political wisdom, Mirabeau analysed the situation of -affairs and proposed remedies. The two main dangers were the state of -the finances and the fear of foreign intervention. Mirabeau’s horror -of national bankruptcy was as great as his personal extravagance in -expenditure. In September 1789 he advocated Necker’s scheme of a -general contribution, though it was accompanied by stipulations which -were certain to make it almost entirely unproductive, and he personally -disapproved of it; in December 1789 he grudgingly acquiesced in the -first issue of ‘assignats’ or promises to pay, based on the value of -the property of the Church, resumed or confiscated by the Assembly, -and to be extinguished as this property was sold. In August 1790 -he went yet further. Comprehending that men are mainly influenced -by their pecuniary interests, he advocated a wide extension of the -system of assignats, down to small sums, on the grounds that they -would then be able to reach the hands of the poorer classes and give -them an interest in their maintaining their value, and would also -frustrate the machinations of speculators, who began to make money by -depreciating the exchange of specie against the new paper currency. But -he also wisely proposed and successfully carried severe regulations -for the extinction of assignats as the national property was realised, -regulations which, unfortunately, were not strictly observed. His -decree was followed in September 1790 by the retirement of Necker from -office, and it is a significant proof of the change in popular opinion -that the final retirement of the minister, whose dismissal in July 1789 -had brought about the capture of the Bastille, was received without -excitement. - -The other great danger which France incurred, by the disorganising -policy of the Constituent Assembly, was the possibility of the armed -intervention of foreign powers. Mirabeau thought that if national -bankruptcy and the interference of foreigners could be avoided, the -anarchy, which was making itself felt, might soon be quelled. He did -not fear civil war; indeed, he argued that it might be a positive -advantage, and that as long as the King did not retract his concession -of a representative constitution, a large portion of his subjects would -support him in winning back the legitimate authority of the executive. -But foreign war was to him an evil to be feared as much as national -bankruptcy. He knew the spirit of his countrymen well, and that they -would in case of national disaster submit to any despotism rather than -submit to the dictation or the interference of a foreign power in their -internal affairs. Success in a foreign war owing to the state of the -army was not to be expected, but if it did come, it would with almost -equal certainty lead to the despotism of the conquering government, -whether it were the reigning monarch, his successor, or a victorious -general. To avoid a foreign war it was necessary as far as possible to -leave the conduct of foreign affairs in the hands of the King. This -was Mirabeau’s intention in the great debate on the right of declaring -peace and war in May 1790, and he succeeded in getting the Assembly -to sanction the initiation of peace or war as part of the duties of -the King. But at this period Louis XVI. was too weak or too unwilling -to understand the paramount necessity of maintaining peace. Mirabeau, -therefore, got himself elected to a special Diplomatic Committee of the -Constituent Assembly, and as its reporter endeavoured throughout the -year 1790 to keep France clear of international complications. - -[Sidenote: Mirabeau and the Court.] - -Unfortunately neither Louis XVI. nor his ministers, and still less -Marie Antoinette, grasped the truth of Mirabeau’s memoirs for the -Court. On the contrary, the one idea of the Queen was to get her -brother, the Emperor Leopold, to interfere, and, if necessary, by force -of arms to restore the power of the French monarch. The King, too, was -startled at Mirabeau’s ideas; he felt no horror at the notion of a -foreign war, but would suffer anything rather than engage in a civil -war. The wise advice of the great statesman went unheeded; both King -and Queen regarded their connection with him as the clever muzzling of -a dangerous revolutionary leader. They could not comprehend his desire -to establish a strong executive for the sake of France, and looked -on it as a bit of personal ambition. The King was not sufficiently -far-seeing, nor the Queen sufficiently patriotic to understand his -views. If the Constituent Assembly distrusted the Court, the King and -Queen no less strongly distrusted Mirabeau. - -As reporter of the Diplomatic Committee, Mirabeau had three different -problems to solve, in which the policy of the Assembly came in contact -with foreign powers, the affairs of Avignon, the maintenance of the -Pacte de Famille with Spain, and the interference caused by the -legislation of the Assembly with the Princes of the Empire who owned -fiefs of the Empire in Alsace. - -[Sidenote: Avignon and the Venaissin.] - -The city of Avignon and the county of the Venaissin, though inhabited -by Frenchmen and surrounded by French territory, were under the -sovereignty of the Pope. As early as the ‘orgie’ of 4th August 1789 -the Constituent Assembly had pronounced on the expediency of uniting -both the city and the county with France. A French party was formed in -Avignon; and a free municipal constitution after the model of those -just established in France was framed and assented to by the Cardinal -Vice-Legate in April 1790. The Pope, however, annulled his deputy’s -assent, with the result that fierce street fighting took place in the -city, which was only stopped by the intervention of the National Guard -of the neighbouring French city of Orange. The result of these events -was that the city of Avignon, or at least the French party there, -declared Avignon united to France on 12th June 1790. The inhabitants -of the Venaissin, on the other hand, declared their attachment for the -Pope, and their wish to remain subject to him. When these circumstances -became known in Paris a strong party showed itself in the Assembly in -favour of accepting the union of Avignon with or without the Pope’s -assent. Mirabeau skilfully averted the danger of a flagrant breach of -international law by securing the appointment of an Avignon Committee, -and when it became necessary to send regular troops to maintain order -in the city, he secured their despatch thither without the assumption -of any rights of sovereignty. - -[Sidenote: The Affair of Nootka Sound. May 1790.] - -Far more serious was the question which arose in May 1790, and which -gave rise to the debate in the Constituent Assembly on the right -of declaring peace and war, for it brought into prominence a doubt -whether the Assembly should recognise the treaties made by the French -monarchy. Of these treaties, the most popular in France, and the first -to be brought into evidence, was the Pacte de Famille, which had been -concluded in 1761 by Choiseul between France and Spain. Charles IV. -had succeeded his able and accomplished father, Charles III., on 12th -December 1788. The new monarch was completely under the influence -of his wife, Marie Louise, a princess of Parma, who in her turn was -governed by a young guardsman, her lover, Godoy. Charles IV. made a -friend of Godoy, a fact which of itself shows the essential weakness -of his character. He, as well as his Queen, was, outwardly at least, -deeply religious, and it was pretty certain that before long a reaction -would take place at the Spanish Court against the liberal _régime_, -which, in the previous reign, under the administration of Aranda and -Florida Blanca, Campomanes and Jovellanos, had done so much for Spain. -But for the first three years of his reign, Charles IV. maintained -his father’s experienced ministers, with the assent of the Queen, who -did not dare at once to introduce her lover into the ministry, or -invest him openly with power. Florida Blanca, the Spanish minister, -with Spanish pride, refused to recognise the actual weakness of Spain, -and was particularly active in maintaining her supremacy in America. -When, therefore, Vancouver Island was demonstrated to be an island -and not a peninsula, he claimed its possession for Spain, and also -alleged pre-colonisation. But he went further. Spanish officers had -seized an English ship in Nootka Sound, now St. George’s Sound, in -Vancouver Island, had destroyed an English settlement there, and had -even insulted an English naval captain. When Pitt demanded reparation, -Florida Blanca replied haughtily, and claimed the possession of the -island on the grounds stated. Pitt at once sent one of the ablest -English diplomatists, Alleyne Fitzherbert, afterwards Lord St. Helens, -to threaten to declare war, and prepared a great fleet, known in -English naval history as the Spanish Armament. - -Both Pitt and Florida Blanca knew that a war between England and Spain -would only be seriously undertaken if France decided to intervene. -Florida Blanca claimed the assistance of France under the terms of the -Pacte de Famille, and Pitt, who understood that power had passed from -Louis XVI. to the Constituent Assembly, sent two secret emissaries to -Paris to see if the Assembly was inclined to maintain the policy of -the _ancien régime_. One of these emissaries was Hugh Elliot, brother -of Sir Gilbert Elliot, afterwards Lord Minto, an old schoolfellow of -Mirabeau, who was expected to influence the orator, and the other, -William Augustus Miles, who was to ally himself with the leading -democratic deputies. The question came before the Constituent Assembly -on a letter from the Comte de Montmorin, Minister for Foreign Affairs. -The enthusiasm in the Assembly for the maintenance of the Spanish -Alliance was extreme, defiance was hurled at England, Spain’s faithful -adherence to the Pacte de Famille in the Seven Years’ War and the War -of American Independence was remembered, and a fleet for active service -was ordered to be got ready at Brest, and sixteen new ships of war -built. But the first burst of enthusiasm soon cooled. Some deputies -feared war would strengthen the monarchy, others did not like to be -bound by the treaties, especially the dynastic treaties of the _ancien -régime_, and others again, headed by Robespierre and Pétion, inveighed -against the idea of any offensive war. The whole question was referred -to the Diplomatic Committee. Mirabeau, who knew perfectly well that -Spain would not fight without the aid of France, read an able report, -recommending that the Pacte de Famille should be changed to a simple -defensive treaty, which was adopted. The Court of Spain, seeing that no -help was to be got from France under these circumstances, resigned its -pretensions to Vancouver Island, and consented to pay the compensation -demanded by England. This diplomatic victory of England exasperated the -Spaniards; Charles IV. was surprised and disgusted at the concessions -made by Louis XVI., and declared them a breach of the Pacte de Famille; -and by her conduct France lost the friendship of her closest ally of -the eighteenth century. - -[Sidenote: The Rights of the Princes of the Empire in Alsace.] - -The third question in which the new state of things in France -touched the diplomatic system of old Europe and threatened to cause -international complications, which might lead to a foreign war, was -concerned with the fiefs of the Empire in Alsace. By the Treaty of -Westphalia that province had been ceded to France in full and entire -sovereignty, but reserving the rights of the Empire. The complications -caused by this ambiguous arrangement had raised perpetual difficulties -throughout the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV., and many separate -treaties had been concluded with individual princes, by which they -recognised the sovereignty of France in Alsace, in return for the -acknowledgment of all their ancient rights. A further problem was -added by the fact that the more important princely landowners in -Alsace were also ruling and independent sovereigns across the French -border. They were thus supreme, save for the loose over-lordship of -the Emperor in Germany, and subject to the French monarchy for their -domains in Alsace. Among the principal of these rulers were the -three ecclesiastical electors, the Archbishops of Mayence, Trèves, -and Cologne, the Bishops of Strasbourg, Spires, Worms, and Basle, -the Abbot of Murbach, the Dukes of Würtemburg and of Deux-Ponts or -Zweibrücken, the Elector Palatine, the Margrave of Baden, the Landgrave -of Hesse-Darmstadt, and the Princes of Nassau, Leiningen, Salm-Salm, -and Hohenlohe-Bartenstein. These princes were naturally profoundly -affected by the abolition of feudalism decreed by the Constituent -Assembly, which further complicated their position. They felt as German -princes, and appealed against the measures of the Assembly as contrary -to international law, and violating the Treaty of Westphalia and the -many separate treaties. The protests of certain of these princes were -laid before the Assembly on 11th February 1790, and referred by it to -the Feudal Committee on 28th April. The reporter of the Committee on -this matter was Merlin of Douai, one of the greatest French jurists -and statesmen of the whole revolutionary period. On 28th October he -read his report, in which he insisted on the new principle of the -sovereignty of the people. He asserted that the unity of Alsace with -France rested not on ancient treaties, but on the unanimous resolution -of the Alsatian people to be Frenchmen. But at the same time he argued -that in practice old rights ought to be maintained. Mirabeau, with his -usual sagacity, saw that international complications might, on this -ground, be adjourned, if not altogether avoided; and it was on his -motion that the Constituent Assembly resolved to uphold the sovereignty -of France in Alsace, and the application of all its decrees to that -province, but at the same time requested the King to arrange the amount -of indemnity to be paid to the Princes of the Empire as compensation -for the rights of which they were thus deprived. These princes, -however, with but very few exceptions, refused absolutely to accept any -monetary compensation, and appealed to the Diet of the Empire. It was -on this question, therefore, that foreign intervention most seriously -threatened France at the end of 1790, in spite of the diplomatic -knowledge and skill of two of her leading statesmen, Mirabeau and -Merlin of Douai. - -While Mirabeau was doing his best to keep France from the disturbance, -and even disasters, which a foreign war would cause in the midst of -her new development, the Queen cast all her hopes for the restoration -of the power of the French monarchy on the armed help of foreign -states. Louis XVI. in a half-hearted fashion was opposed to foreign -interference, but his younger brother, the Comte d’Artois, and the -French _émigrés_, who had established themselves on the borders of -France, declared that the King was not in his right senses, and that -he was forced to yield to the measures of the Constituent Assembly -against his will. They felt no patriotic misgivings, and loudly invoked -the assistance of all monarchs in the cause of monarchy and the feudal -system. The ruler on whom the Queen chiefly relied, and to whom she -appealed most fervently, the monarch to whom the _émigrés_ looked with -most confidence, was Leopold, the brother and successor of Joseph -II. He held the key of the position; he was the sovereign especially -feared by the leaders of the Constituent Assembly, and as Emperor and -as brother of Marie Antoinette he was expected by the royalists to -intervene in the affairs of France. - - - - - CHAPTER III - - 1790–1792 - - The Emperor Leopold—His Internal Policy—The Policy of - Prussia—Leopold’s Foreign Policy—Conference of - Reichenbach—Leopold and the Turks—Treaty of Sistova—Leopold - crowned Emperor—Leopold and Hungary—State of Parties - in Belgium—Their Internal Dissensions—Congress at the - Hague—Leopold reconquers Belgium—War between Russia - and Sweden—Treaty of Verela—War between Russia and the - Turks—Capture of Ismail—Treaty of Jassy—Position of - Leopold—The State of France—Mirabeau’s advice—Death of - Mirabeau—The Flight to Varennes—Its Results: in France—The - Massacre of 17th July 1791—Revision of the Constitution—Its - Results: in Europe—Manifesto of Padua—Declaration of - Pilnitz—Completion of the French Constitution of 1791—The - Polish Constitution of 1791—The Legislative Assembly - in France—The Girondins—Approach of War between France - and Austria—Causes of the War—Attitude of Europe—Death - of the Emperor Leopold—Murder of Gustavus III. of - Sweden—Policy of Dumouriez—War declared by France against - Austria—Invasion of the Tuileries, 20th June 1792—Francis - II. crowned Emperor—Invasion of France by Prussia and - Austria—Insurrection of 10th August 1792—Suspension of Louis - XVI.—Desertion of Lafayette—The Massacres of September - in the prisons—Battle of Valmy—Meeting of the National - Convention—The Girondins and the Mountain—Conquest of - Savoy, Nice, and Mayence—Battle of Jemmappes—Conquest - of Belgium—Execution of Louis XVI.—War declared against - Spain, Holland, England and the Empire—Catherine invades - Poland—Overthrow of the Polish Constitution—Second Partition - of Poland—Contrast between the resistance of France and - Poland. - - -[Sidenote: The Emperor Leopold.] - -The successor of Joseph II., the Emperor Leopold, was, except perhaps -Catherine of Russia, the ablest monarch of his time. He had had a -long experience in the art of government, for he had succeeded to the -sovereignty of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in 1765, on the death of his -father, the Emperor Francis of Lorraine. While his brother Joseph -was kept until 1780 by Maria Theresa in leading-strings as far as the -actual administration of the Hapsburg dominions was concerned, and -was only able to exert his authority as Emperor, Leopold had from his -boyhood been an absolute and irresponsible sovereign, and had imbibed -from his education an Italian knowledge of statecraft. During his -long reign in Tuscany he showed the finest qualities of a benevolent -despot in his measures for increasing the material comforts of his -people, combined with tact and diplomatic subtlety. His reforms were -as sweeping as those of Joseph, but were so managed as not to set -his dominions in a flame. With the help of Scipio de Ricci, Bishop -of Pistoia, he freed the people of Tuscany from the heavy burden of -an excessive number of ecclesiastics; he reorganised the internal -administration, and especially the judicial system; and he showed such -intelligence in grasping and partially applying the new principles of -political economy as to be called ‘the physiocratic prince.’ He had -been Grand Duke of Tuscany for twenty-five years, and when he succeeded -his elder brother Joseph as King of Hungary and Bohemia in February -1790, he had earned the reputation of a singularly wise and prudent -statesman, and of one who, if it could be done, might be expected to -restore the power of the House of Austria. He abandoned the Grand Duchy -of Tuscany to his second son Ferdinand, and at once applied himself to -the difficult task bequeathed to him by Joseph II. - -[Sidenote: Policy of Leopold.] - -Leopold found the power of Austria seriously affected by dangers from -within and dangers from without. He at once undid much of Joseph’s -work. He recognised the difference between consolidating and unifying a -nation, which was essentially one, and a congeries of nations speaking -different languages, belonging to different races, and geographically -widely separated. In Tuscany he had accomplished a great work in -abolishing the local franchises of the cities and building up a Tuscan -state, but he understood that such a work was impossible in the divided -hereditary dominions of the House of Hapsburg, and that the Emperor -Joseph had been attempting a hopeless task. Leopold’s first step was, -therefore, to restore the former state of things in such parts of his -dominions as were not in open insurrection. In Austria proper, in -Bohemia, in the Milanese, and in the Tyrol, the concessions of Leopold -were received with demonstrations of popular gratitude. He abolished -the new system of taxation and the unpopular seminaries; he recognised -the separate administrations of provinces which were essentially -diverse; he gave up futile attempts at unification. But, at the same -time, he maintained the edict of religious toleration, the most noble -of Joseph’s reforms, and introduced many slight but appreciable -improvements in the local institutions which he restored. Having thus -assured the fidelity of an important body of his subjects, he prepared -to deal with the declared rebels in Belgium and the unconcealed -opposition in Hungary. It was here that Leopold suffered most from the -foreign policy of Maria Theresa and Joseph, for it was indisputable -that the prevalent discontent and insurrection in Belgium and Hungary -was fostered by the Triple Alliance, and especially by Prussia. He -had a serious war with the Turks on his hands; his ally, Catherine of -Russia, was too much occupied with her wars with the Swedes and Turks -and with the affairs of Poland, to come to his help; France, excited -by her internal dissensions, and with the Assembly indisposed to the -maintenance of the Treaty of 1756, might almost be reckoned an enemy; -the Empire had been roused to distrust by the policy of Joseph, and the -Triple Alliance was openly hostile. Under these circumstances Prussia -appeared at once the chief power on the Continent and the principal -enemy of Austria, and it was with Prussia that Leopold first resolved -to deal. - -[Sidenote: The Policy of Prussia.] - -The events of the year 1789 had greatly improved the position of -Prussia on the Continent. The pretensions of Joseph to Bavaria had made -Frederick William II., as it had made Frederick the Great, the real -leader of the Princes of the Empire, and the Triple Alliance had done -more to improve and strengthen his position in Europe. The classic -policy of Prussia was consistent opposition to Austria, and Hertzberg, -the Prussian minister, in pursuance of this policy, had made use of all -Joseph’s mistakes to lower the power of the House of Hapsburg. He felt -it necessary, indeed, to disavow a treaty with the Turks, which the too -zealous Prussian envoy had signed in January 1790, but he was eager -to make use of the difficulties of Russia and Austria caused by the -Turkish war to forward Prussia’s designs on Poland. His main aim was to -obtain the cession of the important Polish cities of Thorn and Dantzic, -which would give Prussia complete control of the great river Vistula. -The ablest Prussian diplomatist, Lucchesini, was sent to Warsaw, and -on 29th March 1790 he signed a treaty of friendship and union with -the Poles, by which Poland was to cede Thorn and Dantzic to Prussia -in return for the retrocession of part of Austrian Galicia, which had -fallen to Austria at the first partition, while Prussia promised to -guarantee the territory and constitution of Poland, and to send an army -of 18,000 men to the help of the Poles if they were attacked. - -This treaty, shameless even in its epoch for its desertion of allies, -breach of former engagements and absence of good faith, was highly -approved by Frederick William II. and Hertzberg. They would not have -dared to conclude it but for the seeming weakness of Russia and -Austria, the partners in the former partition. Russia was hampered by -the Swedish and Turkish wars, and the discontent of the ceded provinces -of Poland. Austria was in a still more desperate condition. With the -Turkish war still unconcluded, with open insurrection in Belgium, and -disaffection in Hungary, unpopular in the Empire, and deprived of the -alliance of France by the unconcealed dislike of the Assembly to the -Treaty of 1756, it seemed as if the House of Hapsburg must now give -way entirely to the House of Hohenzollern. Of the active encouragement -given to the Turks, the Belgians, the Hungarians, and the Princes of -the Empire against Austria by Prussia, mention has been made. Not less -skilful was the conduct of the Prussian ambassador at Paris, Goltz, who -intrigued with the more extreme leaders in the Assembly, and especially -Pétion,[7] against Austria, and in particular did all in his power to -increase the growing unpopularity of Marie Antoinette and to insist -that she was a traitor to France. - -[Sidenote: The Policy of Leopold.] - -Had a less able statesman than Leopold been the successor of Joseph, -the schemes of Prussia might have been crowned with success. But he -had not ruled in the native city of Machiavelli for a quarter of a -century for nothing; and he set to work to checkmate the designs of -Hertzberg and Frederick William II. His wise measures of conciliation -speedily rallied the heart of the hereditary dominions to him; and he -determined to use diplomacy to establish his position in Europe before -he dealt with Belgium and Hungary. He quickly perceived that Prussia’s -real strength lay in the support of the Triple Alliance; her financial -situation was such that she dared not undertake a serious war without -the active countenance of England and Holland. He knew that it was -worse than hopeless to rely upon France, and therefore at once applied -to England. He protested that he did not share his brother’s attachment -for Russia, or his schemes for the division of the Ottoman provinces; -and he further hinted that he would abandon all attempt to reconquer -Belgium and surrender it to France unless he received some assistance. -Pitt felt the weight of these considerations; he did not care much -about what happened to Poland, but he cared a great deal that the -French should not occupy Belgium. When, therefore, the King of Prussia -mobilised a powerful army in Silesia, and demanded through Hertzberg -that Austria should on the one hand make an armistice with the Turks, -and on the other restore Galicia to Poland, Leopold, trusting that -he had broken the harmony of the Triple Alliance, made no elaborate -warlike preparations, but demanded a conference. - -[Sidenote: The Conference of Reichenbach. June 1790.] - -The King of Hungary and Bohemia thoroughly understood the character of -the Prussian king and the intrigues of his courtiers and ministers; he -knew that Hertzberg was the real enemy of Austria, and that Frederick -William was unstable and easily persuaded. He felt that his own -strength lay in diplomacy, not war. On 26th June the two Austrian -envoys, Reuss and Spielmann, arrived at the headquarters of the -Prussian army in Silesia at Reichenbach, and demanded a conference. -Rather to the disgust of the Prussians, their allies of the Triple -Alliance insisted on being present, and a regular congress was held, -at which Hertzberg and Lucchesini represented Prussia, Reuss and -Spielmann, Austria, Ewart, England, Reden, Holland, and Jablonowski, -the Poles. Even the Hungarian malcontents and the Belgian rebels, -relying on the promises of Frederick William, ventured to send envoys. -The conclusions of the congress justified Leopold’s diplomatic skill. -When Hertzberg laid the Prussian demands in full before the assembled -envoys, to his surprise Jablonowski declared that the Poles would -never cede Thorn and Dantzic, while the representatives of England and -Holland not only advocated the maintenance of the _status quo_, but -refused the co-operation of their governments in Prussia’s schemes for -aggrandisement. The policy of Hertzberg and Kaunitz, of perpetuating -the rivalry of Prussia and Austria, had failed. Leopold was far too -acute to leave these matters to ministers. He placed himself in direct -communication with the King of Prussia and his personal favourites, -Lucchesini and Bischofswerder; he argued that the interests of the -two great German states both with regard to Poland and France were -identical, and on 27th July 1790 the Convention of Reichenbach was -signed, by which Austria promised at once to make an armistice with the -Turks, and eventually to conclude peace with them under the mediation -of the Triple Alliance, while, on the other hand, the powers of the -Triple Alliance guaranteed the restoration of the Austrian authority -in Belgium. It was more privately arranged that Prussia should withdraw -from encouraging discontent in Hungary and Belgium, and support -Leopold’s candidature for the Imperial throne. This great diplomatic -victory did more than merely check the active enmity of Prussia; it -established the ascendency of Leopold over the weak mind of Frederick -William; and it eventually, in May 1791, brought about, not indeed his -actual dismissal from office, but the removal of Hertzberg, the sworn -foe of Austria, from the charge of the foreign policy of Prussia. - -[Sidenote: Leopold and the Turks.] - -[Sidenote: The Treaty of Sistova. 4th Aug. 1791.] - -The first actual consequence of the Convention of Reichenbach was the -conclusion of an armistice between Austria and the Turks. The war had -never been looked on with favour by Leopold, who regarded Joseph’s -infatuation for the grandiose schemes of Catherine of Russia as absurd, -and the dismemberment of Turkey as impracticable, and at the present -time undesirable. He had not attempted to press matters against the -Turks, and had withdrawn many of his best troops under Loudon from the -seat of war to Bohemia to strengthen his position at Reichenbach. The -Prince of Coburg, who succeeded Loudon, aided by an earthquake, took -Orsova, and laid siege to Giurgevo, but he was defeated in his camp -after a severe battle on 8th July 1790. This defeat was only partially -compensated by a victory won by Clerfayt, and by the capture of Zettin -by General de Vins on 20th July. Under these circumstances Leopold was -not sorry to conclude an armistice for nine months at Giurgevo on 19th -September. Shortly afterwards a congress of plenipotentiaries from -Austria, Turkey, and the mediating powers met, as had been arranged -at Reichenbach, at Sistova. The negotiations lasted for many months; -Leopold insisted on the cession by Turkey of Old Orsova and a district -in Croatia, which would make the Danube and the Unna the boundary -between Austria and Turkey; Prussia at first strongly protested against -any cession to Austria; the congress even for a time broke up; and it -was not until Leopold adroitly got Lucchesini, the Prussian envoy, on -his side, that the important Treaty of Sistova upon the terms desired -by Leopold was concluded on 4th August 1791. - -[Sidenote: Leopold crowned Emperor. 9th Oct. 1790.] - -By this treaty the hereditary dominions of the House of Hapsburg were -relieved from the danger of foreign war; the next result which Leopold -drew from the Convention of Reichenbach was the re-establishment -of the Austrian ascendency in Germany. Assured of the support of -Prussia, Leopold travelled to the Rhine. On 30th September 1790 he was -unanimously elected King of the Romans; on 4th October he solemnly -entered Frankfort, and on 9th October he was crowned Emperor. But it -was not enough for him to be crowned Emperor; he had to destroy the bad -effect of his brother Joseph’s attitude towards the Empire; he had to -become the real as well as the nominal head and leader of the German -princes, and to win back the advantages which Prussia had secured by -forming the League of Princes. The opportunity was afforded to him by -the disinclination of the German princes, who owned territories in -Alsace, Lorraine, and Franche Comté, to accept the compensation offered -to them by the French Constituent Assembly. Their protests took the -shape of a clause in the ‘capitulation’ laid before him and accepted -by him on his election as Emperor by which he promised to intervene on -behalf of the Empire for the preservation of the rights, sanctioned -by the Treaty of Westphalia, of the princes, whose interests were -affected. Leopold thus seized this opportunity to pose as the head of -the German Empire, and on 14th December 1790 he wrote a very strong -letter to Louis XVI., in which he said: ‘The territories in question -have not been transferred to the kingdom of France; they are subject to -the supremacy of the Emperor and the Empire: no member of the Empire -has the right to transfer that supremacy to a foreign nation. It -follows, therefore, that the decrees of the Assembly are null and void -so far as concerns the Empire and its members, and that everything -ought to be replaced on the ancient footing.’[8] - -[Sidenote: Leopold and Hungary.] - -[Sidenote: Leopold crowned King of Hungary. 15th Nov. 1790.] - -After being crowned Emperor at Frankfort, Leopold returned to Vienna -and proceeded to establish his power firmly in Hungary. The discontent -aroused in the most backward part of his dominions by the Emperor -Joseph’s measures had not been appeased by that monarch’s wholesale -retractation, nor even by the return of the Crown of St. Stephen. The -Hungarian nobles regarded Joseph’s retractation as a sign of weakness, -and, encouraged by the intrigues of Prussia and the difficulties -in which Leopold was involved by the war with the Turks, resolved -to obtain more sweeping concessions. The example of France exerted -an influence even in Hungary, and the following sentences from a -memorial,[9] presented to Leopold by the people of Pesth, might have -been written by a Parisian popular society: ‘From the rights of nations -and of man, and from that social compact whence States arose, it is -incontestable that sovereignty originates from the people. This axiom -our parent Nature has impressed on the hearts of all; it is one of -those which a just prince (and such we trust Your Majesty will ever be) -cannot dispute; it is one of those inalienable, imprescriptible rights -which the people cannot forfeit by neglect or disuse. Our constitution -places the sovereignty jointly in the king and people, in such a manner -that the remedies necessary to be applied according to the ends of -social life for the security of persons and property, are in the power -of the people. We are sure, therefore, that at the meeting of the -ensuing Diet, Your Majesty will not confine yourself to the objects -mentioned in your rescript; but will also restore our freedom to us, -in like manner as to the Belgians, who have conquered theirs with the -sword. It would be an example big with danger to teach the world that a -people can only protect or regain their liberties by the sword, and not -by obedience.’ The Hungarian Diet, which Leopold had summoned for the -ceremony of his coronation, and to which the people of Pesth alluded in -this remarkable address, was largely attended. The Hungarian nobility -regarded its convocation as a further sign of weakness, for none -had been held since the accession of Maria Theresa, and prepared an -inaugural act or compact, which would have reduced the kings of Hungary -to a similar position to that occupied by the kings of Poland. Full of -confidence in themselves they even went so far as to send envoys, as -has been mentioned, to the Congress of Reichenbach. Leopold, however, -had no intention of yielding to these demands; his only desire was to -gain time until he had secured his position by diplomacy. Meanwhile -he tried to stir up opposition in Hungary itself, by encouraging -the other nationalities in the kingdom, such as the inhabitants of -Croatia and the Banat. But when the Congress of Reichenbach was over, -the armistice of Giurgevo concluded, and his coronation as Emperor -performed, Leopold proceeded to deal with the Hungarians. He first -ordered the army of 60,000 men, which he had concentrated in Bohemia -to support his attitude against the Prussians, to Pesth, and then -directed the Diet to remove to Presburg for his coronation as King of -Hungary. He then declared that nothing would induce him to accept the -proposed new constitution, or to consent to an infringement of the -Edict of Toleration, and that he would only consent to the terms of -the inaugural acts of his grandfather, Charles VI., and his mother, -Maria Theresa. The Hungarian nobles, overcome by his firmness and the -presence of his troops, yielded; the Emperor appointed his fourth son, -the Archduke Leopold, to be Palatine of Hungary in the place of the -late Prince Esterhazy; and it was from him that he received the Crown -of St. Stephen on 15th November, on the terms he had stipulated. - -[Sidenote: Parties in Belgium.] - -Having gained this victory by his firmness, Leopold proceeded to win -popularity by a timely concession, and proposed a law, obliging every -future king to be crowned within six months of his accession. This -concession was received with the wildest enthusiasm, as it obviated -the possibility of conduct resembling that of Joseph II.; the Diet -granted the Emperor a gift of 225,000 florins instead of the usual -100,000 florins; and the disaffected attitude of the nobility was -changed for one of hearty admiration and gratitude. The bourgeois of -Pesth and their declarations were disavowed; the echo of the French -Revolution, which had been heard there, was quickly stifled; and -the Hungarian nobility, well contented with Leopold, declined to -encourage the popular aspirations. The difficulties which the Emperor -Leopold encountered in Hungary were trifling to those which faced -him in Belgium. But in this quarter time had worked for the House of -Hapsburg, and when the Congress of Plenipotentiaries, arranged at -the Congress of Reichenbach, met at the Hague in October 1790, the -situation had entirely changed. The victory of the Belgian rebels -in 1789 had been followed by internal dissensions, which appeared -directly the new Constitution was proclaimed. The first difference was -between the Van der Nootists, or Statists, as they termed themselves, -and the Vonckists. The latter, inspired by the success of the French -Revolution, advocated a thoroughly democratic constitution, and the -organisation of a new elective system of local administration, to the -great disgust of the Statists, who desired simply the restoration of -the old order of things, but with the central government controlled -by elected assembly instead of being in the hands of the House of -Hapsburg. Curiously enough popular feeling ran in a direction very -different from that followed in France. Influenced by the priests, -the Belgian people, and more especially the mob of Brussels, were -convinced that the Vonckists were atheists; the democrats were attacked -in the streets, maltreated and imprisoned; the bourgeois National -Guards refused to protect them; they were proscribed by Van der Noot -and the party in power; and after many riots and disturbances Vonck -fled to France in April 1790. These events greatly weakened the -Belgian Republic, for the democratic party, which had been energetic -in the revolution, numbered in its ranks many of the ablest and -most enlightened men in the country. But even more serious was the -result abroad, for the National Assembly of France and Lafayette were -surprised and disgusted at the persecution of the democrats, and the -sympathy of the French people was entirely alienated from the Belgian -leaders. Still more striking in its effect was the conduct of the Van -der Nootists towards the gallant officer, Van der Mersch, who had -commanded the patriot troops in the invasion of October 1789. Not -satisfied with superseding him by the Prussian general, Schönfeld, -the Van der Nootists had him arrested on a charge of disorganising -the Belgian army and imprisoned at Antwerp, to the great wrath of the -people of Flanders, of which province Van der Mersch was a native. The -conquering party was further divided. The nobility and clergy, headed -by the Duc d’Aremberg, were jealous of the ascendency assumed by Van -der Noot, and of the continued omnipotence of the Assembly at Brussels. -Under these circumstances it was a significant fact that the Austrian -troops in Luxembourg under the command of Marshal Bender were able with -the help of the people themselves to occupy the province of Limburg. - -[Sidenote: Congress at the Hague. Oct. 1790.] - -[Sidenote: Leopold reconquers Belgium.] - -[Sidenote: The Austrians at Liége.] - -In October 1790 the Congress, which had been resolved on at -Reichenbach, met at the Hague. The Austrian plenipotentiary was the -Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, the most accomplished Austrian diplomatist -and ambassador at Paris, and the representatives of England, Prussia, -and Holland were Lord Auckland, Count Keller, and the Grand Pensionary -Van der Spiegel. Leopold now reaped the advantages of his skilful -diplomacy at Reichenbach. England and Holland understood that the new -Emperor was a very different man from his predecessor, and Prussia -dared not act without them. As he had promised, Leopold solemnly -announced his intention to restore all the charters, laws, and -arrangements, which had existed in Belgium in the time of his mother, -Maria Theresa, under the guarantee of the three powers, and further -promised a general amnesty if his authority was recognised by 21st -November. The Belgian States-General made no reply to Leopold, and the -Emperor proceeded to concentrate 45,000 men under Bender in Luxembourg. -Then the Belgian leaders applied to the Congress at the Hague for a -prolongation of the armistice and the restoration of the state of -government existing in the time of Charles VI. and not in that of -Maria Theresa. These demands were supported by the representatives -of the Triple Alliance, but rejected by the Austrian ambassador. On -21st November the Belgian States-General elected the Archduke Charles, -the third son of the Emperor, to be hereditary Grand Duke, but the -time had gone by for compromises, and on the following day Bender -entered Belgium. The experiences of a year of revolution made the -Belgian people not unwilling to return under the sway of Austria; the -cities surrendered without a blow, and on 2d December 1790 Brussels -capitulated. Van der Noot fled with his chief friends, and Belgium -was won back by Leopold as easily as it had been lost by Joseph. On -8th December the Comte de Mercy-Argenteau assented to the restoration -of the liberties recognised in the inaugural act of Charles VI., -but Leopold disavowed his ambassador and insisted on the authority -possessed by Maria Theresa at the close of her reign. Under these -circumstances the mediating powers refused their guarantee, a refusal -which rather gratified the Emperor than otherwise, as it freed him -from the fear of foreign interference. Not only in Belgium itself, -but in the neighbouring bishopric of Liége also, Leopold established -Austrian ascendency. The princes of the Circle of the Empire, which -adjoined, were dissatisfied with the conduct of Prussia and General -Schlieffen, and appealed to the Emperor. He was only too glad to assert -his authority; Schlieffen evacuated the territory; and on 13th January -1791 it was occupied by an Austrian force, which re-established the -Prince-bishop in all his former authority. - -[Sidenote: Russia and Sweden.] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Verela. Aug. 14th 1790.] - -The entire reversal of Joseph’s policy by Leopold, the arrangements -made at Reichenbach, and the friendly attitude of the new Emperor -towards the powers forming the Triple Alliance, deprived Russia of her -only ally at a time when the Empress had on her hands two exhausting -wars with Sweden and Turkey. The former was the most serious. Gustavus -III., freed from the dangers of a Danish invasion, and by his _coup -d’état_ from the formidable plots of his nobility, rejoined his army in -Finland and prepared to carry on the war vigorously by land and sea. -His army was too small to effect much in spite of his near approach to -St. Petersburg, and his chief confidence was in his fleet. This fleet -was soon blockaded in the Gulf of Vyborg by the Russian admiral, the -Prince of Nassau-Siegen, one of the most famous soldiers of fortune -of the century; an attempt it made to break out on 24th June 1790 was -repulsed, and the Russians even hoped to force it to capitulate. But, -to their surprise, the Swedes broke the blockade on the 3d July, though -with a loss of 5000 men, and on 9th July won a great naval victory -in Svenska Sound, in which the Russians lost 30 ships, 600 guns and -6000 men. But this victory led to no corresponding diplomatic result. -Catherine, defeated though she was, made overtures in no humiliated -spirit to the King of Sweden, and proposed to him that, instead of -quarrelling with his neighbours, he should turn his attention to the -state of affairs in France. The chivalrous and romantic king was not -unwilling to listen to her suggestions; he had, during a visit to -Paris, been much impressed by Marie Antoinette, and was full of pity -at the situation of the royal family of France and of disgust at the -progress of the Revolution. He felt, too, that the war with Russia -was not popular among his people, and on 14th August 1790 he signed -a treaty of peace at Verela, by which the _status quo ante bellum_ -between Russia and Sweden was restored without any compensation in -money or territory being obtained by the victorious Swedes. - -[Sidenote: Capture of Ismail. 20th Dec. 1790.] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Jassy. 9th Jan. 1792.] - -While resisting the Swedes, Catherine made her chief effort against -the Turks. In this quarter the defection of Leopold and the Armistice -of Giurgevo seriously compromised her position. The war had resolved -itself into the siege of the strong city of Ismail, where the Turks -defended themselves with the utmost tenacity. The Russian attacks -were foiled again and again, and Potemkin resigned the conduct of the -siege in despair. His place was taken by Suvórov, whose brilliant -victory on the Rymnik in 1789 had marked him as the greatest Russian -general of his time. His valour and constancy equalled those qualities -in the Turks; and Ismail was stormed on 20th December 1790, after a -scene of carnage which cost the lives of 10,000 Russians and 30,000 -Turks. In the following year the Russians pressed onwards towards -Constantinople, and on 9th July 1791 the Russian General Repnin, under -whom served Suvórov and Kutuzov, defeated the Grand Vizier at Matchin. -But the Empress Catherine was not inclined to follow up these military -advantages. The policy of Leopold had isolated her; the Treaty of -Sistova had deprived her of an auxiliary army against the Turks; the -state of affairs in Poland demanded her most serious attention; and she -had to observe the action of Europe on the French Revolution and of the -French Revolution on Europe, in the hope of deriving some advantage for -Russia from the complications. She, therefore, signed a treaty of peace -with the Turks at Jassy on 9th January 1792, by which Russia retained -only Oczakoff and the coast-line between the mouths of the Bug and the -Dniester. By making this peace, Catherine only deferred the prosecution -of the schemes of Russia against the Ottoman Empire, and certain -clauses with regard to the Danubian Principalities, affording a pretext -for future wars, were skilfully included in the Treaty of Jassy. - -[Sidenote: Position of Leopold.] - -The success of the policy of the Emperor Leopold entirely altered -the situation of the European states and their attitude towards each -other. He was in 1791 not only master in his own dominions, but the -recognised representative of the Empire, in fact as well as in name. He -had broken down the combination against Austria and the solidarity of -the Triple Alliance. England was far more favourably inclined to him -than she had ever been to Joseph II.; Frederick William II. of Prussia -was his ally not his enemy. He was, therefore, able in 1791 to turn -his thoughts to the situation of France, and to see what advantages -could be drawn from the position of affairs there for the benefit of -Austria. The political effacement of France in foreign affairs was due -to the assumption of all real authority by the Constituent Assembly, -while leaving the responsibility to the King’s ministers, and Leopold -did not doubt that the result of an entire victory of the popular -party would be a recurrence to the classical policy of opposition to -Austria and the rupture of the Treaty of 1756. It was to his interest -to prevent this, and he had therefore political, as well as personal, -ends to secure in endeavouring to restore the authority of the King -of France. The capture of the Bastille and the transference of the -royal family to Paris were great events in the history of France, but -they only affected Leopold as weakening the authority of Louis XVI. -and Marie Antoinette, the faithful allies of Austria. The behaviour of -the Constituent Assembly gave him pretexts for interfering in France, -in spite of the diplomatic ability of Mirabeau, and he was earnestly -besought by the French _émigrés_, or opponents of the new state of -things in France, who had gone into voluntary exile with the King’s -younger brother, the Comte d’Artois, at their head, to intervene on -behalf of the French monarchy. - -[Sidenote: The state of France, 1791.] - -The conduct of the Constituent Assembly in disorganising every branch -of the executive in France had its natural effect by the commencement -of 1791. The army, in spite of the effort of General Bouillé to restore -discipline by making an example of some Swiss mutineers at Nancy in -1790, was rendered inefficient by the disaffection of the soldiers and -the exaggerated royalism of most of the officers; the navy was in a -still worse condition; the Civil Constitution of the Clergy had caused -a schism, which disturbed the minds of men in all parts of France, -and created an army of opponents to the work of the Assembly, who had -peculiar influence over the rural communities; the issue of assignats -on the security of the confiscated domains of the Church had inflated -the currency, and, while giving an appearance of fictitious prosperity, -had really given a feeling of insecurity to all trade and commerce; -the old internal administrations of the provinces had been replaced -by the new administrations of the departments, which were filled by -inexperienced men, utterly unable to cope with the difficulties of -a time of unrest and revolution. The practical disorganisation of -the executive was meanwhile being consecrated by the measures of the -Constituent Assembly, which, in the Constitution it was drawing up, in -its fear of the power of the monarchy, so hampered the authority of the -executive as to destroy the necessary foundations of good government. - -[Sidenote: Death of Mirabeau.] - -In its ardour for the Rights of Man and the principle of election, -the Constituent Assembly forgot the need for enforcing the authority -of the law, and the necessity for providing a strong arm to carry it -into effect. Mirabeau had clearly perceived that France was drifting -into a state of anarchy. In his secret notes for the Court he insisted -on the importance of restoring its proper power to the executive, and -he advised the King to leave Paris and call the partisans of order to -his side. Civil war, he contended, was preferable to anarchy, cloaked -by fine words; it would openly divide France into the adherents of -order and of disorder, and result in the maintenance of the popular -rights sanctioned by the royal power. The King was to acknowledge the -right of the people to legislate, and tax themselves through their -representatives, but was to point out the importance of maintaining a -strong government to secure the happiness of the governed. Against -foreign war, however, Mirabeau strongly protested; foreign interference -would rouse the spirit of national patriotism, and if the King was -suspected of favouring the foreigners, it would result in the overthrow -of the monarchy, and in a long struggle before the country could agree -on a new form of government. However, on 2d April 1791, Mirabeau -died, and France was deprived of its most sagacious, if not its only, -statesman. In truth, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette had no wish to -take Mirabeau’s advice; the King regarded civil war as a horrible -calamity, and to be shunned in every way and at any sacrifice; the -Queen longed for the interference of her brother, the Emperor, and -begged him to intervene to restore the royal authority. The King’s -religious convictions were wounded by the Civil Constitution of the -Clergy; the Queen was roused to wrath by the feeling that she was a -prisoner, by daily insults in the press, and by the degradation of the -power of the monarchy. On 18th April 1791 the royal prisoners were -prevented by the Parisians from going to Saint-Cloud for Easter, and -on 18th May the Emperor Leopold issued a circular to all crowned heads -calling attention to the position of the King of France in his capital. -On 20th May he had an interview with the Comte de Durfort, a secret -emissary from the Tuileries, at Mantua, and charged him to tell the -King and Queen of France that ‘he was going to concern himself with -their affairs, not in words, but in acts.’ - -[Sidenote: The Flight to Varennes. 21st June 1791.] - -The action of the Parisian mob on 18th April caused Louis XVI. and -Marie Antoinette to resolve to escape secretly from Paris, since they -were obviously prisoners and could not leave openly. They determined, -contrary to the advice so often given by Mirabeau, and contrary also to -the wishes of the Emperor and of his able representative at the Hague, -the Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, who knew France better than any living -diplomatist, to fly towards the frontier. Leopold, under the pretext -of supporting his authority in Belgium and Luxembourg, and that of -his allies, the Elector-Archbishop of Trèves and the Bishop of Liége, -massed his troops upon the frontier in readiness to succour or assist, -and Bouillé, who commanded at Metz, made preparations to have the part -of his forces on which he could rely ready to receive the fugitive -monarch. On 20th June 1791 the royal family left Paris by night, after -the King had drawn up a declaration protesting against the whole of the -measures of the Constituent Assembly, and disavowing them. The flight, -from a combination of circumstances, ended in the royal family being -stopped at Varennes, and being brought back to Paris in custody. It had -the most momentous results upon the history of the French Revolution, -which are sometimes disregarded in the recollection of the romantic -circumstances attending it. - -[Sidenote: Results of the Flight to Varennes.] - -[Sidenote: The Massacre of 17th July in Paris.] - -The primary result of the flight to Varennes was the sudden -comprehension by France that Louis XVI. was an unwilling collaborator -in the work of reconstituting the French government on a new basis. -Hitherto the people, and even the leaders of the Constituent Assembly, -had believed in his acquiescence, if not in his hearty assistance. But -the declaration, left behind on the occasion of his flight, proved the -contrary. The statesmen of the Constituent Assembly, including the -makers of the new Constitution, such as Le Chapelier and Thouret, and -the triumvirate of Duport, Barnave, and Lameth, who, after Mirabeau’s -death, were the undisputed leaders of the majority, saw they had gone -too far, and that in their desire to weaken the royal authority, they -had seriously weakened the executive, and had made the King’s position -intolerable. They therefore threw the blame of the flight to Varennes -on the subordinates in the scheme, ignored the King’s declaration, -and acted on the supposition that he was misled by bad advisers. This -attitude not being wholly approved by the Jacobin Club, which, through -its affiliated clubs in the provinces, exercised the most powerful -sway in the formation of public opinion, the believers in the royal -authority seceded and formed the Constitutional Club, or Club of -1789, which temporarily weakened the power of the Jacobins in Paris. -But this secession was entirely sanctioned by the bourgeois classes -both in Paris and throughout France, who had the strongest interest -in the maintenance of order, and who sent in numerous declarations -of their adhesion to the cause of monarchy. Moreover, their chief -representatives in arms, the National Guard of Paris, under the command -of Lafayette, had soon an opportunity of giving practical proof -of this loyal disposition. The Cordeliers Club, which was chiefly -influenced by Danton, a lawyer of Paris, who had Mirabeau’s gift of -seeing things as they really were, felt it impossible to hush things -up. They understood the King’s declaration to mean a declaration of -war against the new Constitution; his flight to Varennes they rightly -interpreted to show that he was trusting to the intervention of foreign -powers to re-establish him in his former position; and they resolved -to draw up a petition for his dethronement. This petition was largely -the work of Danton and of Brissot, a pamphleteer and journalist, who -had been imprisoned in the Bastille, and had imbibed republican notions -in America, and a large crowd assembled to sign it on the Champ de -Mars. Lafayette determined to disperse this crowd, and the National -Guard, under his command, fired on the people, killing several persons. -This vigorous measure, which was intended to show the power of the -party of order, was followed by vigorous steps against the party for -dethronement. - -[Sidenote: Revision of the Constitution.] - -The leaders of the Cordeliers were proscribed. Danton and Marat fled -to England, and the party of order seemed triumphant. A revision of -the Constitution was undertaken, and various reactionary clauses, -specially directed against the press, the popular clubs or societies, -and the rights of assembly and of petition, were inserted. But this -new attitude of the Constituent Assembly had but a slight effect -upon France, for the king’s flight had caused the people in general -to believe that he was the enemy of their new-born liberties, and a -traitor in league with foreign powers to overthrow them. - -[Sidenote: Effects of the Flight to Varennes.] - -[Sidenote: Manifesto of Padua. 6th July 1791.] - -The flight to Varennes proved to the people of France, as well as to -the monarchs and statesmen of Europe, that Louis XVI. was a prisoner in -Paris, and an enemy to the new settlement of the government, as laid -down by the Constitution in course of preparation. The Emperor Leopold, -as brother of Marie Antoinette, as Holy Roman Emperor and supporter -of dynastic legitimacy, as the leading monarch of Europe, decided to -intervene. On 6th July 1791 he issued the Manifesto of Padua, in which -he invited the sovereigns of Europe to join him in declaring the cause -of the King of France to be their own, in exacting that he should be -freed from all popular restraint, and in refusing to recognise any -constitutional laws as legitimately established in France, except such -as might be sanctioned by the King acting in perfect freedom. The -English Government paid little or no attention to these requests of -Leopold, but the Empress Catherine, and the Kings of Prussia, Spain, -and Sweden, for different reasons and in different degrees, heartily -accepted Leopold’s views, and armed intervention to carry them into -effect was suggested. But Leopold had no desire for war. His policy -since his accession had been distinctly in favour of peace. He was -a diplomatist, not a soldier, and he desired to frighten France by -threats, rather than to fight France for the liberty of Louis XVI. and -his family. - -[Sidenote: Declaration of Pilnitz, 27th Aug. 1791.] - -[Sidenote: Completion of the Constitution.] - -The sequel to the Manifesto of Padua was a conference at Pilnitz -between the Emperor Leopold and King Frederick William II. of Prussia, -accompanied by their ministers, in August 1791. At this conference -the King’s brothers, Monsieur, the Comte de Provence, afterwards -Louis XVIII., who had escaped from France at the time of the flight -to Varennes, and the Comte d’Artois, afterwards Charles X., who had -fled in July 1789, at the epoch of the capture of the Bastille, were -present. They had their own aims to serve. They were disgusted at the -weak conduct, as they termed it, of Louis XVI. in yielding so far as he -had done to the popular wishes; they desired to undo the whole effect -of the Revolution and to restore the Bourbon monarchy in its ancient -authority by the arms of the monarchs of Europe. But Leopold did not -care about the French princes or the Bourbon monarchy. He cared rather -for the safety of his sister, Marie Antoinette, and the maintenance -through her of the Franco-Austrian alliance. In the Declaration of -Pilnitz, which was signed by the Emperor and the King of Prussia on -27th August 1791, the two sovereigns declared that the situation of -the King of France was an object of interest common to all European -monarchs, and that they hoped other monarchs would use with them the -most efficacious means to put the King of France in a position to lay -in perfect liberty the bases of a monarchical government, suited alike -to the rights of sovereigns and the happiness of the French nation. -Provided that other powers would co-operate with them they were willing -to act promptly, and had therefore placed their armies on foot. These -threats exasperated but did not terrify the French people. Leopold had -no intention of entering upon hostilities, and found a loophole by -which to escape from declaring war in the acceptance by Louis XVI. of -the completed Constitution on 21st September 1791. He then solemnly -withdrew his pretensions to interfere in the internal affairs of France. - -[Sidenote: The Polish Constitution. 3d May 1791.] - -While the first Constitution of France, sanctioning the representative -principle and the rights of the people, was being slowly built up in -the midst of troubles and intrigues in Paris, a not less remarkable -constitution was promulgated in Poland, manifesting the same ideas. -The partition of Poland in 1773 had proved to all patriotic Poles that -their independence as a nation was in the utmost peril. A serious -effort was therefore made to organise the country, and to place the -government on a settled and logical basis. The army was made national -instead of feudal; an attempt was made to establish a national system -of finance, and a scheme of national education was propounded and -partly carried into effect. But these measures were but steps in the -work of making Poland a nation, instead of a loose confederation of -nobles; the final decision was taken in 1788, when the Polish Diet -elected a Committee to draw up a new Constitution, raised the national -army to 60,000 men, and decreed regular taxes in order to replenish -the national treasury. This consciousness of nationality enabled -Stanislas Poniatowski, King of Poland, to negotiate as an independent -and powerful sovereign with Prussia in 1789, and to send his envoys to -Reichenbach in 1790 to act with the envoys of the other powers. The -leading member of the Polish Constitutional Committee was Kollontai, a -most remarkable man, and a Catholic priest, who had done good service -as Rector of the University of Cracow, which he reorganised, and -who had been made Vice-Grand-Chancellor of the kingdom. He was the -principal author of the Polish Constitution, which was accepted by the -Diet of Warsaw on 3d May 1791. This Constitution was noteworthy in what -it abolished and what it created. It abolished the elective monarchy, -the source of so many evils and intrigues, and declared the throne of -Poland hereditary in the House of Saxony in succession to Stanislas -Poniatowski, and it also abolished the _liberum veto_, which had -enabled one member of the Diet to thwart the wishes of the majority. It -created a regular government, conferring the legislative power on the -King, the Senate, and an elected Chamber, and the executive power on -the King, aided by six ministers responsible to the Legislature. The -cities were permitted to elect their judges and deputies to the Diet; -but the plague-spot of serfdom was too delicate to touch, and the Diet -only declared its willingness to sanction all arrangements made between -a lord and his serfs for the benefit of the latter. In some respects -this Constitution compares favourably with that of France drawn up at -the same time; if it does not proclaim so firmly the liberty of man, -it at any rate is free from the lamentable fear of the power of the -executive, which vitiated the work of the French reformers. France -feared its executive after a long course of despotic monarchy; Poland -felt the need of a strong executive after a long history of anarchy. -Both countries, trying to be free, were affected in different ways, and -with very different results, by the intervention of foreign powers. - -[Sidenote: The Legislative Assembly.] - -The acceptance of the completed French Constitution was the signal -for the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly. It was at once -succeeded by the Legislative Assembly, elected under the provisions -of the new Constitution. The new Assembly consisted, owing to a -self-denying ordinance passed in May 1791, on the proposition of -Robespierre, forbidding the election of deputies sitting in the -Constituent Assembly to its successor, of none but untried men, who -had no experience of politics. They were mostly young men who had -learned to talk in their local popular societies, and who at once -joined the mother of such societies, the Jacobin Club at Paris. They -were forbidden by a clause in the Constitution of 1791 to interfere -with constitutional questions, which could only be touched by a -Convention summoned for the purpose, and so could only interfere in -current politics and matters of administration. In such interference -they were justified by the position of powerlessness into which the -executive authority, the King and his ministers, were reduced by -the Constitution. The two burning questions which first came before -them were, the treatment of the clergy who had not taken the oath to -observe the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, and of the _émigrés_. -Both questions gave plenty of opportunity for the display of fervid -revolutionary and patriotic eloquence, for the priests, who had not -taken the oath, were undisguisedly stirring up opposition to the -Revolution in the provinces, and the _émigrés_ were forming an army -on the French frontier. And the Legislative Assembly was in a greater -degree than either its predecessor, the Constituent, or its successor, -the Convention, liable to be swayed by oratory. The deputies liked -to listen to glowing words and patriotic sentiments, and were largely -influenced by the speeches of three great orators, Vergniaud, Gensonné, -and Guadet, who all came from Bordeaux, the capital of the department -of the Gironde, and to whose supporters posterity has given the name of -Girondins. But these orators were in their turn influenced by a Norman -deputy, Brissot. This veteran pamphleteer was a sincere republican; -he also, having long been a journalist, believed himself a master -of foreign politics. He desired to bring about a war between France -and Austria. He believed that such a war would either cause the King -to throw in his lot heartily with the Revolution, or, what was more -likely, would make him declare himself openly against it, and would -thus enable the advanced democratic party to call him a traitor, and -by rousing all France against him, pave the way for his overthrow and -the establishment of a republic. The first step was taken to make Louis -XVI. appear the opponent of the Revolution by passing a decree against -the priests, who had not taken the oath, which his conscience would -not permit him to sign; the second by passing a decree against the -_émigrés_, who were led by his own brothers, and an instruction that he -should ask the Emperor and the German princes on the Rhine to prevent -the _émigrés_ from forming an army, and to expel them if they did so. - -[Sidenote: Approach of War between France and the Emperor.] - -The question of the expediency of war with Austria was soon taken -up in France, and not only the Legislative Assembly but the popular -clubs busied themselves in discussing it. The Declaration of Pilnitz -exasperated the whole nation, which resented dictation or interference -in the internal affairs of France, and the warlike and menacing -attitude of the army of _émigrés_, which had been formed by the Prince -de Condé on the French frontier at Worms, increased the universal -wrath. Louis XVI., whose ministers had been but feeble figure-heads -during the Constituent Assembly, at this juncture appointed the Comte -de Narbonne, a young man of distinguished ability, to be Minister -for War. Narbonne grasped the situation. He saw the people wished -for war, and he therefore declared that the King was as patriotic as -his subjects, and was also ready for war if satisfaction were not -given to France. Three large armies were formed and placed upon the -frontiers under the command of Generals Rochambeau, Lückner, and -Lafayette, of whom the two former were created Marshals of France. By -this policy Narbonne took the wind out of the sails of Brissot and -the Girondins; he hoped that if the Austrian war was successful the -King would be sufficiently strengthened in popularity to regain his -authority as head of the executive; while, if it failed, the nation -in its extremity would turn to its legitimate sovereign and invest -him with dictatorial power. The leaders of the democratic party in -Paris, which had been scattered by Lafayette in July 1791, saw this -equally clearly with Narbonne, and therefore opposed the war with all -their might. The Jacobin Club had become their headquarters; most of -the deputies who came up from the provinces joined the mother society -in Paris, and it soon became more powerful than ever in creating -public opinion. The effect of the secession and consequent formation -of the Club of 1789 only made the Jacobins more frankly democratic, -while the presence of many of its members in the Legislative Assembly -strengthened the influence of the Jacobin Club. It was in the Jacobin -Club during the debates on the war that the difference between what -were to be the Girondin and the Mountain parties in the Convention -first appeared. Brissot and the Girondin orators argued in favour of -war; while Marat, Danton, and still more Robespierre, whose career in -the Constituent Assembly had made him exceedingly popular, opposed it. -The last-mentioned orator was indeed the chief opponent of the war; he -saw through Narbonne’s schemes, and hinted that the projected war was -merely a court intrigue to promote the power of the King. The political -strife became personal, and Robespierre, Marat, and Danton became the -sworn foes of Brissot and the Girondins. - -[Sidenote: Causes of war between France and the Emperor.] - -The main causes of the war were the questions of the rights of the -Princes of the Empire in Alsace and of the _émigrés_. The defence of -the former rights as rights of the Empire had been pressed upon Leopold -at the time of his election as Emperor, and on 26th April 1791 the -Prince of Thurn and Taxis, as Imperial Commissary, summoned the Diet -to meet. It assembled, and after a long discussion a _conclusum_ was -arrived at, that the Empire maintained the Treaties of Westphalia and -of the eighteenth century now violated by France, and requested the -Emperor to take severe measures against the revolutionary propaganda. -The Emperor Leopold, as sovereign of Austria, had withdrawn from the -position he had taken up at Pilnitz, but as Emperor he was obliged -to submit this _conclusum_ of the Diet to the King of France, which -he did in a strongly-worded despatch drawn up by the Chancellor -Kaunitz, which was laid before the Legislative Assembly on 3d December -1791. It was as Emperor also that Leopold defended the conduct of -the border princes of the Empire, notably the Elector-Archbishops of -Trèves, Cologne, and Mayence, and the Bishops of Spires and Worms, in -sheltering French _émigrés_. On 29th November 1791 the Assembly had -desired the King to write to the Emperor and to these border princes -protesting against the enlistment of troops by the _émigrés_, and the -Emperor’s answer defending the conduct of the princes concerned was -read to the Assembly on 14th December. The replies of Leopold were -referred to the Diplomatic Committee, and on its report, the Assembly -resolved on 25th January 1792 that the Emperor should be requested to -explain his attitude towards France and to promise to undertake nothing -against her independence in forming her own constitution and settling -her own mode of government before 1st March 1792, and that an evasive -or unsatisfactory reply should be considered as annulling the Treaty of -1756 and as an act of hostility. The answer to this demand, which was -drafted by Kaunitz, was read to the Assembly on 1st March; it censured -the course which was being taken by France, stigmatised the Revolution -and accused the Jacobins of fomenting anarchy, and its first results -were the dismissal of Narbonne, the impeachment of De Lessart, the -Foreign Minister, and the formation of a Girondin ministry. - -[Sidenote: Death of Leopold, 1st March 1792.] - -In the position he had taken up the Emperor Leopold was generally -supported. The Princes of the Empire, as was represented in their -_conclusum_ passed at the Diet, not only resented the interference -of France with historic rights in Alsace and her dictation as to -whom they should shelter, but were beginning to fear the contagion -of the revolutionary conceptions of the rights of man and political -liberty. Throughout the Rhine provinces the peasants had risen in -partial rebellion against their lords; in all the great cities of -western Germany the more enlightened bourgeois protested against their -exclusion from political influence. This contagion, however, did not -spread far in these early days. The Empress Catherine, the King of -Prussia, and the King of Sweden, who chiefly urged Leopold to make -a brave stand against the Legislative Assembly, were urged by other -motives. Catherine wished to see Austria and Prussia embroiled with -France so as to have her hands free to deal with the Poles, who seemed -likely with their new Constitution to ward off destruction. Frederick -William II. was disgusted by the disrespect shown to the principle -of monarchy by the Parisians’ treatment of Louis XVI. Gustavus III. -had imbibed a knightly admiration for Marie Antoinette, and felt a -personal desire to relieve her from her position of humiliation. Each -monarch showed his inclination characteristically. Catherine received -some French _émigrés_, who found their way to her distant court, with -kindness, and dismissed the French ambassador; Gustavus hurried to -Spa to consult with the French _émigrés_, and proposed an immediate -expedition to carry off the French court; Frederick William signed -an offensive and defensive alliance with the Emperor on 2d February -1792, which saved him the trouble of personal decision, and left to -the Emperor the harassing business of arranging the details of the -war and of so carrying out the necessary diplomatic negotiations -which preceded an open rupture, that the interference of the powers -should seem justified. In the midst of his preparations the Emperor -Leopold died suddenly on 1st March 1792, the very day on which his -last manifesto was read to the Legislative Assembly. His death was -an irreparable blow for Austria, for Germany, for France, and for -Europe. In his short reign he had shown himself to be a monarch of -extraordinary ability, possessing alike singular tact and great force -of character. He was succeeded in the hereditary dominions of the House -of Hapsburg by his eldest son Francis II., an inexperienced youth, -quite unfitted to continue Leopold’s policy in the troublous times -approaching. - -[Sidenote: Murder of Gustavus III. 29th March 1792.] - -Europe had hardly recovered from the shock of the Emperor’s sudden -death, when it was startled by the news of the murder of Gustavus III. -of Sweden, who was shot on his way from a masked ball at Stockholm -by an officer named Ankarström, on 16th March 1792. He lingered till -29th March, when he died, and was succeeded on the throne of Sweden by -his infant son, Gustavus IV. Duke Charles of Sudermania was appointed -Regent. He at once reversed the policy of the late king; he felt -none of the sympathy so warmly expressed by Gustavus III. for Marie -Antoinette, and he distrusted the close alliance which had been entered -into with Russia after the Treaty of Verela. His first measure was to -place Sweden in a position of absolute neutrality, from which she never -swerved during his tenure of power. - -[Sidenote: Policy of Dumouriez.] - -[Sidenote: War declared by France against Austria. 20th April 1792.] - -Of the ministers who came into office in France in March 1792 through -the influence of the Girondins in the Legislative Assembly, the most -notable were Roland and Dumouriez. The former was a sincere republican, -who was induced by his wife to take up an offensive attitude to the -King, the latter an experienced soldier and diplomatist, who was well -fitted for the ministry of foreign affairs. Dumouriez at once accepted -war with Austria as inevitable, and directed all his efforts to -isolate her. He was a sworn enemy of the Austrian alliance, entered -into by the Treaty of 1756, and cemented by the marriage of Marie -Antoinette, and his first step was to endeavour to detach Prussia. He -was sanguine enough to believe in the possibility of doing this, but -he did not understand the character of Frederick William II. It was -difficult to induce that monarch to make up his mind, but when he did -make it up he was obstinate. The French party at his Court, headed by -his uncle Prince Henry, and in his ministry, represented by Haugwitz, -was very strong; but, on the other hand, he had been convinced by -Leopold that the cause of Louis XVI. was the cause of monarchy, and -the German party at Berlin hinted that if he allowed Austria to pose -as the defender of the rights of the Empire by herself, the policy -of Frederick the Great to make Prussia the leader of Germany would -be undone. Frederick William II., therefore, listened coldly to the -overtures of Dumouriez, and made preparations to support his ally in -the field. On 20th April 1792 the Legislative Assembly assented almost -unanimously to the King’s proposition, as read by Dumouriez, to declare -war against the King of Hungary and Bohemia, as Francis II. was at -this time styled, and the great war, which was to rage with but slight -intermissions for twenty-three years, began. - -[Sidenote: Invasion of the Tuileries. 20th June 1792.] - -The commencement of the first campaign of 1792 proved how thoroughly -the French army had been disorganised and demoralised by the policy of -the Constituent Assembly and the general course of the Revolution. An -attempt was made to invade the Austrian Netherlands or Belgium on four -lines; but one column was seized with panic and rushed back to Lille, -murdering its general, Theobald Dillon. The other commanders found -their soldiers filled with a spirit of distrust for their officers and -hardly amenable to discipline, and it soon became obvious that France -would have to stand on the defensive. This news profoundly moved the -people of France and especially of Paris. The word treachery was freely -used in connection with the Court, and it was asserted that the plan -of campaign had been revealed to the Austrians by the Queen. This was -true; Marie Antoinette had always looked to Austrian help to rescue -her from her position, and Louis XVI. had now entirely come round to -her view. At this juncture he dismissed his Girondin ministers on -their insisting upon his signing a decree, which had been passed by -the Assembly ordering the deportation of priests who had not taken -the oath, and even accepted the resignation of the ablest of them, -Dumouriez, who had offered to form a new ministry. The populace of -Paris was intensely excited by the failure of the attack on Belgium, -the concentration of the Prussian army on the frontier, and the -dismissal of the popular ministers, and a body of petitioners, after -filing through the hall of the Assembly, burst into the Tuileries and -for some hours filled the palace, insulting the King and Queen and -forcing the former to put on a red cap of liberty. The invasion of the -Tuileries marked the final breach between the King and the people. -Louis XVI. longed more ardently than ever for the arrival of the allied -monarchs; and the Jacobin leaders, who perceived the impossibility that -France should be successful in war with an unwilling king at her head, -began to plot for his overthrow. His last chance was lost, when he -rejected the proffered assistance of Lafayette, who returned from his -army without leave and offered to bring the National Guard of Paris to -his help. - -[Sidenote: Francis II. Emperor. 14th July 1792.] - -The news of the invasion of the Tuileries by the mob on the 20th June -further decided the allied monarchs to take immediate action. Francis -II., who was crowned Emperor at Frankfort on 14th July 1792, was -eager to come to his aunt’s help. The position of the allies was now -reversed. Instead of Austria in the person of the experienced Emperor -Leopold guiding Prussia, it was now Frederick William II. of Prussia -who directed the policy of the young Emperor Francis. It was arranged -that the Prussians should invade Champagne, supported by a _corps_ of -Austrians and _émigrés_ on their left, and joined midway by a _corps_ -of Austrians from their right, while an Austrian army under Duke Albert -of Saxe-Teschen was to march from the Netherlands and invest Lille. -The central Prussian army was placed under the command of the Duke of -Brunswick, who issued a proclamation, drafted by an _émigré_, M. de -Limon, and filled with violent language by Count Fersen, threatening to -hold Paris liable for the safety of the King, and vowing vengeance on -the French people as rebels. - -[Sidenote: Insurrection of 10th Aug. 1792.] - -[Sidenote: Suspension of Louis XVI. 10th Aug. 1792.] - -Brunswick’s proclamation was the very thing to complete the -exasperation of the French people. National patriotism rose to its -height; the country had been declared in danger, and thousands of -volunteers were arming and preparing to go to the front; the threats -of the Prussians only increased the national spirit of resistance; and -the universal feeling was one of defiance. But there was obviously no -chance of success while the executive remained in its present hands. -The King’s power of interfering with the preparations for resistance -had to be stopped. This was clearly understood by the democratic -leaders, who, ever since 20th June 1792, had been organising an armed -rising. They waited till some volunteers from Marseilles entered the -capital, singing the song that bears their name, and then they struck. -The royal plans for the defence of the Tuileries were thwarted; a -number of the most energetic democrats ousted the Council-General of -the Commune of Paris, and formed an Insurrectionary Commune; and the -men of the poorer districts of Paris, the Faubourgs Saint-Antoine and -Saint-Marceau, headed by the Marseillais, advanced to attack the royal -palace. Before the assault commenced, Louis XVI., accompanied by his -family and his ministers, took refuge in the hall of the Legislative -Assembly. The attack was gallantly resisted by the Swiss Guards, who -garrisoned the palace, but the people were eventually successful and -the Tuileries was taken. The Legislative Assembly at once declared the -King suspended from his office, and ordered him to be confined with -his family in the Temple. It then elected a new ministry, consisting of -three of the former Girondin ministers, Roland, Clavière, and Servan -for the Interior, Finance, and War, and three new men, Danton, Monge, -and Lebrun for Justice, the Marine, and Foreign Affairs. This ministry, -with the help of an extraordinary Commission of Twenty-one, elected by -the Legislative, and of the Commune of Paris, displayed the greatest -energy. By means of domiciliary visits, those suspected of opposition -to the insurrection of 10th August were seized and imprisoned; a -camp was formed for the defence of Paris; men were everywhere raised -and equipped and sent to the front; and commissioners were sent -throughout France, and especially to the armies, to tell the tale of -the insurrection and to secure the adhesion of the people. Danton -was the heart and soul of the defence movement and of the ministry, -and inspired confidence and patriotism into those who hesitated; -the Commission of Twenty-one, whose mouthpiece was the great orator -Vergniaud, aided him to the best of their power; the Legislative -directed the convocation of the primary assemblies, without distinction -of active and passive citizens, for the election of a National -Convention; and the Commune of Paris took measures to prevent any -attempt at a counter-revolution. - -[Sidenote: Desertion of Lafayette.] - -[Sidenote: The Massacres of September 1792.] - -But no amount of energy and patriotism could in a moment make trained -armies and enable France to repulse the most famous troops in Europe. -Fortunately for France, in this crisis, her untrained soldiers behaved -admirably. Lafayette, on the news of the insurrection of 10th August, -arrested the commissioners sent to him by the Legislative Assembly, -and endeavoured to induce his army to march to the aid of the King. -But his men refused; the former commander of the National Guard of -Paris deserted, and Dumouriez took command of his army. Lille made a -gallant resistance to the Austrians, who had formed the siege, but the -Prussians met with no such obstinate opposition. Longwy surrendered -to them on 27th August, and Verdun on 2nd September, and they -continued their march directly on Paris. Dumouriez fell back with -his main army to defend the uplands,—they can hardly be called the -mountains,—of the Argonne. He summoned to him the _corps d’armée_ on -the Belgian frontier under Arther Dillon, and a detachment from the -Army of the Rhine under Kellermann, while he was also reinforced by -some thousands of undisciplined, and therefore useless, volunteers, -and by a fine division of old soldiers collected from the garrisons -in the interior. In Paris the news of the Prussian advance caused a -panic; it seemed impossible that Dumouriez’ hastily concentrated army -could oppose an effective resistance; and even Danton and Vergniaud -could hardly keep up the enthusiasm they had at first aroused. At this -juncture the Parisian volunteers were half afraid to go to the front -for fear that the numerous prisoners, arrested during the domiciliary -visits, would break out and revenge themselves on the families of the -volunteers. This feeling induced the horrible series of murders, known -as the Massacres of September, in the prisons. The massacres began -fortuitously, and there were not more than 200 murderers at work; but -the crowd, including national guards, stood by and saw them committed -without raising a hand to help the victims. All Paris was responsible -for the murders; they could have been easily stopped; but no one -wanted to check them: the feeling which allowed them was the popular -feeling; neither Danton, nor Roland, nor the Commune of Paris, nor the -Legislative Assembly cared to interfere; the massacres were the answer -to the Prussian advance and the capture of Longwy, as the insurrection -of 10th August was the reply to Brunswick’s manifesto. - -[Sidenote: Battle of Valmy. 20th Sept. 1792.] - -On 20th September 1792 the main Prussian army, which had reached the -Argonne, attacked the position occupied by Kellermann at Valmy, and -was repulsed. The victory was not a great one; the battle was not very -hotly contested; the losses on both sides were insignificant; but its -results both military and political were immense. The King of Prussia, -who complained that the Austrians had not fulfilled their engagements, -and that the whole burden was thrown on him, was easily persuaded by -the Duke of Brunswick to order a retreat. The Duke of Brunswick was -induced to give that advice from military considerations, in that his -army was wasted by disease and harassed by the inclement weather, -and from policy, because, like many Prussian officers, he considered -it unnatural for Prussians and Austrians to fight side by side. The -retiring army was not hotly pressed; Dumouriez still hoped to induce -Prussia to quit the coalition against France, and pursued with more -courtesy than vigour until the army of Brunswick was beyond the limits -of French territory. - -[Sidenote: Meeting of the Convention. 20th Sep. 1792.] - -[Sidenote: Parties in the Convention.] - -On the day of the battle, or as it is with more correctness termed the -cannonade, of Valmy, the National Convention met in Paris and assumed -the direction of affairs. It contained all the most distinguished men -who had sat in the two former assemblies on the Left, or democratic -side, and its first act was to declare France a Republic. After -this had been unanimously carried, dissensions at once arose, and a -fundamental difference between two groups of deputies appeared, which -threatened to end in the proscription of the one or the other. On -the one side were the distinguished orators of the Gironde, who have -given their name to the whole party, reinforced by the presence of -several old members of the Constituent Assembly and of a few young and -inexperienced men. This group was roughly divided into Buzotins and -Brissotins, or followers of Buzot, a leading ex-Constituant, and of -Brissot, the author of the war; but some of the greatest of them, like -Vergniaud, refused to ally themselves with either leader. The chief -meeting-place of the Buzotins, who included most of the younger men, -was Madame Roland’s salon. On the other side, taking their name from -the high benches on which they sat, were the deputies of the Mountain, -including almost the whole of the representatives of Paris, and all -the energetic republicans, who had brought about the insurrection -of 10th August. This group comprised Robespierre, Danton and Marat, -Collot-d’Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, all deputies for Paris, and none -of whom, except Robespierre, had ever sat in either of the former -assemblies, with some leaders of the extreme party in the Legislative, -Merlin of Thionville, Chabot and Basire. It was not long before open -quarrels arose between the two groups. The Girondins accused the -leaders of the Mountain of having in the Insurrectionary Commune -fomented the massacres of September in the prisons, and abused them -as sanguinary and ambitious anarchists. This accusation was formally -indeed brought against Robespierre by Louvet, a Rolandist Girondin, -in an elaborate attack delivered on 29th October; while at the same -time the Mountain accused the Girondins of being federalists and -desiring to destroy the essential unity of the Republic, an accusation -which was used with deadly effect at a later date. Both groups,—they -cannot be called parties, for they had no party ties and recognised no -party obligations,—appealed to the great majority of the Convention, -the deputies of the Centre, who sat in the Plain or Marsh. The -representative of this vast majority was Barère, an ex-Constituant, who -trimmed judiciously between the two opposing groups. - -[Sidenote: Conquest of Savoy and Nice.] - -[Sidenote: Capture of Mayence. 21st October 1792.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Jemmappes. 6th Nov. 1792.] - -The Convention, which had been elected in days of deepest dejection, if -not despair, when the Prussians were moving on Paris and the Austrians -were besieging Lille, was soon raised by a succession of conquests to a -state of patriotic exaltation, bordering on delirium. In the month of -September, just after the battle of Valmy, General Montesquiou occupied -Savoy, and General Anselme the county and city of Nice, territories -belonging to the King of Sardinia, without striking a blow. This was -followed by a more important series of successes. Though not as a -body engaged in war with France, many princes of the Empire had sent -contingents to the aid of the Prussians and Austrians. In reply, still -without declaring war on the Empire, the French attacked the Rhenish -princes. On 1st October General Custine, commanding a corps of the -Army of the Rhine, took Spires, on October 4 Worms, and on October -21 Mayence, one of the bulwarks of the Empire and the capital of the -Elector-Archbishop. From Mayence Custine detached divisions in other -directions, and held the wealthy city of Frankfort-on-the-Main to -ransom. Not less startlingly rapid were the conquests of Dumouriez on -the north-east frontier. After the retreat of the Prussians he turned -north against the Austrians; he raised the siege of Lille, which had -been heroically defended, and on 6th November he defeated the Austrians -in a pitched battle at Jemmappes, near Mons. This victory laid Belgium -open to him. He occupied the whole country, entered Brussels as a -conqueror, and established his headquarters at Liége. The conquest of -Belgium intoxicated the Convention; they believed their armies to be -invincible; they regarded themselves as having a mission to carry the -doctrines of the French Revolution as embodied in the Rights of Man -and the Sovereignty of the People into all countries; they declared -themselves on 19th November ready to wage war for all peoples upon all -kings; and in disregard of all international obligations, they declared -the Scheldt, which by treaty had been closed to commerce for years, a -free river, because it had its source in a free country. - -The intoxication which followed this series of unparalleled successes -blinded the Convention to the need of improving and disciplining their -troops. The French republicans did not comprehend that the chief cause -of the facile conquests of their armies was that they met with the -sympathy of the conquered. Belgium, the Rhine provinces, Savoy, and -Nice were all filled with revolutionary enthusiasm, and welcomed the -French as liberators; they requested to be united to France, when -primary assemblies were summoned by the French commissioners, and -on 9th November Savoy and Nice, and on 13th December the Austrian -Netherlands or Belgium, were declared a part of France. In spite of -these military successes, the republican army could not be organised -in a day; the seeds of anarchy sown by the Constituent had gone too -deep to enable discipline to be restored except by sharp measures; the -administration of the army, that is, the commissariat, the war office, -etc., was in a state of chaos; the soldiers, both officers and men, -of all the armies, kept their eyes too closely fixed on the course of -politics in Paris to do their duty efficiently at the front. - -[Sidenote: Execution of Louis XVI. 21st Jan. 1793.] - -The burning question which divided the Convention at the end of 1792 -was the treatment to be meted out to Louis XVI. Robespierre urged -that, as a political measure, he should be put to death; but the -Girondins, filled with an idea of imitating the English republicans -of the seventeenth century, decided on a royal trial. When the trial, -which was but a defence of Louis XVI. by his counsel, was over, the -Girondins, in their desire to avoid responsibility, or perhaps from a -genuine belief that it might save the King’s life, proposed that the -sentence on him should be submitted to the primary assemblies of the -people. The deputies of the Mountain feared no responsibility, and -taunted the Girondins with being concealed royalists. The motion for an -appeal to the people was rejected; the King was sentenced to death by a -small majority; and on 21st January 1793 Louis XVI. was guillotined at -Paris. - -[Sidenote: War with Spain, Holland, England, and the Empire.] - -The result of the execution of Louis XVI. was to give a pretext to -the countries of Europe which had not yet declared war against the -French Republic to do so. Charles IV. of Spain, in the hope of saving -the chief of the Bourbon family, maintained his minister at Paris -until the last possible moment, and it was with reluctance that he -placed his army in the field on the news of the King’s execution. The -French Republic accepted the challenge, and early in March declared -war against Spain. The war with Holland stood on a different basis. -Dumouriez, after his conquest of Belgium, looked on Holland as an -easy and particularly wealthy prey. He believed that by conquering -Holland, France would have in her hands a means of forcing England to -keep the peace. His views were supported by Danton, who was sent on -mission to Dumouriez’ headquarters. The contrary was the result. Pitt -sincerely wished for peace, and was essentially a peace minister, but -he had no idea of allowing the faithful ally of England, Holland, to be -overrun and held to ransom by the French. The opening of the Scheldt -had crowned the long series of French breaches of international law, -and Pitt resented the assumption of the Convention that the law of -nature, as interpreted by themselves, was to take the place of the -law of nations. Pitt’s hand was also forced in two directions; the -philippics of Burke had roused the fears of English property-holders -against the spread of French principles; and George III. was as anxious -as any Continental monarch to preserve the dignity of kings. Pitt -and his foreign minister, Grenville, gradually became convinced that -the French meant to fight England, and that war was inevitable, and -Chauvelin, the French ambassador, was ordered to leave London. The -French leaders were under a misconception with regard to the spread -of their ideas in England; they knew that a large body of educated -men sympathised with them, and expected a national democratic rising -which should overthrow not only Pitt, but the English monarchy. They -did not understand that an English parliamentary opposition, in spite -of its words, is as staunchly loyal as the ministry, and that it would -never foment or encourage insurrection. Under these circumstances and -deluded by these misconceptions France declared war against England and -Holland on 1st February 1793. Many smaller nations entered on the fray. -Sweden under the prudent government of the Regent Duke of Sudermania, -Denmark under Christian VII. and Bernstorff, and Switzerland declared -their neutrality. But Portugal, where the heir-apparent, afterwards -King John VI., had become regent for his mother, Maria Francisca, who -was insane; Tuscany, whose Grand Duke, Ferdinand, was a brother of the -Emperor; Naples, or rather the Two Sicilies, whose king was a Bourbon, -and whose queen was a sister of Marie Antoinette, all declared war -on the French Republic. Catherine of Russia wore mourning for Louis -XVI. inveighed against the wickedness of the French republicans, and -proceeded to take advantage of the occupation of the rest of Europe -in the affairs of France to prosecute her schemes on Poland. Last of -all, the Holy Roman Empire, which had decreed the armament of the -contingents of the circles, on 23d November 1792, after the news of -the capture of Mayence, solemnly, and with all the circumlocution -inseparable from the movement of the unwieldy machine, declared war -against France on 22d March 1793. - -[Sidenote: Catherine invades Poland.] - -[Sidenote: Second partition of Poland. 