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diff --git a/old/62818-0.txt b/old/62818-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a3d8a7e..0000000 --- a/old/62818-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1987 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Armor and Arms, by Thomas Temple Hoopes - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Armor and Arms - An elementary handbook and guide to the collection in the - City Art Museum of St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A. - -Author: Thomas Temple Hoopes - -Release Date: August 2, 2020 [EBook #62818] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMOR AND ARMS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - [Illustration: _The Helmet of a Commander - Bronze, silver, and ivory. Greek, mid-VI century B.C. - From a Greek colony at Metaponto, Italy_] - - - - - ARMOR AND ARMS - - - An elementary handbook and guide to the collection in the - City Art Museum of St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A. - - by - Thomas T. Hoopes - Curator of the Museum - - [Illustration: State sword, German, Augsburg, XVI century] - - St. Louis, Missouri - 1954 - - - Copyright 1954 by the City Art Museum of St. Louis, Mo. - - - - - PREFACE - - -This publication is a guide to the armor and arms in the City Art Museum -of St. Louis and, incidentally, a very elementary introduction to the -history of arms and armor in general. The major part of the Museum’s -collection, comprising the European armor and arms of the fifteenth, -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, is displayed in a single armor -gallery. Other specimens are shown with the exhibition of their own -special cultures. - -The City Art Museum is, as its name implies, restricted to objects of -art, to objects which, independently of their usefulness, are more or -less beautiful by the intention of their makers. There are numerous -items in the vast range of armor and arms which do not fill this -requirement, and are purely utilitarian. The Museum possesses specimens -of some of these. As they are not considered objects of art they are not -on exhibition, but have been assembled in a special study collection -where they can be seen on application to the Curator. - -When individual specimens are illustrated, they are given, in the list -of illustrations, their identifying Museum serial numbers. If a reader -fails to find on exhibition any such specimen in which he is interested, -he has only to ask for it by this serial number at the information desk. -If its place of exhibition has been changed he will be told where to -find it; if for any reason it has been temporarily removed from -exhibition, arrangements will be made, if possible, for him to see it. - -The subject of armor and arms is neither short nor simple, and it is -quite impossible, in a publication the size of this one, to do more than -give the barest kind of outline. Many points of interest are not -discussed in detail, some technical terms are unexplained, many -fascinating items are not mentioned at all. If the subject interests -you, you will find helpful information in the books listed on page 43, -most of which will be available at any public library. If specific -questions concerning armor and arms are addressed to the Curator, City -Art Museum, Forest Park, St. Louis 5, Missouri, accompanied by a -self-addressed, stamped envelope, they will be answered as far as -practicable, but research problems cannot be undertaken. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - List of illustrations viii - The earliest arms and armor 1 - Chain mail 5 - “Gothic” armor 8 - “Maximilian” armor 9 - Armor of the late xvi century: decorated armor 10 - Late armor 16 - Questions concerning armor 18 - Middle Eastern armor 20 - Arms: striking and cutting weapons 22 - Lances and pole arms 26 - Middle Eastern edged weapons 28 - Projectile weapons: bows and crossbows 30 - Projectile weapons: firearms 32 - Bibliography 43 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Figure Acc. No. Page - - _Frontispiece_ Helmet, bronze with silver crest, 282:49 - Greek, mid-VI century B.C. - _Title Page_ State sword, German, Augsburg, XVI 173:26 - century - 1 Ceremonial axe blade (_Ch’i_), bronze, Chinese, 36:51 1 - An-yang, Shang dynasty (_ca._ 1523-_ca._ 1028 B.C.), - gift of J. Lionberger Davis - 2 Helmet, bronze, Chinese, Shang dynasty (_ca._ 283:49 2 - 1523-_ca._ 1028 B.C.) - 3 Ceremonial dagger of a shaman, bronze, Siberian 34:43 2 - steppes, _ca._ 1000 A.D. - 4 Lock of a crossbow, bronze, Chinese, Han dynasty 1106:20 3 - (206 B.C.-220 A.D.), with model to show operation of - interlocking interior parts - 5 Disk, probably the central plate of a shield, 51:22 4 - bronze, Italian, from Picenum, near Ancona, VII-VI - century B.C. - 6 Figure of a warrior, bronze, Etruscan, _ca._ 500 40:51 4 - B.C. Gift of J. Lionberger Davis - 7 Ink rubbing of engraved brass plate on tomb of Sir 7 - Roger de Trumpington, a Crusader, in the church at - Trumpington, Cambridgeshire, England - 8 “Bishop’s mantle” of chain mail, German or Swiss, 87:39 7 - XVI century - 9 Salade, Gothic, German, _ca._ 1475 58:39 8 - 10 Full suit of Maximilian armor, German, _ca._ 1510 171:26 10 - 11 Breastplate, Italian, Pisan style, _ca._ 1575 170:26 11 - 12 Morion, Italian, _ca._ 1560 319:25 11 - 13 Closed helmet, German, _ca._ 1575 79:39 12 - 14 Tilting helmet, Spanish, _ca._ 1580 444:19 13 - 15 Parade shield, Italian, XVI century 47:27 14 - 16 Helmet, German, made for Hungarian or Polish market, 71:42 14 - XVI century - 17 Mitten gauntlet for left hand, English, Greenwich 80:39 14 - school, second half of XVI century - 18 Parade shield, wood, painted, Hungarian, XV century 88:42 15 - 19 Stirrups, pair, bronze gilt, French, early XVII 54:26 16 - century 55:26 - 20 Three-quarter suit of armor, South German, _ca._ 1620 172:26 17 - Drawings to illustrate methods of attaining flexibility - in plate armor: - 21 By use of leather straps 19 - 22 By use of ordinary rivets at pivot points 19 - 23 By use of rivets and slotted holes, (so-called 19 - _Almain_ or _sliding rivets_) to allow motion in two - directions - 24 Breastplate of char aina, Persian, Ispahan, XVI-XVII 34:15 20 - century - 25 Helmet, Persian, late XVI century 16:22 21 - 26 Helmet, Turkish, XV century 36:42 21 - 27 Mace, Italian, second quarter XVI century 231:23 22 - 28 Sword, bronze, Chinese, Han dynasty (206 B.C.-220 1108:20 22 - A.D.) - 29 Group of swords, as displayed 23 - 1. State sword, German, XVI century 173:26 - 2. Two-handed landesknecht sword, Swiss, dated 1617 60:39 - 3. Swept-hilted rapier, Italian, late XVI century 430:19 - 4. Dress sword, German, Saxon, _ca._ 1620 62:39 - 5. Left-hand dagger, companion to No. 4 63:39 - 6. Cup-hilted rapier, Italian, XVII century 49:25 - 7. Left-hand dagger, Italo-Spanish, XVII century 81:39 - 8. Cup-hilted rapier, Spanish, XVII century 233:23 - 30 Hilt and guard of court sword, Italian or Spanish, 174:26 24 - XVII century - 31 Rondel dagger, Italian, XV century 82:39 25 - 32 Trousse, German, XVI century 65:39 25 - 33 Group of spear-type pole arms, XV-XVII centuries 27 - 1. Ox-tongue pike, Austrian, Salzburg, _ca._ 1500 433:19 - 2. Hunting spear, Italian, XVI century 42:19 - 3. Partisan, Italian, XVI century 450:19 - 4. Partisan of State Guard of William V of Bavaria, 169:26 - _ca._ 1615 - 5. Partisan of State Guard of Augustus the Strong of 166:26 - Saxony, King of Poland, _ca._ 1597 - 34 Group of axe-type pole arms, XV-XVII centuries 28 - 1. Military axe, Spanish, XVI century 43:19 - 2. Military axe, Italian, XVI century 44:19 - 3. Halberd, Swiss, XV century 67:39 - 4. Halberd, North Italian, XVI century 451:19 - 5. Halberd of State Guard of Christian II of Saxony, 167:26 - _ca._ 1590 - 6. Halberd of State Guard of the Princes of 168:26 - Liechtenstein, XVII century - 35 Two dagger-knives 29 - 1. Persian, Ispahan, XVII century 13:22 - 2. Persian, Shiraz, XVII century 14:22 - 36 Sword hilt, gold, Persian, XIII-XIV century 45:24 29 - 37 Crossbow, Flemish, XV century 41:19 30 - 38 Prodd, Italian, XVI century 69:39 30 - 39 Crossbow and cranequin, Swiss, XVII century 68:39 31 - 40 Drawing, mechanism of cranequin 31 - 41 Drawing, mechanism of crossbow lock 31 - 42 Engraving after de Gheyn, 1606: musketeer about to 31 - give fire - 43 Matchlock musket, Dutch, XVII century, and detail of 302:51 33 - its decoration. Gift of the John M. Olin Trust - 44 Wheellock gun, German, _ca._ 1550 and detail of 74:39 34 - engraved inlays after Beham - 45 Engraving by Hans Sebald Beham, (1500- _ca._ 1550) 58:14 35 - The Rape of Iole - 46 Group of hand firearms of the XVII century 37 - 1. Miguelet lock gun, Italian, Brescia, for the 76:39 - Balearic trade, by Lazari Cominaz, XVII century - 2. Wheellock rifle, German, Dresden, by Martin 75:39 - Süssebecker (1593-1668), gunmaker to the Saxon - court, _ca._ 1635 - 3. Wheellock tschinke, German-Silesian, XVII century 73:39 - 4. Wheellock rifle, French, Épinal (Vosges), by 70:39 - Claude Thomas, 1623 - 4A,B. Pair of wheellock pistols. Companions to No. 4 71:39 - 72:39 - 5. Flintlock pistol, Italian, Brescia, by Lazaro 77:39 - Lazarino, XVII century - 6. Flintlock pistol, Italian, Brescian, by Lazarino 85:39 - Cominazzo; Giovanni Bourgognone, mid-XVII century - 47 Details of decoration of guns: 39 - 1. Miguelet lock gun, Italian, Brescia, for the 76:39 - Balearic trade, signed “Lazari Cominaz”, XVII century - 2. Wheellock rifle, German, Dresden, by Martin 75:39 - Süssebecker (1593-1668), _ca._ 1635 - 3. Wheellock tschinke, German-Silesian, XVII century 73:39 - 48 Wheellock pistol, Italian, Brescia, _ca._ 1630 84:39 40 - 49 Flintlock powder tester, German, _ca._ 1690 24:25 40 - 50 Flintlock pistol set (two brace) with accessories, 185:42 41 - Portuguese, Lisbon, by Jacinto Xavier, 1799 - 51 Flintlock repeating pistol, French, Paris, by Derby, 43:39 42 - late XVIII century - - - - - THE EARLIEST ARMOR AND ARMS - - -Once upon a time there probably were men who had neither armor nor arms. -They did not last long, for wild animals or other men with stones or -sticks in their hands killed them and ate them up. The first men about -whom we know anything definite already had weapons of stone. Arms and, -later, armor have accompanied man throughout his history. - -The first obvious weapons were stones, roughly shaped to make them more -effective. Such are not to be found in the City Art Museum, but we do -have examples of the next type to develop, the weapons of the bronze -age. - -Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin, and it was invented a very long -time ago, and in many different places. It was known in ancient Egypt, -in the Far East and in Europe. Two thousand years before Christ the -Chinese were making bronze arms and domestic and ceremonial objects of -all sorts, and were making them so beautiful that such objects are -considered proper exhibits for an art museum. We have a very fine -collection of ancient Chinese bronzes, exhibited in the Museum’s Chinese -galleries, and among them are numerous weapons. The earliest include -axes and dagger-axes (Fig. 1). These date from the Shang Dynasty, (ca. -1523-ca. 1028 B.C.) This too is the period of a bronze helmet (Fig. 2) -in the form of a hood with smooth sides which come down well over the -cheeks, while leaving the front of the face exposed. Helmets of almost -precisely this form, but made of steel, were worn in Italy in the -fifteenth century, more than two thousand years later! This helmet has a -small plume-holder at its very top, and is peculiar in having, as its -only decoration, a pair of eyes embossed in relief on the forehead. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 1. A Chinese bronze axe more than 3000 years - old, with a crouching monster in relief._] - -From the Ordos region of Siberia, where a primitive culture lasted for a -very long time, comes a particularly fine ceremonial dagger (Fig. 3) of -bronze with inlays of turquoise. From China again, dating throughout the -thousand years before Christ, come numerous bronze weapons now in the -Museum’s Study Collection, including swords, daggers, and, from about -the beginning of the Christian Era, most ingenious mechanisms for the -crossbow (Fig. 4) a weapon which was not known in Europe until many -centuries later. - -An Etruscan grave has yielded the large bronze disk of Fig. 5. On -stylistic grounds it is believed that this originated not in Etruria, -but on the other, Eastern, shore of Italy in Picenum, in the second half -of the seventh century before Christ. It was probably the central -reinforcement of a large leather shield. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 2. A bronze helmet as old as the axe in Fig. 1, - but in form closely resembling Italian steel helmets of the - fifteenth century._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 3. The thin flat-bladed ceremonial bronze - dagger of a shaman or sorcerer from the steppes of Siberia._] - -But of all the specimens of antique armor and arms in this (and possibly -in any other) museum, none surpasses the helmet shown in our -frontispiece. This helmet, together with fragments of armor, a shield -rim and a spear point, all now in the Museum, was found in a tomb near -Metaponto, in Southern Italy, where once there was a Greek colony. It is -believed to date from about the middle of the sixth century B.C. The -helmet is of bronze, the upper part of the bowl formed as the neck and -head of a ram. This is surmounted by a great crest of silver, resting on -a support of ivory. The cheek pieces of the helmet have rams’ heads in -profile embossed in relief. The eyes, the horns of the main ram’s head, -the ivory crest holder and part of the silver crest are restorations, -but enough original fragments of the crest were found with the helmet to -indicate exactly how the crest was shaped. Moreover the existence of -such metallic crests is verified by a bronze statuette of similar origin -(Fig. 6). - - [Illustration: _Fig. 4. A crossbow lock two thousand years old, with - a model to show how the parts interlock. An ingenious bit of early - mechanical engineering._] - -At first glance, the helmet proclaims itself a great work of sculpture, -and proves that arms and armor can properly belong in a museum of art. -How very well this piece deserves its place here is still more apparent -on close examination. It seems incredible that so long ago a craftsman -could, without any of our modern tools, have formed from a single plate -of bronze such a deep and difficult forging as this helmet bowl. It is -equally amazing that, in a period still considered as archaic, his -artistic imagination could have produced so naturalistic yet so noble a -rendition of an animal form. The technical skill and taste of the -engraving and embossing are also noteworthy: the suggestion of locks of -hair around the forehead, the eyebrows which terminate as snakes’ heads, -the suggestions of skin texture on the rams’ heads. It is indeed one of -the world’s masterpieces of armor. - -Although the Greeks made their armor out of bronze, they did have -knowledge of iron, at least as early as the fifth century B.C. But it -was extremely difficult for them to prepare, as they had not yet -discovered efficient methods of smelting it from iron ore, so that what -little they had was very precious. It could not be spared for making -armor, but was restricted to edged weapons where a relatively small -amount of this hard new metal could be most effective. The Romans too -used iron, and as their technical skill improved they used more and more -of it. - -After the Roman empire was overwhelmed by the barbarian hordes from the -North the making of fine arms languished. It did not cease; occasionally -discoveries are made of beautifully inlaid sword pommels and shield -bosses belonging to the so-called “dark ages”. Sword blades too turn up -occasionally, skillfully constructed of many layers of alternately hard -steel and soft iron, so that they may retain a keen cutting edge yet -still be tough rather than brittle. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 5. Embossed bronze disk, probably the central - reinforcement of a leather shield, from Picenum, East-Central Italy, - second half VII century B. C._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 6. An Etruscan warrior in battle dress. Note - the rivets on the helmet crest._] - -(Steel, you will remember, is not a separate metal; it is just iron -which contains from about .5% to about 2.5%, of carbon. This gives it -the peculiar property that if it is heated to redness and quickly -cooled, it becomes much harder than before. It also becomes more -brittle. If hardened steel be heated a second time, not red hot but to a -much lower temperature, and again chilled, the hardness is reduced -somewhat, while the brittleness is reduced a great deal; the metal -becomes tough and suitable for making into tools. This second heating -and chilling is called “tempering”. Contrary to popular belief, “to -temper” steel does not mean “to make it harder”. It means “to make fully -hardened steel somewhat softer and much tougher”. If the iron has too -much or too little carbon it cannot be hardened at all; if there is too -little it is very soft and malleable and is called “wrought iron”. If -there is too much carbon it is harder than mild steel, but is very -brittle indeed; this is called “cast iron”.) - - - - - CHAIN MAIL - - -Except for the rare finds just mentioned, we know little about the armor -and arms of the period from the fall of Rome to about the twelfth -century. The paintings, drawings, and statues which have survived -suggest, but give no clear information. We have reason to believe that -armor was made of small plates of iron attached to cloth or leather -garments, or of chain mail, a fabric made of interlinked rings of iron -wire. Towards the end of this period we know that chain mail was -extensively employed, for it often appears, especially in England, on -the engraved brass plates attached to the tombs of important people of -the time (Fig. 7). The Museum has a small collection of paper -impressions of these “brasses” which are well worthy of study by anyone -interested in early armor. Some are exhibited on the walls of the armor -gallery. - -Chain mail is more interesting than it appears at first glance, and the -Museum’s specimens deserve to be looked at carefully. In the first -place, it was made of wire. Nowadays wire is so common that we think -nothing of it; it is produced by the mile with automatic machinery. But -in medieval times wire was scarce and valuable, for every bit of it had -to be made by hand. At first this was done with the hammer: a billet of -iron was pounded with a hammer held in one hand, while the other kept -the billet rotating so that its diameter became less and less until it -was small enough to be made up into links of mail. Of course, only short -bits of wire could be made in this way and the diameter was naturally -irregular. It was slow and tedious work, but the earliest mail was so -made. Later it was found that a rod of iron could be pulled by tongs -through a hole in a hardened steel plate, thus reducing its diameter and -giving it a uniform thickness. By drawing it through a number of holes -of progressively smaller diameter, the wire could be made quite thin and -entirely uniform. Then such wire could be wound in a coil around an iron -rod, and the coil then cut lengthwise with a chisel or saw giving a -large number of links all of the same size. All later chain mail was so -made. Such links were interlaced, each link with four others, to form a -fabric much like that of a lady’s mesh bag. However, if the ends of the -links were simply brought together the fabric would not be very strong. -An arrow or dagger point could easily spread open a link, and penetrate -to the wearer’s body. So all good chain mail was strengthened by having -the ends of every link overlapped, slightly flattened, and then riveted. -In that part of the world we now call “Middle East”—where the Mohammedan -and Hindu cultures flourished—the rivet was a separate piece of fine -wire. European chain mail is more of a mystery—principally because there -is so very little old European chain mail still in existence. The -probability is that a separate rivet was used as in the Eastern mail, -but that its insertion was more skillfully performed. However, some -scholars feel that European chain mail was welded or was riveted by a -swaging process, that a special tool in the form of tongs or a pair of -dies forced a small part of the lower end of the link of chain mail -through a slit in the upper end and then riveted it over. Careful -microscopical research on sections of links of mail could doubtless -solve this problems, but who wants to cut off links from a rare and -precious genuine, documented piece? As yet it may be said that no such -ingenious swaging tool has been discovered, nor have we any -unquestionably contemporary illustrations which would prove this theory. - -In places where special strength was required, as around the throat, the -rings were made of the same size but of heavier wire, which was -flattened by hammering in the neighborhood of the rivet. In this way the -overlapping of the rings became so close that not even a needle could -penetrate the fabric (Fig. 8). In other cases, unflattened