24th Sept. 1793.] - -While regenerated France was at bay with nearly the whole of Europe, -regenerated Poland was being conquered by a single power. While Europe -pretended to fight France on behalf of the principle of monarchy, -Catherine invaded Poland, because by the Constitution of 3d May 1791 -it had strengthened its monarchy. France was attacked because it was -asserted to be in a state of anarchy, Poland because it had by wise -reforms tried to put an end to an historic system of constitutional -anarchy. As soon as Catherine had made peace with the Turks at Jassy, -and Austria and Prussia were engaged in war with France, she intervened -to overthrow the new Polish Constitution. It was not difficult to find -Polish nobles who resented the abrogation of the old system, and, -under Catherine’s encouragement, Branicki, Felix Potocki, and some -others formed the Confederation of Targovitsa, and protested against -the abolition of the _liberum veto_ and the reforms of 3d May 1791. -They then asked Catherine to send a Russian army to their assistance. -She willingly complied, and on 18th May 1792 published a manifesto, -stating that she was the guarantor of the ancient Polish Constitution, -and stigmatising the reformers of 1791 as Jacobins. Suvórov at once -entered Poland at the head of 80,000 Russians and 20,000 Cossacks, and -by force of numbers defeated the Polish army under Joseph Poniatowski -at Zielencé on 18th June 1792, and under Kosciuszko at Dubienka on 17th -July. These defeats caused the reformers of 1791, including Kollontai -and Kosciuszko, to go into exile; their place at the Diet was taken by -the leaders of the Confederation of Targovitsa, and the Constitution -of 3d May 1791 was abrogated. The conquest of the Polish patriots by -Russia greatly excited the King of Prussia and the Emperor, and was one -of the causes which induced Frederick William to order Brunswick to -retreat after his trifling check at Valmy. The Polish patriots appealed -to Prussia for help under the terms of the alliance of 1790, but the -King only answered that he had not recognised the Constitution of 3d -May 1791, and that the Polish leaders were Jacobins and imitators and -allies of the French revolutionary leaders. A Prussian army, therefore, -entered Poland to co-operate with the Russians and to share the spoil. -A treaty of partition was signed by Catherine and Frederick William -on 4th January 1793, by which Russia was to annex eastern Poland, -including the whole of Minsk, Podolia, Volhynia, and Little Russia, and -Prussia was to have Posen, Gnezen, Kalisch, and the cities of Dantzic -and Thorn. Austria was too hotly engaged in the war with France to -be able to claim a share, but the conduct of Prussia at this time in -excluding her from the partition of Poland was never forgotten nor -forgiven, and increased the hereditary feeling of distrust between -the two powers. The Emperor Francis regarded himself as duped, and -Prussia by acting alone broke the solemn engagements entered into with -Leopold, and commenced the policy which was to end in the conclusion -of the Treaty of Basle with the French Republic. Though the second -partition of Poland was agreed upon in 1792, it was not consummated -until the following year. A Diet was called at Grodno, and there, in -the presence of the Russian soldiers, Stanislas Poniatowski and the -Diet consented in silence, on 24th September 1793, to the arrangements -made between Russia and Prussia. On 16th October Catherine signed a -treaty, guaranteeing the liberty of Poland, that is, the abuses of the -old Constitution, which were certain to give Russia the opportunity -of finishing the work of blotting out the Poles as an independent -nationality from the map of Europe. - -The close of the year 1792 thus witnessed at the same time the -overthrow of Poland and France in arms against foreign aggression. -Each country was to make a violent effort for independence. The French -were to be successful, because under the influence of personal and -political freedom every Frenchman felt it his duty to resist foreign -interference; Poland was to fail, because it was not the Polish people, -but only the enlightened Polish nobles and bourgeois, who appreciated -the situation. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - 1793–1795 - - France at War with Europe—Altered Character of the War—The - Revolutionary Propaganda—First Campaign of 1793—Battle of - Neerwinden—Desertion of Dumouriez—Creation of the Committee - of Public Safety—Insurrection in La Vendée—Creation of - the Revolutionary Tribunal—Struggle between the Girondins - and the Mountain—Overthrow of the Girondins—Second - Campaign of 1793—Loss of Valenciennes and Mayence—Civil - War in France—Royalist and Federalist Risings—Loss - of Toulon—Constitution of 1793—The work of the first - Committee of Public Safety—The Great Committee of Public - Safety—Growth of its Power—Position of Robespierre—The Reign - of Terror—The Committee of General Security, the Deputies - on Mission, the Revolutionary Tribunal, the Laws of the - Suspects and the Maximum—Results of the Terror—Battles - of Hondschoten, Wattignies, and the Geisberg—Relief of - Maubeuge—Recovery of Lyons and Toulon—Fall of the Hébertists - and the Dantonists—Campaign of 1794—Battles of Fleurus, - Kaiserslautern, and 1st June 1794—Fall of Robespierre—Rule - of the Thermidorians: First Phase: the Survivors of the - Mountain—Conquest of Holland—The Batavian Republic—Successes - on the Rhine, in Savoy, Italy, and Spain—Insurrection - in Poland—The Campaign of Kosciuszko—Third and Final - Partition of Poland—Contrast between the Polish and - French Revolutions—Its Causes—Change in the Attitude of - the Continental Powers to the French Republic—Rule of the - Thermidorians: Second Phase: the Survivors of the Girondins - and Deputies of the Centre—Insurrections of 12th Germinal - and 1st Prairial in Paris—The Constitution of the Year III. - (1795)—The Treaties of Basle—France again enters the Comity - of Nations. - - -[Sidenote: France at War with Europe.] - -The first months of 1793 found France at war with Europe. Though -such minor states as Denmark and Sweden and Venice declared their -neutrality, they manifested no desire to assist the French Republic, -and their neutrality was but of slight service. It was otherwise with -the neutrality of Switzerland. The Swiss cantons had nearly been drawn -into the general war by the support given to the revolutionary party -in the Republic of Geneva by the French ministry, which included among -its members Clavière, a Genevese exile. The canton of Berne went so -far as to occupy the city of Geneva, and it was only by the exercise -of much diplomatic skill that open war was avoided. The neutrality of -Switzerland made the land blockade of the French Republic of no avail. -Through secret agents in Switzerland, arms, provisions, and necessaries -were obtained from Southern Germany, and diplomatic relations were -maintained with the democrats residing in the states of the belligerent -powers. The declaration of war by the Holy Roman Empire completed the -armed opposition of the greater countries of Europe against France. -Of these countries Russia alone sent no army or fleet against the -Republic, and Catherine satisfied herself with stating that she was -engaged in conquering Jacobins in Poland. - -[Sidenote: Altered character of the War.] - -The character of the war in 1793 differed from that waged in 1792. -In 1792 France was invaded on behalf of Louis XVI., and the fighting -was carried on according to the principles which had existed in the -eighteenth century. But in 1793 the powers were at war with France for -a different and more far-reaching reason. The revolutionary propaganda, -that is, the idea consecrated in the decree of the Convention on the -19th of November 1792, that France was to spread among all countries -the new doctrines of liberty, equality, and fraternity, vitally -affected every government in Europe. England in particular, which -had studiously kept aloof while the Revolution was pursuing its -course at home, only felt obliged to interfere when the new rulers of -France announced their intention of disregarding all principles of -international law, and of converting other nations to their doctrines. -It was this common opposition to the revolutionary propaganda which -united the powers of Europe against France in 1793. England made -herself the paymaster of the coalition. She lavished money freely, -not only in subsidies to Prussia and Austria, but to less important -countries, such as Spain and Sardinia. With this community of aim -necessarily came a community of action. The war against France became a -matter of principle and not of intrigue. This new attitude was marked -by changes of ministry both in Prussia and in Austria. The failure of -the invasion of 1792 disgusted Frederick William II. with his advisers. -The Duke of Brunswick fell into open disgrace, and Schulemburg, the -foreign minister, made way for Haugwitz. At Vienna, Count Philip -Cobenzl, the Vice-Chancellor of State, who had managed foreign affairs -owing to the old age of Kaunitz, was dismissed, and his place was taken -by Thugut, a man of low origin, whose sole political object was the -humiliation of France, and his guiding principle a horror of French -principles. Even in the secondary states similar ministerial changes -took place, of which the most remarkable was the dismissal of Aranda in -Spain, who was succeeded in power by Godoy, the Queen’s lover. - -[Sidenote: First Campaign of 1793.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Neerwinden. 21st March 1793.] - -The first result of the formation of the coalition was a determined -attack upon Dumouriez’ position in Belgium. That general had hitherto -not despaired of detaching Prussia from Austria, but the execution of -Louis XVI. destroyed his last hope. Both Prussia and England declined -to listen to his lavish promises; his army had wasted away while in -winter quarters; the first volunteers returned to their homes in -thousands when France was freed from the invaders; the troops he -retained were deprived of all necessaries by the disorganisation -of the French War Office; and the people of Belgium, finding that -their country was annexed to the French Republic, in spite of their -patriotic desire for independence, showed their hostility in every -way, and harassed instead of aiding the French troops. Under these -circumstances, Dumouriez’ invasion of Holland failed, as it was certain -to fail. His right wing, which was besieging Maestricht under the -command of General Miranda, was defeated by the Austrians under the -command of the Prince of Coburg, and he had to withdraw his advanced -divisions, for fear of being cut off from France. He was rapidly -pursued. An English army, under the Duke of York, joined the Austrians, -under the Prince of Coburg, and Dumouriez was utterly defeated by -the allies at Neerwinden on the 21st March 1793. The defeat became a -rout, and the French were driven from Belgium as speedily as they had -conquered it. Dumouriez then made a fruitless effort to lead his army -against the Convention. He arrested four deputies and the Minister for -War who had been sent to suspend him from his command, but, finding -that his army would not follow him, he deserted to the Austrians on the -5th April. - -[Sidenote: Effect on the Convention.] - -[Sidenote: The Committee of Public Safety.] - -[Sidenote: Insurrection in La Vendée. 1793.] - -The effect of Dumouriez’ reverses, and, finally, of his desertion, -on the temper of the Convention was most striking. The enthusiasts -who believed in the inauguration of a new era, who boasted that free -Frenchmen, even without arms and discipline, would be able to defeat -all foreign armies, and who considered that the career of the Republic -was certain to be one of victory, were rudely awakened. The need of -the creation of a strong government was forced upon the attention of -the Convention. Danton, recurring to the views of Mirabeau, proposed -that a new ministry should be chosen from among the members of the -Legislature. But the republicans had the same horror of the power -of the executive as the constitutionalists, and Danton’s motion was -rejected. Nevertheless, it was quite impossible that an unwieldy -assembly and a discredited ministry could defend France with any -degree of success. As early as January 1793, a Committee of General -Defence had been elected by the principal committees of the Convention; -this was replaced, on the news of the defeat at Neerwinden, by a -Committee of General Defence of twenty-five members chosen directly -by the Convention; this was still too unwieldy, and on the news of -the desertion of Dumouriez, the first Committee of Public Safety of -nine members, exercising supreme executive authority, was appointed. -But the question was, how was the Committee to be enabled to rule. -Its first duty was to raise soldiers to meet the enemies upon every -frontier. For this purpose eighty-two deputies of the Convention were -sent through France, two and two, to raise by volunteering where -possible, but by conscription if other measures failed, 300,000 men. -This call for recruits caused disturbances in many parts of France; -in La Vendée it started civil war. It was to protest against the -conscription, and not to defend the Church or the nobility, that -the people of La Vendée rose in insurrection. But the leadership -of the movement, which had at first been taken by gamekeepers and -postillions, was speedily assumed by members of the ancient French -clergy and nobility. Cohesion was thus given to the insurgents, and a -large and important district in the west of France maintained for a -time a successful opposition to the decrees of the Convention. But the -reverses and desertion of Dumouriez not only caused, for the first time -in the history of the Revolution, the creation of a real executive, -it caused also the forging of the weapons by which that executive -was in the future to establish the Reign of Terror. On 9th March the -Revolutionary Tribunal of Paris was established. Its special object was -the summary punishment of all enemies of the Revolution. On the 4th of -April the Convention decreed that a maximum price of food should be -fixed. Extended powers were granted to deputies sent on mission to the -armies or to the departments; and an army, consisting of the very poor, -or _sans culottes_, was proposed. - -[Sidenote: Overthrow of the Girondins. 2d June 1793.] - -While these measures, which did not take full effect for some months, -were being debated, the Convention was torn by the opposition between -the Girondins and the deputies of the Mountain. The details of the -struggle are not important. The arguments used by the Girondins were -that their enemies were responsible for the massacres of September -in the prisons, that they were under the influence of the Commune -of Paris, and that they encouraged anarchy. The Mountain, on their -side, alleged that the Girondins were concealed royalists, because -they had voted against the execution of Louis XVI., that they were -federalists, who desired to destroy the unity of the Republic, and that -they preferred a weak to a strong government. The struggle was mainly -carried on in the tribune of the Convention; Robespierre attacked -Brissot, Vergniaud, and Guadet, and these orators replied by attacking -Robespierre and Danton. The latter for a time endeavoured to avoid -breaking with the Girondins, but he was so violently impeached for his -conduct while on mission in Belgium, and accused of being an accomplice -of Dumouriez, that in self-defence he was forced to take up the -gauntlet. He had been elected to the first Committee of Public Safety, -and though his constitutional indolence prevented him from becoming its -most important member, he shared with Cambon, the financier, the chief -responsibility of the new method of government. Meanwhile, worse news -kept coming from every frontier. It was felt to be both injudicious and -unpatriotic for the Convention to be occupied in personal squabbles -when the fate of France was in the balance. The Commune of Paris -decided to intervene. The deputies who sat in the Plain, or Centre of -the Convention, were more influenced by the eloquence of the Girondins -than by the energy of the Mountain, and it was with regret that they -felt obliged to yield to the Commune of Paris. On the 31st May 1793, -regular troops and national guards, under the direction of Hanriot, the -commander of the National Guard of Paris, surrounded the Tuileries, -to which the Convention had removed on the 10th May, and the Commune -demanded that the leading Girondins should be expelled from the -Convention, and sent for trial before the Revolutionary Tribunal. The -_coup d’état_ was completed on the 2d June, when these demands were -complied with, and from that date the Girondins as a political party in -the Convention ceased to exist. - -[Sidenote: Second Campaign of 1793.] - -The desertion of Dumouriez left the way clear for the Austrians and -English to invade France. They advanced slowly and did not attempt, -like the Duke of Brunswick in the previous year, to mask the frontier -fortresses and move straight upon Paris. On 24th May the French camp at -Famars was stormed; on 12th July Condé, on 28th July Valenciennes, were -taken after making an obstinate resistance, and the allies were thus -firmly established in France. Then, fortunately for the Convention, -the allied commanders-in-chief quarrelled. The Duke of York, acting -under the orders of the English ministry, besieged Dunkirk, which port -he desired to hold for the disembarkation of supplies. The Prince of -Coburg, with the Austrians, refused to assist in the siege of Dunkirk, -and invested Le Quesnoy. Further south the Prussians captured Mayence -on the 22d of July, and a mixed army of Austrians and troops of the -Empire under Würmser forced their way into Alsace. At both ends of -the Pyrenees Spanish armies invaded the French Republic. In the -eastern Pyrenees nearly the whole of Roussillon was conquered, and in -the western Pyrenees the passage of the Bidassoa was forced. These -repeated reverses in so many quarters did not destroy the courage of -the Convention or of the French people, but they proved that hastily -raised undisciplined masses can never be a match for trained soldiers. -The successes of Dumouriez and Custine had been as much the result of -accident and of the hearty reception given to them by the natives of -the districts they invaded as of talent and bravery, but the first -defeats showed how thoroughly the policy of the Constituent Assembly -had sapped the discipline of the French army. - -[Sidenote: Civil war in France.] - -To add to the dangers which threatened France during the summer of -1793, civil war in many quarters redoubled the perils caused by the -foreign invasion. The war in La Vendée increased in magnitude almost -daily, and the soldiers of the Republic were frequently defeated by -the hardy peasants who fought in guerilla fashion among their woods -and marshes. Throughout Brittany and in the mountains of Auvergne -similar movements took place, generally guided by priests and country -gentlemen; but except in La Vendée there was no serious royalist -manifestation. But the expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention -had given rise to another movement of even greater importance. The -insurrections in La Vendée and similar risings in country or mountain -districts were the work of ignorant peasants; the movement in favour of -the Girondins was headed by wealthy and intelligent cities. The news of -the _coup d’état_ of the 2d of June was received with consternation in -most of the chief cities of France. Girondin journals had long preached -the wickedness of the Commune of Paris, and that the leaders of the -Mountain were either anarchists or ambitious men aiming at power. -These words now had their effect. Several of the deputies proscribed -on the 2d of June escaped into the provinces, and a group of them, -collected at Caen in Normandy, endeavoured to organise an army against -the Convention. Other cities followed the example. Marseilles arrested -the representatives on mission; Bordeaux refused to receive the -deputies sent to it; Lyons started a counter-revolution and executed -Chalier, the leader of the local democratic party; and several cities -agreed to send detachments of local troops to form a central army -against the Convention at Bourges. For a few days matters looked most -threatening for the victorious members of the Mountain, but they were -well served by the deputies on mission. The Norman army was easily -defeated at Pacy on the 13th of July; Bordeaux and Marseilles quickly -submitted, and Lyons was invested. But the success of the Mountain was -due to something more than the vigour of its representatives in the -provinces. The general sentiment in France was that the conduct of -the Girondins in causing civil war showed the very excess of want of -patriotism; even if the Commune of Paris had done wrong in interfering -with the Convention, the Girondins had behaved worse in attempting -to rouse the provinces, and owing to this sentiment many departments -and many cities speedily repented of the encouragement they had given -to the Girondin designs, and withdrew their support to the proposed -concentration of local troops at Bourges. - -[Sidenote: The Constitution of 1793.] - -[Sidenote: The work of the first Committee of Public Safety.] - -The deputies of the Mountain met the unparalleled dangers of foreign -and civil war with undaunted courage. Their first measure was to -draw up with extreme rapidity a republican constitution, which is -known as the Constitution of 1793. As it never came into effect, the -details of this proposed system of government need not be described. -But the fact that it was drawn up, promulgated, and sent before the -primary assemblies of the people, deprived the Girondin insurgents -of one of their chief weapons. They had asserted that the Mountain -admired anarchy and wished to retain power for the Convention and -themselves. To these allegations the issue of the Constitution of -1793 was an adequate reply. But it was quite impossible, according to -the leaders of the Mountain, for the Convention to abandon the reins -of power. A general election at such a time would but increase the -difficulty of the situation. So, while declaring the existence of the -new Constitution, it deferred putting it into effect, and strengthened -the authority of its new executive, the Committee of Public Safety. -The advantages to be derived from the concentration of authority in -a few hands became quite clear to the Convention after the expulsion -of the Girondins. It may be doubted whether the distinguished orators -who directed Girondin opinion, from their constant apprehension of -the dangers of a strong executive to individual liberty, would ever -have perceived them. The existence of the Committee made it possible -for representatives on mission and other agents of government to -have a central authority on which to rely. It was the Committee -which directed the short campaign in Normandy which overthrew the -most promising movement of the escaped Girondin deputies; it was the -prudence of a member of the Committee, Robert Lindet, which pacified -Normandy, after the victory had been won, by ruthlessly tracking down -the ringleaders and generously sparing those who had been led away; -it was the Committee which first attempted to re-establish discipline -in the armies and to supply them with provisions and munitions of war; -and it was on the motion of the most important member of the first -Committee, Danton, that the fatal decree of the 19th of November, which -consecrated the revolutionary propaganda, and gave good reason for the -continued opposition of foreign powers, was repealed. This good work -in all directions showed the members of the Convention that they were -acting in the right direction. - -[Sidenote: The Great Committee of Public Safety.] - -On 10th July 1793 the first Committee was dissolved on the motion of -Camille Desmoulins, but a new Committee with similar powers was at -once elected. This Committee, which may be called the Great Committee -of Public Safety, remained in power for more than a year. Danton was -not a member of it, partly because he believed he could do better work -outside, partly because of his dislike of continued labour; Cambon also -was not re-elected, preferring to confine himself to the charge of -the finances of the Republic as the principal member of the Financial -Committee. The nine members originally elected in July were Barère, who -acted as reporter throughout its tenure of office, and was therefore in -some respects the most important of them all; Jean Bon Saint-André, who -took charge of naval matters; Prieur of the Marne and Robert Lindet, -whose main duties were to provide for the feeding of the armies; -Hérault de Séchelles, the chief author of the Constitution of 1793, who -busied himself with foreign affairs; Couthon, Saint-Just, Gasparin, and -Thuriot. Robespierre entered the Committee in the place of Gasparin on -the 27th of July; Carnot and Prieur of the Côte-d’Or were added on the -14th of August to superintend the military operations on the frontiers; -Billaud-Varenne and Collot-d’Herbois were added on September the 6th -to establish the Reign of Terror; and on the 20th of September Thuriot -retired. The steps in the growth of the supremacy of this second -Committee of Public Safety are significant. On the 1st of August 1793 -Barère read his first report to the Convention. In it he proposed the -most energetic, not to say sanguinary, measures. The war was to be -carried on with the utmost energy; La Vendée was to be destroyed; and -Marie Antoinette was to be sent for trial before the Revolutionary -Tribunal. On the same day Danton proposed that the Committee should be -formally recognised as a provisional government, and that the ministers -should be directed to act as its subordinates. This motion was not -carried, but the entire control over the resources of France, and the -lives of Frenchmen, which Danton contemplated, was secured without the -passing of a formal decree. The Convention seems to have been very -glad to rid itself of the work of government. It accepted without a -murmur every measure proposed by the Committee of Public Safety; it -re-elected the members month after month; it threw all responsibility -upon them and registered all the decrees they proposed. As has been -said, it definitely gave them the charge of the military operations by -the election of Carnot and Prieur of the Côte-d’Or, and it established -the unity of their internal administration by the election of -Billaud-Varenne and Collot-d’Herbois. - -[Sidenote: The Position of Robespierre.] - -The rule of the second or Great Committee of Public Safety is generally -known as the Reign of Terror. The Committee itself divided the chief -functions of government among its members. The special functions of -all, except those of Robespierre, Couthon, and Saint-Just, have been -already noticed. Robespierre was the only one amongst them who had any -reputation outside, or indeed within, the walls of the Convention. -His conduct during the session of the Constituent Assembly, his -clear-sighted opposition to the war with Austria, his sagacious -views on the subject of the treatment of the King, his war against -the Girondin federalists, his oratorical talent, and above all his -reputation for being absolutely incorruptible and sincerely patriotic, -made him the man of mark among the Committee. He was well aware of the -importance of his position. His colleagues on the Committee used him -as their figure-head to represent them on great occasions, and he made -it his business to lay down the general principles which underlay the -system of revolutionary government—that is, of the Reign of Terror. But -though to the Convention and to France at large Robespierre was the -most conspicuous member of the Committee of Public Safety, he really -exercised but very slight influence on the actual work of government. -He had no department of the State given into his charge; he had not -the necessary fluency or facility to take Barère’s place as ordinary -reporter; he was not on terms of friendship with the majority of his -fellow-workers; he was made use of, but was neither trusted nor liked -by the real governors of France. It was to their benefit that the -system of the solidarity of the Committee was established, which gave -to all their measures the sanction of Robespierre’s great reputation -for incorruptibility and patriotism. The majority of the Committee -had no positive views on government; they tried to do the work which -lay to their hands in the best way they could; Robespierre alone -hoped to evolve out of the Reign of Terror a new system of republican -government. His only real friends in the Committee were the two men -least suited to give him effectual help, for Couthon was a cripple, -and unable to attend with the necessary assiduity, and Saint-Just was -but five-and-twenty, the youngest of the Committee, and was generally -absent from Paris on special missions. - -[Sidenote: The Reign of Terror.] - -[Sidenote: Committee of General Security.] - -The system by which the Great Committee of Public Safety regulated the -Reign of Terror was based upon two important institutions. The first of -these was the Committee of General Security which sat in Paris, and was -elected from the members of the Convention, and which exercised general -police control over all France. On great occasions its members sat with -the Committee of Public Safety as a Committee of Government, but its -special functions were to deal with men, while the Committee of Public -Safety dealt with measures. Danton, who was the principal creator of -the supremacy of the Great Committee of Public Safety—though he himself -refused to join it—saw the importance of subordinating in fact, if not -in name, the Committee of General Security to the Committee of Public -Safety. On 11th September 1793 a Committee of General Security had been -elected, containing certain deputies of independent character, and -Danton, fearing a rivalry would arise between the two Committees, at -once obtained its dissolution, and secured, on September the 14th, the -election of a Committee of General Security which would act in harmony -with the great Committee. The members elected at this time were with -but few exceptions re-elected every month. - -[Sidenote: Deputies on Mission.] - -The second instrument by which the Great Committee ruled were the -deputies on mission. The practice of sending deputies on special -missions originated in August 1792. It had grown in importance, and -the deputies proved their value in their vigorous suppression of the -Girondin movement in the provinces in the summer of 1793. The power -of deputies on mission was more than once specifically declared to be -unlimited. On grounds of public safety they were not only permitted, -but were ordered, to alter the composition of local authorities, -whether municipal or departmental. They had full powers to arrest -and to make requisitions. They were consistently supported by the -Committee of Public Safety sitting in Paris, and the greatest latitude -was given to them in administering the local government. As long as -they preserved the peace and sent up plenty of supplies of money, and, -when demanded, of recruits to Paris, their methods of government were -not minutely inquired into. Besides the deputies on mission employed -in the internal administration, another important body of similar -representatives were kept at the headquarters of the different armies. -These deputies likewise had unlimited authority. They could arrest even -generals-in-chief at their absolute will; they could degrade officers -of any rank; they could interfere with military operations; and could -overrule the orders of a general in the field. The Committee of General -Security and the deputies on mission ruled by means of inspiring -terror. This terror was based on the existence of the Revolutionary -Tribunal in Paris, and of its imitations termed revolutionary or -military commissions in the provinces, and the armies. - -[Sidenote: Law of the Suspects.] - -[Sidenote: Law of the Maximum.] - -The Revolutionary Tribunal took cognisance of all political offences, -and its sentence was almost invariably death. Nearly every Frenchman -or Frenchwoman could be brought within the net of the Revolutionary -Tribunal by the Law of the Suspects. By this law, which was most -carefully drafted by Merlin of Douai, any one who for any reason could -be suspected of disliking the new state of affairs could be arrested. -All relatives of _émigrés_ or of noblemen came into this category as -well as all former functionaries and officials of whatever sort. But -since the Law of the Suspects was not sufficiently wide to impress the -ordinary bourgeois, more especially the petty bourgeois, with terror, a -new weapon was forged in the Law of the Maximum. This law was put into -operation in September 1793. The laws of political economy could not be -seriously affected by such a measure as the Law of the Maximum, which -fixed maximum prices at which all articles of prime necessity were -to be sold. Such a law was certain to be evaded; but its existence, -and the fact that evasions of the Law of the Maximum brought the -offender under the Revolutionary Tribunal, was enough to establish the -Reign of Terror over the petty bourgeois. There were other means for -extending the system which need not here be particularised, such as -the necessity of every person carrying a card with him giving a full -history of his conduct during the Revolution, the encouragement of -denunciations by the bestowal of rewards, and similar precautions. The -Revolutionary Tribunal was provided with victims under these measures -by the Committee of General Security, and by the numerous little -Revolutionary Committees sitting in every section of Paris, and in -every city, district, and village throughout France. The Revolutionary -Committees consisted of tried Jacobins, and were in the provinces -appointed by the deputies on mission. They were frequently purified by -the expulsion of any member who gave evidence of moderate opinions. The -Revolutionary Committees filled the prisons—it was the business of the -Revolutionary Tribunal to empty them. This it did with much expedition. -The death sentences of the Revolutionary Tribunal of Paris, which only -averaged three a week from April to September 1793, averaged thirty-two -a week from September 1793 to June 1794, and 196 a week in June and -July 1794. This increase was very gradual; it became an established -system to send batches of victims to the guillotine every day; and the -numbers in these batches increased steadily. The Committee of Public -Safety, through its agent, the Committee of General Security, did not -much care who were executed as long as a considerable number went to -the scaffold every day. Exceptions to this rule are, however, to be -noted in the executions of Marie Antoinette on 16th October 1793, of -twenty-one Girondins on 31st October, of certain generals, such as -Custine, Houchard, and Biron, and of the Duke of Orleans and Bailly, -which intimidated courtiers, deputies, generals, and ex-Constituants. - -This system of terror was not suddenly evolved—it was the result of -gradual growth. The two men mainly responsible for systematising it and -carrying it into effect were Billaud-Varenne and Collot-d’Herbois, who -were specially added to the Committee of Public Safety to superintend -the internal administration of France. On 10th October 1793, on the -motion of Saint-Just, the Constitution of 1793 was declared suspended, -and revolutionary government, that is, the Reign of Terror, was ordered -to continue until a general peace. On 10th December Billaud-Varenne -read a report which defined the system, of which the most important -clause was the substitution of national agents nominated by the -government,—that is, by the deputies on mission,—to take the place of -the elected procureurs-syndics of the districts. The Reign of Terror -in the provinces varied greatly. Some proconsuls, such as Carrier at -Nantes and Le Bon at Arras, carried out their government in the most -bloodthirsty fashion, but the ‘Noyades,’ or drowning of prisoners -wholesale at Nantes, must not be regarded as typical of the terror -in the provinces. Many proconsuls, such as André Dumont, contented -themselves with threats, and while filling their prisons with suspects -declined to empty them by means of the guillotine. Other proconsuls, -such as Bernard of Saintes, preferred to send an occasional batch of -prisoners to Paris to having a revolutionary tribunal of their own; -but in every case except those of Carrier and Javogues, which were -too atrocious to be passed over, the Committee of Public Safety gave -its agents in the provinces a free hand to rule as they would so long -as they maintained internal tranquillity and passive obedience to the -decrees of the revolutionary government. - -[Sidenote: Results of the Terror.] - -[Sidenote: Battles of Hondschoten and Wattignies. 1793.] - -While the government of the Committee of Public Safety was being -organised in Paris and in the provinces, disasters succeeded each other -with rapidity both on the frontiers and in the interior of France. The -Prussians, after the capture of Mayence, only advanced a short distance -into France; but the Austrians made steady progress in the north-east -in conjunction with the English, and, under Würmser, penetrated Alsace -and stormed the lines of Wissembourg. The Comte d’Artois declared his -intention to place himself at the head of the insurgents in La Vendée, -at Lyons, and in the mountains of Auvergne. The English also promised -to send armed assistance in every direction. But the younger brother of -Louis XVI. thought it enough to make promises—he did absolutely nothing -to fulfil them. The English on their part confined themselves to one -important operation. They had on the outbreak of war despatched a fleet -to the Mediterranean under the command of Lord Hood, and on the 4th of -August 1793 the insurgents at Toulon, in the course of their opposition -to the Convention, surrendered their city to the allied English and -Spanish fleets. In Lyons the same progress of opposition was to be -observed. The original insurgents had professed federalist opinions, -but when the Convention sent an army against them open royalists took -the place of the federalists. The vigorous action of the new government -soon freed the French Republic from its foreign and internal foes. -Carnot, on taking charge of military measures, saw that the only means -of defeating the invaders was to take advantage of the numbers of his -soldiers and to act in masses. Acting on this policy General Houchard -raised the siege of Dunkirk and defeated the English and Hanoverians -in the battle of Hondschoten (8th September). In spite of his victory -Houchard was disgraced for not following it up with vigour. Jourdan, -his successor, carrying out the same policy, concentrated his army -against the Austrians, raised the siege of Maubeuge, and defeated the -Austrians at Wattignies (16th October). These victories did not drive -the Anglo-Austrian army out of France, but they stopped the progress -of the allies and caused them to stand upon the defensive. Farther -south the same vigour was displayed. Saint-Just restored discipline -in the armies of the Rhine and the Moselle. Hoche, at the head of the -latter, won the victory of the Geisberg (25th September) over the -Austrians and Prussians, while Pichegru, at the head of the Army of -the Rhine, relieved Landau and drove Würmser across the Rhine. Almost -at the same time a powerful army, of which the best regiments were -the former garrison of Valenciennes, captured Lyons on the 9th of -October, and on the 18th of December Toulon was retaken by an army -under the command of General Dugommier. It was at the siege of Toulon -that Napoleon Bonaparte first made himself conspicuous and won the rank -of general of brigade. The republican armies were equally successful -against the Spaniards. The Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, under D’Aoust, -recovered Roussillon, while that of the Western Pyrenees, under Müller, -drove the Spaniards across the Bidassoa. In La Vendée equal success -was achieved. The former garrison of Mayence, which was composed of -excellent soldiers who had gained experience and discipline from their -long resistance to the Prussians, destroyed the Vendéan armies, and -the insurrection of the province was severely punished by Carrier at -Nantes and by the infernal columns which, under General Turreau, were -directed to devastate the country. These repeated successes in every -quarter reconciled the French people to the hideous _régime_ of the -Reign of Terror. Its despotism was excused because of its success, and -its absolute authority reluctantly submitted to as a necessary evil. - -[Sidenote: Fall of the Hébertists and Dantonists.] - -In Paris the supremacy of the Committee of Public Safety and the Reign -of Terror met with opposition in two distinct quarters. On the one -hand the Commune of Paris, which was principally influenced by the -Procureur-Syndic, Chaumette, and his substitute, Hébert, soon began -to resent the loss of its former authority. The Commune had actually -carried out the _coup d’état_ which overthrew the Girondins, and had -expected to reap the chief advantage for itself. In order to form a -party it demanded that the revolutionary government should cease and -that the Constitution of 1793 should be put into force. But this cry -did not raise a sufficiently powerful support. The leaders of the -Commune, therefore, allied themselves with the most extreme democratic -party, which met generally at the Cordeliers Club. This extreme party -professed absolutely atheistic principles. It proclaimed the Worship -of Reason; it celebrated that worship with orgies in the cathedral of -Notre Dame; it induced Gobel, Bishop of Paris, to resign his see; it -carried its opposition to Christianity to an extreme; and started a -system of persecution against the Christian religion. In home politics -it did not defend the socialistic notions which had found some currency -in Paris, but it nevertheless declared itself the party of the _sans -culottes_, and denounced all rich men and bourgeois as selfish egotists -and enemies of the people. In foreign policy it adopted the doctrines -of the revolutionary propaganda and declared it the destiny of France -to destroy all tyrants. The Committee of Public Safety, as soon as -its power was firmly organised, resolved to overthrow this party of -opposition by striking at its leaders. Robespierre attacked them in the -Jacobin Club, and caused them to be excluded as atheists and enemies of -all government; Danton denounced the Worship of Reason as a disgraceful -masquerade; Camille Desmoulins exhausted his resources of eloquence -and sarcasm to hold them and their doctrines up to reprobation in the -_Vieux Cordelier_. As soon as the extreme party, which is commonly -called the Hébertist party, after its most conspicuous leader Hébert, -the editor of the _Père Duchesne_, was thoroughly discredited, the -Committee of Public Safety struck. On 24th Ventôse (14th March 1794) -Hébert and his principal supporters were arrested on the report of -Saint-Just. They were at once sent for trial before the Revolutionary -Tribunal, and on 4th Germinal (24th March) they were guillotined. - -The Hébertists fell because they opposed the despotism of the new -government. The Dantonists, who followed them to the guillotine, fell -because they believed the Reign of Terror to be carried too far. Danton -had done more than any man to bring about the supremacy of the Great -Committee of Public Safety. Convinced as he was that only a strong -executive could possibly disentangle France from the dangers which -beset her on every side, he had consistently advocated the creation -of a strong government. Though not himself a member of the Great -Committee, he had believed it to be his duty to support its power on -every possible occasion. He had not only been the chief author of its -supremacy, but the principal creator of the system by which it ruled. -But he began to believe, in the beginning of the year 1794, that the -Reign of Terror was being too stringently exercised. He was quite in -accord with Billaud-Varenne and Collot-d’Herbois in considering it -necessary to frighten the people of France into acquiescence with the -new order of things, but he did not consider that it was necessary -to shed so much blood to accomplish the work of fright. His friend -Camille Desmoulins had in the _Vieux Cordelier_ not only exposed the -Hébertists, but had hinted at the need for mercy and the advantages of -appointing a Committee of Mercy. The Great Committee of Public Safety -was not only determined to maintain its autocratic power, but to defend -its system of government. Danton’s influence in the Convention was -still sufficiently great to give the members of the Committee a cause -for uneasiness. It therefore resolved, in order to stop all murmuring -against the Reign of Terror, and to establish a reign of terror -over the Convention itself, to make an example of the most vigorous -patriot in France. On 10th Germinal (30th March 1794) Danton, Camille -Desmoulins, and their chief adherents were arrested, and on 16th -Germinal (5th April 1794) the Dantonists followed the Hébertists to the -guillotine. These two blows ensured the supremacy of the Committee of -Public Safety and the continuance of the Reign of Terror. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of 1794.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Fleurus. June 26, 1794.] - -The Great Committee of Public Safety knew that its tenure of power -rested on its successful conduct of the foreign war. Throughout -the interior tranquillity prevailed except in La Vendée, where the -sanguinary measures adopted perpetuated a guerilla warfare. The French -troops were, in 1794, in a very different condition from that in which -they had been left at the commencement of 1793. The measures of terror -which pacified France had been in the army the cause of the restoration -of discipline. Constant fighting had converted the men into efficient -soldiers. Excellent officers had come to the front during the campaign, -and, owing to the rapidity of promotion, most of the generals were -young and energetic men. All that was best in France had gone to the -front. There, and there alone, men who might have fallen under the -terrible Law of the Suspects at home, were not only safe themselves, -but by their presence in the ranks of the Republic protected their -relatives. All the resources of France were laid at the disposal of her -armies. The country became one vast arsenal. The soldiers were well -fed, clothed, and armed, and the ablest administrators were employed in -rendering them efficient. The result of this concentration of France -upon the foreign war was success in every quarter. In the spring of -1794 the various armies took the offensive, the Army of the North, -under Pichegru, marched by the northern line into Belgium, while a new -army, afterwards called the Army of the Sambre-and-Meuse, which was -formed out of the Army of the Ardennes, and a wing of the Army of the -Moselle penetrated Belgium from the south. Before these two armies the -English and Austrians fell back. They were rapidly pursued, and on the -26th of June 1794 Jourdan won the battle of Fleurus. This victory, like -the victory of Jemmappes the year before, laid Belgium open to the -French armies. Brussels was reoccupied; the English and Dutch retired -into Holland; the Austrians fell back behind the Meuse. Meanwhile, the -Army of the Moselle, under René Moreaux, stormed the Prussian position -at Kaiserslautern, and with the Army of the Rhine drove the Austrians -across that river. The Army of Italy, which had taken Toulon, also took -the offensive, and defeated the Piedmontese at Saorgio. Dugommier, with -the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, turned the tables on the Spaniards, -and crossing the mountains penetrated into Catalonia, while the Army of -the Western Pyrenees invaded Spain in that quarter, and threatened San -Sebastian. - -[Sidenote: Battle of the 1st of June.] - -The only checks which the Great Committee received were at sea. Whether -it was because it is more difficult to improvise a navy than an army, -or because sufficient attention was not paid to the republican navy, it -is impossible to decide, but it is quite certain that the sailors of -the Republic did not rival the soldiers in success, though they did in -valour. One reason for this was that all the best sailors preferred the -lucrative work of preying upon the commerce of the world in frigates -and privateers to serving in the regular fleets, where no prizes were -to be made. The two principal French fleets were those stationed at -Toulon and at Brest. An ineffectual effort had been made by Sir Sidney -Smith to burn the Toulon fleet when the English and Spaniards evacuated -that port. Nevertheless, a new fleet was soon prepared, but its action -against the English and the Spaniards who blockaded the coast were -ineffectual. The English on leaving Toulon had proceeded to Corsica. -That island had been raised against the Convention by the native -patriot, Paoli, who invited the English to come and take possession in -the name of George III. In Corsica, owing to the weakness of the French -Mediterranean fleet, the English remained unmolested for nearly a -year. The Brest fleet, however, came to blows with the English Channel -fleet, under the command of Lord Howe. The United States of America -had agreed to pay part of the debt which they owed France for money -lent during the War of American Independence in grain, and a convoy was -sent to protect the grain-ships. Lord Howe was directed to cut off this -convoy, and the French fleet left Brest to ensure its safe arrival. -From one point of view, the action of the French fleet was crowned -with success, for the convoy arrived safely, but the fleet itself was -utterly defeated by Lord Howe on the 1st of June 1794. Since the object -had been attained, the Committee of Public Safety claimed credit for -the action in which the fleet had been engaged, and the reports which -Barère read daily from the tribune of the Convention were invariably of -battles won and of feats of valour. - -[Sidenote: Fall of Robespierre, 9th Thermidor (27th July) 1794.] - -The brilliant successes which followed the establishment of the power -of the Great Committee of Public Safety justified its despotism in the -eyes of France, but as soon as those successes had freed France from -the invaders, it was generally felt that the weight of the Reign of -Terror was intolerable, and that it had become unnecessary. It was at -this period of most brilliant military triumphs that the Terror grew -to its greatest height in Paris. On 22d Prairial (10th of June 1794) -a law was passed to accelerate the procedure of the Revolutionary -Tribunal, and the number of deaths upon the guillotine increased to -an average of 196 a week. Robespierre, who, as has been said, was -more of a statesman than his colleagues upon the Committee of Public -Safety, who were simply administrators, understood the tenor of feeling -in France. He believed that the time was coming when the Reign of -Terror should cease, and a new Reign of Virtue, carrying into effect -the maxims of Rousseau, could be established. The working members of -the Committee allowed Robespierre to theorise to his heart’s content; -as long as he did not interfere with them, he might advocate what -principles he pleased. The first evidence of Robespierre’s new tendency -appeared in his establishment of the Worship of the Supreme Being. He -was a profoundly religious and virtuous man, and the chief cause of -his hatred of Hébert and Danton was his belief that they were immoral -atheists. On 18th Floréal (7th May 1794) Robespierre made his most -famous speech in the Convention, by which he induced the Convention -to officially acknowledge the existence of a Supreme Being and the -immortality of the soul. The speech was followed on 20th Prairial by -a great festival in honour of the Supreme Being, at which Robespierre -presided. This was the day when his power seemed greatest, but many of -his colleagues laughed at his assumption of virtue and at his posing -as a high priest. He perceived clearly that he could not establish his -chimerical Reign of Virtue without destroying the scoffers who refused -to believe in him and his doctrines. He absented himself for six weeks -from the meetings of the Committee, and prepared a speech by which he -hoped to induce the Convention to proscribe his opponents. - -On 8th Thermidor (26th July 1794) he read this speech to the -Convention, and attacked covertly, and without mentioning many names, -not only certain of his colleagues in the Committee of Public Safety, -but also the majority of the Committee of General Security and of the -Financial Committee. These men, who had been governing France while -Robespierre was theorising, would not tamely submit to be ejected from -power and guillotined. On the evening of the same day Robespierre -read his speech to the Jacobin Club, which was the headquarters of -the puritans who believed in the possibility of a Reign of Virtue. -But on 9th Thermidor the accused deputies determined to act. It was -not only the working members of the Committees, but also the friends -of Danton, the independent deputies of the Mountain, and the members -of the Centre, who felt threatened, and their attitude was speedily -declared. Saint-Just began to read a report accusing Billaud-Varenne -and Collot-d’Herbois by name, but he was interrupted, and Robespierre -himself, with Couthon, Saint-Just, and two other deputies were, after -a stormy scene, ordered under arrest. But the puritan party were not -only strong in the Jacobin Club; they dominated the Commune of Paris -ever since the overthrow of the Hébertists. Hanriot, the commandant -of the National Guard of Paris, rescued Robespierre and the other -imprisoned deputies, and took them to the Hôtel-de-Ville, where a -scheme of government was discussed. The Convention did not wait to be -attacked. It declared Robespierre and all his adherents to be outlaws, -and Barras, Fréron, and Léonard Bourdon collected columns of regular -troops and national guards to attack the Hôtel-de-Ville. The Convention -was completely successful. The people of Paris, like the people of all -France, persisted in considering Robespierre as the author of the Reign -of Terror, while not only his enemies but his colleagues threw upon -him the responsibility for all the atrocities included under the name -of the Terror. Though personally he had very little influence in the -Committee, he was represented and regarded as its master. Consequently -no hand was raised to protect Robespierre and the puritans; the -Hôtel-de-Ville was easily occupied by Barras; Robespierre was wounded -in the mouth by a gendarme, and on 10th Thermidor (28th July) he was -guillotined, and was accompanied or followed to the scaffold by the -small group of colleagues who had been impeached with him, and by the -majority of the Commune of Paris. - -[Sidenote: The Rule of the Thermidorians. First Phase.] - -The death of Robespierre did not lead to a change of government, but -it led to an alteration in the system by which the government was -administered. The deputies who had been most instrumental in the -revolution of Thermidor belonged to the Mountain, and expected to -retain power in their hands; but they saw the necessity of preventing -such a permanence of power as had existed during the previous year. It -was, therefore, resolved that the Committees of Government—that is, the -Committees of Public Safety and of General Security—should be renewed -by a quarter every month, and that the retiring members should not -be eligible for re-election until a month had passed. The survivors -of the Great Committee still believed in the system of government by -terror, but their new colleagues understood that now that France was -victorious the country would no longer submit to such rigorous measures -of repression. The victory of Fleurus had done away with the necessity -of continually employing the guillotine. The system of terror was -therefore tacitly abandoned; the supremacy of the Committees continued; -the Law of the Suspects was unrepealed; the Revolutionary Tribunal -continued to exist; representatives were still sent on mission with -unlimited powers; but the succession of executions ceased, and the -method of government, though arbitrary, was no longer sanguinary. The -men who ruled France from Thermidor (July) 1794 to Ventôse (March) 1795 -were deputies of the Mountain, men of the type of Carnot and Robert -Lindet, the most sagacious of the members of the Great Committee of -Public Safety. The most conspicuous of the new men of this period were -Merlin of Douai and Treilhard, who took charge of the foreign policy. -These statesmen, while Carnot superintended the carrying on of the -war with his accustomed vigour and success, finally broke with the -propagandist doctrines which had made the war of unparalleled magnitude -and bitterness, and Merlin of Douai, on 14th Frimaire (4th December) -1794 read a report in the name of the Committee of Public Safety, -declaring that the Republic did not wish to be at war with Europe for -ever, and laying down the bases on which treaties of peace honourable -to France could be made. While the Thermidorians were administering -the government strongly and honourably, they were beset with cries -of vengeance against the Terrorists of the previous year. They felt -it necessary to yield to the general outcry, and on 21st Brumaire, -Year III. (11th November 1794), Carrier, the most ferocious of the -proconsuls of the Terror, was sent before the Revolutionary Tribunal. -He was tried and eventually executed for his crimes. The agitation -was stronger against the organisers of the Terror, Billaud-Varenne, -and Collot-d’Herbois, with whom were associated in the popular hatred -Barère, the reporter, and Vadier, who had been the most conspicuous -member of the Committee of General Security. Both the doctrines and -the men of the Terror had still plenty of supporters in Paris, who -now dominated the Jacobin Club, which was therefore closed by the -Thermidorians in December 1794. Almost at the same date the Law of -the Maximum was repealed. In the same month the survivors of the -seventy-three deputies who had protested against the proscription of -the Girondins, and consequently been imprisoned, were recalled to their -seats in the Convention. - -[Sidenote: Conquest of Holland. 1794–5.] - -[Sidenote: The Batavian Republic.] - -[Sidenote: Successes in other quarters.] - -Meanwhile the series of victories which had commenced during the rule -of the Great Committee of Public Safety continued. Pichegru at the -head of the Army of the North pursued the English and their Dutch and -Hanoverian allies. On the 9th of October he took Nimeguen, and forcing -his way across the frozen rivers drove the English through Holland. He -occupied Amsterdam, and then with his hussars took the Dutch fleet, -which was unable to leave its moorings in the Texel owing to the ice. -By the end of January 1795 the whole of Holland was in the possession -of the French. The Stadtholder, the Prince of Orange, fled to England, -and the English troops were soon after withdrawn. The conquest of -Holland was of the greatest service to the Thermidorians, for it -enabled them, by drawing upon the wealth of that country, to relieve -the financial distress of the French Republic. With regard to Belgium -there was no difficulty in coming to a decision as to its future, for -the Decree of Reunion passed in the days of Dumouriez’ success remained -unrepealed, and the Austrian Netherlands were therefore organised as -part of the French Republic. It was otherwise with regard to Holland. -The Thermidorians did not desire to further aggravate the fears of -Europe by annexing that country, but at the same time they were quite -resolved that it should not again fall under the power of the English. -Reubell and Sieyès, two ex-Constituants who had remained in obscurity -during the Reign of Terror, were despatched to Holland to see what -could be done. They found many Dutch admirers of the doctrines of -the French Revolution, and speedily conciliated the burghers of the -Dutch cities, who had always resented the power of the Stadtholder. -With the help of these parties and of the Dutch patriots who had been -exiled in 1787, and who now returned from France full of enthusiasm -for democracy, they organised a Batavian Republic on the model of the -French Republic, and in March 1795 a Treaty of Peace and Alliance was -signed between the French and Batavian Republics. In other quarters -the French Republic was likewise triumphant. Maestricht was taken -by Kléber on the 4th of November 1794. Jourdan with the Army of the -Sambre-and-Meuse, defeated the Austrians under Clerfayt at Aldenhoven -on the 2d of October, and marching south occupied Aix-la-Chapelle, -Bonn, Cologne, and Coblentz. Meanwhile the Army of the Moselle, -under René Moreaux, finally drove the Prussians out of France and -occupied the Palatinate and the whole of the Electorate of Trèves. On -the southern frontier there were similar successes. The Army of the -Eastern Pyrenees, which had invaded Catalonia, stormed the Spanish -camp at Figueras on the 20th of November 1794, and took Rosas on -the 3rd of February 1795. In the first of these actions the French -General Dugommier was killed in action. Moncey, with the Army of the -Western Pyrenees, took Bilbao, Vittoria, and San Sebastian. The Army -of Italy won the victory of Loano on the 24th of November, which -opened communication with Genoa. The Army of the Alps finally reached -the summits of Mont Cenis and the Little St. Bernard, and drove the -Piedmontese before it. - -[Sidenote: Poland. 1794–5.] - -While the French nation had thus after much suffering and long -submission to the Reign of Terror secured its independence and made -itself feared by Europe, a Polish insurrection had taken place which -was not crowned with the same success. The second partition of -Poland, which was consummated in 1793, has been described. But the -Polish nation was not inclined to acknowledge its extinction without -another blow. Many Polish exiles came to France, and the leader of -the Polish patriots, Kosciuszko, received a flattering reception, -though no promise of active help. On the 23d of March 1794 Kosciuszko -entered Cracow and raised the standard of national independence. -This news caused a general rising in Prussian Poland, where the new -administrators of Prussia had behaved with extreme cruelty. Stanislas -Poniatowski, King of Poland, acting under the influence of the Russian -general commanding at Warsaw, Igelstrom, disavowed Kosciuszko and -declared him a rebel. But the Polish people welcomed Kosciuszko -as a liberator. He defeated the Russians at Raclawice on the 4th -of April 1794, and after a further victory occupied Warsaw on the -19th. Both Russians and Prussians prepared to defend the provinces -they had annexed in 1793, and laid siege to Warsaw in July 1794. By -the beginning of September all Prussian Poland was in a flame of -insurrection; Frederick William II., who was conducting the siege -in person, rapidly retreated and summoned to his assistance a large -proportion of the troops hitherto employed against France. But though -the Prussians had temporarily retired, Catherine of Russia determined, -at all hazards, to conquer the Poles. She gathered a great army from -all parts of her empire, and placed it under the command of the most -famous of the Russian generals, Suvórov. Caught between the army of -Suvórov and the army of Fersen, who had succeeded Igelstrom in command -of the Russians already in Poland, the Polish patriots were utterly -defeated at Maciejowice on the 12th of October 1794, when Kosciuszko -was wounded and taken prisoner. On the 4th of November, Praga, the -suburb of Warsaw on the right bank of the Vistula, was stormed by -Suvórov, and on the 9th of November the capital surrendered. Catherine -determined to complete the work of the destruction of Poland. Stanislas -Poniatowski was removed from Poland on the 7th of January 1795, and on -the 25th of November 1795 he abdicated the throne. - -[Sidenote: Extinction of Poland. 1795.] - -The division of the spoils caused much trouble to the allies. The -Austrians, who had been left in the lurch at the second partition, -claimed a share, and, like the Prussians, weakened their armies on -the frontier of France in order to defend their claims on Poland. By -the final partition, which was arranged between the powers in 1795, -Prussia received Warsaw and the surrounding palatinates; Austria -received Cracow and the rest of Galicia, and the Russians were content -with rectifying their frontier from Grodno to Minsk. It is interesting -to contrast the simultaneous failure of the Poles and success of the -French. The cause lay in the fact that the great bulk of the Polish -people were serfs, to whom it mattered little what master they served, -whereas the French people had long thrown off the bonds of personal -serfdom, and had just succeeded in getting rid of the last shackles of -the privileged classes. The Polish Constitution of 1791 was the work of -a few enlightened noblemen and priests, and was gladly accepted by the -educated bourgeois of the cities, but the peasants were in too degraded -a condition to understand what personal liberty meant. In France every -peasant, every farmer had profited by the Revolution, and was wedded to -its cause not only for political reasons, but because of the purchases -of ecclesiastical property which he had made. The national feeling in -France embraced the whole people, and made France successful against -her foreign foes; the national feeling in Poland only existed among -a minority of the population, and the result was that Kosciuszko was -unable to attain the triumph which he so well merited. - -[Sidenote: Change in the attitude of Continental Powers.] - -The successes of the French Republic and the failure of the Polish -national movement affected the attitude of the coalition both towards -France and towards its own members. The Prussians, ever since the -defeat of Brunswick in 1792, had openly expressed their belief -that the Austrians were betraying them and using them as catspaws. -Frederick William II. for a long time battled against these views, -which were held by the chief Prussian statesmen, such as Haugwitz and -Alvensleben, by the most respected Prussian generals such as Kalkreuth -and Möllendorf, and by his own personal clique of favourites, headed -by Lucchesini. In the year 1793 he had confined his operations against -France to the siege of Mayence, while his best troops were directed -on Poland, and in 1794 he had still further reduced the number of his -soldiers upon the Rhine. England, which had paid large subsidies to the -Prussian government, resented this conduct, and declared its intention -of withdrawing all subsidies unless Prussia would do as she was -directed. Frederick William II. declared that he would not receive the -English subsidies on these terms; but the truth was, that his attention -was far more occupied by the gains he hoped to get in Poland than with -the prosecution of the war against France. Austria, also, where Thugut -had in 1794 become the nominal as well as the real director of the -foreign policy of the Emperor Francis, was getting tired of the war -with France. Prussia’s conduct in making the second partition of Poland -in 1793, and leaving the Emperor out, had sown the seeds of discontent. -Thugut was determined that the same thing should not occur again, and, -therefore, when the Polish insurrection broke out in 1794, Austria -also denuded her armies upon the French frontier. This attitude of -Prussia and Austria does not entirely account for the victories of the -French republican armies, but it explains to some extent the ease with -which those victories were obtained. Spain also was weary of the war. -Godoy felt that his tenure of office was imperilled by the existence of -two French armies in Spain which might easily march upon Madrid, and -the Queen, and therefore the King, was entirely under the influence of -Godoy. Many of the princes of the Holy Roman Empire likewise wished to -see the war at an end, for it was their states upon the left bank of -the Rhine which were occupied by the French armies; it was their states -upon the right bank of the Rhine which would be invaded by the passage -of that river, whereas the home dominions of Austria and Prussia were -far to the east, and not likely to be reached by an invading army. -England was the only power which seriously desired to prosecute the -war, for in England a national feeling of repulsion against the French -had arisen. The English government, however, was unable to strike any -effective blow; Hoche destroyed a body of _émigrés_ landed from English -ships at Quiberon Bay in July 1794; the continental powers who received -subsidies were not very earnest in doing the work for which they were -paid; the French occupation of Holland had deprived England of the only -base from which an army could act in Europe; and the English government -had therefore to be contented with blockading the French ports and -occupying the French West Indian Colonies. - -[Sidenote: The Rule of the Thermidorians. Second Phase.] - -[Sidenote: Insurrection of 12th Germinal. 1st April 1795.] - -[Sidenote: Insurrection of 1st Prairial. 20th May 1795.] - -The recall of those sympathisers with the Girondin party, who had been -imprisoned, in December 1794 was followed in March 1795 by the recall -to their seats in the Convention of the outlawed Girondin leaders, of -whom the most conspicuous were Lanjuinais and Louvet. The return of -these victims increased the clamour against the surviving Terrorist -leaders and proconsuls who had ruled France in 1793–94 in Paris, or -on mission in the provinces. Hot debates took place on the necessity -of punishing what was now termed ‘Robespierre’s tail.’ In Paris a -powerful section of the populace—namely, the young bourgeois, who -were commonly called the Jeunesse Dorée, or after their leader Fréron -the Jeunesse Fréronienne—never ceased to demand the punishment of the -Terrorists. Popular sympathy was generally with the Jeunesse Dorée; -conspicuous Jacobins of the Terror were beaten in the streets; the -heart of Marat was taken from the Pantheon and thrown down a sewer; and -the busts of Marat, who was regarded as the apostle of Terrorism, were -everywhere broken. The former rulers of Paris, the old members of the -Jacobin Club and the Revolutionary Committees, were not inclined to -submit to popular vengeance without striking a blow. On 12th Germinal, -Year III. (1st April 1795) they raised an insurrection in the turbulent -Faubourg Saint-Antoine, and the insurgents broke into the Convention -shouting ‘Bread and the Constitution of 1793.’ The only result of -this riot was that Billaud-Varenne, Collot-d’Herbois, Barère, and -Vadier were ordered to be deported to French Guiana without trial. The -persecution of the Terrorists continued. A commission was appointed -to inquire into the acts of the former proconsuls; power passed into -the hands of the returned Girondins and the members of the Plain or -Centre. Certain of the remaining deputies of the Mountain, supported by -the Jacobins of Paris, then resolved on a second insurrection. On 1st -Prairial, Year III. (20th May 1795) the Convention was again invaded -by a Saint-Antoine mob, headed by women who had gained the unenviable -name of the ‘Furies of the Guillotine.’ A deputy named Féraud was taken -for Fréron and murdered on the spot, and throughout the day the hall of -the Convention was occupied by a howling mob, which vainly endeavoured -to compel the President, Boissy-d’Anglas, to pass the decrees they -desired. Meanwhile the Committees of Government prepared to act with -vigour. With the help of some regular troops quartered in Paris, of the -national guards of the bourgeois sections, and of the Jeunesse Dorée, -they expelled the mob, and on the following days a force composed of -these elements under the command of General Menou, an ex-Constituant, -disarmed the revolutionary sections. The victory of the Committees was -the victory of the enemies of the Reign of Terror. Some of the former -Terrorist deputies were condemned to death and committed suicide, -others were impeached and placed under arrest, and the Mountain as a -party ceased to exist. The expulsion of the deputies of the Mountain -caused the Committees of Government to be filled by the members of the -Centre, the men who during the Reign of Terror had been peacefully -occupied in the legislative and educational reforms, which were the -most lasting works of the Convention. Of these new members the most -typical is Cambacérès, the great jurist and principal law reformer of -the period, on whose labours Napoleon compiled the Code Civil. While -the Committees were engaged in the work of government, a commission -of eleven deputies was appointed to draw up a new Constitution which -should avoid the errors of its predecessors. The chief authors of this -Constitution, which is known as the Constitution of the Year III., were -Boissy-d’Anglas and Daunou. - -[Sidenote: Treaties of Basle. 1795.] - -The direction of foreign policy was still mainly conducted by Merlin -of Douai, who was now aided in this department by Cambacérès, -Sieyès, and Reubell. Their great work—indeed the great work of the -Thermidorians—was the conclusion of the Treaties of Basle. The causes -of these treaties have been shown in the examination just made of the -changed attitude of the powers of Europe towards the French Republic. -The agent of the French Republic in Switzerland, Barthélemy, was the -diplomatist who negotiated the series of treaties. Switzerland had -throughout the Reign of Terror been the centre of diplomatic action, -for in Switzerland alone France could meet the representatives of -foreign powers. The first and the most important of the Treaties of -Basle was that between France and Prussia, which was signed upon the -5th of April 1795. By it not only was peace concluded between the -contracting powers, but a line of demarcation was agreed to be drawn -by which Prussia might secure safety from French invasion for the -states of Northern Germany. One point only was left in abeyance by -Barthélemy and Hardenberg, the negotiators of this treaty. The French -Government insisted that France, in reward for her exertions, and in -compensation for the long war, should receive her natural limits of the -Rhine. Prussia’s territory upon the left bank of the Rhine was very -small in amount, and it was agreed that the amount of compensation -she should receive for ceding it to France should be left unsettled -for the present. Frederick William II., who posed as a guardian of -the Holy Roman Empire, refused openly to assent to the doctrine that -France should reach the Rhine and thus consecrate the infringement of -the limits of the Empire. He had no desire to appear ready to consent -to any such arrangement, for he felt that such a policy would leave to -Austria the position of protector of the Empire. The Treaty of Basle -with Prussia was succeeded at the same place by a treaty with Spain -on the 22d of July, and finally by a treaty with the most energetic -of the petty princes of the Empire, the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, -on the 29th of August. Peace had already on February 9th been made -with Tuscany, which had most unwillingly declared war on France under -pressure from England. Of these treaties, the most important was that -with Spain, which was excessively popular at Madrid, and won for Godoy -the high-sounding title of ‘Prince of the Peace.’ Thus, after three -years of war, France re-entered the comity of nations and broke up the -coalition formed against her independence. - - - - - CHAPTER V - - 1795–1797 - - Results of the Treaties of Basle on the Foreign Policy of - France—Constitution of the Year III—The Directory—The - Legislature: Councils of Ancients and of Five Hundred—Local - Administration of France—The Insurrection of Vendémiaire—The - Rising of 13th Vendémiaire in Paris—The First French - Directors, Councils, and Ministers—Dissolution of - the Convention—England and the _Emigrés_—Treason of - Pichegru—Exchange of Madame Royale—Desire for Peace in - France—France and Prussia—Suggestion of Secularisations in - Germany—France and the Smaller States of Europe—Attitude of - Russia—Campaign of 1795 in Germany—Bonaparte’s Campaigns - of 1796 in Italy—Battle of Montenotte—Armistice of - Cherasco—Battle of Lodi—Armistice of Foligno—Conquest of - Upper Italy—Battles of Castiglione, Arcola, and Rivoli—Peace - of Tolentino with the Pope—Campaign of 1796 in Germany—Battle - of Altenkirchen—Retreat of Moreau—Effects of the Campaign - in Germany—Treaty between Prussia and France—Internal - Policy of the Directory—Pacification of La Vendée—The - State of France—The Directory, Councils, and Ministers in - 1796—Creation of the Ministry of Police—Alliance between - France and Spain—Treaty of San Ildefonso—Battle of Cape - Saint-Vincent—The Batavian Republic—Negotiations between - England and the Directory—Death of the Empress Catherine of - Russia—Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1797 in the Tyrol—The Campaign - of 1797 in Germany—Preliminaries of Leoben between France and - Austria. - - -[Sidenote: Result of the Treaties of Basle.] - -The conclusion of the Treaties of Basle in the spring and summer of -1795 brought France once more into a recognised position among the -nations of Europe. The idea of a revolutionary propaganda had been -entirely abandoned by the leading Thermidorians, who looked upon it as -the first duty of the French Government to secure peace for France. -All the great statesmen of the revolutionary period, from Mirabeau to -Danton and Robespierre, had protested against the absurd notion that -it was the mission of France to secure the pre-eminence of democratic -ideas throughout the whole of Europe. Events had shown that it was a -task of quite sufficient difficulty to secure the prevalence of such -ideas in France. The abandonment of the revolutionary propaganda broke -up the league of old Europe against new France. When the Prussian -state, and still more the ancient monarchy of Spain, had consented to -make peace with France, the rest of the powers of the Continent felt -that they could no longer affect to treat the French republicans as -beyond the pale of humanity, or the French Republic as having destroyed -the title of France to be reckoned as a nation. - -[Sidenote: Constitution of the Year III.] - -The Thermidorians, not satisfied with their diplomatic success, -constructed a new government for France. The authors of the policy, -which resulted in the Treaties of Basle, were also the sponsors of -the ‘Constitution of the Year III.’ The task of drawing up the bases -of a new Constitution was referred upon 14th Germinal, Year III. (3d -April 1795) to a committee of seven deputies, but the details were -worked out by a subsequent commission of eleven. Among the seven the -most important were Sieyès, Cambacérès, and Merlin of Douai, who were -also at this period the three principal members of the Committee of -Public Safety. Just as in making the Treaties of Basle, they and -their colleagues had recurred to the fundamental ideas and policy of -the old French Monarchy, so in the new Constitution they exhibited -the influence of bygone ideas. The experience of the Constituent and -Legislative Assemblies, and of the Convention until the formation -of the Committee of Public Safety, had shown the utter inadequacy -of intrusting supreme executive and administrative authority to an -unwieldy deliberative assembly. The power of the monarchy in all -modern states has rested upon the conviction of the importance of -consolidating, as far as possible, the executive authority; the -founders of the United States of America understood this truth, and -invested their President with power resembling that exercised by -kings; and the Convention, when it yielded to the voice of Danton, and -conferred supreme authority upon the Committee of Public Safety, had -reaped the advantage in its victories upon all the frontiers. Even the -most obtuse of the deputies who sat in the Convention had learnt this -lesson. And the founders of the Constitution of the Year III. had no -difficulty in carrying the most important point in their programme. -This was the entire separation of the executive and legislative -powers. The Constitution of 1791, in its jealousy of the monarchy, had -practically deprived the king and his ministers of all real authority, -while leaving him the entire responsibility. The Constitution of 1793 -had placed all executive authority in the hands of the Legislature. The -Constitution of the Year III. endeavoured to separate the executive and -legislative authorities. - -[Sidenote: The Directory.] - -Under the new arrangement the executive was placed in the hands of -five Directors. One was to retire every year and was not eligible -for re-election; his successor was to be chosen by the Legislature. -In order to secure an entire separation between the members of the -Directory and of the Legislature, no member of the latter could -be elected a Director until twelve months had elapsed after the -resignation of his seat. The Directors were to appoint the Ministers, -who were to have no connection whatever with the Legislature, and who -were to act as the agents of the Directors. The individual Directors -were to exercise no authority in their own names. They were to live -under the same roof in the Palace of the Luxembourg at Paris. They were -to meet daily, and the will of the majority was to be taken as the will -of the whole. They were to elect a President every month, who was to -act as their mouthpiece at the reception of foreign ambassadors and on -all occasions of ceremony. The control of the internal administration, -the management of the armies and fleets, and all questions of foreign -policy were entirely left to the Directors. But treaties, declarations -of war and similar acts had to be ratified by the Legislature. The -Directors had nothing whatever to do with the work of legislation, and -their assent was not needed to new laws. With regard to the revenue, -the administration of the finances and of the treasury rested with the -Directors, but they could not impose fresh taxes without the assent of -the Legislature. - -[Sidenote: The Legislature.] - -The Legislature, under the Constitution of the Year III. consisted of -two chambers—the Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred. -It is a curious commentary upon the debates which took place in the -Constituent Assembly in August 1789, when the establishment of two -chambers was rejected with scorn as being an obvious imitation of -the English Parliament, that in 1795 this very principle was almost -unanimously adopted. The experience of the three great revolutionary -assemblies had convinced Sieyès and his colleagues of the inexpediency -of leaving important measures to be decided in a single chamber. The -delay necessitated by a law being obliged to pass before two distinct -deliberative bodies now appeared most advantageous, when compared with -the headlong precipitation which had marked all the earlier stages -of the Revolution. The Council of Ancients was to consist of men -forty-five years old and upwards, and, therefore, presumably not liable -to be carried away by sudden bursts of enthusiasm. For the Council -of Five Hundred there was no limitation of age, and elderly men were -not precluded from being returned to it. The Council of Five Hundred -consisted, as its name implies, of five hundred deputies; the Council -of Ancients of two hundred and fifty. Dictated by experience, also, -were the measures taken for the election of deputies. In order to avoid -the inconvenience which had resulted from the election of an entirely -new body of representatives at one and the same moment, as had happened -in 1791, it was resolved that one-third of the two Councils should -retire yearly. Deputies were to be chosen by an elaborate system of -primary and secondary assemblies held in each department of France, -and a property qualification was demanded both for the electors and the -deputies. With these safeguards Sieyès and his colleagues believed they -had secured a practical means of obviating all the errors of the past. -The Council of Five Hundred had allotted to it as its special function -the initiation of all fresh taxation and the revision of all money -bills. The Council of Ancients was the court of appeal in diplomatic -questions, such as the declaration of war. In actual legislation the -consent of the majority of both chambers was needed for a new law. For -their most important function—the yearly election of a new Director—the -two chambers were to form one united assembly. - -[Sidenote: Local Administration of France.] - -By this Constitution, the conspicuous drawbacks of the two former -Constitutions, namely, the enforced weakness of the executive and -the undefined powers of the Legislature were avoided. But the local -administration established by the Constitution of 1791 had proved so -excellent that it was only slightly modified and not radically altered. -The great achievement of the Constituent Assembly—the abolition of old -provincial jealousies by the division of France into departments—was -maintained. The wise step which had been taken by the Great Committee -of Public Safety in abolishing the directories of the departments -and of the districts was sanctioned, and the council-generals were -left to act alone. The main distinction between the administrative -systems of 1791 and 1795 was that the elected _procureurs-syndics_ -and _procureurs-généraux-syndics_, established by the former, were -replaced by officials nominated by the supreme executive at Paris. -These officials went under the name of agents during the Directory, -but possessed the same authority and carried out the same functions as -the _sous-préfets_ and _préfets_ afterwards appointed by Napoleon. The -courts of justice, whether local, appellant, or supreme, established by -the Constitution of 1791, were left untouched by the Constitution of -the Year III. - -[Sidenote: The Insurrection of Vendémiaire.] - -In spite of the glories of the conquest of Holland, the passage of -the Rhine, the victory of Quiberon, and the invasion of Spain,—in -spite of the even greater credit justly earned by the Treaties of -Basle,—in spite of the new Constitution, which, if faulty in places, -was superior to those which had preceded it—the Thermidorians were -intensely unpopular in France. The recollection of the Reign of -Terror weighed upon the imaginations of the people even after the -death of Robespierre, the deportation of Billaud-Varenne, and the -closing of the Jacobin Club. The Convention was still in the minds of -men shrouded by the remembrance of the innocent blood that had been -shed. The inauguration of the new constitutional system was looked -upon as an opportunity for driving the members of the Convention from -power, and threats of vengeance were everywhere heard against them. -Intriguers, some of them possibly royalists, who desired the return -of the Bourbons, but most of them bourgeois or aristocrats who had -personal reasons for desiring revenge, hoped to take advantage of this -general feeling to overthrow the Republic. But the mass of Frenchmen -were sincerely republican, and were clear-sighted enough to perceive -that the return of the Bourbons would be followed by the loss of the -material advantages that had been gained by the sale of the lands of -the Church and the nobility. The members of the Convention understood -the intentions of the intriguers, and understood also that the French -people sincerely loved the Republic. They proceeded to frustrate the -designs of their enemies by decreeing that two-thirds of the new -Legislature must be elected from among the deputies of the Convention. -The intriguers in Paris, thus foiled in their expectations of a certain -majority in the new Legislature, tried to rouse the people of Paris -into active insurrection. There can be no doubt that not only in Paris, -but throughout France, the action of the Convention in ordering the -election of so large a proportion of the old deputies was profoundly -unpopular, but it was one thing to dislike a measure and another thing -to involve France in a fresh revolution. In the provincial towns there -was universal grumbling but no active opposition. In Paris, however, -where the intriguers abounded, it was hoped that the _jeunesse dorée_, -who had played so great a part in the previous winter, assisted by the -bourgeois Sections, would be able by making an imposing display of -force to compel the Convention to revoke the obnoxious decree. - -[Sidenote: Fighting in Paris, 13th Vendémiaire (5th October 1795).] - -This project of the agitators in Paris was soon known in the -Convention, and had the result of causing the divided forces of the -Thermidorians to close up their ranks. The three chief groups in this -party were the returned Girondins, the leaders of the Plain, and -the former adherents of the Terror. The leaders of all these groups -united in the presence of a common danger, for they felt that the -dissolution of the Convention without some such measure of security -as the re-election of the two-thirds to the forthcoming Legislature -would lead to their own proscription. They therefore appointed Barras, -who had commanded in the attack upon the Hôtel-de-Ville upon the -9th Thermidor of the previous year, and overthrown the supporters -of Robespierre assembled there, to watch over their safety. Barras -summoned to his assistance Napoleon Bonaparte, who was then in Paris -engaged in protesting against his recall from the Army of Italy. The -antecedents of this young general, his well-known Jacobin principles -and his former friendship for Augustin Robespierre, had led to his -recall and to his being placed upon the unemployed list. Barras had -under his command the garrison of regular troops quartered in Paris and -the armed guards of the Convention. The Royalist agitators counted on -the _jeunesse dorée_ and the bourgeois Sections. Bonaparte perceived -that in numbers each party was evenly matched, and he at once sent for -the artillery quartered at Meudon. The Convention declared itself _en -permanence_, the troops were stationed round the Tuileries, Bonaparte’s -guns were mounted in the gardens and the Place du Carrousel. The attack -on the Convention was made on the 13th Vendémiaire (5th October) in a -very slovenly manner. No effort had been made to concentrate the force -of the assailants at a given moment, and as the first column marched -carelessly down without recognised leaders, it was fired upon and -almost entirely cut to pieces by Bonaparte’s artillery. Nevertheless -column after column of devoted national guards approached the Tuileries -with the utmost gallantry to meet the same fate. The insurrection of -13th Vendémiaire cannot be compared with the other famous insurrections -of the 14th July 1789 and 10th August 1792, for not one of the -defenders of the Convention was wounded. It was a butchery, not a -battle. - -[Sidenote: The First Directors.] - -The Convention, conscious of its unpopularity, and not desiring to -increase it, made but slight efforts to discover and punish the -leaders of the insurrection of 13th Vendémiaire. Only a few military -executions, after trial by court-martial, of a few prisoners taken with -arms in their hands were permitted, and no vigour was shown in hunting -down even the most conspicuous agitators. It was resolved at once to -proceed to the election of the first Directors under the new system. -Sieyès refused to be one of them. It was generally agreed, though not -formally declared, that the first Directors should all be deputies of -the Convention who had voted for the death of Louis XVI., and who might -therefore be presumed to be faithful to republican institutions, if not -from inclination at least from fear. The five deputies actually elected -were—Barras, whose conduct on the 9th Thermidor, and on the 13th -Vendémiaire, had obtained for him the gratitude of the majority of the -deputies; Reubell, an ex-Constituant and an Alsatian, who was believed -to have a special knowledge of foreign affairs; Revellière-Lépeaux, -another ex-Constituant, a member of the Committee of Public Safety, a -good lawyer, and the future inventor of a new religion; Carnot, the -famous military member of the Great Committee of Public Safety, who -was selected for his strategic ability; and Letourneur, an ex-officer -of Engineers, like Carnot, who was expected to act as Carnot’s -assistant. To the Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred -were elected among the two-thirds chosen from the Convention the more -conspicuous Thermidorians, including Sieyès, Cambacérès, Tallien, and -Treilhard. The six first ministers were appointed by the Directors on -14th Brumaire (5th November). They were Merlin of Douai and Charles -Delacroix, two ex-deputies of the Convention who had not been elected -to the new Legislature, appointed to the Ministries of Justice and -of Foreign Affairs, Aubert-Dubayet, a distinguished general, to the -Ministry of War, and Faypoult, Benezech and Admiral Truguet to the -Ministries of Finance, the Interior, and the Marine. - -[Sidenote: Dissolution of the Convention.] - -The first Directors elected and the new Legislature constituted, the -Convention had to decree its own dissolution. The three years during -which it had sat are perhaps the most important and most critical in -the whole history of France. The Convention had not merely witnessed -the rise and fall of many cliques and many parties; it had allowed the -Reign of Terror to be established, and had punished its inventors with -death or deportation. It had passed through nearly every variety of -government, and had seen France in her greatest degradation and at the -height of her success. Its last act, passed on the very day on which it -dissolved itself, 4th Brumaire (26th October), was worthy of its best -and greatest days, for it was an act declaring a complete amnesty for -all political offences, or supposed offences, since the declaration of -the Republic. - -[Sidenote: England and the Emigrés.] - -[Sidenote: Treason of Pichegru.] - -The successful establishment of the Directory and the victory won -over the royalist agitators on 13th Vendémiaire had a profound effect -upon the policy of England. Hitherto Pitt and Grenville, inspired -by their agent in Switzerland, William Wickham, had believed in the -vain promises of the royalist _émigrés_, and had hoped by their means -to restore the Bourbon monarchy in France. The headquarters of the -royalist agitators were, as they had always been, in Switzerland. -Neither the Comte de Provence, who, since his nephew’s death, called -himself Louis _XVIII._, nor the Comte d’Artois were really deceived -by the hopes held out by their royalist friends. But the English -ministers, deluded by the extravagant promises of the _émigrés_ and by -the reports of Wickham, considered the prospects of an overthrow of -the Republic to be excellent. They had shown their confidence in the -_émigrés_ by the active assistance they had given to the expedition to -Quiberon Bay, and still more by the large sums of secret-service money -which had been expended in Switzerland. The efforts of the royalist -_émigrés_ took two directions; on the one hand, they had fomented the -feeling of discontent in Paris which had culminated in the insurrection -of 13th Vendémiaire, and, on the other, they had attempted to affect -the loyalty of the generals of the Republic. The general on whom they -counted most was Pichegru, the conqueror of Holland. This general, like -Dumouriez in 1793, was more ambitious to attain wealth and power for -himself than success for the Republic. During his sojourn in Paris in -the spring of 1795 he had formed a close alliance with the royalist -agitators in the capital, and on proceeding to take up the command of -the Army of the Rhine-and-Moselle he entered into direct communications -with the Prince de Condé, the general commanding the _émigré_ army -in Germany. Condé promised Pichegru the government of Alsace, the -Château of Chambord, a million livres in cash, an income of two hundred -thousand livres a year, and the rank of Marshal of France, if he would -undertake to restore the Bourbons. Great hopes were built upon these -negotiations, and the Comte de Provence left Verona to take part in -them. But the success of these intrigues was nullified by the victory -of 13th Vendémiaire; the Margrave of Baden-Baden refused to allow the -Pretender to enter his territory; Wickham was unwillingly convinced -that the purchase of the general did not include the purchase of his -army; and the Directory, as soon as it had firmly seized the reins of -power, recalled Pichegru, whose transactions with Condé had been more -than suspected, and replaced him by a thorough republican, Moreau. -These failures convinced Pitt and Grenville that there was no advantage -to be gained in trusting to the promises of the _émigrés_. - -[Sidenote: Exchange of Madame Royale.] - -The Directory, on assuming power, resolved to continue the policy -of the Thermidorians, and not to recur to the notions of the -revolutionary propaganda. It desired to show Europe that France was -ready to enter into the comity of nations, and did not presume for -the future to interfere with the internal arrangements of other -countries. It, therefore, on grounds of humanity, took up again the -negotiations which had been commenced in July 1793 for the release -of the children of Louis XVI., and, using Spain as an intermediary, -entered into communications on this subject with the bitterest enemy of -France—Austria. The death of the Dauphin, commonly called Louis XVII., -had left only one of the children of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette in -the hands of the Republic. The Thermidorians had, at the instigation -of one of their leaders, Boissy-d’Anglas, seen the expediency of -proving to Europe that the French republicans were not barbarians, -by offering to surrender the person of Madame Royale to her Austrian -relatives. This project was carried out by the Directory. On 20th -December 1795 Madame Royale was exchanged in Switzerland for the four -deputies and the Minister of War whom Dumouriez had handed over to the -Austrians, and for another deputy, Drouet, the former postmaster at -Sainte-Menehould, who had been taken prisoner by the Austrians in 1793. - -[Sidenote: Desire for Peace in France.] - -The exchange of Madame Royale was a manifest evidence of the desire -of the Directors to conclude peace. The Prussian ambassador at Paris -reported to his government on 28th December 1795, ‘The general cry in -Paris is, “Make peace and you will have money and bread.”’[10] Peace, -indeed, was the desire not only of the people of Paris, but of the -people of all France, of the majority in the new Legislature, and -of the Directory. It was hoped that the Treaties of Basle were but -the preliminaries of a general peace throughout Europe. But the two -remaining enemies of the French Republic, England and Austria, did not -see their way to meeting the Directory halfway. Pitt and Grenville -argued that a peace made with the Directory would be only of the nature -of a truce. They were ready enough to make peace, but considered it -inadvisable to negotiate with a government which seemed to them in -its essence unstable. Owing either to the intrigues of the _émigrés_, -or to their own knowledge of politics, they grasped the fact that the -new government of France was constructed on a faulty basis, and that a -peace concluded with it would not be lasting. The attitude of Austria -was somewhat different. Thugut, the Austrian minister, believed that -France was exhausted, and that by a continuance of war substantial -concessions could be wrung from her. Reubell, the Director who took -charge of the conduct of Foreign Affairs, expressed himself as follows -to the Prussian ambassador at Paris: ‘The war with Austria troubles us -less than the war with England. Our means for supporting the former -are ready, but not without having exhausted all the resources of the -Republic. It will be probably the last effort of the two belligerent -powers.... Our plan of campaign is almost settled; the war will be -defensive in Germany and offensive in Italy. It is important to us to -detach Austria from England and Sardinia from Austria.’[11] Contrary -to their wish, therefore, the Directors found themselves obliged to -continue the war with England and Austria. - -[Sidenote: France and Prussia.] - -While continuing the war with these two powers, the French Directory, -like the Thermidorians, hoped to obtain not only the neutrality of -Prussia and Spain, which had been secured by the Treaties of Basle, -but their active co-operation. One of its first diplomatic endeavours -was to enter into close relations with Prussia. Some of the ministers -of Frederick William II., notably Alvensleben, were in favour of an -alliance with France; but the King himself, though he had been forced -by the emptiness of his treasury, and his projects on Poland to make -peace with the French republicans, looked on the idea of making an -alliance with them with horror. In this attitude he was supported by -his two ablest ministers, Haugwitz and Hardenberg. By the terms of the -Treaty of Basle Hardenberg had secured the preponderance of Prussia in -northern Germany. A line of demarcation or neutrality was drawn across -Germany, and the northern states, which were thus freed from the fear -of a French invasion, looked to Prussia as their leader and saviour. -An excuse for not forming an offensive and defensive alliance with -France was found in the occupation by the French troops of the Prussian -territories on the left bank of the Rhine. Prussia would only negotiate -on the basis of the restoration of the _status quo ante bellum_, and -the French Directory, like its predecessors, the Thermidorian Committee -of Public Safety and the Great Committee of Public Safety, insisted on -the cession to France of all territory up to the Rhine. The Directors, -had they wished, could not have opposed the universal feeling in France -in favour of making the Rhine the frontier, and proposed that Prussia -should take compensation for its cessions on the left bank of the -Rhine, by secularising the bishoprics and abbeys of northern Germany -and annexing their territories. This proposal, which would bring in -its train the overthrow of the Constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, -could not be sponsored by Prussia. The policy of Frederick the Great -had been to assume that Prussia, not Austria, was the true defender of -the rights of the Empire, and his nephew, in spite of Alvensleben’s -representations, feared to break with the hereditary policy. The -arrangement with regard to the line of demarcation had placed Prussia -in the position of the guardian of the Empire; the acceptance of -the French propositions would have made her seem its destroyer. The -attempts of the Directory, and afterwards of the Consulate, to secure -an alliance with Prussia, were therefore foredoomed to failure. - -[Sidenote: France and the Smaller States.] - -The victories of the French Republic were received with more than -toleration in the smaller states of Europe, which feared the -aggressions of Austria, Prussia, and Russia far more than any invasion -by the French. Switzerland had profited greatly by the strict -neutrality it had maintained. The wealth of France had poured freely -into the cantons for the purchase of provisions and other necessaries; -the residence of the diplomatists of Europe at Berne, the headquarters -of Wickham, and at Basle, the headquarters of the French minister -Barthélemy, had also been profitable to the country, while the Swiss, -ready as ever to accept money from all sides, were enabled to make very -considerable gains. Of the Princes of Italy, Ferdinand, Grand Duke of -Tuscany, and brother of the Emperor, had, to the disgust of the Court -of Vienna, made a separate peace with the French Republic in February -1795; Ferdinand of Naples had followed his example, and the King of -Sardinia alone remained in armed opposition to France. With Portugal -the Directory and the Committee of Public Safety, refused to treat, -for, like the French statesmen throughout the eighteenth century, -the Directors regarded Portugal as merely a province of England. -With the smaller northern powers the Directory established the most -friendly relations. Christian VII. of Denmark had always maintained his -neutrality, and through the French minister, resident at his Court, -many important secret negotiations had passed with Prussia. In Sweden, -Charles, Duke of Sudermania, the guardian of the young King Gustavus -IV., abandoned the policy of Gustavus III., and now made a treaty of -friendship and a commercial treaty with the French Republic. The only -other state to be mentioned is Turkey. The Turks looked upon the events -which were passing in the West of Europe with unconcern; still they -were inclined to be friendly with the French Republic, because it was -engaged in fighting with Austria, and thus distracted the attention of -one of the hereditary enemies of the Sublime Porte. - -[Sidenote: Russia.] - -Catherine of Russia, now at the close of her long reign, still regarded -the French Revolution as affording a happy opportunity for her to -pursue her schemes on Poland without active interference from Prussia -or Austria. Her one desire was that France should continue the war, -and for this reason she cordially received at her court the Comte -d’Artois, and encouraged the presence of French _émigrés_. The Treaties -of Basle had greatly offended her, for Prussia was thus left free to -interfere in Poland, but Catherine was too wise to attempt to do more -than intrigue with the affairs of Western Europe. She had no idea of -intervening actively. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of 1795.] - -The campaign of 1795 on the Rhine frontier is chiefly important in -regard to the treason of Pichegru. The Elector of Bavaria, who was at -the same time the Elector Palatine, had, as has already been said, -been uniformly friendly to the French. It was by his connivance that -two of the most important fortresses upon the Rhine, Mannheim and -Düsseldorf, were surrendered to Pichegru and Jourdan respectively. -Meanwhile Marceau besieged the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, and Kléber -the city of Mayence. There can be little doubt, though it is not -absolutely proved by documents, that it was because of the negotiations -he had commenced with the Prince de Condé that Pichegru did not -advance into Germany. Jourdan, who did advance with the Army of the -Sambre-and-Meuse, therefore found himself unprotected on his right, -and was forced to retire with considerable loss. Marceau succeeded in -taking Ehrenbreitstein, but the same treacherous inaction of Pichegru -allowed the Austrian General Clerfayt to force Kléber to raise the -siege of Mayence. It was on 20th October 1795 that Jourdan recrossed -the Rhine; on the 29th Kléber was driven from before Mayence; and on -the 30th Pichegru was defeated and driven behind the Queich. The first -operations of the French armies under the Directory were, thus, owing -to Pichegru’s treachery, unsuccessful, and on the 21st December an -armistice was made between the French and the Austrians on the Rhine. -In the north, owing to the Treaties of Basle, there were no military -operations of importance during the autumn of 1795, and the French -army maintained its position on the frontier of Holland. In the south -considerable alterations were made. The treaty of peace with Spain -enabled the experienced and warlike soldiers of the two armies of -the Pyrenees to be despatched to reinforce the Army of Italy, which -was also joined by the bulk of the troops of the Army of the Alps. -General Schérer, who commanded the Army of Italy, pushed forward, and -by a victory at Loano on the 24th November 1795, opened up a direct -communication with Genoa and cut off the Sardinians from the sea. In -the four armies of the Directory which had thus taken the place of the -thirteen armies of the Republic, there were under arms at the close of -1795 about 300,000 men under experienced generals, excluding what was -known as the Army of the Interior, which guarded Paris and garrisoned -the chief cities of France. - -[Sidenote: Campaign in Italy, 1796. First Stage.] - -[Sidenote: Armistice of Cherasco. April 28, 1796.] - -Reubell, in his conversation with the Prussian ambassador at Paris, -openly declared that the chief military effort of France in 1796 was -to be made in Italy. Hitherto the Army of Italy had been overshadowed -by the operations of the armies engaged upon the Rhine; but the -Directory now desired to attack Austria in a vital place. Upon the -Rhine they were in reality waging war with the Empire and not with -Austria. Mayence, for instance, was the capital of an Elector, not an -Austrian city, and blows struck in that quarter affected the Empire -and the petty princes of the Empire far more than they did Austria. -But in Italy the House of Austria owned an important possession in -the Milanese. Between the Milanese and the French Army of Italy was -Piedmont, the principal state of the King of Sardinia. Victor Amadeus -III. of Sardinia was the only petty monarch in Europe who had not -attempted to make peace with the French Republic. In his resentment -at the loss of Savoy and Nice he had thrown himself into the arms of -Austria, and had borrowed an Austrian general, Colli, to command his -small but well equipped army. This was the situation when Napoleon -Bonaparte, who had been nominated to the command of the Army of -Italy by the Directory, on the proposition of Barras, to whom he had -rendered such signal service on 13th Vendémiaire, arrived to take up -his new command on the 27th of March 1796. He understood the policy -of the Directory, and determined to crush the King of Sardinia first, -in order to be free to attack the Austrians in the Milanese. He -therefore turned the Maritime Alps and separated the Austrian from the -Sardinian army. The rapidity of his success was such as to surprise the -Directors. After turning the Alps Bonaparte struck north and defeated -the Sardinians at Montenotte, Millesimo, and Dego on the 12th, 13th, -and 15th April, stormed their camp at Ceva on 16th April, and finally -defeated them at Mondovi on 22d April. He then threatened Turin, and -the King of Sardinia signed an armistice with him at Cherasco on 28th -April, abandoning to the French army his most important frontier -fortresses. As the first result of these military operations the King -of Sardinia sued for peace, which he was only granted on recognising -the cession to France of Savoy and Nice, and as a second result General -Bonaparte was enabled to attack the Austrians in Lombardy without -leaving a hostile power behind him. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Italy. Second Stage.] - -The operations of the second stage of the famous campaign of 1796 -were as rapid and as completely successful. On the 8th May Bonaparte -crossed the river Po by skilfully misleading the Austrians as to his -intentions, and on 10th May he forced the passage of the Adda at Lodi, -where he won one of his most famous victories. The Austrian General -Beaulieu felt himself incapable of holding the lines of the other -rivers, and fled into the Tyrol. Bonaparte first occupied Milan, and -then forced the Dukes of Parma and of Modena to submit to his demands, -and to send ambassadors to treat for peace at Paris. To these petty -princelets Bonaparte behaved with the utmost arrogance; not satisfied -with making large requisitions of money and provisions, he selected -their finest pictures and works of art, and directed them to be sent -to Paris. Far more important, from his spiritual position, though not -of greater military strength, was the Pope. The French armies occupied -the Legations of Ferrara and Bologna, and Bonaparte then threatened -to march on Rome. In terror Pope Pius VI. concluded, on the 24th June -1796, an armistice at Foligno, by which he abandoned Ancona, and -promised to send to Paris the large sum of 20,000,000 livres, with -many manuscripts and works of art. The conquest of Italy revealed to -Europe the French Republic in a new light. It showed the monarchs, -and especially the rulers of little states, that the revolutionary -propaganda which they had hated and dreaded so much had given way to -an even more dangerous military policy, directed by a victorious and -ambitious general. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Italy. Third Stage.] - -But Austria was not going to be driven out of Italy by a single -campaign. The beaten army of Beaulieu was reorganised by General -Melas, and reinforced by 30,000 picked men from the Rhine. This army, -amounting in all to 70,000 men, was placed under the command of Marshal -Würmser, who, at the end of July, debouched from the Tyrol and invaded -Italy by the two sides of Lake Garda. Bonaparte, whose army did not -exceed 40,000 men, broke up the siege of Mantua which he had formed, -and utterly defeated the Austrians in the great battle of Castiglione -on 5th August 1796. Würmser fell back, but in September, the following -month, he invaded Italy by the valley of the Brenta, and threw himself -into Mantua. Bonaparte, now considering himself for a time freed from -the danger of another Austrian attack, made an effort to reconstitute -Northern Italy. Several of the cities, notably Modena, Bologna, and -Ferrara, had declared themselves republics, but Bonaparte could see -no advantage in little republics, and summoned a general assembly of -deputies from the whole of Lombardy to meet at Milan. This assembly was -disposed to form a Lombard Republic, but before it could complete its -deliberations Bonaparte had to fight another Austrian army. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Italy. Fourth Stage.] - -The Austrians, disgusted and surprised by these successive defeats, -prepared to make a great effort. For the first time, the Emperor -appealed directly to the patriotism of the people, and more especially -of the nobility. A new army was equipped, which, if not so numerous, -was more enthusiastic than the former armies, and was placed under -the command of General Alvinzi. Bonaparte had received few or no -reinforcements, and felt himself unable to face an army of 60,000 men. -He waited, therefore, patiently in his headquarters at Verona while -Alvinzi advanced slowly down the Brenta. Having learnt experience -from their former defeats, the Austrians were in no hurry to come -to blows, even with the small French army in front of them. Alvinzi -entrenched himself in a formidable position on the heights of Caldiero, -and repulsed a French attack upon the 12th of November. Another such -check meant the ruin of the French army. Bonaparte decided to turn -the position. Advancing along the causeway through the marshes upon -Alvinzi’s left, he fought the celebrated battle of Arcola on the 16th -of November, and Alvinzi, finding his position untenable, retreated -into the Tyrol. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Italy. Fifth Stage.] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Tolentino. Feb. 19, 1797.] - -Even yet the Austrians were not finally discouraged. Würmser held out -in Mantua; the Pope, incited by the Court of Vienna, did not observe -the Armistice of Foligno, and determined to raise the Italian populace -against the French; and it was resolved to make a final effort. In -the depth of winter Alvinzi advanced down the eastern shore of Lake -Garda, but was stopped and utterly defeated at Rivoli on the 14th -January 1797. Provera, who had endeavoured to relieve Würmser by the -Brenta, while Alvinzi occupied the main French army at Rivoli, was also -defeated, and on 2d February 1797 Mantua surrendered. These successive -blows destroyed the military power of Austria in Italy, and Bonaparte -began to make plans for invading Austria itself. But before he started -it was necessary to establish peace behind him. The behaviour of the -Pope showed the general that His Holiness could not be trusted, and it -was only under the pressure of a French advance upon Rome that Pius VI. -signed a treaty of peace with the French at Tolentino on 19th February -1797. By this treaty Bonaparte’s lines of communication were secured; -the people of Lombardy were his enthusiastic admirers, and everything -promised a speedy and successful advance upon Vienna. - -[Sidenote: Campaign in Germany, 1796.] - -As Reubell had stated to the Prussian ambassador, the chief effort of -the French armies was directed in the year 1796 against the Austrians -in Italy. But the operations in Germany were nevertheless of extreme -importance; not on account of what was achieved, but because of -their effect on the policy of the Princes of the Empire. Carnot, -who was left in entire charge of military affairs by the Directory, -combined a skilful plan of campaign. He directed the Army of the -Rhine-and-Moselle, now under the command of Moreau, and the Army of -the Sambre-and-Meuse, still under the command of Jourdan, to make a -simultaneous advance into the heart of Germany, and to unite their -forces upon the Danube. The generals were sufficiently able, and the -troops sufficiently experienced in war, to carry out this movement; but -at the head of the Austrians, for the first time since the outbreak of -the war, there appeared a general of real military genius. The Archduke -Charles, the third son of the Emperor Leopold, and the brother of the -reigning Emperor, Francis II., was only a young man, but he proved -himself to be a profound strategist. On the 1st June 1796 he announced -to the French generals that the armistice, which had lasted six months, -was at an end. Jourdan at once advanced from Düsseldorf, and after -taking Frankfort and Würtzburg invaded Franconia. The Archduke Charles -immediately opposed him with his whole army, and Jourdan had to fall -back after a three weeks’ campaign. Moreau was not able to cross -the Rhine until 24–25 June 1796. The operation was one of extreme -difficulty, which was chiefly overcome by the skill and gallantry of -Desaix. Moreau then proceeded to carry out Carnot’s orders; he advanced -with great rapidity; he defeated the Prince de Condé and his army of -_émigrés_ at Ettlingen; he occupied Stuttgart, and forced his way into -Bavaria, reaching the Danube in the month of August. To oppose him -the Archduke Charles marched rapidly to the south, and Jourdan once -more left Düsseldorf and invaded Franconia. The Archduke Charles soon -understood the intentions of Carnot, and took up a central position -between the two French armies at Ingolstadt. He waited until the French -generals had penetrated far from their base of operations, and then, -leaving but a weak division in front of Moreau, he attacked Jourdan -in force. The French Army of the Sambre-and-Meuse was overcome by the -weight of numbers; on the 3d of September it was driven from Würtzburg, -and on the 20th of September defeated at Altenkirchen, where Marceau, -one of the most renowned of the young generals of the republican -period, was killed. Having driven back Jourdan, the Archduke Charles -turned upon Moreau. That general had imprudently continued to advance -into Bavaria, and did not perceive until late in September the critical -position in which he had been left by the retreat of Jourdan. When -he did perceive it, he extricated himself by one of the most famous -retreats known in military history. For forty days he fell back through -a hostile country, with bad roads, and offering almost innumerable -difficulties from its lofty mountains and dense forests, and harassed -by the presence of a victorious Austrian army attempting to cut off his -retreat, and eventually he recrossed the Rhine on the 24th of October. - -[Sidenote: Effects of the Campaign in Germany.] - -From a military point of view, apart from the intrinsic interest -presented by the operations of the armies, the chief importance of -the campaign of 1796 in Germany lay in the fact that it occupied a -considerable force of Austrian troops, which were thus prevented from -being sent as reinforcements to the Austrian army in Italy. From the -diplomatic point of view, the campaign had results almost rivalling -those achieved by Bonaparte in Italy. The advance of the French threw -the states of Southern Germany into the hands of Prussia. They felt -a natural sentiment of jealousy at perceiving the states of Northern -Germany escaping the horrors of war, owing to the line of demarcation -established by the Treaty of Basle. Many of the smaller states, and -at least one of the larger states, Saxony, implored the intervention -of Prussia. Frederick William II., only too glad to pose as the -guardian of the Empire, made use of all his influence to induce the -French Directory to consent to the further extension of the line of -demarcation. Reubell, the Director who took charge of foreign policy, -was possessed by the idea that Prussia and France were natural allies, -and induced the Directory to meet the views of Frederick William -II.; but in return he demanded that Prussia should enter into an -offensive and defensive alliance with the French Republic. The King of -Prussia, in his hatred of Jacobin principles, was inclined to reject -this proposal, but his ministers, notably Haugwitz and Alvensleben, -persuaded him that it was impossible to refuse entirely. A compromise -was arranged, and on 5th August 1796 a secret supplement to the -Treaty of Basle was signed between France and Prussia. By this secret -convention Prussia definitely promised to recognise the limits of -the Rhine for the French Republic, and in return France guaranteed -that at a general peace not only the King of Prussia should receive -compensation for the territories he surrendered, by the cession of some -ecclesiastical states, but also that his brother-in-law, the Prince of -Orange, should receive a sovereignty in Germany, to make up for the -loss of the Stadtholderate in Holland. It proved impossible to extend -the line of demarcation to the southern states of Germany as long as -the Austrian army of the Archduke Charles remained there. And therefore -the petty rulers endeavoured to make peace with France on their own -account. The Duke of Würtemburg and the Margrave of Baden both opened -negotiations, and since the Elector of Bavaria had fled into Saxony on -the advance of Moreau, the Estates of Bavaria signed a treaty of peace -with the French general at Pfaffenhofen on the 7th September 1796. But -the successes of the Archduke Charles and the retreat of Moreau put -an end to these peaceful dispositions. The Elector of Bavaria refused -to ratify the treaty his Estates had made; the Duke of Würtemburg -dismissed the minister who had conducted his negotiations; and in spite -of all the efforts of Prussia, the predominance of Austria continued in -Southern Germany. - -[Sidenote: Internal Policy of the Directory, 1796.] - -The successes of Bonaparte in Italy, and the operations of the French -armies in Germany which, though they had ended in retreat, had not been -discreditable to the generals or soldiers, reacted very favourably upon -the position of the Directory. The French, as a nation, have always -been dazzled by military glory, and since the armies of the Directory -were victorious, they were inclined to look upon the government of -the Directory as excellent. But military successes did not merely add -to the reputation of the Directors; by means of them their financial -difficulties were relieved. The doctrine that invading armies should -live upon the resources of the invaded countries was a most convenient -one. Not only did the armies in Italy and Germany maintain themselves -free of cost to the Directory, but the generals sent large sums of -money to Paris. It was therefore unnecessary to impose fresh taxes -or issue more paper money. But the relief of financial distress was -not the only result of the government of the Directory in 1796; it -restored internal peace. Hoche, after his defeat of the _émigrés_ at -Quiberon Bay in 1795, devoted himself to the pacification of Brittany -and La Vendée. The chief credit due to the Directors is that they gave -the young general a free hand. While putting down armed insurrection, -and defeating the Vendéan chiefs whenever they appeared, Hoche used -the most conciliatory measures towards individuals. His policy, as he -himself declared in one of his proclamations, was to make the Republic -loved. While punishing brigandage severely, he conveniently forgot all -past offences as long as the offenders occupied themselves peacefully; -and on the 15th of July 1796 the Directory was able to announce to -the Legislature that the whole of France was at peace. In truth, all -political disturbances were at an end. The majority of the French -people frankly accepted the Republic, and seemed to care very little -what was the actual form of the republican government. But though -political disturbances were over, the troubled times through which -France had passed had left only too much scope for private animosity. -In the south armed bands, resembling the Companies of Jehu of 1795, -pretended to be acting for the defence of religion, when they were -really moved by desire of plunder and booty. In the centre the pretext -of religion was not alleged, but armed bands of brigands collected -in the forests and the mountains, and, like the banditti in Italy, -pillaged travellers on the high roads, and held whole villages to -ransom. These evils steadily diminished with the consistent enforcement -of the law, but it was some years before France became absolutely safe -for travellers. Of less importance were the insurrections fomented -by the extreme democratic party. Democracy was discredited by the -recollection of the Reign of Terror, and the plot of Babeuf in May, -and an attack on the camp at Grenelle in November 1796, were easily -suppressed. - -[Sidenote: First changes in the Directory and the Legislature, 1797.] - -[Sidenote: Changes in the Ministry.] - -By the terms of the Constitution of the Year III. no change in the -Directory or the Legislature was to be made until February 1797. By -this arrangement a period of consistent government was secured. The -Directors, on the whole, acted harmoniously together. The pre-eminence -of Reubell and Carnot was generally recognised; Barras occupied -himself chiefly with his pleasures; Revellière-Lépeaux was engaged in -establishing his new religion of Theo-philanthropy, which made some -converts in the towns, but found no followers in the villages; and -Letourneur simply acted as Carnot’s lieutenant. In the Legislature -the chief leaders, such as Sieyès, Cambacérès, and Boissy-d’Anglas, -showed occasionally their jealousy of their former colleagues in the -Convention; but, on the whole, they did not try to interfere with their -measures. The only heated debates which took place in the Council of -Five Hundred were on the nature of the disturbances in the south of -France. These were roundly asserted by the opposing parties to be -caused by intrigues of priests, or by intrigues of Jacobins. Fréron, -who had been sent by the Directory to settle these troubles, was very -violently attacked, and with difficulty exculpated himself from the -charge of political partisanship. But, on the whole, the debates in -both branches of the Legislature were very tame. Nevertheless there -appeared, during 1796, the germ of what in 1797 was known as the -Clichian party, so called from its meeting at the Club de Clichy. This -party was not openly royalist, but the chiefs of the French _émigrés_, -supported by the funds supplied by Wickham, believed they could use -it to serve their own purposes, as they had made use of the agitators -in the Paris Sections in 1795. In the ministry no changes of great -importance were made in 1796; Ramel, the former colleague of Cambon -in the Financial Committee of the Convention, replaced Faypoult as -Minister of the Finances; and Pétiet, a former commissary-general, was -appointed Minister of War in succession to Aubert-Dubayet. Of more -importance was the creation of a seventh ministry, of General Police, -in January 1796, for it was an evidence of a new spirit, and the first -symptom of the elaborate scheme for muzzling public opinion, which was -developed to its height by Fouché at a later date. Merlin of Douai -left the Ministry of the Interior for three months to organise the new -department, and was succeeded in April 1796 by Cochon de Lapparent, a -former member of the Convention. - -[Sidenote: France and Spain.] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of San Ildefonso. 19th Aug. 1796.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of St. Vincent.] - -It has been said that the Directors endeavoured in vain to form -an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia. They were more -successful with regard to Spain. The power of Godoy, who for the -negotiations at Basle had been created Prince of the Peace, rose to its -height. General Pérignon, who had been sent as ambassador to Madrid by -the Directory, skilfully flattered the vanity of the new prince, and, -to the astonishment of all Europe, an offensive and defensive alliance -was signed between the French Republic and the ancient Bourbon monarchy -of Spain at San Ildefonso, on the 19th of August 1796, by which Spain -agreed to declare war against England, and the French promised to -assist in the conquest of Portugal, which was to be divided between -the two allies. From a military point of view the alliance with Spain -did not yield any advantage to France, but from a naval standpoint -it proved of incalculable value. The English were obliged to abandon -Corsica, their only foothold in the Mediterranean, and to concentrate -their fleet at Gibraltar. The Spanish navy, to which much attention had -been paid throughout the eighteenth century, had certainly improved, -and, united with a few French men-of-war, far outnumbered the English -Mediterranean Fleet. This was the year of the great English naval -mutiny at the Nore, and the profound discontent which possessed the -English sailors was equally perceptible at Gibraltar. But fortunately -the English admiral, Sir John Jervis, was a man of singular ability, -who understood the English sailor perfectly. He showed no mercy to -ringleaders, but maintained discipline, and even made it popular -by looking after the men’s food, and appealing to their patriotic -feelings. He understood that, on the eve of a battle, the sailors would -cease their disaffection. Accordingly he kept at sea for several months -after the junction of the French and Spanish fleets, announcing his -intention to offer battle; and when discipline was restored he utterly -defeated the French and Spaniards off Cape St. Vincent, on the 14th of -February 1797. By this victory, in which Nelson greatly distinguished -himself, the Spanish fleet was practically destroyed for offensive -purposes, and the high hopes that the Directory had built on the naval -assistance of Spain were frustrated. England had promptly, as in former -days, come to the help of Portugal, and sent an army under the Hon. -Sir Charles Stuart to defend the country, and a general, the Prince of -Waldeck, to reorganise the Portuguese army. - -[Sidenote: The Directory and England.] - -While the Directory made an alliance with Spain, and hoped to make one -with Prussia, its sentiments of hostility towards England remained -undiminished. It had been expected in France that the conquest of -Holland and the formation of the Batavian Republic, in close alliance -with the French Republic, would have struck a more serious blow at -the prosperity of England than it had really done. As a matter of -fact, the loss of Holland proved but a slight commercial disaster; the -commerce of the North of Europe, which passed through English hands, -merely moved from Amsterdam to Hamburg, and the English merchants -suffered little. From a naval point of view, the French possession -of Holland made it necessary for England to set on foot a powerful -fleet to watch the Dutch navy in the Texel, while she also had to -maintain a fleet blockading the French port of Brest in addition to -her Mediterranean fleet. The English government was more profoundly -affected by Bonaparte’s victories in Italy than by the loss of Holland. -In November 1796 Lord Malmesbury was sent to Paris to discuss the bases -of a peace. He began to negotiate for the restoration of the _status -quo ante bellum_, and demanded the surrender of Belgium to the Emperor. -Such terms were ridiculous; the French Directors, even had they wished, -would not have dared to withdraw from their policy of making the Rhine -the frontier of France. The diplomatic habitudes of Lord Malmesbury -were regarded by the Directors as proofs of his double-dealing, and -he was abruptly ordered to leave Paris on the 20th December 1796. -There was little real expectation of peace on either side. At the -very time Lord Malmesbury was in Paris the Directory was preparing -a naval expedition in Brest harbour. It was announced that the -expedition was intended for the West Indies, and it was placed under -the command of Hoche. On the 16th of December it set sail for Bantry -Bay, for the Directory had really recurred to the old French idea of -attacking England through Ireland. But a terrible storm scattered the -French Fleet, and only two or three ships reached Bantry Bay, and they -returned to France without effecting a landing. - -[Sidenote: Death of Catherine of Russia. Nov. 17, 1796.] - -Though the history of Europe during the year 1796 is chiefly bound up -in the policy and military achievements of France, the close of the -year witnessed the disappearance of the greatest monarch of Eastern -Europe. On the 17th November 1796, Catherine of Russia died. The -importance of her reign belongs to the period prior to the French -Revolution, and her attitude towards the series of events grouped under -that title, was chiefly dictated by the course of events in Poland. She -was succeeded on the throne of Russia by her son, the Emperor Paul. The -new monarch soon gave evidence of the aberration of intellect which led -him into the strange excesses that brought about his assassination. -His first step in foreign politics was to decline to assist Austria -with his armies, and he even withdrew a Russian fleet which his mother -had recently sent to the assistance of England. In conversation he -expressed his detestation of the French as Jacobins, but none the less -he opened negotiations with the Directory by means of his ambassador at -Berlin, Kolichev, who communicated freely with the French ambassador -Caillard. - -[Sidenote: Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1797.] - -In the commencement of the year 1797 the interest of Europe was -concentrated upon Bonaparte and his army. Being master of Italy he -now determined to invade the home domains of the House of Austria. -He begged the Directory to act with energy in Germany in order to -prevent reinforcements being sent against him. The Emperor recalled -his brother, the Archduke Charles, from the Rhine, and placed in him -command of the Austrian army in the Tyrol. On the 16th of March 1797 -Bonaparte forced the passage of Tagliamento. Joubert, who was acting -independently in the district of Friuli, made his way by that route -into the Tyrol, and joined his general-in-chief at Klagenfurt on the -13th of March. With the combined army Bonaparte pursued the Austrians. -He defeated the Archduke Charles at Neumarkt and Unzmarkt, and on 7th -April he entered Leoben. The Archduke Charles felt it impossible to -oppose the French longer, and on the 17th of April 1797 preliminaries -of peace were signed at Leoben. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of 1797 in Germany.] - -Simultaneously with Bonaparte’s advance the Armies of the -Rhine-and-Moselle under Moreau, and of the Sambre-and-Meuse under -Hoche, were set in motion. The latter advanced from Düsseldorf, -defeated the Austrians in five engagements, took Wetzlar, and was -already marching on Giessen in Hanover when his progress was stopped by -the news of the signature of the Preliminaries of Leoben. Moreau, on -his side, had not been able to cross the Rhine until 20th April, and -had made no further offensive movement, when he was ordered to cease -operations. - -[Sidenote: Preliminaries of Leoben. April 17, 1797.] - -By the Preliminaries of Leoben the war between France and Austria, -which had lasted without intermission for five years, came to a -termination. By the Convention signed at that place, Austria agreed -that the Rhine should be recognised as the frontier of France, which -involved the cession of Belgium. In Italy the Emperor promised to give -up the Milanese, and to receive Venice in compensation. These were the -territorial bases agreed to, and General Bonaparte was intrusted by the -Directory with the task of concluding a definitive peace with Austria. -But this Convention only bound Francis II. as head of the House of -Hapsburg, not as Emperor. It was therefore agreed that a congress -should be held at Rastadt, at which terms of peace should be arranged -between the French Republic and the Empire. The Preliminaries of Leoben -crowned Bonaparte’s great victories, and the monarchs of Europe quickly -recognised that they had no longer to deal with the French Republic, -but with the young Corsican general. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - - 1797–1799 - - Elections of 1797 in France—Policy of the Clichians—Struggle - between the Directors and the Clichians—Negotiations for - Peace between England and the Directory—Changes in the - French Ministry—Revolution of 18th Fructidor—Bonaparte - in Italy—Occupation of Venice—The Ligurian and Cisalpine - Republics formed—Annexation of the Ionian Islands by - France—Treaty of Campo-Formio—Capture of Mayence—The - Batavian Republic—Battle of Camperdown—Bonaparte’s - Expedition to the East—Capture of Malta—Conquest - of Egypt—Battle of the Nile—Internal Policy of the - Directory after 18th Fructidor—Foreign Policy—Attitude - of England, Prussia, Austria, and Russia—The Helvetian - Republic—Italian Affairs—The Roman and Parthenopean Republics - formed—Occupation of Piedmont and Tuscany by France—The - Law of Conscription—Outbreak of War between Austria and - France—Murder of the French Plenipotentiaries at Rastadt—The - Campaign of 1799—In Italy—Battles of Cassano, the Trebbia - and Novi—Italy lost to France—In Switzerland—Battle - of Zurich—In Holland—Battles of Bergen—Results of the - Campaign of 1799—Policy and Character of the Emperor Paul - of Russia—Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1799 in Syria—Siege of - Acre—Battle of Mount Tabor—Struggle between the Directors and - the Legislature in France—Revolution of 22d Prairial—Changes - in the Directory and Ministry—Bonaparte’s return to - France—Revolution of 18th Brumaire—End of the Government of - the Directory in France. - - -[Sidenote: The Elections of 1797 in France.] - -In the month of May 1797 a new Director and a new third of the -Legislature were, in accordance with the Constitution of the Year -III., elected in France. These elections were entirely favourable to -the Clichian party. This party, which had gradually grown up since -the dissolution of the Convention, and took its name from the Club de -Clichy, was led by men of very considerable ability. The sentiment -which united them was a loathing of the memory of the Reign of Terror -and a desire to expel from power those who had taken part in it. -This sentiment was very general in France, and the new legislators -returned to the Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred -were, with but few exceptions, men who had not sat in the Convention. -Many of them were former members of the Constituent and Legislative -Assemblies, and had a considerable knowledge of parliamentary tactics. -Foremost among this group was Barbé-Marbois, who had, under the Bourbon -monarchy, been intendant of San Domingo, but the deputy belonging to it -who attracted most attention was General Pichegru. The first success -of the Clichian party was won in the election of the new Director. -The retiring Director on whom the lot had fallen was Letourneur, and -to fill his place was chosen Barthélemy, a former marquis, and the -diplomatist who had negotiated the Treaties of Basle. This election was -very significant. It seemed to presage a consistent peace policy. It -afforded a guarantee that the proscription of the nobles of the _ancien -régime_ was to be ended. - -[Sidenote: Policy of the Clichians.] - -In foreign policy it was indeed the aim of the Clichians to bring about -a universal peace. Their home policy was neither so definite nor so -logical. In their hatred of the Terrorists there can be no doubt that -the wiser heads among the Clichians desired a return to a monarchical -government. Pichegru and the more self-seeking among them thought that -they could obtain money and power by a new revolution. Never were -the prospects of a counter-revolution more promising. The Clichians, -recognising the impossibility of restoring the Bourbon Monarchy in its -former authority, were in favour of a constitutional, limited monarchy -after the English pattern. But Louis XVIII., and the Comte d’Artois, -buoyed up by the hopes of the _émigrés_ refused to make the slightest -concession; they would not acknowledge the Constitution of 1791; they -would not even promise to consent to the slightest limitation of -the old monarchical power. Under these circumstances the Clichians -had to look for a king elsewhere. A few, among whom may possibly be -counted Pichegru, were ready to accept Louis XVIII. on his own terms. -A larger party were in favour of the Duke of Orleans, son of Philippe -Égalité, and, in the future, King of the French as Louis Philippe. -Others favoured the accession of a Prussian prince, and negotiations -were opened at Berlin to see whether Prince Francis, the nephew of -Frederick William II., would accept the throne. With such divisions of -opinion, there was no doubt that the internal policy of the Clichians, -even though backed by large subsidies from England, which passed to -them through Switzerland, was certain to bring about no result. Nor -was their peace policy more likely to succeed. The wars of the French -Republic had organised a body of valiant and experienced soldiers -whose trade was war, and to whom the idea of peace was repugnant. -Both Bonaparte and Hoche, the two greatest generals of the Directory, -naturally looked with suspicion and dislike upon the policy of the -Clichians. - -[Sidenote: Struggle between the Directory and the Clichians.] - -[Sidenote: Negotiations for Peace between England and the Directory.] - -It need hardly be said that the attitude of the Clichians was one of -open hostility to the four original Directors. Their one adherent -in the Directory, Barthélemy, proved to be a very weak support, and -his brother Directors soon saw that it was unnecessary to trouble -themselves about him. The four remaining original Directors were -united in their dislike of the new theories, and also as regicides -had reason to fear their success. A severe struggle was therefore -imminent between the majority of the Legislature and of the Executive. -A crisis had arisen which tested the political theories which had found -their expression in the Constitution of the Year III. The Legislature -endeavoured to encroach upon the authority of the Directory; the -Directors refused to yield one jot of their power. The first active -measure of hostility in the Councils was an attack upon the Foreign -Minister, Charles Delacroix. Pitt had decided to make a second attempt -to bring about peace between England and France, though without much -expectation of its success, and a conference was opened at Lille -on the 4th July 1797, at which Lord Malmesbury was present as the -English plenipotentiary. He presented, on behalf of England, almost -the same demands as had been rejected in the previous December, and -the negotiations were speedily broken off. Using this as a pretext, -the hostile majority in the Council of Ancients and Council of Five -Hundred accused the Directors of not sincerely wishing for peace, -and threw the chief blame for the rupture of the conference on their -minister, Delacroix. The Directory yielded. Charles Delacroix was -sent as ambassador to Holland, and was succeeded as Foreign Minister -by Talleyrand. This skilful and subtle diplomatist saw that the -rivalry between the two powers in the State must lead to an open -rupture. He sided strongly with the Directors; he communicated with -Hoche and Bonaparte, and there can be little doubt that he was one of -the principal, if not the principal, author of the _coup- ’état_ or -revolution which followed. The dismissal of Delacroix was perhaps the -most important episode; but the other ministers were likewise violently -attacked by the Councils, and in addition to the Foreign Office every -department of State, except the ministries of Finance and Justice, -changed hands in July 1797. François de Neufchâteau became Minister -of the Interior, General Schérer Minister for War, Pleville de Peley -Minister of the Marine, and Lenoir-Laroche, who was succeeded in a few -days by Sotin de la Coindière, Minister of Police. - -[Sidenote: The Revolution of 18th Fructidor. (4th September 1797.)] - -The revolution of the 18th Fructidor was one which created but little -interest among the people of France. It was the result of an intrinsic -weakness in the Constitution, not of a popular movement. Two co-equal -powers can never exist in the government of a State: when a collision -takes place one must be overthrown. In their measures for overthrowing -or muzzling the leaders of the opposition in the Legislature, the four -senior Directors could not agree. Carnot, the greatest of them all, -disliked any interference with the Constitution, and looked upon -the employment of force as likely to lead to great disasters. The -other original Directors, Barras, Reubell, and Revellière-Lépeaux, -were, however, perfectly agreed. They were determined to use the -regular troops that formed the garrison of Paris; Hoche, from Holland, -sent them a sum of money; and Bonaparte instructed one of his best -generals, Augereau, to act according to their orders. Accordingly, on -the morning of the 18th Fructidor (4th September 1797) fifty-five of -the leaders of the Clichian party in the Legislature, including both -Barbé-Marbois and Pichegru, were arrested, and were at once deported, -with the ex-minister of Police, Cochon de Lapparent, and several other -individuals, without trial, to Cayenne and Sinnamari. The same harsh -measures were not taken with regard to the two dissentient Directors, -Carnot and Barthélemy, who were given every facility for escaping from -France. This revolution was carried out without the shedding of a -single drop of blood, and the success of the Directors was acquiesced -in by the people of France. - -Merlin of Douai, the great jurist and statesman, and François de -Neufchâteau, a dramatist and former member of the Legislative -Assembly, were elected as the new Directors in the place of Carnot and -Barthélemy, and were succeeded in the ministries of Justice and the -Interior by Lambrechts and Letourneur. - -[Sidenote: Bonaparte in Italy.] - -[Sidenote: Occupation of Venice.] - -[Sidenote: The Ligurian Republic.] - -[Sidenote: The Cisalpine Republic.] - -After the conclusion of the Preliminaries of Leoben Bonaparte returned -to Italy and established himself at Montebello, near Milan. He was -appointed plenipotentiary of the French Republic to conclude a final -treaty with Austria, but the negotiations lasted for many months. -During this time the young general was chiefly engaged in settling -Italy. He first made a terrible example of the city of Verona, where -the people had risen in revolt during his campaign in the Tyrol, and -had murdered the wounded French soldiers left in their city. He next -occupied Venice, and exacted from it a heavy contribution in money. -Having thus established his power throughout northern Italy, Bonaparte -began to set up new governments. On the 15th of June 1797 be insisted -on the dissolution of the ancient government of Genoa, and formed -that city and the surrounding districts into a new Ligurian Republic. -Piedmont, by the terms of the Treaty of Cherasco, was left to the King -of Sardinia, but Bonaparte at once formed Lombardy, Modena, Reggio, -Bologna, Ferrara, the Romagna, Brescia, and Mantua into one State, -which he named the Cisalpine Republic. The Constitution of this new -Republic, which was modelled on the Constitution of the Year III., was -promulgated on the 9th of July 1797. In these measures Bonaparte had -carefully avoided any annexations by France. It was otherwise with -regard to the Ionian Islands, which were ceded to the French Republic -by Venice. Corfu was occupied on the 28th of June 1797, and Bonaparte -believed that by this cession the French fleet in the Mediterranean -would be able to close the Adriatic Sea. - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Campo-Formio. 17th October 1797.] - -[Sidenote: Capture of Mayence. 29th December 1797.] - -During the months in which Italy was being thus reconstructed, the -Austrian plenipotentiary, Cobenzl, was skilfully delaying the signature -of a definitive treaty between France and Austria. In truth, the -Austrians, like the English, Thugut, like Pitt, hoped that the Clichian -party would win the day. The successful _coup d’état_ of 18th of -Fructidor destroyed his hopes, and on 17th of October 1797 the Treaty -of Campo-Formio was signed. The bases laid down by the Preliminaries of -Leoben were generally followed. The frontier of the Rhine for France -was solemnly recognised. The new arrangements in Italy were also agreed -to, and to Austria was ceded Venice and all the territories of Venice -in Istria and Dalmatia and up to the Adige, in compensation for the -loss of the Milanese. The Emperor also engaged to use his influence -at the Congress of Rastadt to secure peace between France and the -Holy Roman Empire. The Treaty of Campo-Formio really struck a more -severe blow at the Empire than at the House of Austria. The cession -of the Rhine frontier to France implied the loss to the Empire of the -electorates of Trèves, Mayence, and the Palatinate, while it only -deprived Austria of her mutinous and rebellious subjects in Belgium. -A secret clause was also added to the Treaty, by which the French -Republic promised to guarantee the whole of Bavaria to the House of -Austria, in return for the immediate evacuation of all the fortresses -which the Austrians occupied upon the Rhine. Immediately upon receiving -the news of the Treaty of Campo-Formio the Directory equipped a special -army under the command of General Hatry for the capture of Mayence, -the only place on the left bank of the Rhine not in the possession of -France. Deprived of the assistance of Austria, the troops of the Empire -and of the Elector of Mayence could make but little resistance, and on -29th of December 1797 Mayence was once more surrendered to the French -Republic. - -[Sidenote: Holland. The Batavian Republic.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Camperdown. 11th October 1797.] - -The Batavian Republic, which had been established in 1795 in Holland, -was also considerably affected by the revolution of 18th Fructidor. -The Dutch Legislature had been influenced by every current of feeling -in France, and during the predominance of the Clichians had made no -real effort to support their French allies. After the conclusion of -the Convention of Leoben, and the consequent cessation of hostilities -in Germany, the Directory despatched Hoche to Holland. He there busied -himself with another effort for his favourite scheme for the invasion -of England. For this purpose he relied upon the powerful Dutch fleet, -which was being blockaded by an English squadron under Admiral Duncan -in the Texel. During the mutiny at the Nore in the summer of 1797 -the position of the blockading English fleet had been very critical, -and on one occasion it is stated that two English ships were left to -watch fifteen Dutch. Directly after the revolution of Fructidor, the -Directors, who did not feel certain of the support of Moreau, removed -Hoche from Holland and placed him in command of the united Armies -of the Rhine-and-Moselle and the Sambre-and-Meuse under the title of -the Army of Germany. Hardly had he taken up his command when the most -distinguished rival of Bonaparte died on the 18th of September 1797. -Though deprived of the active superintendence of Hoche, the government -of the Batavian Republic, under the influence of the vigorous war -policy of the new Directory, ordered the Dutch fleet to leave the -Texel. It was met at sea by Admiral Duncan off the dunes or downs -of Kampe (Camperdown), and entirely defeated after the most hotly -contested naval battle of the war. The naval policy of the Directory -had thus resulted in the destruction of the Spanish fleet in the battle -of Cape St. Vincent and of the Dutch fleet in the battle of Camperdown. - -[Sidenote: Bonaparte in Paris.] - -On the 5th of December 1797 General Bonaparte arrived in Paris. The -death of Hoche had left him without a rival, and the revolution of the -18th of Fructidor had been so entirely the result of the assistance -of the army that its greatest general was practically the master of -the political situation. The Directors received him with transports -of enthusiasm and gave him a public reception, but, nevertheless, -they were overawed by the extent of his reputation and afraid that he -might attempt to take an active part in politics. He was appointed to -the command of the Army of the Interior, which was intended for the -invasion of England. Bonaparte, like Hoche, sincerely wished that such -an invasion should be effected, but he understood the extraordinary -difficulty inherent in any attempt to transport an army across the -Channel in the presence of a powerful fleet. He therefore advised the -Directory that it would be wiser not to attack England directly, but to -make an effort to overthrow her power in Asia. It seemed to him more -practicable to invade India than to invade England. His imagination -was stirred by the conception of an expedition to the East, and the -Directory was only too glad to remove from France for a time its most -able and ambitious general. - -[Sidenote: Expedition to Egypt. 1798.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of the Nile. 1st August.] - -On the 9th of May 1798 Bonaparte left Toulon at the head of a picked -force of his veterans of Italy, and accompanied not only by his -favourite generals, but also by some of the leading savants and men -of letters of France. On the 9th of June the fleet reached Malta, and -on the 12th the Knights of St. John of the Hospital, who had held -the island ever since the Middle Ages, surrendered it to the French -general. Leaving a garrison in Malta, Bonaparte then proceeded to -Egypt. He disembarked in front of Alexandria on the 1st of July, and -upon the 4th he occupied that city. He then advanced on Cairo, and -on the 21st of July he defeated the Mamelukes at the Battle of the -Pyramids, and on the 24th he occupied Cairo. The English fleet in the -Mediterranean, under the command of Nelson, had been intended to stop -the expedition to Egypt, but it had been misdirected, and was unable -to prevent the disembarkation of the French forces. On the 1st of -August, however, Nelson appeared before Alexandria, and in the battle -of Aboukir Bay, generally known as the Battle of the Nile, he destroyed -the French fleet. This victory entirely cut off Bonaparte and his army -from France. The English held the Mediterranean, and for many months -prevented the despatch of either news or reinforcements. In November -they strengthened their position in the great south European sea by the -occupation of Minorca by an army under the Hon. Sir Charles Stuart, and -in 1800 the French garrison in Malta surrendered to General Pigot and -Captain Sir Alexander Ball. - -[Sidenote: Internal Policy of the Directory.] - -Before Bonaparte left Paris the time had come round for the election -of a new Director. The lot fell upon François de Neufchâteau to -retire, and his place was filled by Treilhard, a former member of the -Constituent Assembly and of the Convention. Treilhard had been himself -one of the leading Thermidorians, and since the close of the Convention -he had been employed first as Minister in Holland and then as one of -the French plenipotentiaries at the Congress of Rastadt. There is -little doubt that Sieyès might have entered the Directory had he so -wished, but he preferred to act in a different capacity. François -de Neufchâteau at once returned to his former office of Minister of -the Interior, and the only other alteration in the ministry was the -appointment of Admiral Bruix to be Minister of Marine. The Directory, -inspired by its victory on the 18th of Fructidor, did not hesitate to -infringe the terms of the Constitution of the Year III. The Royalists -or Clichians had not dared to appear at the elections to the Councils -in 1798, and the democrats had been able to elect whom they wished. But -the Directors did not intend to be subject to the democrats any more -than to the Clichians, and without the slightest show of legality they -quashed many of the elections to the Councils and gave the vacant seats -to their own nominees. This disregard of the law was also shown in -other branches of the internal policy of the Directory. The Directors, -in spite of the Constitution, interfered with the finances, and, by -the advice of Ramel, followed Cambon’s example of declaring a partial -bankruptcy. This, however, had but little effect in France, for, owing -to the depreciation in the value of the government paper money, very -little interest was expected by the creditors of the State. In purely -internal administration the weariness of the French people of political -disturbances enabled the agents of the Directory to maintain the public -peace without difficulty. The lack of capital in the country was -compensated by the fact that the government was the only great employer -of labour, and the spoils of the conquered countries enabled it to -pay the workmen sufficiently. It seems surprising that this bankrupt -government should have been acknowledged without opposition throughout -France, but the cause is to be found in the universal attention paid to -the course of foreign affairs. - -[Sidenote: The Foreign Policy of the Directory.] - -The Peace of Campo-Formio had, as has been shown, left France face to -face with England, and it was to strike a blow at the power of England -that Bonaparte proceeded to Egypt. For the same reason the Directory -carried out the favourite scheme of Hoche, and despatched a force -to Ireland under General Humbert in August 1798, which was forced to -surrender to Lord Cornwallis in September. But though the powers of the -Continent had been compelled to acknowledge the military superiority of -France, they were only seeking a loophole by which to enter once more -upon a general war. The departure of Bonaparte seemed to offer them a -good opportunity, and pretexts were not wanting for the formation of -a new coalition against France. The English ministry understood this -attitude of the Continental powers, and their emissaries were busy -in all the Courts of Europe. The Directors knew of these efforts of -Pitt and did their best to counteract them. The keynote of the French -policy was, as it had always been, to make an ally of Prussia. For -this purpose Sieyès, who, though not in office, was probably the most -influential man in France, obtained his nomination to a special embassy -to Berlin. He hoped by mixed measures of conciliation and of menace to -induce Frederick William III. of Prussia, who had succeeded his father -in November 1797, to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance. -But that monarch, in spite of the weakness of his personal character, -had absolutely determined to maintain his father’s policy of strict -neutrality, and neither the arguments of Sieyès nor those of Mr. Thomas -Grenville, the brother of the English Foreign Minister, could induce -him to swerve from it in either direction. The efforts of England -were crowned with more success at Vienna and St. Petersburg. The -Emperor Francis, and still more the Austrian people, were profoundly -disgusted by the triumphs of the French, and flattered themselves -that their defeats had been due to the genius of Bonaparte more than -to the valour of the French soldiers. On the conclusion of the Treaty -of Campo-Formio, Bonaparte had, without consulting the Directory, -nominated General Bernadotte to be the French Ambassador at Vienna. -The Austrian people took this appointment as an insult; Bernadotte, -though well received by the Emperor and his ministers, soon found -that he was most unpopular in Vienna, and on the 13th of April 1798 -the Viennese mob collected in front of the French Embassy, insulted -the ambassador, and tore down the insignia of the French Republic. In -spite of this insult the Directors did not at once declare war against -Austria, but it afforded a pretext for dwelling on the inborn hatred -of the Austrians for the French in their proclamations to the French -people. Since such was the disposition of the Austrian people, it need -hardly be said that the English envoy was heartily welcomed at Vienna. -At St. Petersburg the application of Pitt for armed help was favourably -received. The Emperor Paul, though already showing signs of the brutal -insanity which was to lead to his assassination, still preserved the -prestige of being the heir of the great Catherine. His ministers were -those of Catherine; his policy was based on hers. But whereas Catherine -had steadfastly refused to go to war with France, Paul showed a decided -inclination, which was fostered by his generals, to see whether the -Russian army would not be more successful than the Prussian or the -Austrian against the seemingly invincible French republicans. - -[Sidenote: The Helvetian Republic. April 1798.] - -The French Directory, though recognising that it might have soon to -contend again with the power of Austria, and for the first time with -that of Russia, nevertheless roused without any reason fresh enemies -upon the French frontiers. Its greatest mistake at this period was its -interference with the affairs of Switzerland. For this interference -there was no real cause, but the Directors could not resist the -temptation of inflicting their special form of republic upon the Swiss. -The organisation of most of the cantons of Switzerland was essentially -feudal and oligarchical. The government of each canton and of each -city was in the hands of a very few families, and the people were in -much the same condition politically, socially, and economically as -the people of France before the Revolution. The Swiss peasants had -caught the contagion of revolution from France, and in the beginning -of 1798 the people of the Pays de Vaud rose in insurrection against -the authority of the Canton of Berne. This rising was followed by -popular tumults in other cantons, and the peasants everywhere destroyed -the signs of the feudal system and declared themselves in favour -of ‘Liberty—Equality—Fraternity.’ The popular leaders appealed to -France for help, and a powerful army under the command of General -Brune invaded Switzerland. The militia of the cantons was speedily -routed; Brune occupied Berne and sent the national treasury to -Paris, and a freely-elected Constituent Assembly was summoned. This -assembly proclaimed an Helvetian Republic, one and indivisible, with -a Directory, two Councils, and Ministers, in imitation of the French, -the Cisalpine, and the Batavian Republics, to take the place of the old -Swiss federal constitution. Great reforms were speedily accomplished; -on the 8th of May 1798 internal customs-houses were abolished, and on -the 13th of May torture was forbidden in judicial processes; on the -3d of August marriages between persons of different religions were -declared legal; and eventually all feudal rights were suppressed. -Great as were these reforms, they were not entirely acceptable to the -Swiss people. The mountaineers of Uri, Schweitz and Unterwalden, the -descendants of the founders of the ancient Swiss liberties, objected -to be freed under the influence of French bayonets, and the cry of -national patriotism soon raised an army against the French liberators -of the peasants. The French troops had to remain perpetually under -arms, and the Helvetian Republic, in spite of the popular freedom which -it secured, was hated even by the peasants whom it had relieved. The -hatred for the French name was increased by the arbitrary conduct, -and it was asserted by the corrupt behaviour, of Rapinat, the French -commissioner, who was a near relative of Reubell, the Director. The -intervention of the Directory had, therefore, in Switzerland, roused -a people in arms, even though it had been dictated by the best of -motives. - -[Sidenote: Italian affairs.] - -[Sidenote: The Roman Republic. February 1798.] - -[Sidenote: The Parthenopean Republic. January 1799.] - -When Bonaparte left Italy he had been succeeded in the command of the -French troops which occupied the frontiers of the Cisalpine Republic -by General Berthier. This general, desirous of emulating the successes -of Bonaparte, took the opportunity of the murder of the French -ambassador at Rome, General Duphot, to occupy the Eternal City. The -Pope, Pius VI., fled from Rome to the Carthusian monastery at Pisa, -and the Roman people declared themselves to be once more the Roman -Republic. Consuls and Tribunes, as in ancient days, were elected; -the Directory, full of classical recollections, recognised the Roman -Republic with transports of enthusiasm; and General Berthier took the -opportunity to send large sums of money to Paris. The King of Naples, -or to speak more accurately, the King of the Two Sicilies, regarded -the new republic with anything but favour. Encouraged by English and -Austrian envoys, and still more by the news of Nelson’s victory at -the Battle of the Nile, he determined to attack Rome. He placed one -of the most distinguished of the Austrian generals, Mack, at the head -of his army, and, without declaring war, occupied Rome on the 29th of -November 1798. The French troops for the moment had to retire. But -Championnet, who had succeeded Berthier, quickly concentrated his army, -and on the 15th of December he reoccupied Rome in force. Championnet -then took the offensive; he invaded the Neapolitan territory, and he -quickly conquered all Ferdinand’s dominions in Italy. The King fled -to Sicily, and in January 1799 the Parthenopean Republic was solemnly -installed at Naples. The two remaining independent states of Italy -were also occupied by the French armies. The one of these, Piedmont, -was conquered without any declaration of war or any pretext by General -Joubert in November 1798, and King Charles Emmanuel IV. fled to -Sardinia. The other, Tuscany, in spite of the desire of the Grand Duke -to remain at peace with France, was the next victim, and on the 25th of -March 1799 the French troops occupied Florence. - -[Sidenote: The Law of Conscription. 5th Sept. 1798.] - -The occupation of the whole of Italy and of Switzerland did not -increase the military strength of France; on the contrary, the -proceedings of the Directory only aroused the most profound disgust -and fear in Austria, Russia, and England. The Directors felt that a -far more terrible war than they had yet been engaged in was about to -break forth, and it may be assumed that, on the eve of hostilities, -they even regretted the absence of Bonaparte. Enormous numbers of -soldiers would be necessary in a new war. Trained and experienced -officers and non-commissioned officers existed, but the difficulty was -how to fill the ranks. It was no longer possible to have recourse to -the measures of the Convention, to the _levée en masse_, and to the -appeal for volunteers with the cry that the country was in danger. The -Republic had now become a military power, and the question was how -to recruit its armies, not how to rouse the whole population. On the -19th of Fructidor, Year VI. (5th September 1798), the Councils of the -Ancients and of Five Hundred, on the application of the Directory, -passed the first Law of Conscription. By this law all Frenchmen between -the ages of twenty and twenty-five with certain exceptions were -declared to be subject to military service. They were divided into five -classes, and one or more classes could be called out by the executive -authority after receiving the consent of the Legislature. This law is -the starting-point of the military levies which formed the army of -Napoleon, and the principle of conscription was thus laid down many -months before Bonaparte became First Consul. - -[Sidenote: The Outbreak of War. 1799.] - -[Sidenote: Battles of Stockach and Magnano. 25th March and 5th April.] - -Mention has been made of the riot at Vienna which caused the departure -of the French ambassador, Bernadotte. He was not replaced by the -Directory, and long negotiations took place on the subject of the -compensation due to the Republic for this insult. But neither party -was in earnest. Both the French Directory and the Emperor Francis were -preparing for the contest. The first overt act of war took place at -the commencement of 1799, when the Austrian troops, under the command -of the Archduke Charles, occupied the passes of the Grisons, and it -was in this quarter that before war was actually declared the first -engagements were fought. In Italy General Schérer was attacked at -Verona by the Austrian General Kray, and in Germany General Jourdan -fell back into the Black Forest. In both of these quarters many -skirmishes took place, and eventually on the 25th of March 1799 the -Archduke Charles defeated Jourdan in a pitched battle at Stockach. A -few days later, on the 5th of April, Schérer was defeated at Magnano. -Meanwhile the Congress of Rastadt was still sitting, and Austria was -nominally at peace with France. The conclusion of a treaty between -France and the Empire, which was the subject of the deliberations -at Rastadt, was necessarily a difficult matter to negotiate, for it -involved nothing less than the entire reconstitution of the Holy -Roman Empire, a reconstitution which could only be carried out by -the secularisation of the bishoprics. Eventually, in the month of -April 1799, after the engagements of Stockach and Magnano, the French -plenipotentiaries at Rastadt understood that it was hopeless to expect -to conclude a treaty with the Empire. They therefore asked for their -passports to France. These passports were refused. As they left Rastadt -the French plenipotentiaries were attacked by some Austrian hussars; -two of them, Roberjot and Bonnier-d’Alco, were killed, and the other, -Jean Debry, left for dead. This odious violation of international law -and the rights of ambassadors took the place of a formal declaration -of war, and roused not only the Directory but the French people to the -most strenuous exertions. Meanwhile the Emperor Paul of Russia declared -war against France, and ordered three armies to be despatched to the -scenes of action. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Italy. 1799.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of the Trebbia. 17th-19th June.] - -The campaign of 1799 was fought out in three localities, in all of -which the Russians played a most prominent part. In Italy a Russian -army, under the command of one of the most famous generals in Europe, -Suvórov, reinforced the Austrians after the battle of Magnano. -Suvórov forced the passage of the Adda at Cassano on the 27th of -April, and rapidly drove Moreau, who had succeeded Schérer in command, -across northern Italy. On the 28th of April Suvórov entered Milan, -and the Cisalpine Republic at once expired. On the 27th of May he -entered Turin, and after leaving besieging armies before Mantua and -Alessandria, shut up the remnants of Moreau’s army in Genoa. But the -army of Moreau was not the only French army in the Italian Peninsula. -Several powerful divisions, under the name of the Army of Naples, were -concentrated in Rome and Naples to support the newly-formed Roman and -Parthenopean Republics. Macdonald, who had succeeded Championnet in the -command of this army, rapidly concentrated and threatened to take the -Austro-Russian army in flank. Suvórov withdrew from Turin and turned -to his left to meet his new assailant. On the banks of the Trebbia a -three days’ battle was fought from the 17th to the 19th of June. The -issue of the battle itself was doubtful, but Macdonald, finding himself -unsupported by Moreau from Genoa, was obliged to retreat into Tuscany. -Fearing to be cut off, he then forced his way along the difficult -passage between the mountains and the sea, and joined Moreau, after -collecting every French soldier from the garrisons in the south of -Italy. The retreat of the French was followed by an outburst against -the Italian republicans. - -[Sidenote: Death of Pope Pius VI. 29th Aug. 1799.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Novi. 15th August.] - -The Parthenopean Republic was at once overthrown, and King Ferdinand -of the Two Sicilies wreaked cruel vengeance on his subjects. Pope Pius -VI. had been removed from his retreat near Florence to Valence, and the -French Directors had some idea of keeping him prisoner as a hostage in -the same way as Napoleon afterwards imprisoned his successor. But the -old Pope could not bear the sufferings of his imprisonment, and died -at Valence on the 29th of August 1799. Rome, deprived of the presence -of the Pope and the Cardinals, fell under the dominion of the Roman -nobles, who followed the example of the King of the Two Sicilies in -persecuting the republicans. Meanwhile the French Directory appointed -General Joubert, who was believed to be the best of the former -subordinates of Bonaparte, to take command at Genoa of the relics of -the armies of Moreau and Macdonald. With these soldiers he burst out -of Genoa to raise the siege of Alessandria, but on the 15th of August -he was utterly defeated by Suvórov at Novi in a great battle, in which -Joubert himself was killed. In spite of these defeats the Directory -refused to believe that Italy was lost. A new army was formed, and -placed under the command of Championnet, who, however, was defeated at -Genola on the 4th of November by the Austrians, under Melas, and driven -back into France. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Switzerland. 1799.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Zurich. 26th Sept.] - -While Suvórov was conquering Italy and destroying the recollection -of the victories of Bonaparte in that country, Masséna, who was in -command of the French army in Switzerland, was engaged in a most -difficult task. The Archduke Charles, who also had under his command a -Russian army under Korsakov, forced his way slowly into Switzerland, -driving the French before him, and in August 1799 left Korsakov in -command at Zurich. The Archduke was then ordered to take the bulk of -his army to the Rhine in order to invade France. Korsakov, abandoned -to his own resources, showed himself far inferior in military ability -to Suvórov. Masséna, with singular boldness, refused to remain on the -defensive, and on the 26th of September drove the Russians out of -Zurich. His victory was won just in time, for Suvórov, after defeating -Joubert at Novi, had determined, in spite of the terrible weather, -to cross the Alps. It was on the 24th of September, two days before -Masséna’s victory at Zurich, that the main Russian army arrived at the -summit of the St. Gothard Pass. General Lecourbe, one of the finest -mountain generals of his day, occupied the St. Gothard, and with a few -battalions kept the whole Russian army at bay. Suvórov nevertheless -persevered and hoped to turn Masséna’s flank. But it was several weeks -before he could reach the village of Altdorf. Being unable to find -boats to cross the lake, he had now to retreat, and when he reached -the Grisons his army was practically destroyed by starvation and the -stress of the weather. Masséna, thus relieved of his most formidable -enemies, took possession of Constance, and by threatening the flank of -the Archduke Charles forced the main Austrian army to fall back to the -Danube. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Holland. 1799.] - -[Sidenote: Battles of Bergen.] - -The third campaign of 1799 was fought in Holland. In this quarter it -had been arranged that the English and Russians were to act in concert. -On the 27th of August the English fleet had successfully reached the -Dutch coast, and had captured the relics of the Dutch fleet, defeated -at Camperdown, in the Texel. After this operation an English army, -under the Duke of York, and a Russian army, under General Hermann, -disembarked at the Helder. General Brune was hurriedly despatched to -take command of the few French troops in Holland, and co-operated -with the army of the Batavian Republic under General Janssens. The -campaign consisted of a succession of fierce but indecisive battles -in the neighbourhood of Bergen. The English and Russians did not act -harmoniously together; the country was unsuited for field operations; -and supplies were not adequately provided. As a result of the -operations, though he had not been really defeated, the Duke of York -signed the Convention of Alkmaar on the 18th October, by which he -agreed to surrender all prisoners on being allowed to evacuate Holland. - -[Sidenote: Results of the Campaigns.] - -The results of the campaigns of 1799 were decidedly favourable to -France. Though Italy was lost, and more than one French army had been -defeated, the victories of Masséna and of Brune more than compensated -for these disasters. Not only had France not been invaded, but she had -been able to retain her position in Switzerland and in Holland, and -to hold the whole of the right bank of the Rhine. England, in spite -of the Convention of Alkmaar, could point to the victory of the Nile -and the capture of the Dutch fleet in the Texel as real successes, -and Pitt and Grenville did not despair of ultimate victory. The King -of Prussia, who, when the affairs of France seemed to be desperate, -had begun to assume an attitude of opposition, and demanded the -evacuation of the Prussian provinces on the Rhine, speedily repented -of his indiscretion, and made excuses for his behaviour. The Austrian -ministers evinced no desire to continue the war; they resented the -high-handed conduct of Suvórov, and showed themselves more afraid of -their powerful ally, Russia, than of their declared enemy, France. They -implored the English government to bring about the withdrawal of the -Russian troops, and the Emperor Paul was only too glad to comply. The -retreat of the Russians left Italy practically in the hands of Austria. -The Grand Duke Ferdinand of Tuscany was restored to his dominions, but -the King of Sardinia was not recalled, and Piedmont remained in the -occupation of the Austrian troops. Genoa alone was held by a French -garrison, which was closely besieged by the Austrians on the land side, -and blockaded by the English Mediterranean fleet. It was under the -influence of Austria and under the protection of Austrian troops that -the Conclave met at Venice in November 1799 to elect a new Pope. - -[Sidenote: Russia.] - -The significant feature of the campaigns of 1799 was the intervention -of Russia. Mention has been made of the abandonment of the policy of -the great Catherine by her successor. This change in the attitude -of Russia was due mainly to the influence of England, but partly -to the encouragement given by the French Directory to the Poles. -The restoration of Poland to its place among the nations had long -been a favourite idea among French republicans. Kosciuszko had been -enthusiastically welcomed at Paris, and the first of the Polish legions -which were to do good service under Napoleon was raised by Dombrowski -in 1797. The Emperor Paul had met this attitude by welcoming the -pretender Louis XVIII. to Russia, where he lent him the palace of -Mittau and gave him a considerable pension. He also took into Russian -pay the armed corps of _émigrés_ under the command of the Prince de -Condé. But fear of French assistance to Poland would not alone have -induced the Emperor Paul to declare war. He was particularly offended -by the French occupation of the Ionian Islands and of Malta. By the -Treaty of Campo-Formio the Ionian Islands had been ceded to France, and -the Russians regarded this cession as an indication that the Directory -was going to interfere actively in the affairs of the East. The bad -impression created by the occupation of the Ionian Islands had been -increased by the conquest of Malta and the expedition to Egypt. Though -Russia quite intended to destroy the power of Turkey, she had no idea -of allowing any western nation to share the spoils. It was for this -reason that the Emperor Paul accepted the title of Grand Master of the -Knights of St. John, which the expelled Knights of Malta offered to -him, and that he occupied the Ionian Islands with a Russian force in -1798. The foreign policy of the Emperor was so far popular in Russia in -that it maintained the sole right of Russia to interfere in the East, -but it was unpopular in that it seemed by the despatch of the armies -under Suvórov and Korsakov to bolster up the power of Austria. Suvórov -and his officers returned to Russia with a feeling of respect for their -enemies, but with a feeling of intense disgust at the behaviour of -their allies. Suvórov, indeed, went so far as to accuse the Austrians -of playing the part of traitors, and the anger of Paul was raised to -its height by the capture of Ancona, which was delivered by a secret -compact to the Austrian general in spite of the assistance of Russian -troops. He was equally angry with England on account of the failure of -the expedition to Holland. Every thing at the close of 1799 conduced -to make the Emperor Paul seek for a pretext to make peace, if not an -actual alliance, with the French Republic. - -[Sidenote: Campaign in Syria. 1799.] - -While these important campaigns were being fought out in Europe, -Bonaparte had not been idle in the East. The Battle of the Pyramids -had made him master of Egypt, and though cut off by the English fleet -from communication with France, he remained master of the country. -His internal administration made him excessively popular among the -Egyptians. He removed the Turks and Mamelukes from office, and called -on the Egyptians to govern themselves. But the Turks did not intend -to lose Egypt without striking another blow, and a powerful army was -sent for its reconquest. Bonaparte determined to meet this army half -way, and in February 1799 he advanced into Syria. He speedily reduced -Palestine and took Jaffa, and then laid siege to the strong fortress of -Acre. Assisted by the English sailors of Sir Sidney Smith, the garrison -of Acre made a gallant defence. The Turkish army advancing to its -relief was defeated by Bonaparte at Mount Tabor on the 16th of April. -In spite of his victory, he had, nevertheless, to abandon the siege -of Acre, and on the 20th of May he commenced his retreat to Egypt. He -there found the position to be extremely critical. The Mamelukes had -reorganised their army and reoccupied Cairo, and a Turkish army had -been disembarked by the English fleet at Aboukir. Meanwhile Desaix, -whom he had left in command in Egypt, had gone up the Nile for the -conquest of the interior. Bonaparte soon re-established his power; he -defeated the Mamelukes at Cairo, and drove the Turkish army into the -sea. At this juncture he heard the news of the events of the campaigns -in Europe, and, what affected him more, of the course of politics at -Paris. He determined, therefore, to return to France, and leaving -Kléber in command in Egypt, he set sail with a few personal friends. -The ship on which he embarked escaped the English cruisers, and he -landed at Fréjus on the 9th of October 1799 after a perilous voyage of -forty-seven days. - -[Sidenote: Quarrel between the Councils and the Directory.] - -The varying issues of the campaigns of 1799 had profoundly affected -the situation of the Directors, and the disasters in Italy had turned -the hopes both of the army and of the French people towards Bonaparte. -At the annual change in the composition of the Directory and the -Councils which took place in 1799 a considerable alteration had been -made. The new third of the Councils consisted almost entirely of men -who, without being either Jacobins or Clichians, longed to see the -establishment of a strong government in order to secure peace. The -Directory, which had seemed so strong after the revolution of the -18th of Fructidor, had been considerably weakened by the behaviour -of the Directors themselves. The election of none but civilians to -the highest offices in the State was disliked by the army, and the -characters of the Directors themselves had suffered. Reubell was the -Director designed by lot to retire in May 1799; he was perhaps the -ablest and most experienced of them all, but had been discredited by -the bad conduct of his relative, Rapinat, in Switzerland. Sieyès was -elected to succeed Reubell. This choice, and the acceptance of Sieyès, -testified to a new condition of affairs. The former abbé might have -been a Director on at least two former occasions, in 1795 and 1798, and -his acceptance at this juncture was very significant. He had failed -in his embassy to Berlin to induce the new King of Prussia to become -the active ally of France, and had been convinced by his diplomatic -experiences that the government of France must become frankly -military, since the monarchical powers of Europe would not accept the -possibility of a peaceable French Republic. From an internal point of -view the acceptance of Sieyès indicated an increase of power for the -Legislature, of which he was the idol. - -[Sidenote: Coup d’état of 30th Prairial (18th June 1799).] - -The election of Sieyès was followed by a bloodless revolution. He -maintained that the failure of the Constitution of the Year III. was -due to the usurpation of the functions of the Legislature by the -Directory, and, therefore, when the Councils declared Treilhard and -Merlin of Douai to have been illegally chosen Directors, and called -for the resignation of Revellière-Lépeaux, they found a powerful ally -in Sieyès. The attacked Directors yielded without a struggle, and on -30th Prairial, Year VII. (18th June 1799), they were replaced by three -personal friends of Sieyès, Gohier, Roger Ducos, and General Moulin. -Barras was thus the only member left of the original Directory. The -Councils, not satisfied with this victory, began to usurp the executive -functions of the Directory, and a general change of ministry took -place. The new ministers were Reinhard, Robert Lindet, Cambacérès, -Quinette, Bernadotte, replaced on 14th September by Dubois-Crancé, -Fouché, and Bourdon de Vatry, who succeeded Talleyrand and his -colleagues as Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Finances, Justice, -the Interior, War, Police, and the Marine respectively. It is worthy -of note that four of the new ministers were formerly leading members -of the Convention. But the administration of the Councils was not -more effective than that of the Directory, and the news of the -disembarkation of Bonaparte at Fréjus was received with a feeling of -general satisfaction throughout France. - -[Sidenote: Revolution of 18th Brumaire. (9th November 1799.)] - -Bonaparte reached Paris on the 16th of October, and his assistance was -sought by men of all parties. He allied himself with none, but there -can be little doubt that he took the advice mainly of Talleyrand, -Fouché, and Sieyès. Nevertheless he did not repulse the leaders of -the Councils, and to show their attachment for him the Council of -Five Hundred, on the 22d of October 1799, elected his brother Lucien -Bonaparte to be their president, and the whole Legislature gave him -a grand banquet on 6th November. The first stage of the revolution -of Brumaire was a decree by which the Council of Ancients, or rather -certain of its members, who had been initiated into the project of -a _coup d’état_, taking advantage of a clause in the Constitution -applicable to circumstances of popular agitation, resolved in the -early morning of the 18th Brumaire, Year VIII. (9th November 1799), -that the two Councils should leave Paris and meet at Saint-Cloud; and -the execution of this decree was intrusted to General Bonaparte. In -the palace of Saint-Cloud it was easy to surround the legislators by a -body of troops faithful to Bonaparte, since the command of the troops -in Paris was in the hands of one of his friends, General Lefebvre, who -was discontented at not having been elected a Director instead of -Moulin. Sieyès and Roger Ducos, who were in the plot, at once declared -their resignations; Barras was induced to acquiesce; and the other two -Directors were guarded as prisoners in the palace of the Luxembourg -by General Moreau. On the following morning, the 19th of Brumaire, -Bonaparte entered the Councils, escorted by soldiers; the Ancients -listened to him quietly; but the Five Hundred were in a tumult; a -proposal was made to declare the general and his supporters _hors la -loi_ or outlaws; and after a stormy scene the deputies were driven from -the hall by the grenadiers. In the evening a few deputies, who were in -the secret of the general’s plans, met and decreed the suppression of -the Directory and the creation of a provisional government, consisting -of three Consuls. The three men chosen for this office were Bonaparte, -Sieyès, and Roger Ducos. Commissions were appointed to revise the -Constitution and to draw up with the Consuls new fundamental laws for -the Republic. By this revolution Bonaparte practically became ruler of -France, for Sieyès had no influence with the army, and Roger Ducos no -influence with anybody. It was a military revolution like that of the -18th Fructidor; it was a bloodless revolution like that of the 18th -Fructidor; but it differed in that, instead of establishing the power -of five men, it established the power of one. And that one man was the -idol of the army, and generally acknowledged to be the greatest general -of France. The preponderance of Bonaparte was quickly recognised by -his colleagues. ‘Who shall preside?’ said Sieyès at the first meeting -of the provisional Consuls on 20th Brumaire. ‘Do you not see that the -general is in the chair?’ replied Roger Ducos. And Sieyès, who was -the chief epigram maker as well as the constitution-monger of the -Revolution, is said to have summed up the situation with the remark to -his friends on the same evening: ‘Messieurs, nous avons un maître; il -sait tout, il peut tout, il veut tout.’ - - - - - CHAPTER VII - - 1799–1804 - - Constitution of the Year VIII.—The Consulate—The Council of - State—The Tribunate—The Legislative Body—The Senate—Internal - Policy of the Consulate—General Reconciliation—The - Code Civil—Ministers of the Consulate—Foreign Policy - of the Consulate—Russia—Prussia—The Pope—Campaign of - Marengo—Campaign of Hohenlinden—Winter Campaign of Moreau - and Macdonald—The Treaty of Lunéville—Arrangements in - Italy—Policy and Murder of the Emperor Paul of Russia—The - Neutral League of the North—Battle of Copenhagen—War - between Spain and Portugal—Treaty of Badajoz—Campaign - of 1801 in Egypt—Peace of Amiens between England and - France—Reconstitution of Germany—Secularisation of - the German ecclesiastical dominions—Reconstitution of - Switzerland—Concordat between the Pope and Bonaparte—Internal - Organisation of France under the Consulate—The new - Departments—Annexation of Piedmont—The Préfectures—System of - National Education—Constitutional Changes in France—Bonaparte - First Consul for life—Recommencement of War between - England and France—Causes—Position of Affairs on the - Continent—Plot of Pichegru and Cadoudal—Execution of the Duc - d’Enghien—Bonaparte becomes Emperor of the French—Francis II. - resigns the title of Holy Roman Emperor for that of Emperor - of Austria. - - -[Sidenote: The Constitution of the Year VIII.] - -The revolution of the 18th of Brumaire had placed supreme power in the -hands of Bonaparte; that power was speedily legalised and defined in -the Constitution of the Year VIII. The chief political problem was once -more how to regulate the relation between the legislative and executive -authorities. The Constitution of 1791, and still more that of 1793, had -entirely subordinated the executive to the legislative authority; the -Constitution of the Year III. (1795) had endeavoured to co-ordinate -them; the Constitution of the Year VIII. (1799) entirely subordinated -the legislative to the executive. It fell once more to Sieyès, one -of the principal authors of the Constitutions of 1791 and 1795, as -Second Provisional Consul, to define the new arrangements. His attempt -at co-ordinating the two powers in the State in 1795 had failed in its -operation: as was inevitable, the two authorities declined to preserve -their legal relations to each other. On the 18th of Fructidor, Year V. -(4th September 1797), the executive in the form of the Directory had -usurped and partially destroyed the power of the Legislature, and on -the 30th of Prairial, Year VII. (18th of June 1799) the Legislature had -acted in the same way towards the executive. By the Constitution of the -Year VIII., therefore, the executive power was frankly acknowledged to -be supreme. In its details it was entirely the work of Sieyès, though -his main idea—the appointment of a Grand Elector who should nominate -to fill all offices, but should exercise no power—was rejected by -Bonaparte. The new Constitution was soon ready; it was submitted to the -primary assemblies of the people on the 14th December 1799, and was -accepted by them by 3,011,107 votes against 1567, and was officially -proclaimed on the 24th of December. - -[Sidenote: The Consulate.] - -The key-stone of the new Constitution was the Consulate. There were -to be three Consuls nominated for ten years, but these officials -were not to be equal in authority, as had been the case with the -Directors. On the contrary, the First Consul was to be perpetual -president and perpetual representative of the governing triumvirate. -All administrative power was placed in his hands, and the Second and -Third Consuls were little more than his chief assistants. The Consuls -acting together nominated the Ministers, and also the Council of State, -which was intended to be at the same time an administrative tribunal of -appeal, and the originating source in matters of legislation. - -[Sidenote: The Legislature.] - -In the work of legislation the Council of State was supplemented by the -Tribunate and the Legislative Body. All laws prepared by the Council -of State were first submitted to the Tribunate, which was composed -of one hundred members. The Tribunate could neither reject nor amend -a law, but decided whether to support or oppose the project before -the Legislative Body. The Legislative Body consisted of three hundred -deputies chosen by certain electoral assemblies formed by a complicated -scheme out of the taxpayers of the departments. By this scheme, after -three series of elections, what was termed a ‘National List’ was drawn -up. From this national list the Senate chose the members both of the -Legislative Body and the Tribunate. The Legislative Body alone voted -the taxes. In legislative matters it played the part of a national -jury, listening to the arguments for or against brought forward by -the Tribunate on every project prepared by the Council of State, and -deciding in every case without discussion. The Legislative Body alone -could give a project of the Council of State the character of a law. -The Senate was composed of eighty members nominated for life by the -Consuls. Its duties were to choose the members of the Tribunate and -Legislative Body from the National List, and to decide whether any -law or measure of the government was contrary to the Constitution. If -it decided that such law or measure was unconstitutional it had the -authority to annul it. - -[Sidenote: Internal Policy of the Consulate.] - -[Sidenote: The Code Napoléon.] - -The Consulate was composed of Bonaparte as First Consul, with -Cambacérès and Le Brun, both famous jurists, as his associates. Their -policy was one of general reconciliation. The individuals deported -after the revolution of the 18th of Fructidor were allowed to return -to France if they had not, like Pichegru, become declared royalists. -They were even taken into favour; while Carnot was appointed Minister -of War, Portalis and Barbé-Marbois were nominated to the Council of -State. The lists of emigration were closed; no longer could persons be -declared to have emigrated on mere suspicion, and the First Consul, as -an administrative measure, annulled the decrees excluding relations of -_émigrés_ and former nobles from filling executive offices. More than -150,000 _émigrés_ were also allowed to return, mostly priests, who were -no longer regarded as rebels, and who, whether they had taken the oath -to observe the Civil Constitution of the Clergy or not, were allowed -to resume their sacred functions on simply promising to obey the new -Constitution of the State. The Consulate did even more than this for -the cause of religion; many churches which had been appropriated -for civil purposes were restored to their original uses. Brigandage -was sternly put down, and Bonaparte, at last, pacified La Vendée by -negotiating a treaty of amnesty with the remaining Vendéan leaders at -Montluçon, on the 17th of January 1800. A special effort was made to -put the finances in order, and Gaudin, who held office as Minister of -the Finances throughout the Consulate and the Empire, first proved -his extraordinary powers. His financial reforms may be roughly summed -up by the mention of his two most important measures. The decrees of -the Directory in favour of forced loans from the rich, which had been -arbitrarily and unfairly carried out, were abrogated and replaced by -a general income tax of twenty-five per cent. This established some -justice in the collection, which partly compensated for the heaviness -of the tax. The second measure was the appointment of receivers-general -of taxes in every department. These men had to give heavy security, and -were allowed a fair measure of profit in the form of a percentage on -what they collected. They were strictly supervised, and the scandalous -dilapidations which had signalised the period of the Directory were -made impossible for the future. Further, in order to secure the support -of the capitalists, the Bank of France was founded under the guarantee -of the State. Finally, the First Consul decided to carry into effect -the projects of the legal reformers of the Constituent Assembly and the -Convention. Their labours had made possible the formation of a uniform -code of law for France. Bonaparte appointed a Commission, consisting of -Tronchet, Portalis, and Bigot de Préameneu, to examine the labours of -their predecessors, and with their help to draw up the admirable civil -code, which was afterwards known as the Code Napoléon. - -[Sidenote: The Ministry.] - -In no respect was the administrative ability of the Consuls better -manifested than in the selection they made of their ministers. It has -already been noticed that Gaudin, the greatest financier of France, was -appointed Minister of the Finances. Talleyrand and Fouché once more -took possession of the portfolios of Foreign Affairs and of Police, -which they held for many years. Their first Minister of the Marine, -Forfait, did not remain long in office, but his successor, Decrès, -held that post from 1801 till 1814. The same may be said with regard -to the Ministry of Justice. Abrial, the first occupant of this post, -gave way to Regnier in 1802, but he likewise remained in office till -1814. The Ministries of War and of the Interior were more difficult to -fill; Carnot soon resented the tone of Bonaparte, and was succeeded -by Berthier, afterwards Prince of Neufchâtel, who had been Chief of -the Staff to Bonaparte in Italy. La Place, the great astronomer, had -been appointed Minister of the Interior by the Provisional Government -in November 1799. He did not show himself very efficient, and was -succeeded by Lucien Bonaparte, the First Consul’s ablest brother, in -the following month. He too failed to carry out the wishes of the -Consuls, and was succeeded in 1800 by one of the most distinguished -administrators of the period, Chaptal. - -[Sidenote: The External Policy of the Consulate.] - -Of foreign affairs Bonaparte, as First Consul, assumed the entire -management; in internal matters he laid down the main principles -indeed, but he allowed his colleagues some share in the government. -He found France once more at war, as she had been before the Treaty -of Campo-Formio, with Austria and England. But another redoubtable -enemy had been added in Russia. Fortunately for France, for reasons -which have already been indicated, the Emperor Paul was profoundly -dissatisfied with his allies. From an unreasoning hatred for France, -the Russian Emperor had now altered his sentiments to one of profound -admiration for the person of the First Consul. Bonaparte was soon -notified of this disposition at the Court of St. Petersburg. He sent -his most intimate friend, Duroc, on a special mission to Russia, and -the idea was already suggested that Russia and France ought to be the -arbiters of Europe. He offered to recognise Paul not only as Grand -Master of the Knights of Malta, but as the sovereign of that island, -and promised in every way to forward Russian interests. In return, -Paul, with his usual exaggeration, declared Bonaparte to be his -dearest friend, surrounded himself with his portraits, drank publicly -to his health, and ordered Louis XVIII. to leave Mittau. The Russian -ambassador in Paris, Kolichev, on behalf of his master, proposed that -Bonaparte should take the title of King of France, and make the crown -hereditary in his family. Next in importance to the commencement of -good relations with Russia, was the First Consul’s effort to make the -King of Prussia his declared ally. For this purpose he sent Duroc also -to Berlin. But Frederick William III. was a different type of monarch -from the Emperor Paul; he could not so readily alter his policy. -Personally, he too admired the First Consul, and regarded him as the -restorer of order and as a monarch in embryo; but, in spite of his -admiration, he refused to comply with the wishes of Bonaparte, as he -had rejected the propositions of the Directory, and insisted on the -maintenance of his consistent attitude of strict neutrality. The last -point to be noticed in the foreign policy of Bonaparte was his attitude -towards the Pope. He not only allowed the body of Pope Pius VI. to be -removed from Valence to be buried at Rome, but he recognised the new -Pope, Pius VII., although he had been elected at Venice under Austrian -influence: he even offered to restore him to his temporal dominion at -Rome, and promised to enter into negotiations with him with regard to -the re-establishment of the Catholic Church in France. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign of Marengo. 1800.] - -With the two great enemies of France, Austria and England, the First -Consul had no desire to treat. Though unable to strike at England, -owing to the weakness of the French navy, he could yet attack the -Austrians in two quarters. Two powerful armies were prepared, the -one the Army of the Danube, which was placed under the command of -Moreau, and the other the Army of the Interior, soon to become famous -as the Second Army of Italy. Of all the conquests in Italy made by -the French in 1796 and 1797, only Genoa remained in their possession. -Masséna, fresh from his victories in Switzerland, had taken command of -the besieged army. His defence is one of the most famous in history, -and does no less honour to the general than his victory at Zurich. -Bonaparte desired to relieve Genoa; and he resolved not to advance -along the coast, as he had done in 1796, but by crossing the Alps, and -descending upon Piedmont, to cut off the Austrian army occupying that -province. - -In the month of May Bonaparte crossed the Great Saint Bernard Pass at -the head of 40,000 men, and fell at once on the Austrian flank. He was -too late to relieve Genoa, which surrendered on the 4th of June, when -but few of the soldiers were still able to stand, but he was in time to -close the retreat of the Austrians upon Lombardy. On the 9th June 1800 -General Lannes defeated the Austrian advanced guard at Montebello, and -Bonaparte then barred the road from Alessandria to Piacenza. General -Melas, though not yet joined by the troops which had taken Genoa, -had a larger army than Bonaparte; on June 14 he forced his way out -of Alessandria, and drove back the French columns which occupied the -village of Marengo. The battle was practically lost by the French, when -Desaix, who had been detached to the left with 6000 men, fell upon -the Austrian flank. Desaix was killed, but the vigour of his attack -practically cut the Austrian army in two. The dragoons of Kellermann -completed the victory, and General Melas signed the Convention of -Alessandria, by which he surrendered Genoa, Piedmont, and the Milanese -to the French, and promised to withdraw the Austrian garrisons from all -cities to the west of the Mincio. Bonaparte then attended a _Te Deum_ -sung in honour of his victory in the cathedral of Milan, and returned -to Paris, leaving the Army of Grisons, under the command of General -Macdonald, to follow up the Austrians. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of Hohenlinden.] - -While Bonaparte was winning the battle of Marengo, and reconquering -Italy by a single blow, Moreau was again face to face with his old -opponent, the Archduke Charles. The French advance was very slow. -Fierce battles were fought at Engen, Mœskirchen, and Biberach in May -1800, and by the close of the summer Moreau had his headquarters at -Augsburg, and his advanced guard at Munich. The slowness of Moreau’s -progress dissatisfied the First Consul, as did the want of success -of the Archduke Charles dissatisfy the court of Vienna. Augereau was -sent with 20,000 men to the assistance of Moreau, who was ordered, in -spite of the severity of the winter, to continue his advance; and the -Archduke John was appointed to succeed his brother, and ordered to take -the offensive. The crowning event of this winter campaign was the great -victory of Hohenlinden, which was won by Moreau on the 3d of December -1800. The Austrians lost the whole of their baggage and artillery and -12,000 prisoners. - -[Sidenote: The Winter Campaign of 1800.] - -The First Consul from Paris ordered Moreau and Macdonald to advance -into the home districts of the House of Austria. Moreau accordingly -pushed along the Inn, the Salz, the Traun, and the Ens, driving the -disorganised and discouraged Austrians before him until he was within -twenty leagues of Vienna. Macdonald, at the same time, crossed the -Splügen Pass in spite of the avalanches, and penetrated into the -Tyrol, thus turning the Austrian forces on the Mincio and the Adige. -On arriving at Trent, Macdonald turned to the right and was joined by -Brune, who had occupied the territory of Venice, and the united French -army marched upon Vienna. Under these circumstances, with Italy lost, -and Vienna threatened from two quarters, the Emperor Francis sued for -peace, which was concluded at Lunéville on the 9th of February 1801. - -[Sidenote: The Treaty of Lunéville. Feb. 9, 1801.] - -The Treaty of Lunéville was more important from its destruction of the -old Holy Roman Empire than as the treaty of peace between France and -Austria. From the latter point of view the Emperor Francis once more, -as in the Treaty of Campo-Formio, recognised the Rhine as the limit -of France. In Italy the Cisalpine Republic was once more constituted -with the Adige as its frontier, Modena was to be compensated with the -Breisgau, and Venice was again left to the House of Austria. Tuscany -was taken from its Austrian Grand Duke, and erected into a kingdom of -Etruria in favour of the Prince of Parma, a relative of the King of -Spain, and Piedmont was annexed to France; but the King of the Two -Sicilies was allowed to retain his dominions, and the Pope was restored -to all his possessions except the Legations of Bologna and Ferrara. -The Cisalpine Republic was reorganised, and granted a Constitution on -the model of that of the Year VIII., in which Bonaparte was appointed -First Consul. The Ligurian Republic was maintained, with the alteration -that its Doge was nominated by France instead of being elected. The -result of the new arrangements in Northern Italy was that both France -and Austria had a foothold by their occupation of Piedmont and Venice, -with the Cisalpine Republic as a buffer between them. The principle -of secularising the German bishoprics was also again recognised in -the Treaty of Lunéville, and the actual manner in which it should be -carried out was referred to a special commission, whose conclusions -were not adopted till 1803. The principal result of the treaty in -Austria was the retirement of the minister Thugut, who was succeeded -as State Chancellor by Count Louis Cobenzl, the diplomatist, who had -negotiated the treaties both of Campo-Formio and of Lunéville. - -[Sidenote: Murder of the Emperor Paul. 23d March 1801.] - -The admiration of the Emperor Paul for Bonaparte increased daily, and -it was the Russian Czar, not the French First Consul, who proposed an -invasion of India across Asia, in order to strike a blow at the English -power in the East. Indeed, the English had taken the place of the -French in the mind of Paul, who, not satisfied with forming once again -the Neutral League of the North, determined to send his best troops -against them. The Emperor’s proposition was that one expedition should -consist of 35,000 Frenchmen and 35,000 Russians, under the command of -Masséna. This column was to go down the Danube, and then up the Don to -a point whence it would be but a short march to the Volga. It was then -to proceed down the Volga to Astrakhan, thence across the Caspian Sea -to Astrabad, and then to march by Herat and Kandahar to the Punjab. -Another column was to move by Khiva and Bokhara, and to invade India -by the north of Afghanistan. These grandiose plans were not entirely -accepted by Bonaparte, and the death of the Emperor prevented an -attempt being made to see if they were practicable. The madness of Paul -had steadily increased during his short reign. His nobility disapproved -heartily of his war policy, both against France and later against -England; his adoption of the Neutral League and its policy had done -much to ruin the wealthy nobles of Northern Russia by forbidding the -exportation of Russian commodities on English ships. To the discontent -of the nobility, of the politicians, and of the capitalists must be -added the fears of the courtiers. Even the heir to the throne, his -eldest son Alexander, perceived that the rule of the maniac could not -be borne much longer. It is hardly necessary to particularise all the -causes of his unpopularity; it is enough to say that his behaviour -was that of a madman. Certain courtiers, of whom the leaders were -Count Pahlen, a Livonian nobleman; Benningsen, a Hanoverian general; -Plato Zubov, the last favourite of the Empress Catherine, and his -brother Nicholas, and the Prince Jachvill, determined to put an end -to the tyranny of the Czar. In the night of the 23d of March 1801 -he was attacked by these conspirators and ordered to sign an act of -abdication; he refused; the lamp went out, and the Emperor was struck -down and strangled by an unknown hand among his assailants. - -[Sidenote: The Neutral League of the North. 1800–1.] - -When Bonaparte first entered office he recognised that England was -a more formidable, because a less approachable, enemy than Austria. -Knowing that the French navy was unable to meet the English, he hoped -to counterbalance the maritime preponderance of England by a league -against her commerce. Owing to the long period of war, nothing was to -be gained by solemn decrees forbidding the importation of goods into -France, it was necessary to strike through the neutral nations. The -three great commercial seats of English trade were the Levant, the -Baltic, and Portugal. The failure of the expedition to Egypt proved -that it was impossible to destroy the English trade in the Levant, and -Bonaparte therefore resolved to strike in the other two directions. -Acting mainly through the Emperor Paul, the Armed Neutrality of the -North, or the Neutral League of 1780, was re-established between -the Baltic powers of Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark. The real -intention of Paul and of Bonaparte was to exclude English commerce -entirely from the Baltic; but for the second time the Baltic powers -nominally made themselves the guarantors of the rights of neutrals. -They protested against the right assumed by England to search neutral -ships, and to confiscate as contraband of war all the goods of -belligerent powers found in them, and also against the prohibition -against neutral ships trading between different enemies’ ports. The -Emperor Paul, like the Empress Catherine twenty years before, made -himself the patron of the Neutral League. - -[Sidenote: Battle of Copenhagen. 2d April 1801.] - -The English government naturally refused to accede to the demands of -the Neutral League, and when the Baltic was closed to them an English -fleet was ordered to force the blockade. This fleet was placed under -the command of Sir Hyde Parker, with Nelson as second in command. On -the 30th of March 1801 the fleet sailed down the Sound, in spite of the -Danish batteries at Elsinore, and on the 2d of April Copenhagen was -bombarded and a large part of the Danish fleet destroyed. This victory, -and still more the death of the Emperor Paul, caused the dissolution -of the Neutral League of the North, and Bonaparte had to adjourn for -some years his schemes for the annihilation of English commerce. - -[Sidenote: Spain and Portugal. 1800–1.] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Badajoz.] - -In the Iberian peninsula the designs of Bonaparte against English trade -were more successful. Spain still remained the ally of France in spite -of the sufferings that alliance had brought upon her, but Portugal had -hitherto continued the faithful friend of England. Through Portugal -English goods entered Spain and the south of France, and Bonaparte -resolved to put an end to the neutrality of Portugal. For this purpose, -in the year 1800, he despatched his ablest brother, Lucien Bonaparte, -as ambassador to Madrid, with orders to negotiate with the Prince -Regent of Portugal. The terms offered were that the Portuguese ports -were to be closed to English trade, that special commercial advantages -were to be given to French merchants, that French Guiana was to -be extended to the river Amazon, and that a portion of Portuguese -territory was to be ceded to Spain until Trinidad and Minorca were -recovered by the latter power. The Prince Regent of Portugal rejected -these hard terms; Spain declared war in the beginning of 1801, and -22,000 veteran French soldiers, under the command of General Leclerc, -Bonaparte’s brother-in-law, were sent to the assistance of Spain. -The campaign was a very short one. The French troops never came into -action; but the Portuguese were twice defeated in pitched battles, and -lost some of their fortresses. The Prince Regent sued for peace, and a -treaty was signed between Spain and Portugal at Badajoz on the 6th of -June 1801. By this treaty the city and district of Olivenza were ceded -to Spain, and, by a subsequent arrangement, the limits of French Guiana -were extended to the river Amazon. Bonaparte was much disgusted with -these treaties, and especially with the continued refusal of Portugal -to close her ports to English commerce, and it was many months before -he consented to ratify them. England refused to recognise Portugal as -an enemy; but an English force occupied the island of Madeira, and the -East India Company’s troops garrisoned Goa. - -[Sidenote: Campaign in Egypt. 1800–1.] - -When Bonaparte left Egypt he was unable, owing to the stringency of -the blockade maintained by the English fleet, to take more than a few -companions with him. Kléber, who, as has been said, succeeded him -in the command of the French army, soon found himself confronted by -a powerful Turkish and Mameluke army. This army he defeated at the -battle of Heliopolis on the 20th of March 1800, after which success -Egypt again submitted to French rule. On the 14th of June 1800, the -very day on which his former comrade Desaix met a soldier’s death at -the battle of Marengo, Kléber was assassinated by a Muhammadan fanatic -in Cairo. Menou, the new French general in Egypt, was in every way -Kléber’s inferior, and concentrated the French troops in the two cities -of Cairo and Alexandria. Isolated entirely from the mother country, and -unable to receive reinforcements or ammunition, the English government -regarded the French in Egypt as an easy prey. On the 19th of March 1801 -a powerful English army disembarked at Aboukir, under the command of -Sir Ralph Abercromby, and defeated the French before Alexandria two -days later in a pitched battle, in which Abercromby was killed. Siege -was then laid to Alexandria and Cairo, and both cities surrendered to -the English general, Lord Hutchinson, before the arrival of a division -from India, which, under the command of Sir David Baird, had sailed up -the Red Sea, marched across the Soudan desert, and descended the Nile -to Cairo in boats. As a result of these operations, a convention was -signed between the French and English generals in Egypt on the 2d of -September 1801, by which the French garrisons evacuated all remaining -posts, and were conveyed to France in English ships. - -[Sidenote: The Peace of Amiens. 25th March 1802.] - -Though neither Bonaparte nor the leaders of English political opinion -believed it possible for a permanent peace to be agreed to in the -interests of their respective countries, the outcry of both the -English and the French people against the prolonged war made it -necessary for their rulers to conclude some kind of a truce. Pitt had -in 1801 gone out of office, and his successor Addington, afterwards -Lord Sidmouth, declared in favour of a peace policy. The treaty, which -is known as the Peace of Amiens, was really nothing more than a truce. -Only a very general agreement was come to, and many essential points -were left undecided. Both nations needed a rest, and neither government -looked upon the Peace of Amiens as affording a permanent solution of -their differences. Many loopholes were left, which were certain to -afford pretexts for renewing the war to both contracting powers, and of -these the most notable was the question of the possession of Malta. - -[Sidenote: The Reconstitution of Germany.] - -Far more important than the temporary Peace of Amiens was the -reconstitution of Germany, which was finally accepted by the Diet at -Ratisbon on the 25th of February 1803. The Holy Roman Empire which -had lasted so many centuries ceased to exist. The ancient division -of the Empire into circles was abolished, and the three colleges -which formed the Diet were profoundly affected. Instead of the eight -electors, three ecclesiastical and five lay, that formerly existed, -ten electors, one ecclesiastical and nine lay, were created. The -Archbishops of Cologne and Trèves, whose states being on the left bank -of the Rhine were absorbed into France, lost their electoral dignity. -The Archbishop-Elector of Mayence was retained as Arch-Chancellor of -the Empire, and he received as his dominions the Bishopric of Ratisbon, -the Principality of Aschaffenburg, and the County of Wetzlar. The -nine lay electors were the five princes who had formerly enjoyed the -dignity, namely, the Electors of Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony, Bavaria, -and Hanover, and four new Electors, the Margrave of Baden, the Duke -of Würtemburg, the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, and the Grand Duke -Ferdinand, brother of the Emperor, and former Grand Duke of Tuscany, -who was appointed Elector of Salzburg. By this new arrangement, and -by the abolition of two-thirds of the ecclesiastical electorate, the -majority in the College of Electors passed from the Catholics to the -Protestants. In the College of Princes there was the same result, for -by the secularisation of the Catholic bishoprics the majority passed to -the Protestant rulers. More sweeping still was the alteration in the -third College—that of the Free Cities. Instead of fifty-two constituent -members of this College only six were retained, and their maintenance -was due to the intervention of France. These six cities were Augsburg, -Bremen, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Hamburg, Lübeck, and Nuremberg. By these -changes the constitution of the Empire was entirely altered; but still -more notable was the change in the position of the various princes in -Germany, for the tendency of the secularisation of the ecclesiastical -states was to diminish the number of ruling princes and to increase the -extent of their dominions. - -[Sidenote: The Secularisations in Germany.] - -The great war with France had shown the weakness of the Empire as an -organisation, and had also proved the advantages to the inhabitants -of the existence of large and powerful states. It was, therefore, -the already existing kingdoms which received the greatest addition -of territory under the new arrangements. Nominally, the secularised -bishoprics were intended to compensate those German princes whose -territories on the left bank of the Rhine had been ceded to France; -practically, the powerful states only were increased. Austria, whose -new possession of Venice in place of the Milanese had been reaffirmed -by the Treaty of Lunéville, only acquired in Germany the Bishoprics of -Brixen and Trent, but two Austrian princes received independent states, -namely, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand, who, as has been said, -was given the Archbishopric of Salzburg, with the title of Elector, -and the Duke of Modena, who received the Breisgau. Nevertheless, the -power of Austria was greatly weakened, for under the old arrangement -the ecclesiastical electors and the Catholic bishops had always been -partisans of Austria. Prussia was the country which profited the -most, though she had suffered the least in the war against France. In -exchange for part of the Duchy of Cleves, the Duchy of Guelders, and -the County of Moers, Prussia received the large and wealthy Bishoprics -of Hildesheim, Paderborn, Erfurt, and part of Münster, together with -a number of abbeys, of which the largest were Herford, Quedlinburg, -Elten, Essen, and Werden, and several free cities. Hanover received -the Bishopric of Osnabrück, to which the King of England, as Elector -of Hanover, had previously possessed the alternate nomination. Bavaria -was made into a powerful and concentrated state. In exchange for the -Palatinate, the Duchy of Deux-Ponts (Zweibrücken), the Principalities -of Juliers, Simmern and Lautern, she received the Bishoprics of -Würtzburg, Bamberg, Augsburg, Freisingen, and part of Passau, together -with a large number of abbeys and free cities. Baden received the -portion of the Bishoprics of Spires, Strasbourg, and Basle, situated -on the right bank of the Rhine, the Bishopric of Constance, the -cities of Heidelberg and Mannheim, and many abbeys and free cities. -Finally, the Duchy of Würtemburg, in exchange for the Principality -of Montbéliard, received abbeys and free towns, which increased its -population by a hundred thousand inhabitants. It is not necessary to -describe the various accessions granted to the Princes of Hesse-Cassel, -Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau, and the rest; but, it may be noted that the -Prince of Orange, the former Stadtholder of Holland, received the -Bishopric of Fulda. These changes remodelled Germany, and in the result -were most prejudicial to France; for instead of there existing a series -of buffers in the shape of small and weak states, France was brought -almost directly into contact with Prussia and Austria. - -[Sidenote: The Reconstitution of Switzerland.] - -At the same time that the ancient federal Holy Roman Empire was -reconstituted, the ancient federal Republic of Switzerland was likewise -reorganised. The reasons which had induced the Directory to intervene -in Swiss affairs still existed; the revolutionary party which opposed -the federal idea, and desired to form a united Switzerland, remained -in direct opposition to the supporters of the former government of the -cantons. It was essentially the question of government which divided -the two parties, and there was no suggestion of restoring the feudal -system, or the privileges of certain towns and certain cantons over -others. The breath of the French Revolution had swept away political -inequalities as completely in Switzerland as in France. Soon after the -Treaty of Amiens, Bonaparte withdrew the French troops from the new -Helvetic Republic. Civil war, as he expected, recommenced, and the -Helvetic Government was driven from Berne by the federalists. Bonaparte -therefore despatched an army to restore order, and summoned the -leading Swiss statesmen to Paris. To them he propounded a new scheme -of federal government, which was accepted, and the Act of Mediation, -which was promulgated on the 19th of February 1803, established the -new Constitution, and recognised the First Consul as Mediator. By -the Act of Mediation Switzerland was divided into nineteen cantons, -each of which had its own local government and special laws and -taxes. The thirteen old cantons were maintained; six of them were -democratic—Appenzell, Glarus, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Uri, and Zug; -seven were oligarchical—Basle, Berne, Friburg, Lucerne, Schaffhausen, -Soleure, and Zürich. The six new cantons added by Bonaparte comprised -five territories which had formerly been subject; the Pays de Vaud -and Aargau were made independent of Berne; Thurgau was separated from -Schaffhausen, and Ticino from Uri and Unterwalden, and the canton of -Saint-Gall was formed out of certain districts formerly belonging to -Appenzell, Glarus, and Schwyz; finally, the Grisons, which had hitherto -been an independent mountain republic, was declared a canton of -Switzerland. Geneva had some years before been added to France as the -Department of the Leman, and the Valais was now declared independent—a -preliminary step to its ultimate annexation by France. The Federal -Diet was to consist of twenty-five deputies, two from the six largest -cantons, Aargau, Berne, the Grisons, Saint-Gall, the Pays de Vaud, -and Zurich, and one from each of the others. The Diet was to meet -every year in the capital of a different canton, and the Landamman -of that canton was for that year the President of the Confederation. -The Federal Act once more declared the entire abolition of feudalism, -and of all privileges of birth, etc., and forbade for the future all -internal customs duties. Bonaparte proclaimed that he would not allow -the interference of any other power in Switzerland, and took the title -of Mediator of the Confederation of Switzerland. - -[Sidenote: The Concordat. 1801–2.] - -It has already been stated that Bonaparte desired to stand well with -the Catholic Church, and had recognised the advantages of a state -religion. One of his most important measures during the Consulate was -to put an end to the schism which had lasted since the promulgation -of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790, with the assistance -of the Pope, Pius VII. All the bishops elected under the Civil -Constitution of the Clergy, and most of those who had emigrated, sooner -than take the oath of allegiance to it, resigned, and the leaders of -both sections were nominated and instituted to different dioceses. -A new circumscription of sees was agreed to, and France was divided -into fifty bishoprics and ten archbishoprics. It was agreed by the -Concordat, which was signed between the Pope and the First Consul on -the 15th of July 1801, and solemnly proclaimed on the 18th of April -1802, after being sanctioned by the Legislative Body, that the First -Consul should nominate all bishops, and the Pope should institute. -The government of the Consulate recognised the Catholic, Apostolic -and Roman religion as that of the majority of the French people, and -ordained that its public worship should be carried on freely so long as -the police regulations were observed. All ecclesiastics were to swear -fidelity to the government, which promised to pay a suitable salary to -all bishops and curés. In return, the Pope promised that neither he -nor his successors would lay any claim to the ecclesiastical estates -which had been alienated, and that all such property should be held the -indisputable possession of its purchaser. - -[Sidenote: Internal Organisation.] - -[Sidenote: The Prefectures.] - -The recognition of the frontier of the Rhine by the Treaty of Lunéville -and the Diet of Ratisbon largely increased the territory of France. -The First Consul proceeded to organise the additions on the bases -laid down by the Constituent Assembly, Convention, and Directory. -Belgium was divided into nine departments. The Rhenish territories, -including the Palatinate, the Diocese of Trèves, etc., were divided -into four departments, of which the headquarters were Aix-la-Chapelle, -Coblentz, Mayence, and Trèves. Further south, the Department of the -Mont-Terrible, which had been formed by the Convention out of the -Republic of Mulhouse and the District of Porentruy, was merged into the -Department of the Haut-Rhin, and the Principality of Montbéliard was -united to the Department of the Doubs. The Republic of Geneva, as has -been said, formed the Department of the Leman. Savoy was constituted -as the Department of Mont-Blanc, and the County of Nice that of the -Alpes-Maritimes. These were the recognised limits of France in 1801, -and were defensible on geographical grounds; but, on the 11th of -September 1802, Bonaparte went further, and declared the union of -Piedmont with France. Instead of being amalgamated with the Cisalpine -Republic, Piedmont was divided into six departments, and the island -of Elba was detached from Tuscany and declared, like Corsica, to be a -French island. At the head of each department a Préfet was appointed, -to take the place of the national agents maintained by the Directory. -At the head of each subdivision, now called an arrondissement instead -of a district, was placed a Sous-Préfet, also nominated by the supreme -executive, and at the head of each commune was the Maire, who was also -nominated and not elected. Préfets, Sous-Préfets, and Maires were -assisted by nominated councils in administrative matters, and appeals -from their decisions lay to the Council of State. - -[Sidenote: Education.] - -Just as Bonaparte had built up the new Code of Law on the bases laid -by the Legislative Committee of the Convention, so, too, he made use -of the labours of its Committee of Public Instruction to establish -a scheme of national education. In every commune which could afford -the expense, he maintained the primary school established by the -Convention; but he feared to burden the National Treasury with the -expense of schools in the poorer communes, and preferred to leave their -establishment to local endeavour. In secondary education, he suppressed -the central schools of the Convention, and replaced them by twenty-nine -lycées, specially intended for the education of the middle classes. For -higher education, he founded ten schools of law and six of medicine; -he improved the Polytechnic School, and started a school of mechanics, -which became later the famous École des Arts et Métiers. The key-stone -of the whole educational system, the foundation of the University, was, -however, not laid till some years later. - -[Sidenote: Constitutional Changes.] - -The great administrative reforms of Bonaparte made him as popular among -all classes of the population as his victories had made him in the -army. Not only in France, but throughout Europe, he was looked upon as -the restorer of order and good government. This sentiment appeared most -vividly at the time when a plot against his life was discovered on the -24th of September 1800. This plot, which is known as the Conspiracy -of the Infernal Machine, is said to have been the work of the Jacobin -party; the explosion took place in the Rue Sainte-Nicaise, too late -to do him any harm, but it was used as a pretext to exile the most -vigorous republicans. So great was his popularity, that rumours were -already heard of making him monarch. The first step in this direction -was taken in 1802, when the Council of State proposed that the primary -assemblies should be summoned to decide whether Bonaparte should not be -made First Consul for life. In May 1802 this proposal was laid before -the people, and was carried by more than 3,500,000 votes to 8000. Some -slight changes were made at the same time, of which the most important -were that the First Consul was enabled to nominate his successor, that -the lists of candidates for public functions were replaced by electoral -colleges appointed for life, and that the Senate was given the right to -dissolve the Tribunate and the Legislative Body. - -[Sidenote: Bonaparte’s Colonial Policy.] - -The First Consul clearly understood that the Peace of Amiens was not -likely to last, and that war would soon break out again with England. -He knew that England derived much of her influence from her navy and -her colonies; he therefore spared no efforts to restore the French -navy, and to make France once more a colonial power. His first essays -in this direction were to obtain Louisiana from Spain in exchange for -the kingdom of Etruria, formed in Italy for Prince Louis of Parma, and -the extension of the limits of French Guiana to the Amazon extorted -from Portugal. But his main project was to restore the French power -in the West Indies. Guadeloupe and Martinique and the French Antilles -had been restored to France by the Treaty of Amiens, and the First -Consul resolved to make them the starting-point for the reconquest of -San Domingo. This island had, as a result of the policy of Sonthonax -and Polverel, the proconsuls of the Convention, been entirely lost -to France; the planters and other whites had fled; and the revolted -slaves and mulattoes were masters of the island. Toussaint Louverture, -the leader of the negroes, refused to hold any communications with -Bonaparte, and the First Consul therefore, as soon as the Peace of -Amiens had opened the sea, sent an expedition of 20,000 men against -him, commanded by his brother-in-law, General Leclerc. The island -was reconquered by May 1802; but the victorious army was practically -destroyed by yellow fever. Toussaint Louverture was taken prisoner and -sent to France: but nevertheless, as soon as war with England again -broke out, and the arrival of reinforcements was prevented by English -cruisers, the negroes rose afresh under new leaders and destroyed the -remnant of the garrison. It may be added that the French Antilles were -recaptured by the English in 1809 and 1810. - -[Sidenote: Recommencement of the War between England and France. 18th -May 1803.] - -It has been said that the Treaty of Amiens was practically only a -truce, and that many points of interest to the two nations were left -undecided. Of these the most important regarded Malta. The English -ministry positively refused to surrender this island to the Knights -of Saint John, under the protectorate of the Emperor Alexander, -which would leave it at the mercy of France. Bonaparte demanded the -evacuation of Malta with much insistance as one of the conditions of -the Treaty of Amiens; but the English government in reply pointed to -the annexation of Elba, Parma and Piacenza, and Piedmont, and the -interference in Switzerland, as also being breaches of the treaty. The -First Consul was also very exasperated at the personal attacks made on -him in the irresponsible English press. He failed to understand that -by the English law the government could not prevent the publication -of libels against him, and regarded their refusal to punish the -libellers as personal insults to himself. The French ambassador in -London prosecuted Peltier, the chief libeller, before the Court of -King’s Bench. He was brilliantly defended by Sir J. Mackintosh, and -only ordered to pay a small fine. A public subscription was raised to -pay his fine and costs, and the First Consul regarded this as adding -a further insult to the injuries he had received. In truth, both -governments felt that war was inevitable, and in May 1803 the rupture -was complete. The English navy began to seize the French trading -vessels, and the First Consul, as a reprisal, arrested all the English -travellers he could find in France, and ordered Mortier to occupy -Hanover. - -[Sidenote: Position of Foreign Affairs.] - -The First Consul entered upon a fresh war with England with a light -heart, for he believed that she would be unable to obtain any allies. -Austria was exhausted by the terrible wars she had undergone, and the -State Chancellor, Cobenzl, held that she needed time to recuperate. -Prussia persisted in her attitude of strict neutrality; Haugwitz was -dismissed from the Secretaryship of State for Foreign Affairs as -being too French in his sympathies, after the occupation of Hanover, -and was succeeded by Hardenberg, the maker of the Treaty of Basle. -Spain was Bonaparte’s faithful and hopeful ally; and Russia, the -most formidable of the continental powers, inclined to his side. The -attitude of the Emperor Alexander at this period was of the greatest -importance. Educated by a Swiss publicist who sincerely loved France, -La Harpe, the Emperor of Russia was inclined to admire the results of -the French Revolution and the French people. His sentiments for the -person of Bonaparte were nearly as full of enthusiastic admiration as -those of his father, the Emperor Paul. He made the French ambassadors -at St. Petersburg, Duroc and Caulaincourt, his personal friends, and -wrote letters to Bonaparte expressing his feelings. But the Emperor’s -relatives, especially his mother, with his ministers and his courtiers, -were opposed to France and in favour of a close alliance with England, -or at the very least of the maintenance of strict neutrality. England -practically commanded the Russian trade, and war with England meant -the loss of the only market for Russian raw material, the consequent -impoverishment of the Russian people, and the ruin of the Russian -capitalists. Nevertheless the Emperor Alexander was an autocrat, and -Bonaparte counted upon his friendship even though he could not secure -his alliance. - -[Sidenote: The Plot of Pichegru and Cadoudal.] - -On the outbreak of war the numerous French exiles in England offered -their services to the English Government. It is significant of the -change which had come over the state of affairs that, instead of -endeavouring to raise a counter-revolution, they proposed to attack the -person of the First Consul. The leaders of the new plot were Pichegru, -now a declared royalist and partisan of the Bourbons, and Georges -Cadoudal, the celebrated Chouan leader. Both had the audacity to go to -Paris and to enter into relations with General Moreau. Moreau, though -he resented the lofty position of Bonaparte and refused to serve him, -would be no party to an assassination, more especially an assassination -which would restore the Bourbons, and Cadoudal and Pichegru had to -act with the assistance of certain French noblemen and some former -Chouans. A plot was formed to murder the First Consul on the road -from Malmaison to Paris, but it was discovered by the French police, -and Bonaparte in terror ordered the gates of Paris to be closed as in -the most terrible days of the Revolution, and proclaimed the pain of -death against all who sheltered the conspirators. After some daring -adventures the leaders were seized; Georges Cadoudal was executed; -Pichegru was strangled in prison; and Moreau, who was condemned to two -years’ imprisonment, was allowed to go into exile in the United States. -The French noblemen implicated were treated with more leniency, and the -lives of their two chiefs, Armand de Polignac and Charles de Rivière, -were spared. - -[Sidenote: Execution of the Duc d’Enghien. 21st March 1804.] - -The discovery of this plot against his life, which was undoubtedly -fostered by the Bourbon princes, made the First Consul determined to -wreak his vengeance against that unfortunate family. Being unable to -seize the persons of the pretender, Louis XVIII., and his brother, the -Comte d’Artois, who resided in England, he carried off a young Bourbon -prince, the eldest son of the Prince de Condé, who was quite innocent -of the conspiracy of Pichegru. The Duc d’Enghien was at this time -living at Ettenheim in the Grand Duchy of Baden. He was arrested there -by French soldiers, contrary to all international law, and taken to -Vincennes. He was at once tried by a military commission as an _émigré_ -who had borne arms against France, and was condemned to death. The -sentence was immediately carried out in spite of the demands of the -young prince for an interview with the First Consul. This execution was -a great political mistake. Bonaparte expected that it would terrify -the Bourbon princes, but it reacted to his own prejudice. The Court -of Saint-Petersburg went into mourning; the King of Prussia, who had -at last almost resolved to make an alliance with France, began to -negotiate with Russia; the royal family of Austria looked upon the -execution as a pendant to that of Marie Antoinette; and the English -Government made use of the horror caused by it to endeavour to form a -fresh coalition against France. - -[Sidenote: Bonaparte becomes Emperor of the French. 18th May 1804.] - -[Sidenote: Francis II. becomes Emperor of Austria.] - -Directly after this tragedy, which proved that Bonaparte was -practically an absolute monarch, he decided to take upon himself the -rank of Emperor of the French. The Senate offered this title to the -First Consul at Saint-Cloud on the 18th of May 1804, and the people -ratified it by a majority of more than 3,500,000 votes. By the _senatus -consultum_ which made him Emperor the office was made hereditary to -his direct descendants. As he had no children he was given the power -to adopt, a power which it was undoubtedly expected would be used in -favour of his step-son, Eugène de Beauharnais. A few months after the -Corsican soldier of fortune was declared Emperor of the French, the -last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II., resolved to rid himself of what -was now but an empty title. The new Constitution of the Holy Roman -Empire had destroyed the imperial authority by depriving it of the -votes of the ecclesiastical members in the Diet, and increasing or -consolidating the dominions of the principal German states. Francis -II. acknowledged the new order of things. On the 11th of August 1804, -he erected the Austrian dominions into an hereditary empire, and on -the 7th of December following, five days after the coronation of -Bonaparte as the Emperor Napoleon by the Pope at Paris, the last Holy -Roman Emperor proclaimed himself Emperor of Austria under the title of -Francis I. This then was the result of fifteen years of revolution, the -disappearance of the ancient figure-head of Europe, and the creation of -a new Empire founded on the power of the sword. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - - 1804–1808 - - Napoleon, Emperor of the French—His Coronation as Emperor and - as King of Italy—The Imperial Court—The Grand Dignitaries, - Marshals, and Imperial Household—Institutions of the - Empire—Ministers and Government—The Camp at Boulogne—Pitt’s - last coalition—Campaign of 1805—Capitulation of Ulm—Battles - of Austerlitz and Caldiero—Battle of Trafalgar—Treaty of - Pressburg—Death of Pitt—Prussia declares War—Campaign of - Jena—Campaign of Eylau—Campaign of Friedland—Interview - and Peace of Tilsit—The Continental Blockade—Capture - of the Danish Fleet by England—French Invasion and - Conquest of Portugal—State of Sweden—The Rearrangement - of Europe—Louis Bonaparte King of Holland—Italy—Joseph - Bonaparte King of Naples—Battle of Maida—Rearrangement of - Germany—Bavaria—Würtemburg—Baden—Jerome Bonaparte King of - Westphalia—Murat Grand Duke of Berg—Saxony—Smaller States of - Germany—Mediatisation of Petty Princes—Confederation of the - Rhine—Poland—The Grand Duchy of Warsaw—Conference of Erfurt. - - -[Sidenote: The Empire.] - -Napoleon’s elevation to the rank of Emperor of the French only -legalised in a more striking fashion the possession of power which he -had long held. It did not make his authority any greater, for he had -been practically the absolute monarch of France ever since 1799, but -it gave promise of permanency, and that was what the French people -most needed after the series of successive governments which had run -their course since 1789. It is a mistake to regard Napoleon as having -been made supreme ruler of France by the army alone; the legalisation -of his power was even more enthusiastically received by the peaceful -part of the population. The few ardent republicans who were left -had been terrified out of resistance by the wholesale deportation -of the principal Jacobins after the affair of the Infernal Machine. -The adherents of the Bourbons were equally discouraged by the severe -punishment dealt out to Pichegru and Georges Cadoudal. Every section -of both the military and civil communities was ready to hail Napoleon -as Emperor. But in the institution of the Empire he appealed to more -than men’s interests, he appealed to their imaginations. This he did -in two ways. He created a Court, with all the magnificent apparatus of -the great officers of the household, stately ceremonies and ancient -customs, which gave to the people of Paris the spectacle of royal pomp -which they had long regretted. On the other hand, he called to his -assistance the most powerful engine for influencing the imagination of -men, namely, religion. He determined to be consecrated with a ceremony -which should exceed in splendour all the coronation ceremonies of the -Bourbons. He summoned the Pope to France, and instead of being crowned -at Rheims by the Archbishop and Primate, he received his crown at -Paris from the hands of the Holy Father himself. At the very moment -of his coronation he showed a pride of bearing at least equal to that -of any of his predecessors upon the throne of France. After the Pope -had anointed him, girded the sword of empire about him, and given him -the sceptre, he prepared to place the crown upon the head of the new -Caesar. But Napoleon gently took the crown from the hands of Pius VII., -and after replacing it on the altar, raised it and crowned himself. The -presence of the Pope in Paris for this great ceremony following upon -the Concordat, caused Napoleon to be looked upon as the restorer of the -Catholic religion, and greatly strengthened his position. Not satisfied -with the crown of France, he accepted that of Italy also on the 20th -of May 1805, and proceeded to Milan, where he placed upon his head the -Iron Crown of the old Lombard Kings. He at once declared his intention -of not personally administering his Italian kingdom, and appointed his -step-son, Eugène de Beauharnais, to be Viceroy of Italy. - -[Sidenote: The Imperial Court.] - -It has been said that Napoleon created a new Court, which was intended -to efface the recollection of the magnificence of the old Court of -Versailles. At the head of this Court he created a hierarchy of -Grand Dignitaries of the Empire, who were designed to form a Council -of Regency in case of necessity. The chief of them was the Grand -Elector, whose duty was to convoke the Senate, the Legislative Body, -and the Electoral Colleges,—this post was conferred on the Emperor’s -elder brother, Joseph Bonaparte. Next ranked the Arch-Chancellor of -the Empire, who was the chief of the judicial body,—this post was -conferred on Cambacérès, the former Second Consul. Third came the -Arch-Chancellor of State, whose business it was to receive foreign -ambassadors and ratify treaties—this post was conferred upon Eugène de -Beauharnais. Next came the Arch-Treasurer of the Empire, which post was -first filled by Le Brun, the former Third Consul, and the remaining -Grand Dignitaries were the Constable of the Empire, Louis Bonaparte, -the Grand Admiral, Marshal Murat, and the Grand Judge, Regnier. In -the same way as the Grand Dignitaries were at the head of the civil -administration of the Empire, Napoleon created Marshals of France to be -the representatives of the army. The first marshals were eighteen in -number, and included all the most famous generals of the revolutionary -period except Pichegru and Moreau, whose fate has been related. It was -indispensable for the rank of Marshal of France to have commanded an -army in the field, or at least a detached corps, and the office was -surrounded with so many privileges as to make it the object of ambition -to every colonel of a French regiment. The third hierarchy consisted of -the great officers of the Emperor’s household, who comprised a Grand -Marshal, Duroc; a Grand Almoner, his uncle, Joseph Fesch, whom he had -induced the Pope to make a cardinal; a Grand Chamberlain, Talleyrand; -a Grand Huntsman, Marshal Berthier; and a Grand Equerry, Caulaincourt; -and most of the first occupants of these offices were personal friends -and former comrades in arms of the Emperor. - -[Sidenote: Institutions of the Empire.] - -[Sidenote: Administrative System of the Empire.] - -[Sidenote: Napoleon’s Ministers.] - -The Senate remained under the Constitution of the Empire, as under -that of the Consulate, the most important and dignified political -body. It was extended by the addition of the Grand Dignitaries, of -the members of the Emperor’s family, and of those whom he specially -wished to reward; its seats were conferred for life; but it did little -but congratulate the Emperor on all his proceedings. The Tribunate -was reduced to fifty members, and the Legislative Body was allowed -to discuss laws, but only in closed committees. These institutions, -carefully devised though they were to maintain a semblance of free -discussion, were really reduced to impotence by the autocratic power -of the Emperor. The Council of State became more and more the real -key-stone of the administration of France. It was the one institution -of the Consulate which developed under the Empire. But it did not -develop collectively, but rather as a convenient administrative centre -and a court of appeal for administrators in every branch of the -government. Though the ministries were maintained, they were, as the -government became more bureaucratic in its form, and more concentrated -into the hand of Napoleon, infinitely subdivided, and the head of each -subdivision had a seat in the Council of State. By this arrangement -the Emperor was able to keep a check on his ministers, and to prevent -the administration from being thrown out of gear by the death or -retirement of a single man. Nevertheless, the ministries, as in all -highly organised states, were of vast importance, and Napoleon was -fortunate in the men he placed at their head. It is worthy of note that -three of the ministers who had served him during the Consulate remained -in office throughout the Empire, namely, Gaudin, afterwards created -Duke of Gaeta, Minister of Finance, who had several assistants in the -Council of State, of whom the most notable were Defermon, a former -deputy in the Constituent Assembly and the Convention, and Louis; -Decrès, also created a duke, Minister of the Marine; and Regnier, Duke -of Massa and Grand Judge, Minister of Justice. At the War Office, -the Emperor retained his chief of the staff, Marshal Berthier, until -1807, when he was succeeded by General Clarke, Duke of Feltre; and the -various sections were presided over by able administrators, of whom the -best were perhaps Lacuée de Cessac and Daru. At the Foreign Office, -Talleyrand remained supreme until after the Treaty of Tilsit, in 1807, -when he was replaced by Champagny, Duke of Cadore, who in his turn -gave way to Maret, Duke of Bassano. At the Ministry of the Interior a -change was made at the beginning of the Empire by the retirement of -Chaptal, who had held that post with singular distinction throughout -the Consulate, and the appointment of Champagny. But this department -was overshadowed by the existence of the Ministry of General Police. -Napoleon abolished this office in 1803, in the hope, doubtless, of -dispensing with the services of Fouché; but that astute minister was a -necessity, and in 1804 he was again appointed to his old office, which -he held until 1810. - -[Sidenote: The Camp at Boulogne.] - -In the midst of the _fêtes_ which accompanied his acceptance of the -Empire, Napoleon did not forget that he was engaged in war with -England. He declared that as he had crossed the Alps, so, too, he -could cross the Channel. For this purpose he collected a flotilla of -flat-bottomed boats at Boulogne, and encamped picked soldiers from -the Armies of the Rhine and of Italy upon the coast. But he felt that -it would be impossible for his flotilla to cross the Channel while -the English fleets were masters of the sea. He therefore determined -to unite the two French fleets, which were concentrated at Toulon and -Brest, and summoned his allies, the Dutch and the Spaniards, to prepare -fleets also. He kept 120,000 veterans continually at work practising -embarkation and disembarkation, and it was commonly believed, not -only in Europe, but in England itself, that the invasion would be -carried into effect. The army was equipped in a very thorough fashion, -and carefully organised as the Grand Army under the most experienced -generals in France, and it became one of the most efficient fighting -machines ever known in the history of the world, its discipline being -perfect and its enthusiasm unbounded. - -[Sidenote: Villeneuve’s Failure.] - -While making these preparations for the invasion of England, Napoleon -struck at other more accessible branches of the British power. In -1803 he occupied Hanover, the hereditary dominion of George III., in -spite of its being covered by the Prussian line of demarcation. In -1804 he sent a division into the kingdom of Naples, in order to close -the Neapolitan ports to English trade; and once more he threatened -Portugal. He also endeavoured to stir up a maritime foe to the English, -and sold to the United States the province of Louisiana, which he had -annexed from Spain, in the hope of obtaining their alliance. It was -only necessary for Napoleon to be master of the Channel for a few -hours, and to have a fine day, for his project of invading England to -succeed. According to his instructions, Admiral Villeneuve left Toulon -in March 1805, eluded Nelson, joined the Spanish fleet, and made his -way to the West Indies, where he expected to meet the fleet from Brest. -But the Brest fleet could not break through the blockade; Villeneuve -had to return, and, after an action with an English squadron under Sir -Robert Calder on 22nd July, he put into Ferrol. At Napoleon’s command, -the admiral set out for Brest on 11th August, but meeting with bad -weather, he lost heart and sailed away to Cadiz. Thus foiled in his -great scheme for bringing up an overpowering French fleet to cover his -invading army, Napoleon dared not leave the harbour of Boulogne. - -[Sidenote: Pitt’s New Coalition. 1805.] - -While threatened by the Boulogne flotilla, the English Government did -all in its power to raise enemies on the Continent against Napoleon. -Prussia, as usual, insisted on her neutrality; but Russia and Austria -were not unwilling to try their strength once more with France. The -Emperor Alexander of Russia was personally inclined to admire Napoleon, -but he was induced by his Court, his family, and his ministry, who -pointed out to him the importance of remaining on good terms with -England, to sign an alliance with Pitt; he was further profoundly -irritated by the violent scene which Napoleon, as First Consul, had had -with his ambassador, Count Morkov, and was horrified at the execution -of the Duc d’Enghien. The Emperor Francis of Austria was even more -willing to fight Napoleon. He had spent the period of peace since the -Treaty of Lunéville in reorganising his army, and believed that he -would be more successful now that he was freed from the incubus of his -position as Holy Roman Emperor. The State Chancellor, Cobenzl, was also -keenly in favour of war, for he was a sincere believer in the might of -Russia, and had imbibed a desire to please the Court of St. Petersburg, -at which he had long held the post of Austrian ambassador. To induce -these powerful allies to attack in force, Pitt, who was once more -Prime Minister, did not grudge the wealth of England. Large subsidies -were offered both to Russia and Austria, which supplied the means for -commencing the campaign; and strenuous efforts were made to win the -assistance of Prussia. - -[Sidenote: Outbreak of War.] - -In the second line, Pitt counted on the assistance of Sweden and -Naples. Napoleon’s promptitude in invading the latter country destroyed -any chance of its effecting a diversion in Italy, and Gustavus IV. -of Sweden, though, like his father, a violent enemy of France, was -unable to bring any active assistance, while Prussia remained neutral. -A pretext for war was found in the annexation of Lucca and Genoa -to the French Empire, and the Austrians and Russians resolved to -strike at once. General Mack, with a powerful Austrian force, invaded -Bavaria before the declaration of war, and, by the occupation of Ulm, -he believed he had secured the valley of the Danube. Meanwhile the -principal Austrian army of 120,000 men, under the Archduke Charles, -invaded Italy, and a powerful force of Russians kept close to the -Prussian frontier, in the hope of inducing Prussia to declare war -against France. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of 1805.] - -[Sidenote: Surrender of Ulm. 20th Oct. 1805.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Austerlitz. 2d Dec. 1805.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Trafalgar. 21st Oct. 1805.] - -Napoleon, despairing of success in his projected invasion of England, -resolved to turn promptly upon England’s principal ally, and directed -the Grand Army to break up from Boulogne and enter Germany. Mack -regarded it as certain that the French, as in the campaigns of Moreau, -would advance through the Black Forest. Napoleon encouraged his -illusion by showing him a few French troops in that quarter. Meanwhile, -the Grand Army advanced in two portions through Würtemburg and -Franconia, and, on reaching the Danube, after violating the Prussian -neutrality by marching through Anspach, cut off Mack’s retreat on -Vienna. The Austrian general made an effort to break through the French -army, but he was defeated by Ney at Elchingen, and surrendered on the -20th of October 1805 with 33,000 men. The capitulation of Ulm did more -than deprive Austria of a serviceable army,—it left open the road to -Vienna. Napoleon rapidly followed up his success. He marched past a -united Russian and Austrian army, which was quartered in Moravia, to -influence Prussia, occupied Vienna, crossed the Danube, and eventually -faced the army of the two emperors at Austerlitz. On the 2d of December -1805, the anniversary of his coronation, the Grand Army utterly -defeated the Austrians and Russians. The allies lost 15,000 men killed -and wounded, 20,000 prisoners, and 189 guns; and the Emperor Francis -found himself defenceless, for his only other army, that in Italy, -had been defeated at Caldiero by Eugène de Beauharnais and Masséna on -the 30th of October. While the rapid campaign of Austerlitz,—perhaps -the most glorious of Napoleon’s military career,—was taking place, he -lost the navy which he had prepared with so much care, and which had -been intended to cover his invasion of England. The French admiral, -Villeneuve, left Cadiz at the head of the united French and Spanish -fleet, consisting of thirty-three ships of the line and five frigates. -He had not gone far when he was met by Nelson at the head of the -English squadron of twenty-seven ships off Cape Trafalgar. The victory -of Trafalgar, which was won on the 21st of October, was as complete -as that of Austerlitz. The French and Spanish fleet was as entirely -destroyed as the Austrian and Russian army. The allies at Trafalgar -lost 7000 men in killed and wounded, and the English only 3000, among -whom, however, was Nelson himself. - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Pressburg. 26th Dec. 1805.] - -The result of the battle of Austerlitz was the Treaty of Pressburg, -which was signed by Austria and France on the 26th of December 1805. -The Russians had only lost one army, and their territory had not been -invaded, so that they were still enabled to remain in arms. But Austria -was completely crushed. By the Treaty of Pressburg, Venice, Istria, and -Dalmatia were ceded to the Kingdom of Italy; but Napoleon kept the two -latter provinces under his direct rule, and gave the command of them to -General Marmont. The Tyrol and part of Swabia were ceded to Bavaria, -and the Elector of that State took the title of King. The same title -was conferred on the Duke of Würtemburg; the Duke of Baden became a -Grand Duke; many small German principalities were suppressed, and, on -12th of July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was formed under the -protectorate of the French Emperor. England could not blame Austria -for making a separate treaty with France, for she herself had been -saved from invasion by the departure of the Grand Army from Boulogne, -not less than by the victory of Trafalgar. The news of Austerlitz was -followed on the 23d of January 1806 by the death of Pitt, and the new -English ministry of Fox and Grenville, now that the fear of invasion -was over, desired to enter into negotiations with Napoleon. - -[Sidenote: Overthrow of Prussia.] - -The overthrow of Austria was followed by the overthrow of Prussia. -Frederick William III. had prided himself on the manner in which, in -spite of many temptations, he had maintained his attitude of strict -neutrality. Neither the offers of the Directory or of Napoleon, nor the -subsidies lavishly promised by England, had been able to disturb his -determination. The Prussian ministry proudly pointed to the fact that, -while the rest of Europe had been torn by disastrous wars, Prussia -had remained at peace ever since the Treaty of Basle in 1795. She had -profited by her peace policy as much as France and Austria by their war -policy. The rearrangement of Germany in 1803 had converted Prussia from -a collection of scattered states into a united kingdom. She had even, -up to the year 1803, maintained the freedom of the whole of the north -of Germany from the terrible French invaders by the observation of the -line of demarcation settled in 1795. The northern states of Germany -looked to Prussia as their leader, and since the destruction of the -Holy Roman Empire the Prussian policy had been completely victorious -over the Austrian. The maintenance of the line of demarcation was the -favourite scheme of the Prussian King, and as long as it was observed, -nothing short of invasion would have disturbed his neutrality. But the -occupation of Hanover in 1803, as one of the measures taken by Napoleon -against England, had infringed the line of demarcation, and from that -moment Frederick William III. inclined towards war. - -In this warlike attitude he was encouraged by Russia and England, -and still more by his own army. The Prussian army, the creation of -Frederick the Great, represented in more than an ordinary fashion the -Prussian nation. Relying on the recollections of the Seven Years’ -War, and confident in the proverbial discipline of their soldiers, -the Prussian generals believed that they would be able to defeat the -conquerors of the rest of Europe. With the utmost ardour the young -Prussian noblemen shouted for war; they resented the long peace, and -applauded the new attitude of the king. He was stimulated likewise by -the hatred for France, which was openly encouraged by his beautiful -Queen Louisa, and he met with opposition only from a few of his more -experienced ministers, and from the old Duke of Brunswick, who well -knew the excellence of the French troops. Undecided and hesitating, -Frederick William refused to join the coalition of Austria and -Russia in 1805, when his assistance would have been of the greatest -service. He signed, indeed, the Treaty of Potsdam on 3d November 1805, -undertaking to mediate, and to join the coalition with 180,000 men if -Napoleon refused the terms he offered. But the proposed intervention -came to nothing. Haugwitz, the Prussian minister, awaited at Napoleon’s -headquarters the result of the battle of Austerlitz, and on December -15 he signed the Treaty of Schönbrunn, by which Prussia ceded Cleves -to France and Anspach to Bavaria, and received provisional possession -of Hanover. Two months later, on February 15, Prussia was compelled by -a supplementary treaty to definitely accept Hanover from Napoleon, an -arrangement which was tantamount to declaring war with England. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of Jena. Oct. 1806.] - -The long neutrality of Frederick William III. was thus broken, and, as -it soon appeared, in vain. For Napoleon almost immediately offered to -restore Hanover to England, with which country he was induced to enter -into negotiations for peace by the accession of Fox to office. At this -news Frederick William mobilised his troops and prepared for war with -France. In October 1806 he ordered the victor of Austerlitz to at once -retire behind the Rhine, and slowly concentrated his army in Thuringia -without waiting for the succour promised by the Russians. The Prussian -officers applauded their king’s conduct, for they desired to have the -glory of defeating the French entirely to themselves. On the 14th of -October 1806 the two corps of the Prussian army, which were advancing -along the river Saale, were defeated by Napoleon himself at Jena, and -by Marshal Davout at Auerstädt. The triumph was as complete as that of -Austerlitz; and on the 25th the French army entered Berlin. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of Eylau.] - -It was now necessary for the Grand Army to attack the Russians. -Napoleon, after occupying nearly the whole of Prussia and laying siege -to Dantzic, entered Poland. He was received with an enthusiastic -welcome by the Poles, whose independence he hinted at restoring. Polish -troops had long served in his armies, and the sympathy of the French -people for the oppressed Poles was known throughout Poland. On the 15th -of December 1806 Napoleon occupied Warsaw and sent his army into winter -quarters upon the Russian frontier. The Russian general, Benningsen, -one of the murderers of the Emperor Paul, conceived the idea of -surprising part of the French army in its winter quarters. He drove -back the division of Bernadotte; but when he reached the neighbourhood -of Königsberg he found that Napoleon had received information of his -movement and had collected the bulk of his army. It was now Napoleon’s -turn to pursue the Russians. At the head of 60,000 men he found 80,000 -Russians entrenched in the village of Eylau, and attacked them during -a snowstorm on the 8th of February 1807. The battle was long disputed. -The Russians had to retire, but it was estimated that the loss of both -armies was about the same, namely, 35,000 men. This loss was far more -severe to the French than to the Russians, for the French soldiers -slain at Eylau were veterans of the Grand Army, and their place could -only be taken by raw conscripts. - -[Sidenote: Battle of Friedland. 14th June 1807.] - -The result of the battle of Eylau was to allow the French army to -remain undisturbed in its winter quarters. In the Russian camp, -meanwhile, important diplomatic negotiations had been going on. -Frederick William cemented his friendship with the Emperor Alexander, -and appointed the most able of his servants, Hardenberg, to be State -Chancellor in the place of Haugwitz. Prussia could indeed give but -little real help, for her army was destroyed, and her country almost -entirely in the hands of the French; but Alexander, nevertheless, -consented in April 1807 to sign the Treaty of Bartenstein with -Frederick William, by which they formed an offensive and defensive -alliance. But the hopes of the diplomatists, founded on the drawn -battle of Eylau, were soon to be frustrated by the military successes -of Napoleon. On the 24th of May 1807 Dantzic, which had withstood a -desperate siege, surrendered to General Lefebvre, and the besieging -troops were able to join the main army. The summer campaign of 1807 -was very short. Benningsen, accompanied by the Emperor Alexander in -person, advanced to attack the French army on the 14th of June. The -Russians foolishly crossed the Alle at Friedland, and with the river -at their back were completely defeated with a loss of 25,000 men. The -victory of Friedland was decisive; it did not destroy the Russian -Empire, as the victories of Austerlitz and Jena had destroyed the -Austrian Empire and the Prussian Kingdom; it did not extinguish the -fighting power of Russia; it did not diminish the _morale_ of the -Russian army, which proudly boasted that it had made a better stand -against the French than either the Austrians or the Prussians. It was -not positively necessary for the very existence of his monarchy that -the Emperor Alexander should treat with Napoleon, but his successive -defeats justified him before his Court and his ministers in demanding -peace. He could reply to their arguments in favour of an English -alliance for Russia that he had loyally tried to carry out the terms of -that alliance, but that under the circumstances he could maintain it no -longer. He had always wished for peace with France and the friendship -of Napoleon; he now considered himself free to follow his personal -inclinations. - -[Sidenote: Interview at Tilsit, 25th June 1807.] - -[Sidenote: Peace of Tilsit, 7th July 1807.] - -On the 25th of June 1807 the Emperor of the French and the Czar of -Russia had their famous interview at Tilsit on a raft moored in the -middle of the river Niemen. The personal magnetism of Napoleon and his -glory as a great conqueror powerfully impressed the vivid imagination -of Alexander, who had always felt the warmest admiration for him. -During this interview Napoleon spread before the eyes of the Emperor -of Russia his favourite conception of the re-establishment of the -old Empires of the East and of the West. They were to be faithful -allies. France was to be the supreme power over the Latin races and -in the centre of Europe; Russia was to represent the Greek Empire -and to expand into Asia. These grandiose views charmed the Emperor -Alexander, who believed that in adopting them he was following out -the policy of Peter the Great and of the Empress Catherine. The -one enemy to be feared and to be crushed according to Napoleon was -England. And Alexander, in spite of the loss which his subjects would -suffer, promised to enter into Napoleon’s policy for the exclusion of -England’s commerce from the Continent, and to accept the doctrine of -the Continental Blockade. But, at the same time, Alexander did not -dare to go so far as to promise to declare war against England, in -spite of the pressure put upon him by Napoleon. The first interview at -Tilsit was followed by others, and eventually by the Peace of Tilsit. -By this treaty Russia ceded the Ionian Islands and the mouths of the -river Cattaro in the south of Dalmatia, which had been occupied by the -Russians since 1799, to France. Napoleon, on his part, promised that he -would not restore the independence of Poland, and advised Alexander to -obtain compensation for the growth of the power of France from Sweden -and from Turkey. In pursuance of this policy a division of the French -army invaded Swedish Pomerania and took Stralsund, while the Russians -occupied Finland. Alexander was pressed by Napoleon to invade Turkey, -and was promised the assistance of France in obtaining the cession of -the Danubian principalities. The Emperor of Russia made loyal efforts -to obtain a favourable peace for his ally, the King of Prussia. But -Napoleon, though willing to humour Alexander, and desirous of making -Russia his firm ally, did not hesitate to show his contempt for -Frederick William III. He thought for a time of entirely extinguishing -Prussia, but on the representations of Alexander he contented himself -by taking possession of the Rhenish and Westphalian provinces of -Prussia, and forming them with the principality of Hesse-Cassel into -the kingdom of Westphalia. He also included Prussian Poland in his new -Grand Duchy of Warsaw. - -[Sidenote: The Continental Blockade.] - -The Peace of Tilsit left Napoleon face to face with only one enemy, and -that was England. The destruction of the French fleet at Trafalgar -and the diminution of the strength of the Grand Army from the losses -suffered at Austerlitz, Jena, and Eylau, proved to the Emperor of the -French that he had better abandon his project of invading England. -But if he could not cross the Channel in force or meet the English -fleets at sea, he believed he could ruin England by excluding her -from the markets of the Continent. The English ministry, in pursuance -of its reading of international law, had closed all neutral seaborne -commerce from the mouth of the Elbe to the extremity of the French -coast. Napoleon answered this measure by his Berlin Decree, which was -issued in that city on the 21st of November 1806, and declared the -British Islands to be in a state of blockade. All English merchandise -was to be confiscated, as well as all ships which had touched either -at a British port or at a port in the British Colonies. He followed -up this measure by the Milan Decree of the 17th of December 1807, by -which he declared that any ship of any country which had touched at a -British port was liable to be seized and treated as prize. The entry -of Russia into the scheme of the Continental Blockade would, Napoleon -hoped, entirely ruin the English trade. But, in reality, it did nothing -of the sort. English commerce was as active and enterprising as ever, -and the risks it encountered in running the Continental Blockade only -increased the profits of the English merchants. The real sufferers were -the inhabitants of the Continent, who had to pay enhanced prices for -such articles of prime necessity as sugar. Napoleon’s expectation that -the carrying trade of the world would desert England and fall into the -hands of France and her allies was not fulfilled, because the English -war fleets remained complete masters of the sea, and effectually -prevented the rise of any other commercial power. The result of the -Continental Blockade was therefore the impoverishment of the allies -of France and their consequent hatred of Napoleon, while it increased -rather than diminished the commercial prosperity of England. - -[Sidenote: Bombardment of Copenhagen. Sept. 1807.] - -The English ministers were not afraid of Napoleon’s Continental -Blockade. But his occupation of Northern Germany made them fear that -his next step would be to seize the Danish fleet as the Directory had -in former days appropriated the Dutch fleet. Secret stipulations were -indeed made at Tilsit, by virtue of which the Danish fleet was to be -seized by France. Information of this scheme was given to the English -ministers, and a secret expedition was planned to prevent its being -carried into effect. Denmark was a neutral nation, and had given no -pretext for war to either France or England. But Denmark was a weak -nation and unable to defend itself. Under these circumstances the -English struck first. A powerful expedition anchored before Copenhagen -in September 1807; the city was bombarded; the small Danish army -was defeated at Kioge by a division under the command of Sir Arthur -Wellesley; and the whole Danish fleet was appropriated or destroyed by -England. By this rapid blow one of Napoleon’s most cherished schemes -came to nought, and his hope of getting another serviceable navy -effectually extinguished. - -[Sidenote: French Invasion of Portugal. 1807.] - -The two most faithful allies of England were the small kingdoms of -Portugal and Sweden. The Russians were left to deal with the latter; -Napoleon resolved to attack the former himself. The French Emperor, -like the Directory before him, insisted on regarding Portugal as an -outlying province of England, and, indeed, there was some ground for -this view, as owing to the Methuen Treaty the relations between the two -countries were very close. Yet the Prince Regent of Portugal in 1806 -had declined to declare himself the open ally of England, and insisted -on the maintenance of his position of neutrality. Nevertheless, -Napoleon resolved to ruin Portugal because the Prince Regent declined -to become a party to the Continental Blockade. He at first resolved to -act with Spain as he had done in 1801, and on the 29th of October 1807 -the Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed, by which it was agreed that -the combined armies of France and Spain should conquer Portugal. The -little kingdom was then to be divided into three parts; the northern -provinces were to be given to the King of Etruria in exchange for -his dominions in Italy which Napoleon desired to annex; the southern -districts were to be formed into an independent kingdom for Godoy, -the Prince of the Peace, the lover of the Queen of Spain, and the -most powerful man in that kingdom; and the central portion was to be -temporarily held by France. In pursuance of this secret treaty a French -army under General Junot marched rapidly across the Peninsula, and -on the news that it was close to Lisbon, the Prince Regent, with his -mother, the mad queen, Maria I., and his two sons sailed for Brazil -with an English squadron. Hardly had the Regent left the Tagus when -Junot entered Lisbon on the 20th of November 1807. The French were -favourably received in Portugal. The Portuguese resented the departure -of the Prince Regent; democratic principles had made considerable -progress; and no idea was entertained that there was a secret design to -dismember the kingdom. Junot had little difficulty in occupying almost -the whole of Portugal; he sent the picked troops of the Portuguese -army under the name of the Portuguese Legion to join the Grand Army -in Germany; and he promised a Constitution to the country. On the 1st -of February 1808 he issued a proclamation that the House of Braganza -had ceased to reign, and after the fortresses had been surrendered he -proceeded to administer Portugal as a conquered country. - -[Sidenote: Sweden.] - -Gustavus IV. of Sweden, who had taken the power into his own hands -from his uncle the Regent Duke of Sudermania and had married the -sister-in-law of the Emperor Alexander of Russia, in 1797, had -inherited the hatred for France, which had been, after 1789, one of -the guiding principles of his father, Gustavus III. He had been the -ready ally of England in all the coalitions against both the French -Directory and Napoleon, and after the rupture of the Peace of Amiens -in 1803, he became the key-stone of the Anglo-Russian alliance. In -1805 he promised to place himself at the head of an English, Russian, -and Swedish army which was to invade Hanover, and occupy Holland; but -he failed to set sail on the appointed day, and caused the expedition -to lead to no result. Nevertheless, he remained faithful to England, -and at the time of the Treaty of Tilsit refused to abandon the English -alliance. As has been already said, Swedish Pomerania was occupied by -a division of the Grand Army, under Marshal Brune, and Sweden never -recovered the ancient conquest of Gustavus Adolphus. In 1808, on the -obstinate refusal of the Swedish King to accede to the Continental -Blockade, the Emperor Alexander, as had been agreed at Tilsit, invaded -Finland. England was ready to assist Sweden, and a powerful army, under -Sir John Moore, was sent to Stockholm. At this crisis the King showed -signs of insanity. The English expedition retired, and at the beginning -of 1809 Gustavus IV. was dethroned. - -[Sidenote: The Rearrangement of Europe.] - -[Sidenote: Holland.] - -After he had made himself Emperor, and still more after his victories -over Austria and Prussia and his alliance with Russia, Napoleon -began to assure his power on the Continent by establishing vassal -kings in the neighbourhood of France. Just as the French Directory -had surrounded the French Republic with smaller republics governed -after its own model, so Napoleon surrounded his frontiers with -subject kingdoms. The Batavian, the Cisalpine, and the Parthenopean -Republics were succeeded by the kingdoms of Holland and of Naples -and the vice-royalty of Italy. The form of the Batavian Republic -had altered with every change in the Constitution of France. From a -democratic Republic in the time of the Convention it had become a -Directory and a Consulate, and in 1805, after the French Empire had -been established, it received a new Constitution. By this arrangement -Count Schimmelpenninck, a distinguished Dutch statesman, was appointed -Grand Pensionary for life, but in June 1806 he was induced to resign, -and Louis Bonaparte, the favourite brother of the French Emperor, -was made King of Holland. The Dutch people had no objection to these -changes. The introduction of the French system of administration -consolidated the country from a group of federal states into a united -nation. Its trade prospered, though it lost its fleet at Camperdown -in 1797, and in the Texel in 1799, and it became more wealthy than -ever, in spite of the conquest of all its colonies by England, by the -close communication established with Paris and the abolition of the -vexatious transit-duties in Belgium. Louis Bonaparte, the first King of -Holland, showed himself a sagacious monarch. He caused the Civil Code -to be introduced into his dominions in the place of the old cumbrous -system of Dutch law. He encouraged literature and art, and he moved -the capital from the Hague to Amsterdam. But the introduction of the -Continental Blockade caused profound discontent. The Dutch merchants -were ruined by its rigorous application; riots took place in many -districts; and since Napoleon found the Continental Blockade was being -evaded he caused French troops to enter Holland and occupy the mouths -of the rivers. Louis Bonaparte protested against this conduct, and in -1810 he resigned the crown which his brother had given him. - -[Sidenote: Italy.] - -[Sidenote: Rome.] - -[Sidenote: Naples.] - -[Sidenote: Illyria.] - -It has been said that when Napoleon made himself Emperor he likewise -assumed the title of King of Italy, and that he did not undertake the -government, but conferred it upon his step-son, Eugène de Beauharnais, -as Viceroy. The original Kingdom of Italy only comprehended the -dominions of the Cisalpine Republic,—that is to say, Lombardy, the -Duchies of Modena and Parma, and the former Papal Legations of Bologna -and Ferrara. By the Treaty of Pressburg in 1806 the Kingdom of Italy -was increased by the addition of Venice and of the former Venetian -territories on the mainland. Genoa, Lucca, Piedmont, and Tuscany, -were, however, directly administered by France, and the city of Rome -and the Campagna was added to the French Empire in the year 1810. -In the south of the Italian peninsula Naples was erected into an -independent kingdom, which was intended to include the island of -Sicily. This kingdom was conferred upon the elder brother of Napoleon, -Joseph Bonaparte, on the 30th of March 1806. Joseph, like King Louis -of Holland, tried to act as a good king. He formed an able ministry, -consisting almost entirely of Neapolitans, and containing but two -Frenchmen,—Miot de Melito, Minister of War, and Saliceti, Minister -of Police. He introduced good laws, and made efforts to put down the -brigandage which ravaged the southern districts of his kingdom. The -island of Sicily meanwhile resisted all the attempts of the French. -It acknowledged the rule of Ferdinand, King of the Two Sicilies, who -had retired to Palermo, and it was garrisoned by an English army. This -army kept Joseph in perpetual embarrassment. The English encouraged the -brigands of Calabria, and in the summer of 1806 they made a descent -upon the mainland, and on the 3d of July the English general, Sir John -Stuart, defeated the French general Reynier at Maida. This victory, -however, was followed by the capitulation of Gaeta on the 18th of -July, after which event the French army in Calabria was strengthened -to such an extent that the English were unable to do more than defend -Sicily. The internal administration of Joseph Bonaparte deserves every -praise; he abolished feudalism; he endeavoured to introduce honesty and -uprightness in the collection of the taxes; he declared the equality of -all citizens before the law; and by the suppression of many monasteries -he improved the finances of the country and largely increased the -number of peasant proprietors. Lastly, must be noticed the Illyrian -provinces of Dalmatia and Istria, which had been ceded by the Treaty -of Pressburg. They were directly administered by General Marmont, who -reported to Napoleon himself and not to the Viceroy of Italy. After -the Treaty of Tilsit they were augmented by the Ionian Islands, and -Napoleon kept a powerful army in this quarter to threaten the Turks. -It is probable, indeed, that he dreamt of restoring the independence of -Greece, and his Illyrian army was well placed for carrying out such a -project. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon’s Reorganisation of Germany.] - -In his rearrangement of the states of Germany and of the balance -of power in Central Europe, Napoleon, like the Directory, followed -out the traditional policy of Richelieu and Mazarin. He held it to -be an advantage for France that there should be a number of small -German states between the Rhine and the hereditary dominions of -the House of Austria, but he considered that the very small size -of the states maintained by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 made -them inadequate buffers. He, therefore, enlarged the Western German -states and endeavoured to unite their interests with those of France. -The reconstitution of Germany after the Peace of Lunéville in 1803 -destroyed the old Holy Roman Empire. Napoleon worked on the same -lines, and his measures have had almost the same permanence as the -arrangements of 1803. The changes took place gradually in accordance -with the Treaties of Pressburg and of Tilsit, but their final results -may be considered as a whole. - -[Sidenote: Bavaria.] - -[Sidenote: Würtemberg.] - -[Sidenote: Baden.] - -[Sidenote: Westphalia.] - -[Sidenote: Grand Duchy of Berg.] - -[Sidenote: Saxony.] - -[Sidenote: Smaller States.] - -Maximilian Joseph, the Elector of Bavaria, had, by hereditary right, -united the Electorates of the Palatinate and of Bavaria with the Duchy -of Deux-Ponts. He had been educated at the Court of Versailles, but -nevertheless he approved of the doctrines of the French Revolution and -became one of the earliest allies of Napoleon. The arrangements after -the Treaty of Lunéville, which had deprived him of the Palatinate and -of the Duchy of Deux-Ponts, had given him a powerful and concentrated -state. By the Treaty of Pressburg he received in addition the Tyrol and -the cities of Nuremberg and Ratisbon with the title of King. In 1809 he -further received the Principality of Salzburg, which made his kingdom -one of the most powerful in Germany. Possessing the whole of the upper -valley of the Danube, and the valleys of its affluents, Bavaria formed -a strong frontier state against Austria, and to the north marched with -the kingdom of Saxony. King Maximilian Joseph felt that he owed his -power to the French Emperor, and to seal the friendship he gave his -daughter, the Princess Augusta, in marriage to Napoleon’s step-son, the -Viceroy Eugène de Beauharnais. On the western frontier of Bavaria, in -order to check that state if it became too powerful, Napoleon erected -the smaller kingdom of Würtemberg. Frederick, Duke of Würtemberg, like -Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria, had shown himself ready to recognise -the authority of the French Republic and of Napoleon. He had received -considerable additions to his territories with the title of Elector -in 1803, and after the Treaty of Pressburg he received the whole of -Austrian Suabia except the Breisgau and Ortenau with the title of -King. He, too, like the first King of Bavaria, entered into a personal -alliance with Napoleon, and gave his daughter, the Princess Catherine, -in marriage to Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia. The third south -German state which deserves notice is Baden, whose Duke, Charles -Frederick, was made an Elector in 1803, and in 1805 received the -title of Grand Duke with the greater part of Ortenau and the Breisgau -from Austrian Suabia. He, too, formed a family alliance with Napoleon -by the marriage of his heir to Stéphanie de Beauharnais, Napoleon’s -step-daughter. The kingdom of Westphalia, which was formed by Napoleon -for his brother Jerome after the Treaty of Tilsit, was an entirely new -creation, not an enlargement of a former German state like Bavaria -and Würtemberg. It consisted of the Electorate of Hesse-Cassel, the -Prussian territories on the left of the Elbe, including the bishoprics -of Paderborn and Hildesheim, the Old Mark of Brandenburg, etc., -the Duchy of Brunswick, a portion of Hanover, and other scattered -districts. It thus contained the greater part of the valleys of the -Ems, the Weser, and the Oder, but it did not reach the sea, and its -only important fortress was Magdeburg. Jerome, who was appointed its -first king, was not such a capable monarch as his brothers Joseph and -Louis, but he formed an able ministry, of which the most conspicuous -members were Siméon, the famous French jurist, as Minister of Justice, -and the historian, Johann Müller as Minister of Public Instruction. -The Westphalian people did not amalgamate so thoroughly as Napoleon -had expected; but this was not the fault of Jerome’s ministry, which -abolished feudalism, introduced the Civil Code, and regularised the -administration. The Grand Duchy of Berg, which he granted to his -brother-in-law Murat in 1806, was another creation of Napoleon. It -was formed out of the Duchy of Berg ceded by Bavaria, the County of -the Mark and the Bishopric of Münster, detached from Prussia, and of -the Duchy of Nassau. It formed a compact little state of a million -inhabitants, commanding part of the course of the Rhine, with its -capital at Düsseldorf. The key-stone of Napoleon’s policy in Eastern -Germany was Saxony. The Elector of that state had taken part with the -Prussians in the campaign of Jena, but Napoleon nevertheless calculated -that the ruler of Saxony, placed as he was between Prussia and Austria, -must naturally be an ally of France. He, therefore, in spite of his -behaviour in 1806, gave the Elector of Saxony the title of King and -the Circle of Lower Lusatia. After the Treaty of Tilsit Napoleon did -yet more for the King of Saxony, whom he created likewise Grand Duke -of Warsaw. Of the smaller states of Germany maintained by Napoleon, -the most important was Hesse-Darmstadt which separated the kingdom -of Westphalia from the Grand Duchy of Berg. As a faithful ally of -Napoleon, the Landgrave Louis X. received some accessions of territory -with the title of Grand Duke. The fourth Grand Duchy after Baden, -Berg, and Hesse-Darmstadt, was the Grand Duchy of Frankfort. This was -conferred upon the Archbishop, Charles de Dalberg. This prelate had -been coadjutor to the Archbishop-Elector of Mayence in the time of the -Revolution. He had succeeded to the Archbishopric in 1802, and in -1803, on the reorganisation of Germany, was the only ecclesiastical -elector retained. He was then given the Bishopric of Ratisbon, and when -that was transferred to Bavaria, was granted instead the Principalities -of Fulda and Hanau and the territory of Aschaffenburg. The last Grand -Duchy was that of Würtzburg, which was conferred on the Archduke -Ferdinand, the former Grand Duke of Tuscany, in exchange for the -Principality of Salzburg given to Bavaria in 1809. These territorial -changes were supplemented by a wholesale destruction of the very small -states. The Knights of the Empire lost their sovereign rights; all the -petty dukes and princes whose territory was enclosed in the larger -states which have been mentioned, were also mediatised, that is to say, -while retaining their rights as lords and their titles, they lost their -immediate sovereignty and became a sort of privileged aristocracy. -This measure, which supplemented the arrangements of 1803, finally -destroyed the ancient system of Germany. The little courts with but few -exceptions disappeared, and Germany became a collection of powerful -states instead of a congeries of feudal principalities. - -[Sidenote: Confederation of the Rhine.] - -Napoleon endeavoured to concentrate the power of the German princes as -a whole by the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, of which he -was officially recognised as Protector. The original Confederation of -the Rhine established in July 1805, consisted of only fifteen princes, -but after Tilsit it comprised thirty-two. The Arch-Chancellor of the -new confederation was Charles de Dalberg, the Grand Duke of Frankfort, -the only ecclesiastic who was acknowledged as a member. It comprised in -all the four kingdoms of Bavaria, Würtemberg, Westphalia, and Saxony, -the five grand duchies and twenty-three principalities. Its policy was -conducted by a Diet sitting at Frankfort composed of two colleges,—the -College of Kings and the College of Princes. The Confederation of -the Rhine, which was mainly situated between the Rhine and the Elbe, -contained a population of twenty million Germans, and was bound by -treaty to contribute a hundred and fifty thousand soldiers to the -armies of Napoleon. - -[Sidenote: Poland.] - -[Sidenote: Grand Duchy of Warsaw.] - -In no respect did Napoleon prove how thoroughly his idea of -re-establishing the ancient Empires of the East and the West had taken -possession of his imagination than in his treatment of Poland. In order -to please the Emperor Alexander he did not insist upon re-establishing -Polish independence. Not only did he neither dare nor wish to deprive -Russia of her Polish provinces, but at Tilsit he even ceded to -Alexander the two Polish circles of Salkief and Tloczow. But though he -dared not establish a powerful independent Poland for fear of offending -Russia, he nevertheless formed, in 1807, a small Polish state under the -name of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. By this half measure he failed to -satisfy the Poles, who had looked to him to be the restorer of Polish -independence, and at the same time offended the Emperor Alexander, who -disliked the creation of a Polish state of any size or under any form. -The Grand Duchy of Warsaw eventually contained the whole of Prussian -and the greater part of Austrian Poland, and was placed under the rule -of the King of Saxony as Grand Duke of Warsaw, just as in former days -the Electors of Saxony had been Kings of Poland. In this half-and-half -policy with regard to Poland was to be found the greatest peril to the -newly-formed alliance between Alexander and Napoleon. - -[Sidenote: Conference at Erfurt. Sept. 1808.] - -For more than a year the alliance between Russia and France, between -Alexander and Napoleon, remained the most important fact of European -polity; but causes of dissension soon arose. On the one hand, -Alexander resented the existence of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and -felt that his subjects had cause to grumble at the sufferings they -endured owing to the Continental Blockade; on the other, there were -not wanting signs that Napoleon’s power had reached its height, and -was now about to decline. The first symptoms of this decline were his -quarrel with the Pope and his intervention in the affairs of Spain. -The first blows struck at his military superiority were the defeat -of the French troops in Portugal by Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimeiro -and the capitulation of General Dupont to the Spaniards. The Treaty -of Tilsit marked the true zenith of Napoleon’s power; but in spite of -the misfortunes he suffered in 1808, and his wanton intervention in -the affairs of Spain, he still seemed the greatest monarch in Europe. -Feeling his prestige somewhat affected, and fearing the effect upon the -mind of his imaginative ally, Napoleon, trusting in the magnetism of -his presence and his conversation, had recourse to a personal interview -with Alexander at Erfurt in September 1808. There the two masters of -Europe discussed the state of affairs; Napoleon soothed Alexander’s -discontent, and again promised him the Danubian provinces. But the -full confidence which had been established at Tilsit was not restored -at Erfurt. Alexander, in spite of his admiration for the person of -Napoleon, felt distrustful of his policy, and Napoleon deceived himself -when he thought he had regained his ascendency over the mind of the -Russian Emperor. The interviews between the two Emperors formed the -important political side of the Congress of Erfurt; but the features -which dazzled Europe were the grand _fêtes_, the pit full of kings -which listened to Talma, the great French actor, and the obsequiousness -of the high-born German princes to one who, a few years before but a -general of the French Republic, was now master of Europe. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - - 1808–1812 - - Napoleon’s two reverses between the Treaty of Tilsit and the - Congress of Erfurt—England sends an army to Portugal—Campaign - of Vimeiro and Convention of Cintra—The Revolution in - Spain—Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain—Victory of Medina del - Rio Seco and Capitulation of Baylen—Napoleon in Spain—Sir - John Moore’s advance—Battle of Corunna—The Resurrection - of Austria—Ministry of Stadion—Campaign of Wagram—Treaty - of Vienna—Campaign of 1809 in the Peninsula—Battle - of Talavera—Expedition to Walcheren—Napoleon and the - Pope—Annexation of Rome—Revolution in Sweden—Revolution in - Turkey—Treaty of Bucharest—Greatest Extension of Napoleon’s - dominions—Internal Organisation of his Empire—The new - Nobility—Internal reforms—Law—Finance—Education—Extension - of these reforms through Europe—Disappearance of - Serfdom—Religious Toleration—Reorganisation of - Prussia—Reforms of Stein and Scharnhorst—Revival of - German National feeling—Marriage of Napoleon to the - Archduchess Marie Louise—Birth of the King of Rome—Steady - opposition of England to Napoleon—Policies of Canning and - Castlereagh—Campaigns of 1810 and 1811 in the Peninsula—Signs - of the decline of Napoleon’s power between 1808 and 1812. - - -The Treaty of Tilsit marked the greatest height of Napoleon’s power in -Europe; at the Congress of Erfurt he seemed, indeed, to be as powerful -as at Tilsit; but during the interval he had experienced two serious -mishaps. The first of which was caused by the fact that England, which -had hitherto fought the French upon the sea, and had met with only -slight success in purely military expeditions, began in 1808 a serious -effort to break the tradition of the invincibility of the French army. - -The last important campaign upon the Continent in which an English -army had taken part, was in 1793–1795. Since that time many English -expeditions had been despatched to carry out isolated plans; some of -these expeditions had been crowned with success, such as Abercromby’s -and Hutchinson’s reconquest of Egypt in 1801, and Stuart’s brilliant -little campaign of Maida in 1806; others had been egregious failures, -notably the Duke of York’s campaign in Holland in 1799, and Lord -Cathcart’s landing in Hanover in 1805. Confident in their naval -superiority, the English Ministers, ever since 1795, had paid more -attention to the military occupation of islands than to the despatch -of armies to the mainland. Acting on this policy, the English had -conquered the French West Indies in 1793 and 1795, and again proceeded -in 1809 to reoccupy those which had been restored to France at the -Peace of Amiens. When Spain declared herself the ally of France, -England occupied her chief West Indian possession, the Island of -Trinidad; when the subjection of Holland to France became manifest, -England conquered the Cape of Good Hope in 1797, and again after the -Treaty of Amiens, in 1805. Nor did the English ministers neglect the -more distant possessions of her various enemies. Ceylon and Java were -taken from the Dutch in 1796 and 1807 respectively; the Mauritius was -conquered from France in 1809, and an unsuccessful attempt was made -to conquer Spanish South America, Monte Video and Buenos Ayres, in -1806. But England did not confine her policy of attacking islands to -distant seas; she also established herself firmly in the Mediterranean. -In 1797 Minorca was taken, in 1801 Malta, and eventually in 1805 an -English army, as has been said, garrisoned Sicily. The policy of -Fox was identical with that of Pitt, and favoured small, detached -expeditions; some of these were failures, like the expedition to South -America in 1806, and that to Egypt in 1808, but others attained their -end. Now, however, a new policy began to make way. Instead of isolated -expeditions and the occupation of islands which could be defended -by the English fleets, it was resolved once more, as in 1793, to -disembark a powerful English army on the Continent, and to try military -conclusions with the French. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of Vimeiro, 1808.] - -[Sidenote: Convention of Cintra. 30th August 1803.] - -In order that England should act effectively on the Continent, it was -necessary that her army should have a friendly base of operations. -The failure of the expedition to Bergen in 1799, and of many similar -expeditions, proved that it was impossible to expect complete success -when the disembarking army had to fight from the moment of its landing, -and had to secure its communications with the sea. An opportunity was -afforded for obtaining such a base of operations as was necessary, by -an insurrection breaking out in Portugal against the French invaders. -It has been said that General Junot occupied the whole of Portugal -without much difficulty, except the northern and southern provinces, -which were held by Spanish armies. Junot partitioned out the country -into military governments under French generals, whose oppressive -behaviour exasperated the people. After the outbreak of the revolution -against the French in Spain, the Spanish forces in Portugal retired, -and Oporto at once declared itself independent of France, and elected a -Junta of Government, headed by the Bishop. Isolated risings took place -all over the country. Many French officers and soldiers were murdered, -and the insurgents were punished with the most rigorous cruelty. The -Junta of Oporto was, however, unable to make head against Junot, for -the best regular troops of the Portuguese army had been despatched -to join the Grand Army in Germany. The Junta had therefore to depend -upon undisciplined militia, and feeling the impossibility of combating -the French regular troops in the field, applied for help to England. -This gave the English ministers their opportunity. A force which had -been collected at Cork, under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir -Arthur Wellesley, for an expedition to South America, was ordered -instead to proceed to Portugal. He was joined by some other troops, and -disembarked at the mouth of the Mondego river. He marched southwards -towards Lisbon, and defeated a French division at Roriça on the 17th of -August 1808. After receiving further reinforcements, he was attacked by -Junot at Vimeiro on the 21st of August, and won a decisive victory. -On the field of battle Wellesley was superseded by Sir Harry Burrard, -and he in his turn by Sir Hew Dalrymple. Instead of following up the -victory, the latter general concluded the Convention of Cintra, by -which Junot agreed to evacuate Portugal. From a military point of view -this was a poor sequel to the victory of Vimeiro; from a political -point of view it was a signal success. Portugal was freed from the -French as speedily as she had been conquered by them, and England -thus secured a friendly base of operations. The three generals were -all recalled, and Sir John Moore took command of the English army. A -Council of Regency was established, and an English officer, General -Beresford, was sent to organise a Portuguese army, partly under the -command of English officers, and wholly paid by the English Government. - -[Sidenote: The Revolution in Spain, 1808.] - -[Sidenote: Joseph Bonaparte made King of Spain. 