rings were -used, but strands of leather were drawn through the rows, giving -additional rigidity and protection. It is believed that this practice -accounts for the appearance of what is known as “banded mail” in -numerous monuments and engraved brasses. - -Chain mail was a good protection against cuts and stabs, but it had a -number of serious disadvantages. In the first place, it was expensive. -Even the most skillful armorer could make it but slowly. The mail cape -of Fig. 8 contains about 44,235 links, each separately forged and -riveted; some complete coats of mail contain over 200,000! Forgeries of -antique chain mail are practically non-existent, for they would cost -more to make than genuine specimens, rare as they are, would be worth -today. - -Again, chain mail was very easily attacked by rust, and, once it was -rusted, was most difficult to clean. (The usual way was to put a rusted -mail shirt in a barrel with some oily sawdust and to set an apprentice -to rolling the barrel around for hour after hour.) Consequently very -little early mail is left—most of it just rusted away to nothing. It was -heavy and uncomfortable, for the whole weight hung from the shoulders. - -But its worst disadvantage lay in its flexibility. It would resist a -cut, but was of little protection against a blow. To make it of any use -in battle against heavy swords, maces, and battle axes it was necessary -to wear beneath it a very heavily padded garment which, of course, was -hot. How the Crusaders in their chain mail must have sweated in the hot -sun of the Holy Land! And how many mail-clad knights must have been -pounded to death without necessarily losing one drop of blood! - - [Illustration: _Fig. 7. An ink rubbing taken from the engraved brass - plate on the tomb of Sir Roger de Trumpington, an English knight who - died in 1289. Note the complete suit of chain mail, the - supplementary knee defenses and big pot helmet attached by a chain, - the cloth surcoat, and the shield with his punning badge of a - trumpet._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 8. Cape of chain mail, with extra wide links at - the collar, and ornamental links of brass around the lower edge._] - -To protect against blows, therefore, it became necessary to produce a -rigid protection. The primitive state of iron metallurgy did not permit -the making of more than small pieces of iron at a time. Nevertheless, -iron head coverings were already in use by the eleventh century, and -from that time on pieces of plate armor increased in size and number. -After the head defense, the most vulnerable part of a rider’s body (for -remember that only knights could afford mail, and knights fought on -horseback) was the knees. Have you ever had a really hard bump on the -kneecap, and, if you remember one, should you have liked to go on -fighting just after receiving it? The knight represented in the brass of -Fig. 7, who died in 1289, wears knee-guards, and rests his head on his -great “pot-helm”, which was normally attached to his body by a chain, so -that it could not easily be lost if he took it off to get a breath of -air. The City Art Museum has no specimens of plate armor of this early -period. - - - - - “GOTHIC” ARMOR - - - [Illustration: _Fig. 9. A helmet called a salade: made like a deep - salad bowl, with a slit to see through._] - -During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries it became the fashion to -wear a long cloth garment, called a _surcoat_, over armor. Pictures and -statues of this period show armored figures only with such surcoats, and -it is, therefore, impracticable to follow the exact development of the -pieces of plate armor which were added to reinforce the chain mail. By -the beginning of the fifteenth century complete outfits of plate armor -were in use, but the earliest surviving suits of the so-called “Gothic” -armor date from about 1460. They are exceedingly rare. The City Art -Museum possesses only a gauntlet of about 1450 and a helmet (Fig. 9) -from about 1475, yet we feel lucky to have these two pieces, for -“Gothic” armor is not only rare: it is very beautiful. It was at this -period that armorers did their best work, from every standpoint. It was -best metallurgically, with inner surfaces of pure soft iron, but with -outer surfaces skillfully converted into almost glass-hard steel. It was -best functionally, for its simple clean curved lines were admirably -designed to turn a blow harmlessly aside, with no unnecessary decorative -forms to catch descending edge or point. It was best artistically (as is -usually the case with things that function perfectly), depending for -beauty on its own pure sculptural lines rather than on extraneous -ornament. - -The helmet of Fig. 9 is of a type called _salade_. It is a simple steel -hat, like that of a modern soldier, and originally had a padded lining. -Unlike the modern military helmet, however, it covers the head down to -the end of the nose; there is a narrow slit in front of the eyes which -permits surprisingly good vision while leaving the eyes quite well -protected. The lines of this helmet are clean and elegant, typical of -the “Gothic” style. This type of helmet was often worn in combination -with an upstanding guard for the lower part of the face which was -attached to the top of the neck-defense. The lower edge of the helmet -overlapped the upper edge of this face-guard; thus the entire face was -protected, yet the wearer had reasonable ventilation and could obtain -more when circumstances permitted by taking off his helmet. - - - - - “MAXIMILIAN” ARMOR - - -At the beginning of the sixteenth century the most important single -personality in Europe was probably King (later Emperor) Maximilian I of -Germany and Austria. A contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci, he lived at a -time when versatility was one of the characteristics of an educated man, -and as sovereign he set his subjects a good example in this respect. He -wrote books on genealogy, hunting and woodsmanship, horse breeding, -architecture, and landscape gardening. He was greatly interested in arms -and armor, and frequently visited his court armorer in his workshop. It -is not surprising, therefore, that he had a great influence on the -design of armor, and that the new and sharply different fashion which -appeared at this time became known as the “Maximilian”. It was -characterized by parallel, or almost parallel, fluting, especially on -breastplate and thigh guards, by broad-toed foot guards (_sollerets_) as -compared with the long pointed toes of the Gothic period, and by -strongly roped edges of the plates. The City Art Museum has an excellent -suit of Maximilian armor (Fig. 10). The breastplate, thigh guards -(_tassets_) and main shell of the helmet illustrate the characteristic -flutings, while the sollerets are fully developed Maximilian style. The -suit was made in Nuremberg in the first quarter of the sixteenth -century, and was formerly in the armory of Prince Liechtenstein. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 10. A full suit of Maximilian armor from the - early sixteenth century._] - - - - - ARMOR OF THE LATE XVI CENTURY: DECORATED ARMOR - - -By the middle of the sixteenth century the techniques of the armorer -were fully developed. From the smelters he was able to obtain iron in -good-sized lumps, and he had learned so to weld it as to produce plates -of any desired size. He could keep it soft and malleable or could add -minute amounts of carbon and thus convert it into steel, which he could, -by heat treatment, give any desired degree of hardness. He no longer -bothered to harden the surface of his breastplate and helmets to the -glassy hardness which was the pride of the Gothic armorers, but he made -good, reasonably homogeneous mild steel which was hard enough for sword -or dagger blades, yet tough enough to avoid brittleness. He could hammer -his metal into even the most fantastic shapes, could color or gild it, -or could inlay it with precious metals. Armorers began to vie with one -another to produce magnificent and elaborate armor; many and strange -were the results. Instead of only one kind of armor, as in the past, -there were three: military, tournament and parade armor. - -In the military armor, intended for actual fighting, taste was usually -conservative. Extravagances, such as excessively wide or narrow -sollerets, over-elaborate elbow guards, or extremely large shoulder -guards, were avoided. A moderate amount of decoration was considered -quite permissible, provided it did not lessen the functionality of the -armor; such decoration most frequently was in the form of etching. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 11. A breastplate decorated with etched - ornament against a black background._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 12. A morion with etched decoration. Handsome, - but rather top-heavy._] - -Although we are accustomed to think of etching primarily in connection -with pictures on paper, the process seems to have originated with the -armorers. They would take a helmet or breastplate, paint it all over -with a heavy acid-proof varnish, scratch a design through this varnish -with a sharp needle, then place the metal in a bath of acid. The acid -would eat away the steel where the varnish had been scratched, but not -elsewhere. After the plate had been taken from the acid and the varnish -removed, the etched part would show dark against the polished surface of -the steel. This contrast could be heightened by rubbing in a little -black pigment, and the early armorers discovered that they could readily -keep a record of their work or a sample sheet to show other customers, -by simply placing a piece of paper against the etched and blackened -surface and rubbing it. The fresh black would stick to the paper, giving -a clear impression of the etched design. Masters of etching like -Rembrandt used and modern etchers still use essentially the same -process. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 13. A closed helmet with etching. Though - heavier, it is more comfortable than Fig. 12, since its weight rests - partly on the shoulders._] - -The Museum has a number of good examples of etched armor. In Fig. 11 we -see a breastplate with etched designs of military trophies and -mythological figures. Fig. 12 shows a helmet, formerly in the -collections of the Baron de Cosson and Henry G. Keasbey, of the type -called _morion_, with an exceedingly high comb and similar etched -decoration. Fig. 13 shows a typical _closed helmet_ of the mid-sixteenth -century. Like the morion, it has a high, elaborately etched comb. The -wearer’s face was protected by two plates, an upper one called the -_vizor_, which has a narrow horizontal slit for vision like the salade -described on page 9, and a lower called the _ventail_ which has holes -and vertical slits for ventilation. Both are pivoted at the ears, so -that the vizor could be raised alone or vizor and ventail together, yet -at the appearance of danger both could be snapped down into position -with a single sweep of the gauntleted hand. The etching on this helmet -shows floral arabesques and leaping stags against a background, not -blackened, but gilt. Such gilding was done by rubbing the freshly etched -surface with a mixture of gold and mercury, then heating the metal to -evaporate the mercury and leave behind the gold firmly attached to the -steel. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 14. A heavy helmet especially designed for the - tournament. The man who wore this was about as safe as armor could - make him._] - -Tournament armor, used in the toughest, most exciting sport that man has -ever invented, was worn for comparatively short periods of time, and -could, therefore, be considerably heavier than the military armor which -a man might have to wear continuously. Decoration on the armor itself -was reduced to a minimum, although elaborate trappings of cloth and -feathers were often added to it. Fig. 14 shows a helmet for use in a -form of tournament conducted according to Italian rules, in which the -contestants were separated by a fence which prevented their horses from -colliding, thus permitting unrestricted speed of attack. The helmet is -very solid and sturdy, with plain polished surfaces to deflect the -opposing lance-point. Notice the circular hollow rim at the neck. This -closed over an outward-turned rim on the throat defense (_colletin_) so -that although the helmet could be turned to either side following the -motion of the wearer’s head, it could not separate from the body armor -at the throat and leave an opening for hostile spear or sword point. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 15. A parade shield, etched and gilded. - Italian, XVI century._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 16. A parade helmet, probably made in Germany - for the Hungarian or Polish market._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 17. A gauntlet of solid steel which is almost - as flexible as chamois skin._] - -Parade armor was the lightest yet the most elaborate of all. Not -intended for actual combat in either war or sport, it did not require -the fundamental functionality of the other types; the armorers were free -to follow their fancy and make the decoration as elaborate as they -pleased. All methods were used. Etching and gilding were extensive and -in addition the metal was embossed or chased in the most fanciful forms. -In addition to the flat mercury gilding, gold was applied by the -_damascene_ process, either the “true” damascene in which plates or -wires of gold (or silver) were actually inlaid into undercut grooves in -the steel much as a dentist would fill a tooth, or the “false” damascene -in which the precious metal was applied in the form of foil and rubbed -onto the steel surface which had previously been roughened by tool work -to produce innumerable tiny sharp points which could be burnished down -to hold the foil firmly in place. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 18. A painted shield for a pageant or - fancy-dress parade. Hungarian, XV century._] - -Specimens of the simpler parade armor, with etched and gilded ornament -against a background colored a warm brown, are the shield shown in Fig. -15 and the helmet of Fig. 16. A mitten-gauntlet of the second half of -the sixteenth century from the Clarence Mackay collection and formerly -from the Imperial Russian Collection in the Hermitage Museum of St. -Petersburg (Fig. 17) is an example of the work of the British Royal -Armory at Greenwich, which made numerous finely decorated suits of armor -for the nobles of the court of Queen Elizabeth. This gauntlet is a -magnificent specimen of engineering skill as applied to the design of -armor; its construction allows complete freedom to the wrist, knuckle, -and finger joints, yet keeps the hand perfectly protected in any -position. The gauntlet is decorated with an etched design of rising -eagles in interlaced medallions against a dotted background; the latter -is partly black, partly gilded. - -An entirely different type of parade armor is the shield of Fig. 18. It -is made of wood, covered on the inside with leather, on the outside with -canvas painted with a small coat of arms and a large representation of -two unarmored men in mortal combat. This shield also was formerly in the -Clarence H. Mackay collection. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 19. These stirrups are made of carved bronze, - completely gilded._] - -Another example of parade equipment in a different medium is a pair of -stirrups (Fig. 19) made of bronze and elaborately carved and gilded. -They were formerly in the Spitzer collection. - - - - - LATE ARMOR - - -As the sixteenth century drew to a close armor began to deteriorate. No -single influence was responsible. Do not think that firearms were -invented and armor was therefore suddenly made obsolete. As a matter of -fact, firearms were in use before plate armor really received general -acceptance, and firearms were in use all the time that plate armor was -being worn in Europe. But the gradual improvement in the efficiency of -firearms undoubtedly caused armor to be made heavier and heavier, and -thereby contributed greatly to its decline. For just when armor was thus -increasing in weight there developed a new school of cavalry tactics -based upon the use of lightly armed troopers on fast horses who, instead -of directly attacking the enemy, could dash around his flank and cut off -his supplies from the rear. The tendency was, therefore, to make the -armor light and very flexible, directly contrary to the need for solid, -bullet-stopping protection. Even fashion had a deteriorating effect on -armor. Fig. 20 shows a late suit of armor which has a multitude of small -plates to give extreme flexibility, and has extra wide leg protectors to -cover the extravagant wide-topped trousers which were then the vogue. -But what a clumsy suit this is compared to the Maximilian suit of Fig. -10! - - [Illustration: _Fig. 20. “Three-quarter” suit of armor for a young - German of the early XVII century._] - -During the seventeenth century armor shrank away piece by piece, much as -a tired soldier might have been tempted to discard it on a long march. -The choking face defenses vanished from the helmet. The sollerets went, -then the shin guards or _greaves_, then the thigh guards. The arm guards -were discarded, then the gauntlets. Finally the armored man was left -with only breastplate, backplate, and helmet, and even these -deteriorated in the following century into the decorative but -inefficient trappings of the cuirassier. The two world wars, with their -steel helmets and flak suits (the design of which was strongly -influenced by ancient models) have revived the use of armor, but it is a -machine-made product and, well-designed though it be, must be considered -a reproduction rather than an original work of art. - - - - - QUESTIONS CONCERNING ARMOR - - -Let us turn back to the armor of the fifteenth and early sixteenth -centuries, and consider some of the questions which naturally arise in -our minds as we contemplate these relics of the past. In the first -place, was it practical? How could men possibly wear such a mass of -metal upon their bodies and engage in long military campaigns, -interspersed with violent battles? Isn’t it true that an armored man, -once fallen, could not get up again until he was hoisted with a derrick? -No, that isn’t true. The comical scenes in the moving pictures of -frustrated knights floundering about in search of hoisting engines were -put in strictly for laughs. Armor was practical; it was worn by about -all the most important men of more than three centuries; if they had not -worn it they would not have lived long enough to become important! As a -matter of fact armor is not as heavy as one might think. A good military -suit weighs no more than the pack carried by a modern soldier, sixty -pounds or less, and is a great deal more comfortable to carry. The pack -hangs from the shoulders, but a good suit of armor, carefully made (as -all good armor had to be made) to fit the individual body of the wearer, -has its weight distributed over the entire body. The helmet rests partly -on the head and partly on the shoulders. The breast and backplates rest -partly on the shoulders and partly on the hips. The arm and leg guards -are laced to the special undergarment which had always to be worn with -armor, and each limb supports its own protection. The joints come at -exactly the right places to correspond with the natural motions of the -body, and every one of these motions is provided for. A man wearing a -properly fitting suit of armor over the correct undergarment could do -anything that a modern man can do wearing a winter overcoat, and -probably, due to his special training, a number of things that the -modern man could not. He could certainly walk, run, climb a wall, lie -down and get up quickly, and mount his horse without help. To test the -truth of these statements and the implications of the romantic novels of -the past, the writer donned a suit of armor which fitted him only -approximately, yet found himself able to perform all the actions above -mentioned and, in addition, to descend two stories on a rope, hand under -hand. - -Two particular devices aided in making such flexibility possible. Where -the body needed protection combined with motility it could be covered -with a series of narrow, overlapping steel strips, each of which was -riveted in turn to one or more leather straps, the ends of which were -fastened to the solid main defense. Then as the body was flexed the -steel strips or _lames_ would slide over one another without exposing -the body beneath them (Fig. 21). It was also possible to join a series -of lames by not more than two rivets for each pair; these would act as -pivots, allowing one lame to rotate slightly relative to the other (Fig. -22). However, if rivets were used with rather large heads with a washer -under the burred end of each, and if the holes for the rivet in one lame -were round while that in the other had the form of a slot, in addition -to the pivoting motion, a certain amount of sideways motion between the -lames would be possible (Fig. 23). - - [Illustration: _Fig. 21. The leathering of a tasset, from the - inside._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 22. The pivot rivets of a solleret._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 23. The wrist plates of a gauntlet with sliding - (Almain) rivets._] - -Who wore armor? Every man who could afford it. Armor was always very -much of a luxury. Its making required the services of consummate -craftsmen, men who were not only expert metal workers, but also skilled -draughtsmen, expert tailors, and keen students of human anatomy. -Armorers were the aristocrats of all mediaeval craftsmen, the most -highly respected and by far the best paid. It required a great deal of -their time; the completion of a full suit of armor might take a year or -more. Armor was, therefore, in the class of the modern automobile. A -wealthy monarch might have a large wardrobe of beautifully decorated -armor, as a millionaire to-day owns a fleet of expensive imported motor -cars. A simple knight would be proud to possess a single suit, plain, -but nevertheless made exactly to fit him and no other person. A minor -soldier was lucky if he could secure a simple ready-made breastplate and -helmet. - -What was the physical character of the men who wore armor? Why do the -suits seem so small? Were people smaller in those days? Yes and no. It -is true that the nature of their life tended to develop men of the -cowboy type, wiry rather than massive. Men who spend their lives on -horseback are likely to have a broad shoulder and narrow waist, strong -thigh and slender calf. It is true too that with primitive medicine and -sanitation man died young; the average age of adult males was less than -it is now. - -However the principal reason for the small average size of preserved -suits of armor lies in its inextensibility. A suit of armor cannot be -“let out”. As has been pointed out, it had to be made exactly to fit the -wearer. Men had to learn their military duties very young, they had to -have and to wear armor while they were still growing. Consequently they -usually outgrew their first suit of armor, and it was this suit, -unmarked by the scars of serious fighting, which was most likely to be -preserved. By the time a man reached his full growth his armor showed -wear and tear; when he died he was buried in it, or it was discarded -after his death as too battered to be worth keeping. The suits of armor -in the world’s collections are largely the outgrown suits of young men. - - - - - MIDDLE EASTERN ARMOR - - -In addition to the armor of Europe, consideration should be given to -that of the Middle East, of which the City Art Museum displays a number -of fine specimens in a special gallery. Armor was worn in Persia and in -India long after it had been abandoned in Europe; it is even possible -that among isolated tribes armorers may still be plying their trade. -However, as in Europe, the later work tended to deteriorate, and the -earlier an Eastern armor is, the better will it probably be. - -The Indian and Persian smiths had two specialties: Damascus steel and -damascened steel, which are often and not unnaturally confused, both -having presumably originated at Damascus. Damascene work has already -been described on page 15; both the “true” and the “false” variety were -practised throughout the Middle East. Damascus steel, on the other hand, -is a type of metal especially suitable for armor and sword blades, made -by the intimate combination, in innumerable layers, of two kinds of -metal, one extremely hard, the other soft and tough. As billets of this -composite steel were twisted, bent, and reformed, the superimposed -layers made intricate patterns like those in watered silk. Such Damascus -steel patterns can be best observed in sword and dagger blades like -those illustrated in Fig. 35, page 29. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 24. This is the breastplate of a Persian suit - of armor. The buckles are for the straps which attach the side and - back plates._] - -The Persian armorers did not follow the European custom of forging body -armor exactly to fit the wearer, but instead made the principal defense -of four rectangular plates known as _char aina_ or “the four mirrors”. -Two were worn as breast- and backplate respectively, the other two, made -concave on the upper edge, were worn at the sides, the concavity fitting -under the arm. Chain mail was always used in the East, even more -extensively than in Europe, to protect all areas of the body not covered -by the char aina or other defenses of solid plate. Fig. 24 shows a plate -of such a four-piece armor. It is made of fine Damascus steel (the -pattern is too fine to show in the photograph), and is decorated with -damascene inlay of floral arabesques in gold. This is work of the late -sixteenth or early seventeenth century, and combines adequate -functionality with oriental elegance. A Persian helmet (Fig. 25) of the -same period shows skillful forging of the fluted ornament. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 25. The chain mail which now looks rather - ragged originally hung evenly around the rim of this Persian - helmet._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 26. Although corroded, this fifteenth century - Turkish helmet demonstrates the wonderful skill of Middle Eastern - armorers._] - -But the helmet in Fig. 26, probably a century or more earlier, shows a -much greater appreciation of sculptural form. With a row of parallel -vertical flutings around its domed upper part, it resembles closely the -Maximilian armor of contemporary Europe. It is doubtful, however, if -many European smiths could have forged the minaret-like pinnacle which -terminates the dome. The helmet is decorated with damascene work of -silver in calligraphic inscriptions and arabesques. Its owner’s neck was -protected by chain mail attached around the lower edge of the helmet. -Probably because of the warmer climate, the Saracenic warriors never -adopted the closed helmet of European lands, but preferred to leave the -face exposed, or protected only by a nasal bar which was often so -arranged that it could be slid upwards and clamped. - - - - - ARMS: STRIKING AND CUTTING WEAPONS - - -Man’s first weapon was probably a club, and the simple club has always -retained a certain popularity. Even in the middle of the sixteenth -century, when arms of all kinds attained great elaboration, the mace, or -short one-handed club, was the accepted weapon of military men in holy -orders who, forbidden to shed blood, found no such prohibition against -the bloodless cracking of skulls. Fig. 27 shows such a mace, of heavy -steel, carved and gilded, a formidable though beautiful weapon. Related -arms are short-handled military axes and hammers. - -But the accepted symbol of man as a fighting creature has always been -the sword, and the sword, perhaps more than any other item of man’s -warlike panoply, has experienced the full range of his artistic and -technical initiative. Space does not here permit a discussion of the -innumerable types of swords; only a brief resumé of the general -development can be given. This is supplemented by a display of some -typical forms along one side wall of the armor gallery. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 27. A mace or one-handed club, made of steel - carved and gilded. A beautiful implement for smashing heads!_] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 28. A Chinese bronze sword from about the time - of Christ. Not very sharp, but it could still do quite a lot of - damage._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 29. Typical swords of the sixteenth-seventeenth - centuries, as displayed in the armor gallery._] - -Stone Age man could not make any true swords, for the flint and obsidian -which he had to use were too brittle to be available in large pieces. -But bronze could be cast into swords both effective and beautiful. A -number of Chinese bronze sword blades from the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 -A.D.) (Fig. 28) are available in the study collection. They are rather -short, double edged blades, adapted primarily for thrusting, but not -without cutting ability too. The Greeks and Romans used swords of rather -similar form, and also another type which tended to broaden near the -point, bringing the weight forward and adding impetus to both the thrust -and the cut. - -Mention has already been made, (p. 4), of the rare but beautiful swords -of the dark ages, made in whole or in part of laminated metal resembling -the Damascus steel of the Middle East, (cf. p. 20). Such swords were -carried by the Vikings who harried the coast of Britain and extended -their voyages even to North America. These swords had long, straight, -symmetrically double-edged blades, a short hilt, and a short crossbar -guard between blade and hilt. They were very powerful in a downward -slash, but too heavy to be manipulated easily as thrusting weapons. - -By the fifteenth century the crossbar and the hilt had become longer, -giving the weapon a better balance, but the general character of the arm -remained the same. With the longer hilt, both hands could be used, -considerably increasing the power of the weapon (Fig. 29 [1], also title -page illustration). This tendency continued in the sixteenth century -until it culminated in the enormous two-handed swords used by the -professional mercenary soldiers, or _landesknechts_ (Fig. 29 [2]). Such -swords were over five feet long, with immense drooping guards and long -leather-wrapped hilts. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 30. How many figures are carved in the solid - steel of this court sword hilt?