6th June 1808.] - -[Sidenote: Capitulation of Baylen. 20th July 1808.] - -The loss of Portugal was the first serious reverse which Napoleon had -met with from a trained and disciplined army. But at the same time -he was made to feel the difficulty of overcoming even an unorganised -national rising, with the very best of troops. It has been mentioned -that the King of Spain and the Queen’s favourite, Godoy, were partners -to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, which arranged for the dismemberment -of Portugal. Spain had been the consistent ally of France ever since -the Treaty of Basle in 1795, and in the cause of France had lost not -only the islands of Minorca and Trinidad, but two gallant fleets in -the naval battles of Cape St. Vincent and Trafalgar. Nevertheless, -Napoleon deliberately determined to dethrone his faithful ally Charles -IV. It is said that after the expulsion of the Bourbons from Naples, -Godoy had made overtures for joining the coalition against France, but -after the victory of Jena the Court of Madrid, if it had ever thought -of opposing the will of Napoleon, became more obsequious than ever. -Court intrigues gave the French Emperor the opportunity he desired -for interfering with the affairs of Spain. The heir to the throne, -Ferdinand, Prince of the Asturias, hated his mother’s lover, Godoy, -and for sharing in a plot against the favourite was thrown into prison. -He appealed for help to Napoleon, and Charles IV., his father, on his -side also appealed to the French emperor. Napoleon began to move his -troops across the Pyrenees, and a French army under the command of -Murat approached Madrid. The King of Spain was rumoured to be about to -follow the example of the Prince Regent of Portugal, and to leave the -country. The population of Madrid rose in insurrection and maltreated -Godoy, who fell into their hands. Charles IV. then abdicated in favour -of his son, who proceeded to France to obtain the support of Napoleon. -Charles IV. and his Queen followed Ferdinand, and when the Spanish -royal family was assembled at Bayonne, Charles IV. was induced to cede -the crown of Spain to Napoleon, who conferred it on his brother Joseph -Bonaparte, King of Naples, on the 6th of June 1808. But it was one -thing to proclaim Joseph King of Spain and the Indies; it was another -to place him in power. The patriotism of the Spanish people was stirred -to its depths, and the Spaniards declined to accept a new monarch -supported by French troops. In every quarter insurrections broke out -and juntos were formed. Appeals were made to England for help, and -money, arms, ammunition and English officers were disembarked at all -the chief ports of Spain. In the month of May the mob of Madrid drove -out the French soldiers of Murat, who had to retire behind the Ebro. -But mobs and undisciplined militia can never stand against regular -troops. Marshal Bessières defeated the best Spanish army under the -command of General Cuesta at Medina del Rio Seco on the 14th of July -1808, and on the 20th of July Joseph entered Madrid. Before his arrival -at his new capital, flying columns had been sent in every direction, -and one of these on its way to Cadiz met with a serious disaster. This -was the famous Capitulation of Baylen. The French division of General -Dupont was surrounded at that place and forced to capitulate. By the -terms of the Capitulation, Dupont engaged that not only the soldiers -under his immediate command, but also that two fresh divisions which -were coming up should surrender. The Capitulation of Baylen deprived -Napoleon of the services of 18,000 men, but the loss of prestige could -not be estimated by numbers. The Spanish insurgents were greatly -encouraged and rose in every quarter; a guerilla warfare was begun, -which was in the end more fatal to the French army than regular -defeats, and Napoleon had for the first time to fight a nation in arms. -This was an exact reversal of the situation of affairs in the wars of -the French Revolution; at that time it was the French nation in arms -which defeated the disciplined soldiers of the Continental monarchs; -now it was the Spanish nation in arms which counteracted the schemes of -Napoleon. It is almost impossible to estimate the losses experienced -by the French during the war in the Iberian Peninsula; the defeats -inflicted on them by the Anglo-Portuguese army accounted for but a -small portion of this loss; it was the harassing duty of maintaining -garrisons in every town and almost in every posting-house which -exhausted the French army. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon in Spain.] - -It need hardly be said that Napoleon was far from expecting such -disasters as the Capitulation of Baylen and the Convention of Cintra. -He had been so accustomed to victory that he could not understand -the change in his affairs. He looked upon these two events as having -only a temporary importance, and proceeded to the Congress at Erfurt -with a light heart. Though checked in Spain, he was none the less the -master in Germany, and the monarchs of Central Europe did not know -that he had reached his zenith and was about to decline. The Emperor -Alexander alone seems to have had some suspicion of the truth, for -he entered into fresh relations with England by means of the strong -English party at his Court, which was headed by the Empress-mother. As -soon as the Congress of Erfurt was over, Napoleon proceeded to Spain -in person, accompanied by his Guard and his most experienced troops, -and surrounded by his most famous generals. After the Capitulation -of Baylen, Joseph Bonaparte had left Madrid, and with the bulk of -the French army had retreated behind the Ebro. He was there joined -by Napoleon, who had under his command no less than 135,000 men. He -rapidly advanced upon Madrid; Marshal Soult defeated the Spanish Army -of the Centre at Burgos on the 10th of November; Marshal Victor the -Spanish Army of the Left at Espinosa on the 11th of November; and -Marshal Lannes the Army of the Right at Tudela on the 3d of November. -In spite of the snow, the Emperor in person forced the pass of the -Somo Sierra, and on the 13th of December received the capitulation -of Madrid. The victories of his lieutenants and his own rapid and -successful advance on the capital, convinced Napoleon that the -difficulties of the Spanish war had been exaggerated, and the result -of this impression was that he neglected in after years to strengthen -his armies in Spain sufficiently, and attributed all failures to the -incompetence of his generals, instead of to the obstinate tenacity of -his opponents. - -[Sidenote: Sir John Moore’s advance.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Corunna. Jan. 16, 1809.] - -After occupying Madrid, the Emperor next determined to turn his -strength against the English forces in the Peninsula. Sir John Moore, -who was in command of the English army in Portugal, could not believe -that the Spanish armies were too weak to face the French; but when he -heard that Napoleon was at Madrid, he resolved to make a diversion -in order to prevent him from conquering Andalusia, and to give time -for the Junta of Seville to organise the defence of that province. -Leaving a small division to protect Portugal under Sir John Cradock, -Moore, with the bulk of the English army, invaded north-west Spain and -advanced as far as Salamanca and Toro. Napoleon, as Moore had expected, -put off the invasion of Andalusia and turned against the English. Moore -having thus effected his purpose, then fell back into Galicia. In the -midst of most terrible weather he effected one of the most famous -retreats in history, turning occasionally to face his pursuers, and -fighting several brilliant rear-guard actions. Napoleon conducted the -pursuit in person for some time, but hearing that Austria was preparing -for war, he handed over the command to Soult and suddenly returned -to France. Soult did not come up with the English army until it had -reached Corunna, and was waiting there to embark. A battle was fought -to protect the embarkation of the English, in which Sir John Moore was -killed, and Soult, whose losses during the rapid pursuit had been very -great, turned southwards to occupy Oporto. - -[Sidenote: Austria. 1805–1809.] - -The Treaty of Pressburg had made a very painful impression, not only -upon the mind of Francis I. of Austria, but also on the Austrian -people. The indignation aroused by the cession of Dalmatia and the loss -of Venice, which had been given to the House of Austria as compensation -for the Milanese, had exasperated the Austrian people. But, on the -other hand, the Hungarians were inclined, like the Poles, to look to -Napoleon as the possible restorer of their national independence. The -policy of the Emperor Francis had been to treat the Hungarians, whom -he had placed under the rule of his brother, the Archduke Joseph, -as semi-independent, and to make as little change as possible in -the Hungarian Constitution. He regarded his German provinces as the -really important portion of his dominions, and gave them his undivided -attention. After the Treaty of Pressburg, the Emperor dismissed his -chancellor and prime minister Cobenzl, and replaced him by Count -Philip Stadion. The new Chancellor was a thorough German, though -descended from a Grisons family, and the main point of his policy was -to rouse the patriotism of the Germans as a nationality against the -French. In fact, from 1805 until the outbreak of war in 1809, Stadion -endeavoured to arouse the national spirit which afterwards made -Germany successful in the final war of liberation against Napoleon. -He circulated patriotic literature, and formulated the idea of German -unity, which he saw must take the place of the extinct notion of the -Holy Roman Empire. He was successful in rousing the German popular -feeling to the greatest height in the German provinces of Austria; but -the time was not yet ripe for the expression of a similar sentiment -throughout the whole of Germany. The weight of the Continental Blockade -was not experienced in its fullest form until after 1809. And the -patriotic feeling which was to have so full a development could not -be stirred up in a moment. But in the German territories of Austria -Stadion was completely successful. The Emperor Francis himself was a -thorough German, and during the progress which he made through his -states in 1808, with his beautiful second wife, the Empress Ludovica, -a princess of Modena, roused the utmost enthusiasm. Ever since the -Peace of Pressburg the Archduke Charles, as Commander-in-Chief, had -been organising the military power of Austria; regiments of volunteers -were formed in Vienna and all the large cities; and the militia for -the first time were disciplined and trained for offensive war, and -not maintained merely for the preservation of the peace. While the -smaller princes of Germany were obsequiously doing honour to Napoleon -at Erfurt, the Emperor of Austria was preparing for war. The successful -insurrection of the Spaniards, and the Capitulation of Baylen, -encouraged Stadion in his belief that if a national feeling could be -roused against the French domination, it would be as successful in -Germany as in Spain. The English Ministry encouraged the attitude of -the Austrian Emperor, and promised not only large subsidies if an -Austrian army would take the field, but also that a powerful diversion -should be made in the Netherlands by an English army. Napoleon heard of -this disposition of Austria in 1808, but at first paid very little heed -to it. During his winter campaign in the Peninsula, however, it became -obvious that the Austrians were in a hurry to come to conclusions with -him, and he therefore hastened back from Spain to make his preparations -for this new war, instead of pursuing the English to Corunna. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of Wagram. 1809.] - -From both the political and the military point of view, Napoleon was -justified in believing in 1809 that he had little to fear from the -intervention of Austria. The South German princes, like the Kings of -Bavaria and Würtemberg, had been too much favoured by him to desire to -oppose him, and willingly sent their contingents to serve in his ranks. -From the population of his new creation, the kingdom of Westphalia, he -looked for assistance, not opposition, and what remained of Prussia was -occupied by French armies. The Emperor Alexander of Russia, still under -the glamour of the interview at Erfurt, and the grand promises for the -division of the world repeated to him there, showed no inclination to -assist Austria. Indeed, the feeling of opposition between Austria and -Russia, which had shown itself in 1799 and 1800, had been augmented -by the unfortunate campaign of Austerlitz. Each ally blamed the other -for that disaster; the Austrian officers openly declared that they -hated a Russian more than a Frenchman, and the Russians reciprocated -this feeling. Austria’s only ally, therefore, was England. From a -military point of view, the Austrian army had not yet been sufficiently -reorganised, in spite of the efforts of Stadion and the Archduke -Charles, to make a successful resistance to the French; but, as the -event of the campaign showed, it was able to make a better stand than -it had ever made before. - -[Sidenote: Battle of Aspern. 21st and 22nd May 1809.] - -In April 1809 the Archduke Charles, amid the greatest enthusiasm of -the Austrian people, issued a manifesto to the German race, and at the -head of 170,000 men advanced into Bavaria. At the same time another -army, under the Archduke John, invaded Italy. At that moment Napoleon -had only two _corps d’armée_ in Southern Germany, one under the command -of Marshal Davout at Ratisbon, and the other under Marshal Masséna -at Augsburg. The Archduke Charles intended to get between the two -marshals and defeat them separately. But Napoleon arrived in person, -with some of the finest troops he had been employing in Spain, before -the Archduke could complete his operations. On the 20th of April he -defeated the Austrian left at Abensberg, and on the 22d he routed -the Austrian right under the Archduke in person at Eckmühl. In the -five days’ fighting, which included these battles, the Austrians lost -7000 men in killed and wounded, and 23,000 prisoners. In the result it -was the Austrians, not the French, who were cut in two, and Napoleon -rapidly followed the Austrian left to Vienna. The capital surrendered -on the 12th of May, and Napoleon then resolved to cross the Danube and -attack the main body of the Austrian army under the Archduke Charles. -He attempted to pass the river at the point where is situated midway -the island of Lobau. When the greater part of his army had reached the -island he pushed across to the other bank, and on the 21st and 22nd of -May stormed the villages of Aspern and Essling. But on the evening of -the second fight he found it necessary to withdraw into the island of -Lobau, for his bridges of boats which connected the island with the -right bank of the river had been swept away, and his ammunition had -fallen short. The Tyrolese, too, had risen under Hofer, and Napoleon’s -position was most critical. Nevertheless he determined not to retreat; -the island of Lobau became an entrenched camp; stronger bridges were -thrown from it to the right bank of the Danube; and reinforcements were -summoned from different quarters. - -[Sidenote: Battle of Wagram. 6th July 1809.] - -The most important of these reinforcements were supplied by the French -Army of Italy, which reached Napoleon in the island of Lobau on the -2nd of July. This army was commanded by the Viceroy of Italy, Eugène -de Beauharnais, whose military adviser and principal subordinate was -General Macdonald. The Viceroy had, before Macdonald reached him, been -checked at Sacilio by the Archduke John, but after Macdonald’s arrival -he pushed on rapidly. A decisive victory, which prevented the Archduke -John from pursuing, was won over the Hungarians at Raab on the 14th of -June, after which Eugène de Beauharnais was enabled safely to join the -Emperor in the island of Lobau. With his army thus increased, Napoleon -crossed to the left bank of the Danube on the morning of the 5th of -July, at the head of 180,000 men, many of whom were Westphalians, -Bavarians, and Italians. On the following day he completely defeated -the Archduke Charles at the battle of Wagram, at which the Austrians -lost more than 30,000 men. Though defeated, the Austrian army was not -disgraced, and Napoleon himself said, when blamed for not following -up his victory, ‘If I had had my veterans of Austerlitz I should have -carried out a manœuvre which, with my present troops, I dare not -execute.’ Had the Archduke John come up in time and placed himself -under his brother’s command, the battle might have had a different -result, and as it was, the Austrian Emperor need not have considered -himself forced to conclude peace. - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Vienna. 14th October 1809.] - -The Emperor Francis, however, did not dare to risk the further event -of war, and on the 14th of October 1809 he signed the Treaty of -Vienna. By this treaty Austria ceded Trieste, Carniola, Istria, and -a large part of Croatia to Napoleon, who added them to Dalmatia, -which he had acquired at the Treaty of Pressburg, and made out of -them the Government of the Illyrian Provinces. Francis also abandoned -the Tyrolese, and ceded the greater part of Salzburg to the King of -Bavaria, whose army, along with the Saxon contingent under Bernadotte, -had played a great part in winning the victory of Wagram. He had to -give up the whole of Western Galicia; the greater part of this province -was added to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, but certain districts were -ceded to the Emperor Alexander, who in reply to the demands of Napoleon -had despatched an army to act in that quarter against the Austrians. -This action had still further incensed the Emperor of Austria against -the Emperor of Russia, while it did not satisfy Napoleon, who -complained that the Russians had not acted with sufficient vigour, -and had been waiting to hear the result of the main campaign in -the neighbourhood of Vienna. In Austria itself the most important -result of the war was the retirement of Count Philip Stadion, who was -succeeded as Chancellor of State by Count Metternich. - -[Sidenote: The Peninsular War. 1809.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Talavera. 28th July 1809.] - -During the campaign of Wagram the French armies left in Spain had been -continuing their operations. Before the actual outbreak of war with -Austria, Saragossa had been captured on the 21st of February 1809, -after an obstinate siege, which proved to the French the mettle of -their new opponents. The most important operations had been carried -out in three quarters of the Peninsula. In Arragon and Catalonia, -General Gouvion-Saint-Cyr acted with considerable skill in a campaign -of which the main feature was the reduction of small fortresses, and -his successor, General Suchet, steadily pursued the same policy. Both -of these generals invariably defeated any Spanish army which met them -in the field. From Madrid King Joseph had acted in two different -directions. Marshal Moncey took Valencia; Marshal Victor defeated the -Spanish army of the South, which was under the command of Cuesta, at -Medellin; and General Sebastiani approached the frontiers of Andalusia. -But in Portugal the French had again to meet the English, who had in -the previous year defeated them at Vimeiro, and drawn them away to -Corunna. After the departure of Sir John Moore’s army, Marshal Soult -had invaded Portugal from the north and occupied Oporto. There is no -doubt that if he had acted boldly he might have captured Lisbon, which -was only guarded by a feeble division under Sir John Cradock. But Soult -wasted his time in intriguing, it is said, for the throne of Portugal, -until the English Ministry had time to reinforce Cradock, and to -send Sir Arthur Wellesley to command the army in Portugal. Wellesley -speedily dislodged Soult from Oporto, and drove his army in disorder -back into Galicia. He then, following the example of Moore, invaded -Spain, in the expectation of saving Andalusia. He met the French -army in Spain, under the command of Marshal Victor, at Talavera. He -repulsed the French attack on his position on the 28th of July, and -had he been efficiently assisted by the Spaniards under Cuesta he might -have won a great victory. As it was, his success prevented the French -from invading Portugal, but it was not sufficiently decisive to save -Andalusia. The French army was reorganised; the Spaniards were routed -at the battle of Ocana, on the 12th of November, and the whole of the -fertile province of Andalusia, with the exception of Gibraltar and -Cadiz, fell into the hands of the French. - -[Sidenote: Expedition to Walcheren. 1809.] - -Unfortunately the English Ministers failed to understand immediately -the greatness of the opportunity given to them by Napoleon’s behaviour -in the Peninsula, and instead of concentrating all their military -strength for the support of Sir Arthur Wellesley, who was made Viscount -Wellington for his victory of Talavera, they despatched one of the -finest armies that ever left England on the Walcheren Expedition. They -had promised to assist the Emperor of Austria by making a diversion in -the north of Europe. The object of this diversion was Antwerp, on which -city Napoleon was spending vast sums of money in the hope of making it -the commercial rival of London. This expedition, which was placed under -the command of the Earl of Chatham, the elder brother of the younger -Pitt, never reached Antwerp. It was landed in the island of Walcheren, -and took Flushing in August 1809. It met no French army worthy of -the name, but was destroyed as a fighting machine by the pestilences -and fevers of the unhealthy island in which it was quartered. The -expedition took place too late to be of any service to Austria, for the -English army did not disembark until a month after the battle of Wagram -had been fought, and in the want of energy with which it was conducted, -it may almost be classed with the disastrous expedition to Bergen in -1799. At sea, however, the English fleet maintained its pre-eminence. -In this year Guadeloupe, Martinique, and the Mauritius were conquered, -and an attempt was made to burn the French fleet in the Basque Roads by -Lord Cochrane, which might have been completely successful if he had -not been thwarted by the admiral in command, Lord Gambier. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon and the Pope.] - -It has been said that one of the measures by which Napoleon secured his -ascendency over the minds of the French people was the conclusion of -the Concordat by which the schism which had divided the French Church -was closed. He had at the commencement of his tenure of power treated -the new Pope, Pius VII., with much respect, and the Pope had in return -made the Emperor’s uncle, Fesch, a Cardinal, and had come to Paris to -crown him Emperor. But troubles soon arose between Napoleon and Pius -VII. The Emperor proclaimed himself the successor of Charlemagne, and -wished to restrict the Pope entirely to spiritual affairs. The terms -of the Concordat were not thoroughly carried out. The Pope would not -give Napoleon the supreme authority over the French bishops, which -he desired, and His Holiness looked on the transformation of the -priesthood in France from an independent body into salaried officials -with extreme disfavour. On the Pope’s return to Rome in 1805, he -requested that the French troops should evacuate the whole of the -former States of the Church. Napoleon did not comply with this request, -and not satisfied with ordaining the cession of the Legations of -Bologna and Ferrara to the Kingdom of Italy, he occupied Ancona, and -confiscated the principalities of Ponte Corvo and Benevento, which -he bestowed on Bernadotte and Talleyrand. The declaration of the -Continental Blockade increased the dissatisfaction of the Pope, who -declined to obey it, as he also did a further order in 1806 to expel -from Rome all English, Russian, Swedish, and Sardinian subjects. After -some months of perpetual bickering Napoleon directed General Miollis -to occupy Rome on the 2nd of February 1808. Pius VII., in the cause -of peace, dismissed Cardinal Consalvi, his Secretary of State, but he -could not satisfy the demands of the Emperor, and on the 17th of May -1809 the States of the Church in Italy were declared united to the -French Empire, and Rome was officially decreed to be the Second City of -that Empire. Exasperated by this open insult, Pius VII. excommunicated -the French Emperor. Napoleon, who was at that time in his camp in the -island of Lobau, ordered that the Pope should be removed from Rome. -He was arrested by General Radet on the 6th of July, the day of the -victory of Wagram, and forcibly removed to Savona, near Genoa, where -he was kept as a State prisoner. Pius VII. in his exile consistently -protested against the usurpations of Napoleon, and refused from this -time to give canonical institution to the bishops nominated by the -Emperor. In 1811 Napoleon attempted to put ecclesiastical affairs in -France on a new footing, and summoned a national council or synod of -bishops to meet at Paris. But the Pope refused to negotiate with the -synod, and he was accordingly removed to Fontainebleau in 1812. While -there Napoleon pretended that His Holiness agreed to a new and revised -Concordat which was promulgated as a law on the 13th of February -1813. Pius VII. always denied that he had given his consent to the -new arrangement, which would have deprived him of his most valued -prerogatives, and stated that he had always regarded himself as a -prisoner since his removal from Rome. By his conduct towards the Pope -Napoleon committed a great mistake. He lost the support of the faithful -body of Catholics in France whom he had conciliated in 1801, and he -gave a pretext for his enemies to declare him the enemy of religion. -The Caesarism which had infected his imagination after his great -victories in 1806 and 1807 appeared in his behaviour towards Pius VII. -as well as in his intervention with the affairs of Spain. - -[Sidenote: The Revolution in Sweden. 1809.] - -The year 1809, which witnessed the campaign of Wagram and the overthrow -of the Pope, was also signalised by a revolution in Sweden, which was -followed by very important results. It has been said that Gustavus -IV. remained faithful to the coalition against Napoleon even after -the Peace of Tilsit. By that peace it was arranged that the Emperor -of Russia should annex Finland. This was carried out in 1808, after a -very weak opposition on the part of the Swedes, and in the same year -Swedish Pomerania was occupied by the French. In spite of these losses -the King of Sweden declared war against Denmark, and then quarrelled -with the general of the English army sent to his assistance. For this -conduct, which seemed conclusive as to the loss of sanity by the King, -the Swedes resolved to dethrone him. At the commencement of 1809 the -Baron Adlersparre, the commander-in-chief of the army sent to invade -Norway, concluded a secret armistice with the Danes, and marched on -Stockholm. On the 13th of March 1809 the King was arrested, and on -the 29th he was forced to sign a deed of abdication. This act was -ratified by the States of Sweden on the 10th of May, and the King’s -uncle, the Duke of Sudermania, was elected King as Charles XIII. A -new constitution of an aristocratic type, restoring the power of the -Swedish nobles which had been severely curtailed by Gustavus III., -was promulgated, and on the 18th of January 1810 the States elected -as heir to the throne, since the new King had no sons, the Prince -Christian of Holstein-Augustenberg. This young prince died in May -of the same year, and the question then arose as to his successor. -There was no possible prince of the reigning family, and the king was -old and in bad health. It happened that in 1806 the Swedish officers -employed in Hanover had made the acquaintance of Marshal Bernadotte, -who commanded in that quarter, and it was suggested that he should be -elected as Prince Royal. This choice was dictated by a hope that it -would please the French Emperor, for Bernadotte was not only one of -his most distinguished marshals, but was connected with his family, -for both he and Joseph Bonaparte had married daughters of Monsieur -Clary, a tradesman of Marseilles. Bernadotte received the consent of -Napoleon; on the 19th of October 1810 he abjured Catholicism; and on -the 5th of November he was elected Prince Royal by the Swedish Diet. He -was at once charged with the direction of foreign affairs and with the -reorganisation of the Swedish army, and he played an important part in -the overthrow of the French Emperor. - -[Sidenote: Turkey.] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Bucharest. 28th May 1812.] - -With Sweden and Poland, Turkey had for a long time been considered -as the third barrier against the advance of Russia. Bonaparte, like -earlier French statesmen, had held this view, but after the Peace -of Tilsit he expressed himself as ready and willing to abandon all -three countries to the encroachments of Russia. The loss of Finland -and Pomerania had reduced Sweden to a minor state; the Grand Duchy -of Warsaw was a poor substitute for the Kingdom of Poland, and it is -now necessary to observe the effects upon Turkey of her abandonment -by France. The Sultan, Selim III., had been thrown into a close -alliance with England by Napoleon’s occupation of Egypt when he was -but a general of the French Republic, and still more by his daring -march into Syria. When he became First Consul, Napoleon endeavoured to -destroy the unfavourable opinion entertained of him at Constantinople, -and sent thither as his ambassador one of the ablest of the French -diplomatists, General Sebastiani, who managed to ingratiate himself -with the Porte. The English monopoly of the commerce of the Levant -was displeasing to the Porte, and Pitt failed to induce the Sultan to -enter into the coalition against France in 1805. In 1807 an English -fleet under Sir John Duckworth was sent to compel the Sultan to give -up his friendship with the French. After forcing the passage of the -Dardanelles, it had to retire without achieving its object, and -suffered great loss while sailing down the Straits. This behaviour of -England threw the Turks entirely on the side of France. French officers -were employed to reorganise the Turkish army, and a regular militia was -established. Sultan Selim was a monarch in advance of his times, and -endeavoured to introduce certain reforms, but he roused against him -both the Muhammadan Ulemas and the Janissaries. The former disliked his -civil reforms, the latter his establishment of the militia. Selim was -dethroned, and replaced by Mustapha IV. on the 21st of July 1807. But -the reign of Mustapha was but of short duration. The Pasha of Rustchuk -marched to Constantinople, and when he found that the Sultan Selim -had been assassinated, he dethroned Mustapha and placed his nephew, -Mahmoud II., on the throne of Turkey. The first event of the new reign -was a violent battle between the Janissaries and the freshly organised -militia in the streets of Constantinople, after which Mahmoud executed -his own brother and most of his relations, and established himself -firmly on the throne. The new Sultan, who was a man of extraordinary -vigour, was at once attacked by the Russians, as had been arranged by -the Treaty of Tilsit. Napoleon had pointed out to Alexander that he -could easily annex the Danubian principalities, and he hoped that the -Turks would afford enough occupation to the Russian army to prevent -it from interfering with his projects in Europe. The Russian attack -on Turkey was followed by a treaty of peace between England and the -Porte, in spite of the efforts of the French diplomatists; but the -English, as usual, considered it enough to send subsidies in money -without supplying troops. In 1809 the Turks were defeated at Braila and -Silistria, and by the close of 1810 the Russian army under the command -of Prince Bagration occupied the whole of Wallachia, Moldavia, and -Bessarabia. In 1811 the Russian general Kutuzov crossed the Danube, -and occupied both Silistria and Shumla, and the way was opened to -Constantinople. But, fortunately for the existence of the Turkish -power, Napoleon in 1812 was preparing to invade Russia; the efforts of -the French diplomatists to induce the Sultan Mahmoud to continue the -war were fruitless; the Porte said that it had too often proved the -worthlessness of the French offers of help, and on the 28th of May 1812 -a treaty of peace was signed between Russia and Turkey at Bucharest. By -this treaty the Turks ceded part of Bessarabia and Moldavia to Russia, -and acknowledged the Principality of Servia, but its chief importance -in European history is that it relieved the Emperor Alexander from an -important enemy at a moment of crisis, and allowed him to turn all his -strength against the French invaders. - -[Sidenote: The Greatest Extension of Napoleon’s Empire. 1809–1812.] - -The period from 1809 to 1812, that is, from the Peace of Vienna to -the invasion of Russia, witnessed the greatest extension of the -dominions of Napoleon. But this enormous increase of territory did not -strengthen France; new difficulties appeared with each fresh advance; -and although in 1811 the boundaries of the French power were far more -distended than they were in 1808, the Empire was not so strong. By his -annexations Napoleon abandoned the principle which he had formerly -set before himself. He had declared that the natural boundaries of -France were the Rhine and the Alps, and every annexation beyond those -natural limits was a distinct act of defiance to Europe. From 1806 -to 1808 his policy was to surround France with a belt of subject -kingdoms; by his annexations from 1809 to 1812 his borders touched -those of the great Continental powers. In the north Napoleon accepted -the abdication of his brother Louis, who had protested against the -measures taken for maintaining the Continental Blockade, and on the -9th of July 1810 he declared Holland an integral part of the Empire. -Holland was divided into eight departments, and lost its existence as -an independent nation. Then in pursuance of the Continental Blockade, -Napoleon, on the 13th of December 1810, annexed the districts in North -Germany from the borders of Holland to the mouth of the Weser. By -this step he united the whole coast-line from Friesland to Denmark, -and hoped to close entirely the English trade with North Germany. -The districts annexed were the Duchy of Oldenburg, the sea-coast of -Hanover, the territories of the Princes of Salm and Aremberg, and -the free cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck. These districts were -divided into four departments, the Ems-Supérieur, the Lippe, the -Bouches-du-Weser, and the Bouches-de-l’Elbe, with their capitals at -Osnabrück, Münster, Bremen, and Hamburg. These annexations showed -what persistent opposition Napoleon met in Germany to the Continental -Blockade, when his own brother Louis could not maintain it in Holland, -and he was afraid to trust the coast-line of Westphalia to his -brother Jerome. Turning further south, Napoleon in 1810 annexed the -Valais, which he had declared independent of Switzerland, under the -name of the Department of the Simplon. In Italy the most flagrant -breach of the former French system was committed. When the kingdom -of Italy was formed in 1805, the Emperor had kept Piedmont under his -own control in order to command both sides of the Alps, and in 1810 -he preferred to amalgamate the Ligurian Republic, Parma, the Kingdom -of Etruria, and the States of the Church with his directly-governed -departments in Piedmont, rather than to unite them to the Kingdom of -Italy. These districts were divided into nine departments, and it is -curious to notice such cities as Rome, Genoa, Parma, Florence, Siena, -and Leghorn as capitals of French departments. In all, the French -Empire at its greatest consisted of one hundred and thirty departments -directly administered from Paris, excluding from consideration the -Illyrian provinces and the Ionian Islands, which were not treated as -departments. Mention has already been made of the subject kingdoms, -and it is only to be noted here that Murat, the famous cavalry general -and brother-in-law of Napoleon, was made King of Naples when Joseph -Bonaparte was promoted to the throne of Spain, and that the infant -son of Louis Bonaparte, the former King of Holland, received Murat’s -Grand Duchy of Berg. Napoleon also made his favourite sister, Elisa, -Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Princess of Lucca and Piombino; his second -sister, Pauline, Duchess of Guastalla; and his Chief of the Staff and -most trusted subordinate, Marshal Berthier, independent Prince of -Neufchâtel. - -[Sidenote: Internal Organisation of the Empire.] - -The administration of this vast empire was purely bureaucratic. -Napoleon endeavoured to establish a hierarchy of civil officials, who -should be as completely under his direct control as the officers of -his army. He ruled the Empire like a general. Implicit obedience to -orders was the only means to promotion in his civil, as well as in his -military, organisation. He delighted in insisting on this comparison. -The Legion of Honour was not a military order, but was conferred with -equal freedom on civil officials, and in all matters the Emperor’s -will could be consulted and was supreme. No subjects were too minute -for his supervision. He reorganised the ancient theatrical company of -the Comédie Française with the same attention to detail as a matter -of State administration. The development of a bureaucracy dependent -on absolutism was in curious contrast to the Constitution of 1791, -and the theories which had prevailed at the beginning of the French -Revolution. Freedom of petition, freedom of the press, individual -liberty, representative institutions, and all the liberties won by the -French people were entirely abolished. The censorship of the press was -re-established, and carried out with more rigour than it had been even -under the Bourbon monarchy. All manuscripts had to be revised before -being sent to the printer, and perfectly innocent allusions, which -might be interpreted into applying condemnation of the existing order -of things, brought upon their authors immediate imprisonment, and the -destruction of their books. Individual liberty ceased to exist; for the -Emperor exiled and imprisoned at his will. The secret police, which -had been organised by Fouché, exercised a minute inquisition into the -most private affairs, and a crowd of spies kept the Emperor informed -of every current of opinion in Paris and throughout the Empire. The -arbitrariness of his government was greatly due to his sensitiveness to -public opinion, and it is narrated that during his enforced residence -in the island of Lobau he was far more exercised in mind by his spies’ -reports of the conversations on the subject in the Faubourg St. Germain -than by the movements of the Austrians. Representative institutions -had been practically superseded by the Constitution of the Year VIII., -but the last vestige of a power which could criticise the Emperor’s -will, the Tribunate, was suppressed in 1808. The Senate became merely a -dignified body to congratulate the Emperor on his victories, and the -Legislative Body registered, without murmuring, all his decrees. It -is a curious fact that, in 1811, Napoleon imitated the most arbitrary -measure of the Committee of Public Safety, and, when the price of corn -rose, he fixed a maximum price for its sale in Paris. - -[Sidenote: The Hereditary Principle.] - -[Sidenote: Napoleon’s Aristocracy.] - -Next to his own absolutism Napoleon believed in the principle of -heredity. He showed this primarily in the treatment of his own family. -He not only brought his mother to Paris, and under the title of Madame -Mère endowed her with a large income, but bestowed on his brothers -and sisters, in spite of the marked incapacity of many of them, the -most important posts. The kingdoms given to Joseph, Louis, and Jerome -Bonaparte were accompanied by the intimation that they were to rule -subject to his will, and he exercised an autocratic power over all the -members of his family. For instance, he insisted that Jerome should -divorce his wife, an American lady named Patterson, because his own -consent had not been obtained, and forced him to marry a Würtemberg -princess. His own lack of children greatly grieved him, and he made -various arrangements as to his successor. At one time it was thought -he would nominate his step-son, Eugène de Beauharnais; at another he -selected an infant son of his brother Louis to be his heir, and had him -baptized by the Pope just after his own coronation in 1805; and when -the infant died, he issued a decree, arranging the succession among -his brothers and their children in order of seniority. He created his -brothers, sisters, and step-children Princes of the Empire, and gave -them honorary seats in the Senate and Council of State, and he insisted -upon his wife Josephine surrounding herself with all the pomp of a -monarchical Court. The desire of creating a Court which should outshine -that of the Bourbons caused Napoleon to bid high for the support of -the ancient noble families of France. By bestowing large incomes, -rapid promotion, and repeated favours he was able to get men and women -bearing the oldest names in France to accept office as chamberlains -and lords and ladies-in-waiting, while many scions of former sovereign -families in Germany and the Netherlands did not hesitate to request -admission to such Court offices. But he did not trust solely to the old -nobility to form the splendour of his Court; he always suspected that -they were sneering at him, and endeavoured to counterbalance them by -creating a new nobility. This new nobility was formed entirely from the -men who did him good service, whether in military or civil departments. -By the side of his marshals, most of whom he created dukes, he ranked -his chief diplomatists and ministers, and the example was followed into -inferior ranks. Good service as the _préfet_ of a department led to a -barony as certainly as gallant service in the field at the head of a -regiment, and former members of the Convention, who, as Deputies on -Mission, had exerted unlimited authority, were content to accept the -title of Chevalier of the Empire, the lowest in his new peerage. The -peerage of the Empire was strictly hereditary, though in many instances -the Emperor assumed the right exercised by former kings of granting -permission to adopt an heir. But the new peerage was purely ornamental; -it conferred no political power whatever. Napoleon never dreamt of -creating a House of Lords; he only conceived the notion of balancing -the influence of the old aristocracy by the creation of one dependent -entirely on himself. In his desire to maintain the dignity of his new -nobles, he granted many of them large incomes and vast estates; his -marshals were encouraged to live in the most extravagant fashion by -the repeated payment of their debts; and the grant of a peerage was in -many cases accompanied by what he called a _dotation_, which supplied -an income sufficient to maintain the dignity. Some of these ‘dotations’ -were of princely magnificence. They were largely situated in Italy -and Poland, and were intended to make the new possessors independent -barons, like the famous paladins of Charlemagne. Among the most -important of these grants, after the Principality of Neufchâtel, which -was a semi-independent sovereignty, may be noted the Principalities -of Benevento, Ponte Corvo, Parma, Piacenza, and Gaeta, which were -conferred upon Talleyrand, Bernadotte, Cambacérès, Le Brun, and Gaudin. -By these means Napoleon hoped to keep his subordinates faithful to him, -while their influence on opinion would rival that exercised by the old -nobility. - -[Sidenote: Internal Reforms. Law.] - -[Sidenote: Finance.] - -[Sidenote: Education.] - -But while wielding an undisputed absolutism, Napoleon looked on his -position in a spirit similar to that of the benevolent despots of the -eighteenth century. Though he would do nothing by the people, he was -ready to do much for them. In the path of legal reform he followed up -the measure taken by the formation of the Civil Code. He had plenty of -learned jurists to carry out his instructions, and the Civil Code was -succeeded, in 1806, by the Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure, in -1808 by the Commercial Code, and finally by the Penal Code. These great -codes form an epoch in the legal history of Europe, and have earned -for Napoleon the title of the modern Justinian, though they were only -carried out by his directions, and based on the principles laid down, -and the work done, by the Constituent Assembly and the Convention. -Their great advantage was their simplicity and universality, which -checked the tedious delays inherent in all systems of common or -uncodified law. In jurisdiction Napoleon also followed the example of -the statesmen of the Revolution. He encouraged rapidity in procedure -and in the execution of judgments, and he greatly extended the powers -of the commercial tribunals in which practical men of business had -a voice. In financial matters, as in his legal reforms, Napoleon’s -great aim was to attain simplicity, and he reduced the loss in the -passage of taxes from the taxpayer to the Treasury to a minimum. His -creation of the Bank of France has been mentioned, and by its side -he established the Caisse d’Amortissement, which consisted of the -pecuniary guarantees of all the collectors of the taxes merged into one -fund. These guarantees formed an important sum of money for immediate -use as well as a valuable security. Napoleon further managed to pay off -that portion of the debt left to him by the Republic, which represented -the sums due for the suppression of the old courts of judicature, -etc. With regard to the ordinary debt, he preserved Cambon’s great -creation of the Grand Livre, which enabled every creditor to become -a fund-holder, while the Emperor knew the exact extent of the public -debt. The Emperor’s first steps towards the formation of a national -system of education have been described, but it was not until after -the campaign of Wagram that the system was completed. In 1806 he had -organised the Imperial University, but it did not take its final form -until 1811. This university was not a university in the English sense. -It consisted of the chief professors and teachers, and was intended -to include all the professors and teachers throughout France. It was -placed under the superintendence of a Grand Master, a celebrated man -of letters, Fontanes, and its duty was to superintend the whole course -of higher education. In the Emperor’s own words, he wished to create -a teaching profession organised like the judicial or the military -profession, of which all the professors scattered throughout the -country might feel themselves an integral part. In 1808 he granted the -university an income of 400,000 livres, in addition to the fees, etc., -and declared in favour of the irremovability of its members. To recruit -this new teaching profession, Napoleon established the Normal School of -Paris for the instruction of those who desired to become professors or -teachers. - -[Sidenote: Extension of the system to Germany.] - -These great reforms in law, in finance, and in education outlasted -Napoleon’s reconstitution of Europe. Their effect spread far beyond the -actual limits of France. As a direct result of the French Revolution -serfdom disappeared in Switzerland, in Belgium, and in Northern Italy. -Napoleon carried on the work further to the east. In the Kingdom of -Westphalia, and in all the states of Germany which he created or -enlarged, serfdom was entirely abolished. The feudal system was -suppressed wherever the influence of the French extended. Maximilian -Joseph, King of Bavaria, and his minister, Montgelas, carried out the -principles of the French Revolution by abolishing the privileges of -the nobility and the clergy. In every direction the French codes were -either adopted or imitated; the course of justice was made simple and -cheap; education was organised; and the economical rules of the French -administration introduced. In more distant countries the same reforms -were carried out. By the constitution of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw -the Polish serfs, perhaps the most miserable of all serfs, were freed -from their bondage, and absolute equality before the law decreed. In -Naples Joseph Bonaparte and Murat, and in Spain Joseph Bonaparte by -himself, carried out the same great reforms; and though the reaction -after 1815 tended to replace matters on their former footing, it proved -to be impossible to restore the old evils in their entirety. Not -less admirable was Napoleon’s vindication of the great principle of -religious toleration. In Catholic states such as Bavaria Protestants -received the priceless boon of religious liberty; in Protestant states -like Saxony it was the Catholics who profited by the broad-mindedness -of the French Emperor; and in every country the Jews were relieved -from the degrading position in which they had been kept. In military -organisation the reforms which had made the French army master of the -world were introduced by Napoleon. With the disappearance of the petty -German states disappeared also the feudal armies. Conscription may, -indeed, appear a heavy burden on a state, but in Germany, at any rate, -it created for the first time national armies to take the place of the -ill-disciplined mercenaries who had hitherto been hired by the petty -princes. - -[Sidenote: The Organisation of Prussia.] - -The most curious feature in the creation of a new Germany, which was -the result of Napoleon’s reforms as much as of his victories, was -the formation of new Prussia. In Germany proper, that is, in Germany -between the Rhine and the Elbe, reforms were introduced under French -supervision, if not always by French agents. In Prussia the reforms -came on the initiative of a great minister. The speedy overthrow of -the famed Prussian army in the campaign of Jena convinced Prussian -statesmen of the necessity for sweeping changes. By the Treaty of -Tilsit Prussia was shorn of all the acquisitions in Central Germany -which she had received as the price of her consistent neutrality, and -was thrust behind the Elbe. On the other side she lost her Polish -provinces. Even the small Prussia thus left was occupied by French -troops, and was forced to pay a war contribution of a hundred and forty -millions as well as to maintain an army of 42,000 men for the service -of Napoleon. It would seem that Prussia was to be driven back into the -position of a second-rate state, but at this juncture Frederick William -III. summoned to his ministry two remarkable men—the Freiherr vom -Stein, a Knight of the Holy Roman Empire and a native of Nassau, and -Scharnhorst, a Hanoverian officer. Neither of these men were Prussians, -but they were both enthusiastic Germans. They believed that Prussia -would yet form the key-stone on which German emancipation from the -power of Napoleon could be reared. They understood that Prussia must -be entirely reconstituted, and that an old-fashioned Prussia could -neither combat Napoleon nor lead the new Germany which he had created. -Stein, therefore, as Minister of the Interior, adapted the reforms -of the French Revolution and of Napoleon to Prussia. He established -equality before the law by the abolition of serfdom, he suppressed the -territorial privileges of the nobility, and he gave permission to the -bourgeois and the peasants to purchase land. He encouraged municipal -life by introducing a system of election to municipal offices, and, -as far as he could, abolished the social privileges of the nobility. -Scharnhorst, as War Minister, reorganised the Prussian army on the -French model. He changed it from an entity independent of the people -into a national army. Since Prussia was only permitted to maintain an -army of 42,000 men, he arranged that as many as possible should obtain -a military training by passing through the ranks for a short period. He -went further than Napoleon. He did not adopt a system of conscription -by which a portion of the population designed by lot should enter -the ranks, but insisted that every citizen was bound to military -service. Between 1807 and 1810, and the system was continued after his -retirement until 1813, Scharnhorst passed a large proportion of the -youth of Prussia through the ranks of the army, and thus formed—what -Napoleon so greatly needed at the crisis of his career—an effective -reserve. It is interesting to observe that it was in the country most -maltreated by Napoleon that the French reforms were most successfully -initiated. Napoleon perceived the danger, and in 1808 he insisted on -the dismissal of Stein, and in 1810 on that of Scharnhorst. - -[Sidenote: The revival of German national feeling.] - -It is a curious sequel to the benefits conferred upon Germany by -Napoleon directly and by the influence of French principles that their -result was to rouse in Germany, for the first time for many centuries, -a truly national feeling. This was caused chiefly by the suppression of -the Holy Roman Empire, and its being replaced by states large enough -to arouse national patriotism; but it was partly due also to a sense -of national degradation inspired by the presence of French armies, and -to the fact that the benefits conferred were the gift of a foreign -sovereign and not the result of national progress. A universal feeling -of opposition to the French grew up in the hearts of the German people. -The individualist doctrines, which found favour in the eighteenth -century and reached their highest expression in philosophers and poets, -such as Herder and Goethe, gave way to a new national sentiment, -inspired by a new school of poets and political thinkers represented -by Körner and Arndt, by Jahn and Friedrich von Gentz. The new spirit -was mainly developed among the German youth. Secret societies and -clubs were formed to obtain by force the freedom of Germany from the -French, and the dissatisfied souls forgot the benefits they had -received individually in their resentment at their being granted by -France. Austria under the administration of Count Philip Stadion, who -was largely inspired by Gentz, endeavoured, in 1809, to take advantage -of the revival of German national feeling. But Austria was universally -considered as a foreign power whose military prowess was derived from -Hungary, and the Emperor Francis in taking the new title of Emperor of -Austria gave countenance to this idea. The House of Hapsburg was not -regarded as thoroughly German; it was looked on as a foreign dynasty, -whose dominions were mainly inhabited by non-German races; its loyalty -to the Roman Catholic religion caused it to be suspected by the -Protestants; it was blamed for the disorganisation of past centuries; -and contemned for its repeated defeats by the French and its selfish -policy at the time of the treaties of Campo-Formio and Lunéville. - -Prussia, on the other hand, though, like Austria, it was not a truly -German state, seemed fitted by history and tradition to embody the -idea of German nationality. Even after the defeat of Jena, Frederick -the Great and his victory over the French at Rossbach were recalled as -distinctively German glories, and the eyes of patriotic Germans were -turned to the diminished power of Prussia as the natural lever for -the creation of a free Germany. The administrative system of Prussia -and its strongly concentrated political theory of the essential unity -of the State, as opposed to the new French idea of the omnipotence -of the people, which was condemned in German eyes as having led to -the absolutism of an adventurer, had always exercised a peculiar -fascination over the best intellects of Germany. It was by means of -statesmen of foreign birth that Prussia was reorganised and prepared -to cope successfully with the power of Napoleon. Stein and Hardenberg, -Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, York and Lombard were none of them native -Prussians; yet they were all in turn attracted into the Prussian -service, and were instrumental in bringing about her resurrection as -a German power. The war of 1809 first showed Napoleon that he was -soon to have a national feeling to deal with in Germany as well as in -Spain. While Napoleon was in the neighbourhood of Vienna a Prussian -lieutenant of the name of Katt attempted to seize Magdeburg; a Prussian -major named Schill pillaged the arsenal and treasury of the Duke of -Anhalt, who had often expressed his outspoken admiration for the -French Emperor, and invaded Saxony; and the fourth son of the Duke of -Brunswick, the heir to the duchy which had been absorbed in the kingdom -of Westphalia, raised his Black Legion, which he termed the Army of -Vengeance, and carried on a partisan war. Even the person of Napoleon -was not safe in Germany. A lad named Staps was shot for imagining an -attack on his life at Schönbrunn in 1809, and many other conspiracies -were discovered by the French police. Napoleon despised this ebullition -of popular feeling in Germany, just as he did in Spain, and the -measures which he took against it, such as arbitrary arrests, and the -shooting of the bookseller Palm, only exasperated the new national -patriotism. - -[Sidenote: Marriage of Napoleon with Marie Louise, 2nd April 1810.] - -The Emperor, as has been said, was a great believer in the hereditary -idea, and his not having children to succeed him was more than a -personal, it was a political subject of grief to him. The campaign -of Wagram had raised him to the height of his power, and he wished -to establish his dynasty on a firm foundation. It was therefore for -personal, for political, and for European motives, that he resolved -on his return from Vienna in 1809 to divorce his wife, the Empress -Josephine. It was from no dislike for his wife, but from a stern -conviction of political necessity that he took this step. He insisted, -that Josephine should preserve her title of Empress, he granted her -Malmaison as her palace, with a large income, and he continued his -favours to his step-children, Eugène de Beauharnais, and Hortense, the -wife of his brother Louis Bonaparte. On the 15th of December 1809 the -divorce was pronounced on the ground that the religious marriage, -which had taken place on the day before his coronation as Emperor, was -not valid because of the absence of witnesses. The Emperor’s first -intention was to wed a Russian grand duchess. He was still enamoured -of his idea of dividing the world with the Emperor Alexander, and -considered that a relationship with that monarch would best ensure -his power. But the Emperor Alexander was beginning to throw off his -infatuation for Napoleon. He now perceived, that in the alliance he had -made, he gave more than he got, and various causes of discontent were -sedulously fomented by his Court and his family. It was further the -custom of the Russian Court for the mothers to have the chief choice -in the disposing of their daughters’ hands. Now the Empress-mother -was a princess of the House of Würtemburg, and had imbibed a profound -hatred for the French Emperor. She persuaded her son to throw various -delays in the path of the Emperor’s desires without actually rejecting -his offer. Under these circumstances, Napoleon abruptly changed his -mind, and at the suggestion, it is said, of Prince Schwartzenberg, -the Austrian ambassador at Paris, demanded the hand of an Austrian -archduchess. The Emperor Francis thought it necessary to yield, and -on the 2nd of April 1810, the marriage took place between the French -Emperor and the young Archduchess Marie Louise. The ceremony was -of the utmost magnificence, and a new Court was formed for the new -Empress, which contained many French nobles who had refused to wait -on Josephine. On the 20th of March 1811, a son was born to the French -Emperor who was created in his cradle King of Rome, and this birth was -regarded by Napoleon as finally cementing his power, both in France and -in Europe. - -[Sidenote: The Peninsular War, 1810–1812.] - -During the period from the Treaty of Vienna in 1809 to the invasion -of Russia in 1812, Napoleon had but one declared enemy. The English -Ministers, despite the overthrow of Austria and Prussia, and the -alliance between France and Russia, persisted in opposing France. -Just as Pitt and Grenville could not believe in the stability of the -various French revolutionary governments, and therefore maintained -the impossibility of concluding permanent peace with France, so their -successors, Wellesley and Castlereagh, also declined to believe in -the stability of Napoleon’s Empire, and argued that no permanent -peace could be made with him. It is just possible, that while Fox -was in office in 1806, a peace might have been concluded, but the -succession of his victories had inspired Napoleon with a belief in his -own invincibility, and he had no idea of negotiating on any basis but -the complete recognition of his reconstitution of Europe. Finding it -impossible to break the naval power of England, he endeavoured to ruin -her commerce by the Continental Blockade, with the result of increasing -England’s prosperity, and turning the people of the Continent against -him. - -Two methods of carrying on the war were supported by Castlereagh and -Canning, who were Secretaries of State in the Portland administration -from 1807 to 1809. Canning believed in rousing the national feeling of -invaded states against the universal conqueror, and for this purpose -sent large sums of money to Spain; Castlereagh, on the other hand, -thought that as France could no longer meet England at sea, England -must meet France on the land. This was the theory which lay at the -bottom of the despatch of the first Portuguese and of the Walcheren -Expeditions, and in spite of the failure of the latter, it has since -been recognised as a correct theory. The victory of Wellington at -Talavera, though it had but little actual result on the course of the -war in Spain, kept Portugal free from French invasion during the year -1809. But it did more, it inspired the English governing class with -the belief that they had at last discovered the right way of fighting -Napoleon, and that they had also found a general. Lord Wellesley, -the elder brother of Wellington, who was Foreign Secretary from 1809 -to 1812, supported the new system with all his might, and under his -encouragement Wellington slowly formed the Anglo-Portuguese army by -a series of campaigns into a magnificent fighting machine, which, -though smaller in numbers than the Grand Army of France, equalled it in -discipline and military efficiency. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of 1810.] - -Napoleon, after his successes in 1808, despised the Spanish levies -and the English army. He therefore declined to go in person to the -Peninsula, and sent his greatest marshal, Masséna, to drive the English -out of Portugal. A plan of campaign was formed, by which Masséna was to -penetrate Portugal from the north-east, while Soult was to advance from -Andalusia in the south-east. The two marshals were to meet at Lisbon. -Fortunately for Wellington, not only did Soult not agree with Masséna, -but the latter marshal found it impossible to control his subordinates, -Ney, Junot, and Reynier. Masséna nevertheless marched in the summer of -1810, and Wellington had to fall back before him. On September 27th, -Masséna was repulsed in an attack upon the Anglo-Portuguese position at -Busaco, but the English general felt it necessary to retreat further, -to the lines which he had fortified in the neighbourhood of Lisbon, -which are known as the lines of Torres Vedras. As Wellington retired, -the Portuguese devastated their country, and when Masséna came to a -halt in front of the lines of Torres Vedras, he found it most difficult -to maintain himself on account of the scarcity of provisions. Soult -did not come to his help as he had expected, but only advanced as far -as the city of Badajoz, which he captured. Throughout the winter of -1810–11, Masséna remained in front of Wellington, but, in spite of -reinforcements, he was unable to attack the Anglo-Portuguese lines, and -in the spring of 1811, had to retreat into Spain. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of 1811.] - -Wellington then divided his army; with one portion he followed Masséna, -and laid siege to Almeida, the other he despatched under Marshal -Beresford to form the siege of Badajoz. In the south of Spain, the -only city which held for the Junta was Cadiz, which was defended by -an Anglo-Spanish army. Marshal Victor was in charge of the besieging -force, which was defeated at Barrosa on the 5th of March 1811. In -spite of this diversion, Wellington had to meet fresh advances by the -main armies of Soult and Masséna. On the 5th of May 1811, he repulsed -Masséna at Fuentes de Onor after a hard-fought battle, which Masséna -might have won had he been properly supported by Marshal Bessières. In -the south, Soult was repulsed by Beresford at the battle of Albuera -on May 16th. After having thus once more freed Portugal from French -invasions, Wellington laid siege successively to Ciudad Rodrigo and -Badajoz. Though these border fortresses remained in French hands, -the valour of the Anglo-Portuguese army surprised Napoleon, who -recalled Masséna in disgrace. But in the east of Spain his generals -met with some success. Suchet in 1810 and 1811 reduced Arragon and -Valencia, took many fortresses, and destroyed the Spanish army in -that quarter, under the command of General Blake, at the battle of -Albufera. Throughout central Spain, though no regular Spanish armies -took the field, the French were harassed by the Spanish guerillas. -These patriotic brigands destroyed the morale of the French troops in -Spain and sapped the strength of Napoleon. All the benefits conferred -by Joseph Bonaparte, the abolition of feudalism and of the Inquisition, -religious tolerance and good laws, counted for nothing. The Spaniards -would receive no benefits from a French monarch imposed on them by -Napoleon, and it was in Spain that Napoleon first felt the effect of a -national opposition, which was at a later date in Russia and in Germany -to destroy his power. - -[Sidenote: Conclusion.] - -The period from the Conference of Erfurt to the invasion of Russia -seemed to mark the height of Napoleon’s power, but during it are to -be perceived the symptoms of the changes which led to his fall. At -Erfurt, Alexander of Russia was still his firm ally. His power was -bounded by subject kingdoms, and divided by them from the great states -of Europe. In France he was still regarded as the restorer of order -and the supporter of religion. By 1812 the situation had changed. The -Emperor Alexander was no longer his admirer and faithful ally. The -vast extension of the Empire had weakened his power, and the French -people were beginning to discover how dearly they were paying in the -sacrifice of their individual liberty for the glory of one man. His -wanton interference in Spain had raised a new force against him in the -shape of the resistance of a nation, and had afforded the English an -opportunity to meet him on land. In Germany, too, a national spirit -was rising, and Prussia, which he had maltreated, was reorganised, and -ready to set itself at the head of Germany. But there was one cause yet -more significant which was developed during this period—the character -of his soldiers was altered. The Grand Army, which had consisted of -veterans trained in the wars of the Revolution, had wasted away at -Austerlitz and Jena, Eylau and Friedland, and in the Spanish campaigns. -At Wagram he felt how different were the men under his command, and was -forced to depend largely on foreign contingents, of whose fidelity he -could not be certain; and he was to find in 1812 that the conscripts of -the Empire, though full of military ardour and desirous of rivalling -the fame of their predecessors, had not the physical strength, the -solidity, and the experience of the veterans who had made him Emperor -of the French and Master of Europe. - - - - - CHAPTER X - - 1812–1814 - - Causes of Growing Disagreement between Alexander and - Napoleon—Intervention of Castlereagh and Bernadotte—The - Attitude and Internal Policy of Prussia—Invasion of Russia - by Napoleon—Battle of Borodino—Retreat of the French - from Russia—Campaign of 1812 in the Peninsula—Battle of - Salamanca—Policy of Bernadotte—Prussia declares War—First - Campaign of 1813 in Saxony—Armistice of Pleswitz—Convention - of Reichenbach—Congress of Prague—Austria declares War—Second - Campaign of 1813 in Saxony—Battle of Dresden—Treaty of - Töplitz—Battle of Leipzig—General Insurrection of Germany - against Napoleon—Campaign of 1813 in the Peninsula—Battle - of Vittoria—Wellington’s Invasion of France—Negotiations - for Peace—Proposals of Frankfort—The Allies invade - France—Napoleon’s first Defensive Campaign of 1814—Other - Movements against Napoleon—Bernadotte—Holland—Battle of - Orthez—Italy—Congress of Châtillon—Attitude of France towards - Napoleon—Treaty of Chaumont—Napoleon’s Second Defensive - Campaign of 1814—Occupation of Paris by the Allies—The - Policy of Talleyrand—The Provisional Government—Alexander’s - Speech to the French Senate—Napoleon declared to be no - longer Emperor—Abdication of Napoleon—Provisional Treaty of - Paris—Battle of Toulouse—Arrival of Louis XVIII., and his - Assumption of the Throne of France—First Treaty of Paris. - - -[Sidenote: Gradual disagreement between Alexander and Napoleon.] - -The causes of the disagreement between Napoleon and the Emperor -Alexander dated back to the Treaty of Tilsit. At that time, though -personally full of enthusiasm for the French conqueror, Alexander -looked with suspicion on the formation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw -as a possible first step towards the restoration of Poland. Napoleon -pointed out to him that he could obtain compensation in the direction -of Sweden and of Turkey—a suggestion which led to the conquest of -Finland and eventually of Bessarabia. Though Alexander carried out -the projects proposed to him, he continued to resent the creation of -the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and still more the maintenance of French -troops in that quarter. At the Congress of Erfurt Napoleon to some -degree allayed the suspicions of his ally, but on his return to Russia -there can be no doubt that Alexander looked upon himself as duped and -badly treated. The war of 1809 widened the breach. Napoleon complained -that the Russian troops promised for his assistance had not acted with -vigour, and Alexander regarded with open discontent the cession of part -of Austrian Galicia to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. The dethronement of -the Duke of Oldenburg, who had married Alexander’s favourite sister, -the Grand Duchess Catherine, and the absorption of his Duchy into -the French Empire, in 1810, was another and more personal cause of -disagreement. The delay in granting a Russian grand duchess to him -in marriage was looked on by Napoleon as a personal slight, and his -interference in Spain appeared to the Russian Emperor a sign that -Napoleon could maltreat even his most faithful ally. The carrying -out of the Continental Blockade embittered the situation. Napoleon -complained that the Russians did not adhere loyally to the arrangement -for the exclusion of English commerce. Alexander on his side complained -that his country was being ruined by the blockade, while the French -Emperor granted many licences to Frenchmen to trade with England. - -To these political reasons must be added the personal characters of -the two emperors. Napoleon, though he had spoken at Tilsit of dividing -Europe between France and Russia, began, as his power increased, to -devise schemes for securing the Empire of Europe for himself and the -exclusion of Russia from any share. Instead of restoring the Empires -of the East and West, Napoleon arrogated to himself the position of -ruler of Europe, and spoke of thrusting Russia back into Asia. In these -views he was encouraged by many of those surrounding him. His marshals, -finding no profits to be got from Spain, looked forward to enriching -themselves in Russia. His statesmen, either from motives of their own -or to please his personal wishes, declared that France could not be -safe until Russia was crushed. Alexander on his side was surrounded by -bitter enemies of Napoleon. His ministers never wearied of emphasizing -the ruin caused to Russia by the Continental Blockade. The King of -Prussia, whom he had made his personal friend, pleaded for the complete -restoration of his dominions. His family, and especially his mother, -regarded Napoleon as the enemy of the human race; English agents were -perpetually inciting the Russians to declare for commercial freedom; -and three of the most accomplished and most able statesmen in Europe -constantly urged him to war with France, namely, Stein, whom Napoleon -had ordered the King of Prussia to dismiss; Pozzo di Borgo, a Corsican, -who had known Napoleon in his youth, and who hated him as a personal -enemy; and Nesselrode, a skilled diplomatist and an intimate friend of -Metternich. - -[Sidenote: Policy of Castlereagh.] - -These various causes, both political and personal, might not then -have led to war had it not been for the direct intervention of the -English by means of the new Prince Royal of Sweden, Bernadotte. Lord -Castlereagh, in January 1812, returned to office. He advocated the -carrying on of the war against Napoleon, not only by reinforcing -Wellington in the Peninsula, but by subsidizing the monarchs of the -Continent. He therefore despatched three diplomatists to the three -chief courts of the Continent, to endeavour to form a fresh coalition -against Napoleon. These were his brother, Sir Charles Stewart, -ambassador to Berlin, Lord Aberdeen to Vienna, and Lord Cathcart to -St. Petersburg. Lord Cathcart was a distinguished military officer, -and strenuously urged Alexander to declare war, and he brought with -him several English officers to assist in reorganizing the Russian -army, of whom the best known is Sir Robert Wilson. But it was rather -through Sweden than directly that Castlereagh influenced the Emperor -Alexander. Bernadotte, on being elected Prince Royal, had applied to -Sweden the Continental Blockade against England, but he soon perceived -how ruinous that policy was to his new country, and inclined to make -some arrangement with England. Being unable to break with Napoleon -by himself, Bernadotte acted as the intermediary between England and -Russia, and in April 1812 signed a secret treaty with Alexander at -Abo, by which Sweden renounced all claims on Finland on condition that -Russia should promise Norway in its stead. Both England and Russia -approved of this scheme. Frederick VI. of Denmark, who had succeeded -his father, Christian VII., in 1808, had, after the capture of the -Danish fleet in 1807, formed a most intimate alliance with Napoleon, -and Alexander at Abo held out to Bernadotte, not only a hope that he -might have the whole of Denmark as a result of successful war against -the French, but even an expectation that he might eventually receive -the throne of France as a reward for his services. Not less important -than the English intervention in Sweden was the effect of English -influence in Turkey; for it was through English mediation that the -Treaty of Bucharest was signed in May 1812, which allowed the Emperor -of Russia to concentrate all his military power against Napoleon. - -[Sidenote: Prussia. The Ministry of Hardenberg.] - -Between France and Russia there remained, however, Austria, Poland, and -Prussia. Though Napoleon’s direct domain extended to Lübeck along the -coast, he had not ventured to annex Germany proper, which lies between -the Elbe and the Rhine, or to accept the title of German Emperor, in -addition to that of the Emperor of the French and King of Italy, as -had been suggested by the Prince Primate, Dalberg. Yet Germany proper, -owing to his creation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the Kingdom -of Westphalia, was so thoroughly under his influence that, from a -military point of view, it might be regarded as part of his Empire. -Austria, Poland, and Prussia were, however, more independent, and his -first effort, when he decided to attack Russia, was to secure their -active co-operation. The Emperor Francis, since the campaign of Wagram, -had abandoned the idea of resistance. He feared and disliked the -Russians; Napoleon was his son-in-law, and he did not intend to oppose -his wishes. He therefore promised willingly enough that an Austrian -army should invade Russia to the south of the direct French invasion. -In the Grand Duchy of Warsaw the Poles cared little for their Grand -Duke, the King of Saxony; they looked to Napoleon for the restoration -of their complete independence, and delighted in the thought of -striking a blow at their old foes, the Russians. In Prussia the -position was more complicated. Reduced as the kingdom was, the reforms -of Stein and Scharnhorst had created a national feeling, which could -not as yet be utilised in attacks on the French soldiers who occupied -the Prussian fortresses. Stein himself had been driven from Prussia by -Napoleon’s orders, but a successor, Hardenberg, completed his work. It -is significant that when Hardenberg was reappointed State Chancellor in -1810, he did not undertake the Foreign Office, as he had done in 1806, -but the ministries of the Finance and the Interior. It was Hardenberg -who in 1810 made the nobles subject to taxation, and brought Stein’s -promised Representative Assemblies into partial use; who, on 23rd -January 1811, suppressed the Teutonic Order, and made its possessions -part of the national domain; and who, on 11th September 1811, achieved -the logical result of Stein’s edict abolishing serfdom by granting -the peasants power to become absolute proprietors of two-thirds of -their holdings on surrendering the other third to the lords in full -recognition of all feudal dues and servitudes. - -Hardenberg’s most ardent coadjutor was William von Humboldt. As Stein -and Hardenberg had done the work of the French Revolution in Prussia -by abolishing feudalism and securing equality before the law, so -William von Humboldt established a national system of education in -many respects similar to Napoleon’s creation in France, and reformed -the whole department of public instruction. At the head of the system -was founded the University of Berlin. Prussia had deeply felt the loss -of the University of Halle when that city was separated from Prussia -by the Treaty of Tilsit. Königsberg, though made famous by Kant, was -too distant from the centre of the reduced kingdom to fill its place, -and the new national spirit was concentrated in the new University of -Berlin. Learned men came from all parts of Germany. Savigny, Fichte, -Wolf, Buttmann, Boeckh, Schleiermacher, and Niebuhr all enrolled -themselves as professors; and Germany, not merely Prussia, found a -worthy representative in the world of thought. - -In the resurrection of Prussia King Frederick William III. merely -acquiesced in the reforms of Stein and Hardenberg. But his former -leaning to neutrality had given place to a desire for revenge on the -French. In July 1810 he lost his patriotic wife, Queen Louise, and -her death only exasperated his feelings. Nevertheless, he refused to -declare himself on the side of Russia in 1812. The Emperor Alexander -announced his policy of allowing the French to invade, and his -intention of thus drawing Napoleon far from his base, and Frederick -William felt that he was not strong enough to openly oppose the French -Emperor. He was even constrained by the occupation of his fortresses -to go further, and, on 24th February 1812, he signed an offensive and -defensive alliance with Napoleon. By this treaty Prussia was not only -to feed the French armies passing through her dominions to invade -Russia, but to send an army of 30,000 men to act with them. Alexander -was not displeased by this behaviour. He knew that Prussia could not -help itself; he felt a sincere friendship for the hapless king; he -understood that beneath the surface, not only Prussia, but all Germany -was boiling with indignation against the French; and in 1812, when war -was at hand, he summoned the inspirer of German national feeling, the -great Prussian minister, Stein, from his exile in Austria to become his -adviser and coadjutor in his German policy. - -[Sidenote: The Invasion of Russia. May 1812.] - -Without any actual declaration of war, Russia entered into negotiations -with England, and Napoleon assembled a vast army on the banks of the -Vistula. In May 1812 he entered Germany to take the command, and at -Dresden had interviews with the King of Prussia and the Emperor of -Austria. Of the 325,000 men with whom he crossed the river Niémen and -invaded Russia only 155,000 were French; the remainder were foreign -contingents. He detached to his left Marshal Macdonald, with the -Prussian contingent and some Westphalians and Poles, to attack Riga and -advance on St. Petersburg, with the hope of joining Bernadotte and the -Swedes; he was supported on his right by the Austrian subsidiary force, -and with the centre of his army he advanced in person into Lithuania. -That province being occupied, Napoleon crossed the Dnieper, and on the -18th of August he took Smolensk, in spite of the efforts of a Russian -army of 80,000 men to cover the city. On his extreme right the Austrian -army, under Prince Schwartzenberg, was checked by the arrival of the -Russian army, set free by the Peace of Bucharest. The Russian generals, -Barclay de Tolly and Bagration, in the centre, steadily retreated. - -[Sidenote: Battle of Borodino. 7th Sept. 1812.] - -This military policy soon reduced the efficiency and numbers of the -French army; for it was drawn further from its base into a barren -country, in which it was harassed by peasants and guerillas, and it -was necessary to leave large divisions to protect the communications. -The Emperor Alexander had approved of this policy, and as the Russian -army retired the people abandoned their villages, as the Portuguese had -done during the invasion of Masséna in 1810. But the Russian soldiers -grumbled at this politic retreat, and the Emperor Alexander resolved -to strike one blow for his capital. Barclay de Tolly was replaced by -Kutuzov, and the Russian army suddenly halted on the banks of the -Mosková. On the 7th of September a most terrible battle was fought -there, which is known as the battle of Borodino. The Russians are said -to have lost 50,000 men, including General Bagration, and it is certain -that the French lost more than 30,000. Nevertheless, the French loss -was proportionately the most; for Napoleon was far away from any -reinforcements, whereas the Russians were fighting in their fatherland. -On the 14th of September the French army occupied Moscow. On the -16th, either by accident or on purpose, fire broke out in the Russian -capital. It raged for three days and three nights, and more than -three-fifths of the city was utterly destroyed. The Emperor Alexander -then entered into negotiations with Napoleon, and, whether he intended -it or not, he kept the French Emperor from moving until too late for -his safety. It was not until the 15th of October that Napoleon saw that -negotiating was waste of time, and started from Moscow. The winter was -an early one. Snow fell heavily. When Smolensk was reached, it was -found that all the provisions stored there had been destroyed. The -retreating army, now in a state of disorganisation, was hunted through -the country, not only by the Russian soldiers, but by the peasantry -returning to their homes. Marshal Ney covered the retreat, and won -on this occasion his title of ‘the bravest of the brave.’ Napoleon, -on being informed that a conspiracy against him, headed by General -Malet, had been discovered in Paris, left the retreating army early in -December. After his departure the cold increased. The retreat became -a rout; Murat, who succeeded to the command, could not keep the army -together; and but very few of the 155,000 Frenchmen who had invaded -Russia recrossed the river Niémen. - -[Sidenote: Campaign in the Peninsula. 1812.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Salamanca. 22d July 1812.] - -While Napoleon was wrecking one army in Russia, Wellington was -defeating another French army in Spain. Marmont, who had succeeded -Masséna, failed to prevent the fall of Ciudad Rodrigo in January, -or that of Badajoz in April, and after a long course of intricate -manœuvres, gave Wellington the opportunity to attack and defeat him -at the battle of Salamanca, July 22, 1812. The victory was complete. -Joseph Bonaparte evacuated Madrid, and withdrawing all his troops from -Andalusia fell back behind the Ebro. Wellington occupied Madrid on -August 12, and then with his main army advanced on Burgos. Burgos, -however, resisted all his assaults. The Anglo-Portuguese army had to -retire once more into Portugal, and Joseph Bonaparte for the last -time returned to his capital. While this campaign was being fought -Lord William Bentinck, who commanded the English garrison in Sicily, -was requested to send troops to the eastern coast of Spain to effect -a diversion. But the operations were badly combined; Sir John Murray -was driven from before Tarragona; and at a subsequent date Lord -William Bentinck himself failed to make an impression on Suchet’s army -at Alicante. The victory of Salamanca was a proof of the insecure -foundation on which the throne of Joseph Bonaparte rested. Owing to it -alone he had to leave Madrid, and evacuate the whole of southern Spain; -the military policy of the English ministers was justified; and though -Salamanca cannot be compared with the disasters in Russia, it yet had -its effect in showing the increasing weakness of the French military -power. - -[Sidenote: Prussia declares war. 16th March 1813.] - -The retreat of the French and their passage of the Niémen enabled -Prussia to throw off the mask of alliance with France. The Prussian -contingent, amounting to 18,000 men, had been placed under the command -of Marshal Macdonald, and was occupied in the siege of Riga. Napoleon -had hoped that this detached army upon his left would be joined by -Bernadotte at the head of the Swedes. But Bernadotte, as has been seen, -had forgotten his French nationality in accepting the position of heir -to the Swedish throne. His first idea was to make himself popular in -Sweden by securing the conquest of Norway to take the place of Finland, -and behind it lay the hope of possibly succeeding Napoleon himself. -In his original communications with the Emperor Alexander, he had -demanded the assistance of a Russian army for the conquest of Norway -as the price of his adhesion to the coalition against Napoleon. When -Alexander would not make a definite promise, Bernadotte applied to his -former sovereign in June 1812, and promised to assist in the French -invasion of Russia, if Napoleon would guarantee to him the possession -of Norway. But the French Emperor would make no compact with his former -marshal, and hoped that he would lend his assistance to the occupation -of St. Petersburg in return for vague promises. Bernadotte therefore -remained neutral, and Macdonald, without the expected help from Sweden, -could get no further than Riga. The retreat of the main French army -from Moscow made it necessary for Macdonald likewise to fall back, and -in the course of his retreat the Prussian contingent, under the command -of General York, deserted, and that general signed the Convention of -Tauroggen, on 30th December 1812, by which he abandoned France without -definitely declaring himself upon the side of Russia. Macdonald, with -his Westphalians and Poles, managed to leave Russia in safety, and -to join the remnants of the main army. But the desertion of York was -a symptom of what was to follow. Stein summoned the Estates of East -Prussia at Königsberg; the Prussians rose _en masse_, and the French -army, pursued by the Russian troops and these new enemies, retreated -behind the Vistula. - -Frederick William of Prussia at last threw off the mask, and, on the -7th of February 1813, he called out the reserve which had been formed -by the skilful military policy of Scharnhorst, and ordered the Landwehr -and the Landsturm to join the colours; on 27th February he signed the -Treaty of Kalisch with Russia, promising alliance; on 16th March he -declared war against France; and he joined the headquarters of his -friend Alexander, and lived in his company until the termination of the -war. Prussian enthusiasm grew to its height; the reserves fell in from -every city and district, and the broken French army, which was now left -under the command of Eugène de Beauharnais, retreated first behind the -Oder and then behind the Elbe, leaving powerful garrisons in Dantzic, -Stettin, and the chief Prussian fortresses. The Russians of the army -of the right pursued vigorously, and after driving the French from -Berlin, the Russian generals, Chernishev and Tetterborn, took Hamburg. -The resurrection of Prussia and the rapid retreat of the French caused -Bernadotte to declare himself openly on the side of the allies, and he -crossed the Baltic and entered Germany at the head of a Swedish army of -12,000 men. The King of Prussia’s declaration of war with France was -received with enthusiasm. Two separate Prussian armies were formed, -the first under Bülow to act with the Swedes, and the Russian army of -the right, and to defend Berlin, the other under Blücher in Silesia to -co-operate with the second invading army of the left from Russia. The -command in chief of this latter army was, after the death of Kutuzov in -May, conferred on Barclay de Tolly, while Wittgenstein commanded the -Russian contingent. - -[Sidenote: First Campaign of 1813.] - -[Sidenote: Armistice of Pleswitz. 3d June 1813.] - -In the spring of 1813 Napoleon started for Germany to face the new -coalition. His Westphalian, Bavarian, and Saxon allies were still true -to him and increased their contingents. He called to his assistance the -old soldiers who were employed in the garrisons of Holland and Northern -Germany, and he raised a large number of fresh conscripts, who, in -spite of their youth and inexperience, were at once directed upon -Germany. At the head of 250,000 men, eventually increased to 300,000, -he invaded Saxony. He defeated Wittgenstein at Lutzen or Gross Görschen -on the 2d of May, at which battle his friend, Marshal Bessières was -killed, and Scharnhorst was mortally wounded, and reoccupied Saxony. He -defeated the whole of the allied army of Silesia at Bautzen on the 20th -of May, and established his headquarters at Dresden. Meanwhile Vandamme -had recaptured Hamburg, and, after placing it in a state of defence, -joined the Emperor in Saxony. After these vigorous blows both sides -desired a rest, and on the 3d of June the Armistice of Pleswitz was -signed, and it was agreed that a congress should be held at Prague to -consider if terms of peace could not be arranged. The important point -to be decided at Prague was the position to be adopted by Austria; and -both sides prepared to offer a high price for her active assistance, -for her intervention would probably settle the result of the war. -Napoleon trusted that his father-in-law, the Emperor Francis, would -not abandon him, and counted upon the assistance of an Austrian army. -He relied also upon the hereditary hatred of Austria for Prussia, and -promised his father-in-law, as the price of his active assistance, -not only the restoration of the Illyrian provinces, but of the whole -of Silesia, which Frederick the Great had torn from Maria Theresa. -Napoleon was even sanguine enough to count upon the former friendship -which the Emperor Alexander had felt for him, and he hoped that the -invasion of Russia would be forgiven if he guaranteed the possession -of the whole of Poland. The country which would be sacrificed by these -arrangements was Prussia. Napoleon projected the entire extinction of -the Prussian kingdom, and suggested that the kingdom of Westphalia -should be extended to the Oder. That he should venture to offer such -terms showed how entirely Napoleon misunderstood his position. The -Emperor Francis, although his daughter was Napoleon’s wife, could not -forget the humiliations that Austria had undergone, and allowed his -feelings as an Austrian to outweigh his sentiments as a father. The -Emperor Alexander had been entirely cured by the invasion of Russia of -his former infatuation, and now distrusted the French Emperor as much -as he had formerly believed in him; he had struck up an intimacy with -the King of Prussia, and had promised him his restoration to the whole -of his dominions. - -[Sidenote: Convention of Reichenbach. 17th June 1813.] - -Meanwhile the rulers of Austria, Russia, and Prussia signed a treaty at -Reichenbach on 17th June 1813, by which Austria assumed the position -of a mediator and promised to declare war against France, if the -conditions of peace, which she should offer, were rejected. In return -for this attitude, Austria was given a free hand to negotiate with -the South German States, and the idea of rousing a national German -feeling against France, which was strongly advocated by Stein, was -abandoned. Metternich had no liking for the national idea; it seemed -to him to bear the imprint of the spirit of the French Revolution, -and could only end in disaster to Austria. The rising of Prussia had -indeed been a success, but if it spread through Germany, it might -end in a united Germany with Prussia at its head, and the consequent -depreciation of the Austrian power. The example of Spain, which Stein -and patriotic Germans pointed to, seemed to cut in two ways; if, on -the one hand, it had raised a people in arms against Napoleon, on the -other it had encouraged revolutionary ideas. Both the Emperor Alexander -and King Frederick William felt the weight of these arguments, and the -conception of the war changed from a national uprising to a coalition -of the usual type. Under these circumstances, Napoleon’s propositions -were ignored, and proposals were made to him on the other hand that he -should be content with the natural limits of France, namely, the Rhine -and the Alps; that he should restore the Bourbons to Spain and the -independence of Holland; that he should abandon his position as head of -the Confederation of the Rhine and allow the Pope to return to Rome. -Murat was to remain at Naples, and Jerome on the throne of Westphalia, -and the terms offered were by no means unfavourable to France, though -perhaps hardly justified by the military position of the allies. -Metternich, who perceived that Austria held the key to the position, -brought these terms to Napoleon’s headquarters at Dresden, and informed -the Emperor that if they were not accepted, Austria would join the -coalition against him. - -[Sidenote: Austria declares war.] - -Napoleon refused with scorn; Castlereagh, through the English -ambassador, Lord Aberdeen, promised large subsidies to Austria; and -on the 1st of August 1813, the Emperor of Austria promised definitely -to join the allies with 200,000 men if Napoleon refused to accept the -terms offered to him. The Congress met at Prague. Caulaincourt, the -French plenipotentiary, stated that he had no power to accept the terms -offered by Francis, and Austria, on the 12th of August, declared war -against France. On the 14th of August, when it was too late, Napoleon -declared his acceptance of the terms, and received the answer that the -whole matter must be referred to the allied monarchs. War in fact was -inevitable, and the Armistice of Pleswitz was at an end. - -[Sidenote: Second Campaign of 1813 in Germany.] - -The intervention of Austria not only deprived Napoleon of an expected -ally, but endangered his military position in Saxony, as a strong -Austrian army was being concentrated in Bohemia under the command of -Prince Charles von Schwartzenberg. Nevertheless the French Emperor -refused to retire, and prepared at the head of 300,000 men to make face -against the allies in spite of their great superiority in number. The -plan of campaign of the allies was drawn up by Moreau, who had been -induced to leave America and give the advantage of his advice to the -Czar of Russia. There was also upon the staff of the Russian army one -of the ablest strategists in Europe who, like Moreau, had formerly -been an officer in the French army, General Jomini. The plan was to -direct an army from the north, of Prussians, Russians and Swedes, under -Bülow, Chernishev, and Bernadotte, an army from the east of Russians, -called the Army of Poland, which was being formed under Benningsen, -an army from Silesia, of Prussians under Blücher, and Russians under -Wittgenstein, and finally an army of Austrians under Schwartzenberg, -assisted by the Russian main army of Barclay de Tolly, and the Russian -Imperial Guard under the Grand Duke Constantine, upon Dresden. But -Napoleon with his accustomed rapidity of action determined to strike -first, and he detached three corps under Oudinot, Macdonald and -Vandamme, against Bernadotte, Blücher, and Schwartzenberg; Benningsen -was too far in the rear to be dangerous. Oudinot and Macdonald were -defeated by Bernadotte and Blücher at Gross-Beeren and the Katzbach -respectively, on the 23d and 25th of August, and Schwartzenberg, -instead of waiting for the other armies, attacked the French centre at -Dresden. On the 26th and 27th of August a terrible battle was fought, -in which Moreau was mortally wounded. Napoleon was successful, but he -suffered severe losses which he was unable to repair. Three days later -he received the news that Vandamme’s army, which had penetrated into -Bohemia to cut off Schwartzenberg’s communications, had been forced to -capitulate at Kulm to the Russians under Barclay de Tolly. The battle -of Dresden proved to the allies that it was impossible for one of their -armies to overthrow Napoleon unassisted, and they therefore recurred to -their original plan. Napoleon once more endeavoured to break from his -defensive position and struck at Berlin; but Marshal Ney was defeated -by Bernadotte and Bülow at Dennewitz, on 6th September, and he had -to wait while the ring formed round him. The Emperor’s losses during -the first part of this campaign had been immense. He had lost over -10,000 men by the capitulation of Kulm; his young soldiers had been -decimated at the Katzbach and Dennewitz; and the troops of the German -contingents deserted _en masse_. In fact when the operations of the -allies were completed and their armies had concentrated around Leipzig, -to which place he had withdrawn, he had not more than 160,000 men, -whose confidence was shaken by repeated defeats, to oppose to more than -double that number. - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Töplitz. 19th Sept. 1813.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Leipzig. 16th-19th October 1813.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Hanau.] - -After the battle of Dresden, the army of Schwartzenberg retired into -Bohemia, and the allied monarchs determined to define their position -as to the future. The enormous armies they were concentrating made -them feel sure of success, if they held together. On 9th September the -important Treaty of Töplitz was signed. By this treaty it was agreed -that Prussia and Austria should be restored as nearly as possible to -the limits they had held in 1805, that the Confederation of the Rhine -should be dissolved, and that entire independence should be granted -to the states of southern and western Germany. This decision overcame -the lingering hesitation of the south German monarchs, who had feared -retaliation from the allies for their consistent adhesion to Napoleon. -Of these states, Bavaria was the chief, and on 8th October the Treaty -of Ried was signed between Austria and Bavaria, by which Bavaria -promised the aid of 36,000 men in return for complete indemnity and the -recognition of complete sovereignty in her dominions. Then the allies -in their full strength attacked Napoleon. For three days, from the 16th -to the 19th of October, the terrible battle of Leipzig was fought. The -result was a foregone conclusion, and even without the desertion of the -Saxons in the course of the battle, the ruin of the French army was -certain. Napoleon’s forces were not only defeated, they were destroyed, -and in the utmost disorder the routed French divisions fled in a state -of disorganisation across Germany. At this moment Maximilian Joseph -of Bavaria, whom Napoleon had made a king, declared against him as -he had promised, and not only withdrew the Bavarian contingent, but -endeavoured to check the French retreat. At the battle of Hanau on -October the 30th, however, the remnant of the French army broke through -the Bavarians, and it eventually found safety behind the Rhine. - -[Sidenote: Insurrection of Germany against Napoleon 1813.] - -The battle of Leipzig was followed by a general rising throughout -central Europe against the French. The secret societies which had -been formed to promote the idea of the freedom of Germany acted in -every direction. Many isolated regiments of the French army were -cut off and the French garrisons in the various German cities were -closely besieged. The benefits which had been conferred by French -administration were forgotten and the people thought only of the -humiliation of the French occupation. Nor was this spirit confined -to Germany. The Dutch rose in rebellion, and declared in all the -chief cities of Holland for the Prince of Orange. That prince at once -left England and set himself at the head of the insurgents, and Lord -Castlereagh a few months later sent to his assistance an English -force under the command of Sir Thomas Graham to reduce the few Dutch -fortresses still occupied by French garrisons. In Italy also an almost -universal insurrection broke out against the French domination. Lord -William Bentinck, who commanded the English army which occupied Sicily, -sailed to Genoa with a powerful force and encouraged the insurgents -in that quarter. Meanwhile an Austrian army under General Hiller -invaded Italy from the north-east and defeated Eugène de Beauharnais -at Valsarno on the 26th of October. Against this unanimity of national -opposition Napoleon could make but little headway; the French people -were tired of the conscription; they had not approved of the invasion -of Russia; and were indisposed at the moment of crisis to support the -Emperor. - -[Sidenote: Campaign in the Peninsula 1813.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Vittoria. 21st June.] - -[Sidenote: Wellington invades France. Oct. 1813.] - -While the French armies were suffering the succession of disasters -which expelled them from Germany, a similar series of catastrophes -occurred in Spain. Wellington broke up from his quarters in the summer -of 1813, and marching in a north-easterly direction attempted to -cut off all communication between France and Madrid. This movement -completely overthrew the French domination in Spain. Joseph Bonaparte -with all the troops he could collect fled from Madrid. He was unable to -defend himself behind the Ebro as in 1812, for the positions on that -river had been skilfully turned. Wellington eventually came up with -the French army at Vittoria. There Marshal Jourdan, who commanded for -King Joseph, endeavoured to resist, but he was completely defeated by -the Anglo-Portuguese army on the 21st of June 1813. This victory drove -the French back into France, for Suchet was likewise obliged to abandon -his conquests in Valencia, and to retire into the mountains of Arragon -and Catalonia. The victory in the field was followed as in Germany -by a burst of national enthusiasm. The Spanish guerillas destroyed -every isolated French post, and even managed to place some serviceable -divisions at the disposition of Wellington. The English general took up -a position on the French frontier between Pampeluna and San Sebastian, -blockading the former and besieging the latter place. To face him Soult -was sent to the south-west of France to defend the frontier. On the -31st of August San Sebastian was stormed; Pampeluna speedily fell; -and Wellington was able to establish a new base of operations, and to -invade France. On the 10th of November the Anglo-Portuguese army drove -Soult from his positions on the Nivelle, and after the battles of the -Nive or Saint Pierre from the 9th to the 13th of December Wellington -invested Bayonne. - -[Sidenote: Negotiations for Peace.] - -These repeated disasters in different quarters induced Napoleon to -consider the advisability of concluding a peace. He was now only too -ready to accept the terms offered to him at the Congress of Prague. -The allies were by no means so united as they seemed. The Austrian -Minister Metternich, in particular, was not desirous of destroying the -power of France. England had no wish to come to any conclusion which -should disproportionately increase the strength of Russia, and the aim -of all the allied monarchs was to allow France to develop in her own -way as long as she withdrew her pretensions to interfere in Europe. -Metternich’s proposals, in November 1813, were that France should -preserve her natural limits of the Rhine and the Alps, but should -restore all former rulers in Holland, Italy, and Spain. Napoleon gave -evidence of his desire for peace at this period by the dismissal of -his Foreign Secretary, Maret, Duc de Bassano, and the appointment of -Caulaincourt, Duc de Vicenza, who was known to be in favour of peace -and was also a personal friend of the Emperor Alexander, at whose Court -he had been ambassador during the palmy days of the alliance between -France and Russia. The terms of peace offered by Metternich, which -are known as the Proposals of Frankfort, at which city the allied -monarchs were residing, were confided to M. de Saint-Aignan, a French -diplomatist who had been taken prisoner during the advance of the -allies and who was the brother-in-law of Caulaincourt. The proposals -were definitely acceded to by Lord Aberdeen on the part of England and -by Hardenberg on the part of Prussia. The favourable nature of them -was dictated by the fear entertained by the allied monarchs that France -would rise in her might as she had done in 1793 if her borders were -invaded. For this reason the allies remained for some weeks upon the -right bank of the Rhine, concentrating their forces and hesitating to -advance. Napoleon, however, could not understand that he was beaten. -Instead of replying at once to the Proposals of Frankfort, which were -dated the 9th of November, it was not until late in December that he -instructed Caulaincourt to go to the allied quarters and discuss them. -His instructions to Caulaincourt showed how little he appreciated the -position of affairs. He demanded that, in addition to the natural -limits of France, he should hold the cities of Wesel, Cassel opposite -Mayence, and Kehl opposite Strasbourg on the right bank of the Rhine, -which fairly signified that he did not abandon his projects on Germany. -He further demanded that a kingdom should be formed for his brother -Jerome in Germany, and for Eugène de Beauharnais in Italy. Before these -counter-propositions reached the headquarters of the allied monarchs, -they had resolved to invade France, and the opportunity was gone for -ever for France to attain her natural limits under the sanction of -Europe. - -[Sidenote: The Invasion of France 1814. First Campaign.] - -The attitude of the allies, as indicated in the Proposals of Frankfort, -was mainly dictated by Metternich, who did not desire to see his -Emperor’s son-in-law dethroned or to see France greatly weakened. -But the Emperor Alexander and his friend, the King of Prussia, soon -repented of the assent they had given to Metternich’s ideas. Alexander -desired to invade France as a reply to the invasion of Russia in 1812, -and hoped to occupy Paris as Napoleon had occupied Moscow. The King -of Prussia, and still more his generals and ministers, had felt most -keenly the humiliating condition to which Prussia had been degraded, -and desired to wreak their vengeance on France. It was therefore agreed -that since the Proposals of Frankfort had not been promptly accepted, -the result of a successful invasion of France should be the return of -that country into the limits she possessed at the beginning of the wars -of the Revolution. The attitude of Russia and Prussia was that adopted -by England. Lord Castlereagh heard with dismay, that it was intended -to allow France the limits of the Rhine, for by that concession she -would hold Belgium and Antwerp, which it had been the consistent policy -of all English Ministers for many generations to keep independent of -France. The barrier treaties of former days, and the wars against -Louis XIV. had been sustained for the purpose of keeping France out of -the Belgian Netherlands, and the English cabinet resolved to continue -this classic policy. For this purpose, Lord Castlereagh was in person -despatched to the headquarters of the allied monarchs, with the -greatest powers ever granted to a British statesman. He was given ‘full -powers to negotiate and conclude of his own authority, and without -further consultation with the government, all conventions or treaties, -either for the prosecution of war or for the restoration of peace.’[12] - -Lord Castlereagh sailed from Harwich on the 31st of December 1813, on -which day Blücher with the main Prussian army, known as the Army of -Silesia, crossed the Rhine in three columns at Coblentz, Mannheim, and -Mayence. Blücher was supported by three Russian _corps d’armée_, but -it was further south that the main Russian army in conjunction with -the Austrians invaded France under the command of Schwartzenberg. It -was not without some difficulty that the Emperor Alexander was induced -to consent to the violation of the neutrality of Switzerland. But the -military arguments put forward by his generals overcame his scruples. -By marching through Switzerland, Schwartzenberg’s army was enabled to -turn the mountains of the Jura, and to leave the French fortresses -on the Rhine, behind him. This invasion on two distinct lines gave -Napoleon the opportunity of carrying out one of the military manœuvres -of which he was most fond. He concentrated between the two invading -armies a force of between 50,000 and 70,000 men. This was a terrible -falling off from the vast armies with which he had invaded Russia in -1812, and fought the allies in Saxony in 1813; it was a falling off not -only in numbers, but in military efficiency, for with the exception -of the remnant of the Guard, he had only under his command some -regiments of conscripts and national guards untrained to war. At this -period Napoleon bitterly repented the mistake he had made, in leaving -over 150,000 veteran soldiers as garrisons in the various fortresses -in Europe. The presence of these men would very likely have turned -the scale. He had left, for instance, 12,000 men in Hamburg under -the command of Marshal Davout, 16,000 in Magdeburg, 8000 in Dantzic, -and large garrisons in other distant cities, such as Stettin. These -fortresses were blockaded by local militia; their occupation did not -withdraw many regular troops from the allied armies, while it fatally -weakened the resources of France. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon’s Victories in France. 1814.] - -Nevertheless, with his boy conscripts and his Guard, Napoleon fought -one of his greatest campaigns. Blücher foolishly scattered his troops, -after his entry into Champagne. Napoleon quickly took advantage of -his mistake. He cut up division after division of Blücher’s army -at Brienne, Champaubert, Montmirail, and Vauchamps, between the -29th of January and the 14th of February, and then turning against -Schwartzenberg, who had also scattered his forces, he defeated a -Russian division at Nangis, and an Austrian division at Montereau -on the 17th and 18th of February. These rapid blows startled and -disconcerted the allies. Blücher’s army was practically destroyed; -Schwartzenberg fell back, and asked for an armistice; and proposals -were made for the evacuation of France. It was only the constancy of -the Emperor Alexander and the determination of Lord Castlereagh which -induced the allies to persist. Two _corps d’armée_, one of Prussians -under Bülow, the other of Russians under Wintzingerode, were on -Lord Castlereagh’s sole authority detached from Bernadotte’s army -and ordered to reinforce Blücher. Meanwhile, Alexander insisted that -Schwartzenberg should concentrate instead of retiring. In reality, -Napoleon’s successes were more fatal to himself than to the allies, -for they induced him to break off the negotiations at the Congress of -Châtillon. - -[Sidenote: Other movements against Napoleon. 1814.] - -[Sidenote: Bernadotte.] - -While the first campaign of 1814 was being fought out in France, the -movement against Napoleon was becoming general. Bernadotte had after -the victory of Leipzig been placed in command of the army in northern -Germany. Full of the idea which had been suggested to him by the -Emperor Alexander in 1812, that he might succeed Napoleon on the throne -of France, Bernadotte did not wish to appear before his own countrymen -in the light of an invader. He had occupied himself for some weeks -after the battle of Leipzig with blockading Davout in Hamburg, and -fighting the Danes in Holstein. Even if he could not obtain the throne -of France, he was quite resolved to win Norway, and for this purpose he -attacked the Danes, and after some fighting, compelled Frederick VI. -of Denmark to sign the Treaty of Kiel on 14th January 1814, by which -Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden, in exchange for Swedish Pomerania. -Bernadotte even went so far as to negotiate with Davout, to whom he -promised a free passage to France with all his troops as the price of -the surrender of Hamburg. But the Emperor Alexander would not submit to -this, and Bernadotte was imperiously ordered only to leave a blockading -force before Hamburg, and to advance to the French frontier. - -[Sidenote: Holland.] - -It was at this juncture that Bernadotte was deprived of his two finest -_corps d’armée_, which were ordered up to the assistance of Blücher. -But in addition to the danger threatened by Bernadotte’s army, Napoleon -also met with serious opposition in the Netherlands. The Dutch people -declared for the Prince of Orange, and Holland was quickly lost. -A force under the command of the Prince marched into Belgium, and -besieged Antwerp, which was defended by the former member of the -Committee of Public Safety, Carnot, who, though neglected by Napoleon -in the days of his greatness, had come to the help of France in the -time of her distress. To assist the Prince an English division under -Sir Thomas Graham had, as has been said, been despatched to Holland. -Graham failed to take Bergen-op-Zoom on the 20th of February, but -his presence in the Netherlands not only encouraged the Dutch, but -prevented Napoleon from obtaining help from that quarter. - -[Sidenote: Augereau.] - -[Sidenote: Wellington wins battle of Orthez. 27th February] - -In the south, Marshal Augereau, whom the Emperor had placed in -command at Lyons, was, as he himself said, no longer the Augereau of -Castiglione. He had been directed to make a diversion against the -Austrian left as it entered France with some conscripts and troops -drawn from the former Army of Spain, but he remained inactive, and his -operations were of no assistance to the Emperor. In the south-west -corner of France, Soult was unable to do more than make head against -Wellington and the Anglo-Portuguese army. After the battles of the Nive -or of Saint Pierre, Bayonne was completely invested, and Wellington, -leaving the left of his army to carry on the siege, marched eastwards -against Soult. That marshal had been weakened by the detachments -he had been ordered to send to Augereau, and to Napoleon himself. -Nevertheless, he made a gallant stand at Orthez on the 27th of -February, but was defeated and forced to fall back further into France. - -[Sidenote: Italy.] - -In Italy the Viceroy, Eugène de Beauharnais, who in the retreat from -Russia had given evidence that he was a general of the very first -order, offered a gallant resistance to the Austrians under General -Hiller. But the defection of the King of Bavaria, his father-in-law, -opened the passes of the Tyrol to the Austrians, and Eugène de -Beauharnais was then compelled to retreat. At the commencement of -1814, Metternich entered into negotiations with Murat, the King of -Naples. Through the influence of his wife, Caroline Murat, sister of -Napoleon, with whom Metternich had been in most intimate relations -when he was ambassador at Paris, Murat, in the hope of preserving -his kingdom, issued a violent proclamation against his benefactor, -Napoleon, and advanced to the banks of the Po, at the head of a -Neapolitan army of 80,000 men. This movement caused Eugène de -Beauharnais, whose fidelity to his stepfather shines out in bright -contrast to the treachery of Murat, to fall back still further. He -defeated the Austrians under Marshal Bellegarde on the Mincio on the -8th of February, but was unable to follow up his success owing to the -position of Murat. In his rear, Lord William Bentinck had landed at -Genoa and issued a proclamation promising independence to that city, -and the support of England in securing the independence and unity of -Italy. Napoleon at one time thought of calling Eugène de Beauharnais to -his side, but his rapid victories over the isolated _corps d’armée_ of -the allies in February caused him to abandon this wise project. - -[Sidenote: The Congress of Châtillon. 3d Feb.-19th March 1814.] - -It has been said that one effect of Napoleon’s victories was to break -up the Congress of Châtillon. It had been suggested that a congress -should meet at Mannheim at the time of the Proposals of Frankfort, but -Napoleon’s delay prevented it from assembling until after the invasion -of France was an accomplished fact. The success of this invasion -altered the attitude of the allies towards France. They saw that the -French nation was not going to arise in its might as it had done in -1793. They heard through sure hands that the people were almost in open -rebellion against the Emperor. The Legislative Body had dared to oppose -his wishes. Everywhere the conscription was evaded, and there was a -muttered feeling throughout France that the country had had enough of -war and that it was time that the blood-tax on the French youth should -cease. Even the army itself was beginning to despair. The Emperor had -lost his prestige in Russia and at Leipzig. His soldiers were not the -veterans of his former wars; his generals and his marshals began to -murmur and to fear that a war _à outrance_ would end in their personal -ruin. Under these circumstances the Congress of Châtillon met on the 3d -of February 1814. The French plenipotentiary was Caulaincourt, the most -upright of Napoleon’s statesmen. The other powers nominated, not their -chief ministers, Metternich, Nesselrode, Hardenberg, and Castlereagh, -although they were all at headquarters, but subordinate diplomatists, -namely, Count Philip Stadion, the predecessor of Metternich, for -Austria, William von Humboldt for Prussia, Razumovski for Russia, and -Lord Cathcart, Lord Aberdeen, and Sir Charles Stewart for England. - -At Châtillon very different conditions from the Proposals of Frankfort -were offered. The main stipulation was that France should return to -her limits before the Revolution. England haughtily declared that the -naval question with regard to the rights of neutrals was not to be -mentioned, and everything was made subject to the great question of -the French limits. Caulaincourt disputed the proposals on the ground -that it was unfair that France should be reduced to the limits she had -held in 1789 while the other powers had been so vastly increased by -the rearrangement of Germany and the partition of Poland. Nevertheless -he was most anxious that Napoleon should accept these proposals. He -granted that they were worse than the Proposals of Frankfort, but -argued that if the war continued they were likely to be worse still. -Napoleon, however, looked upon the Congress as an opportunity for -gaining time. He believed that by his military successes he would avert -the disasters which threatened him, and on the day of the battle of -Montereau, the 18th of February, he wrote that he was only willing -to agree to a peace on the basis of the Frankfort Proposals, and in -his own handwriting he added to his despatch to Caulaincourt, ‘Sign -nothing.’[13] It is worthy of note that in the Proposals of Châtillon -nothing was said about Napoleon himself. The Emperor Francis assumed -that his son-in-law would remain upon the throne of France, and Lord -Castlereagh expressed no view to the contrary. But the English Minister -was absolutely determined not to yield to Napoleon’s demand for the -natural limits of France. England was the paymaster of the coalition, -and Castlereagh having just promised £10,000,000 to pay the military -expenses of 1814 felt that he had the right to insist on his demand. -Napoleon in after years declared that his persistence in retaining -Belgium was the reason for his refusal to accede to the Proposals of -Châtillon. ‘Antwerp,’ he said to Las Cases, ‘was to me a province in -itself; it was the principal cause of my exile to Saint Helena, for -it was the required cession of that fortress which made me refuse the -terms offered at Châtillon. If they would have left it to me peace -would have been concluded.’[14] Metternich wrote to Caulaincourt -pressing the acceptance of the Proposals of Châtillon, but Napoleon -obstinately refused, and the Congress had practically failed by the -beginning of March, though it did not actually break up until the 19th -of that month. - -[Sidenote: Attitude of France towards Napoleon.] - -The fact that the French nation did not rise in arms against the -invaders has been mentioned as the primary cause for the difference -between the terms offered at Frankfort and at Châtillon. Nothing proves -more completely how thoroughly Napoleon had extinguished the spirit of -the Revolution than the lukewarmness with which his call to arms was -received in 1814. In 1793 the invasion of France had caused a frenzy of -patriotism. The people had submitted to the Reign of Terror, because -it meant a strong government which could expel the English, Prussians, -and Austrians. France was at that time hemmed in by difficulties -infinitely greater than those which she had to face in 1814. Then -she had no great general. In 1814 she possessed one of the greatest -generals the world has ever seen. In 1793 she was torn by civil war -in La Vendée and by brigands in every sparsely populated district. In -1814 she had enjoyed fifteen years of internal tranquillity. In 1793 -her finances were utterly disordered, her industries were destroyed, -and the whole country a prey to anarchy. In 1814 she had been for years -the chief nation in Europe, and the wealth of other countries had -been drained to enrich her. But the difference was that in 1793 and -the succeeding years the French people felt that they were fighting -to ward off the interference of foreign nations in their internal -affairs, whereas in 1814 they were called on to defend the power of -a single man who had infringed the rights and the freedom of other -nations. By his bureaucratic system Napoleon had crushed out the power -of popular initiative which had been the strength of the Republic; by -his suppression of individual liberty he had made the majority of the -French people disaffected to his Empire. - -[Sidenote: Exhaustion of France.] - -There must be considered also the exhaustion of actual physical -resources. In the campaigns of 1812 and 1813, it is estimated that -nearly 750,000 Frenchmen were either killed, wounded, or taken -prisoner. Before that time the Grand Army had been slowly destroyed -on many a field of battle, and there simply were not sufficient men -of military instinct and physical strength to fill the ranks. In -1813 Napoleon enrolled the conscripts whose turn would have come in -1815—mere boys of sixteen, who had melted away after the battle of -Leipzig—and the men he called to the ranks in 1814 were those who had -been passed over by the conscription in previous years, and were too -long inured to civil life to be willing to serve as soldiers. - -To the feeling that resistance to the invaders was not a national -duty, must be added a general indisposition to support the Empire. The -opinions which had found vent during the French Revolution had not been -extinguished by the Empire; they had only been suppressed; and all -the educated part of the nation was united in desiring representative -institutions so as to exercise a share in directing the policy of the -government. This opinion showed itself in the Legislative Body which -was summoned in December 1813. Napoleon had announced that his cause -was the cause of France; but in return the leaders of the Legislative -Body only begged him to make peace. A paragraph was inserted in the -report of the Legislative Body upon the Proposals of Frankfort, which -contains the following words: ‘It belongs to the Government according -to the Constitution to propose the most effectual means to repel the -enemy and secure peace. These means will only be effectual if the -French people are convinced that their blood will be shed only to -defend the country and our protective laws. It appears, therefore, -indispensable that at the same time that His Majesty shall propose -the most prompt and efficacious measures for the safety of the State, -the Government should be besought to maintain the entire and constant -execution of the laws which guarantee to the French people the rights -of liberty, security, and property, and to the nation the complete -enjoyment of its political rights. That guarantee appears the most -effectual means for restoring to the French people the energy necessary -for their defence in the present crisis.’ Napoleon was much irritated -by this attack on his arbitrary authority, and although this paragraph -was expunged from the report by 254 votes to 223 he nevertheless -dissolved the Legislative Body in a rage. - -[Sidenote: The Bourbons.] - -Neither at the Congress of Châtillon nor in the Legislative Body was -a single word said about restoring the Bourbons. They had lost all -credit during their exile. The French people did not want them. The -allied powers did not care about them. By Lord Castlereagh’s orders -Wellington received the Duc d’Angoulême, son of the Comte d’Artois, in -his camp in the south of France, but he distinctly refused to recognise -him in any way whatever. The English general went further and issued -a proclamation in which he declared that the war was being waged for -security to Europe, not for a change of dynasty in France, and that no -interference was either intended or would be permitted in the free -decision of the French people with regard to their internal government. -When the Duc d’Angoulême was favourably received in Bordeaux and the -Mayor of that city hoisted the white flag, Wellington wrote to the -Bourbon prince defining his attitude and censuring the assertion in the -Duke’s proclamation, that he was supported by England. - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Chaumont. 1st March 1814.] - -In spite of his real weakness Napoleon was so infatuated by his -successes in February 1814 that, as has been said, the Congress came to -an end, but he was not far wrong in his estimation of the effect of his -victories upon the allied monarchs. So profoundly was Schwartzenberg -terrified by the destruction of Blücher’s army and the victories of -Nangis and Montereau that he wished to retreat from France. Differences -between the powers at this juncture threatened to break up the -coalition, and it was only the determination of Lord Castlereagh that -kept them together. The English minister on the 1st of March 1814 -concluded the secret Treaty of Chaumont. By this treaty the relations -of the allied monarchs to each other on several points were defined, -and though many fresh causes of dissension arose at a later date, it -was the Treaty of Chaumont which kept the powers together until the -overthrow of Napoleon, and which laid the basis of the final settlement -at Vienna. By this treaty the four great powers, England, Russia, -Austria and Prussia, bound themselves, if France refused to return -within her ancient limits, to form an offensive and defensive alliance. -Each member of the coalition was to maintain 150,000 men in the field, -and England bound herself, in addition to paying her own contingent -and maintaining her navy, to contribute a subsidy of £5,000,000 a year -to be divided equally amongst the other three contracting parties. -As England by this arrangement offered more than twice as much as -any other country, Castlereagh practically became the master of the -coalition. After peace was concluded each of the powers was to furnish -a contingent of 60,000 men if any one of them were attacked. The -resettlement of Europe was to be arranged on the following bases: that -the German Empire should be restored as a federal union; that Holland -and Belgium should be united into a monarchy under the House of Orange; -that Spain should be restored to its ancient sovereign; that Italy -should be divided into independent states; and that Switzerland should -be guaranteed as independent and neutral by all the great powers. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon’s Second Campaign in France. March 1814.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Paris. 30th March 1814.] - -[Sidenote: Occupation of Paris by the Allies.] - -The result of the Treaty of Chaumont was to stiffen the attitude of -the allies in France. All thought of retreat was abandoned and both -the Austrians under Schwartzenberg, and the Army of Silesia under -Blücher recommenced their advance upon Paris. Napoleon pursued the -tactics which had been crowned with success in the month of February, -and prepared to strike at each of the invading armies in turn. His -first movement as before was against Blücher. The Army of Silesia -had been reduced by the actions of Champaubert, Montmirail, etc., -from 60,000 to 30,000 men, but it was now increased to more than its -former number by the arrival of Saint Priest’s Russians and of the -two corps of Bülow and Wintzingerode which had been detached from -Bernadotte by Lord Castlereagh. Napoleon was not aware of the extent -of these reinforcements, and he therefore with his army of barely -30,000 men ventured to attack Blücher. On the 7th and 9th of March, -the severe actions of Craonne and Laon were fought. Neither side won -victories, but Napoleon failed to repeat his former successes, which -was tantamount to a defeat. After the battle of Laon both Blücher and -Napoleon reviewed the armies at their disposal, and the disparity of -their strength is shown by the fact that whereas Blücher reviewed -109,000 men, Napoleon found that including all reinforcements, he had -but 46,000. Having failed to check the Prussians, Napoleon turned to -attack Schwartzenberg’s army. On the 20th of March he fought an action -at Arcis-sur-Aube, in which the Russians repulsed the French attack. -The Emperor then resolved on a final effort. He determined to attack -the lines of communication of the invaders, and marched towards the -Vosges Mountains. But the invaders were in too strong force to be -terrified by this manœuvre. A few divisions only were left to watch -him, and the main armies continued their advance on Paris. On March -the 30th, Schwartzenberg and Blücher arrived in front of the French -capital. They had under their command about 200,000 men, whereas -Marshals Marmont and Mortier, who had been charged with the defence of -Paris, could not get under arms more than 28,000 including the National -Guard. In spite of this enormous difference of strength the two -marshals took up a position and prepared to defend Paris. But after the -most obstinate resistance the allies carried the French position after -ten hours’ fighting on the 30th of March, and on the following day -the Emperor Alexander and the King of Prussia entered Paris. Napoleon -rapidly followed the allied army, but the occupation of Paris was fatal -to his cause. He was ready to continue the war, but his marshals were -not. On the 4th of April Ney, Macdonald, Oudinot, and Lefebvre had an -interview with the Emperor, and told him that the army would fight no -more. Napoleon was obliged to give heed to their remonstrances, and he -sent Ney, Macdonald, and Caulaincourt to make what arrangements might -be possible with the allied monarchs. - -[Sidenote: The Provisional Government at Paris.] - -On entering Paris the Emperor Alexander and King Frederick William -proceeded at once to the residence of Talleyrand. That astute statesman -quickly decided upon a definite policy. He understood that the allies -had hitherto treated with Napoleon, and that they were not favourably -disposed to the Bourbons. He knew that the French nation did not -desire the return of the former dynasty. But he felt that the only -method which would enable France to take up a logical position on the -Continent was by the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy. If Louis -XVIII. were accepted as King of France, it would be a contradiction in -terms to their professed belief in hereditary rights, and their hatred -for the results of the Revolution, for the allied monarchs to attack -the unity of France. For this reason Talleyrand persuaded Alexander -that it would be inadmissible either to accept the government of the -Empress Marie Louise in the name of her son, the King of Rome, or -still less to recognise Alexander’s candidate, Bernadotte. In his own -words to the Emperor: ‘Any attempt to create a Regency or to appoint -Bernadotte is a mere intrigue; nothing remains but Bonaparte or the -Bourbons.’ Alexander then declared that he would no longer treat with -Napoleon, and Talleyrand as Vice-Arch-Chancellor of the Empire summoned -the Senate to meet upon the 1st of April. - -The Senate at once elected a Provisional Government consisting of -Talleyrand as President and the Comte de Bournonville, former War -Minister of the Republic, the Comte de Jaucourt, a former leader of -the Legislative Assembly, the Abbé de Montesquiou, a former leader of -the Constituent Assembly, and the Duc de Dalberg, nephew of the Prince -Primate of Germany. The Senate then resolved that, whatever government -should be adopted, the sale of the national and ecclesiastical estates -in the days of the Revolution should be ratified, the liberty of -worship and of the press established, and a general amnesty declared. -On the following day the Emperor Alexander addressed the Senate. He -said: ‘It is neither ambition nor the love of conquest which has -led me hither; my armies have only entered France to repel unjust -aggressions. Your Emperor carried war into the heart of my dominions -when I only wished for peace. I am a friend of the French People; I -impute their faults to their chief alone; I am here with the most -friendly intentions; I wish only to protect your deliberations. You -are charged with one of the most glorious missions which generous men -can discharge,—that of securing the happiness of a great people, in -giving France institutions, at once strong and liberal, with which she -cannot dispense in the advanced state of civilisation to which she has -attained.’ Alexander in conclusion, as a sign of his goodwill, declared -that he would release the 150,000 French prisoners of war then in -Russia. - -[Sidenote: Abdication of Napoleon. 6th April 1814.] - -That evening the Senate solemnly declared Napoleon to be no longer -Emperor, and formed a Provisional Ministry, including Comte Beugnot, -Minister of the Interior, Baron Louis, Minister of Finance, and General -Dupont, who had been disgraced for the Capitulation of Baylen, Minister -for War. Matters had reached this stage when Napoleon’s emissaries -Ney, Macdonald, and Caulaincourt, arrived at the headquarters of the -allied monarchs. These faithful adherents proposed that Napoleon -should abdicate in favour of his infant son. This offer, which would -have been gladly received some days before, was now rejected, owing -to the influence of Talleyrand, and on April the 6th, when Napoleon -received the news of this rejection, he unconditionally abdicated -at Fontainebleau. This step was made necessary by the fact that the -faithful marshals could not even speak in the name of the whole army on -behalf of Napoleon. Marshal Marmont, who had distinguished himself in -the great battle before Paris, had made separate terms for himself and -placed his army at the disposal of the allies. The desertion of Marmont -deprived Napoleon of the greater part of the forces on which he relied, -and rendered his unconditional abdication necessary. - -[Sidenote: Provisional Treaty of Paris. 11th April 1814.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Toulouse. 10th April 1814.] - -The abdication of Napoleon was followed by the arrival of Lord -Castlereagh in Paris. The English minister had since the breaking up of -the Congress of Châtillon remained at the headquarters of the Emperor -of Austria at Dijon. It was there that he had entered into intimate -relations with Metternich, relations which were to lead to most -important results. On the 11th of April 1814, the Provisional Treaty -of Paris was signed. It was essentially a treaty between the Emperor -Napoleon, through his plenipotentiaries, and the allied monarchs. It -was not a treaty with France, for Louis XVIII. had not arrived from -England, or been recognised as king, and the Provisional Government -could only enter into provisional arrangements. By this treaty, which -was signed by Caulaincourt, Macdonald, Ney, Metternich, Nesselrode, -Hardenberg, and Castlereagh, Napoleon renounced for himself and his -descendants the Empire of France and the Kingdom of Italy. He was, -however, to retain the title of Emperor; the island of Elba was erected -into an independent principality for him, and an income of £180,000 a -year was granted to him. The duchies of Parma and Piacenza were secured -in full sovereignty to the Empress Marie Louise, and after her decease -to the King of Rome, and the divorced Empress Josephine was given an -annuity of £40,000 a year. On the day before this treaty was signed, -April 10th, 1814, the Battle of Toulouse was fought. Wellington after -his victory of Orthez had rapidly followed Soult into the heart of -Southern France. When he attacked the French positions in front of -Toulouse, he was ignorant of the great events which had been passing at -Paris and at Fontainebleau, and it was only after his entrance into the -city that he perceived the white cockade was being worn. - -[Sidenote: Arrival of Louis XVIII.] - -On the 20th of April 1814, Napoleon bade farewell to the Guard at -Fontainebleau, and started for Elba, and on the 24th his successor, -Louis XVIII., who had not entered France since his escape in -1791, landed at Calais. The new King was eminently fitted by his -natural character, which had been matured by his long exile, for a -constitutional monarch, but unfortunately he was surrounded by men who -had shared his exile, and who did not share his placable disposition. -On the 2d of May, when he had reached the neighbourhood of Paris, Louis -XVIII. published what is known as the Declaration of St. Ouen. In this -declaration, he promised a constitution to the French people, which -should provide among other things for a representative government with -two chambers, complete liberty of worship and the press, the right -of the representatives to grant taxation, the inviolability of all -property, including national and ecclesiastical estates, which had -been sold during the Revolution, the responsibility of the ministers, -irremoveability of the judges, and complete equality before the law. -On the following day, he entered Paris amid general rejoicings, for -the French people had forgotten their grievances of olden time in the -memory of their more recent sufferings in the latter years of Napoleon. -He was not in any way treated with by the Provisional Government; his -return was tacitly accepted as inevitable; and he returned to the -Tuileries as of divine right, without any bargain being made with him. - -[Sidenote: First Treaty of Paris. 30th May 1814.] - -The first important duty which fell to Louis XVIII. was the signature -of a definitive treaty of peace with the allies. The evacuation of -French territory by the invaders had been arranged with the Provisional -Government on the 23d of April, and the foreign troops were already -beginning to retire. By the definitive Treaty of Paris, which was -negotiated by Talleyrand on behalf of Louis XVIII., it was agreed that -France should return to her limits of 1792. By this arrangement, the -early annexations of the Revolution before the outbreak of war were -secured to France. These additions included Avignon and the County of -the Venaissin, which had formerly belonged to the Pope, and several -districts in Alsace, of which the most noteworthy were the Principality -of Montbéliard formerly the property of the King of Würtemberg, and -the Republic of Mulhouse. France also received Chambéry, and part of -Savoy, with certain rectifications of the frontier in the neighbourhood -of Geneva, and on the north-eastern border. All the former French -colonies, except the islands of the Mauritius, Tobago, and Saint Lucia, -were restored to France. With regard to other countries, it was agreed, -as had been laid down in the Treaty of Chaumont, that Germany was to -become a Confederacy instead of an Empire, that Holland and Belgium -were to be united, that Italy was to be divided into independent -states, and that the independence of Switzerland was to be guaranteed -by all the great powers. At the same time that this treaty was signed, -a secret treaty was agreed to between the four invading powers, without -consulting France. This secret treaty dealt largely with the future -apportionment of the territories on the left bank of the Rhine which -had been administered by France ever since 1794. It was roughly agreed -that these provinces should be annexed to Prussia, and it was further -laid down, that Austria should possess the whole of Lombardy, and that -Genoa should be united to Sardinia. The details of this arrangement, -and the many other questions which were certain to arise were -adjourned, and it was settled that they should be considered at a great -congress which was to meet at Vienna. - -[Sidenote: Conclusion.] - -The two nations which had done the most to overthrow the excessive -power of Napoleon were England and Russia, and the two men most -conspicuously concerned were the Emperor Alexander and Lord -Castlereagh. The two rival German powers, Austria and Prussia, -naturally inclined to different sides. Prussia was the declared ally of -Russia; the Emperor Alexander and the King Frederick William had formed -one of the romantic personal friendships which Alexander loved; and -the Russian and Prussian ministers were in perfect accord in desiring -to punish France and her allies, and to aggrandise themselves. Austria -on the other hand naturally inclined to support England. Both feared -the increasing preponderance of Russia; both felt that enough had -been done in deposing Napoleon, and did not desire to wreak vengeance -on France; both were inclined to be moderate in their demands. This -rivalry between Russia with Prussia, and Austria with England had -appeared in its incipient stages before the Treaty of Chaumont, and it -was to rise to its height during the Congress of Vienna. The return of -the Bourbons to France was to have an important result on the rivalry -between the allies, and it is a significant proof of the inherent -power of France, and of the greatness of the ascendency which she had -won, that she was enabled at Vienna to act the most decisive part. The -overthrow of Napoleon had not really weakened France; she had lost her -natural territorial limits of the Rhine and the Alps which she might -have obtained but for the stubbornness of Napoleon; nevertheless, she -was still strong enough to be feared, and in the day of her greatest -disaster she was able to exert a greater influence in the affairs of -Europe than she had ever done since the time of Louis XIV. - - - - - CHAPTER XL - - 1814–1815 - - The - Congress of Vienna—Monarchs and Diplomatists - present—History of the Congress—Treaty between France, - Austria, and England—The Questions of Saxony and - Poland—The German Confederation—Disposition of the - provinces on the left bank of the Rhine—Mayence and - Luxembourg—Reconstitution of Switzerland—Rearrangements - in Italy—Questions of Murat, Genoa, and the Empress Marie - Louise—Sweden—Denmark—Spain—Portugal—England’s share - of the spoil—The Questions of the Slave Trade and the - Navigation of Rivers—Close of the Congress—Preparations - against Napoleon—The first reign of Louis XVIII. in - France—Napoleon’s return from Elba—The Hundred Days—The - Campaign of Waterloo—Occupation of Paris—Second Treaty of - Paris—Napoleon sent to Saint Helena—The Holy Alliance—Return - of Louis XVIII.—Government of the Second Restoration—The - Chambre Introuvable—Reaction in Spain and Naples—Territorial - Results of the Congress of Vienna—The Principle of - Nationality—Permanent Results of the French Revolution - in Europe—The Problem of harmonising the Principles of - Individual and Political Liberty with that of Nationality. - - -[Sidenote: Congress of Vienna.] - -On the 1st of November 1814 the diplomatists who were to resettle -Europe as arranged by the definitive Treaty of Paris met at Vienna. -But many of the monarchs most concerned felt that they could not -give their entire confidence to any diplomatist, however faithful or -distinguished, and they therefore came to Vienna in person to support -their views. The final decision of disputes obviously lay in the hands -of the four powers which by their union had conquered Napoleon. These -four powers solemnly agreed to act in harmony and to prepare all -questions privately, and then lay them before the Congress. In fact -they intended to impose their will upon the smaller states of Europe -just as Napoleon had done. That they did not succeed and that their -concert was broken was due to the extraordinary ability of Talleyrand, -the first French plenipotentiary. The history of the Congress is the -history of Talleyrand’s skilful diplomacy, and the resettlement of -Europe which it effected was therefore largely the work of France. - -[Sidenote: Monarchs and Diplomatists present.] - -The Emperor Francis of Austria acted as host to his illustrious -guests. The royalties present were the Emperor Alexander of Russia, -with his Empress, the Grand Duke Constantine, and his sisters, the -Grand Duchesses Marie of Saxe-Weimar and Catherine of Oldenburg; the -King of Prussia with his nephew Prince William; the King and Queen of -Bavaria, the King and Crown Prince of Würtemburg, the King of Denmark, -the Prince of Orange, the Grand Dukes of Baden, Saxe-Weimar, and -Hesse-Cassel, the Dukes of Brunswick, Nassau, and Saxe-Coburg. The King -of Saxony was a prisoner of war and absent. - -The plenipotentiaries of Russia were Count Razumovski, Count von -Stackelberg, and Count Nesselrode, who were assisted by Stein, the -former Prussian minister, and one of Alexander’s most trusted advisers, -by Pozzo di Borgo, the Corsican, now appointed Russian ambassador to -Paris, by Count Capo d’Istria, the future President of Greece, by -Prince Adam Czartoryski, one of the most patriotic Poles, and by some -of the most famous Russian Generals, such as Chernishev and Wolkonski. -The Austrian plenipotentiaries were Prince Metternich, the State -Chancellor, the Baron von Wessenberg-Ampfingen, and Friedrich von -Gentz, who was appointed to act as Secretary to the Congress. - -England was represented by Lord Castlereagh, Lord Cathcart, Lord -Clancarty, and Lord Stewart, Castlereagh’s brother, who as Sir Charles -Stewart had played so great a part in the negotiations in 1813, and who -had been created a peer for his services. The English plenipotentiaries -were also aided by Count von Hardenberg, and Count von Münster, -who were deputed to represent Hanoverian interests. The Prussian -plenipotentiaries were Prince von Hardenberg, the State Chancellor, -and William von Humboldt, who in military matters were advised by -General von Knesebeck. The French representatives, whose part was to be -so important, were Talleyrand, Prince of Benevento, the Duc de Dalberg, -nephew of the Prince Primate, the Marquis de la Tour du Pin, and the -Comte Alexis de Noailles. These were the representatives of the great -powers. Among the representatives of the lesser powers may be noted -from the importance of their action, Cardinal Consalvi, who represented -the Pope, the Count of Labrador for Spain, Count Palmella for Portugal, -Count Bernstorf for Denmark, Count Löwenhielm for Sweden, the Marquis -de Saint-Marsan for Sardinia, the Duke di Campo-Chiaro for Murat, -King of Naples, Ruffo, for Ferdinand King of the Two Sicilies, Prince -von Wrede for Bavaria, Count Wintzingerode for Würtemburg, and Count -von Schulemburg for Saxony. In addition to these plenipotentiaries -representing powers of the first and second rank, were innumerable -representatives of petty principalities, deputies for the free cities -of Germany, and even agents for petty German princes mediatised by -Napoleon in 1806. - -[Sidenote: History of the Congress.] - -When Talleyrand with the French legation arrived in Vienna he found, -as has been said, that the four great powers had formed a close union -in order to control the Congress. His first step therefore was to set -France forth as the champion of the second-rate states of Europe. -The Count of Labrador, the Spanish representative, strongly resented -the conduct of the great powers in pretending to arrange matters, -as they called it, for the Congress. Talleyrand skilfully made use -of Labrador, and through him and Palmella, Bernstorf and Löwenhielm -managed to upset the preconcerted ideas of the four allies, and -insisted on every matter being brought before the Congress as a whole, -and being prepared by small committees specially selected for that -purpose. His next step was to sow dissension amongst the great powers. -As the champion of the smaller states he had already made France of -considerable importance, and he then claimed that she too had a right -to be treated as a great power and not as an enemy. His argument was -that Europe had fought Napoleon and not France; that Louis XVIII. was -the legitimate monarch of France; and that any disrespect shown to him -or his ambassadors would recoil on the heads of all other legitimate -monarchs. He claimed that France had as much right to make her voice -heard in the resettlement of Europe as any other country, because the -allied monarchs had distinctly recognised that she was only to be -thrust back into her former limits and not to be expunged from the map -of Europe. Having made his claim good on the right of the legitimacy of -his master to speak for France as a great power equal in all respects -to the others, he proceeded to sow dissension among the representatives -of the four allied monarchs. This was not a difficult thing to do, for -the seeds of dissension had long existed. The difference he introduced -was that in speaking as a fifth great power, and as the champion of the -smaller states, France became the arbiter in the chief questions before -the Congress. - -The division between the great powers was caused by the desire of -Russia and Prussia for the aggrandisement of their territories. The -Emperor Alexander wished to receive the whole of Poland. His idea, -which was inspired by his friend, Prince Adam Czartoryski, was to -form Poland into an independent kingdom ruled, however, by himself as -Emperor of Russia. The Poles were to have a new Constitution based -on that propounded in 1791, and the Czar of Russia was to be also -King of Poland, just as in former days the Electors of Saxony had -been Kings of Poland, but he was to be an hereditary, not an elected, -sovereign. To form once more a united Poland, Austria and Prussia were -to surrender their gains in the three partitions of Poland. Austria -was to receive compensation for her loss of Galicia in Italy; Prussia -was to be compensated for the loss of Prussian Poland by receiving -the whole of Saxony. As it had been already arranged that Prussia was -to receive the bulk of the Rhenish territory on the left bank of the -Rhine in addition to her great extensions of 1803, the result would be -to make Prussia by far the greatest power in Germany. Talleyrand was -acute enough to perceive that Lord Castlereagh did not approve of the -extension of the influence of Russia, and that Metternich was equally -indisposed to allow Prussia to obtain such a wholesale aggrandisement. -Saxony had been the faithful ally of France to the very last, and -Talleyrand felt that it would be an indelible stain on the French name -if it were thus sacrificed. He was cordially supported in this view by -his new master, for though the King of Saxony had been the faithful -ally of Napoleon, Louis XVIII. did not forget that his own mother was -a Saxon princess. Working, therefore, on the feelings of Castlereagh -and Metternich, he induced England and Austria to declare against the -scheme of Russia and Prussia. - -The Emperor Alexander and Frederick William blustered loudly; they -declared that they were in actual military possession of Poland and of -Saxony, and that they would hold those states by force of arms against -all comers. In answer, Talleyrand, Castlereagh, and Metternich signed -a treaty of mutual alliance between France, England, and Austria, on -the 3d of January 1815. By this secret treaty the three powers bound -themselves to resist by arms the schemes of Russia and Prussia, and -in the face of their determined opposition the Emperor Alexander gave -way. Immediately Napoleon returned from Elba he found the draft treaty -between the three powers on the table of Louis XVIII. and at once sent -it to Alexander. That monarch, confronted with the danger threatened by -Napoleon’s landing in France, contented himself with showing the draft -to Metternich and then threw it in the fire. The whole of this strange -story is of the utmost interest; it proves not only the ability of -Talleyrand, but the inherent strength of France. It is most significant -that within a few months after the occupation of Paris by the allies -for the first time France should again be recognised as a great power, -and form the main factor in breaking up the cohesion of the alliance, -which had been formed against her. - -[Sidenote: Secret Treaty of 3d Jan. 1815] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Ghent. Dec. 24, 1814.] - -[Sidenote: Settlement of Saxony.] - -The result of Talleyrand’s skilful policy was thus to unite England, -Austria, and France, supported by many of the secondary states, such -as Bavaria and Spain, against the pretensions of Prussia and Russia. -Powerful armies were immediately set on foot. France in particular -raised her military forces from 130,000 to 200,000 men, and her new -army was in every way superior to that with which Napoleon had fought -his defensive campaigns in 1814, for it contained the veteran soldiers -who had been blockaded in the distant fortresses or had been prisoners -of war. England too was enabled to make adequate preparations, for on -December the 24th, 1814, a treaty had been signed at Ghent between the -United States and England which put an end to the war which had been -proceeding ever since 1812 on account of England’s naval pretensions. -Bavaria also promised to put in the field 30,000 men for every 100,000 -supplied by Austria. Although the secret treaty of January 3d was not -divulged until after the return of Napoleon from Elba, the determined -attitude of the opposition caused the Emperor Alexander to give way. -It was decided that instead of the whole of Saxony, Prussia should -only receive the district of Lusatia, together with the towns of -Torgau and Wittenberg; a territory which embraced half the area of -Saxony and one-third of its population. The King of Saxony, who had -been treated as a prisoner of war, and whom the Emperor of Russia had -even threatened to send to Siberia, was released from captivity, and -induced by the Duke of Wellington, who succeeded Lord Castlereagh as -English plenipotentiary in February 1815, to agree to these terms. -The salvation of Saxony was a matter of great gratification to Louis -XVIII., who remembered that though the king had been the faithful ally -of Napoleon, he was also his own near relative. - -[Sidenote: Settlement of Poland.] - -Since Prussia was obliged to give up her claim to the whole of Saxony, -Russia also had to withdraw from her scheme of uniting the whole of -Poland. Nevertheless, Russia retained the lion’s share of the Grand -Duchy of Warsaw; in 1774 her frontier had reached the Dwina and the -Dnieper; in 1793 she obtained half of Lithuania as far as Wilna; in -1795 she annexed the rest of Lithuania and touched the Niémen and the -Bug; in 1809 Napoleon had granted her the territory containing the -sources of the Bug; and now in 1815 her borders crossed the Vistula, -and by the annexation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, including that -city, penetrated for some distance between Eastern Prussia and Galicia. -Prussia received back its share of the two first partitions of Poland, -with the addition of the province of Posen and the city of Thorn, but -lost Warsaw and its share in the last partition; while Austria received -Cracow, which was to be administered as a free city. Alexander was -deeply disappointed by the frustration of his Polish schemes, but he -nevertheless kept his promise to Prince Adam Czartoryski and granted a -representative constitution and a measure of independence to Russian -Poland. - -[Sidenote: The Germanic Confederation.] - -Though the great diplomatic struggle arose over the combined question -of Saxony and Poland, the most important work of the Congress was -not confined to it alone. Committees were appointed to make new -arrangements for Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and to settle other -miscellaneous questions. Of these committees the most important was -that which reorganised Germany. It had been arranged by the secret -articles of the Treaty of Paris that a Germanic Confederation should -take the place of the Holy Roman Empire. The example of Napoleon and -his institution of the Confederation of the Rhine was followed and -developed. Instead of the hundreds of small states which had existed -at the commencement of the French Revolution, Germany, apart from -Austria and Prussia, was organised into only thirty-eight states. These -were the four kingdoms of Hanover, Bavaria, Würtemburg, and Saxony; -the seven grand duchies of Baden, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, -Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Saxe-Weimar; -the nine duchies of Nassau, Brunswick, Saxe-Gotha, Saxe-Coburg, -Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Hildburghausen, Anhalt-Dessau, Anhalt-Bernburg, -and Anhalt-Köthen; eleven principalities, two of Schwartzburg, two of -Hohenzollern, two of Lippe, two of Reuss, Hesse-Homburg, Liechtenstein, -and Waldeck, and the four free cities of Hamburg, Frankfort, Bremen, -and Lübeck. The number of thirty-eight was made up by the duchies of -Holstein and Lauenburg, belonging to the King of Denmark, and the grand -duchy of Luxembourg, granted to the King of the Netherlands. In its -organisation the Germanic Confederation resembled the Confederation -of the Rhine. The Diet of the Confederation was to be always presided -over by Austria and was to consist of two Chambers. The Ordinary -Assembly was composed of seventeen members, one for each of the larger -states, one for the free cities combined, one for Brunswick, one for -Nassau, one for the four duchies of Saxony united, one for the three -duchies of Anhalt united, and one for the smaller principalities. This -Assembly was to sit permanently at Frankfort and to settle all ordinary -matters. In addition there was to be a General Assembly to be summoned -intermittently for important subjects, consisting of sixty-nine -members returned by the different states in proportion to their size -and population. Each state was to be supreme in internal matters, but -private wars against each other were forbidden as well as external wars -by individual states on powers outside the limits of the Confederacy. -In the territorial arrangements of the new Confederation, the most -important point is the disappearance of all ecclesiastical states. The -Prince-Primacy, which Napoleon had established in his Confederation of -the Rhine, was not maintained, and Dalberg, who had filled that office -throughout the Empire, was restricted to his ecclesiastical functions. - -[Sidenote: Territorial arrangements on the Rhine.] - -The most difficult problem to be decided was the final disposition of -the districts on the left bank of the Rhine, which had been ruled by -France ever since 1794. It had been settled by the secret articles at -Paris that these dominions should be used for the establishment of -strong powers upon the borders of France. The main difficulty was as -to the disposition of the important border fortresses of Mayence and -Luxembourg. Prussia laid claim to both these places, but was strongly -resisted by Austria, France, and the smaller states of Germany. It was -eventually resolved that Prussia should receive the northern territory -on the left bank of the Rhine, stretching from Elten to Coblentz, and -including Cologne, Trèves, and Aix-la-Chapelle. In compensation for -the Tyrol and Salzburg, which she was forced to return to Austria, and -in recognition of her former sovereignty in the Palatinate, Bavaria -was granted a district from the Prussian borders to Alsace, including -Mayence, which was designated Rhenish Bavaria. Finally, Luxembourg was -formed into a grand duchy, and given as a German state to the House -of Orange. It was not united to the new kingdom of the Netherlands, -which was formed out of Holland and Belgium, but was to retain its -independence under the sovereignty of the King of the Netherlands. The -union of the provinces of the Netherlands was one of the favourite -schemes of England, and was carried into effect in spite of the -well-known feeling of opposition between the Catholic provinces of -Belgium and the Protestant provinces of Holland. - -[Sidenote: Switzerland.] - -As in its reorganisation of Germany, so in the settlement of -Switzerland, the Congress of Vienna followed the example set by -Napoleon. The Emperor had quite given up the idea which had fascinated -the French Directory of forming Switzerland into a Republic, one -and indivisible. He had yielded to the wishes of the Swiss people -themselves, and organised them on the basis of a confederation of -independent cantons. The Congress of Vienna continued Napoleon’s -policy of forbidding the existence of subject cantons in spite of -the protests of the Canton of Berne. Napoleon’s cantons of Argau, -Thurgau, Saint-Gall, the Grisons, the Ticino, and the Pays de Vaud were -maintained, but the number of the cantons was raised from nineteen to -twenty-two by the formation of the three new cantons of Geneva, the -Valais, and Neufchâtel, which had formed part of the French Empire. -The Canton of Berne received in reply to its importunities the greater -part of the former Bishopric of Basle. The Swiss Confederation as -thus constituted was placed under the guarantee of the great powers -and declared neutral for ever. The Helvetic Constitution, which was -promulgated by a Federal Act dated the 7th of April 1815, was not quite -so liberal as Napoleon’s Constitution. Greater independence was secured -in that the constitutions of the separate cantons and organic reforms -in them had not to be submitted to the Federal Diet. The prohibition -against internal custom houses was removed. The presidency of the -Diet was reserved to Zurich, Berne, and Lucerne alternately, and the -Helvetic Diet became a Congress of Delegates like the Germanic Diet -rather than a Legislative Assembly. It is to be noted that in spite of -the declaration of the Congress of Vienna, Prussia refused to renounce -her claims on her former territory of Neufchâtel, the independence of -which as a Swiss canton was not recognised by her until 1857. - -[Sidenote: Italy.] - -The resettlement of Italy presented more than one special problem. The -most difficult of these to solve was caused by the engagements entered -into by the allies with Murat in 1814. Talleyrand, on behalf of the -King of France, insisted on the dethronement and expulsion of Murat, -while Metternich from friendship for Caroline Murat wished to retain -him in his kingdom. The Emperor Alexander, whoever prided himself on -his fidelity to his engagements, wished to protect Murat, and had -at Vienna struck up a warm friendship with Eugène de Beauharnais, -Napoleon’s Viceroy of Italy. Murat, ungrateful though he was personally -toward Napoleon, had yet imbibed his master’s ideas in favour of the -unity and independence of Italy. During the campaign of 1814, he had -led his army to the banks of the Po, and he persisted in remaining -there after the Congress of Vienna had met. But the diplomatists at -Vienna had no wish to accept the great idea of Italian unity. Murat’s -aspirations in this direction were most annoying to them, and it was -with real pleasure that they heard after the landing of Napoleon from -Elba that Murat had by an indiscreet proclamation given them an excuse -for an open declaration of war. The Duke di Campo-Chiaro, Murat’s -representative at Vienna, had kept him informed of the differences -between the allied powers, and an indiscreet note asking whether he was -to be considered as at peace or at war with the House of Bourbon gave -the plenipotentiaries their opportunity. War was immediately declared -against him; an Austrian army defeated him at Tolentino on the 3d -of May 1815, and he was forced to fly from Italy. The acceptance of -Murat’s ambassador, who spoke in his name as King of the Two Sicilies, -made it difficult for the Congress to know how to treat with Ruffo -who had been sent as ambassador by Ferdinand, the Bourbon King of the -Two Sicilies, who had maintained his power in the island of Sicily -through the presence of the English garrison. Acting on the ground -of legitimacy, it was difficult to reject Ferdinand’s claims, which -were warmly supported by France and Spain, but Murat’s ill-considered -behaviour solved the difficulty, and after his defeat Ferdinand was -recognised as King of the Two Sicilies. Murat, later in the year, -landed in his former dominions, but he was taken prisoner and promptly -shot. - -Another Italian question which presented considerable difficulty was -the disposal of Genoa and the surrounding territory. When Lord William -Bentinck occupied that city, he had in the name of England promised -it independence and even hinted at the unity of Italy. Castlereagh -unfortunately felt it to be his duty to disavow Bentinck’s declaration, -and Genoa was united to Piedmont as part of the kingdom of Sardinia. -The third difficult question was the creation of a state for the -Empress Marie Louise. An independent sovereignty had been promised to -her. She was naturally supported by her father, the Emperor Francis -of Austria, and was ably represented at Vienna by her future husband, -Count Neipperg. It was eventually resolved that she should receive the -duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, but the succession was not -secured to her son, the King of Rome, but was granted to the rightful -heir, the King of Etruria, who, until the succession fell in, was to -rule at Lucca. The other arrangements in Italy were comparatively -simple. Austria received the whole of Venetia and Lombardy, in the -place of Mantua and the Milanese, which she had possessed before 1789. -The Grand Duchy of Tuscany, with the principality of Piombino, was -restored to the Grand Duke Ferdinand, the uncle of the Emperor Francis -of Austria, with the eventual succession to the Duchy of Lucca. The -Pope received back his dominions including the Legations of Bologna -and Ferrara, and Duke Francis, the grandson of Hercules III., was -recognised as Duke of Modena, to which duchy he would have succeeded -had not Napoleon absorbed it in his kingdom of Italy. - -[Sidenote: Other States.] - -[Sidenote: Sweden.] - -[Sidenote: Denmark.] - -[Sidenote: Spain.] - -[Sidenote: Portugal.] - -[Sidenote: England.] - -The arrangements with regard to the other states of Europe made at -the Congress of Vienna were comparatively unimportant, and did not -present the same difficult problems as the resettlement of Germany, -Switzerland, and Italy. Norway in spite of its disinclination was -definitely ceded to Sweden, but Bernadotte had to restore to France the -West-Indian island of Guadeloupe, which had been handed over to him -by England in 1813, as part of the price of his alliance. Denmark had -by the Treaty of Kiel with Bernadotte been promised Swedish Pomerania -in the place of Norway. This promise was not carried out. Denmark -like Saxony had been too faithful an ally of Napoleon not to be made -to suffer. Swedish Pomerania was given to Prussia, and Denmark only -received the small Duchy of Lauenburg. By these arrangements both -Sweden and Denmark were greatly weakened, and the Scandinavian States, -by the loss of Finland and Pomerania, surrendered to their powerful -neighbours, Prussia and Russia, the command of the Baltic Sea. Spain, -owing to the ability of the Count of Labrador, and the support of -Talleyrand, not only lost nothing except the island of Trinidad, which -had been conquered by England, but was allowed to retain the district -round Olivenza, which had been ceded to her by Portugal in 1801. The -desertion of Portugal by England in this particular is the chief blot -on Lord Castlereagh’s policy at Vienna. The Portuguese army had fought -gallantly with Wellington, and there was no reason why she should have -been forced to consent to the definite cession of Olivenza to Spain -when other countries were winning back their former borders. Portugal -was also made to surrender French Guiana and Cayenne to France. -England, though she had borne the chief pecuniary stress of the war -and had been more instrumental than any other power in overthrowing -Napoleon, received less compensation than any other country. She kept -Malta, thus settling the question which led to the rupture of the -Peace of Amiens; she received Heligoland, which was ceded to her by -Denmark, as commanding the mouth of the Elbe; and she was also granted -the protectorate of the Ionian Islands, which enabled her to close -the Adriatic. Among colonial possessions England took from France the -Mauritius, Tobago, and Saint Lucia, but she returned Martinique and the -Isle of Bourbon, and forced Sweden and Portugal to restore Guadeloupe -and French Guiana. With regard to Holland, England retained Ceylon and -the Cape of Good Hope, but she restored Java, Curaçao, and the other -Dutch possessions. In the West Indies also, she retained, as has been -said, the former Spanish island of Trinidad. - -[Sidenote: The Slave Trade.] - -[Sidenote: The Navigation of Rivers.] - -One reason for Castlereagh’s moderation at Vienna is to be found -in the pressure that was exerted upon him in England to secure the -abolition of the slave trade. It is a curious fact that while the -English plenipotentiary was taking such an important share in the -resettlement of Europe, the English people were mainly interested in -the question of the slave trade. The great changes which were leading -to new combinations in Europe, the aggrandisement of Prussia, the -reconstitution of Germany, the extension of Austria, all passed without -notice, but meetings, in Lord Castlereagh’s own words, were held in -nearly every village to insist upon his exerting his authority to -abolish the trade in negro slaves. Castlereagh therefore lent his -best efforts, in obedience to his constituents, to this end. The -other ambassadors could not understand why he troubled so much about -what seemed to them a trivial matter. They suspected a deep design, -and thought that the reason of England’s humanity was that her West -Indian colonies were well stocked with negroes, whereas the islands -she was restoring were empty of them. The plenipotentiaries of other -powers possessing colonies in the tropics therefore refused to comply -with Castlereagh’s request and it was eventually settled that the -slave trade should be abolished by France after five, and by Spain -after eight years. Castlereagh had to be content with this concession, -but to satisfy his English constituents he got a declaration condemning -the slave trade assented to by all the powers at the Congress. Another -point of great importance which was settled at the Congress of Vienna -was with regard to the navigation of rivers which flow through more -than one state. It had been the custom for all the petty sovereigns to -impose such heavy tolls on river traffic that such rivers as the Rhine -were made practically useless for commerce. This question was discussed -by a committee at the Congress, and a code for the international -regulation of rivers was drawn up and generally agreed to. - -[Sidenote: Close of the Congress of Vienna. June 1815.] - -These matters took long to discuss, and might have taken longer had -not the news arrived at the beginning of March 1815 that Napoleon had -left Elba and become once more undisputed ruler of France. In the month -of February the Duke of Wellington had succeeded Lord Castlereagh as -English representative at Vienna, for the latter nobleman had to return -to London to take his place in Parliament. At the news of the striking -event of Napoleon’s being once more at the head of a French army all -jealousies at Vienna ceased for the time. The Duke of Wellington was -taken into consultation by the allied monarchs, and it was resolved -to carry into effect the provisions of the Treaty of Chaumont. The -great armies which had been prepared for a struggle amongst themselves -were now turned by the allies against France. A treaty of alliance -was signed at Vienna between Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England, -on the 25th of March 1815, by which those powers promised to furnish -180,000 men each for the prosecution of war, and stipulated that -none of them should lay down arms until the power of Napoleon was -completely destroyed. It was arranged that three armies should invade -France, the first of 250,000 Austrians, Russians, and Bavarians under -Schwartzenberg across the Upper Rhine, the second of 150,000 Prussians -under Blücher across the Lower Rhine, and the third of 150,000 English, -Hanoverians and Dutch from the Netherlands. Subsidies to the extent of -£11,000,000 were promised by England to the allies. These arrangements -made, the allied monarchs and their ministers left Vienna. But the -final general Act of the Congress was not drawn up and signed until the -8th of June 1815, ten days before the battle of Waterloo. - -[Sidenote: The First Reign of Louis XVIII.] - -It has been said that the allied armies after the abdication of -Napoleon at Fontainebleau had retired and left France to the rule of -Louis XVIII. That King on returning to France had made most liberal -promises in the declaration known as the Declaration of Saint Ouen. -These principles were embodied in a Charter, which was granted on the -4th of June 1814. By this Charter representative institutions and -entire individual liberty were promised, and also the maintenance of -the administrative creations of the Empire. Under the new Constitution -there were to be two chambers, the one of hereditary peers, the other -of elected representatives. The promises of the Charter were very fair, -and had they been duly carried out, France might have been entirely -contented, but unfortunately for himself Louis XVIII. had not learned -experience in his exile. In spite of the Charter he regarded himself as -a ruler by right divine. _Emigrés_, even _émigrés_ who had borne arms -against France and consistently abused their fatherland, were promoted -to the highest offices in the State. The King surrounded himself with -reactionary courtiers, and what was worse with reactionary ministers. -The favour shown to returned _émigrés_, the haughty attitude of the -Princes of the blood, and the violent proclamations of the returned -bishops and clergy made the people of France fear that the promises -made in the Charter were but a sham, and that the next step would -be that the estates of the Church and of the Crown which had been -sold during the Revolution would be resumed. The feeling of distrust -was universal. The rule of Louis XVIII. had been accepted only as a -guarantee of peace. It was never popular, and the former subordinates -of Napoleon began to regret the Imperial _régime_. If this was the -feeling among the civil population, it was still more keenly felt -in the army. Prisoners of war, and the blockaded garrisons, who had -returned to France, felt sure that Napoleon’s defeat in 1814 had been -but accidental and wished to try conclusions once more with Europe. -In all ranks a desire was expressed to wipe out the disgrace of the -occupation of Paris by the allies. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon’s return from Elba. March, 1815.] - -On the 1st of March 1815, Napoleon, who had been informed of the -universal feeling in France, landed in the Gulf of San Juan, and began -the short reign which is known as the Hundred Days. He was accompanied -by the 800 men of the Guard whom he had been allowed to have at Elba, -and was received with the utmost enthusiasm by all classes. His journey -through France was a triumphal procession. The King’s brother, the -Comte d’Artois, vainly attempted to organise resistance at Lyons. -Marshal Ney, who had promised to arrest his patron, joined him with the -army under his command on the 17th of March, and on the 20th Napoleon -re-entered Paris and took up his quarters at the Tuileries. Louis -XVIII. had fled on the news of Ney’s defection, and escaping from -France took shelter at Ghent. Napoleon had learnt bitter lessons from -his misfortunes. He declared that he would grant full and complete -individual liberty, and also the freedom of the press, and on the 23d -of April he promulgated what he called the Additional Act consecrating -these principles. He felt his error in depending too entirely upon his -bureaucracy, and he appealed on the ground of patriotism to the men -of the Revolution whom he had in the days of his power carefully kept -from office. These men rallied round him, and he appointed their most -noteworthy representative, Carnot, his Minister of the Interior. He -declared his acceptance of the two chambers ordained by the Charter, -and most of the peers created by Louis XVIII. took the oath of -allegiance once again to Napoleon. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of Waterloo. June 1815.] - -After rousing national enthusiasm by appeals to patriotism and by -the liberal provisions of the Additional Act, Napoleon organised -his army, and in his favourite fashion decided to strike before any -invasion of France took place. Of the three armies prepared for the -invasion the one nearest within reach was that commanded by the Duke -of Wellington. That General on leaving Vienna had been placed at the -head of a miscellaneous force of English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and -Belgians. He greatly regretted the absence of most of his veterans of -the Peninsula who were still in America, and complained of the number -of raw troops under his command. He agreed to act in harmony with the -Prussians under Blücher, who brought his army into the Netherlands. -Napoleon determined to strike before Wellington and Blücher had united. -He crossed the frontier at the head of 130,000 men, and by his skilful -and rapid movements practically surprised the allied generals. On the -16th of June 1815, he defeated Blücher at Ligny, while Ney with his -left fought a drawn battle with the English advanced divisions at -Quatre Bras. By these engagements the English and Prussian armies were -separated. Napoleon then resolved to attack the English with the bulk -of his army, and detached Marshal Grouchy to pursue the Prussians. -Blücher, however, promised to come to Wellington’s assistance if the -English were attacked, and Wellington relying on this promise took up -his position at Waterloo. On the 18th of June the battle of Waterloo -was fought. The English army held its position in spite of repeated and -furious attacks, until Blücher came up on the French right. Unable to -continue the struggle against two foes, the French army was obliged to -give way, and after the repulse of the Guard, which might have covered -his retreat, Napoleon recognised that he was completely routed. He fled -to Paris, and on the 22d of June he abdicated in favour of his son, the -King of Rome. He nominated an executive commission of government, and -then went on board ship in the hope of escaping to America. In this -project he failed, and on 15th July he surrendered to Captain Maitland -on board H.M.S. _Bellerophon_. The army of Wellington and Blücher -pursued the defeated foe, but the rout had been too complete for the -French to make another stand. Cambrai the only place that attempted to -resist was easily taken, and on the 3d of July Wellington and Blücher -reoccupied Paris. Meanwhile the grand army of Schwartzenberg had also -invaded France, and the country was once more in the possession of the -allies. - -[Sidenote: Second Treaty of Paris. 20th Nov. 1815.] - -The terms of the second Treaty of Paris proved that the allied monarchs -understood the difference between the opposition made by France -to Europe in 1814 and 1815. In 1814 the Treaty of Paris which was -then concluded was, if not particularly liberal to France, at least -perfectly just. The allied monarchs and their ministers had appreciated -the fact that in 1814 they were fighting Napoleon and not France. The -campaign of 1815 had been of a different character. The French nation -and not merely the French army had given proof of their attachment both -to the Empire and to Napoleon’s person. It was therefore considered -necessary, not only to impose harsher terms upon France, but to exact -securities for the future. Several schemes were proposed, of which -one was to detach Alsace, Lorraine, and French Flanders, if not the -whole of Picardy, and to reduce the limits of France to what they were -before the conquests of Louis XIV. This scheme, which was earnestly -supported by Prussia, who hoped to get the lion’s share of the -districts taken from France, was warmly opposed by Austria and England. -The latter power was not to be bribed by the proposed extension of -the frontier of its new creation, the Kingdom of the Netherlands. And -the former objected entirely to any increase of the power of Prussia. -Lord Castlereagh in his opposition to these extravagant suggestions -of Prussia was supported by the Emperor Alexander and his minister, -Nesselrode, and eventually it was agreed that France should be -reduced to its exact limits of 1789. This meant that France lost all -the cessions made to it in 1814, except Avignon and the Venaissin. -Chambéry and the part of Savoy then granted to France were restored -to the King of Sardinia; the districts in the neighbourhood of Geneva -were also returned to that canton, and the fortress of Huningen on the -borders of Switzerland was ordered to be dismantled; and the various -rectifications of the frontier on the eastern and north-eastern borders -were no longer sanctioned. A war contribution of 700,000,000 francs was -laid upon France, in addition to which she was to maintain, at the cost -of 250,000,000 francs a year, an army of 150,000 men in the possession -of her chief frontier fortresses for a period of five years. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon sent to St. Helena.] - -These were the most important conditions of peace contained in the -second Treaty of Paris, which was signed on 20th of November 1815. -But what France felt more bitterly than pecuniary contributions, or -even the loss of territory, was the decision of the allied powers that -the numerous pictures and works of art, which had been accumulated -in Paris during the wars of the Revolution and the Empire, should be -returned to their former owners. The Prussians were not satisfied with -this, they wished to punish Paris more severely. Blücher was only -prevented by the intervention of Lord Castlereagh and the Duke of -Wellington from exacting a contribution of a 110,000,000 francs from -the inhabitants of Paris alone. The Prussians even made preparations -to blow up the Bridge of Jena, whose name perpetuated their greatest -military humiliation, and were only prevented from their purpose by the -expressed determination of Louis XVIII. to stand upon the bridge and -be blown up with it if they persisted, and Blücher had to be satisfied -with the alteration of the name of the bridge from the Bridge of Jena -to the Bridge of the Military School. The question of the disposition -of the person of Napoleon was one of some difficulty. He reached Torbay -on board the _Bellerophon_ on the 24th of July 1815, and the English -Ministers did not know what to do with their illustrious prisoner. They -dared not trust him in any part of Europe or America from which he -could repeat his expedition from Elba. Blücher loudly declared that he -ought to be shot at Vincennes like the Duc d’Enghien, but the English -Government thought it would be sufficient to confine him on an isolated -island. For this purpose they borrowed the island of Saint Helena from -the East India Company, and on the 8th of August, Napoleon set sail for -his place of exile on board H.M.S. _Northumberland_. - -[Sidenote: The Holy Alliance. Sept. 1815] - -A month after the departure of Napoleon for St. Helena, the Emperor -Alexander, the Emperor Francis, and King Frederick William signed the -treaty which is known as the Holy Alliance. By this treaty it was -declared that the Christian religion was the sole base of government, -and the contracting monarchs promised to aid each other on all -occasions like brothers, and to recommend to their peoples the exercise -of the duties of the Christian religion. Lord Castlereagh declined -on behalf of the Prince Regent to join the Holy Alliance, but on the -28th of November 1815, after the signature of the Peace of Paris, he -agreed to an alliance that should include all the four powers, of which -the aims were to keep from the throne of France either Napoleon or -any relation of his, to combine together for the security of their -separate states, and the general tranquillity of Europe, and to hold at -fixed dates congresses for the settlement of disputed questions. - -[Sidenote: The Second Restoration of Louis XVIII. July 1815.] - -The second restoration of Louis XVIII. differed from the first as the -second Treaty of Paris differed from its predecessor. After the events -of the Hundred Days, the Bourbon King could no more delude himself -with the idea that he was welcome to the people of France. He owed his -seat upon the throne only to the absence of Napoleon and the presence -of the allied armies in France, and he prepared on this occasion to -punish those who had deserted him. He refused to grant an amnesty, and -on the 24th of July 1815, he proscribed fifty-seven of the leading men -in France, of whom nineteen were ordered to be tried by court-martial, -and thirty-eight were banished. The most illustrious of the victims who -perished under this proscription was Marshal Ney, who was shot at Paris -on the 7th of December, after being condemned to death by the Chamber -of Peers. This procedure was rendered necessary because it would have -been difficult to find a court-martial to condemn the bravest of the -French marshals. Marshal Moncey, who was nominated to preside over -such a court-martial, refused in an eloquent letter which caused him -to be sent to prison for three months. Far worse than these executions -was the result of the outbreak of brigandage in the south of France. -Under the pretext of being Royalists, the Companies of Jehu, which had -ravaged the south of France in the days of the Thermidorians and of -the Directory, again set to work. Political, religious, and personal -passions excited to massacre. Pillage and murder were rife throughout -the south of France, and among the victims who were slain in this White -Terror of 1815 were Marshal Brune, and Generals Ramel and Lagarde. -Special courts were formed by a law voted on the 12th of December 1815, -to punish political offences. These provost’s courts were as severe and -almost as unjust as the revolutionary tribunals in the provinces during -the Reign of Terror, and many hundreds of executions took place. -Finally, in January 1816, what was ironically called a Law of Amnesty -was passed. This law, from the list of its exceptions, was practically -a gigantic proscription. Among others, all surviving members of the -Convention who had voted for the death of Louis XVI. were exiled if -they had in any way accepted the authority of Napoleon during the -Hundred Days, which most of them had done. Under this Law of Amnesty -most of the great statesmen who had been concerned in the government of -France since 1793 were driven into exile. Conspicuous among them were -Carnot, Merlin of Douai, Sieyès, Cambacérès, and David, the greatest -painter of his time. - -[Sidenote: Government of the Second Restoration.] - -Restored for a second time to the throne of France, Louis XVIII. -declined to take warning from the result of his former policy. He again -showered his favours on returned _émigrés_, and pursued a thoroughly -reactionary policy. As soon as he was firmly seated at the Tuileries, -with the Prussians and the English encamped round Paris, he dismissed -Talleyrand and Fouché from office and formed a new and strongly -Royalist ministry under the presidency of the Duc de Richelieu, who had -spent the last twenty years of his life in exile as one of the chief -administrators of Russia. The king avowed his intention of keeping -the promises he made in the Charter of 1814, but those promises were -carried out in such a way as to make them absolutely illusory. He took -advantage of the general adhesion given to Napoleon on his return from -Elba to exclude from the Upper Chamber or House of Peers most of the -leading men in France, leaving the majority entirely in the hands of -former _émigrés_, and of men who by the excess of their royalism wished -to palliate their offence in not having emigrated. The Lower House, -or Chamber of Representatives, even exceeded the House of Peers in -its violent royalism. The deputies, chiefly elected under the direct -pressure of threats of vengeance, were ready to adopt any reactionary -measure suggested to them. Louis XVIII. gave this Assembly the name of -the ‘Chambre Introuvable,’ which he intended as a compliment, but which -has survived as a term of derision. Among the first laws voted were the -suspension of individual liberty, and of the liberty of the press, and -the request was then made that the King, in his goodness, would revise -fourteen articles of the Charter which were too liberal. But even this -chamber, aided by the presence of foreign armies, could not make France -revert to the condition in which it had been before 1789. A hint of the -resumption of ecclesiastical or national domains would have set the -whole country in an uproar, and the Chamber had to be satisfied with -voting a large sum of money out of the ordinary taxes as compensation -to the _émigrés_ for their sufferings in exile. - -[Sidenote: The Reaction in Spain.] - -[Sidenote: Naples.] - -The spirit of reaction went much further in Spain than in France. -Ferdinand VII., on returning to his capital in May 1814, issued a -proclamation attacking the Cortes, which had done so much to recover -the country from the hands of the French. In his own words: ‘A Cortes -convoked in a manner never before known in Spain has been profiting by -my captivity in France, and has usurped my rights by imposing on my -people an anarchical and seditious Constitution based on the democratic -principles of the French Revolution.’ The King of Spain then proceeded -to annul by his own absolute authority everything that had been done -during his absence. He re-established the Inquisition, and proscribed -and condemned to death all who had taken part in reforming the -institutions of Spain, whether under the authority of Joseph Bonaparte -or under that of the National Cortes. Many hundreds, if not thousands, -of Spanish patriots were put to death in a vain attempt of Ferdinand -VII. to restore things as they had been in former days. The attempt to -carry out a complete reaction resulted in utter failure. Insurrections -broke out in all directions, and the Spanish colonies in South America -took advantage of the troubles in the fatherland to strike a blow for -their own freedom. It is satisfactory to be able to state that the head -of the third reigning branch of the House of Bourbon behaved with more -moderation and wisdom than Ferdinand VII. of Spain or Louis XVIII. -of France. Ferdinand IV., King of the Two Sicilies, returned to his -capital at Naples in June 1815. He can hardly be blamed for ordering -the execution of Murat whom he had always regarded as a usurper, and -it is greatly to his credit that he made some endeavour to retain -the excellent administration on the French system which had been -established by Joseph Bonaparte and Murat. - -[Sidenote: Results of the Congress of Vienna.] - -The final overthrow of Napoleon and his exile to St. Helena allowed the -new system for the government of Europe as laid down by the Congress -of Vienna to be tried. That system may be roughly designated as the -system of the Great Powers. Before 1789, certain states, such as -France and England and Spain, were, from fortuitous circumstances, or -the course of their history, larger, more united, and therefore more -fitted for war, than others, but the greater part of the Continent -was split up into small, and in the case of Germany, into very small -states. Several of these small states, such as Sweden and Holland, -had at different times exercised a very considerable influence, and -the policy of Frederick the Great had added another to them, in the -military state of Prussia. At the Congress of Vienna the tendency -was to diminish the number and power of the secondary states, and to -destroy minute sovereignties. Sweden and Denmark were relegated to the -rank of third-rate powers; the petty principalities of Germany were -built up into third-rate states. Austria and Prussia were established -as great powers, but the increase of their territory brought with it -dissimilar results. Prussia became the preponderant state of Germany, -while Austria, whose Imperial House had so long held the position -of Holy Roman Emperor, became less German, and now depended for its -strength on its Italian, Magyar, and Slavonic provinces. The irruption -of Russia into the European comity of nations was another significant -feature. By its annexation of the greater part of the Grand Duchy of -Warsaw, Russia thrust itself between Prussia and Austria territorially, -while its leading share in the overthrow of Napoleon made its place as -a European power unassailable. It may be doubted if the policy of Peter -the Great and the Empress Catherine was thus carried out. The tendency -of those rulers was to make the Baltic and the Black Sea Russian lakes, -and to build up an Empire of the East; affairs in Central Europe only -interested them in so far as they prevented interference with their -Eastern designs, and did not lead to the erection of powerful states on -the Russian border. - -[Sidenote: The Principle of Nationality.] - -Nothing is more remarkable in the settlement of Europe by the Congress -of Vienna than the entire neglect of the principle of nationality. Yet -it was the sentiment of national patriotism which had enabled France to -repulse Europe in arms, and had trained the soldiers with whom Napoleon -had given the law to the Continent and had overthrown the mercenary -armies of his opponents. It was the principle of nationality which had -crippled Napoleon’s finest armies in Spain, and which had produced -his expulsion from Russia. It was the feeling of intense national -patriotism which had made the Prussian army of 1813, and enabled -Prussia after its deepest humiliation to take rank as a first-class -power. But the diplomatists at Vienna treated the idea as without -force. They had not learnt the great lesson of the French Revolution, -that the first result of rousing a national consciousness of political -liberty is to create a spirit of national patriotism. The Congress of -Vienna trampled such notions under foot. The partition of Poland was -consecrated by Europe; Italy was placed under foreign rulers; Belgium -and Holland, in spite of the hereditary opposition of centuries, were -united under one king. The territories on the left bank of the Rhine, -which were happy under French rule, and had been an integral part of -France for twenty years, were roughly torn away, and divided between -Prussia, Bavaria, and the House of Orange, under the fancied necessity, -induced by the exploded notion of maintaining the balance of power in -Europe, of building up a bulwark against France. Such short-sighted -policy was certain to be undone. Holland and Belgium separated; Italy -became united; Poland maintained the consciousness of her national -unity, and has more than once endeavoured to regain her independence; -France has never ceased to yearn after her ‘natural’ frontier, -the Rhine; the states of Germany have developed a national German -patriotism which has led to the creation of the modern German Empire. -This feeling of conscious nationality was the result of the French -Revolution and the wars of Napoleon; its existence is the strength of -England, France, Russia, and Germany, its absence is the weakness of -Austria. In so far as the spirit of nationality was neglected at the -Congress of Vienna, its work was but temporary; in its resurrection, -which has filled the history of the present century, the work of the -French Revolution has been permanent. - -[Sidenote: Permanent results of the French Revolution.] - -But after all, the growth of the spirit of nationality is only a -secondary result of the French Revolution upon Europe; it did not -arise in France until foreign powers attempted to interfere with the -development of the French people after their own fashion; it did not -arise in Europe until Napoleon began to interfere with the development -of other nations. The primary results of the French Revolution,—the -recognition of individual liberty, which implied the abolition of -serfdom and of social privileges; the establishment of political -liberty, which implied the abolition of despots, however benevolent, -and of political privileges; the maintenance of the doctrine of the -sovereignty of the people, which implied the right of the people, -through their representatives, to govern themselves,—have also survived -the Congress of Vienna. When Europe tried to interfere, the French -people sacrificed these great gains to the spirit of nationality, -and bowed before the despotism of the Committee of Public Safety and -of Napoleon; they have since regained them. The French taught these -principles to the rest of Europe, and the history of Europe since 1815 -has been the history of their growth side by side with the idea of -nationality. How the two, liberty and nationality, can be preserved in -harmony is the great problem of the future; the history of Europe from -1789 to 1815 affords many examples of the difficulty of the problem and -of the dangers which beset its solution. - - - - - APPENDICES - - - - - APPENDIX I. - - THE RULERS AND MINISTERS OF THE GREAT POWERS OF EUROPE, 1789–1815. - - (_Capitals indicate Rulers; small capitals, Chief Ministers; and - italics, Foreign Ministers._ - - - +-----+---------------------+---------------------+----------------------+ - | | Holy Roman Empire; | | | - | |after 1805, Austria. | Great Britain. | France. | - +-----+---------------------+---------------------+----------------------+ - |1789.|JOSEPH II. (Emperor |GEORGE III. (since |LOUIS XVI. (since | - | | since 1765; ruler of| 1760). | 1774). | - | | Austria since 1780).| WILLIAM PITT |_Comte de Montmorin_| - | |KAUNITZ (since 1756).| (since Dec. 1783). | (since 1787). | - | | _Philip Cobenzl_ | _Duke of Leeds_ | | - | | (since 1780). | (since Dec. 1783). | | - |1790.