_] - - [Illustration: Court sword hilt] - -As the sixteenth century advanced, sword blades became narrower, -lighter, and more adapted for thrusting, while guards developed rings -and curved knuckle-guards to protect the out-thrust hand (Fig. 29 [4], -[3]). The new method of fighting had definite advantages over the old -slashing system, which required the sword to be raised high, exposing -the body, before a blow could be struck, and soon the thrusting sword, -or _rapier_, was used everywhere. The system of rings which formed the -guard grew more complicated and finally coalesced into a solid metal -cup, which completely shielded the hand within it (Fig. 29 [6], [8]). -Sometimes a dagger (Fig. 29 [5], [7]) was held in the left hand to parry -the opponent’s sword blade, but eventually this was abandoned and -fencers learned to parry with the rear portion of their own blades, -before making a second thrust (_riposte_) with the point. Action grew -faster and faster, and swords lighter and more manageable, until by the -seventeenth century the customary weapon was the _court sword_, with a -short, single-handed hilt, a small flat guard often magnificently -decorated in chiselled steel, and a relatively short, light blade having -a needle-like point, and often without any sharp cutting edge at all -(Fig. 30). - - [Illustration: _Fig. 31. A rondel dagger with a silver handle._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 32. An outfit for a hunter: dagger, knife, awl, - and larding needle, all fitting into one scabbard._] - -In addition to the sword, the dagger was often used as a supplementary -weapon which could still be carried for self-protection when courtesy or -convenience made the wearing of a sword impracticable. Daggers were made -in a number of special shapes, varying with changes of fashion. In the -fifteenth century two popular forms were the _rondel dagger_ (Fig. 31) -which had guard and pommel in the form of disks, and the _kidney dagger_ -(then known by a less-printable name and worn, with the naive -exhibitionism of pre-Victorian days, directly below the belt buckle) -which had a straight, simple hilt and a short guard of ball-like form. -Italians of the sixteenth century liked the _anelace_, with its drooping -guard and short, wide, sharply tapering blade. Mention has already been -made of the left-hand daggers of the seventeenth century. The -_stiletto_, without a guard other than a short cross-bar, was also -popular at this time. Hunters and landesknechts often carried a complete -outfit of small tools in the scabbard with their dagger; such a -_trousse_ (Fig. 32) was very convenient when preparing freshly-killed -venison for the cook or when eating around a camp fire. - - - - - LANCES AND POLE ARMS - - -The chief arm of the mounted knight was the lance, a weapon having a -long and often quite heavy wooden shaft and a steel point. Near the butt -its diameter was reduced to provide a comfortable hand grip, and just in -front of this grip there was applied a _vamplate_ or conical hand guard -of steel. Behind the grip there was attached a thick iron ring called a -_graper_, which, when the lance was in use, rested against the hook or -lance-rest projecting from the right side of the knight’s breastplate. -The graper thus served as a thrust bearing, and put directly behind the -point of the lance the entire momentum of horse and rider. When such a -projectile made a direct hit upon an opponent something had to give. -Either the opponent was knocked completely off his horse, or his back -was broken, or the lance was shattered. - -Foot soldiers also employed arms with long wooden shafts, of which by -far the commonest was the _pike_, which had a very simple steel point -and butt ferrule respectively on the ends of a slender rod of wood about -fourteen feet long. This was the arm of the great bodies of mercenary -infantry which did so much of the fighting of the seventeenth century. A -company of such men, formed into a square or circle, the front rank -kneeling, the second standing, and both holding their pikes with the -butts against the ground and the points projecting outward, was almost -invulnerable to cavalry, whose horses would not charge against the -forest of pike-points. The one effective maneuver against them was for -some of the cavalry to dismount and attack swinging great two-handed -swords, which could beat down the pike points and allow the cavalry to -ride in. - -Lance and pike were simple utilitarian tools; few have survived. But -there are other pole arms, from the fifteenth century on, which offered -more opportunity to individual taste in form and decoration; a number of -these are present in the Museum’s collection. Some (Fig. 33) were -developments of the simple spear point, as for example (1) the type -called an _ox-tongue_ or (2) a boar spear provided with a toggle to -prevent a wounded animal from charging right up the shaft of the weapon -which transfixed him. In (3), now a well-developed _partisan_, the -toggle has been replaced by a projecting spur at each side of the base. -In (4) these spurs have become large and ornamental, the weapon is -decorated with etching, and has become a ceremonial object rather than a -weapon for actual fighting. (5) is a partisan of the state guard of -Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland (1697-1733), -and is even more noticeably designed for display purposes only. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 33. Spear-type pole arms, XV-XVII centuries. - Developing from a simple tool for stabbing to a decorated badge of - office._] - -Other pole arms are developments of the axe. Military axes (Fig. 34 [1], -[2]) had handles somewhat shorter than those of pikes, spears or -partisans but longer than the short-handled axes used on horseback. They -were particularly popular for use in judicial combats or “trial by -battle”. Each contestant in a law suit would swear to the truth of his -claim, and call upon God to prove its truth. The two men, armed with -such axes, would fight until one was killed or driven out of the ring. -The victor was thus proven to have told the truth, while the -unsuccessful contestant, if still alive, was executed for perjury. Such -axes, capable of defending the right, were made with special care, and -were highly valued by their surviving owners. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 34. Axe-type pole arms, XV-XVII centuries. The - earlier ones, at the left, were used in judicial duels, the later, - at the right, were held by warders of the doors of princes._] - -Axes with longer shafts were known as _halberds_, and were usually -provided with a sharpened hook at the back of the axe blade to permit a -man on foot to catch and cut the bridle rein of an attacking horseman. -Like the partisans, halberds developed from plain functional military -types, (Fig. 34 [3], [4]) of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries -respectively to highly decorated types carried as badges of authority by -the state guards of Christian II of Saxony (Fig. 34 [5]) and of the -Princes of Liechtenstein (Fig. 34 [6]) respectively. - - - - - MIDDLE EASTERN EDGED WEAPONS - - -The chief characteristic of the blades of the Middle East is the -beautiful watered pattern of the Damascus steel, discussed on page 20. -Unfortunately this pattern is too delicate to show well in reproduction, -but it may readily be observed in the actual objects, exhibited in the -gallery of Middle Eastern Art. Two knives are shown in Fig. 35, -illustrating delicate Damascene work in gold and similar ornament -carried out not by inlay of another metal, but by chiselling in low -relief. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 35. Persian dagger-knives of the seventeenth - century, equally useful as tool and as weapon, and beautiful too!_] - -Fig. 36 shows a Persian sword hilt of solid gold, from the late -thirteenth or fourteenth century. The ends of its guard are formed as -the heads of lions. It is engraved with floral arabesques and a -calligraphic inscription. The engraved lines are filled in with black -pigment (_niello_). - - [Illustration: _Fig. 36. A Persian sword hilt of solid gold, - XIII-XIV century, inscribed: “Salute to Mohammed”._] - - - - - PROJECTILE WEAPONS: BOWS AND CROSSBOWS - - -Ever since a hairy primitive first picked up a stone and threw it, man -has tried to find better and better ways to strike from a safe distance. -The devices which he has produced for this purpose have been many and -varied, yet, strangely enough, remarkable similarities often occur -between inventions of widely separated areas. In ancient Peruvian graves -have been found cord slings for hurling stones almost identical with -those used by herd boys in Palestine today, as in the time of David and -Goliath. Bronze arrowheads from prehistoric Japan are much the same as -those excavated from Roman Britain. The bow has several different -characteristic forms distributed throughout the world, but its -fundamental principle is everywhere the same. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 37 (Left). A light crossbow like this would be - used by a young man or an athletic girl. Flemish, XV century._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 38 (Below). Made a little lighter. A prodd or - bullet-shooting crossbow, probably for a lady._] - -The first projectile-throwing arm appropriate to an art museum is the -crossbow, which is simply a bow mounted on a wooden stock provided with -a catch and trigger, so that the bow could be carried ready to shoot. -This was a great convenience in hunting or war, because otherwise the -time lost in drawing the bow might give the victim opportunity to -escape. Moreover, it was soon found that the application of mechanical -devices permitted the use of a bow much stronger than any man could draw -unaided. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 39. It took a powerful man to wind and shoot - this heavy Swiss hunting crossbow, even with the cranequin to help - wind!_] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 40. If you take off the outer case, these three - parts make up the entire mechanism of the cranequin._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 41. Mechanism of a crossbow lock, complicated - but effective._] - -Fig. 37 shows a light Flemish crossbow of the fifteenth century. Its -wooden stock is inlaid with white and with green stained bone in -openwork patterns. This type of crossbow required mechanical assistance -to pull the string back to the catch which would hold it until the -moment should arrive to shoot; the instrument employed was called a -_goat’s foot_ lever. - -The crossbow of Fig. 38 is Italian work of the sixteenth century. The -bow is light enough to be pulled by the hands alone, without mechanical -assistance. It had a double string, with a little pouch attached between -the two strands, and shot small bullets, instead of arrows. The wooden -stock is beautifully carved and the metal parts are damascened with -arabesques in gold. This type of light crossbow was especially popular -with aristocratic ladies who are frequently represented shooting it in -hunting tapestries of the period. - -In Fig. 39 is shown a very powerful hunting crossbow of the seventeenth -century. The bow is of steel, two inches wide and a third of an inch -thick. The bowstring resembles a piece of heavy rope. To pull this -string, bending a steel spring as massive as this, requires a tremendous -power and an immense strength in the mechanism which will hold the -fully-drawn bow until the moment for its release. - -The pulling power is supplied by a device, also shown in the -illustration (Fig. 39) called a _cranequin_ or _cric_. It is in -mechanical respects essentially identical with a modern geared -automobile jack, although, of course, it pulls instead of lifts (Fig. -40). A force of fifty pounds applied to the handle generates on the claw -which grasps the bowstring a pull of more than two tons! Fig. 41 shows -the mechanism for holding and releasing the string. (These parts are, of -course, normally invisible, being hidden inside the wooden stock). - -Returning to the artistic aspects of the crossbow of Fig. 39, we observe -that the whole of the wooden stock is inlaid with plates of white stag -horn engraved with scenes illustrating the legend of William -Tell—certainly an appropriate decoration! The bow is quite plain except -for the addition of decorative pompoms of colored wool, but the -cranequin gear housing is elaborately etched with representations of -Biblical and mythological personages, strapwork, and interlace, much of -this unfortunately now worn away. - - - - - PROJECTILE WEAPONS: FIREARMS - - -The study of antique firearms is a fascinating one. Contrary to usual -belief, firearms are not a late invention. They were in use before -complete suits of plate armor were made, and continued in use throughout -the entire period that plate armor was worn. Many thousands of different -specimens have been classified, but all firearms before the nineteenth -century belong to one of four types. These include (1) the cannon or -hand cannon in which the charge of gunpowder was set off by direct -application of a burning slow match or hot iron held by the shooter; (2) -the matchlock in which burning slow match or tinder was held in a clamp -attached to the gun and was brought into contact with the gunpowder by a -mechanism attached to the gun and operated by the shooter; (3) the -wheellock in which fire was not carried about, but was produced by a -mechanism like that of a modern cigarette lighter: a rough wheel was -spun around in contact with a stone (not flint, but a nodular form of -iron pyrite) so that sparks were produced to set off the gunpowder; (4) -the flintlock and its variations, in which a piece usually of flint -stone held in a clamp attached to a strong spring was moved by the -spring to strike a piece of steel, and thereby generate the spark which -would set fire to the gunpowder. The Museum’s collection includes -interesting and unusual specimens of all but the first of these types. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 42. This is how a musketeer looked when he was - just getting ready to aim his gun. He has more gadgets than even a - modern infantryman._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 43. The Three Musketeers carried muskets like - this one in form, but without the elaborate inlaid decoration._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 44. Was the decoration of the gun copied from - the engraving, or the engraving from the gun?_] - -The earliest, simplest form of hand firearm, the hand cannon of the -fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, is also the least interesting -esthetically. Consisting of a simple tube of iron, it was usually -crudely formed, and quite undecorated. Such hand cannon have much -archaeological interest, but contribute nothing to the history of art. -The first step forward in the mechanization of firearms was the -matchlock, and matchlock guns also were usually crude and strictly -utilitarian, military pieces (Fig. 42). However, a few specimens of fine -quality were made for important personages, and the Museum is fortunate -in possessing precisely such a specimen (Fig. 43), the gift of the John -M. Olin Trust. The exact date and place of its manufacture are -uncertain; it could be English but seems a bit more likely to be Dutch, -toward the middle of the seventeenth century. - -The lock is the standard seventeenth century matchlock, with the earlier -form of trigger resembling that of a crossbow. The serpentine which -holds the burning slow match moves upon pressure of the trigger in the -rearward direction, from the muzzle towards the butt, bringing the -burning slow match (a piece of rope impregnated with saltpeter) into -contact with the powder pan, the swiveling cover of which must first -have been opened by hand. After the slow match has ignited the priming -powder and fired the piece, a release of pressure on the trigger allows -a return spring to force the serpentine back to its original position. -Notice the shape of the serpentine, suggesting not so much a snake as a -double-headed dragon. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 45. Hercules carries away Iole, daughter of - Eurytus._ (_She shows no strenuous objection._)] - - Evryti regis filiam Iolam, occiso patre, aedvxit Hercvles - 15 HsB 44 - -The barrel is one-third octagon with finely forged cross mouldings at -the change of shape as well as at breach and muzzle. The rear sight is a -steel tube, beautifully formed in partly octagonal, partly fluted and -molded sections. A flash guard extends from the pan to this rear sight -to protect the shooter’s eyes against particles of burning powder from -the pan. - -It is the stock, however, which is the most remarkable feature of the -gun. This is of dark brown wood, completely covered with an elaborate -inlay of brass wire and engraved mother-of-pearl in a design of floral -scrolls issuing from vases and supporting birds and insects. A few -escutcheons are inlaid in engraved bone or white stag horn. The -elaborateness of this inlay, combined with its delicacy and taste, make -this one of the outstanding matchlock guns of the world. - -The wheellock, which for the first time freed gunners from the necessity -of carrying around with them a continuously burning coil of slow match, -was invented in the early years of the sixteenth century and retained -its popularity, in Germany at least, until the very end of the -eighteenth. It thus has had a longer period of use than any other -firearm with a discharge mechanism. The Museum’s earliest wheellock, -from about 1550 (Fig. 44), has its entire octagonal barrel and lock -magnificently decorated with damascene of floral arabesques in gold and -silver. The stock is inlaid with engraved stag horn showing hunting -scenes, Hercules’ capture of Iole (whose hand he had won by conquering -her father, Eurytus, in a shooting match), and the figures of Alexander -the Great and “Der Nero”. This gun well illustrates the close -relationship which, in this day, existed between the various arts, for -these inlaid designs are copied almost exactly from a series of -engravings by Hans Sebald Beham (1500-_ca._ 1550), examples of which are -in the City Art Museum’s print collection (Fig. 45). - -Another, rifled, specimen, from about 1635, formerly in the -Liechtenstein collection (Fig. 46 [2]) has a plain barrel, but the lock -is finely engraved with a hunting scene, while the stock (Fig. 47 [2]) -is most elaborately inlaid with fine filigrees and engraved plates of -stag horn representing mythological characters, animals, and monsters -against an architectural and arabesque background. The stock bears the -mark of Martin Süssebecker, who was born at Liegnitz in 1593, and died -in 1668 at Dresden where he was gunmaker to the court of the Electors of -Saxony. - -A light hunting rifle (Fig. 46 [3]) with a very short stock of the type -known as _tschinke_ from the fact that such guns were made at the town -of Teschen in German Silesia, dates probably from the latter part of the -seventeenth century. It has a peculiar type of wheellock of which the -mainspring and most of the other mechanism are exposed on the outside of -the lock plate. The barrel is engraved. The lock is ornamented with -openwork carving, and the stock (Fig. 47 [3]) is inlaid with -mother-of-pearl and engraved stag horn in various designs and animal -motives against a background of floral arabesques and scroll work. - -A fine Italian wheellock pistol (Fig. 48) was formerly in the collection -of H. G. Keasbey. The barrel, ornamented with raised ridges giving it an -octagonal appearance, is inscribed “Lazari Cominaz”, an abbreviation of -the name of Lazarino Cominazzo, an early gunsmith of Brescia, in -northern Italy, whose work became so famous that the name was adopted by -his successors practically as a trademark. The simple but finely carved -lock and the lace-like openwork steel inlays of the stock are -characteristic of the best Brescian workmanship. The piece dates from -about 1630. - -But the finest wheellocks in the collection are a “suite” consisting of -a gun and pair of pistols (Fig. 46 [4], [4A], [4B]). These three pieces -differ slightly from one another in their decoration, but they all bear -the same signature, “Claude Thomas à Espinal 1623”, and are otherwise so -similar that there is no doubt that they were intended to go together. -All have wheellocks elaborately ornamented with carving and engraving. -The pear wood stocks are magnificently carved in the round, in openwork, -and in relief, with plants, animals, and formal ornaments. They all bear -a coat of arms which has not yet been identified. On the pistols this is -on the side of the stock opposite the lock plate, but on the gun the -coat of arms is relegated to the left rear part of the stock, while the -region opposite the lock plate is ornamented with a medallion containing -the initials “C. T.”. This, together with the extraordinary elaboration -of all three pieces, suggests that this set of guns and pistols was not, -as was usually the case, made to the order of a wealthy client, but was -rather a “masterpiece” produced by a young gunmaker exhibiting all the -skill of which he was capable to prove his worthiness to attain the -title of “master gunsmith” in the gunmakers’ guild and the right to set -up a shop of his own. The coat of arms is presumably that of the noble -patron who had supported him in the past and to whom the pieces would -eventually come, but as they were made for glory and not for pay, the -gunsmith felt quite entitled to place his own initials in a prominent -position. It should be noted that though the pistols are both -smooth-bored the gun is carefully rifled. It is interesting to speculate -about the fate of Claude Thomas. It seems improbable that so skilled a -craftsman should not have been successful in his career. Yet, this set -of three pieces is the only work of this master known up to the present -time. Perhaps he tried experimenting in mechanisms as he had already in -decoration, with the result that a magnificent technician was destroyed -in the explosion of his invention. Perhaps he succumbed to the plague or -to the fortunes of war. All we know is that he could and did make some -of the most magnificent guns in the world, and here they are! - - [Illustration: _Fig. 46. A group of masterpieces of the gunsmith’s - art, XVI-XVIII centuries._] - -A large and heavy gun (Fig. 46 [1]) with a peculiar type of early -flintlock having an exposed mainspring and known as a _miguelet_ was -probably made in Brescia for a purchaser from the Balearic Islands. The -barrel is plain; the lock (Fig. 47 [1]) and steel mountings of the -walnut stock, however, are elaborately carved in openwork and in strong -relief. Some of the details of this carving, especially that on the -trigger guard, evidence the exquisite skill characteristic of the -Brescian gunsmiths (compare the wheellock pistol mentioned above). The -general style of most of the carving, however, shows a ruggedness of -design and a love of the grotesque characteristic of Balearic Island -taste. The barrel is inscribed “Lazari Cominaz”. - -Another early flintlock variation was the _snaphaunce_, a form in which -the piece of steel struck by the flint was not attached to the cover of -the pan holding the priming powder, but was entirely separate from it -and could be turned back out of the way as a safety precaution, when -immediate use of the arm was not expected. The Museum has a fine -snaphaunce pistol in the Brescian style. - -Two other pairs of pistols with normal flintlocks are excellent examples -of Brescian work. One (Fig. 46 [6]) from about 1640-1660 has barrels -with longitudinal ridging about one-third of their length and with the -full inscription “Lazarino Cominazzo”. The locks are lightly engraved to -give an impression of very shallow relief carving, and bear the -signature of “Giovanni Bourgognone in Brescia”. The walnut stocks are -ornamented with openwork steel similar to those on the wheellock pistol -above described. The other pair (Fig. 46 [5]), possibly somewhat -earlier, have barrels octagonal for about one-sixth of their length. -These bear the inscription “Lazaro Lazarino” (presumably a son of the -great Lazarino Cominazzo or of one of his namesakes). The stocks are of -walnut. The locks and the large and numerous mounts on the stock are -elaborately chiseled steel in strong relief with designs of animals, -monsters, and semi-human figures against a background of floral -arabesques. - -Not all flintlocks were on firearms. The same mechanism was used on -tinder boxes, alarm clocks, and gunpowder testers. The powder tester -(Fig. 49) was like a pistol with a friction cover closing the mouth of -the barrel. It was loaded (of course without a bullet) and fired. The -force of the explosion blew the cover away from the barrel against the -friction of a heavy spring; the distance which it moved gave an index of -the strength of the gunpowder. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 47. Details of fine gunsmithing._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 48. This was what a gentleman carried in a - holster at his saddle-bow in mid-seventeenth century Italy._] - -Fig. 50 illustrates a very complete outfit of pistols and accessories -made at Lisbon, Portugal, by Jacinto Xavier in 1799. There are a pair of -double barreled holster pistols for rides abroad, and a pair of small -but deadly pocket pistols for self defense or card table arguments. With -these are the accessories and tools appropriate to them: powder flask, -powder measure, bullet molds, oil can, hammer, screw driver, awl, (for -cleaning the touch holes), and box for spare flints and bullets. All are -enclosed in a handsome mahogany case. - -The outfit is definitely that of a dandy, for every piece is beautifully -made and exquisitely decorated. The steel parts of the pistols are -brilliantly polished or deeply blued. The stocks are delicately inlaid -with rococo scrolls of silver wire. The oil can is a dainty hexagonal -urn. Even the hammer and screw driver deserve in their own right places -in a museum display. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 49. Not a weapon, but a device to test the - strength of gunpowder. Yet just as beautiful as though it were - deadly._] - -Students of the history of arms will delight in the holster pistols, for -these have each two barrels side by side, while a single flintlock fires -each in turn. The powder pan which catches the sparks from the flint is -divided into two parts: that on the right transmits the ignition -directly to the right hand barrel; that on the left is covered by a -slide operated by a thumb piece on the left side of the pistol. When -this slide is pulled back, a second priming charge is exposed, so that -the lock may be snapped again to fire the left hand barrel. Both barrels -may be unscrewed by means of a wrench attached to the bullet mold; they -are loaded from the breach with a slightly oversized bullet which will -not move through the barrel until the pistols are fired. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 50. A gadgeteer’s dream. The big pistols are - double barreled, and each of the little ones has three bayonets and - a corkscrew!_] - -The little pocket pistols are a gadgeteer’s dream. They have invisible -triggers, which are only exposed when the lock is cocked. Each has on -the right side a tiny triangular bayonet which springs into position at -a touch on a catch. On the left side is a strong, light, knife blade -similarly operated. Above each barrel is a second smaller knife blade -(just right for trimming a quill pen), which may be pushed forward from -a housing which conceals and protects it. And in the butt of each pistol -is hidden a small but, effective corkscrew. What more could Beau Brummel -himself desire? - -The final item for which we have space is a flintlock pistol (Fig. 51) -of the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century. It bears the -signature “Derby à Paris”. Nothing seems to be known of this gunmaker; -whether he was a Frenchman with an English name or an English gunsmith -working in France must be left for future research to determine. In any -case, he was a master of his craft. The pistol is in beautiful -condition, though the blue color of the metal is a later restoration, no -doubt based on the original finish of the weapon. The barrel and lock -are finely engraved and partially gilt; the walnut stock is fitted with -a gilded butt cap and inlaid with silver wire in delicate arabesque -scrolls. Attached to the top of the barrel is a short bayonet of bright -steel; this is mounted with a spring device in such a way that the -bayonet can be folded back when not needed, but at a touch of the thumb -upon the spring catch, will fly forward and lock in position for use. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 51. A repeating flintlock pistol. A thousand of - these in one place could have changed the history of the world!_] - -The most remarkable feature of this pistol, however, is its ingenious -repeating mechanism. The type, though rare, is well known. It seems to -have been invented about one hundred years previous, toward the close of -the seventeenth century, by a Florentine gunsmith named Lorenzoni. -During the following hundred years it was extensively copied. Arms with -this type of mechanism are known bearing the signatures of Austrian, -German, French, English, and Spanish gunsmiths. Variations and -improvements show themselves from time to time, but a complete study of -the Lorenzoni type of flintlock repeater has yet to be written. Its -general principle, however, is as follows: a cylinder of brass, lying -transversely across the body of the pistol, can be rotated a half turn -by a lever. As this is done, the cylinder picks up a bullet, gunpowder, -and priming powder, and conveys them to the proper positions for firing. -Lugs on the cylinder also close the pan cover and cock the hammer. The -magazines hold supplies for eight shots, which can thus be fired with -practically the speed of the single action frontier revolver which was, -for many years, the most famous of American arms. Think what changes in -history a liberal supply of breech-loading repeating firearms of this -type might have made had it been available throughout the eighteenth -century! But unfortunately very few gunsmiths were skillful enough to do -the precise work required on an arm of this type, and all who ever lived -would not have been able to make enough of them to outfit a regiment. -Such arms were rare and costly, and only princes could afford them, but -we are fortunate that this specimen has come down to us to show what -Master Derby of Paris could do generations before the day of Colt, -Winchester, and the all-destructive Atom. - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -The books listed below will be found helpful by any readers who wish to -pursue further the study of Armor and Arms. - -1. Laking, Sir Guy Francis: “A Record of European Armour and Arms,” - 4^to, 5 Vols., London, 1920-22. - -2. Cripps-Day, Francis Henry: “A Record of Armour Sales,” 4^to, uniform - with above, London, 1925. - -3. Dean, Bashford: “Handbook of Arms and Armor,” 8^vo, New York, 1915 - (The Metropolitan Museum of Art), 1915, 1921 and later editions. - -4. Dean, Bashford: “Notes on Arms and Armor”, 8^vo, New York, (The - Metropolitan Museum of Art), 1916. - -5. Dean, Bashford: “The Collection of Arms and Armor of Rutherfurd - Stuyvesant,” 4^to, [New York] 1914. - -6. [Dean, Bashford] “A Miscellany on Arms and Armor presented to - Bashford Dean,” 4^to, New York, 1927. - -7. v. Kienbusch, Carl Otto and Grancsay, S. V.: “The Bashford Dean - Collection of Arms and Armor in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,” - 4^to, Portland, Maine, 1933. - -8. Calvert, Albert, F.: “Spanish Arms and Armour,” 8^vo, London, 1907. - -9. Stone, George C.: “A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use - of Arms and Armor,” 4^to, Portland, Maine, 1934. - -10. Stöcklein, Hans: “Meister des Eisenschnittes,” 4^to, Esslingen a. - N., 1922. - -11. Egerton, The Hon. Wilbraham: “An Illustrated Handbook of Indian - Arms,” 4^to, London, 1880. - -12. Payne-Gallwey, Sir Ralph: “The Cross-Bow, Medieval and Modern, - Military and Sporting,” 4^to, London, 1903. - -13. McKee, Thomas Heron: “The Gun Book,” 8^vo, New York, 1918. - -14. Pollard, H. B. C.: “A History of Firearms,” 4^to, London, 1926. - -15. Jackson, Herbert J.: “European Hand Firearms,” 4^to, London, 1923. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Armor and Arms, by Thomas Temple Hoopes - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMOR AND ARMS *** - -***** This file should be named 62818-0.txt or 62818-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/8/1/62818/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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