|LEOPOLD II. (Feb.) | | | - |1791.| |_Lord Grenville_ |_A. de Valdec de | - | | | (June). | Lessart_ (Nov.) | - |1792.|FRANCIS II. (March). | |REPUBLIC (Sept.) | - | | | | _Dumouriez_ (March).| - | | | | _Chambonas_ (June). | - | | | |_Bigot de Ste. Croix_| - | | | | (Aug.) | - | | | |_Lebrun Tondu_ (Aug.)| - |1793.| | | _Deforgues_ (June). | - |1794.| COLLOREDO | | (Ministry abolished—| - | | _Thugut_ (June). | | April ’94-Oct. ’95).| - |1795.| | |DIRECTORY (Oct.) | - | | | | _Delacroix_ (Nov.) | - |1796.| | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |1797.| _Louis Cobenzl_ | | _Talleyrand_ | - | | (April). | | | - |1798.| | | | - | | | | | - |1799.| _Thugut_ (Jan.) | |CONSULATE (Nov.) | - | | _Lehrbach_ (Oct.) | | _Reinhardt_ (July). | - | | | | _Talleyrand_ (Nov.) | - |1800.| | | | - |1801.| LOUIS COBENZL| HENRY ADDINGTON | | - | | | (March). | | - | | | _Lord Hawkesbury_ | | - | | | (March). | | - |1802.| | | | - |1803.| | | | - |1804.| |WILLIAM PITT (May). | | - | | | _Lord Harrowby_ „ | | - |1805.| |_Lord Mulgrave_(Jan.)|NAPOLEON, Emperor. | - |1806.|PHILIP STADION |LORD GRENVILLE (Feb.)| | - | | | _Charles James Fox_ | | - | | | (Feb.) | | - | | | _Viscount Howick_ | | - | | | (Sept.) | | - |1807.| |DUKE OF PORTLAND | _Champagny_ (Aug.) | - | | | (March). | | - | | |_George Canning_ | | - | | | (March). | | - |1808.| | | | - | | | | | - |1809.| METTERNICH | SPENCER PERCEVAL | | - | | | (Dec.) | | - | | | _Lord Bathurst_ | | - | | | (Oct.) | | - | | |_Lord Wellesley_ | | - | | | (Dec.) | | - |1810.| | | | - | | | | | - |1811.| | | _Maret_ (April). | - |1812.| | _Lord Castlereagh_ | | - | | | (March). | | - | | | EARL OF LIVERPOOL | | - | | | (June). | | - |1813.| | |_Caulaincourt_ (Nov.)| - |1814.| | |LOUIS XVIII. | - | | | |_Talleyrand_ (April).| - +-----+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ - - +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+-----+ - | | | | | - | Prussia. | Russia. | Spain. | | - +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+-----+ - |FREDERICK WILLIAM II.|CATHERINE II. (since |CHARLES IV. (since |1789.| - | (since 1786). | 1762). | Dec. 1788). | | - | _Hertzberg_ | _Ostermann_ |FLORIDA BLANCA | | - | (since 1756). | (since 1775). | (since 1773). | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | |1790.| - | _Schulemburg_ (May).| | |1791.| - | | | | | - |HAUGWITZ (Oct.) | |ARANDA (July). |1792.| - | | |GODOY (Nov.) | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | |1793.| - | | | |1794.| - | | | | | - | | | |1795.| - | | | | | - | |PAUL I. (Nov.) | |1796.| - | | OSTERMANN. | | | - | | _Panine._ | | | - |FREDERICK WILLIAM | | |1797.| - | III. (Nov.) | | | | - | | | _Saavedra_ (March). |1798.| - | | | _Urquijo_ (August). | | - | | | |1799.| - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | |GODOY (Dec.) |1800.| - | |ALEXANDER I. (Mar.) | |1801.| - | | PANINE. | | | - | | _Kotchoubey._ | | | - | | | | | - | | VORONZOV. | |1802.| - | | | |1803.| - |HARDENBERG (Aug.) | _Adam Czartoryski_ | |1804.| - | | (May). | | | - | | | |1805.| - |HAUGWITZ (Feb.) | _Baron Budberg_ | |1806.| - |HARDENBERG (Nov.) | (Aug.) | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |STEIN (July). | _Roumianzov_ (Sept.)| |1807.| - | _Goltz_ (July). | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | |JOSEPH BONAPARTE. |1808.| - | | | AZANZA. | | - | | | |1809.| - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |HARDENBERG (July). |ROUMIANZOV. | |1810.| - | | _Nesselrode._ | | | - | | | |1811.| - | | | |1812.| - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | |1813.| - | | |FERDINAND VII. |1814.| - | | | | | - +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+-----+ - - - - - APPENDIX II. - - THE RULERS OF THE SECOND-RATE POWERS OF EUROPE, 1789–1815. - - - +----+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+ - | | Sweden. | Denmark. | Turkey. | Portugal. | - | | | | | | - +----+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+ - |1789|Gustavus III. |Christian VII. |Abdul Hamid. |Maria I. | - | | (Since 1771.) | (Since 1766.) | (Since 1774.) |(Since 1777.) | - | | | |Selim III. | | - | | | | (April.) | | - |1790| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1791| | | | | - | |Gustavus IV. | | | | - |1792| (March.) | | | | - | | | | | | - |1793| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1794| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1795| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1796| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1797| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1798| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1799| | | |_Prince John, | - | | | | | Regent._ | - |1800| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1801| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1802| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1803| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1804| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1805| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1806| | | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - |1807| | |Mustapha IV. | | - | | | | (May.) | | - |1808| |Frederick VI. |Mahmoud II. | | - | | | (March.) | (July.) | | - |1809|Charles XIII. | | | | - | | (May.) | | | | - |1810|_Bernadotte, | | | | - | | Prince Royal | | | | - | | (Aug.)_ | | | | - |1811| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1812| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1813| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1814| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1815| | | | | - +----+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+ - - +----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----+ - | Sardinia. | The Two | Bavaria. | Würtemburg. | | - | | Sicilies. | | | | - +----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----+ - |Victor Amadeus |Ferdinand IV. |Charles |Charles Eugène. |1789| - | III. (Since | (Since 1759.) |Theodore. (Since| (Since 1735.) | | - | 1773.) | | 1777.) | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | |1790| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1791| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1792| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1793| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1794| - | | | | | | - | | | |Frederick |1795| - | | | | Eugène. (Oct.) | | - |Charles Emmanuel| | | |1796| - | IV. (Oct.) | | | | | - | | | |Frederick I. |1797| - | | | | (Dec.) | | - | | | | |1798| - | | | | | | - | | |Maximilian | |1799| - | | | Joseph. | | | - | | | | |1800| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1801| - | | | | | | - |Victor Emmanuel | | | |1802| - | I. (June.) | | | | | - | | | | |1803| - | |----------------| | | | - | | Naples. | | |1804| - | |----------------| | | | - | | | | |1805| - | | | | | | - | |Joseph | | |1806| - | | Bonaparte | | | | - | | (March.) | | | | - | | | | |1807| - | | | | | | - | |Joachim Murat. | | |1808| - | | (August.) | | | | - | | | | |1809| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1810| - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | |1811| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1812| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1813| - | | | | | | - | |Ferdinand IV | | |1814| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1815| - +----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----+ - - - - - APPENDIX III. - - THE FAMILY OF NAPOLEON. - - - Charles Bonaparte == - b. 1746, d. 1785. | - +-----------------------------------------------------+------------------+------------- - | | - JOSEPH Alexandre ==(1779) Josephine = (1) NAPOLEON (1810) - b. 1768, de Beauharnais,| Tascher b. 1769, Marie - d. 1844. b. 1760, | de la d. 1821. Louise, - King of d. 1794. | Pagerie, of Austria, - Naples, | b. 1763, b. 1791, - 1806–1808. | d. 1814. d. 1847. - King of | Duchess of - Spain, | Parma, - 1808–1814. | 1815–47. - =(1794), | - Marie Julie | - Clary. | - | | - +-+---------+ +---------------------------------+ - | | | | - | | | | - Zénaide, Charlotte, Eugène de == (1806) Augusta Hortense, NAPOLEON II., - b. 1801, b. 1802, Beauharnais | of Bavaria. b. 1783, b. 1811, d. 1832, - d. 1854, d. 1839, b. 1781, | d. 1837, King of Rome, - =1822, =1827, d. 1824. | =1802, 1811. - her her Viceroy of | Louis Duke of - cousin, cousin, Italy, 1805–1814.| Bonaparte, Reichstadt, 1818. - Charles Napoleon Duke of | King of - Lucien, Louis, son Leuchtenberg. | Holland. - Prince of Louis. and had issue. | - of _s.p._ | - Canino | - | | - and had | - issue. | - | - +----------+---------------- - | | - Napoleon Napoleon == (1827) - Charles, Louis, | Charlotte - b. 1802, b. 1804, | Bonaparte. - d. 1807, d. 1831. | - chosen as Grand | - Napoleon’s Duke of | - heir Berg, | - (1805). 1808–1814. | - _s.p._ - - - Letizia Ramolino, - b. 1750, d. 1839. - ----+-------------+------------+-----------+------------+------------+ - | | | | | | - LUCIEN, LOUIS, JÉROME, ÉLISA, PAULINE, CAROLINE, - b. 1775, b. 1778, b. 1784, b. 1777, b. 1780, b. 1782, - d. 1840, d. 1846, d. 1860, d. 1820, d. 1825, d. 1839, - Prince of King of King of Grand Duchess of =(1800), - Canino, Holland Westphalia Duchess of Guastalla Joachim - =(1794), (1806–1810) (1807–1814) Tuscany (1808–1814), Murat, - Christine =(1802), =(1803) (1808–1814), =(1801), King of - Boyer, Hortense Eliza =(1797), Charles Naples - =(1802), de Beau- Patterson Felix Leclerc, (1808–1814), - Alexandrine harnais. =(1807) Baciocchi, =(1803), | - de Bleschamp, | Catherine | Camillo, | - | | of Würtem- | Prince and had - | | burg. and had Borghese. issue. - and had | | issue. | - issue. | | | - | | Napoleon, - | | b. 1801, - | | d. 1804. - | | - | +------+--------+---------+ - | | | | - | Jérome Napoleon Mathilde, - | Napoleon, Joseph, b. 1820, - | b. 1814, _Prince =Prince - | d. 1847. Napoleon_ Demidov. - | b. 1822, - | d. 1890, - | =(1859), - | Clothilde - | of Savoy. - | | - | +---------+---------+ - ----------+-------+ | | | - | | | | - NAPOLEON III.,==(1853) Eugénie Victor Louis Lætitia, - b. 1808, d. 1873. | de Montijo. Napoleon, Napoleon, b. 1866, - Emperor of the | b. 1862. b. 1864. =Duke of - French (1851–1870).| Aosta. - | - Napoleon Eugène, - Prince Imperial, - (1856–1879). - - - - - APPENDIX IV. - - NAPOLEON’S MARSHALS. - - - +-------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------ - | | | General | General | - | Names. | Born. | of | of | MARSHAL. - | | | Brigade. | Division. | - +-------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------ - |BERTHIER, |20 Nov. 1753 |22 May 1792 |13 June 1795 |19 May 1804 - | Louis Alexandre. | | (Maréchal | | - | | | de Camp) | | - | | | | | - |MURAT, Joachim. |25 March 1767|10 May 1796 |25 July 1799 | „ - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |MONCEY, Bon |31 July 1754 |18 Feb. 1794 | 9 June 1794 | „ - | Adrien Jeannot. | | | | - | | | | | - |JOURDAN, Jean |29 April 1762|27 May 1793 |30 July 1793 | „ - |Baptiste. | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |MASSÉNA, André. | 6 May 1756 |22 Aug. 1793 |20 Dec. 1793 | „ - | | | | | - | | | | | - |AUGEREAU, Charles |21 Oct. 1757 | .. |25 Dec. 1793 | „ - | Pierre François. | | | | - | | | | | - |BERNADOTTE, Jean |26 Jan. 1763 |26 June 1794 |22 Oct. 1794 | „ - | Baptiste Jules. | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |SOULT, Jean de |29 March 1769|11 Oct. 1794 |21 April 1799| „ - | Dieu Nicolas. | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |BRUNE, Guillaume |13 May 1763 | .. |17 Aug. 1797 | „ - | Marie Anne. | | | | - | | | | | - |LANNES, Jean. |11 April 1769|17 March 1797|10 May 1799 | „ - | | | | | - | | | | | - |MORTIER, Adolphe |13 Feb. 1768 |23 Feb. 1799 |25 Sept. 1799| „ - | Édouard Casimir | | | | - | Joseph. | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |NEY, Michel. |10 Jan. 1769 | 1 Aug. 1796 |28 March 1799| „ - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |DAVOUT, Louis |10 May 1770 |24 Sept. 1794| 3 July 1800 | „ - | Nicolas. | | | | - | | | | | - |BESSIÈRES, Jean | 6 Aug. 1768 |18 July 1800 |13 Sept. 1802| „ - | Baptiste. | | | | - | | | | | - |KELLERMANN, |28 May 1735 |9 March 1788 |19 March 1792| „ - | François | | (Maréchal | (Lieut.- | - | Christophe. | | de Camp) | General) | - | | | | | - |LEFEBVRE, François |15 Oct. 1755 | 2 Dec. 1793 |10 Jan. 1794 | „ - | Joseph. | | | | - | | | | | - |PÉRIGNON, Dominique|31 May 1754 | .. |25 Dec. 1793 | „ - | Catherine de. | | | | - | | | | | - |SÉRURIER, Jean | 8 Dec. 1742 |22 Aug. 1793 |13 June 1795 | „ - | Mathieu | | | | - | Philibert. | | | | - | | | | | - |VICTOR, Victor | 7 Dec. 1764 |20 Dec. 1793 |10 March 1797|13 July 1807 - | Claude Perrin, | | | | - | _called_. | | | | - | | | | | - |MACDONALD, Jacques |17 Nov. 1765 |26 Aug. 1793 |28 Nov. 1794 |12 July 1809 - | Étienne Joseph | | | | - | Alexandre. | | | | - | | | | | - |OUDINOT, Nicolas |25 April 1767|14 |June 1794|12 April 1799| „ - | Charles. | | | | - | | | | | - |MARMONT, Auguste |20 July 1774 |10 June 1798 | 9 Sept. 1800| „ - | Frédéric Louis | | | | - | Viesse de. | | | | - | | | | | - |SUCHET, Louis |2 March 1770 |23 March 1798|10 July 1799 | 8 July 1811 - | Gabriel. | | | | - | | | | | - |GOUVION-SAINT-CYR, |13 April 1764|10 June 1794 | 2 Sept. 1794|27 Aug. 1812 - | Laurent. | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |PONIATOWSKI, | 7 May 1762 | .. | .. | Oct. 1813 - | Joseph, Prince. | | | | - | | | | | - |GROUCHY, |23 Oct. 1766 |7 Sept. 1792 |13 June 1795 |17 Apr. 1815 - | Emmanuel de. | | | | - +-------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------ - - +----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+ - | Titles. | Notes. | - +----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+ - |Prince-Duke of Neufchâtel 15 March|Peer of France 1814; committed suicide| - | 1806; Prince of Wagram 31 Dec. | or was murdered at Bamberg 1 June | - | 1809. | 1815. | - | | | - |Prince 1 Feb. 1805; Grand Duke of |Shot at Pizzo in Italy 13 Oct. 1815. | - | Berg 15 March 1806; King of | | - | Naples 1 Aug. 1808. | | - | | | - |Duke of Conegliano 2 July 1808. |Governor of the Hôtel des Invalides | - | | 1833–42; diedat Paris 20 April 1842.| - | | | - |Count 1 March 1808. |Peer of France 1814 and 1819; Governor| - | | of the Hôtel des Invalides 1830–33; | - | | died at Paris 23 Nov. 1833. | - | | | - |Duke of Rivoli 24 April 1808; |Died at Paris 4 April 1817. | - | of Essling 31 Jan. 1810. | | - | | | - |Duke of Castiglione 26 April 1808.|Peer of France 1814; died at | - | | La Houssaye 12 June 1816. | - | | | - |Prince of Ponte Corvo 5 June 1806;|King of Sweden 5 Feb. 1818; died at | - | Crown Prince of Sweden 21 Aug. | Stockholm 8 March 1844. | - | 1810. | | - | | | - |Duke of Dalmatia 29 June 1808. |Minister for War Dec. 1814-March 1815;| - | | Peer of France June 1815; exiled | - | | 1815–19; Peer of France 1827; | - | | Minister for War 1830–34, 1840–45; | - | | Marshal-General 1847; died at Saint | - | | Amans 26 Nov. 1851. | - | | | - |Count 1 March 1808. |Peer of France 2 June 1815; murdered | - | | at Avignon 2 Aug. 1815. | - | | | - |Duke of Montebello 15 June 1808. |Mortally wounded at the battle of | - | | Aspern; died at Vienna 31 May 1809. | - | | | - |Duke of Treviso 2 July 1808. |Peer of France 1814 and 1819; | - | | Ambassador to Russia 1830–31; | - | | Chancellor of the Legion of Honour | - | | 1831; Minister for War 1834–35; | - | | killed by the explosion of an | - | | infernal machine at Paris 28 July | - | | 1835. | - | | | - |Duke of Elchingen, 5 May 1808; |Peer of France 1814; shot at Paris 7 | - | Prince of the Moskowa 25 March | Dec. 1815. | - | 1813. | | - | | | - |Duke of Auerstädt 2 July 1808; |Minister for War 1815; Peer of France | - | Prince of Eckmühl 28 Nov. 1809. | at Paris 1 June 1823. | - | | | - |Duke of Istria 28 May 1809. |Killed at Lutzen 1 May 1813. | - | | | - | | | - |Count 1 March 1808; Duke of Valmy |Peer of France 1814; died at Paris 13 | - | 2 May 1808. | Sept. 1820. | - | | | - |Count 1 March 1808; Duke of |Peer of France 1814 and 1819; died at | - | Dantzic 10 Sept. 1808. | Paris 14 Sept. 1820. | - | | | - |Count 6 Sept. 1811. |Peer of France 1814; created a Marquis| - | | 1817; died at Paris 25 Dec. 1818. | - | | | - |Count 1 March 1808. |Governor of the Hôtel des Invalides, | - | | 1804–15; Peer of France 1814; died | - | | at Paris 21 Dec. 1819. | - | | | - |Duke of Belluno 10 Sept. 1808. |Peer of France 1815; Minister of War | - | | 1821–23; died at Paris 1 March 1841.| - | | | - |Duke of Taranto 9 Dec. 1809. |Peer of France 1814; Chancellor of the| - | | Legion of Honour 1815–31; died at | - | | Courcelles 7 Sept. 1840. | - | | | - |Count 2 July 1808; Duke of Reggio |Peer of France 1814; Chancellor of the| - | 14 April 1810. | Legion of Honour 1839–47; Governor | - | | of the Hôtel des Invalides 1842–47; | - | | died at Paris 13 Sept 1847. | - | | | - |Duke of Ragusa 28 June 1808. |Peer of France 1814; Ambassador to | - | | Russia 1826–28; died at Venice 22 | - | | July 1852. | - | | | - |Count 24 June 1808; Duke of |Peer of France 1814 and 1819; died | - | Albufera 3 Jan. 1813. | near Marseilles 3 Jan. 1826. | - | | | - |Count 3 May 1808. |Peer of France 1814; Minister for War | - | | July-Sept. 1815, 1817–19; created a | - | | Marquis 1819; died at Hyères 17 | - | | March 1830. | - | | | - | .... |Drowned in the Elster at the battle of| - | | Leipzig 19 Oct. 1813. | - | | | - |Count 28 Jan. 1809. |Exiled 1815–20; restored as Marshal | - | | 1831; died 29 May 1847. | - +----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+ - - - - - APPENDIX V. - - NAPOLEON’S MINISTERS DURING THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE 1799–1814. - - - +-----+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------- - | | Foreign Affairs. | Interior. | Finances. | War. - +-----+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------- - |1799.|9 Nov. Charles |12 Nov. Pierre Simon|10 Nov. Martin |10 Nov. Louis - | |Maurice de | LAPLACE. | Michel | Alexandre BERTHIER. - | |TALLEYRAND-PÉRIGORD.| (Count 24 April | Charles GAUDIN. | - | |(Prince of Benevento| 1808.) | (Count 26 April | - | | 5 June 1806.) | | 1808; Duke of Gaeta| - | | | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | - | | | | | - | „ | „ |25 Dec. Lucien | „ | „ - | | | BONAPARTE. | | - | | | | | - |1800.| „ | „ | „ |12 April. Lazare - | | | | | Nicolas - | | | | | Marguerite CARNOT. - | | | | | - | „ | „ |6 Nov. Jean Antoine | „ |8 Oct. Louis - | | | CHAPTAL. | | Alexandre BERTHIER. - | | | (Count 26 April | | (Prince of - | | | 1808; | | Neufchâtel - | | | Count of Chanteloup| | 13 March 1806; - | | | 25 March 1810.) | | Prince of Wagram - | | | | | 31 Dec. 1809.) - | | | | | - |1801.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1802.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1803.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1804.| „ |1 Aug. Jean Baptiste| „ | „ - | | | Nompère de | | - | | | CHAMPAGNY. | | - | | | | | - |1805.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1806.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1807.|8 Aug. Jean Baptiste|9 Aug. Emmanuel | „ |9 Aug. Henrí Jacques - | | Nompère de | CRETET. (Count of | | Guillaume CLARKE. - | |CHAMPAGNY. (Count 24| Champmol 26 | | (Count of Hunebourg - | | April 1808; | April 1808.) | | 24 April 1808; Duke - | | Duke of Cadore | | | of Feltre 15 Aug. - | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | | | 1809.) - | | | | | - |1808.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1809.| „ |1 Oct. Jean Pierre | „ | „ - | | | Bachasson de | | - | | | MONTALIVET. | | - | | | (Comte 27 Nov. | | - | | | 1808.) | | - | | | | | - |1810.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1811.|17 April. Hugues | „ | „ | „ - | | Bernard MARET. | | | - | | (Count 3 May 1809; | | | - | | Duke of Bassano | | | - | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | | | - | | | | | - |1812.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1813.|20 Nov. Armand | „ | „ | „ - | | Augustin Louis | | | - | | CAULAINCOURT. (Duke| | | - | | of Vicenza 7 June | | | - | | 1808.) | | | - | | | | | - |1814.| „ | „ | „ | „ - +-----+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------- - - +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-----+ - | Marine. | Justice. | Police. | Public Worship. | | - +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-----| - | 24 Nov. Pierre |19 July. Jean | 20 July. Joseph | |1799.| - | Alexandre | Jacques Régis | FOUCHÉ. | | | - | Laurent FORFAIT. | CAMBACÉRES. (Duke | | | | - | | of Parma 24 April | | | | - | | 1808.) | | | | - | | | | | | - | „ |25 Dec. André Joseph| | | „ | - | | ABRIAL. | | | | - | | (Count 26 April | | | | - | | 1808.) | | | | - | „ | | | |1800.| - | | | | | | - | „ | | | | „ | - | | | | | | - |1 Oct. Denis DECRÈS.| | | |1801.| - | (Count June 1808; | | | | | - |Duke 28 April 1813.)| | | | | - | | | | | | - | „ |15 Sept. Claude |15 Sept. (_Ministry | |1802.| - | | Ambroise REGNIER. | abolished._) | | | - | | (Count 24 April | | | | - | |1808; Duke of Massa | | | | - | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | | | | - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | | |1803.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ |10 July. Joseph | July. Jean Étienne |1804.| - | | | FOUCHÉ. (Count 24 | Marie PORTALIS. | | - | | | April 1808; | | | - | | | Duke of Otranto | | | - | | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | | | - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1805.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1806.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | Aug. Félix Julíen |1807.| - | | | | Jean BIGOT DE | | - | | | | PRÉAMENEU. | | - | | | | (Count 24 April | | - | | | | 1808.) | | - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1808.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1809.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | June 8. Anne Jean | „ |1810.| - | | | Marie René SAVARY.| | | - | | | (Duke of Rovigo | | | - | | | 1808.) | | | - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1811.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1812.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1813.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | | |1814.| - +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-----+ - - - - - APPENDIX VI. - - CONCORDANCE OF THE REPUBLICAN AND GREGORIAN CALENDARS - -(Extracted from Stephens’ _History of the French Revolution_, vol. ii. - (Longmans and Co.)) - - - +----------------------+------------------+------------------+------------------ - | | YEAR II. | YEAR III. | YEAR IV. - | | 1793–1794. | 1794–1795. | 1795–1796. - +----------------------+------------------+------------------+------------------ - | | | | - | 1 Vendémiaire, |22 September 1793.|22 September 1794.|23 September 1795. - |11 „ | 2 October. | 2 October. | 3 October. - |21 „ |12 October. |12 October. |13 October. - | 1 Brumaire, |22 October. |22 October. |23 October. - |11 „ | 1 November. | 1 November. | 2 November. - |21 „ |11 November. |11 November. |12 November. - | 1 Frimaire, |21 November. |21 November. |22 November. - |11 „ | 1 December. | 1 December. | 2 December. - |21 „ |11 December. |11 December. |12 December. - | 1 Nivôse, |21 December. |21 December. |22 December. - |11 „ |31 December. |31 December. | 1 January 1796. - |21 „ |10 January 1794. |10 January 1795. |11 January. - | 1 Pluviôse, |20 January. |20 January. |21 January. - |11 „ |30 January. |30 January. |31 January. - |21 „ | 9 February. | 9 February. |10 February. - | 1 Ventôse, |19 February. |19 February. |20 February. - |11 „ | 1 March. | 1 March. | 1 March. - |21 „ |11 March. |11 March. |11 March. - | 1 Germinal, |21 March. |21 March. |21 March. - |11 „ |31 March. |31 March. |31 March. - |21 „ |10 April. |10 April. |10 April. - | 1 Floréal, |20 April. |20 April. |20 April. - |11 „ |30 April. |30 April. |30 April. - |21 „ |10 May. |10 May. |10 May. - | 1 Prairial, |20 May. |20 May. |20 May. - |11 „ |30 May. |30 May. |30 May. - |21 „ | 9 June. | 9 June. |9 June. - | 1 Messidor, |19 June. |19 June. |19 June. - |11 „ |29 June. |29 June. |29 June. - |21 „ | 9 July. | 9 July. | 9 July. - | 1 Thermidor, |19 July. |19 July. |19 July. - |11 „ |29 July. |29 July. |29 July. - |21 „ | 8 August. | 8 August. | 8 August. - |1 Fructidor, |18 August. |18 August. |18 August. - |11 „ |28 August. |28 August. |28 August. - |21 „ | 7 September. | 7 September. | 7 September. - |1st Complementary Day,| | | - | or ‘Sans-Culottide,’|17 September. |17 September. |17 September. - |5th Complementary Day,| | | - | or ‘Sans-Culottide,’|21 September. |21 September. |21 September. - |6th Complementary Day,| | | - | or ‘Sans-Culottide.’| |22 September. | - +----------------------+------------------+------------------+------------------ - -NOTE.--Each month in the Republican Calendar consisted of _thirty_ days. - - +------------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+ - | YEAR V. | YEAR VI. | YEAR VII. | YEAR VIII. | - | 1796–1797. | 1797–1798. | 1798–1799. | 1799–1800. | - +------------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+ - | | | | | - |22 September 1796.|22 September 1797.|22 September 1798.|23 September 1799.| - | 2 October. | 2 October. | 2 October. | 3 October. | - |12 October. |12 October. |12 October. |13 October. | - |22 October. |22 October. |22 October. |23 October. | - | 1 November. | 1 November. | 1 November. | 2 November. | - |11 November. |11 November. |11 November. |12 November. | - |21 November. |21 November. |21 November. |22 November. | - | 1 December. | 1 December. | 1 December. | 2 December. | - |11 December. |11 December. |11 December. |12 December. | - |21 December. |21 December. |21 December. |22 December. | - |31 December. |31 December. |31 December. | 1 January 1800. | - |10 January 1797. |10 January 1798. |10 January 1799. |11 January. | - |20 January. |20 January. |20 January. |21 January. | - |30 January. |30 January. |30 January. |31 January. | - | 9 February. | 9 February. | 9 February. |10 February. | - |19 February. |19 February. |19 February. |20 February. | - | 1 March. | 1 March. | 1 March. | 1 March. | - |11 March. |11 March. |11 March. |11 March. | - |21 March. |21 March. |21 March. |21 March. | - |31 March. |31 March. |31 March. |31 March. | - |10 April. |10 April. |10 April. |10 April. | - |20 April. |20 April. |20 April. |20 April. | - |30 April. |30 April. |30 April. |30 April. | - |10 May. |10 May. |10 May. |10 May. | - |20 May. |20 May. |20 May. |20 May. | - |30 May. |30 May. |30 May. |30 May. | - | 9 June. | 9 June. | 9 June. | 9 June. | - |19 June. |19 June. |19 June. |19 June. | - |29 June. |29 June. |29 June. |29 June. | - | 9 July. | 9 July. | 9 July. | 9 July. | - |19 July. |19 July. |19 July. |19 July. | - |29 July. |29 July. |29 July. |29 July. | - | 8 August. | 8 August. | 8 August. | 8 August. | - |18 August. |18 August. |18 August. |18 August. | - |28 August. |28 August. |28 August. |28 August. | - | 7 September. | 7 September. | 7 September. | 7 September. | - | | | | | - |17 September. |17 September. |17 September. |17 September. | - | | | | | - |21 September. |21 September. |21 September. |21 September. | - | | | | | - | .. | .. |22 September. | .. | - +------------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+ - - - - - MAPS. - - Map 1. Europe in 1789. - „ 2. Europe in 1803. - „ 3. Europe in 1810. - „ 4. Europe in 1815. - -These maps are intended to show the limits of the principal states of -Europe at the beginning of 1789, after the rearrangement in 1803, at -the height of Napoleon’s power in 1810, and according to the settlement -made by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. - -The same colouring has been preserved through the series of maps in -order that the boundaries of each country may be compared at these -different dates. - -The red line in Map 1 marks the boundary of the Holy Roman Empire. - -The area in Germany left uncoloured—in all four maps—was occupied by -various states too small in size to be indicated by colours. - -[Illustration: EUROPE IN 1789. - -Period VII. John Bartholomew & Co., Edin^r. - -_The Red line marks the limits of the Holy Roman Empire._] - -[Illustration: EUROPE IN 1803. - -Period VII. John Bartholomew & Co., Edin^r.] - -[Illustration: EUROPE IN 1810. - -Period VII. John Bartholomew & Co., Edin^r.] - -[Illustration: EUROPE IN 1815. - -Period VII. John Bartholomew & Co., Edin^r.] - - - - - INDEX - - -The dates given in brackets are those of the birth and death of the -person indexed; where only the date of death is known it is preceded by -a ♰. - -Full names and titles are given. - -Proper names commencing with ‘da,’ ‘de,’ ‘d’,’ are indexed under the -succeeding initial letter. - - - Abdul Hamid (1725–89), Sultan of Turkey, 44. - - Abensberg, battle of (20 April 1809), 272. - - Abercromby, Sir Ralph, English general (1735–1801), 224. - - Aberdeen, George Gordon, Earl of, English diplomatist (1784–1860), - 301, 311, 316, 323. - - Abo, treaty of (April 1812), 302. - - Aboukir Bay, French fleet defeated in, by Nelson (1 August 1798), 195. - - Abrantes, Duke of. _See_ Junot. - - Abrial, André Joseph, Comte, French statesman (1750–1828), 216. - - Acre, siege of (1799), 208. - - Acton, Joseph, Neapolitan statesman (1737–1808), 23. - - Adda, the, Bonaparte forces the passage of, at Lodi (1796), 174; - Suvórov, at Cassano (1799), 203. - - Addington, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, English statesman (1757–1844), - 225. - - Additional Act, the, declared by Napoleon (23 April 1815), 352. - - Adige, the, Italy up to, ceded to Austria by treaty of Campo-Formio - (1797), 192; - by treaty of Lunéville (1801), 220; - Austrian positions on, turned by Macdonald (1800), 219. - - Adlersparre, George, Baron, Swedish general (1760–1837), 279. - - Aix-la-Chapelle, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35, 150, 230, - 344. - - Albuera, battle of (16 May 1811), 297. - - Albufera, battle of (26 Dec. 1811), 297. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Suchet. - - Aldenhoven, battle of (2 Oct. 1794), 150. - - Alessandria, fortress built at, by Victor Amadeus III., 27, 203, 204, - 218. - - Alexander I., Emperor of Russia (1777–1825), attitude at his - accession, 234; - joins coalition against France, 242, 243; - defeated at Austerlitz, 244; - at Eylau and Friedland, 248, 249; - interview with Napoleon at Tilsit, 249, 250; - makes treaty of Tilsit, 250; - conquers Finland, 254, 278; - acquisitions in Poland, and dislike of Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 261; - interview with Napoleon at Erfurt, 262; - conduct in 1809, 274; - war with Turkey, 281; - makes treaty of Bucharest, 281; - refuses a sister to Napoleon, 294; - causes of dissension with Napoleon, 299–301; - makes treaty of Abo with Bernadotte, 302; - summons Stein to his Court, 304; - his policy of retreat before Napoleon (1812), 305; - fights battle of Borodino, 305; - negotiates with Napoleon, 306; - forms friendship with Frederick William III. of Prussia, 308; - distrust of Napoleon, 310; - agrees to Proposals of Frankfort, 316; - desires to invade France, 317; - refuses to retreat, 319, 320; - enters Paris, 329; - influenced by Talleyrand, 329, 330; - speech to the French Senate, 330, 331; - greatness of his share in overthrowing Napoleon, 334; - at the Congress of Vienna, 337; - his desire for the whole of Poland, 339; - forced to give way, 340, 341; - gave constitution to Poland, 342; - protected Murat and Eugène de Beauharnais, 345; - signs treaty against Napoleon (1815), 350; - opposes partition of France, 354; - joins the Holy Alliance, 355. - - Alexandria, 195, 224. - - Alicante, Bentinck repulsed at (1812), 307. - - Alkmaar, Convention of (18 Oct. 1799), 205. - - Almeida, siege of (1811), 296. - - Alps, French reach the summit of Mont Cenis (1795), 151; - Suvórov crosses (1799), 204, 205; - Bonaparte (1800), 218; - Macdonald (1800), 219. - - Alsace, rights of the Princes of the Empire in, 79; - proposals of Mirabeau and Merlin, 80; - letter of Leopold on, 89, 90; - _conclusion_ of the Diet of the Empire on, 108; - invaded by Würmser, 130, 139; - recovered by the French (1794), 140; - proposal to detach from France (1815), 354. - - Altdorf, Suvórov reaches (1799), 204. - - Altenkirchen, battle of (20 Sept. 1796), 178. - - Alton, Richard, Count d’, Austrian general (1732–90), 43, 47, 48, 63, - 64. - - Alvensleben, Philip Charles, Count von, Prussian statesman - (1745–1802), 153, 170, 179. - - Alvinzi (Alvinczy), Joseph, Austrian general (1735–1810), 176. - - America, South, 264, 358. - - —— United States of. _See_ United States. - - _Ami du Peuple,_ Marat’s journal, 61. - - Amiens, treaty of (1802), 225. - - Amnesty, general, decreed by the Convention (1795), 166. - - —— law of, promulgated (1815), 357. - - Amsterdam, 32, 149, 255. - - Ancients, Council of. _See_ Council. - - Ancona, 175, 207, 277. - - Angoulême, Maria Thérèse Charlotte, Duchess of, daughter of Louis XVI. - (1778–1851), 168. - - —— Louis Antoine, Duke of, son of the Comte d’Artois (1775–1844), 326, - 327. - - Anhalt, the Dukes of, Princes of the Empire (1789), 34, 343. - - Anhalt-Köthen, Louis, Duke of (1761–1819), 293. - - Anhalt-Zerbst, the Empress Catherine, a princess of, 18. - - Ankarström, John James, Swedish officer (1761–1792), 110. - - Anselme, Jacques Bernard Modeste d’, French general (1740–1812), 117. - - Anspach, Napoleon violates Prussian neutrality by marching through - (1805), 244. - - Antwerp, riot against the Austrians suppressed at (1788), 47; - abandoned to the Belgian patriots (1789), 64; - Napoleon’s buildings at, 276; - Carnot’s defence of (1814), 321; - its retention cause of Napoleon’s fall, 324. - - Aoust, Eustache, Comte d’, French general (1764–94), 140. - - Appenzell, democratic canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte - (1803), 228. - - Aranda, Don Pedro Pablo Abaracay Bolea, Count of, Spanish statesman - (1718–99), 4, 21, 126. - - Archbishop-Electors of the Holy Roman Empire, 34, 39, 40. - - Arcis-sur-Aube battle of (20 March 1814), 328. - - Arcola, battle of (16 Nov. 1796), 176. - - Aremberg, Louis Engelbert, Duke of (1750–1820), 93. - - —— Prosper Louis, Duke of (1785–1863), 282. - - Argau, canton of Switzerland, formed by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - recognised by Congress of Vienna (1815), 344. - - Aristocracy, Napoleon’s, 286. - - Armistices: Cherasco (1796), 174; - Foligno (1796), 175; - Giurgevo (1790), 88; Pleswitz (1813), 309. - - Arndt, Ernest Maurice, German poet (1769–1862), 291. - - Arragon, Suchet’s campaigns in, 275, 295. - - Arras, atrocities of Le Bon at (1794), 139. - - Artois, Charles Philippe, Comte d’, younger brother of Louis XVI., - afterwards King Charles X. of France (1757–1836), 55, 59, 102, - 139, 167, 172, 351. - - Aschaffenburg, principality of, granted to the Elector of Mayence, - 225, 260. - - Aspern or Essling, battle of (21, 22 May 1809), 273. - - Assignats issued in France, 74; - their effect, 98. - - Aubert-Dubayet, Jean Baptiste Annibal, French general (1759–1797), - 166, 182. - - Auckland, William Eden, Lord, English diplomatist (1744–1814), 65, 93. - - Auerstädt, battle of (14 Oct. 1806), 247. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Davout. - - Augereau, Charles Pierre François, Duke of Castiglione, French general - (1757–1816), 191, 219, 321; App. iv. - - Augsburg, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 34. - - —— bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), 227. - - —— city of, a free city of the Empire (1789), 35; - taken by Moreau (1800), 219; - maintained as a free city (1803), 226; - Masséna’s headquarters (1809), 272. - - Augusta, Princess, of Bavaria married to Eugène de Beauharnais, 258. - - Augustus, Prince, of Prussia (1779–1843), 337. - - Aulic Council, the, 35. - - Austerlitz, battle of (2 Dec. 1805), 244. - - Austria, position in 1789, 14–17; - influence in the Empire, 35; - obtained cessions by the treaty of Sistova (1791), 88; - got nothing in the second partition of Poland (1793), 122; - received Cracow, etc. at third partition of Poland (1795), 152; - received Venice for Lombardy by treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), 192; - and by treaty of Lunéville (1801), 220; - obtained Trent and Brixen, but lost much influence in the - resettlement of Germany (1803), 226; - formed into an empire (1805), 236; - lost Venice, Istria, the Tyrol, etc. by treaty of Pressburg (1805), - 245; - lost Trieste, Galicia, Salzburg, etc. by treaty of Vienna (1809), - 274; - at Congress of Vienna (1814) got back Cracow, 342, and Lombardy and - Venetia, 347. - _See_ Francis II., Joseph II., Leopold II. - - Austrian Netherlands. _See_ Belgium. - - Auvergne, movement against the Convention in (1793), 131. - - Avignon, city of, wishes to join France (1790), 76; - secured to France by first treaty of Paris (1814), 333; - and by second treaty of Paris (1815), 354. - - - Babeuf, François Noël (Gracchus), French socialist (1764–97), 181. - - Badajoz, treaty of (1801), 223; - taken by Soult (1810), 296; - by Wellington (1812), 306. - - Baden, condition in 1789, 37; - made an electorate (1803), 225; - increased by the secularisations (1803), 227; - made a grand duchy (1806), 245; - received Ortenau and the Breisgau (1809), 258; - a state of the Confederation of the Rhine (1808), 260; - of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - _See_ Charles Frederick, Charles Louis Frederick. - - Bagration, Peter, Prince, Russian general (1762–1812), 281, 305. - - Bailly, Jean Sylvain, French statesman (1736–93), 53, 59, 138. - - Baird, Sir David, English general (1757–1829), 224. - - Ball, Sir Alexander John, English admiral (1759–1809), 195. - - Baltic Sea, effort to exclude English commerce from, 222; - command of, given to Russia and Prussia by the Congress of Vienna, - 347. - - Bamberg, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical prince of the Holy Roman Empire, - 34. - - —— bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), 227. - - Bank of France, founded by Bonaparte, 215. - - Bantry Bay, French expedition to (1796), 185. - - Barbé-Marbois, François, Comte de, French statesman (1745–1837), 188, - 191, 214. - - Barclay de Tolly, Michael, Prince, Russian general (1755–1818), 305, - 309, 313. - - Barentin, Charles Louis François de - Paule de, French minister (1738–1819), 51. - - Barère, Bertrand, French orator (1755–1841), 117, 133, 134, 145, 149, - 155. - - Barnave, Antoine Pierre Joseph - Marie, French politician (1761–93), 100. - - Barras, Paul François Jean Nicolas, - Comte de, French statesman (1755–1829), 147, 164, 165; - nominates Bonaparte to command the armyof Italy, 174; - his attitude as a Director, 181; - co-operates in _coup d’état_ of Fructidor 1797, 191; - only original Director left (July 1799), 209, 210; - resigns (Nov. 1799), 211. - - Barrosa, battle of (5 March 1811), 297. - - Bartenstein, treaty of (April 1807), 248. - - Barthélemy, François, Marquis de, - French diplomatist (1747–1830), 156, 188, 189, 191. - - Basire, Claude, French politician (1764–94), 117. - - Basle, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical - prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34, 41; - with fiefs in Alsace, 79. - - —— bishopric of, part ceded to Baden (1803), 227; - part to canton of Berne (1815), 345. - - —— canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228. - - —— treaties of (1795), 156, 157. - - Basque Roads, affair in the (1809), 276. - - Bassano, Duke of. _See_ Maret. - - Bastille, capture of the (14 July 1789), 57, 58. - - Batavian Republic founded (1795), 150; - imitates the French constitutions, 193; - turned into the kingdom of Holland (1806), 254, 255. - - Battles: Abensberg (1809), 272; - Albuera (1811), 297; - Albufera (1811), 297; - Aldenhoven (1794), 150; - Alexandria (1801), 224; - Altenkirchen (1796), 178; - Arcis-sur-Aube (1814), 328; - Arcola (1796), 176; - Aspern (Essling) (1809), 273; - Auerstädt (1806), 247; - Austerlitz (1805), 244; - Barrosa (1811), 297; - Bautzen (1813), 309; - Bergen (1799), 205; - Biberach (1800), 219; - Borodino (1812), 305; - Braila (1809), 281; - Brienne (1814), 319; - Burgos (1808), 269; - Busaco (1810), 296; - Cairo (1799), 208; - Caldiero (1796), 176; - Caldiero (1805), 244; - Camperdown (1797), 194; - Cassano (1799), 203; - Castiglione (1796), 175; - Ceva (1796), 174; - Champaubert (1814), 319; - Copenhagen (1801), 222; - Corunna (1809), 270; - Craonne (1814), 328; - Dego (1796), 174; - Dennewitz (1813), 313; - Dresden (1813), 312; - Dubienka (1792), 122; - Eckmühl (1809), 273; - Elchingen (1805), 244; - Engen (1800), 219; - Espinosa (1808), 269; - Essling (Aspern) (1809), 273; - Ettlingen (1796), 178; - Eylau (1807), 248; - Famars (1793), 130; - Figueras (1794), 150; - First of June (1794), 145; - Fleurus (1794), 144; - Foksany (1788), 45; - Friedland (1807), 249; - Fuentes de Onor (1811), 297; - the Geisberg (1793), 140; - Genola (1799), 204; - Giurgevo (1790), 88; - Gross-Beeren (1813), 312; - Gross-Gorschen (Lützen) (1813), 309; - Hanau (1813), 314; - Heliopolis (1800), 224; - Hohenlinden (1800), 219; - Hondschoten (1793), 140; - Jemmappes (1792), 118; - Jena (1806), 247; - Kaiserslautern (1794), 144; - the Katzbach (1813), 312; - Kioge (1807), 252; - Laon (1814), 328; - Leipzig (1813), 314; - Ligny (1815), 352; - Loano (1795), 151, 173; - Lodi (1796), 174; - Lützen (Gross-Gorschen) (1813), 309; - Maciejowice (1794), 152; - Magnano (1799), 202; - Maida (1806), 256; - Marengo (1800), 218; - Matchin (1791), 96; - Medellin (1809), 275; - Medina del Rio Seco (1808), 267; - Millesimo (1796), 174; - the Mincio (1814), 322; - Mœskirchen (1800), 219; - Mondovi (1796), 174; - Montebello (1800), 218; - Montenotte (1796), 174; - Montereau (1814), 319; - Montmirail (1814), 319; - Mount Tabor (1799), 208; - Nangis (1814), 319; - Neerwinden (1793), 127; - Neumarkt (1797), 186; - the Nile (Aboukir Bay) (1798), 195; - the Nive (1813), 316; - the Nivelle (1813), 316; - Novi (1799), 204; - Ocana (1809), 276; - Orthez (1814), 321; - Pacy-sur-Eure (1793), 131; - Paris (1814), 329; - the Pyramids (1798), 195; - Quatre Bras (1815), 352; - Raab (1809), 273; - Raclawice (1794), 151; - Rivoli (1797), 176; - Roliça (1808), 265; - the Rymnik (1788), 45; - Sacilio (1809), 273; - St. Vincent (1797), 183; - Salamanca (1812), 306; - Saorgio (1794), 144; - Silistria (1809), 281; - Stockach (1799), 202; - Svenska Sound (1790), 95; - Talavera (1809), 275, 276; - Tobac (1788), 45; - Tolentino (1815), 346; - Toulouse (1814), 332; - Trafalgar (1805), 245; - the Trebbia (1799), 203; - Tudela (1808), 269; - Unzmarkt (1797), 186; - Valmy (1792), 115; - Valsarno (1813), 315; - Vauchamps (1814), 319; - Vimeiro (1808), 265, 266; - Vittoria (1813), 315; - Wagram (1809), 274; - Waterloo (1815), 353; - Wattignies (1793), 140; - Zielence (1792), 121, 122; - Zurich (1799), 204. - - Bautzen, battle of (20 May 1813), 309. - - Bavaria, the Emperor Joseph’s designs on, 16, 17; - its Elector also Elector Palatine, 34; - condition in 1789, 37; - invaded by Moreau (1796), 178; - treaty of Pfaffenhofen, 180; - promised to Austria by Bonaparte (1797), 193; - occupied by Moreau (1800), 219; - increased by the secularisations (1803), 227; - invaded by the Austrians (1805), 243; - receives the Tyrol and becomes a kingdom (1806), 245; - receives Salzburg (1809), 257; - member of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - invaded by the Austrians (1809), 272; - great internal reforms, 289; - member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342; - receives Mayence for the Tyrol (1815), 344. _See_ Charles Theodore, - Maximilian Joseph. - - Baylen, capitulation of (1808), 267, 268. - - Bayonne besieged by the English (1813, 1814), 316, 321. - - Beauharnais, Eugène de, step-son of Napoleon (1781–1824), 236, 238, - 239, 244, 255, 256, 273, 308, 315, 321, 322, 345. - - Beaulieu, Jean Pierre, Baron de, Austrian general (1725–1820), 174. - - Beccaria, Cæsar Bonesana, Marquis de, Italian philosopher (1738–94), - 26. - - Belgium, opposition to the Emperor Joseph’s reforms in (1788), 15; - his apparent success, 43; - armed resistance in, 47; - abolition of Belgian liberties, 47, 48; - the Austrians driven from (1789), 64; - the Belgian Republic formed (Jan. 1790), 65; - struggle between the Van der Nootists and Vonckists, 92, 93; - reconquered by the Austrians (Dec. 1790), 94; - conquered by the French under Dumouriez (1792), 118; - annexed to the French Republic, 118; - rises against the French (1793), 126; - Dumouriez driven from (1793), 127; - reconquered by the French (1794), 144; - organised as part of the French Republic, 150; - cession to France agreed to by Austria at Leoben, 186; - and at Campo-Formio (1797), 192, 193; - organised into nine French departments, 230; - England insists on its separation from France, 318; - invaded by the Prince of Orange (1814), 321; - Napoleon refuses to give up, 324; - united with Holland into the kingdom of the Netherlands (1815), 344, - 360. - - Belgrade, taken by the Austrians (1789), 45. - - Bellegarde, Henri, Comte de, Austrian general (1755–1831), on the - Mincio (1814), 322. - - Belluno, Duke of. _See_ Victor. - - Bender, city of, taken by the Russians (1789), 45. - - —— Blaise Colombeau, Baron, Austrian general (1713–98), 65, 93, 94. - - Benevento, principality of, belonged to the Pope in 1789, 24; - Talleyrand made prince of, 277. - - Benezech, Pierre, French administrator (1745–1802), 166. - - Benningsen, Levin Augustus Theophilus, Count, Russian general - (1745–1826), 221, 248, 249, 311. - - Bentinck, Lord William Charles Cavendish, English general (1774–1839), - 307, 315, 322, 346. - - Beresford, William Carr, Viscount, English general (1770–1856), 266, - 297. - - Berg, grand duchy of, created for Murat (1806), its extent, 252; - member of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - conferred on son of Louis Bonaparte (1808), 283. - - Bergen, battles of (19 Sept. and 2 Oct. 1799), 205. - - Bergen-op-Zoom, English repulsed from (1814), 321. - - Berlin, occupied by Napoleon (1806), 247; - decree issued at (1807), 251; - University of, founded, 303, 304; - the French driven from (1813), 308. - - Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules, Prince of Ponte Corvo (1806), Prince - Royal of Sweden (1810), King Charles XIV. of Sweden (1818), - (1764–1844), French ambassador to Austria (1798), 197; - insulted at Vienna, 198; - Minister of War (1799), 210; - attacked by the Russians (1807), 247; - commanded the Saxons at Wagram (1809), 274; - Prince of Ponte Corvo, 277; - elected Prince Royal of Sweden (1810), 279; - signs treaty of Abo with Emperor Alexander (1812), 302; - intrigues with Napoleon, 307, 308; - invaded Germany (1813), 309; - wins battle of Gross-Beeren, 312; - and of Dennewitz, 313; - defeated the Danes and exchanged Pomerania for Norway (1814), 320; - rejected for throne of France, 330; - got Norway, but had to give up Guadeloupe (1815), 347; - one of Napoleon’s marshals, App. iv. - - Bernard, Great St., Bonaparte crosses (1800), 218. - - —— Little St., French reach the summit of (1795), 151. - - —— of Saintes, Adrien Antoine, French politician (1750–1819), 139. - - Berne, chief oligarchical canton of Switzerland in 1789, 41; - occupies Geneva (1792), 125; - occupied by the French (1798), 199; - Vaud and Argau separated from (1803), 228; - obtained part of the Bishopric of Basle (1815), 345. - - Bernis, François Joachim de Pierre, Cardinal de, French statesman - (1715–94), 19. - - Bernstorf, Count Andrew, Danish statesman (1735–97), 32, 46, 120. - - —— Count Christian, Danish statesman (1769–1835), 338. - - Berthier, Louis Alexandre, Prince of Neufchâtel and Wagram, French - general (1753–1815), 200, 216, 241, 239, 283, App. iv. - - —— de Sauvigny, Louis Bénigne François, French administrator - (1742–89), 59. - - Bessarabia, conquered by the Russians under Potemkin (1789), 45; - under Bagration (1810), 281; - part of, ceded to Russia by treaty of Bucharest, 281. - - Bessières, Jean Baptiste, Duke of Istria, French general (1768–1813), - 267, 297, 309, App. iv. - - Beugnot, Jacques Claude, Comte, French administrator (1761–1835), 331. - - Biberach, battle of (9 May 1800), 219. - - Bidassoa, the passage of, forced by the Spaniards (1739), 130; - by the French (1794), 140. - - Bigot de Préameneu, Félix Julien Jean, Comte, French jurist - (1747–1825), 215. - - Bilbao, taken by the French (1795), 151. - - Billaud-Varenne, Jacques Nicolas, French statesman (1756–1819), 193, - 134, 138, 139, 147, 149, 155. - - Biron, Armand Louis de Gontaut, Duc de, French general (1747–93), 138. - - Bischofswerder, Hans Rudolf, Baron von, Prussian statesman (♰1803), - 31, 87. - - Bishops, the Prince of Germany, 34, 39. - - Black Legion of Brunswick raised, 293. - - Blake, Joachim, Spanish general (♰1827), defeated at Albufera (1811), - 247. - - Blücher, Gebhard Lebrecht von, Prince of Wahlstatt, Prussian general - (1742–1819), 309, 312, 318, 319, 328, 329, 350, 352, 353, 355. - - Boeckh, Augustus, German scholar (1785–1861), 304. - - Bohemia, opposition to Joseph’s reforms in, 15; - the reforms suspended, 66; - pacified by Leopold, 84. - - Boissy-d’Anglas, François Antoine, Comte, French statesman - (1756–1826), 155, 165, 168, 182. - - Bologna, belonged to the Pope, 24; - occupied by Bonaparte (1796), 175; - merged in the Cisalpine Republic, 192; - in the kingdom of Italy, 255; - restored to the Pope (1815), 347. - - Bonaparte, Caroline, Queen of Naples. _See_ Caroline. - - Bonaparte, Elisa (1777–1820), 283. - - —— Jerome (1784–1860), King of Westphalia. _See_ Jerome. - - —— Joseph (1768–1844), 239 (1806), 255. _See_ Joseph. - - —— Louis (1778–1846), 239, 254, 255. _See_ Louis. - - —— Lucien (1775–1840), 210, 216, 223. - - —— Napoleon (1769–1821) at the siege of Toulon (1793), 140; - brings up artillery for the defence of the Convention (1795), 164; - defeats the insurgents of Vendémiaire, 165; - appointed to the command of the army of Italy (1796), 174; - defeats the Sardinians, 174; - conquers Lombardy, 174; - makes armistice with the Pope, 175; - defeats the Austrians at Castiglione, 175, at Arcola and Rivoli, - 176; - invades the Tyrol and signs Preliminaries of Leoben, 186; - opposed the Clichians, 189; - sends Augereau to Paris to help the Directors, 191; - formed the Cisalpine Republic, 192; - signs treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), 192; - commands army of the Interior, 194; - takes Malta and invades Egypt (1798), 195; - campaign in Syria (1799), 208; - returns to France, 208; - makes _coup d’état_ of 18 Brumaire, 210, 211; - provisional First Consul, 211; - First Consul, 214; - internal policy, 215; - forms the Bank of France and Code Civil, 215; - foreign policy, 216, 217; - wins battle of Marengo and conquers Italy, 218; - First Consul of the Cisalpine Republic, 220; - his Spanish policy, 223; - concludes the treaty of Amiens (1802), 225; - reorganises Switzerland, 228; - Mediator of the Swiss Confederation, 229; - makes Concordat with the Pope, 229; - forms the prefectures, 230; - educational reforms, 231; - First Consul for life (1802), 232; - arrests the English in France and occupies Hanover (1803), 233; - execution of the Duc d’Enghien (1804), 235; - Emperor of the French (1804), 236. _See_ Napoleon. - - —— Pauline, Princess Borghese (1780–1825), 283. - - Bonn, the university of, 40, 150. - - Bonnier-d’Alco, Ange Elisabeth Louis Antoine, French politician - (1749–1799), 202. - - Bordeaux, 131, 327. - - Borodino, battle of (7 Sept. 1812), 305. - - Bosnia, invaded by the Austrians (1788), 43. - - Bouillé, François Claude Amour, Marquis de, French general - (1739–1800), 72, 97, 98, 100. - - Boulogne, Napoleon’s camp at (1804–5), 241, 242. - - Bourbon, Isle of (Réunion), restored to France (1815), 348. - - Bourdon, Léonard Jean Joseph, French politician (1758–1816), 147. - - Bourdon de Vatry, Marc Antoine, French administrator (1761–1828), 210. - - Bourges, federalist army proposed to be formed at (1793), 131, 132. - - Bournonville, Pierre de Riel, Comte de, French general (1752–1821), - 330. - - Brabant, Constitution of, abolished by the Emperor Joseph (1789), 47. - - Braila, battle of (1810), 281. - - Branicki, Francis Xavier, Polish statesman (♰1819), 121. - - Braschi, Giovanni Angelo. _See_ Pius VI., Pope. - - Breda, 48, 64. - - Breisgau, the, granted to the Duke of Modena (1803), 226; - to the Grand Duke of Baden (1805), 258. - - Bremen, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; - retained its independence (1803), 226; - annexed to Napoleon’s Empire (1810), 282; - one of the four free cities of the Germanic Confederation (1815), - 343. - - Brescia formed part of the Cisalpine Republic, 192. - - Brest, blockaded by English fleet, 184; - French fleet at, unable to break the blockade (1805), 242. - - Brienne, battle of (29th Jan. 1814), 319. - - Brigandage rife in France under the Directory, 181; - put down by the Consulate, 215; - rife in Calabria, 256. - - Brissot, Jean Pierre, French politician (1754–1793), 101, 106, 107, - 116, 129. - - Brissotin section of the Girondin party in the Convention, 116. - - Brittany, opposition to the Convention in, 131; - pacified by Hoche, 180, 181. - - Brixen, bishopric of, united to Austria (1803), 226. - - Broglie, Victor François, Duc de, French general (1718–1804), 56. - - Bruges, 64. - - Bruix, Eustache, French admiral (1759–1805), 196. - - Brumaire, _coup d’état_ of the 18th (1799), 210, 211. - - Brune, Guillaume Marie Anne, French general (1763–1815), 199, 205, - 219, 254, 356, App. iv. - - Brunswick, Duchy of, merged in kingdom of Westphalia (1806), 258; - a member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - - Brunswick-Lüneburg, Duke of. _See_ Charles William Ferdinand. - - Brunswick-Oels, Duke of. _See_ Frederick William. - - Brussels, 15, 47, 48, 64, 94, 118, 144. - - Bucharest, 45, 281. - - Buenos Ayres, 264. - - Bülow, Frederick William von, Prussian general (1755–1816), 309, 312, - 313; - detached to join Blücher in France (1814), 319, 320, 328. - - Burgos, battle of (10 Nov. 1808), 269; - Wellington fails to take (1812), and retreats from, 307. - - Burke, Edmund, English orator (1730–97), 120. - - Burrard, Sir Harry, English general (1755–1815), 266. - - Busaco, battle of (27 Sept. 1810), 296. - - Buttmann, Philip Charles, German scholar (1764–1829), 304. - - Buzot, François Nicolas Léonard, French politician (1760–94), 116. - - Buzotins, a section of the Girondins, 116. - - - Cabarrus, François, Spanish statesman (1752–1810), 21. - - Cadiz, besieged by the French (1810–12), 296, 297. - - Cadore, Duke of. _See_ Champagny. - - Cadoudal, Georges, Chouan leader (1771–1804), 234, 235. - - Caen, army organised by the Girondins against the Convention at - (1793), 131. - - Caillard, Antoine Bernard, French diplomatist (1737–1807), 215. - - Cairo, taken by Bonaparte (1798), 195; - the Mamelukes defeated at (1799), 208; - taken by the English (1801), 224. - - Caisse d’amortissement founded, 287, 288. - - Calabria, brigandage in, encouraged by the English, 256. - - Calder, Sir Robert, English admiral (1745–1818), his action (1805), - 242. - - Caldiero, battle of (12 Nov. 1796), 176; - battle of (30 Oct. 1805), 244. - - Cambacérès, Jean Jacques Régis, Duke of Parma, French statesman - (1753–1824), 156, 159, 166, 182, 210, 214, 239, 287, 357. - - Cambon, Joseph, French statesman (1754–1820), 129, 133, 288. - - Cambrai, 353. - - Camperdown, battle of (11 Oct. 1797), 194. - - Campo-Chiaro, Duke of, Neapolitan statesman, 338, 346. - - Campo-Formio, treaty of (17 Oct. 1797), 192, 193. - - Campomanes, Don Pedro Rodriguez, Count of, Spanish statesman - (1723–1802), 21. - - Canning, George, English statesman (1770–1827), 295. - - Cantons of Switzerland, 228, 345. - - Cape of Good Hope taken by the English (1805), 264; - retained by them (1815), 348. - - Capitulations: of Ulm (1805), 243; - of Baylen (1808), 267, 268; - of Kulm (1813), 313. - - Capo d’Istria, John, Count, Greek statesman (1776–1831), 337. - - Carniola ceded to Napoleon (1809), 274. - - Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, French statesman (1753–1823), 133, - 134, 140, 148, 165, 177, 181, 191, 214, 216, 321, 352, 357. - - Caroline, Marie, Queen of the Two Sicilies (1752–1814), 23. - - —— Murat, Queen of Naples (1782–1839), 322, 345. - - Carrier, Jean Baptiste, French politician (1756–1794), 139, 141, 149. - - Cassano, battle of (27 April 1799), 203. - - Castiglione, battle of (15 Aug. 1796), 175. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Augereau. - - Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount, Marquis of Londonderry, English - statesman (1769–1822), his views on the way to carry on the war - with Napoleon, 295; - returns to office (1812), 301; - his policy to form a fresh coalition, 301, 302; - efforts to get Austria to join (1813), 311; - sends expedition to Holland, 314; - sent with full powers to France (1814), 318; - persists in the war and calls up reinforcements for Blücher, 319, - 320; - opposition to the retention of Belgium by France, 324; - signs treaty of Chaumont, 327; - friendship with Metternich, 331; - signs treaty of Paris, 332; - one of the two men who did most to overthrow Napoleon, 334; - English representative at the Congress of Vienna (1814), 337; - signs treaty with France and Austria against Russia and Prussia, - 340; - disavows Bentinck’s Italian proclamation, 346; - gets the Slave Trade condemned, 349; - succeeded by Wellington at Vienna, 349; - opposes Prussia’s schemes for punishing France (1815), 354; - refuses to join the Holy Alliance, 355. - - Catalonia, 144, 150, 151, 275. - - Cathcart, William Schaw, Lord, English general (1755–1843), 264, 301, - 323, 337. - - Catherine II., Empress of Russia (1729–96) a benevolent despot, 4; - attitude to other Powers of Europe (1789), 12, 13; - alliance with Joseph II., 17; - extension of Russia under, 18; - policy in Poland, 18; - internal policy, 19; - war with the Turks (1789–90), 43–45; - with the Swedes (1789–90), 45, 46; - deprived of the Austrian alliance by Leopold, 95; - makes peace with Sweden at Verela (1790), 95, 96; - with the Turks at Jassy (1792), 96; - attitude towards the French Revolution, 109, 121; - invades Poland (1793), 121; - signs second partition of Poland, 122; - asserts she is fighting Jacobinism in Poland, 125; - invades Poland (1795), 151; - extinguishes independence of Poland, 152; - receives the Comte d’Artois, 172; - death (1796), 185. - - Catherine, Grand Duchess of Oldenburg, Queen of Würtemburg - (1788–1819), 300, 337. - - —— Princess, of Würtemburg (1783–1835), marries Jerome Bonaparte, King - of Westphalia (1807), 258. - - Cattaro, mouths of the river, ceded by Russia to France at Tilsit - (1807), 250. - - Caulaincourt, Armand Augustin Louis de, Duke of Vicenza, French - statesman (1772–1827), 234, 239, 311, 316, 317, 323, 324, 329, - 331, 332. - - Cayenne restored to France (1814), 348. - - Ceva, battle of (16 April 1796), 174. - - Ceylon, taken by the English (1796), 264; - retained in 1815, 348. - - Chabot, François, French politician (1759–94), 117. - - Chalier, Marie Joseph, French politician (1747–93), 131. - - Chambéry, annexed to France (1814), 333; - restored to King of Sardinia (1815), 354. - - ‘Chambre Introuvable’ (1815), 357, 358. - - Champagny, Jean Baptiste Nompère de, Duke of Cadore, French statesman - (1756–1834), 241. - - Champaubert, battle of (10 Feb. 1814), 319. - - Champ de Mars, Paris, massacre of (17 July 1791), 101. - - Championnet, Jean Etienne, French general (1762–1800), 200, 203, 204. - - Chaptal, Jean Antoine, Comte, French administrator (1756–1832), 216, - 241. - - Charles III., King of Spain (1716–88), benevolent despot, his reforms, - 4, 21; - commenced his career as a reforming monarch at Naples, 23. - - —— IV., King of Spain (1748–1819), 21, 77, 79, 193, 126, 157, 183, - 223, 232, 252, 253, 267. - - —— XIII., King of Sweden, formerly Duke of Sudermania (1748–1818), 46, - 110, 120, 171, 253, 279. - - —— II., King of Etruria (1799–1863), 253, 347. - - Charles Augustus, Duke of Saxe-Weimar (1757–1828), 38, 337, 342. - - —— Emmanuel IV., King of Sardinia (1751–1819), 200. - - —— Eugène, Duke of Würtemburg, (1728–93), 37, 38. - - —— Frederick, Margrave of Baden-Baden and Baden-Durlach (1728–1811), - 37, 79, 167, 180, 225, 227, 245, 258, 260. - - —— Louis Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden (1786–1816), 258, 337, 342. - - —— Theodore, Elector of Bavaria and Elector Palatine (1729–99), 37, 172, 180. - - —— William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Prussian general - (1735–1806), 32, 113, 114, 115, 116, 126, 246. - - —— Archduke, Austrian general (1771–1847), elected Grand Duke of - Belgium (1790), 94; - commands the Austrian army in Germany (1796), 177; - repulses Jourdan and Moreau, 178; - effect of his success, 180; - commands Austrian army in the Tyrol (1797), 185; - defeated by Bonaparte, and signs Preliminaries of Leoben, 186; - defeats Jourdan (1799), 202; - and advances to the Rhine, 204; - forced to retreat, 205; - campaign against Moreau (1800), superseded, 219; - invades Italy (1805), 243; - defeated at Caldiero, 244; - reorganises Austrian army, 271; - invades Bavaria (1809), 272; - defeated at Eckmühl, 273; - fights battle of Aspern, 273; - defeated at Wagram, 274. - - Charter, the, of 4 June 1814, 350. - - Chatham, John Pitt, Earl of, English general (1756–1820), 276. - - Châtillon, Congress of (1814), 323, 324. - - Chaumette, Pierre Gaspard, French politician (1763–94), 141. - - Chaumont, treaty of (1 March 1814), 327, 328. - - Chauvelin, François Bernard, Marquis de, French politician - (1766–1832), 120. - - Cherasco, armistice of (28 April 1796), 174. - - Chernishev, Alexander, Count, Russian general, 308, 312, 313, 337. - - Chestret, M., elected burgomaster of Liége (1789), 49. - - Chiaramonti, Gregorio Barnaba Luigi. _See_ Pius VII., Pope. - - Choczim, taken by the Austrians and Russians (1788), 43. - - Choiseul, Etienne François, Duc de, French statesman (1719–85), made - the ‘Pacte de Famille’ with Spain, 14. - - Christian VII., King of Denmark (1749–1808), 32, 46, 171. - - Cintra, Convention of (30 Aug. 1808), 266. - - Circles, the executive divisions of the Holy Roman Empire, 36; - abolished (1803), 225. - - Cisalpine Republic, 192, 203, 220, 255. - - Ciudad Rodrigo, taken by Wellington (Jan. 1812), 306. - - Clancarty, Richard Trench, Earl of, English diplomatist (1767–1837), - 337. - - Clarke, Henri Jacques Guillaume, Duke of Feltre, French general - (1765–1818), 241. - - Clavière, Etienne, French politician (1735–93), 41, 114, 125. - - Clement Wenceslas of Saxony, Archbishop-Elector of Trèves in 1789, 40. - - Clementine Museum at Rome reorganised by Pope Pius VI., 24. - - Clerfayt, François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Comte de, - Austrian general (1733–98), 88, 150, 172. - - Clichian party, 182, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191. - - Club, Cordeliers. _See_ Cordeliers. - - —— de Clichy, 182, 187. - - —— Jacobin. _See_ Jacobin. - - —— of 1789, 101. - - Cobenzl, Count Louis, Austrian statesman (1753–1808), 192, 220, 233, - 243, 270. - - —— Count Philip, Austrian statesman (1741–1810), 126. - - Coblentz, 150, 230, 344. - - Coburg, Frederick Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, Prince of, Austrian - general (1737–1815), 43, 44, 45, 88, 127, 130, 144. - - Cochon de Lapparent, Charles, French administrator (1749–1825), 182, - 191. - - Cochrane, Thomas, Lord, Earl of Dundonald, English admiral - (1775–1860), 276. - - Code, Civil, bases of, laid by the Convention, 156; - Bonaparte’s commission to draw up, 215. - - Codes of law promulgated by Napoleon, 287. - - Colli, Louis Leonard Gaspard Venance, Baron, Sardinian general - (1760–1811), 174. - - Colloredo, Count Jerome, Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg in 1789, 39. - - Collot-d’Herbois, Jean Marie, French politician (1750–96), 117, 133, - 134, 138, 147, 149, 155. - - Cologne, Archbishop of, an Elector in the Holy Roman Empire, 34. - - —— archbishopric of, excellently ruled in 1789, 40; - merged in France, 225; - ceded to Prussia (1815), 344. - - —— city of, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; - taken by the French (1794), 150; - ceded to Prussia (1815), 344. - - Committee of General Defence, 127. - - —— of General Security, 135, 136, 146, 148. - - —— of Mercy, 143. - - —— of Public Safety, the first chosen (April 1793), 127, 128; - its work, 132, 133; - formation of the Great, 133; - growth of its power, 134; - its system of government—the Reign of Terror, 135; - its instruments—the Committee of General Security, 135, 136; - the deputies on mission, 136, 137; - laws of the Suspects and the Maximum, 137; - the Revolutionary Tribunal, 137, 138; - its power organised, 138, 139; - its success, 139–141; - opposition to, 141–143; - overthrows the Hébertists, 142; - the Dantonists, 145; - its triumphs on land, 143, 144; - failure at sea, 144, 145; - Robespierre’s position in, 146; - renewed by a quarter monthly after Robespierre’s fall, 148; - its supremacy maintained, but its system changed, 148, 149; - filled by members of the Plain, 156. - - Commune of Paris overthrows the monarchy (Aug. 1792), 115; - its energy, 114; - insists on expulsion of the Girondins (June 1793), 129; - becomes Hébertist and opposes the Committee of Public Safety, 141; - becomes Robespierrist, and is decimated by the Convention, 147. - - Conclusum of the Empire, how arrived at, 33, 34. - - Concordat between the Pope and Bonaparte (1802), 229, 230, 277. - - Condé, taken by the Austrians (1793), 130. - - Condé, Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince de, French general (1736–1818), - 106, 167, 178, 206, 207. - - Condillac, Etienne-Bonnot, Abbé de, French philosopher (1715–80), 25. - - Conegliano, Duke of. _See_ Moncey. - - Confederation, Germanic. _See_ Germanic. - - —— of the Rhine. _See_ Rhine. - - —— of Switzerland. _See_ Switzerland. - - —— of Targovitsa, asks Catherine to intervene in Poland (1795), 121. - - Conferences: - Erfurt (1808), 262; - Pilnitz (1791), 102; - Reichenbach, (1790), 87; - Tilsit (1807), 249, 250. - - Congresses: - Châtillon (1814), 323, 324; - the Hague (1799), 93, 94; - Prague (1813), 311; - Rastadt (1798), 186, 192, 202; - Reichenbach (1790), 87; - Sistova (1790), 88; - Vienna (1814–15), 336–350. - - Consalvi, Hercules, Cardinal, Italian statesman (1757–1824), 277, 337. - - Conscription, established in France (1798), 201; - in Germany, 289. - - Constance, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 34. - - —— bishopric of, merged in Grand Duchy of Baden (1803), 227. - - —— city of, taken by Massena (1799), 205. - - Constantine, Grand Duke, brother of the Emperor Alexander (1779–1831), - 312, 337. - - Constantinople, great riot at (1807), 281. - - Constituent Assembly: - the Tiers Etat declares itself the National Assembly (June 1789), - 53; - oath of the Tennis Court, and Séance Royale, 54; - session of 4 August, 60; - makes the Constitution of 1791, 68–73; - authority passed to, 97; - discredited the executive, 98; - dissolved (1791), 105. - - Constitution, the French, of 1791, 68–73; - revised, 101; - completed, 103; - compared with the Polish of 1791, 104, 105; - its local arrangements confirmed by the Constitution of the Year - III., 162. - - —— the French, of 1793, 132, 138, 141. - - —— the French, of the Year III. (1795), 156, 159, 160, 161, 162. - - —— the French, of the Year VIII. (1799), 212–214; - the Consulate, 213; - the Legislature, 214, 215. - - —— the French, of the Empire (1805), 240. - - —— the French, promised by the Charter (1814), 350. - - —— the Polish, of 1791, 104, 105; - abrogated, 122. - - Consulate, the, in France, 213. - - Consuls, the (1799–1804), Bonaparte, Cambacérès, Le Brun, 214. - - —— the Provisional (1799), Bonaparte, Sieyès, Roger Ducos, 211. - - Continental Blockade against England, 250, 251, 255, 261, 282, 300, - 301. - - Convention, National, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 127, 132, 134, 147, - 155, 163, 164, 165, 166. - - Conventions: Alexandria (1800), 218; - Alkmaar (1799), 205; - Cintra (1808), 268; - Leoben (1797), 186; - Reichenbach (1790), 87, 88; - Tauroggen (1812), 308. - - Copenhagen, battle of (2 April 1801), 222; - bombarded and the Danish fleet seized by the English (1807), 252. - - Cordeliers Club at Paris, 101, 141. - - Corfu, occupied by the French (1797), 192. - _See_ Ionian Islands. - - Cornwallis, Charles, Marquis, English general (1738–1805), 197. - - Corsica, ceded to France by Genoa (1768), 27; - occupied by the English (1793), 145; - abandoned by them (1796), 183. - - Corunna, battle of (16 Jan. 1809), 270. - - _Corvée_, or forced labour, 5, 6, 16. - - Council of Ancients, established in France (1795), 161, 162, 189, 190, - 209, 210, 211. - - Council of Five Hundred, established in France (1795), 161, 162, 182, - 189, 190, 209, 210, 211. - - —— of State, established in France under the Consulate (1799), 213, - 231, 240. - - Court, Napoleon’s, 238, 239, 285, 286. - - Couthon, Georges Auguste, French politician (1756–94), 133, 135, 147. - - Cracow, university of, reorganised, 104; - Kosciuszko raises standard of Polish independence at (1794), 151; - given to Austria at third partition of Poland (1795), 152; - joined to Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1809), 274; - given to Austria as a free city (1815), 342. - - Cradock, Sir John Francis, Lord Howden, English general (1762–1839), - 269, 275. - - Craonne, battle of (7 March 1814), 328. - - Croatia ceded to Napoleon (1809), 274. - - Cuesta, Don Gregorio Garcia de la, Spanish general (1740–1812), 267, - 275, 276. - - Curaçao, restored to Holland by England (1815), 348. - - Custine, Adam Philippe, Comte de, French general (1740–93), 118, 138. - - Czartoryski, Prince Adam George, Polish statesman (1770–1865), 337, - 339. - - - Dalberg, Charles Theodore de, German prelate (1744–1817), - Co-adjutor-Archbishop-Elector of Mayence in 1789, 39; - retained as Arch-Chancellor of the Empire with new territory (1803), - 225; - Grand Duke of Frankfort (1806), 259; - received Fulda and Hanau and became Prince Primate of the - Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - suggested that Napoleon should be Emperor of Germany, 302; - lost his territorial sovereignty (1815), 343. - - —— Emeric Joseph, Duc de, French statesman (1773–1833), 330, 338. - - Dalmatia, belonged to Venice in 1789, 27; - ceded to Austria (1797), 192; - annexed by Napoleon (1805), 245. - _See_ Illyrian Provinces. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Soult. - - Dalrymple, Sir Hew Whiteford, English general (1750–1830), 266. - - Danton, George Jacques, French statesman (1759–94), 101, 107, 114, - 117, 120, 127, 129, 133, 134, 135, 136, 142, 143. - - Dantzic promised to Prussia by the treaty of Warsaw, 85; - the Poles refuse to surrender, 87; - given to Prussia at second partition of Poland (1793), 122; - besieged and taken by the French (1806), 247, 248; - French garrison left in 1812, 308; - besieged (1812–14), 319. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Lefebvre. - - Danubian Principalities, the, promised to Alexander by Napoleon - (1807), 250. - - Dardanelles, the, forced by an English fleet (1807), 280. - - Daru, Pierre Antoine Noël Bruno, Comte, French administrator - (1767–1829), 241. - - Daunou, Pierre Claude François, French politician (1761–1840), 156. - - Dauphiné, influence of the Assembly in (1788), on the elections to the - States-General in France, 51. - - David, Jacques Louis, French painter (1748–1825), 357. - - Davout, Louis Nicolas, Duke of Auerstädt, Prince of Eckmühl, French - general (1770–1823), 247, 272, 319, 320, App. iv. - - Debry, Jean Antoine, French politician (1760–1834), 202. - - Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789), 60. - - —— of Saint Ouen (1814), 332, 333. - - Decrès, Denis, Duke, French admiral (1761–1820), 216, 240. - - Defermon, Joseph, Comte, French administrator (1756–1831), 240. - - Dego, battle of (15 April 1796), 174. - - Delacroix, Charles, French politician (1740–1805), 166, 189, 190. - - Demarcation, line of, protecting Northern Germany, agreed to at treaty - of Basle between France and Prussia (1795), 157; - its effect on the position of Prussia, 170; - proposal to extend (1796), 179; - violated by the occupation of Hanover (1804), 242; - this violation leads Prussia to prepare for war, 246. - - Denmark, under Russian influence in 1789, 13; - its prosperity and reforms, 32; - the king a member of the Holy Roman Empire as Duke of Holstein, 34; - attacks Sweden (1788), but forced to make peace, 46; - remains neutral during the general war with France, 120, 124, 171; - joins League of the North and is attacked by England (1801), 222; - Copenhagen bombarded and the Danish fleet seized by England (1807), - 254; - Sweden declares war against (1808), 279; - a faithful ally of Napoleon, 302; - invaded by Bernadotte and forced to exchange Norway for Swedish - Pomerania (1814), 320; - gets the Duchy of Lauenburg for Swedish Pomerania (1815), 347; - cedes Heligoland to England (1815), 348. - - Dennewitz, battle of (6 Sept. 1813), 313. - - Deputies of the Convention sent on mission, 128; - put down the Girondin movement, 131; - an instrument of the Reign of Terror; their work—in the provinces, - 136; - with the armies, 136, 137. - - Desaix, Louis Charles Antoine, French general (1768–1800), 178, 208, - 219. - - Desmoulins, Camille, French politician (1762–94), 56, 133, 142, 143. - - Despots, the benevolent, of the eighteenth century, 4, 5; - the Emperor Joseph II., 15, 16; - the Empress Catherine of Russia, 19; - Charles III. of Spain, 21; - Leopold of Tuscany, 24; - Ferdinand of Parma, 25; - Frederick the Great of Prussia, 29; - Gustavus III. of Sweden, 33; - Charles Theodore of Bavaria and Charles Frederick of Baden, 37. - - Deux-Ponts (Zweibrücken), duchy of, 38, 79; - merged in France (1803), 227. - - Diderot, Denis, French philosopher (1713–84), 4, 9, 19. - - Diet, the Imperial, of the Holy Roman Empire (Reichstag), 33, 35. - - Diet, the, of the Confederation of the Rhine (1806), 260. - - —— the, of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - Dignitaries, the Grand, of Napoleon’s Empire, 239. - - Dillon, Arthur, French general (1750–94), 115. - - —— Theobald, French general (1743–92), 111. - - Directors, the, of the French Republic (1795–99): elected Oct. 1795, - Barras, Carnot, Letourneur, Revellière-Lépeaux, Reubell, 165, 166; - May 1797, Barthélémy succeeds Letourneur, 188; - Sept. 1797, François de Neufchâteau and Merlin of Douai succeed - Barthélémy and Carnot, 191; - May 1798, Treilhard succeeds François de Neufchâteau, 195; - May 1799, Sieyès succeeds Reubell, 209; - June 1799, Ducos, Gohier, and Moulin succeed Merlin of Douai, - Revellière-Lépeaux, and Treilhard, 211. - - Directory, the, its functions as established by the Constitution of - the Year III., 160, 161; - foreign policy left to Reubell, 169, 179; - military affairs to Carnot, 177; - its internal policy, 180, 181; - struggle with the Clichians, 189, 190; - _coup d’état_ of Fructidor 1797, 191; - interferes in the elections of 1798 to the Legislature, 196; - its weakness (1799), 209; - struggle with the Legislature (1799), 209; - abolished 18 Brumaire (1799), 211. - - Dombrowski, John Henry, Polish general (1755–1818), 206. - - ‘Dotations,’ 286. - - Dresden, battle of (27 Aug. 1813), 312. - - Drouet, Jean Baptiste, French politician (1763–1824), 168. - - Dubienka, battle of (17 July 1792), 122. - - Dubitza taken by the Austrians (1788), 43. - - Dubois-Crancé, Edmond Louis Alexis, French politician (1747–1814), - 210. - - Duckworth, Sir John Thomas, English admiral (1747–1817), 280. - - Ducos, Roger, French politician (1754–1816), 209, 211. - - Dugommier, Jean François Coquille, French general (1721–94), 140, 144, - 150, 151. - - Dumont, André, French politician (1764–1836), 139. - - Dumouriez, Charles François, French general (1739–1823), 110, 111, - 112, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 126, 127. - - Duncan, Adam, Viscount, English admiral (1731–1804), 193, 194. - - Dunkirk besieged by the Duke of (1793), 130; - relieved by Houchard, 140. - - ‘Duodecimo duchies’ of Germany in 1789, 40. - - Duphot, Léonard, French general (1770–97), 200. - - Dupont de l’Étang, Pierre, Comte, French general (1765–1838), 267, - 268, 331. - - Dufort, Amédee Bretagne Malo, Comte de, French courtier (1770–1836), - 99. - - Duroc, Géraud Christophe Michel, Duke of Friuli, French general - (1772–1813), 217, 234, 239. - - Düsseldorf, 37, 172, 259. - - - Ecclesiastical princes of the Holy Roman Empire, 34, 39, 40; - their states secularised (1803), 170. - - Eckmühl, battle of (22 April 1809), 273. - - —— Prince of. _See_ Davout. - - Education, national system established before 1789 in Spain, 21; - in Portugal, 22; - in Tuscany, 24; - in Parma, 25; - in Lombardy, 26; - in Denmark, 32; - in Baden, 37; - attempted in Poland, 104; - reforms in, attempted by the Convention in France, 156; - Bonaparte’s scheme of, 231; - Napoleon’s system of, 258; - established in Prussia by Humboldt, 303, 304. - - Egypt, conquered by Bonaparte (1798), 195; - his administration of, and reconquest (1799), 208; - French expelled from, by the English (1801), 224; - failure of English expedition to (1808), 264. - - Ehrenbreitstein, fortress, taken by Marceau (1795), 172. - - Elba, declared a French island, 230; - granted to Napoleon (1814), 332; - his escape from (1815), 349, 351. - - Elchingen, battle of (20 Oct. 1805), 244. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Ney. - - Elections, the, to the States-General in France (1789), 50, 51. - - Electors, the eight, of the Holy Roman Empire in 1789, 34; - the ten established in 1803, 225. - - Elizabeth, Madame, sister of Louis XVI. (1764–94), 61, 68. - - Elliot, Hugh, English diplomatist (1752–1830), 78. - - Elsinore, batteries at, passed by the English fleet (1801), 222. - - Elten, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227; - and again (1815), 344. - - Elwangen, the Abbot of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 34. - - _Emigrés_, Belgian, strong measures taken against (1789), 48. - - —— French, 59, 63, 81, 97, 106, 108, 109, 113, 137, 154, 166, 167, - 169, 172, 188, 214, 215, 351, 357, 358. - _See_ Condé. - - Emperor of the French, Napoleon declares himself (1804), 236; - refuses to be Emperor of Germany, 302. - - —— Holy Roman, position of, 34; - Francis II. abandons the title of (1804), 236. - _See_ Francis II., Joseph II., Leopold II. - - Empire, Holy Roman, 17, 33–36, 79–80, 108, 121, 193, 225–227. - - —— Napoleon’s, its establishment, 237, 238; - Grand Dignitaries of, 239; - institutions and administrative system, 240; - greatest extension of (1810), 282, 283. - - Engen, battle of (3 May 1800), 219. - - Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, Duc d’ (1722–1804), shot at - Vincennes, 235. - - England, condition of, 8; - Member of the Triple Alliance, 13, 32; - alliance with Portugal, 21; - condition in 1789, 27, 28; - looks favourably on the French Revolution, 63; - the affair of Nootka Sound, 77, 78; - the Emperor Leopold appeals to, 86; - attitude towards the French Republic, 120; - France declares war against (1793), 120; - paymaster of the coalition against France, 125, 126; - occupies Toulon, 139; - and Corsica, 145; - withdrew subsidies from Prussia, 153; - national feeling in, against France, 154; - supported the French _émigrés_, 154, 166, 167; - did not wish for peace with France, 169; - Spain declares war against, 183; - attempts at peace, 184, 190; - blockades and defeats the Dutch fleet, 193, 194; - takes Minorca and Malta, 195; - forms the second coalition, 197; - Bonaparte attacks her commerce through the Neutral League of the - North, 222; - drives the French out of Egypt, 224; - the Peace of Amiens, 225; - recommencement of the war with France, 233; - Napoleon’s project of invading, 241, 242; - forms the third coalition, 243; - the Continental Blockade against and its effect, 251; - seizes the Danish fleet, 252; - decides to actively intervene on the Continent, 263, 295; - hitherto contented with taking colonies and detached expeditions, - 264; - sends an army to Portugal, 265, 266; - promises subsidies to Austria (1809), 271; - the Walcheren Expedition, 276; - Castlereagh’s and Canning’s theories, 295; - forms fresh coalition, 301, 302; - greatness of her share in overthrowing Napoleon, 334; - colonial gains made at the Congress of Vienna, 348; - insists on abolition of the Slave Trade, 348, 349; - refuses to join the Holy Alliance, 355. _See_ Castlereagh, Pitt. - - Erfurt, bishopric of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227. - - —— conference at (1808), 262. - - Erthal, Baron Francis Louis of, Prince-Bishop of Bamberg and Würtzburg - in 1789, 39. - - —— Baron Frederick Charles of, Archbishop-Elector of Mayence and - Prince-Bishop of Worms in 1789, 39. - - Espinosa, battle of (11 Nov. 1808), 269. - - Essen, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227. - - Essling or Aspern, battle of (21, 22 May 1809), 273. - - —— Prince of. _See_ Massena. - - Esterhazy, Nicholas Joseph, Prince (1714–90), 91. - - Etruria, kingdom of, 220, 253. _See_ Louis. - - Ettlingen, battle of (June 1796), 178. - - Eugène de Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy. _See_ Beauharnais. - - Ewart, Joseph, English diplomatist (1760–92), English representative - at the Congress of Reichenbach (1790), 87. - - Eylau, battle of (8 Feb. 1807), 248. - - - Fabry, M., elected burgomaster of Liége (1789), 49. - - Famars, battle of (24 May 1793), 130. - - Faypoult, Guillaume Charles, French administrator (1752–1817), 166, - 182. - - Felino, Marquis of. _See_ Tillot. - - Feltre, Duke of. _See_ Clarke. - - Féraud, Jean, French politician (1764–1795), killed in rising of 1 - Prairial, 155. - - Ferdinand VII., King of Spain (1784–1833), 267, 358. - - —— IV., King of the Two Sicilies (1751–1825), 23, 120, 121, 171, 200, - 203, 256, 264, 346, 359. - - —— III., Grand Duke of Tuscany, second son of the Emperor Leopold - (1769–1824), 83, 120, 157, 171, 200, 206, 220, 225, 226, 260, 347. - - —— Duke of Parma and Piacenza, 25, 174, 175. - - —— Archduke, third son of Maria Theresa (1754–1806), 26. - - Ferrara, Legation of, belonged to the Pope in 1789, 24; - occupied by Bonaparte (1796), 175; - part of the Cisalpine Republic (1797), 192; - of the kingdom of Italy (1805), 255; - restored to the Pope (1815), 347. - - Ferrari, Raphael di, Doge of Genoa in 1789, 27. - - Fersen, Axel, Count (1759–1810), 113, 152. - - Fesch, Joseph, uncle of Napoleon (1763–1839), 239, 277. - - Feudalism, 3, 6, 8, 28, 60, 199, 256, 259, 288, 289, 290, 297, 303, - 361. - - Fichte, John Theophilus, German philosopher (1762–1814), 304. - - Figueras, battle of (20 Nov. 1794), 150, 151. - - Filangieri, Gaetano, Neapolitan political writer (1752–88), 23. - - Finance, Napoleon’s system of, 287, 288. - - Finland, belonged to Sweden (1789), 32; - campaigns of Gustavus III. in 1788, 45, 46; - (1790), 95; - conquered by the Emperor Alexander (1808), 250, 254, 279; - ceded to Russia by Bernadotte in exchange for Norway (1812), 302. - - Firmian, Charles Joseph, Count, Austrian statesman (1716–82), 26. - - Fitzherbert, Alleyne, Lord St. Helens, English diplomatist - (1753–1839), 78. - - Five Hundred, Council of. _See_ Council. - - Flanders, the Estates of, declare their independence of Austria - (1789), 64. - - Flesselles, Jacques de, French administrator (1721–89), 58. - - Fleurus, battle of (26 June 1794), 144. - - Florence, 200, 283. - _See_ Tuscany. - - Florida Blanca, Joseph Monino, Count of, Spanish statesman - (1728–1809), 21, 77, 78. - - Flushing taken by the English (1809), 276. - - Foksany, battle of (31 July 1789), 45. - - Foligno, armistice of, between the Pope and Bonaparte (1796), 175. - - Fontainebleau, treaty of (1808), 252, 253; - Pope Pius VII. taken to, 278; - Napoleon abdicates at (1814), 331. - - Fontanes, Louis de, French writer (1757–1821), 288. - - Forfait, Pierre Alexandre Laurent, French administrator (1752–1807), - 216. - - Fouché, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, French politician (1763–1820), 210, - 216, 241, 357. - - Foullon de Doué, Joseph François, French administrator (1715–89), 59. - - Fox, Charles James, English statesman (1749–1806), 245, 247, 264. - - France, serfdom and feudalism practically extinct, 6; - why the Revolution broke out, 8; - position in 1789, 19, 20; - elections to the States-General (1789), 49, 51; - result of the capture of the Bastille in (July 1789), 59, 60; - divided into departments, 68, 69; - state of, in 1791, 98; - effect of the flight to Varennes on, 101, 102; - wishes for war, 107; - exasperated by Brunswick’s proclamation, 113; - invaded (1792), 114; - (1793), 130; - opposition to the Convention (1793), 131, 132; - submits to the Reign of Terror, 141; - becomes a vast arsenal, 143; - after the victory of Fleurus rejects the Terror, 148; - detests the Convention because of the Terror (1795), 163; - but would not rise against it, 164; - internal peace established (1796), 180; - state of (1796), 181; - acquiesced in the _coup d’état_ of Fructidor (1797), 191; - state of (1798), weary of politics, 196; - welcomed Bonaparte’s return (1799), 210; - pacified under the Consulate, 215; - organisation into prefectures, 230; - popularity of Bonaparte in (1802), 231; - enthusiastically welcomes the Empire, 237; - conduct to the Pope damaged Napoleon’s popularity in, 278; - Napoleon’s autocratic rule in, abolition of individual liberty and - representative institutions, 284; - indisposed to support Napoleon (1813), 315; - would not rise to defend France in 1814 as in 1793, 322; - weary of the military policy of Napoleon and physically exhausted, - 324–326; - reduced to its limits of 1792, 333; - distrusts Louis XVIII., 351; - welcomes Napoleon back (1815), 351, 352; - difference of its attitude in 1814 and 1815, 353, 354; - reduced to its limits of 1789, 354; - reactionary government of Louis XVIII., 357, 358. - - Francis II., Holy Roman Emperor, 1. Emperor of Austria (1768–1835), - succeeded his father Leopold (1792), 110; - elected and crowned Emperor, 112; - war with France, 112, 113; - loses Belgium, 118; - regarded himself as duped by being left out of second partition of - Poland (1793), 122; - makes Thugut his Foreign Minister, 126; - his armies invade France, 130, 139; - repulsed, 140; - receives Cracow and rest of Galicia at final partition of Poland - (1795), 152; - change in his attitude towards France, 153, 154; - exchanges French prisoners for Madame Royale, 168; - appealed to his people’s patriotism against Bonaparte (1796), 176; - signs Convention of Leoben (1797), 186; - and treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), 192; - again prepares for war with France (1798), 197, 201; - was more afraid of Russia than France, 206; - signs treaty of Lunéville and dismisses Thugut (1801), 220; - declares himself Emperor of Austria (1804), 236; - forms coalition with Russia and England, and invades Italy and - Bavaria (1805), 243; - signs treaty of Pressburg, 245; - prepares for a fresh war, and tries to rouse a national German - spirit, 270, 271; - invades Italy and Bavaria (1809), 272; - makes treaty of Vienna, and dismisses Stadion, 274; - appoints Metternich State Chancellor, 275; - gives his daughter Marie Louise to Napoleon, 294; - invades Russia as Napoleon’s ally (1812), 303; - attempts to mediate between Napoleon and the allies, 310; - declares war against Napoleon (1813), 311; - does not want to overthrow Napoleon (1814), 316, 317, 324; - signs treaty of Chaumont, 327; - inclined to side with England against Russia and Prussia, 334; - receives the allied monarchs at Vienna (1814), 337; - signs secret treaty with England and France (3 Jan. 1815), 340; - obtains the duchy of Parma for his daughter Marie Louise, 346, 347; - joins the Holy Alliance, 355; - greatly weakened actually if not territorially by the great war, - 359. - - Francis IV., of Este, grandson of Hercules III., Duke of Modena - (1779–1846), 347. - - —— Prince, of Prussia, (1797), 189. - - François de Neufchâteau, Nicolas, Comte, French politician - (1750–1828), 190, 191, 195, 196. - - Franconia invaded by Jourdan (1796), 177, 178; - by Napoleon (1805), 244. - - Frankenberg, Cardinal, Archbishop of Malines, 47, 65. - - Frankfort-on-the-Main, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; - Leopold crowned Emperor at (1790), 89; - Francis crowned Emperor at (1792), 112; - held to ransom by Custine (1792), 118; - taken by Jourdan (1796), 177; - maintained as a free city (1803), 226; - the Proposals of (1813), 316; - maintained as a free city and member of the Germanic Confederation - (1815), 343. - - Frankfort, Grand Duchy of, created (1806), 259, 260. - - Frederick II., King of Prussia, ‘the Great’ (1712–86), typical - benevolent despot, 4, 29; - decay of Prussia after his reign, 5; - opposed Austrian scheme of exchanging Belgium for Bavaria, 16, 17; - Joseph’s admiration for, 17; - suggested the partition of Poland, 18; - his policy, 30. - - —— VI., King of Denmark (1768–1839), 32, 302, 320, 337, 347. - - —— I., Duke, afterwards King, of Würtemburg (1754–1816), 225, 245, - 258, 347. - - —— Augustus I., Elector, afterwards King, of Saxony (1750–1827), 38, - 179, 250, 259, 261, 274, 341. - - —— Eugène, Duke of Würtemburg (♰1797), 180. - - —— William II., King of Prussia (1744–97), his character and policy, - 30, 31; - intrigues with the Turks against Austria, 45; - encourages the Belgian patriots, 48, 64; - occupies Liége, 63; - sends help to the Belgians, 65; - makes treaty with the Poles, 85; - intrigues against Austria, 85, 86; - makes Convention of Reichenbach (1790), 87; - won over by Leopold, 88; - signs Declaration of Pilnitz with Leopold, 105; - and treaty with Leopold, 109; - refuses to break with Austria, 111; - directed the policy of the Emperor Francis (1792), 112; - orders retreat from France, 116; - invades Poland and signs second partition (1793), 122; - makes Haugwitz his minister, 126; - driven from Warsaw (1794), 151; - receives Warsaw in final partition of Poland (1795), 152; - yields to the anti-Austrian party at his Court, and becomes slack in - the war against France, 153; - signs treaty of Basle with France (1795), 157; - refuses to make alliance with France (1796), 170; - signs secret supplement to the treaty of Basle, 179; - death, 197. - - Frederick William III., King of Prussia (1770–1840), accession (1797), - 197; - insists on strict neutrality, 197; - attitude in 1799, 206; - admires Bonaparte, but refuses to make alliance with him, 217; - his territorial accessions (1803), 227; - persists in his neutrality, 234, 242; - inclines to war (1805), 246; - utterly defeated by Napoleon at Jena, 247; - signs treaty of Bartenstein with Russia, 248; - spared by Napoleon on the intercession of Alexander, 250; - summoned Stein and Scharnhorst to office, 290; - forced to dismiss Stein, 301; - obliged to sign alliance with Napoleon (1812), 304; - calls out the Landwehr and declares war against Napoleon (1813), - 308; - desires to be revenged on France, 317; - enters Paris (1814), 329; - his intimacy with the Emperor Alexander, 334; - present at the Congress of Vienna, 337; - desires the whole of Saxony, 339, 340; - gets a portion only, 341; - with part of Poland, but not Warsaw, 342; - and Rhenish Prussia, 344; - joins the Holy Alliance, 355. - - Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick-Oels (1771–1815), 293, 337. - - Free Cities of the Holy Roman Empire in 1789, their College in the - Diet, 34, 35; - reduced to six (1803), 226; - reduced to four (1815), 343. - - Freisingen, bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), 227. - - Fréjus, Napoleon landed at, on his return from Egypt (1799), 209. - - French philosophers of the 18th century contrasted with the German, 9. - - Fréron, Louis Stanislas, French politician (1765–1802), 147, 155, 182. - - Fribourg, canton of Switzerland, 228. - - Friedland, battle of (14 June 1807), 249. - - Friuli, Duke of. _See_ Duroc. - - Fructidor, _coup d’état_ of 18th (4th Sept. 1797), 191. - - Fuentes de Onor, battle of (5 May 1811), 297. - - Fulda, bishopric of (1803), 227, 260. - - - Gaeta, siege and capture by the French (1806), 256. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Gaudin. - - Galicia, Western, obtained by Austria at third partition of Poland - (1795), 152; - ceded to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1809), 274; - restored to Austria (1815), 342. - - Gambier, James, Lord, English admiral (1756–1833), 277. - - Gasparin, Thomas Augustin de, French politician (1750–93), 133. - - Gaudin, Martin Michel Charles, Duke of Gaeta, French statesman - (1756–1844), 215, 216, 240, 287. - - Geisberg, battle of the (26 Dec. 1793), 140. - - Geneva, its condition as an independent republic in 1789, 41; - occupied by the Bernese troops (1792), 125; - united to France, 228, 230; - made a canton of Switzerland by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 345. - - Genoa, its position in 1789, 27; - formed into the Liguria Republic (1797), 192; - besieged by the Austrians (1799), 203, 206, 218; - annexed to Napoleon’s Empire, 243, 255; - capital of a French department, 283; - occupied by the English (1814), 315; - his proclamation at, 322; - united to the kingdom of Sardinia (1815), 346. - - Genola, battle of (4 Nov. 1799), 204. - - Gensonné, Armand, French politician (1758–93), 106. - - Gentz, Friedrich von, German statesman (1764–1832), 291, 292, 337. - - George III., King of England (1738–1820), 120. - - Germanic Confederation formed (1815), 342, 343. - - Germany, condition of, in 1789, 33–40; - spread of revolutionary ideas in, 109; - resettlement of (1803), 225–227; - Napoleon’s rearrangement of (1806), 257–261; - Stadion’s attempt to rouse a national spirit in, 270, 271; - reforms made in, under French influence, 288, 289; - growth of a national spirit against the French in, 291–295; - national rising in, 314; - resettled at Congress of Vienna, 342, 345. - _See_ Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia, Saxony, Würtemburg. - - German literary movement at Weimar, 38. - - German philosophers of the 18th century compared with the French, 9. - - Germinal, Riot of the 12th (1 April 1795), in Paris, 155. - - Ghent, 64, 341, 352. - - Girondins, French political party, in the Legislative Assembly, 106; - in favour of war, 107; - their sections in the Convention, 116; - attacked the Mountain, 117; - views on the King’s trial, 119; - struggle with the Mountain, 128, 129; - overthrown (2 June 1793), 129; - attempt to raise the provinces of France against the Convention, - 131; - the leaders guillotined, 138; - recall of the survivors to the Convention (1795), 154; - they obtain power, 155. - - Giurgevo, battle of (8 July 1790), 88; - armistice of (19 Sept. 1790), 88. - - Glarus, 228. - - Gnesen, province of, ceded to Prussia at second partition of Poland - (1793), 123. - - Goa, 224. - - Gobel, Jean Baptiste Joseph, French bishop (1727–94), 70, 141. - - Godoy, Don Manuel de, Prince of the Peace, Spanish statesman - (1767–1851), 77, 126, 154, 157, 183, 255, 266, 267. - - Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, German poet (1749–1832), 9, 10, 38. - - Gohier, Louis Jerome, French politician (1746–1830), 209, 211. - - Goltz, Bernhard William, Baron von, Prussian statesman (1730–95), 86. - - Göttingen, university of, 39. - - Gouvion-Saint-Cyr, Laurent, French general (1764–1830), 275, App. iv. - - Graham, Sir Thomas, Lord Lynedoch, English general (1751–1843), 314, - 321. - - Grand Elector, proposed by Sieyès in 1799 but rejected by Bonaparte, - 213. - - Grand Livre, Cambon’s creation of, continued by Napoleon, 288. - - Greece, 257. - - Grégoire, Henri, French politician (1750–1831), 53. - - Grenelle, plot to attack the camp of (1796), 181. - - Grenville, Thomas, English diplomatist (1755–1846), 197. - - —— William Wyndham, Lord, English statesman (1759–1834), Pitt’s - foreign secretary (1790–1801), 120, 166, 167, 169. - - Grisons, republic of the, 41; - occupied by the Archduke Charles (1799), 202; - Suvórov in, 205; - Macdonald invades (1800), 218, 219; - formed into a canton of Switzerland by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - and retained by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344. - - Grodno, Diet of (24 Sept. 1793), second partition of Poland agreed to - at, 122. - - Gross-Beeren, battle of (23 Aug. 1813), 312. - - Gross-Gorschen (Lützen), battle of (2 May 1813), 309. - - Grouchy, Emmanuel, Marquis de, French general (1766–1847), 353, - App. iv. - - Guadeloupe, French West India island, conquered by the English, 154; - restored to France by treaty of Amiens (1802), 232; - reconquered by the English (1810), 276; - returned to France by Sweden (1815), 347. - - Guadet, Marguerite Élie, French politician (1758–94), 106, 129. - - Guastalla, duchy of, granted to Pauline Bonaparte by Napoleon, 283; - granted with Parma to the Empress Marie Louise (1815), 347. - - Guerilla warfare against the French in Spain, 268, 297. - - Guiana, 155, 191, 223, 232, 348. - - Gustavus III., King of Sweden (1746–92), a benevolent despot of the - 18th century, 4; - his _coup d’état_ of 1772 and reforms, 33; - invades Russian Finland (1788), 45; - makes peace with Denmark (1789), 46; - overthrows the power of the nobility, 46; - sympathy with Marie Antoinette, 67, 68; - defeated by the Russians (1790), 95; - makes treaty of Verela with the Empress Catherine (1790), 95, 96; - proposes to rescue the French royal family, 109; - murdered, 110. - - Gustavus IV., King of Sweden (1778–1837), 110, 243, 253, 254, 279. - - - Hague, the, the Stadtholder driven from (1787), 31; - congress at (1790), 93, 94; - capital moved from, to Amsterdam by Louis Bonaparte, 255. - - Hainault, Estates of, suppressed by the Emperor Joseph (1789), 47. - - Hamburg, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; - English trade removed from Amsterdam to, 184; - retained its independence (1803), 226; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282; - taken by the Russians (1813), 308; - recovered by Vandamme, 309; - defended by Davout (1813–14), 319, 320; - a free city of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - Hanau granted to Dalberg, Grand Duke of Frankfort (1806), 260; - battle of (30 Oct. 1813), 314. - - Hanover, Electorate of, independently administered under the King of - England, 38, 39; - bishopric of Osnabrück merged in (1803), 227; - occupied by the French under Mortier (1803), 233, 242; - promised to Prussia and offered to England by Napoleon (1806), 247; - part of, merged in kingdom of Westphalia, 258; - and part annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282; - a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - - Hanriot, François, French politician (1761–94), 129, 147. - - Hardenberg, Charles Augustus, Count afterwards Prince von, Prussian - statesman (1750–1822), negotiated treaty of Basle (1795), 157; - opposed alliance with France (1796), 170; - became Minister for Foreign Affairs (1803), 234; - and State Chancellor (1807), 248; - completes the work of Stein (1809), 303; - accedes to the Proposals of Frankfort (1813), 316; - signs Provisional Treaty of Paris (1814), 332; - Prussian Plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), 337. - - —— William, Count von, Hanoverian statesman (1754–1826), 337. - - Harris, Sir James, Earl of Malmesbury. _See_ Malmesbury. - - Hassan Pasha, Turkish admiral, 45. - - Hatry, Jacques Maurice, French general (1740–1802), 193. - - Haugwitz, Christian Henry Charles, Count von, Prussian statesman, - (1752–1832) a partisan of France and enemy of Austria, 111; - appointed Foreign Minister (1792), 126; - in favour of peace with the French Republic, 153; - but against an alliance (1796), 170; - advocated a compromise, 179; - dismissed as too friendly to France (1803), 234; - signs treaty of Schönbrunn (1805), 247; - finally dismissed (1807), 248. - - Hébert, Jacques René, French politician (1755–94), 141, 142. - - Hébertists, the, 141, 142. - - Heidelberg ceded to Baden, 227. - - Heligoland, ceded by Denmark to England (1815), 348. - - Heliopolis, battle of (20 March 1800), 224. - - Helvetian Republic founded (1798), 199; - replaced by the Confederation of Switzerland (1803), 228. - - Henry, Prince, of Prussia (1726–1802), 111. - - Hérault-Séchelles, Marie Jean, French politician (1760–94), 133. - - Hercules III., Duke of Modena (1727–1803), 25, 26, 174, 175, 192, 226. - - Herder, Johann Gottfried, German philosopher (1744–1803), 9, 38. - - Herford, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227. - - Hermann, Russian general, defeated at Bergen (1799), 205. - - Hertzberg, Ewald Frederick, Count von, Prussian statesman (1725–1795), - 30, 31, 85, 87, 88. - - Hesse-Cassel, its condition in 1789, 38; - made an electorate (1803), 225; - increased in size, 227; - merged in the kingdom of Westphalia, 250, 258; - a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - _See_ William IX. - - Hesse-Darmstadt, increased in size (1803), 227; - made a Grand Duchy (1806), 259; - a state of the Confederation of the Rhine (1806), 260; - of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - _See_ Louis X. - - Hesse-Homburg, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - Hildesheim, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 34. - - Hildesheim, bishopric of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227; - in the kingdom of Westphalia (1807), 258. - - Hiller, John, Baron von, Austrian general (1754–1819), 315. - - Hoche, Lazare, French general (1768–97), 140, 154, 180, 181, 185, 186, - 189, 191, 193, 194. - - Hoensbroeck, Count Cæsar Constantine Francis de, Prince-Bishop of - Liége, 39, 49, 95. - - Hofer, Andrew, Tyrolese patriot (1767–1810), 273. - - Hohenlinden, battle of (3 Dec. 1800), 219. - - Hohenlohe-Bartenstein, Prince of, one of the chief Princes of the - Empire in Alsace, 79. - - Hohenlohe-Kirchberg, Prince of, Austrian general, 45. - - Hohenzollern, two principalities of, states of the Germanic - Confederation (1815), 343. - - Holland [the United Netherlands], a member of the Triple Alliance, 13; - position in 1789, 31; - revolution in (1787) 31, 32; - put down by Prussia, 32; - designs of Dumouriez on, 119, 120; - France declares war against (1793), 120; - failure of Dumouriez to invade (1793), 126; - conquered by Pichegru (1794–95), 149; - organised as the Batavian Republic, 150; - effect of its conquest on England, 184; - Delacroix sent as ambassador to, 190; - Hoche’s scheme of invading England from, 193; - its fleet destroyed at Camperdown (1797), 194; - invaded by English and Russians (1799), 205; - its changes of government, 254; - Louis Bonaparte, King of (1806), 254, 255; - colonies taken by England, 264; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282; - rises against the French (1813–14), 314, 320, 321; - joined to Belgium as the kingdom of the Netherlands (1815), 344. - - —— kingdom of, formed for Louis Bonaparte, 254; - his administration (1806–1810), 254, 255. - - Holstein, duchy of, 34, 343. - - Holstein-Gottorp, Prince Peter of, Prince-Bishop of Lübeck in 1789, - 39. - - Holy Alliance, the, 355. - - Hondschoten, battle of (7 Sept. 1793), 140. - - Hood, Samuel, Lord, English admiral (1724–1816), 139. - - Houchard, Jean Nicolas, French general (1740–93), 138, 140. - - Howe, Richard, Earl, English admiral (1725–99), 145. - - Humbert, Jean Joseph Amable, French general (1755–1823), 197. - - Humboldt, William, Baron von, Prussian statesman (1767–1835), 303, - 304, 323; - at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), 338. - - Hundred Days, the (March-June 1815), 351–353. - - Hungary, opposition to the Emperor Joseph’s reforms in, 15, 16; - abolition of serfdom, 16; - Joseph’s dying concessions to, 66; - policy of the Emperor Leopold in, 90–92; - looked with favour on Napoleon, 270. - - Huningen, fortress to be dismantled by second treaty of Paris (1815), - 354. - - Hutchinson, John, Lord, afterwards Earl of Donoughmore, English - general (1757–1832), 224. - - - Igelström, Joseph, Count, Russian general (♰1817), 151, 152. - - Illyrian Provinces, Napoleon’s, formed (1805), ruled by Marmont, 245, - 256; - the Ionian islands added to (1807), 256; - increased (1809), 274; - given to Austria (1815), 347. - - Income tax imposed in France (1800), 215. - - India, Bonaparte’s projects on (1798), 194; - the Emperor Paul’s plans for invading, 220, 221. - - ‘Infernal Columns’ despatched to La Vendée, 141. - - ‘Infernal Machine,’ plot of the (1800), 231. - - Inquisition, the Holy, 21, 22, 25, 297, 358. - - Ionian Islands belonged to Venice in 1789, 27; - ceded to France (1797), 192; - taken by the Russians (1798), 207; - ceded to France by the treaty of Tilsit (1807), 250; - added to the Illyrian Provinces, 256; - given to England (1815), 348. - - Ireland, Hoche’s expedition to (1796), 185; - Humbert’s (1798), 197. - - Iron crown of Italy assumed by Napoleon (1805), 238. - - Ismail, besieged by the Russians (1789), 45; - stormed (1790), 96. - - Istria ceded to Austria (1797), 192; - annexed by Napoleon, 245. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Bessières. - - Italian unity, idea of, in the 18th century, 22; - promised by Bentinck (1813), 322; - defended by Murat (1814), 344. - - Italy, condition of, in 1789, 22–27; - Bonaparte’s arrangements in North, 192; - conquered by the French (1798–99), 200; - reconquered by Bonaparte (1800), 218, 219; - kingdom of, Napoleon’s, 238, 255; - rises against Napoleon (1813–14), 314, 315; - settlement of, at Vienna (1815), 345–347. - _See_ Genoa, Lombardy, Lucca, Modena, Naples, Parma, Rome, Sardinia, - Sicily, Tuscany, Venice. - - - Jablonowski, Ladislas, Polish statesman (1769–1802), 87. - - Jachvill, Prince, 221. - - Jacobin Club, growth of its importance in France, 100, 105; - debates on the war question in, 107; - Hébertists expelled from (1793), 142; - the headquarters of Robespierre’s party, 147; - closed (1794), 149. - - Jaffa taken by Bonaparte (1799), 208. - - Jahn, Frederick Louis, German publicist (1778–1852), 291. - - Janissaries, the, dethrone the Sultan Selim III. (1807), 280; - fight the new militia in Constantinople, 281. - - Janssens, John William, Dutch general (1762–1835), 155. - - Jassy, treaty of (9 Jan. 1792), 96. - - Jaucourt, Arnail François, Marquis de, French statesman (1757–1852), - 330. - - Java, taken by the English (1811), 264; - restored to Holland (1815), 348. - - Javogues, Claude, French politician (1759–96), 139. - - Jeanbon or Jean Bon (André) called Saint-André. _See_ Saint-André. - - Jehu, companies of, ravage the south of France in 1796, 181; - in 1815, 356. - - Jemmappes, battle of (6 Nov. 1792), 118. - - Jena, university of, 38; - battle of (14 Oct. 1806), 247. - - Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia (1784–1860), 258, 259. - - Jervis, Sir John, Earl St. Vincent, English admiral (1734–1823), 183. - - Jesuits expelled from Spain by Aranda, 21; - from Portugal by Pombal, 22; - from Naples by Tanucci, 23. - - Jeunesse Dorée or Fréronienne, important political part played by, in - Paris (1794–95), 155. - - Jews, toleration to, insisted on by Napoleon, 289. - - John VI., King of Portugal (1769–1826), 22, 120, 223, 252, 253. - - —— Archduke, seventh son of the Emperor Leopold (1782–1863), 219, 272, - 273, 274. - - Jomini, Henri, Baron, French general (1779–1862), 312. - - Joseph II., Emperor (1741–90), typical benevolent despot of the 18th - century, 4; - preferred Russia to France, 12; - position in 1789, 14–17; - internal policy, 15, 16; - abolition of serfdom, 16; - foreign policy, 16, 17; - German policy, 17, 35; - alliance with Russia, 17; - attacks the Turks, 17; - the Pope’s visit to, 24; - defeated by the Turks (1788), 43; - prophecy in Jan. 1789, 44; - policy in Belgium, 46–48; - death and character, 66; - why he failed, 67; - comparison between, and Louis XVI., 67, 68. - - Joseph Bonaparte, elder brother of Napoleon (1768–1844), King of - Naples (1806), his good administration, 256; - King of Spain (1808), 267; - his reforms, 289, 297; - driven from Madrid (1812), 306; - returned, 307; - finally retired from Madrid, defeated at Vittoria (1813), 315. - - Joseph, Archduke, fourth son of the Emperor Leopold (1776–1847), 270. - - Josephine, the Empress, first wife of Napoleon (1763–1814), 285, 293, - 332. - - Joubert, Barthélemy Catherine, French general (1769–99), 186, 200, - 204. - - Jourdan, Jean Baptiste, Comte, French general (1762–1833), 140, 144, - 150, 172, 177, 178, 202, 315, App. iv. - - Journalists, rise of their importance in Paris (1789), 61. - - Jovellanos, Don Gaspar Melchior de, Spanish statesman (1744–1811), 21. - - Joyeuse Entrée or Constitution of Brabant, abrogated by the Emperor - Joseph (1789), 47. - - Junot, Andoche, Duke of Abrantes, French general (1771–1813), 253, - 265, 266, 296. - - - Kaiserslautern, battle of (19 Aug. 1794), 144. - - Kalisch, ceded to Prussia in second partition of Poland (1793), 122; - treaty of (27 Feb. 1813), 308. - - Kalkreuth, Frederick Adolphus, Count von, Prussian general - (1737–1818), 153. - - Kant, Immanuel, German philosopher (1724–1804), 9. - - Katt, Lieutenant, Prussian officer, attacked Magdeburg (1809), 293. - - Katzbach, battle of the (25 Aug. 1813), 312. - - Kaunitz, Wenceslas, Prince von, Austrian statesman (1711–94), made the - treaty of 1756 with France, 19; - at the Congress of Reichenbach (1790), 87; - wrote the despatch and letter which led to war with France, 108, - 109; - practically succeeded by Thugut (1792), 126. - - Keller, Dorotheus Louis Christopher, Count, Prussian statesman - (1757–1827), 65, 93. - - Kellermann, François Christophe, Duke of Valmy, French general - (1735–1820), 115, App. iv. - - —— François Étienne, French general (1770–1835), 218. - - Kempten, Abbot of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, - 34. - - Kiel, treaty of (14 Jan. 1814), 320. - - Kioge, Danes defeated at, by the English (1807), 252. - - Klagenfurt, Joubert joins Bonaparte at (1797), 186. - - Kléber, Jean Baptiste, French general (1753–1800), 150, 172, 208, 224. - - Knesebeck, Charles Frederick, Baron von, Prussian general (1768–1844), - 33. - - Knights of the Holy Roman Empire, 40; - deprived of their sovereign rights by Napoleon, 260. - - Kolichev, Nicholas, Russian diplomatist (♰1813), 198, 217. - - Kollontai, Hugh, Polish statesman (1752–1812), 104, 122. - - Königsberg, Estates of East Prussia summoned at, by Stein (1813), 308. - - Körner, Charles Theodore, German poet (1791–1813), 291. - - Korsakov, Alexander Rymski, Russian general (1753–1840), 204. - - Kosciuszko, Thaddeus, Polish patriot (1746–1817), defeated by Suvórov - at Dubienka (1792), 122; - raises standard of Polish independence at Cracow, and takes Warsaw - (1794), 151; - defeated by the Russians, wounded and taken prisoner at Maciejowice - (1795), 152; - welcomed in Paris, 206. - - Kray, Paul, Baron, Austrian general (1735–1804), 202. - - Kulm, capitulation of (1813), 313. - - Kutuzov, Michael Larivonovitch Golenitchev, Prince, Russian general - (1745–1813), 96, 281, 305; - death (1813), 309. - - - Labrador, Pedro Gomez Ravelo, Count of, Spanish statesman (1775–1850), - 338, 347. - - Lacuée de Cessac, Gérard Jean, Comte, French administrator - (1752–1841), 241. - - Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yves Gilbert Motier, Marquis de, - French general (1757–1834), leads the minority of the nobility in - the States-General to join the Tiers État (June 1789), 54; - commandant of the National Guard of Paris, 59; - brings Louis XVI. to Paris (6 Oct. 1789), 62; - got Mirabeau’s proposition on ministers rejected, 72; - most influential man in France (1790), 73; - fires on the people (17 July 1791), on the Champ de Mars, 101; - placed in command of an army on the frontier (1792), 107; - offers to help the king (July 1792), 112; - deserts, 114. - - Lagarde, Marie Jacques Martin, French general (♰1815), 356. - - La Harpe, Frederick Cæsar de, Swiss statesman (1754–1838), 234. - - La Marck, Auguste Marie Raymond, Comte de (1753–1833), 72, 73. - - Lambesc, Charles Eugène de Lorraine, Prince de, French officer - (1751–1825), 57. - - Lambrechts, Charles Joseph Mathieu, Comte, French politician - (1753–1823), 191. - - Lameth, Alexandre Theodore Victor, Vicomte de, French politician - (1760–1829), 100. - - Lampredi, Giovanni Maria, Italian jurist (1732–93), 24. - - Landau, siege of, relieved by Pichegru (1793), 140. - - Lanjunais, Jean Denis, Comte, French politician (1753–1827), 154. - - Lannes, Jean, Duke of Montebello, French general (1769–1809), 218, - 269, App. iv. - - Laon, battle of (9 March 1814), 328. - - La Place, Pierre Simon, French astronomer (1749–1827), 216. - - La Tour du Pin Gouvernet, Frédéric, Marquis de, French diplomatist - (1750–1837), 338. - - Lauenburg, Duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation, granted to - the King of Denmark (1815), 347. - - League of the Princes, formed by Frederick the Great, 30, 35; - joined by the Archbishop-Elector of Mayence, 39. - - La Bon, Ghislain Joseph François, French politician (1765–95), 139. - - Le Brun, Charles François, Duke of Piacenza, French statesman - (1739–1824), 214, 239, 287. - - Lebrun Tondu, Pierre Henri Hélène, French politician (1763–93), 114. - - Le Chapelier, Isaac Gui René, French politician (1754–94), 52, 100. - - Leclerc, Victor Emmanuel, French general (1772–1802), 223, 232. - - Lecourbe, Claude Joseph, Comte, French general (1760–1815), 204. - - Leeds, Francis Godolphin Osborne, Duke of, English statesman - (1751–99), 28. - - Lefebvre, François Joseph, Duke of Dantzic, French general - (1755–1820), 248, 329, App. iv. - - Legations, the. _See_ Bologna, Ferrara. - - Leghorn, its prosperity promoted by the Grand Duke Leopold, 27; - capital of a French department, 283. - - Legion of Honour, the, 284. - - Legislative Assembly, the, in France (1791–92), 105, 106, 108, 111, - 113, 114. - - —— Body, the (Corps Législatif), 214, 240, 285, 322, 326. - - Legislature, the French, under the Constitution of the Year III. _See_ - Council of Ancients, Council of Five Hundred. - - —— the French, under the Constitution of the Year VIII. _See_ - Legislative Body, Senate, Tribunate. - - Leiningen, the Prince of, one of chief princes holding fiefs of the - Empire in Alsace, 79. - - Leipzig, battle of (16–19 Oct. 1813), 314. - - Lenoir-Laroche, Jean Jacques, French administrator (1749–1825), 190. - - Leoben, the Preliminaries of, signed 17th April 1797, 186; - arrangements of, followed in the treaty of Campo-Formio, 192. - - Leopold II., Emperor (1747–92), typical benevolent despot of the 18th - century, 4; - considered the French the enemies of Austria, 12; - his administration as Grand Duke of Tuscany (1765–90), 24, 25, 83; - implored by Marie Antoinette to interfere in France, 81; - succeeds Joseph II. (1790), 83; - his internal policy, 83, 84; - position of Austria, 84; - appeals to England against Prussia, 86; - signs Convention of Reichenbach (1790), 87, 88; - makes armistice with the Turks, 88; - and treaty of Sistova (1791), 89; - elected and crowned Emperor, 89; - letter to Louis XVI. on the rights of the Princes of the Empire in - Alsace, 89, 90; - his policy towards Hungary, 90–92; - crowned King of Hungary, 91; - reconquers Belgium (1790), 94; - occupies Liége, 95; - his position in 1791, 97; - promises to intervene in France, 99; - issues Manifesto of Padua, 102; - signs Declaration of Pilnitz, 103; - his letter and despatch to Louis XVI., 108, 109; - makes an alliance with Prussia against France, 109; - death (1 March 1792), 110. - - Leopold, Archduke, fourth son of the Emperor Leopold (1774–94), 91. - - Le Quesnoy, besieged by the Austrians (1793), 130. - - Lessart, Antoine de Valdec de, French statesman (1742–92), 109. - - Letourneur, Charles Louis François Honoré, French statesman - (1751–1817), 165, 182, 188. - - Letourneux, Pierre, French administrator (1761–1805), 191. - - ‘Liberum Veto,’ the, in Poland, 18; - abolished by Polish Constitution of 1791, 104. - - Lichtenstein, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - Liége, revolution in (Aug. 1789), 49; - occupied by the Prussians (1790), 63; - by the Austrians (1791), 94, 95; - by Dumouriez (1792), 118. - - Ligne, Charles Joseph, Prince de, Austrian general (1734–1814), 65. - - Ligny, battle of (16 June 1815), 352. - - Ligurian Republic founded by Bonaparte (1797), 192; - the Doge appointed by France (1801), 220; - annexed to Napoleon’s Empire, 243, 283. - - Lille, besieged by the Austrians (1792), 114, 118; - conference at (1797), 190. - - Limburg, occupied by the Austrians under Bender (1790), 93. - - —— Count Augustus of, Prince-Bishop of Spires in 1789, 39. - - Limon, Geoffroi, Marquis de, French _émigrés_ (♰1799), 113. - - Lindet, Jean Baptiste Robert, French statesman (1743–1825), 132, 133, - 148, 210. - - Lippe, two principalities of, states of the Germanic Confederation - (1815), 343. - - Lisbon, occupied by the French under Junot (1807), 253. - - Lithuania, conquered by Napoleon (1812), 305; - absorbed in Russia, 342. - - Llanos, Don Juan Gomez, minister of the Duke of Parma, 25. - - Loano, battle of (24 Nov. 1795), 151, 173. - - Lobau, Napoleon in the island of (1809), 273. - - Locke, John, English philosopher (1632–1704), 9. - - Lodi, battle of (10 May 1796), 174. - - Lombardy, belonged to Austria in 1789, its good administration, 26; - conquered by Bonaparte (1796), 174; - formed part of the Cisalpine Republic (1797), 192; - occupied by the Austrians (1799), 206; - reconquered by Bonaparte (1800), 218; - formed part of the kingdom of Italy (1805), 255; - restored to Austria (1815), 347. - - Loménie de Brienne, Étienne Charles, Cardinal de, French statesman - (1727–1794), 49, 51, 70. - - Longwy, taken by the Prussians (27 Aug. 1792), 114. - - Loudon, Gideon Ernest, Count, Austrian general (1716–90), 43, 45, 88. - - Louis XV., King of France (1710–1774), 19. - - —— XVI., King of France (1754–93), 20, 49, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 62, - 67, 68, 75, 76, 99, 100, 103, 106, 108, 111, 112, 113, 139. - - —— XVII., _de jure_ King of France (1785–95), 168. - - —— XVIII., King of France (1755–1824), 26, 102, 166, 167, 188, 206, - 217, 332, 333, 340, 341, 350, 351, 352, 353, 355, 356–358. - - —— I., King of Etruria (1773–1803), 220, 232. - - —— Bonaparte, King of Holland (1777–1846), 254, 255, 282, 283. - - —— X., Landgrave, afterwards Grand Duke, of Hesse-Darmstadt - (1753–1830), 79, 227, 259, 260, 342. - - —— Philippe, Duke of Orleans, afterwards King of the French - (1773–1850), 189. - - —— Louis Dominique, Baron, French statesman (1755–1837), 240, 331. - - Louisa, Queen of Prussia (1776–1810), 246, 304. - - Louisiana, ceded by Spain to France (1801), 232; - sold by Napoleon to the United States, 242. - - Loustalot, Elysée, French journalist (1762–90), 61. - - Louvain, 15, 48, 64. - - Louverture, Toussaint (1743–1803), 232. - - Louvet, Jean Baptiste, French politician (1760–97), 117, 154. - - Löwenhielm, Gustavus Charles Frederick, Count von, Swedish diplomatist - (1771–1856), 338. - - Lübeck, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; - retained its independence (1803), 226; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 302; - as a free city member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - Lucca, Republic of, in 1789, 27; - annexed by Napoleon (1805), 243, 255; - Elisa Bonaparte, Duchess of, 283; - made a Grand Duchy for the King of Etruria with reversion to - Tuscany (1815), 347. - - Lucchesini, Jerome, Prussian diplomatist (1752–1825), 31, 85, 87, 88, - 89, 153. - - Lucerne, canton of Switzerland maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - one of the three meeting-places of the Helvetian Diet (1815), 345. - - Lückner, Nicolas, Baron, French general (1722–94), 107. - - Ludovica, the Empress, third wife of the Emperor Francis II. - (1772–1816), 271. - - Lunéville, treaty of (9 Feb. 1801), 219, 220. - - Lusatia, annexed to Saxony (1806), 259; - to Prussia (1815), 341. - - Lützen (Gross-Gorschen), battle of (2 May 1813), 309. - - Luxembourg, the Austrians retreat to, from Belgium (1789), 64; - made into a Grand Duchy (1815), 343; - and given to the King of the Netherlands, 344. - - Lynedoch, Sir Thomas Graham, Lord. _See_ Graham. - - Lyons rises in insurrection against the Convention (1793), 131; - taken, 140. - - - Macdonald, Jacques Étienne Joseph Alexandre, Duke of Taranto, French - general (1765–1840), 203, 219, 273, 305, 306, 308, 312, 329, 331, - 332. - - Maciejowice, battle of (12 Oct. 1794), 152. - - Mack, Charles, Baron, Austrian general (1752–1828), 200, 243, 244. - - Mackintosh, Sir James, English statesman (1765–1832), 233. - - Madame Royale. _See_ Angoulême, Duchess of. - - Madeira, occupied by the English (1801), 223, 224. - - Maestricht, besieged by Miranda (1793), 126; - taken by Kléber (1794), 150. - - Magdeburg formed part of the kingdom of Westphalia, 258; - Katt’s attack on, 293; - French garrison in, besieged (1814), 319. - - Magnano, battle of (5 April 1799), 202. - - Mahmoud II., Sultan of Turkey (1785–1839), 281. - - Maida, battle of (4 July 1806), 256. - - Maillard, Stanislas, French politician (1763–94), 62. - - Maillebois, Yves Marie Desmarets, Comte de, French general - (1715–1791), 31, 32. - - Maitland, Sir Frederick Lewis, English captain (1779–1839), 353. - - Malet, Claude François, French general (1754–1812), 306. - - Malines, riots against Joseph’s reforms at (1788), 47; - abandoned to the Belgian patriots, 64. - - Malmaison, château of, settled on the Empress Josephine, 293. - - Malmesbury, Sir James Harris, Earl of, English diplomatist - (1746–1820), 32, 184, 190. - - Malta, taken by Bonaparte (1798), 195; - by the English (1800), 195, 204; - the Emperor Paul Grand Master of the Knights of, 207, 217; - a cause of the rupture of the treaty of Amiens, 225; - England refuses to surrender, 233; - granted to England at the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348. - - Mamelukes defeated by Bonaparte at the battle of the Pyramids (1798), - 195; - at the battle of Cairo (1799), 208. - - Manifesto of Padua issued by the Emperor Leopold (5 July 1791), 102. - - Mannheim, university of, 37; - taken by Pichegru (1795), 172; - given to Baden (1803), 227. - - Mantua, Leopold’s interview with Durfort at, 99; - besieged by Bonaparte (1796–97), 175, 176; - part of the Cisalpine Republic, 192; - besieged by Suvórov (1799), 203. - - Marat, Jean Paul, French statesman (1744–93), 61, 101, 107, 117, 155. - - Marceau, François Séverin Desgraviers, French general (1769–96), 172; - killed at Altenkirchen (1796), 178. - - Marengo, battle of (14 June 1800), 218. - - Maret, Hugues Bernard, Duke of Bassano, French statesman (1763–1839), - 241, 316. - - Maria I., Queen of Portugal (1734–1816), 22, 253. - - —— Beatrice of Este, heiress of Modena, married to the Archduke - Ferdinand, 25, 26. - - —— Theresa, the Empress (1717–80), 19. - - Marie, Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, sister of the Emperor Alexander, - present at the Congress of Vienna, 337. - - —— Amélie, Duchess of Parma, daughter of Maria Theresa, 25. - - —— Antoinette, Queen of France, daughter of Maria Theresa (1755–93), - disliked in France as an Austrian, 12; - opposes Necker, 55; - urges Louis XVI. to oppose the Assembly, 61, 68; - wishes her brother Leopold to interfere in France, 75, 80, 81; - unpopularity increased by Prussian intrigues, 86; - admiration of Gustavus III. of Sweden for, 95; - demands Leopold’s aid, 99; - escapes to Varennes, 99, 100; - reveals French plan of campaign to Austria, 112; - ordered to be sent before the Revolutionary Tribunal for trial, 134; - guillotined, 138. - - —— Caroline, Queen of the Two Sicilies, daughter of Maria Theresa. - _See_ Caroline. - - —— Louise, the Empress, Napoleon’s second wife (1791–1847), 294, 330, - 332, 346, 347. - - —— —— Queen of Spain (1754–1819), 77, 267. - - Marmont, Auguste Frédéric Louis Viesse de, Duke of Ragusa, French - general (1774–1852), 245, 256, 306, 329, 331, App. iv. - - Marseillaise, the, 113. - - Marseilles opposes the Convention (1793), 151. - - Marshals, Napoleon’s, 239; - list of, App. iv. - - Martinique, French West India island, taken by the English, 154; - restored to France (1802), 252; - again taken by the English (1809), 276; - restored to France (1815), 348. - - Massa, Duke of. _See_ Regnier. - - —— Principality of, merged in the Duchy of Modena, 25. - - Massacres in the prisons of Paris (Sept. 1792), 115. - - Masséna, André, Duke of Rivoli, Prince of Essling, French general - (1758–1817), 204, 218, 221, 244, 272, 296, 297, App. iv. - - Matchin, battle of (9 July 1791), 96. - - Maubeuge besieged by the Austrians (1793), 140. - - Mauprat, M. de, reforming minister in Parma, 25. - - Mauritius, the island of the, taken by the English (1809), 264, 276; - ceded to England by the first Treaty of Paris (1814), 333; - by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348. - - Maximilian, Archduke, third son of Maria Theresa, Elector-Archbishop - of Cologne in 1789, 40. - - —— Joseph, Elector, afterwards King, of Bavaria (1770–1825), his - power increased by the secularisations (1803), 227; - receives Swabia and the Tyrol and takes the title of king (1806), - 245; - receives Salzburg (1809), 257; - marries a daughter to Eugène de Beauharnais, 258; - member of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - sends troops to serve under Napoleon at Wagram, 274; - signs Treaty of Ried against Napoleon (8 Oct. 1813), 313, 314; - attacks Napoleon and is defeated at Hanau, 314; - opens the passes through the Tyrol into Italy to the Austrians, 321; - agrees to support Austria and England against Russia and Prussia - (1815), 341; - member of the Germanic Confederation, 342; - gives up the Tyrol and Salzburg to Austria, and receives Rhenish - Bavaria (1815), 344. - - Maximum, Law of the, in France, 128; - an instrument of the Terror, 137; - abolished by the Thermidorians, 149; - temporarily imposed by Napoleon, 285. - - Mayence, the Archbishop-Elector of, Chancellor of the Holy Roman - Empire, and President of the College of Prince, 54. - - —— archbishopric-electorate of, condition in 1789, 39; - merged in France (1801), 193; - given to Bavaria (1815), 344. - - —— city of, taken by the French under Custine (1792), 118; - by the Prussians after a long siege (1793), 130; - besieged by Kléber in vain (1795), 172; - taken by the French under Hatry (1797), 193; - capital of a French department, 230; - ceded to Bavaria (1815), 344. - - Mecklenburg, the duchies of, their backward state in 1789, 38; - made grand duchies and members of the Germanic Confederation (1815), - 342. - - Medellin, battle of (28 March 1809), 275. - - Medina del Rio Seco, battle of (14 July 1808), 267. - - Melas, Michael Baron von, Austrian general (1730–1806), 175, 204, 218. - - Menou, Jacques François, Baron de, French general (1750–1810), 156, - 224. - - Mercy-Argenteau, Florimond Claude, Comte de, Austrian diplomatist - (1722–94), 93, 94, 99. - - Merlin [de Douai], Philippe Antoine, Comte, French statesman - (1754–1838), 80, 137, 148, 149, 156, 159, 166, 182, 191, 209, 357. - - —— [de Thionville], Antoine Christophe, French politician (1762–1833), - 117. - - Methuen Treaty, its effect on Portugal, 14, 21, 252. - - Metternich, Clement Wenceslas Lothaire, Count, afterwards Prince, von, - Austrian statesman (1773–1859), becomes State Chancellor of - Austria (1809), 275; - opposes Stein’s idea of rousing the national spirit of Germany - against Napoleon, 310, 311; - brings terms agreed on at Reichenbach to Napoleon at Dresden (1813), - 311; - lays down the Proposals of Frankfort, 316; - intrigues with Murat, 322; - presses terms offered at Châtillon, 324; - becomes intimate with Castlereagh, 331; - signs Provisional Treaty of Paris, 332; - Austrian representative at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), 338; - signs treaty of alliance with England and France against Russia and - Prussia (3 Jan. 1815), 340. - - Middle classes in Europe in the 18th century, 7. - - Milan, university of, 26; - taken by Bonaparte (1796), 174; - meeting of Lombard delegates at, 175; - taken by Suvórov (1799), 203; - by Bonaparte (1800), 218; - Napoleon crowned King of Italy at (1805), 238; - issues Decree of, establishing the Continental Blockade against - England (1808), 251. - - Milanese, the. _See_ Lombardy. - - Miles, William Augustus, English diplomatist (1754–1817), 78. - - Millesimo, battle of (13 April 1796), 174. - - Mincio, battle of the (8 Feb. 1814), 322. - - Ministers of the French Directory, 166, 182, 190, 191, 210; - of the Consulate, 216; - of the Empire, 240, 241. - - Minorca taken by the English (1798), 195, 264. - - Minsk, province of, ceded to Russia at the second partition of Poland - (1793), 122. - - Miollis, Sextius Alexandre François, Comte, French general - (1759–1829), 277. - - Miot de Melito, André François, Comte, French administrator - (1762–1841), 256. - - Mirabeau, Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de, French statesman - (1749–1791), 54, 56, 60, 61, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 98, 99. - - Mirabeau, Victor Riqueti, Marquis de, French economist (1715–89), 25. - - Miranda, Don Francisco, French general (1750–1816), 126, 127. - - Mirandola, principality of, united with Modena in 1789, 25. - - Mittau, Louis XVIII. settled at, by the Emperor Paul (1797), 206; - ordered to leave (1802), 217. - - Modena, duchy of, condition in 1789, 25, 26; - conquered by Bonaparte (1796), 174; - part of the Cisalpine Republic, 192; - of the kingdom of Italy, 255; - granted to Ferdinand IV., 347. - - Moeskirch, battle of (5 May 1800), 218. - - Moldavia, conquered by the Austrians (1789), 45; - by the Russians (1810), 281; - part of, ceded to Russia (1812), 281. - - Möllendorf, Richard Joachim Heinrich, Count von, Prussian general - (1725–1816), 153. - - Moncey, Bon Adrien Jeannot de, Duke of Conegliano, French general - (1754–1842), 151, 275, 356, App. iv. - - Mondovi, battle of (22 April 1796), 174. - - Monge, Gaspard, Comte, French mathematician (1746–1818), 114. - - Montbéliard, ceded by Würtermburg to France, 227; - merged in the department of the Doubs, 230; - secured to France by the first treaty of Paris, 333. - - Mont-Blanc, Savoy organised as the French department of the, 230. - - —— Cenis, 151. - - Montebello, battle of (4 June 1800), 218. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Lannes. - - Montenotte, battle of (12 April 1796), 174. - - Montereau, battle of (18 Feb. 1814), 319. - - Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de, French philosopher - (1689–1755), 9. - - Montesquiou-Fézensac, Anne Pierre, Marquis de, French general - (1739–98), 117. - - —— —— François Nicolas, Abbé-Duc de, French politician (1757–1832), - 330. - - Monte Video, English expedition to (1806), 264. - - Montgelas, Maximilian Joseph Garnerin, Comte de, Bavarian statesman - (1759–1838), 289. - - Montluçon, Bonaparte’s treaty with the Vendéan leaders at (1800), - 215. - - Montmirail, battle of (11 Feb. 1814), 319. - - Montmorin-Saint-Hérem, Armand Marc, Comte de, French statesman - (1745–92), 78. - - Mont-Terrible, department of, merged in the department of the - Haut-Rhin, 230. - - Moore, Sir John, English general (1761–1809), 254, 266, 269, 270. - - Moreau, Jean Victor, French general (1761–1813), 168, 178, 186, 193, - 194, 203, 211, 218, 219, 234, 235, 312. - - Moreaux, Jean René, French general (1758–95), 144, 150. - - Morkov, Arcadius Ivanovitch, Count, Russian diplomatist, (♰1827), - 243. - - Mortier, Adolphe Edouard Casimir Joseph, Duke of Treviso, French - general (1768–1835), 233, 329, App. iv. - - Moscow, occupied by Napoleon (1812), 306. - - Moskowa, Prince of the. _See_ Ney. - - Moulin, Jean François Auguste, French general (1752–1810), 209. - - Mounier, Jean Joseph, French statesman (1758–1806), 51, 55. - - Mountain, the French political party, germs in the Jacobin Club - (1792), 107; - the party in the Convention, 116, 117; - attacked by the Girondins, 117; - struggle with the Girondins, 128, 129; - as a party ceases to exist (1795), 156. - - Mount Tabor, battle of (16 April 1799), 208. - - Mulhouse, Republic of, merged in the Haut-Rhin, 230; - secured to France (1814), 333. - - Müller, Jacques Léonard, Baron, French general (1749–1824), 140. - - —— Johann von, German historian (1752–1809), 259. - - Munich, taken by the French under Moreau (1800), 219. - - Münster, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, - 34. - - —— bishopric of, part of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227; - in the Grand Duchy of Berg (1806), 259; - part of, annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282. - - —— city of, capital of a French department, 282. - - —— Ernest Frederick, Count von, Hanoverian diplomatist (1766–1841), - 337. - - Murat, Joachim, Grand Duke of Berg, King of Naples, French general - (1771–1815), 239, 259, 267, 283, 306, 322, 345, 346, App. iv. - - Murbach, the Abbot of, one of the chief Princes of the Empire in - Alsace, 79. - - Murray, Sir John, English general (♰1827), 307. - - Musæus, John Charles Augustus, German author (1735–87), 38. - - Mustapha IV., Sultan of Turkey (1779–1808), 280, 281. - - Mysticism in the 18th century, 10. - - - Namur, riots against Joseph’s reforms at (1789), 48. - - Nancy, Bouillé suppresses a military mutiny at (Aug. 1790), 72, 97, - 98. - - Nangis, battle of (17 Feb. 1814), 319. - - Nantes, Carrier’s atrocities at (1793), 139, 141. - - Naples, reforms of Tanucci in, 23; - occupied by the French (1798), and the Parthenopean Republic - founded, 200; - evacuated by the French (1799), and the revenge of Ferdinand, 203; - attacked by Napoleon (1804), 242; - Joseph Bonaparte’s rule in, 256; - Murat king of, 283; - Ferdinand returns to (1814), 346, 359; - behaves moderately, 359. - - Napoleon (1769–1821), crowned Emperor, 238; - his Court, 239; - his ministers, 240, 241; - the camp at Boulogne, 241; - organises the Grand Army, 241, 242; - wins the battle of Austerlitz, 244; - crushes Prussia at Jena, 247; - defeats the Russians at Eylau and Friedland, 248, 249; - holds interview with Alexander at Tilsit, 249, 250; - the Continental Blockade against England, 251; - his rearrangement of Europe, 254–257; - Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - his Polish policy, 261; - the Conference at Erfurt, 262; - makes his brother King of Spain, 267; - takes Madrid, 269; - defeats the Austrians (1809), 272–274; - quarrel with the Pope, 277, 278; - greatest extension of his Empire (1810), 282, 283; - his administration, 283–285; - belief in heredity, 285, 286; - aristocracy, 286, 287; - reforms, 287, 288; - divorces Josephine, 293; - marries Marie Louise, 294; - his differences with Alexander, 299–301; - invades Russia (1812), 305; - his retreat, 306; - first campaign of 1813 in Saxony, 309; - refuses the terms offered him by the allies, 311; - second campaign of 1813 in Saxony, 312, 313; - defeated at Leipzig, 314; - first defensive campaign of 1814 in France, 319; - rejects the terms offered by the allies at Châtillon, 323, 324; - second defensive campaign of 1814 in France, 328, 329; - abdicates, 331; - leaves Elba and returns to France (1815), 351; - defeated at Waterloo, 353; - sent to St. Helena, 355. - _See_ Bonaparte. - - Napoleon, King of Rome, birth of, 294; - granted succession to Parma by the Provisional Treaty of Paris - (1814), 332; - but not by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347. - - Narbonne-Lara, Comte Louis de, French politician (1755–1813), 106, - 107, 109. - - Nassau, duchy of, increased in 1803, 227; - merged in the Grand Duchy of Berg (1806), 259; - a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - - Nassau-Siegen, Prince Charles Henry Nicholas Otho of, Russian admiral - (1745–1809), 44, 95. - - National Assembly. _See_ Constituent Assembly. - - —— Guards formed in Paris, 57; - throughout France, 59. - - Nationality, the principle of, 2, 3; - extinct in 18th-century Germany, 40; - made the French successful and the Poles fail, 153; - roused against Napoleon in Spain, 298; - in Germany, 293, 314; - rejected by the Congress of Vienna, 360. - - Natural limits of France, the Rhine and the Alps, claimed at Basle - (1795), 157; - demanded by the Directory, 170; - recognised secretly by Prussia, 179; - by the Preliminaries of Leoben, 186; - by the Treaty of Campo-Formio, 192; - by the Treaty of Lunéville, 220; - abandoned by Napoleon’s annexations, 282; - offered by the allies at Dresden, 311; - at Frankfort, 316; - opposed by Castlereagh, 318, 324. - - Necker, Jacques, French statesman (1732–1804), 49, 51, 56, 58, 61, 74. - - Neipperg, Albert Adam, Count (1774–1829), 346, 347. - - Nelson, Horatio, Viscount, English admiral (1758–1805), 183, 195, 222, - 242, 244, 245. - - Nesselrode, Charles Robert, Count, Russian statesman (1780–1863), 301, - 332, 337. - - Netherlands, Austrian. _See_ Belgium. - - —— The Protestant, or the United Provinces. _See_ Holland. - - —— Kingdom of the, formed (1815), 344. - - Neufchâtel, belonged to Prussia in 1789, 41; - Berthier created Prince-Duke of, 283, 286; - made a Canton of Switzerland (1815), 345. - - Neumarkt, battle of (20 March 1797), 186. - - Neutral League of the North, the, 222. - - Ney, Michel, Duke of Elchingen, Prince of the Moskowa, French general - (1769–1815), 244, 296, 306, 313, 329, 332, 351, 352, 356, App. iv. - - Nice, port of, improved by Victor Amadeus III., 26; - taken by the French (1792), 117; - annexed, 118; - formally ceded to France, 174; - formed into a department, 230; - restored to Sardinia (1814), 333. - - Niebuhr, Barthold George, German historian (1776–1831), 304. - - Nile, battle of the (1 Aug. 1798), 195. - - Nimeguen, 149. - - Nive, battle of the (9–13 Dec. 1813), 316. - - Nivelle, battle of the (10 Nov. 1813), 316. - - Noailles, Comte Alexis de, French diplomatist (1783–1835), 338. - - Nobility, the European, in the 18th century, 7. - - Nootka Sound, 77–9. - - Nore, mutiny at the, 183, 193. - - Normal School of Paris, founded by Napoleon, 288. - - Normandy, the rising in, against the Convention, suppressed, 132, 133. - - Norway, 32, 302, 320, 347. - - Novi (Bosnia) taken by Loudon (1788), 43. - - —— (Italy), battle of (15 Aug. 1799), 204. - - Noyades at Nantes, 139. - - Nuremberg, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; - retained its independence (1803), 226; - granted to Bavaria (1806), 257. - - - Oath of the Tennis Court (20 June 1789), 54. - - Ocana, battle of (12 Nov. 1809), 276. - - Ochakov (Oczakoff), 43, 44, 96. - - Oldenburg, duchy of (1815), 282, 300, 342. - - Olivenza ceded by Portugal to Spain (1801), 223; - left to Spain by the Congress of Vienna, 348. - - Oporto, rising against the French at (1808), 265; - taken by Soult, 270; - recaptured by Wellesley (1809), 275. - - Orange, Prince of. _See_ William V., William VI. - - Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, Duke of (1747–93), 57, 138. - - Orsova besieged by the Austrians (1789), 45; - taken by the Prince of Coburg (1789), 88; - ceded to Austria (1791), 88. - - Ortenau given to Baden (1807), 258. - - Orthez, battle of (27 Feb. 1814), 321. - - Osnabrück, the Duke of York bishop of, in 1789, 39; - merged in Hanover (1803), 227; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282. - - Ostend taken by the Belgian patriots (1789), 64. - - Otranto, Duke of. _See_ Fouché. - - Oudinot, Nicolas Charles, Duke of Reggio, French general (1767–1847), - 312, 329, App. iv. - - - Paciaudi, Paolo Maria, Italian scholar (1710–85), 25. - - Pacte de Famille, the, between France and Spain, 14, 20, 77–79. - - Pacy, the Norman insurgents against the Convention defeated at (13 - July 1793), 131. - - Paderborn, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 34. - - —— bishopric of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227; - in the kingdom of Westphalia (1807), 258. - - Padua, Manifesto of, 102. - - Pahlen, Peter, Count von der, Russian general (♰1826), 221. - - Palestine, conquered by Bonaparte (1799), 208. - - Palm, John Philip, German bookseller (♰1806), 293. - - Palmella, Pedro de Sousa-Holstein, Count, afterwards Duke, of, - Portuguese statesman (1786–1850), 338. - - Pampeluna besieged and taken by Wellington (1813), 315, 316. - - Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot (1726–1807), 27, 145. - - Papacy, the, its temporal power in the 18th century, 24. - - Paris, takes part in the Revolution, 56; - riot of 12 July (1789), 57; - the taking of the Bastille, 57, 58; - the King brought to (6 Oct. 1789), 62; - keeps the King prisoner in the Tuileries, 99; - massacre of 17 July (1791), 101; - invades the Tuileries (20 June 1792), 112; - takes the Tuileries (10 Aug. 1792), 113; - massacres in (Sept. 1792), 115; - people of, refuse to support Robespierre, 147; - fights against the Convention, 13 Vendémiaire, 164, 165; - welcomes the Empire, 238; - battle of (1814), 239; - occupied by the allies, 239; - provisional treaty of, 331, 332; - return of Louis XVIII. to, 333; - first treaty of, 333, 334; - return of Napoleon to (1815), 351; - reoccupied by the allies, 353; - second treaty of, 353, 354. - - Parker, Sir Hyde, English admiral (1739–1807), 222. - - Parma, city of, capital of a French department, 283. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Cambacérès. - - —— and Piacenza, Duchess of. _See_ Marie Louise. - - —— ——, Duke of. _See_ Ferdinand, Louis. - - —— ——, duchies of, well governed in the 18th century, 25; - conquered by Bonaparte (1796), 174; - exchanged for kingdom of Etruria (1801), 220; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 283; - granted to Marie Louise by the Provisional Treaty of Paris (1814), - 332; - by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347. - - Parthenopean Republic, founded (1798), 200; - overthrown (1799), 203. - - Passau, bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1801), 227. - - Paul, Emperor, of Russia (1754–1801), his accession (1796), 185; - inclines to war with France, 198; - declares war against France (1798), 202; - receives Louis XVIII., 204; - withdraws his troops from the Continent, 206; - becomes Grand Master of the Knights of Malta, 207; - quarrels with Austria and England, 207; - makes peace with France, 207; - admiration for Bonaparte, 216, 217; - schemes for an invasion of India, 220, 221; - forms Neutral League of the North, 221, 222; - assassinated, 222. - - Pavia, the university of, 26. - - Peace, Prince of the. _See_ Godoy. - - Peltier, Jean Gabriel, French journalist (1765–1825), 133. - - Peninsular War: campaign of 1808, 265, 266; - of 1809, 275, 276; - of 1810, 296; - of 1811, 296, 297; - of 1812, 306, 307; - of 1813, 315. - - _Père Duchesne_, 142. - - Pérignon, Dominique Catherine, Comte, French general (1754–1818), 183, - App. iv. - - Pesth, 90, 91. - - Pétiet, Claude, French administrator (1749–1805), 182, 190. - - Pétion, Jérome, French politician (1753–94), 78, 86. - - Pfaffenhofen, treaty of (1796), 180. - - Philosophers, the eighteenth century, 4, 9, 17, 38. - - Piacenza, Duchy of. _See_ Parma. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Le Brun. - - Pichegru, Charles, French general (1761–1804), 140, 144, 149, 167, - 172, 188, 191, 234, 235. - - Piedmont, part of the kingdom of Sardinia in 1789, 26; - left to Victor Amadeus (1797), 192; - occupied by the French under Joubert (1798), 200; - occupied by the Austrians (1799), 206; - conquered by Bonaparte (1800), 218; - annexed to France (1801), 220, 230, 255. - - Pigot, Sir Henry, English general (1752–1840), 195. - - Pilnitz, Conference between the Emperor Leopold and King Frederick - William at (1791), 102; - the Declaration of, 103; - its effect on France, 106. - - Pisa, the university of, 24, 200. - - Pitt, William, English statesman (1759–1806), 28, 45, 78, 86, 97, 120, - 125, 126, 166, 167, 169, 184, 189, 190, 225, 243, 245, 264. - - Pius VI., Giovanni Angelo Braschi, Pope (1717–99), 24, 66, 76, 175, - 177, 200, 203, 217. - - —— VII., Gregorio Barnabé Luigi Chiaramonti, Pope (1742–1834), 217, - 220, 229, 230, 238, 277, 278, 347. - - Plain, deputies of the Centre in the Convention called the, 117, 129, - 156. - - Pleswitz, armistice of (3 June 1813), 309. - - Plettenberg, the Baron of, Prince-Bishop of Münster in 1789, 39. - - Pléville de Peley, Georges René, French admiral (1726–1805), 190, 196. - - Podolia, province of, taken by Russia at the second partition of - Poland (1793), 122. - - Poland, its extinction impending in 1789, 14; - Catherine’s policy in the first partition of, 18; - Prussia’s share of, and aims on, 30; - treaty of Warsaw with Prussia, 85; - refuses to surrender Thorn and Dantzic (1790), 87; - attempts at reform, 103, 104; - the Constitution of 1791, 104, 105; - invaded by the Russians (1792), 121; - attacked by the Prussians (1793), 122; - second partition of (1793), 122; - causes of the failure of the attempt at constitutional reform, 123; - insurrection in (1794), 151; - victory of the Russians, 151, 152; - final partition and extinction of Polish independence (1795), 152; - comparison between French and Polish revolutions, 152, 153; - looked favourably on by the Directory, 206; - Napoleon’s campaign in 1807, 248, 249; - Napoleon’s Polish policy, 261; - creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 261; - serfdom abolished in, 289; - the Emperor Alexander’s ideas on (1814), 339; - final rearrangement of (1815), 342. - - Police, Ministry of General, established in France (1796), 182; - abolished under the Consulate, but restored under the Empire, 241. - - Polignac, Armand Jules Marie Heraclius, Comte, afterwards Duc de, - French politician (1771–1847), 235. - - Polish Legion formed for the service of France (1797), 206. - - Pombal, Sebastian José de Carvalho-Mello, Marquis of, Portuguese - statesman (1699–1782), 22. - - Pomerania, Prussian, its backward state in 1789, 29. - - —— Swedish, possession of, gave the King of Sweden a voice in the Diet - of the Empire, 34; - occupied by the French under Brune (1808), 250, 254, 279; - exchanged for Norway by the treaty of Kiel (1814), 320; - given to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347. - - Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson, Marquise de (1721–64), 19. - - Poniatowski, Joseph, Prince, Polish patriot, French general - (1762–1813), 121, 122, App. iv. - - —— Stanislas, King of Poland (1732–98), 104, 122, 151, 152. - - Ponte Corvo, principality of, belonged to the Pope in 1789, 24; - Bernadotte made Prince of (1806), 277. - - Pontine marshes drained by Pope Pius VI., 24. - - Popes. _See_ Pius VI., Pius VII. - - Porentruy, district of, merged in the department of the Haut-Rhin, - 230. - - Portalis, Jean Etienne Marie, French statesman (1745–1807), 214, 215. - - Portugal, its condition in 1789, 14, 21, 22; - declares war against the French Republic (1793), 120; - treaty of San Ildefonso (1796), 183; - England comes to the help of, 184; - attacked by Spain, and forced to cede Olivenza by the treaty of - Badajoz (1801), 223; - Napoleon’s schemes against, 252; - to be divided by treaty of Fontainebleau (1807), 252, 253; - conquered by the French, 253; - rises in insurrection against the French, 265; - English army sent to, 265; - freed from the French by the Convention of Cintra, 266; - invaded by the French under Masséna (1810), 296; - their repulse (1811), 297; - deserted by Castlereagh at the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348. - - Portuguese Legion, formed by Junot, for the service of France, 253. - - Posen, province of, taken by Prussia in the second partition of Poland - (1793), 122; - given back to Prussia (1815), 342. - - Potemkin, Gregory Alexandrovitch, Prince, Russian statesman - (1736–1791), 43, 44, 45, 96. - - Potocki, Stanislas Felix, Polish statesman (1745–1805), 121. - - Potsdam, treaty of (3 Nov. 1805), 247. - - Pozzo di Borgo, Charles Andrew, Count, Russian diplomatist - (1764–1842), 301, 337. - - Praga, suburb of Warsaw, stormed by Suvórov (4 Nov. 1794), 152. - - Prague, congress of (1813), 311. - - Prairial, the insurrection of 1st, in Paris (1795), 155, 156. - - Prefectures, Bonaparte’s establishment of, in France, 230. - - Preliminaries of Leoben signed (17 April 1797), 186. - - Pressburg, treaty of (26 Dec. 1805), 245. - - Prieur [of the Côte-d’Or], Claude Antoine, French statesman - (1763–1832), 133, 134. - - —— [of the Marne], Pierre Louis, French statesman (1760–1827), 133. - - Prince-Bishops of the Holy Roman Empire, 39, 40. - - _Profession de Foi du Vicaire Savoyard_, Rousseau’s, 10. - - Proposals of Frankfort (1813), 316, 317. - - Provera, John Nicholas, Baron, Austrian general (1747–1801), 176. - - Prussia, administrative decay in, 5; - serfdom in, 5; - a member of the Triple Alliance, 13; - condition in 1789, 28–30; - policy of, 30, 31; - intervention in Holland (1787), 32; - influence in the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire, 34; - position of, in 1789, 84; - anti-Austrian policy, 84–86; - alliance with Austria against France (1792), 109; - its share in the second partition of Poland (1793), 122; - in the third partition of Poland (1795), 152; - more anti-Austrian than anti-French, 152; - makes treaty of Basle with the French Republic (1795), 156, 157; - becomes protector of North Germany, by the conclusion of the line of - demarcation, 170, 171; - its great increase in importance by the secularisations of 1803, - 227; - neutrality violated by the French (1805), 244; - advantages obtained by its policy of neutrality, 246; - desires to fight France, 246, 247; - crushed at Jena, and occupied by the French, 247; - deprived of its Rhenish Westphalian and Polish provinces (1807), - 250; - reorganisation of, under Stein and Scharnhorst, 289–291; - becomes the recognised leader of the revived German national spirit, - 292; - Stein’s reforms completed by Hardenberg, 303; - foundation of the University of Berlin, 303, 304; - obliged to allow Napoleon to traverse it, and to send him a contingent - (1812), 304; - rises against the French, 308, 309; - receives part of Saxony (1815), 341; - and part of Prussian Poland, 342; - obtains large Rhenish province, 344; - gets Swedish Pomerania, 347; - as a result of the period becomes the preponderant German power, - 359. - _See_ Frederick William II., Frederick William III. - - Public Safety, Committee of. _See_ Committee. - - Pyramids, battle of the (21 July 1798), 195. - - Pyrenees, campaigns in the, 133, 140, 144, 150, 151, 315, 316. - - - Quatre Bras, battle of (16 June 1815), 352. - - Quedlinburg, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227. - - Quiberon Bay, defeat of the French _émigrés_ at (June 1794), 154. - - Quinette, Nicolas Marie, Baron, French administrator (1762–1821), 210. - - - Raab, battle of (14 June 1809), 273. - - Rabaut de Saint-Étienne, Jean Paul, French politician (1743–93), 52. - - Raclawice, battle of (4 April 1794), 151. - - Radet, Étienne, Baron, French general (1762–1825), 278. - - Ragusa, Duke of. _See_ Marmont. - - Ramel, Jean Pierre, French general (1768–1815), 356. - - —— de Nogaret, Jacques, French politician (1760–1819), 182. - - Rapinat, Jacques, French administrator (1750–1818), 199, 209. - - Rasomovski, Andrew, Count, afterwards Prince, Russian diplomatist - (1751–1836), 323, 337. - - Rastadt, Congress at, 186, 192, 202. - - Ratisbon, bishopric of, granted to the Elector of Mayence (1803), 225; - to the King of Bavaria (1805), 260. - - —— a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, where the Imperial Diet met, - 35, 225, 257. - - Reason, the Worship of, in Paris, 141; - attacked by Danton and Robespierre, 142. - - Receivers-general of taxes, their establishment under the Consulate, - 215. - - Reden, Baron, Dutch diplomatist (♰1799), 87. - - Regency, Portuguese, formed (1808), 266. - - Reggio, duchy of, belonged to the Duke of Modena in 1789, 25; - merged in the Cisalpine Republic (1797), 192. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Oudinot. - - Regnier, Claude Ambroise, Duke of Massa, French statesman (1736–1814), - 216, 239, 240, 241. - - Reichenbach, conference, Congress and convention of (June 1790), 87, - 88; - treaty of (17 June 1813), 310. - - Reichskammergericht. _See_ Tribunal, Imperial. - - Reichstag. _See_ Diet, Imperial. - - Reign of Terror in France. _See_ Terror. - - Reinhard, Charles Frédéric, Comte, French diplomatist (1761–1837), - 210. - - Renier, Paolo (♰1789), Doge of Venice in 1789, 27. - - Repnin, Nicholas Vassilievitch, Prince, Russian general (1734–1801), - 44, 96. - - Retreats, famous military: Moreau’s, from Bavaria (1796), 178; - Moore’s, from Salamanca (1808–09), 269, 270; - Napoleon’s, from Moscow (1812), 306. - - Reubell, Jean François, French statesman (1747–1807), 150, 156, 165, - 169, 179, 181, 191, 209. - - Réunion, island of (Isle of Bourbon), restored to France (1815), 348. - - Reuss, the principalities of, states of the Germanic Confederation - (1815), 343. - - Reuss, Prince Anton von (1738–96), 87. - - Réveillon, Jean (1796), sack of his house at Paris (June 1789), 56. - - Revellière-Lépeaux, Louis Marie de la, French statesman (1753–1824), - 165, 171, 181, 182, 209. - - Revolution, the reasons why it began in France, 7, 8. - _See_ France. - - Revolutionary Propaganda, decreed by the Convention (18 Nov. 1792), - 118; - its effect on the character of the war, 125; - the decree repealed (16 May 1793), 133; - idea adopted by the Hébertists, 141; - formally abandoned by the Thermidorian Committee of Public Safety, - 148, 159. - - —— Tribunal. _See_ Tribunal. - - _Révolutions de Paris_, important journal edited by Loustalot, 61. - - Reynier, Jean Louis Ebenezer, Comte, French general (1771–1814), 256, - 296. - - Rhine, the, declared the natural boundary of France, 157; - crossed by Moreau (1796), 178; - by Moreau (1797), 186; - by Blücher (1813), 318. - - —— Confederation of the, formed by Napoleon (1806), 245; - its members, 260, 261; - replaced by the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342, 343. - - Ricci, Scipio de, Bishop of Pistoia, Italian statesman (1741–1810), - 24, 83. - - Richelieu, Armand Emmanuel Sophie Septimanie du Plessis, Duc de, - French statesman (1766–1822), 357. - - Ried, treaty of (8 Oct. 1813), 313, 314. - - Riga, besieged by the French under Macdonald (1812), 307. - - Rivers, stipulations on the navigation of, 349. - - Rivière, Charles François de Riffardeau, Marquis, afterwards Duc de, - French _émigré_ (1763–1827), 235. - - Rivoli, battle of (14 Jan. 1797), 176. - —— Duke of. _See_ Masséna. - - Roberjot, Claude, French politician (1753–99), 202. - - Robespierre, Maximilien Marie Isidore de, French statesman - (1758–1794), opposes intervention of France on behalf of Spain - (1790), 78; - moves motion preventing election of deputies of the Constituent to - the Legislative Assembly, 105; - opposes war with Austria, 105; - a leader in the Convention, 117; - attacked by Louvet, 117; - views on the King’s trial, 119; - his struggle with the Girondins, 129; - member of the Committee of Public Safety, 133; - his position and character, 134, 135; - attacks the Hébertists, 142; - establishes the Worship of the Supreme Being, 146; - overthrown in Thermidor (1794), 146, 147; - guillotined, 147. - - Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, Comte de, French general - (1725–1807), 107. - - Rödt, Baron of, Prince-Bishop of Constance in 1789, 39. - - Roggenbach, Baron Joseph Sigismund of, Prince-Bishop of Basle in 1789 - (♰1794), 39. - - Roland de la Platière, Jean Marie, French administrator (1734–93), - 110, 112, 114. - - —— Manon Jeanne, Madame (1754–93), her salon, 116. - - Roliça, battle of (17 Aug. 1808), 265. - - Romagna, the, part of the Cisalpine Republic (1797), 192. - - Roman Empire, the Holy. _See_ Empire. - - Roman Republic, the, established (1798), 200; - overthrown (1799), 203. - - Rome, administration of the Popes at, 24; - occupied by French troops (1798), 200; - evacuated by them, 203; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 255; - declared the second city of the Empire, 277, 278; - capital of a French department, 283; - restored to the Pope (1815), 347. - - Rosas, taken by the French (3 Feb. 1795), 150, 151. - - Rousseau, Jean Jacques, Genevese philosopher (1712–78), 9, 10, 41, - 146. - - Roussillon, 130, 140. - - Ruffo, Alvaro, Commander, afterwards Prince, Neapolitan diplomatist - (♰1825), 338, 346. - - Rügen, island of, belonged to Sweden in 1789, 32. - _See_ Pomerania, Swedish. - - Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count, Bavarian statesman (1753–1814), 37. - - Russia, condition and growth of, under Catherine, 18, 19; - invaded by the Swedes (1788–90), 45, 95; - obtains increase of territory by the treaty of Jassy (1792), 96; - her share in the second partition of Poland (1793), 122; - in the third partition (1795), 152; - accession of Paul, 185, 198; - her intervention in the war with France and its results, 206, 207; - disapproves of war with England, 221; - murder of Paul (1801), 221; - trade of, 234; - joins the coalition against Napoleon (1805), 242, 243; - defeated at Eylau, 248; - and Friedland, 249; - results, 249; - cessions made to, by the treaty of Tilsit, 249, 250, 261; - grumbles at the Continental Blockade, 261, 300; - attitude towards Austria (1809), 272; - annexes Finland, 278, 299, 302; - its cessions from the Turks in 1812, 281; - incited by England to war with France, 301; - invaded by Napoleon (1812), 305, 306; - drives out the French, 306; - its share in the overthrow of Napoleon, 334; - its annexations from Poland (1815), 341, 342; - a result of the period its taking a prominent place in European - polity, 359, 360. - _See_ Alexander, Catherine, Paul. - - Russian Armament, the (1788), 45. - - Rymnik, battle of the (12 Aug. 1789), 45. - - - Sacilio, battle of (16 April 1809), 273. - - Safety, Public, Committee of. _See_ Committee. - - Saint-Aignan, Paul Hippolyte de Beauvilliers, Marquis de, French - diplomatist (1782–1831), 316. - - Saint-André, André Jeanbon, _called_, French administrator - (1749–1813), 133. - - Saint Bernard, the Great, 218. - - Saint Bernard, the Little, 151. - - Saint-Claude, abbey of, in the Jura, 6. - - Saint-Cloud, the Councils removed to from Paris, 210; - Bonaparte’s _coup d’état_ of 18 Brumaire (1799) at, 211. - - Saint-Cyr, Laurent Gouvion de. _See_ Gouvion. - - Saint-Gall, the canton of, created by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344. - - Saint-Gothard, Suvórov’s passage of the (1799), 204. - - Saint Helena, Napoleon deported to (1815), 355. - - Saint-Helens, Alleyne Fitzherbert, Lord. _See_ Fitzherbert. - - Saint-Just, Louis Léon Antoine Florelle de, French politician - (1767–94), 133, 135, 138, 140, 142, 147. - - Saint Lucia, island of, ceded to France (1783), 19; - restored to England by the first treaty of Paris (1814), 333; - by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348. - - Saint-Marsan, Filippo Antonio Maria Asinari, Marquis de, Italian - diplomatist (1761–1828), 338. - - Saint Ouen, Declaration of (2 May 1814), 332, 333. - - Saint-Petersburg, threatened by the Swedes (1790), 95. - - Saint Priest, Guillaume Emmanuel Guignard, Comte de, French _émigré_, - Russian general (1776–1814), 328. - - Saint-Vincent, battle of (14 Feb. 1797), 183. - - Saint-Vincent, Sir John Jervis, Earl. _See_ Jervis. - - Salamanca, Moore’s advance to (1808), 269; - battle of (22 July 1812), 306. - - Saliceti, Christophe, French politician (1757–1809), 256. - - Salkief, circle of, in Poland, ceded to Russia (1807), 261. - - Salm, petty German principalities (1789), 34; - territories in Germany annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282. - - —— Salm, Constantine Alexander, Prince of (1762–1828), 79. - - Salomon, Gabriel René, French politician (♰1792), 60. - - Salzburg, the Archbishop of, alternate president of the College of - Princes in 1789, 34. - - Salzburg, archbishopric of, made into an electorate for the Grand Duke - Ferdinand of Tuscany (1803), 225, 229; - ceded to Bavaria (1809), 257, 274; - restored to Austria (1815), 344. - - San Domingo, Bonaparte’s attempt to reconquer (1802), 232. - - —— Ildefonso, treaty of (19 Aug. 1796), 183. - - —— Sebastian, threatened by the French (1794), 144; - taken by the French (1795), 157; - stormed by Wellington (1813), 315, 316. - - Saorgio, battle of (29 April 1794), 144. - - Saragossa, siege of (1809), 275. - - Sardinia, kingdom of, condition in 1789, 26, 27; - attacked by the French (1792), 117; - subsidised by England, 126; - restored to Victor Emmanuel I., with the addition of Genoa, 346; - got back Savoy (1815), 354. - _See_ Charles Emmanuel III., Victor Amadeus IV., Victor Emmanuel I., - _also_ Nice, Piedmont, Savoy. - - Savigny, Frederick Charles von, German jurist (1779–1861), 304. - - Savona, Pope Pius VII. imprisoned at, 278. - - Savoy, part of the kingdom of Sardinia in 1789, 26; - conquered by the French (1792), 117; - annexed to France, 118; - ceded by the King of Sardinia (1797), 174; - made into the department of Mont-Blanc, 230; - left to France (1814), 333; - restored to the King of Sardinia (1815), 354. - - Saxe-Coburg, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), - 342. - - —— —— Saalfeld, Prince Francis Josias of. _See_ Coburg, Prince of. - - —— Gotha, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - —— Hildburghausen, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation - (1815), 343. - - —— Meiningen, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), - 343. - - Saxe-Teschen, Duke Albert of, Austrian general (1738–1822), 113. - - Saxe-Weimar, duchy of, 38; - made a Grand Duchy and a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), - 342. - _See_ Charles Augustus. - - Saxony, electorate of, its condition in 1789, 38; - receives Lower Lusatia, and made a kingdom (1806), 259; - a state of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - invaded by Schill (1809), 293; - occupied by Napoleon (1813), 309; - proposition to merge it in Prussia rejected (1814), 339, 340; - part of, ceded to Prussia (1815), 341; - a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - _See_ Frederick Augustus. - - Schaffhausen, Thurgau, separated from the canton of, by Bonaparte - (1803), 228. - - Scharnhorst, Gerard David von, Prussian general (1755–1813), - reorganised the Prussian army, 290, 291, 308; - mortally wounded at Lützen, 309. - - Scheldt, navigation of the, declared free by the National Convention, - 118. - - Schérer, Barthélemy Louis Joseph, French general (1747–1804), 173, - 190, 202, 203. - - Schill, Friedrich, Prussian officer (1773–1809), 293. - - Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich, German poet (1759–1805), 9, 38. - - Schimmelpenninck, Roger John, Count, Dutch statesman (1761–1825), 254. - - Schleiermacher, Ernst Friedrich, German philosopher (1779–1834), 304. - - Schlieffen, Friedrich von, Prussian general (♰1791), 63, 65, 94, 95. - - Schönbrunn, treaty of (15 Feb. 1806), 247. - - Schönfeld, Wilhelm Christoph von, Prussian general (♰1797), 65, 93. - - Schulenburg, Friedrich Wilhelm, Count von, Prussian statesman - (1730–1802), 126. - - —— —— Albert, Count von, Saxon diplomatist (1772–1853), 338. - - Schulz, pastor of Gielsdorf, the case of, 10. - - Schwartzberg, two principalities of, recognised as states of the - Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - Schwartzenberg, Prince Charles Philip von, Austrian general - (1771–1820), 294, 305, 312, 313, 318, 319, 320, 328, 329, 350, - 353. - - Schweitz, canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228. - - Séance Royale, held by Louis XVI. (23 June 1789), 54. - - Sebastiani, François Horace Bastien, Comte, French general - (1772–1851), 275, 280. - - Secularisation of the ecclesiastical states of the Empire proposed by - France, 170; - agreed to at Lunéville (1801), 220; - its tendency, 226; - carried out (1803), and its effects, 226, 227. - - Security, General, Committee of. _See_ Committee. - - Selim III., Sultan of the Ottoman Turks (1761–1808), 44, 88, 89, 96, - 280, 281. - - Senate of France, established by the Constitution of the Year VIII., - its functions, 214; - given power to dissolve the Tribunate and Legislative Body (1803), - 232; - offers the title of Emperor to Napoleon (1804), 236; - its position under the Empire, 240, 284; - appoints a Provisional Government (1814), 330; - declares Napoleon dethroned, 331. - - Serfdom in Europe in the 18th century, 5, 6; - abolished in Hungary by Joseph II., 16; - the Russian peasant partly protected from, by his village - organisation, 19; - prevalent in Prussia, 29, 30; - abolished in Denmark (1788), 32; - abolished in Baden (1783), 37; - its existence a cause of the failure of the Poles to maintain their - independence, 152; - disappeared from Central Europe under the influence of the French - Revolution and Napoleon, 288, 289; - abolished in Prussia by Stein, 290; - its general abolition a permanent result of the period, 361. - - Sérurier, Jean Mathieu Philibert, French general (1742–1819), App. iv. - - Servan, Joseph, French general (1741–1808), 114. - - Servia, conquered by the Austrians under Loudon (1789), 45; - independence recognised by the Turks (1812), 281. - - Shumla, 281. - - Sicily, not much affected by Tanucci’s reforms, 23; - held by the English for Ferdinand IV., 256, 264. - - Sidmouth, Henry Addington, Viscount. _See_ Addington. - - Sieges: Acre (1799), 208; - Alessandria (1799), 203, 204; - Alexandria (1801), 224; - Almeida (1811), 296; - Antwerp (1814), 321; - Badajoz (1812), 306; - Bayonne (1814), 316, 321; - Bender (1789), 45; - Burgos(1812), 307; - Cadiz (1810–12), 296, 297; - Cairo (1801), 224; - Ciudad Rodrigo (1812), 306; - Condé (1793), 130; - Dantzic (1806–7), 248, 249; - Dantzic (1813–14), 319; - Dunkirk (1793), 130, 140; - Gaeta (1807), 256; - Genoa (1799–1800), 205, 206, 218; - Giurgevo (1790), 88; - Hamburg (1813–14), 319, 320; - Ismail (1789–90), 45, 96; - Landau (1793), 140; - Le Quesnoy (1793), 130; - Lille (1792), 114, 118; - Lyons (1793), 131, 140; - Magdeburg (1813–14), 319; - Mantua (1796–97), 175, 176; - Mantua (1799), 203; - Maubeuge (1793), 140; - Mayence (1793), 130; - Mayence (1795), 172; - Mayence (1797), 193; - Ochakov (1788), 43, 44; - Orsova (1789–90), 45, 88; - Pampeluna (1813), 316; - Riga (1812), 307; - San Sebastian (1813), 315, 316; - Saragossa (1809), 275; - Stettin (1813–14), 319; - Tarragona (1812), 307; - Toulon (1793), 140; - Valenciennes (1793), 130; - Warsaw (1794), 151, 152. - - Siena, 24, 283. - - Sieyès, Emmanuel Joseph, Comte, French statesman (1748–1836), 53, 54, - 60, 150, 156, 159, 165, 166, 182, 197, 209, 219, 211, 213, 357. - - Silesia, the Prussian Army of, formed under Blücher (1813), 309; - defeated the French at the Katzbach, 319; - crosses the Rhine, 318; - cut to pieces by Napoleon, 319. - - Silistria, taken by Kutuzov (1811), 281. - - Siméon, Joseph Jerome, Comte, French administrator (1749–1842), 259. - - Sistova, congress of (1790–91), 88; - treaty of (4 Aug. 1791), 89. - - Slave trade, the Negro, condemned by the Congress of Vienna at the - demand of Castlereagh (1815), 348, 349. - - Smith, Sir William Sidney, English admiral (1764–1840), 145, 208. - - Smolensk, 305, 306. - - Socialism opposed even by the Hébertists, 141. - - Soleure, canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228. - - Soltikov, Ivan, Count, Russian general (1736–1805), 43. - - Somo Sierra, Napoleon forces the pass of the (1808), 269. - - Sotin de la Coindière, Pierre, French administrator (1764–1810), - Minister of Police (1797), 190. - - Soult, Nicolas Jean de Dieu, Duke of Dalmatia, French general - (1769–1851), 269, 270, 275, 296, 297, 315, 316, 321, 332, App. iv. - - Sovereignty of the people, the doctrine of, 2. - - Spain, allied to France by the Pacte de Famille, 14; - its condition in 1789, 20, 21; - the reforms of Aranda, 21; - demands the help of France against England in the Nootka Sound - affair (1790), 78; - declares war against France (1793), 119; - subsidised by England, 126; - invades France, 130; - defeated by the French (1794), 140; - invaded by the French (1795), 144; - weary of the war with France, 154; - makes peace with France at Basle (1795), 157; - makes alliance with France at San Ildefonso, and attacks England, - 183; - fleet defeated off Cape St. Vincent (1797), 183; - Bonaparte’s communications with, 223; - attacks Portugal, and gets Olivenza by the treaty of Badajoz (1801), - 223; - cedes Louisiana to France, 232; - agrees at Fontainebleau for the partition of Portugal, 252, 253; - course of politics in, 266, 267; - Napoleon makes Joseph Bonaparte king of (1808), 267; - the Spanish people rise against the French, 267, 268; - Napoleon in Spain, 268–70; - the guerilla war against the French, 297; - evacuated by the French (1813), 315; - lost Trinidad, but kept Olivenza at the Congress of Vienna - (1814–15), 348; - reactionary policy of Ferdinand VII. in (1815), 358. - _See_ Charles IV., Ferdinand VII., Joseph, Peninsular War. - - Spanish Armament, the (1790), 78. - - Spielmann, Anton, Baron von, Austrian diplomatist (♰1738–1813), - Austrian representative at Reichenbach (1790), 87. - - Spires, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, - 34; - and one of the Princes holding largest fiefs in Alsace, 79. - - —— bishopric of, the portion on the right bank of the Rhine merged in - Baden (1803), 227. - - —— city of, taken by Custine (1792), 118. - - Splügen pass, forced by Macdonald (1800), 219. - - Stäblo, Abbot of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, - 34. - - Stackelberg, Gustavus, Count von, Russian diplomatist (♰1825), 337. - - Stadion, John Philip Charles Joseph, Count, Austrian statesman - (1763–1824), tried to rouse Germany against Napoleon, 270, 271; - succeeded by Metternich (1809), 275; - inspired by Gentz, 292; - Austrian plenipotentiary at Châtillon (1814), 323. - - Staps, Friedrich (1792–1809), schemed to assassinate Napoleon, 293. - - State, doctrine of the, 4, 292. - - States of the Church. _See_ Papal States. - - States-General of France, summoned (1788), 43; - a financial expedient, 49, 50; - the elections to, 50, 51; - struggle between the Orders, 52, 53; - declares itself the National Assembly, 53. - _See_ Constituent Assembly. - - Stein, Henry Frederick Charles, Freiherr von, Prussian statesman - (1757–1831), a Knight of the Empire, 40; - his reforms in Prussia, 290; - dismissed by Napoleon’s orders, 291; - pressed Alexander to war with Napoleon, 301; - his work completed by Hardenberg, 303; - at the Russian headquarters (1812), 304; - summoned the Estates of Prussia at Königsberg, 308; - his idea of rousing a German national spirit abandoned by the allied - monarchs (1813), 310; - present at the Congress of Vienna, 337. - - Stéphanie Tascher de la Pagerie (1789–1860), married to the Hereditary - Grand Duke of Baden (1806), 258. - - Stettin, French garrison left in (1813), 308; - besieged (1813–14), 319. - - Stewart, Hon. Sir Charles, afterwards Lord, English general and - diplomatist (1778–1854), 301, 323, 337. - - —— Robert, Viscount Castlereagh. _See_ Castlereagh. - - Stockach, battle of (25 March 1799), 202. - - Stralsund, taken by the French (1807), 250. - - Strasbourg, Archbishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 34; - one of chief Princes of the Empire in Alsace, 79. - - —— archbishopric of, the portion on the right bank of the Rhine ceded - to Baden (1803), 227. - - Stuart, Hon. Sir Charles, English general (1753–1801), 184, 195. - - —— Sir John, English general (1762–1810), 256. - - Stuttgart, 37, 38, 178. - - Suchet, Louis Gabriel, Duke of Albufera, French general (1770–1826), - 275, 297, 307, 315, App. iv. - - Sudermania, Duke of. _See_ Charles XIII., King of Sweden. - - Supreme Being, Worship of the, established by Robespierre (1794), 146. - - Suspects, Law of the, 137. - - Suvórov, Alexander Vassilivitch, Count, afterwards Prince, Russian - general (1729–1800), gallantry at the siege of Ochákov (1788), 44; - defeats the Turks at Foksany and the Rymnik (1789), 45; - stormed Ismail, and served at Matchin (1790–91), 96; - defeated the Poles at Zielence and Dubienka (1792), 121, 122; - defeated Kosciuszko at Maciejowice, and took Warsaw (1794), 152; - defeats the French at Cassano and the Trebbia, and conquers Northern - Italy (1799), 203; - defeats Joubert at Novi, and crosses the Alps, 204; - repulsed by the French, 205; - accuses the Austrians of causing his failure, 207. - - Svenska Sound, battle of (9 July 1790), 95. - - Swabia, part ceded to Bavaria, 245; - part to Würtemburg, 258. - - Sweden, its condition in 1789, 32, 33; - at war with Russia and Denmark, 45, 46; - makes peace with the Danes (1789), 46; - the _coup d’état_ of Gustavus III. (1789), 46; - peace with Russia, 95, 96; - death of Gustavus III., 110; - neutral in the war against France, 120, 124, 171; - loses Pomerania and Finland, 250, 254; - revolution in, and dethronement of Gustavus IV. (1809), 278, 279; - Bernadotte elected Prince Royal (1810), 279; - exchanges Pomerania for Norway by the treaty of Kiel (1814), 320; - cession of Norway confirmed by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347. - _See_ Bernadotte, Charles XIII., Gustavus III., Gustavus IV. - - Switzerland, its condition in 1789, 41; - its neutrality in the war against France, 120, 125, 171; - headquarters of French diplomacy, 156; - and of the _émigrés_ diplomacy, 166, 167; - revolution of 1798, 198, 199; - invaded by the French and the Helvetian Republic formed, 199; - Masséna’s campaign in (1799), 204, 205; - reorganised by Bonaparte as the Confederation of Switzerland (1803), - 228, 229; - neutrality of, violated by the allies (1814), 318; - independence and neutrality guaranteed by the treaty of Paris - (1814), 334; - reorganised, and given a fresh constitution by the Congress of - Vienna (1815), 344, 345. - - Syria, Bonaparte’s campaign in (1799), 208. - - - Tagliamento, Bonaparte forces the passage of the (16 March 1797), 185, - 186. - - Talavera, battle of (27 July 1809), 275. - - Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice de, Bishop of Autun, afterwards - Prince of Benevento, French statesman (1754–1838), consecrates the - Constitutional bishops in France (1790), 70; - appointed Foreign Minister (1797), and advocated the _coup d’état_ - of 18 Fructidor, 190; - resigned (1799), 210; - advised Bonaparte to the _coup d’état_ of 18 Brumaire, 210; - Foreign Minister under the Consulate, 216; - Grand Chamberlain of the Empire, 239; - Foreign Minister under the Empire, 241; - created Prince of Benevento, 277; - his policy after the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, 329, 330; - President of the Provisional Government of France, 330; - gets the Bourbons accepted, 331; - negotiates the first treaty of Paris, 333; - French plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), 338; - his masterly attitude, 338, 339; - signs treaty with Austria and England against Russia and Prussia (3 - Jan. 1815), 340; - dismissed by Louis XVIII. (1815), 357. - - Tallien, Jean Lambert, French politician (1769–1820), 166. - - Talma, François Joseph, French actor (1763–1826), 262. - - Tanucci, Bernardo, Marquis, Italian statesman (1698–1783), 4, 23. - - Taranto, Duke of. _See_ Macdonald. - - Targovitsa, Confederation of, asks Catherine’s aid to overthrow the - Polish Constitution of 1791, 121. - - Tarragona, English failure before (1812), 307. - - Tauroggen, convention of (1812), 308. - - Temeswar, the Banat of, invaded by the Turks (1788), 43. - - Tennis Court, Oath of the (20 June 1789), 54. - - Terror, the Reign of, weapons of, forged, 128; - Robespierre deemed the author of, 135, 147; - the system of, 135–138; - the deputies on mission, 136, 137; - revolutionary tribunal, 137, 138; - the Terror in the provinces, 138, 139; - excused by France because of the success of the Committee of Public - Safety against the foreign foes, 141; - Danton believed it too stringent, 143; - rose to its height (June-July 1794), 145, 146; - system abandoned, 148. - - —— the White, in France (1815), 356, 357. - - Tetterborn, Baron von, Russian general (♰1836), 308. - - Teutonic Order, the, suppressed by Hardenberg in Prussia, 303. - - Texel, Dutch fleet in the, captured by French hussars (1795), 149; - blockaded by the English fleet, 184, 193; - defeated in the battle of Camperdown (1797), 194; - captured by the English (1799), 205. - - Theo-philanthropy, new religion started in France, 181, 182. - - Thermidor, overthrow of Robespierre on the 9th, 147. - - Thermidorians, rule of the, 148, 149, 154–157; - their foreign policy, 156, 157. - - Thompson, Benjamin, Count Rumford. _See_ Rumford. - - Thorn, promised to Prussia by the Poles (1790), 85; - but not surrendered (1791), 87; - obtained by Prussia at the second partition of Poland (1793), 122; - restored to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 342. - - Thouret, Jacques Guillaume, French politician (1746–94), 100. - - Thugut, Franz Maria, Baron, Austrian statesman (1734–1818), becomes - Austrian Foreign Minister, 126; - his policy, 153, 154; - in favour of continuing the war with France, 169; - delayed the treaty of Campo-Formio as long as he could, 192; - retired from office, 220. - - Thurgau, canton of, formed by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344. - - Thuriot de la Rozière, Jacques Alexis, French politician (1758–1829), - 133. - - Thurn and Taxis, Prince of, as Imperial Commissary, summoned the Diet - of the Empire (1792), 108. - - Ticino, canton of, formed by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344. - - Tiers État, Order of the, in the States-General, its struggle with the - privileged Orders, 51, 53; - declares itself the National Assembly, 53. - - Tillot, Guillaume Léon du, Marquis of Felino, Italian statesman - (1711–1774), 25. - - Tilsit, the meeting of Napoleon and Alexander at, 249, 250; - the treaty of (7 July 1807), 250. - - Tirlemont, 48, 64. - - Titles abolished in France by the Constituent Assembly, 60. - - Tloczow, circle of, ceded to Russia (1807), 26. - - Tobac, battle of (1789), 45. - - Tobago, ceded by England to France (1783), 19; - ceded to England by the treaty of Paris (1814), 333; - cession recognised by the Congress of Vienna, 348. - - Tolentino, treaty of (19 Feb. 1797), 177; - battle of (3 May 1815), 346. - - Toleration, Napoleon insists on religious, in Europe, 289. - - Töplitz, treaty of (9 Sept. 1813), 313. - - Torgau ceded by Saxony to Prussia (1815), 341. - - Torres Vedras, Masséna repulsed from the lines of (1810), 296. - - Tortona, fortress of, built by Victor Amadeus III., 27. - - Toulon, 139, 140. - - Toulouse, battle of (10 April 1814), 332. - - Trafalgar, battle of (21 Oct. 1805), 244, 245. - - Trautmannsdorf, Count Albert von, Austrian statesman (1749–1817), 47, - 64. - - Treaties: Amiens (1802), 225; - Badajoz (1801), 223; - Bartenstein (1807), 248; - Basle (1795), 156, 157; - Bucharest (1812), 281; - Campo-Formio (1797), 192, 193; - Chaumont (1814), 327, 328; - Fontainebleau (1807), 252, 253; - Ghent (1814), 341; - Jassy (1792), 96; - Kalisch (1813), 308; - Kiel (1814), 320; - Lunéville (1801), 219, 220; - Paris, Provisional (1814), 331, 332; - Paris, First (1814), 333, 334; - Paris, Second (1815), 353, 354; - Pfaffenhofen (1796), 180; - Potsdam (1805), 247; - Pressburg (1805), 245; - Reichenbach (1813), 310; - Ried (1813), 313, 314; - San Ildefonso (1796), 183; - Schönbrunn (1806), 247; - of 3 Jan. 1815, secret, 341; - of 1756, 11, 12, 19; - Sistova (1791), 89; - Tilsit (1807), 250; - Tolentino (1797), 177; - Töplitz (1813), 313; - Verela (1790), 95–96; - Versailles (1783), 13, 19, 28; - Vienna (1809), 274; - Vienna (1815), 350; - Warsaw (1790), 85. - - Trebbia, battle of the (17–19 June 1799), 203. - - Treilhard, Jean Baptiste, Comte, French statesman (1742–1810), 148, - 166, 195, 209. - - Trent, Macdonald joined by Brune at (1800), 219. - - —— bishopric of, granted to Austria (1803), 226. - - Trèves, the Archbishop of, an Elector in 1789, 34; - one of the chief Princes of the Empire, with fiefs in Alsace, 79; - electorate abolished (1803), 225. - - —— city of, taken by the French (1795), 150; - capital of a French department, 230. - - —— electorate of, well governed in 1789, 40; - conquered by the French under Moreaux (1795), 150; - ceded to France, 193, 225; - given to Prussia (1815), 344. - - Treviso, Duke of. _See_ Mortier. - - Tribunal, the Imperial, of the Holy Roman Empire - (Reichskammergericht), 35. - - —— the Revolutionary, of Paris, established (March 1793), 128; - its powers and effect, 137; - its system of work, 138; - its powers increased (June 1794), 146, 147; - condemns Carrier, 149. - - Tribunate, formed by the Constitution of the Year VIII., its - functions, 214; - reduced to fifty members (1805), 240; - suppressed (1808), 284. - - Trieste ceded to Napoleon (1809), 274. - - Trinidad, island of, taken by the English (1797), 264; - ceded to England by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348. - - Triple Alliance, the, of England, Holland, and Prussia, formed 1788, - 13, 32. - - Tronchet, François Denis, French jurist (1726–1806), 215. - - Truguet, Laurent Jean François, Comte, French admiral (1752–1839), - 166, 190. - - Tudela, battle of (23 Nov. 1808), 269. - - Tuileries, Palace at Paris, 62, 99, 100, 112, 113, 129, 155, 164, 165. - - Turin, observatory at, built by Victor Amadeus III., 26; - threatened by Bonaparte (1796), 174; - occupied by Suvórov (1799), 203. - - Turkey, travelling to decay, 14; - Joseph declares war against, 17; - campaign of 1788 against the Russians and Austrians, 43, 44; - accession of Sultan Selim (1789), 44; - campaign of 1789, 45; - Prussia negotiates with, 45, 85; - campaign of 1790 against the Austrians, 88; - treaty of Sistova (1791), 89; - campaign of 1790–91 against the Russians, 96; - treaty of Jassy (1792), 96; - looked with favour on the French Revolution, 171; - defeated by Bonaparte in Syria and Egypt (1799), 208; - French army in Illyria to threaten, 256; - its general policy (1796–1807), 280; - revolution in, and accession of Mahmoud (1807–08), 280, 281; - war with Russia (1809–12), 281; - treaty of Bucharest (1812), 281. - _See_ Abdul Hamid, Mahmoud, Mustapha, Selim. - - Turreau, Louis Marie, Baron, French general (1756–1816), 141. - - Tuscany, its prosperity under the Grand Duke Leopold, 24, 25; - declares war against France (1793), 120; - makes peace with France, 157, 171; - occupied by the French (1799), 200; - evacuated by them, 203; - restored to the Grand Duke Ferdinand (1800), 206; - made into the kingdom of Etruria (1801), 220; - annexed to Napoleon’s Empire (1808), 255; - Elisa Bonaparte, Grand Duchess of, 283; - restored to Ferdinand (1815), 347. - _See_ Ferdinand II., Leopold. - - Two Sicilies, kingdom of the. _See_ Naples. - - Tyrol, the opposition to Joseph’s reforms in, 15; - Joseph suspends his edicts, 66; - pacified by Leopold (1790), 84; - invaded by Bonaparte (1797), 186; - by Macdonald (1800), 219; - ceded to Bavaria (1805), 245; - Hofer’s insurrection in (1809), 273, 274; - restored to Austria by Bavaria (1815), 344. - - Ulm, 35, 243, 244. - - United States of America, 145, 159, 160, 242, 341. - - Universities: Berlin, 303, 304; - Bonn, 40; - Cracow, 105; - Göttingen, 39; - Jena, 38; - Mannheim, 37; - Milan, 26; - Parma, 25; - Pavia, 26; - Pisa, 24; - Siena, 24. - - University of France founded by Napoleon, its constitution, 288. - - Unterwalden, canton of Switzerland maintained by Bonaparte (1803), - 228. - - Unzmarkt, battle of (22 March 1797), 186. - - Uri, a canton of Switzerland, 41, 228. - - - Vadier, Marc Guillaume Alexis, French politician (1736–1828), 149, - 155. - - Valais, the, declared an independent Republic (1803), 228; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 283; - made a canton of Switzerland by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 345. - - Valence, Pope Pius VI. dies at (1798), 203. - - Valencia, taken by Moncey (1809), 275. - - Valenciennes, taken by the English and Austrians (1793), 130. - - Valmy, battle of (20 Sept. 1792), 115. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Kellermann. - - Valsarno, battle of (26 Oct. 1813), 315. - - Vancouver Island, the affair of Nootka Sound (1790), 77, 78; - the Spaniards claim, 79. - - Vandamme, Dominique René, Comte, French general (1770–1830), 309, 312, - 313. - - Van der Mersch, John Andrew, Belgian general (1734–92), 48, 64, 93. - - Van der Noot, Henry Charles Nicholas, Belgian statesman (1735–1827), - 48, 64, 65, 92, 93, 94. - - Vandernootists or Statists, Belgian political party, 47, 48, 92, 93. - - Van der Spiegel, John, Baron, Dutch statesman, Grand Pensionary of - Holland, 65, 93. - - Varennes, the flight of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette from Paris - (June 1791), stopped at, 100. - - Vauchamps, battle of (14 Feb. 1814), 319. - - Vaud, Pays de, revolts against Berne (1798), 199; - made an independent canton of Switzerland by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344. - - Venaissin, the county of the, 76, 333, 354. - - Vendée, La, the insurrection in, 128, 130, 131, 141, 143, 180, 181, - 215. - - Vendémiaire, the insurrection of 13th (5 Oct. 1795), in Paris, 164, - 165. - - Venice, condition of the Republic in 1789, 27; - remained neutral in the war against the French Republic, 124; - promised to Austria in exchange for Lombardy at Leoben, 186; - occupied by Bonaparte (1797), 191, 192; - ceded the Ionian Islands to France, 192; - ceded to Austria by the Treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), 192; - conclave met at (1799), 206; - occupied by Brune (1800), 219; - ceded to Austria by the Treaty of Lunéville (1801), 220; - ceded to the kingdom of Italy by the Treaty of Pressburg (1805), - 245, 255; - granted to Austria by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347. - - Verdun, taken by the Prussians (1792), 114, 115. - - Verela, treaty of (14 Aug. 1790), 95, 96. - - Vergniaud, Pierre Victurnien, French politician (1753–93), 106, 114, - 116, 129. - - Verona, belonged to Venice in 1789, 27; - punished by Bonaparte for the murder of French soldiers (1796), 191; - Schérer attacked at, 202. - - Versailles, the States-General meets at (May 1789), 51; - invaded by the women of Paris (5 Oct. 1789), 62. - - —— the treaty of (1783), 13, 19, 28. - - Veto, the question of the, in the Constituent Assembly, 61. - - Vicenza, Duke of. _See_ Caulaincourt. - - Victor Amadeus III., King of Sardinia (1726–96), 26, 27, 63, 117, 126, - 173, 174. - - —— Emmanuel I., King of Sardinia (1759–1824), 346, 354. - - —— Victor Claude Perrin, _called_, French general (1764–1841), 269, - 275, 276, 297, App. iv. - - Vienna, the inscription on the Emperor Joseph’s statue at, 66; - Bernadotte insulted at (1798), 198; - the French approach (1801), 219; - occupied by Napoleon (1805), 244; - and (1809), 273; - treaty of (1809), 274; - and (1815), 350. - - —— the Congress of, 336, 350, 337, 338, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, - 347, 348, 349. - - _Vieux Cordelier_, the, 142, 143. - - Villeneuve, Pierre Charles Jean Baptiste Silvestre de, French admiral - (1763–1806), 242, 244, 245. - - Vimeiro, battle of (21 Aug. 1808), 265, 266. - - Vins, Charles, Baron de, Austrian general (♰1794), 88. - - Virtue, Reign of, Robespierre’s belief in a, 146. - - Visconti, Ennius Quirinus, Italian antiquary (1751–1818), 24. - - Vittoria, taken by the French (1795), 151; - battle of (21 June 1813), 315. - - Volhynia, province of, ceded to Russia at the second partition of - Poland (1793), 122. - - Volta, Alessandro, Italian man of science (1745–1827), 26. - - Voltaire, François Marie, Arouet de, French philosopher (1694–1778), - 6, 9. - - Vonck, Francis, Belgian politician (1752–1797), 48, 93. - - Vonckists, Belgian political party, 48, 65, 92, 93. - - Vyborg, the Swedish fleet blockaded in the Gulf of (1790), 95. - - - Wagram, battle of (6 July 1809), 274. - - Walcheren, the English expedition to (1809), 276. - - Waldeck, principality of, a state of the Germanic Confederation - (1815), 343. - - —— Prince Christian Augustus of, Austrian general (1744–98), 184. - - Wallachia, invaded by the Austrians (1789), 45; - conquered by the Russians (1810), 281. - - Warsaw, treaty made at, between the Poles and Prussia (29 March 1790), - 85; - occupied by Kosciuszko (1794), 151; - besieged by the Prussians, 151; - taken by the Russians, 152; - ceded to Prussia (1795), 152; - Napoleon enters (1807), 248; - given to Russia by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 342. - - Warsaw, Grand Duchy of, founded by Napoleon (1807), 259, 261; - Western Galicia ceded to, by Austria (1809), 274; - dissolved (1815), 342. - - Waterloo, battle of (18 June 1815), 353. - - Watteville, Nicholas Rodolphe de, Swiss statesman (1760–1832), 228. - - Wattignies, battle of (16 Oct. 1793), 140. - - Weimar, headquarters of the German literary movement, 38. - _See_ Saxe-Weimar. - - Wellesley, Hon. Sir Arthur, Duke of Wellington. _See_ Wellington. - - —— Richard, Marquis, English statesman (1760–1842), 295. - - Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, English general (1769–1852), - defeated the Danish army at Kioge (1807), 252; - sent to Portugal (1808), 265; - defeats the French at Roliça and Vimeiro, 265, 266; - recalled, 266; - again sent to Portugal (1809), 275; - takes Oporto, 275; - defeats the French at Talavera, 275, 276; - forms the Anglo-Portuguese army, 296; - campaign of 1810, 1811, 296, 297; - campaign of 1812 and victory of Salamanca, 306; - wins battle of Vittoria (1813), 315; - invades France, and wins battles of the Nivelle and the Nive (1813), - 316; - wins battle of Orthez (1814), 321; - his attitude towards the Duc d’Angoulême, 326, 327; - defeats Soult at Toulouse, 332; - succeeds Castlereagh as English plenipotentiary at the Congress of - Vienna (1815), 341, 349; - signs the treaty of Vienna, 350; - takes command of the allied armies in Belgium, 352; - defeats Napoleon at Waterloo, 353. - - Werden, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227. - - Wessenberg-Ampfingen, Johann Philip, Baron von, Austrian diplomatist - (1773–1858), 337. - - West India Islands, the French, taken by the English, 154; - restored at the Peace of Amiens (1802), 232; - recaptured (1809), 264; - restored except Saint Lucia and Tobago (1815), 348. - - Westphalia, kingdom of, formed by Napoleon (1807), 250; - its limits, 258; - administration, 258, 259; - member of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260. - - Wetzlar, seat of the Imperial Tribunal of the Empire, 35; - taken by Hoche (1796), 186; - merged in the electorate of Mayence (1803), 225. - - White Terror in France in 1815, 356, 357. - - Wickham, William, English diplomatist (1768–1845), 166, 167, 182. - - Widdin, the Pasha of, defeated at Foksany (1789), 45. - - Wieland, Christoph Martin, German poet (1733–1813), 38. - - William V., Prince of Orange, and Stadtholder of the United - Netherlands (1748–1806), 31, 32, 149, 179, 227. - - —— VI., Prince of Orange, and I. King of the Netherlands (1772–1843), - 314, 320, 321, 344. - - —— Prince Royal, afterwards King, of Würtemburg (1781–1864), 337. - - —— IX., Landgrave, afterwards Elector and Grand Duke of Hesse-Cassel - (1743–1821), 6, 38, 157, 225, 227, 250, 258, 337; - made a Grand Duke and member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), - 342. - - —— Prince, of Prussia, afterwards German Emperor (1797–1888), 337. - - Wilson, Sir Robert Thomas, English general (1777–1849), 301. - - Wintzingerode, Ferdinand, Baron, Russian general (1770–1818), 319, - 320, 328, 338. - - Wissembourg, lines of, stormed by the Austrians (1793), 139. - - Wittenberg, ceded to Prussia by Saxony (1815), 341. - - Wittgenstein, Louis Adolphus Peter, Prince of Sayn-, Russian general - (1769–1843), 309. - - Wolf, Frederick Augustus, German scholar (1759–1824), 304. - - Wolkonski, Nicholas, Prince Repnin-, Russian general (1778–1845), 337. - - Worms, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, - 34; - one of the chief princes in Alsace, 79. - - —— city of, headquarters of Condé’s army of French _émigrés_, 106; - taken by Custine, 118. - - Worship of Reason at Paris (1793), 142. - - —— of the Supreme Being, 146. - - Wrede, Charles Philip, Prince von, Bavarian general (1767–1838), 338. - - Würmser, Dagobert Sigismund, Count, Austrian general (1724–97), 40, - 130, 139, 140, 175, 176. - - Würtemburg, duchy of, condition in 1789, 37, 38; - invaded by Moreau (1796), 180; - made an electorate (1803), 225; - receives extension of territory, 227; - invaded by Napoleon (1805), 244; - made a kingdom (1806), 245; - receives Austrian Swabia, 258; - state of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - _See_ Charles Eugène, Frederick, Frederick Eugène. - - Würtzburg, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 35. - - Würtzburg, bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), 227; - exchanged for Salzburg (1809), and made a Grand Duchy, 260; - a state of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260. - - —— city of, taken by Jourdan (1796), 177. - - - York, Frederick, Duke of, English general (1763–1827), 39, 127, 130, - 140, 205. - - —— von Wartenburg, John David Louis, Count, Prussian general - (1759–1830), 308. - - - Zettin, taken by the Austrians (1790), 88. - - Zielence, battle of (18 June 1792), 122. - - Zubov, Prince Plato, Russian statesman (1767–1822), 221. - - Zug, canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228. - - Zurich, battle of (26 Sept. 1799), 204. - - —— canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - made one of the presiding cantons of the Helvetian Diet (1815), 345. - - Zweibrücken. _See_ Deux-Ponts. - - - - - +------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | | - | FOOTNOTES: | - | | - | [1] _Joseph II. und Leopold von Toscana._ By the Ritter von | - | Arneth: Vienna, 1872. | - | | - | [2] Vehse’s _Memoirs of the Court, Aristocracy, and Diplomacy | - | of Austria_, English translation. London, 1856, vol. ii. p. 305. | - | | - | [3] _Memoirs of the Court Aristocracy and Diplomacy of | - | Austria_, by E. Vehse, translated by Franz Demmler. London: | - | 1856, vol. ii. p. 334. | - | | - | [4] _L’Europe et la Révolution Française_, by Albert Sorel, | - | vol. ii. p. 50. | - | | - | [5] _A History of the French Revolution_, by H. Morse Stephens. | - | Vol. i., chapter i. gives a detailed account of the method of | - | election. | - | | - | [6] On Mirabeau’s proposed Ministries, see _A History of the | - | French Revolution_, by H. Morse Stephens, vol. i., pp. 246 and | - | 247. | - | | - | [7] Sorel, _L’Europe et la Révolution Française_, vol. ii. p. | - | 69. | - | | - | [8] Sorel, _L’Europe et la Révolution Française_, vol. ii. p. | - | 194, footnote. | - | | - | [9] Coxe’s _Hist. of House of Austria_, ed. 1847, vol. iii. p. | - | 552, footnote. | - | | - | [10] _Preussen und Frankreich von 1795 bis 1807: Diplomatische | - | Correspondenzen._ Ed. by P. Bailleu, vol. i. p. 41. | - | | - | [11] Bailleu, _op. cit._ vol. i. p. 48. | - | | - | [12] Alison’s _Lives of Lord Castlereagh, and Sir Charles | - | Stewart_, vol. ii p. 241. | - | | - | [13] Fain, _Manuscrit de l’An_ 1813, pp. 297, 298. | - | | - | [14] Las Cases, _Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène_, vol. vii. pp. 56, | - | 57. | - | | - +------------------------------------------------------------------+ - - - - _Crown 8vo._ _One Volume._ _With Maps and Plans._ 7_s._ 6_d._ - - MAY ALSO BE HAD IN TWO PERIODS:— - -Period I.—To Elizabeth, 1603. 4_s._ Period II.—To Victoria, 1895. 4_s._ - - =An Advanced History of England.= - For use in Colleges and Upper Forms of Schools. - By CYRIL RANSOME, M.A., Professor of Modern History and - English Literature, Yorkshire College, Victoria University. - - ‘It will supply a want long felt in the educational world.... - As to the plan of Mr. Ransome’s history, we think he has - certainly carried out his aim of bringing out the prominence - of leading events, by full treatment and condensing as much - as possible the minor points.... The characters of leading - personages are sketched with great fairness.’—_Daily Chronicle._ - - ‘The narrative is admirably arranged.... Professor Ransome - commands an easy graphic style, which keeps the attention - without running into verbiage. The book is well indexed, and - some illustrations increase its usefulness.’—_Yorkshire Post._ - - ‘This is a trustworthy and serviceable manual, which will quite - hold its own with the similar book published by Mr. Oman a few - months ago.’—_Glasgow Herald._ - - ‘It is extremely practical and well arranged. The narrative - flows easily, and the details are not too closely packed - together.’—_Guardian._ - - _Small Fcap. 8vo._ _With Maps and Plans._ 1_s._ 6_d._ _net._ - - =An Elementary History of England.= - For the use of the Lower Forms of Schools. - By PROFESSOR CYRIL RANSOME, M.A. - - _Crown 8vo._ _With Coloured Maps._ 6_s._ - - =Outlines of Roman History.= By H. F. PELHAM, M.A., - F.S.A., Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of - Oxford. - - _Small Fcap._ 8vo. _With Maps and Plans._ 3_s._ - - =A Short History of Greece.= By W. S. ROBINSON, M.A., - Assistant Master at Wellington College. - - ‘The story is simply, agreeably, and correctly told.... It is - copiously supplied with maps and plans, and may suitably be - used as a class-book in schools where only a moderate time can - be allowed for the study of Greece.’—_Glasgow Herald._ - - ‘An interesting outline of a great subject, and makes a - serviceable work on which a young student could begin the study - of Greek History.’—_Scotsman._ - - _Small Fcap. 8vo._ _With Maps._ 1_s._ 6_d._ - - =A History of Scotland.= For Junior Classes. - By LIONEL W. LYDE, M.A., Headmaster of the English Department - in Glasgow Academy. - - _Crown 8vo._ 4_s._ 6_d._ - - =The French Wars of Religion.= Their Political Aspects. - By EDWARD ARMSTRONG, M.A., Fellow, Lecturer, and Senior - Bursar of Queen’s College, Oxford. - - _Crown 8vo._ 4_s._ 6_d._ - - =The Making of the England of Elizabeth.= - By ALLEN B. HINDS, B.A., Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. - - LONDON: RIVINGTON, PERCIVAL, & CO. - - - _Crown 8vo. With Maps. 7s. 6d._ - - The Dark Ages, 476–918 - - By C. W. C. OMAN, M. A., Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. - - Forming Volume I. of PERIODS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY. - -‘Notwithstanding its modest scale, this volume (Period I.) will be -valued by all historical students as supplying a real want in our -historical literature, and supplying it well.... He paints on a small -scale, it is true, but his touch is sure and his insight keen. For -the accuracy of his facts his historical reputation is a sufficient -guarantee.’—=Times.= - -‘Though on a comparatively small scale, Mr. Oman’s sketch is complete -and vivid. His insight and acumen in appreciating the bearing of events -and in estimating the influence of personal character are particularly -striking, whilst his pleasing and picturesque style makes the perusal -of his work as enjoyable from the literary as it is instructive from -the historical point of view.’—=Glasgow Herald.= - -‘A high place must be assigned to the work of Mr. Oman.’—=Oxford -Magazine.= - -‘The publishers of these volumes of European History have taken in -hand a task that is to be highly commended, since, we believe, there -does not exist in English any series dealing continuously with such -a subject, from the fall of the Roman Empire in the West down to our -own century.... No better exponent of this era (Period I.), so full of -difficulties and complications, could have been chosen.’—=Journal of -Education.= - - _Crown 8vo. With Coloured Maps. 6s._ - - The Ascendancy of France, 1598–1715 - - By H. O. WAKEMAN, M.A., All Souls College, Oxford. - - Forming Volume V. of PERIODS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY. - -‘Mr. Wakeman’s summary has an orderly sequence, and his narrative has -clearness and coherence that must be accounted, in the circumstances, -quite admirable.’—=Saturday Review.= - -‘We are well pleased to accord to this volume (Period V.) the warm -welcome which we have already given to the seventh and first volumes of -this valuable series.’—=Educational Times.= - -‘This work, which deals with Period V. in the series of books on -Periods of European History, fully maintains the reputation of that -admirable series, wherein a connected view of modern European history -is attempted to be given.’—=Daily Chronicle.= - -‘In giving us the fifth of the Periods of European History, Mr. Wakeman -has produced an excellent sketch, both clear and concise.’—=Oxford -Magazine.= - -‘To the two volumes of this well-planned series which Mr. Oman and -Mr. Stephens have respectively published, there now comes a third -instalment, written by Mr. H. O. Wakeman, which is well worthy to stand -side by side with its predecessors.... Mr. Wakeman’s book is a sound, -able, and useful one, which will alike give help to the student, and -attract the cultivated general reader.’—=Manchester Guardian.= - - - _In Eight Volumes. Crown 8vo. With Maps and Plans._ - - PERIODS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY - - General Editor—ARTHUR HASSALL, M.A., - Student of Christ Church, Oxford. - -The object of this series is to present in separate Volumes a -comprehensive and trustworthy account of the general development -of European History, and to deal fully and carefully with the more -prominent events in each century. - -The Volumes embody the results of the latest investigations, and -contain references to and notes upon original and other sources of -information. - -It is believed that no such attempt to place the History of Europe in -a comprehensive, detailed, and readable form before the English Public -has yet been made, and it is hoped that the Series will form a valuable -continuous History of Mediæval and Modern Europe. - - =Period I.—The Dark Ages.= A.D. 476–918. By C. W. C. OMAN, - M.A., Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. 7_s._ 6_d._ - [_Already published._ - - =Period II.—The Empire and the Papacy.= A.D. 918–1272. By T. - F. TOUT, M.A., Professor of History at Victoria University, - Manchester. - - =Period III.—The End of the Middle Ages.= A.D. 1272–1494. By R. - LODGE, M.A., Professor of History at the University of Glasgow. - - =Period IV.—Europe in the 16th Century.= A.D. 1494–1598. By A. - H. JOHNSON, M.A., Historical Lecturer to Merton, Trinity, and - University Colleges, Oxford. - - =Period V.—The Ascendancy of France.= A.D. 1598–1715. By H. O. - WAKEMAN, M.A., Fellow of All Souls College, and Tutor of Keble - College, Oxford. 6_s._ [_Already published._ - - =Period VI.—The Balance of Power.= A.D. 1715–1789. By A. - HASSALL, M.A., Student of Christ Church, Oxford. [_In the - press._ - - =Period VII.—Revolutionary Europe.= A.D. 1789–1815. By H. MORSE - STEPHENS, M.A., Balliol College, Oxford. 6_s._ [_Already\ - published._ - - =Period VIII.—Modern Europe.= A.D. 1815–1878. By G. W. - PROTHERO, Litt. D., Professor of History at the University of - Edinburgh. - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equals is in bold font (=bold=). - - Blank pages have been removed. - - Advertisements have been moved to the back. - - Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. - - Some spelling and hyphenation variations have been made consistent. - - Appendix tables left split over two pages due to excessive width. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Revolutionary Europe 1789-1815, by -H. Morse Stephens - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REVOLUTIONARY EUROPE 1789-1815 *** - -***** This file should be named 62817-0.txt or 62817-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/8/1/62817/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Robert Tonsing, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - |