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diff --git a/old/62831-0.txt b/old/62831-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 83029db..0000000 --- a/old/62831-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1288 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Glaciers and Glaciation in Glacier National -Park, by James L. Dyson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Glaciers and Glaciation in Glacier National Park - -Author: James L. Dyson - -Release Date: August 3, 2020 [EBook #62831] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GLACIERS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Lisa Corcoran and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - Glaciers and Glaciation - in - Glacier National Park - - - Price 35 Cents - - [Illustration: PUBLISHED BY THE GLACIER NATURAL HISTORY - ASSOCIATION - IN COOPERATION WITH THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE] - - [Illustration: NATIONAL PARK SERVICE] - - Cover - Surveying Sperry Glacier—Arthur Johnson of U. S. G. S. - N. P. S. Photo by J. W. Corson - - REVISED 1966 - REPRINT 1971 - THOMAS PRINTING 5M71 - - - - - GLACIERS AND GLACIATION IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK - - - By - James L. Dyson[1] - Head, Department of Geology and Geography - Lafayette College - -The glaciers of Glacier National Park are only a few of many thousands -which occur in mountain ranges scattered throughout the world. Glaciers -occur in all latitudes and on every continent except Australia. They are -present along the Equator on high volcanic peaks of Africa and in the -rugged Andes of South America. Even in New Guinea, which many think of -as a steaming, tropical jungle island, a few small glaciers occur on the -highest mountains. - -Almost everyone who has made a trip to a high mountain range has heard -the term, “snowline,” and many persons have used the word without -knowing its real meaning. The snowline is the level above which more -snow falls in winter than can be melted or evaporated during the summer. -On mountains which rise above the snowline glaciers usually occur. The -snowline is an elusive feature and can be seen only in late summer. For -example, during the latter part of June snow extends from the summits of -most Glacier National Park mountains down their slopes to timberline, -and some snowbanks extend even lower. At that time the snowline appears -to be down near timberline. But as the summer progresses and higher -temperatures melt the lower-lying snowbanks this apparent snowline -retreats higher and higher up the slopes, until late August or early -September, when it reaches a point above which it will not retreat. This -lower limit of snow is the permanent or regional snowline. It is usually -referred to simply as the snowline. In Glacier National Park the -regional snowline actually lies above the summits of most peaks, at a -height of more than 10,000 feet. The only parts of the United States -south of Canada which project above the snowline are the highest summits -in the Cascade Range in California, Oregon, and Washington, and in the -Olympic Mountains in the latter state. There are many mountains in -Alaska that lie above the snowline. This is especially true in the -coastal ranges where the snowline is around 4,500 feet above sea level. - -The Olympic area is unique, for here the regional snowline descends to -about 6,000 feet lower than anywhere within the boundaries of the -Continental United States south of Alaska. Extraordinarily heavy annual -snowfall and the high percentage of cloudy weather, which retards the -melting of snow, combine to depress the snowline to such a low level. - - - - - Glaciers of Glacier National Park - - -Within the boundaries of Glacier National Park there are 50 to 60 -glaciers, of which only two have surface areas of nearly one-half square -mile, and not more than seven others exceed one-fourth square mile in -area. - -All these bodies of ice lie at the heads of valleys with high steep -headwalls on the east and north sides of high ridges at elevations -between 6,000 and 9,000 feet, in all cases well below the snowline. -Consequently, these glaciers owe their origin and existence almost -entirely to wind-drifted snow. - -Ice within these glaciers moves slowly. The average rate in the smallest -ones may be as low as 6 to 8 feet a year, and in the largest probably 25 -to 30 feet a year. There is no period of the year when a glacier is -motionless, although movement is somewhat slower in winter than in -summer. Despite the slowness of its motion the ice, over a period of -years, transports large quantities of rock material ultimately to the -glacier’s end where it is piled up in the form of a moraine. - - [Illustration: FRONT OF SPERRY GLACIER] - -The largest glacier in the Park is Grinnell. In 1960 it had a surface -area of 315 acres. - -Sperry is the second largest glacier in the Park. Its surface in 1960 -was 287 acres. Both Grinnell and Sperry have probable maximum -thicknesses of 400 to 500 feet. - - [Illustration: JACKSON GLACIER IS VISIBLE FROM GOING-TO-THE-SUN ROAD - (BEATTY PHOTO)] - -Other important Park glaciers, although much smaller than the first two -mentioned, are Harrison, Chaney, Sexton, Jackson, Blackfoot, Siyeh, and -Ahern. Several others approach some of these in size, but because of -isolated locations they are seldom seen. As a matter of fact, there are -persons who visit Glacier National Park without seeing a single glacier, -while others, although they actually see glaciers, leave the park -without realizing they have seen them. This is because the highways -afford only distant views of the glaciers, which from a distance appear -much like mere accumulations of snow. A notable example is Grinnell as -seen from the highway along the shore of Sherburne Lake and from the -vicinity of the Many Glacier Entrance Station. The glacier, despite its -length of almost a mile, appears merely as a conspicuous white patch -high up on the Garden Wall at the head of the valley. - -Several of the glaciers, however, are accessible by trail and are -annually visited by many hundreds of people, either on foot or by horse. -Most accessible of all Park glaciers is Grinnell. It can be reached by a -six-mile trip over an excellent trail from Many Glacier Hotel or -Swiftcurrent Camp. Sperry, likewise, can be reached by trail, although -the distance is several miles greater than in the case of Grinnell. The -trip, however, can be broken and possibly made more interesting by an -overnight stop at Sperry Chalet, which is located about three miles from -the glacier. Siyeh is the only other regularly visited Park glacier. It -lies about half a mile beyond the end of the Cracker Lake trail, and can -be reached from that point by an easy walk through grassy meadows and a -short climb over a moraine. Siyeh, however, is less spectacular than -either Grinnell or Sperry, being much smaller and lacking crevasses, so -common on the other two. Few people make the spectacular trail trip over -Siyeh Pass but those who do may visit Sexton Glacier by making a short -detour of less than half a mile where the trail crosses the bench on -which the glacier lies. Sexton is a small glacier, but late in the -summer after its snow cover has melted off it exhibits many of the -features seen on much larger bodies of ice. - -Interesting surface features which can be seen at times on any of these -glaciers include crevasses, moulins (glacier wells), debris cones, and -glacier tables. Crevasses are cracks which occur in the ice of all -glaciers. They are especially numerous on Sperry and Grinnell. Moulins, -or glacier wells, are deep vertical holes which have been formed by a -stream of water which originally plunged into a narrow crevasse. -Continual flow of the stream enlarges that part of the crevasse, -creating a well. Several such features on Sperry Glacier have penetrated -to depths of more than 200 feet, and are 20 or more feet wide at the -top. - -No one can walk over the surface of Grinnell Glacier without noticing a -number of conical mounds of fine rock debris. Actually these are cones -of ice covered with a veneer, seldom more than two inches thick, of rock -debris, so their name, debris cone is somewhat misleading. - - [Illustration: CREVASSE IN SPERRY GLACIER] - -This rock material, usually deposited by a stream, protects the ice -underneath from the sun’s rays. As the surface of the glacier, except -that insulated by the debris, is lowered by melting, the mounds form and -grow gradually higher until the debris slides from them, after which -they are speedily reduced to the level of the rest of the surface. They -are seldom higher than 3 or 4 feet. - -A glacier table is a mound of ice capped, and therefore protected from -melting, by a large boulder. Its history is similar to that of the -debris cone. After a time the boulder slides off its perch, and then the -mound of ice melts away. - -Snow which fills crevasses and wells during the winter often melts out -from below, leaving thin snowbridges in the early part of the summer. -These constitute real hazards to travel on a glacier because the thinner -ones are incapable of supporting a person’s weight. This is one very -good reason why the inexperienced should never venture onto the surface -of a glacier without a guide. - -It is probable that the Park glaciers are not remnants of the large -glaciers present during the Ice Age which terminated approximately -10,000 years ago, because it is known that several thousand years after -that time the climate of the Glacier National Park region was somewhat -drier and warmer than now. Under such conditions it is probable that -most, if not all, of the present glaciers could not have existed. - - - - - Shrinkage of Park Glaciers - - -Prior to the beginning of the present century all glaciers in the Park, -and most of those in the rest of the world, began to shrink in response -to a slight change in climate, probably involving both a temperature -rise and a decrease in annual snowfall. From about 1900 to 1945 -shrinkage of Park glaciers was very rapid. In other words these glaciers -were not in equilibrium with the climate, for less ice was added to them -each winter than disappeared by melting and evaporation during the -remainder of the year. - -Over a period of several years such shrinkage is apparent to the eye of -an observer and is manifest by a lowering of the glacier’s surface, and -more particularly by a “retreat” of the lower edge of the glacier. This -part of the ice is generally referred to as the ice front. When -sufficient snow is added to the upper part of the glacier to cause the -ice at the front to move forward equal to the rate at which it melts -away, the glacier is in equilibrium with the climate. When the yearly -added snow decreases in amount the ice front seems to retreat or move -back, whereas the mass of the glacier is merely decreasing by melting on -top and along the edges, just as a cube of ice left in the kitchen sink -decreases in size. - -The National Park Service initiated observations on glacier variations -in 1931. At first the work consisted only of the determination of the -year by year changes in the ice front of each of the several glaciers. -From 1937 to 1939, inclusive, the program was expanded to include the -detailed mapping of Grinnell, Sperry, and Jackson Glaciers to serve as a -basis for comparisons in future years. Aerial photographs were obtained -of all the known Park glaciers in 1950 and 1952 and again in 1960. Maps -have been compiled and published of the Grinnell and Sperry Glaciers -based on the 1950 and 1960 aerial photography. The 1950 and 1960 maps of -each glacier are shown on one sheet for convenience in comparison. - -Since 1945, the glacier observations have been carried on in cooperation -with the U. S. Geological Survey. The work has included the periodic -measurement of profiles to determine changes occurring in the surface -elevation of Grinnell and Sperry Glaciers and also the determination of -the rate of annual movement. Some of the more important data yielded by -surveys on Grinnell and Sperry, the two largest glaciers in the Park, -are summarized in the following tabulations: - - GRINNELL GLACIER - Year Area Remarks - (Acres) - - 1901 525 From Chief Mountain topographic quadrangle map. - 1937 384 From mapping by J. L. Dyson and Gibson of lower portion - of glacier plus area of upper glacier (56 acres), as - shown on 1950 USGS map. - 1946 336 As above. - 1950 328 From USGS map compiled from aerial photography. - 1960 315 As above. - -The Grinnell Glacier originally consisted of an upper and lower portion -connected by an ice tongue. This tongue disappeared in 1926 and since -then the two portions have been separate. The area of the upper portion -of the glacier was essentially the same in 1960 as in 1956—56 acres. The -upper section is known as Salamander Glacier because of its shape as -viewed from a distance. - -The terminal recession of the Grinnell Glacier is somewhat difficult to -determine accurately as a part of the terminal portion ends in a lake, -the shore of which varies from year to year. The recession for a -half-mile section extending southeast from the lake is shown below: - - Period Recession during Total Recession Average annual - period (feet) since 1937 (feet) recession (feet) - - 1937-45 270 270 34 - 1945-50 75 345 15 - 1950-60 85 430 8 - -The values for area and recession shown above indicate that changes in -the area of the glacier have not been as pronounced since the mid-1940’s -as they were prior to that time. Profile measurements starting in 1950 -indicate a general trend of continued shrinkage although annual changes -have been both positive and negative. The 1965 observations showed a -surface lowering of 20 to 25 feet, since 1950. - -The movement of the Grinnell Glacier, based on observations since 1947, -has been about 35 to 40 feet per year. - -The Sperry Glacier is located 9 miles from the Grinnell Glacier, on the -opposite side of the Continental Divide and at an altitude approximately -1,000 feet higher. It has also shown a continual shrinkage in area and -recession of the terminus as shown by the following tabulations: - - SPERRY GLACIER - Year Area Remarks - (Acres) - - 1901 810 From Chief Mountain topographic quadrangle map. - 1938 390 From mapping by J. L. Dyson and Gibson. - 1946 330 From mapping by J. L. Dyson. - 1950 305 From USGS map compiled from aerial photography. - 1960 287 From USGS map compiled from aerial photography. - -Recession, in feet, of central half-mile section of terminus - - Period Recession Total recession Average annual - since 1938 recession - - 1938-45 351 351 50 - 1945-50 177 528 35 - 1950-60 244 792 24 - -Profile measurements, starting in 1949, indicate a continued lowering of -the glacier surface below an altitude of about 7,500 feet. Above this -altitude it has remained much the same during the period of observations -with annual changes, both positive and negative, with a possible slight -net increase since 1949. - -The forward movement in the central portion of the Sperry Glacier, based -on observations since 1949, has averaged about 15 feet per year. The -rate of movement is presumed to be greater in the upper reaches of the -glacier. - -It is of interest to note from the data that the changes in Sperry -Glacier are more pronounced than those in Grinnell Glacier although the -straight-line distance between them is only 9 miles. One possible -reason—Grinnell Glacier is on the eastern slope of the Continental -Divide whereas Sperry Glacier is on the western slope. - -Even more significant is the lowering of the glacier’s surface, from -which volume shrinkage may be obtained. In 1938 Sperry Glacier had a -thickness of 108 feet at the site of the 1946 ice margin. At this same -place in 1913 the thickness was nearly 500 feet, and the average -thickness of the glacier over the area from which it has since -disappeared was at least 300 feet. - -The average thickness of Grinnell Glacier in 1937 at the site of the -1946 ice front was 73 feet. The surface of the entire glacier was -lowered 56 feet during that nine-year period. This means that each year -the glacier was reduced in volume by an amount of ice equivalent to a -cube 450 feet high. - - [Illustration: GRINNELL GLACIER AS IT LOOKED PRIOR TO 1926 WHEN THE - LOWER AND UPPER SEGMENTS WERE STILL CONNECTED.] - -At the northern terminus of Grinnell Glacier, which is bordered by a -small marginal lake, a large section of the ice front fell into the -water on or about August 14, 1946, completely filling it with icebergs. -This event, although witnessed by no one, must have been comparable to -many of the icefalls which occur at the fronts of the large glaciers -along the southeast coast of Alaska. - -The volume of Grinnell Glacier was reduced by about one-third from -September 1937 to September 1946. Several other glaciers have exhibited -a more phenomenal shrinkage than Sperry or Grinnell. The topographic map -of Glacier National Park, prepared in 1900-1902, shows several -comparatively large glaciers such as Agassiz, Blackfoot and Harrison. -Their shrinkage has been so pronounced that today Agassiz has virtually -disappeared and the other two are pitifully small remnants, probably -less than one-fifth the size they had been when originally mapped. - -Since 1945, because of above-normal snowfall and subnormal temperatures, -glacier shrinkage has slowed down appreciably, coming virtually to a -standstill in 1950; and in 1951, for the first time since glacier -changes have been recorded in the Park, Grinnell Glacier increased -slightly in volume. This was also reflected by a readvance of the front. -Although no measurements were made in 1951 on other Park glaciers some -of them certainly made similar readvances. Thus the climatic conditions -which caused glaciers to shrink for fifty or more years seem to have -been replaced by conditions more favorable to the glaciers. Time alone -will tell whether the new conditions are temporary or mark the beginning -of a long cycle of wetter and cooler climate. - - - - - Former Extent of Park Glaciation - - -During the Pleistocene Period or Ice Age when most of Canada and a large -portion of the United States were covered several times by an extensive -ice sheet or continental glacier, all the valleys of Glacier National -Park were filled with valley glaciers. These originated in the higher -parts of the Lewis and Livingstone Ranges. On the east side of the Lewis -Range they moved out onto the plains. From the Livingstone Range and the -west side of the Lewis Range they moved into the wide Flathead Valley. -During the maximum extent of these glaciers all of the area of the Park -except the summits of the highest peaks and ridges were covered with -ice. - -The great Two Medicine Glacier, with its source in the head of the Two -Medicine and tributary valleys, after reaching the plains spread out -into a big lobe (piedmont glacier) eventually attaining a distance of -about 40 miles from the eastern front of the mountains. The stream of -ice emerging onto the plains from St. Mary Valley also extended many -miles out from the mountain front. Several of these long valley glaciers -extended far enough out onto the plains to meet the edge of the vast -continental ice sheet moving westward from a center in the vicinity of -Hudson Bay. In the major Park valleys these glaciers attained -thicknesses of 3,000 or more feet. Although man probably never viewed -this magnificent spectacle, the Park at that time must have been similar -in aspect to some of the present day ice filled ranges along the -Alaska-Yukon border. - -No one knows exactly how many times glaciers moved down the Park valleys -during the million or more years of the Pleistocene period, but -geologists have found evidence for at least eight distinct advances. It -is difficult to determine just when the first advance took place but it -may have been very early in the period. Most of the advances, however, -occurred during the past 70,000 years or so in what is known as the -Wisconsin stage of the Ice Age. Large glaciers flowed down the Park -valleys probably as late as 7,000 years ago. Between each of the major -times of ice advance, the glaciers, responding to warmer or drier -climate, shrank to small size and in some instances disappeared. These -warmer intervals varied in length from 2,000 to tens of thousands of -years. - -Evidence of the several distinct glacial advances is yielded by the -moraines, deposits of rock debris left by the ice. On the east side of -the Park the lower courses of the major valleys and the adjoining ridges -in the Park and on the adjacent plains are covered with moraines. The -material in them ranges in size from clay to large boulders, and was -deposited by glaciers after being transported down the valleys. The -debris deposited by the latest ice advance is fresh in appearance and -contains fragments of all Park rocks. Moraines of the earlier stages, -because of much greater age, are more weathered. They contain many -fragments of much weathered diorite, from the layer of rock that appears -as a conspicuous black band on many of the mountains, and almost no -fragments of limestone, so common in the newest moraines. The diorite is -more resistant to weathering than the limestone which slowly dissolves -in ground-water. The only localities where the oldest moraine occurs are -the crests of the ridges which run eastward from the mountains out onto -the plains. This material is especially abundant on St. Mary Ridge. On -top of Two Medicine Ridge along and just above the highway, fragments of -this material have been cemented together into a comparatively hard -tillite. Lower down on the slopes the older moraine cannot be found as -it is covered by that of the later glacial advances which were less -extensive and did not override the ridge crests as did the earlier -glaciers. The older debris is also found on top of Milk River and -Boulder Ridges. - -Following the last maximum advance of the Wisconsin glaciers they slowly -shrank until about 6,000 years ago when all glacial ice probably -disappeared from the mountains. After this there was a warm, dry period -during which it is probable that no glaciers were present. Then about -4,000 years ago the present small glaciers were born. During the period -of their existence they have fluctuated in size, probably attaining -maximum dimensions around the middle of the last century. Since then -they have been getting smaller. - - [Illustration: PANORAMIC VIEW OF GRINNELL GLACIER AS IT APPEARED IN - 1945. THE CREVASSES IN GLACIER MAY BE OVER 50 FEET DEEP (BEATTY - PHOTO)] - - [Illustration: PANORAMIC VIEW OF SPERRY GLACIER AS IT APPEARED IN - 1946. NOTE MELT-WATER LAKES TERMINATING AGAINST MORAINES AT EXTREME - LEFT (DYSON PHOTO)] - - - - - Park Features Resulting From Glaciation - - -A glacier is an extremely powerful agent of erosion, capable of -profoundly altering the landscape over which it passes. - -Glaciers erode mainly by two processes, plucking and abrasion. The first -is more active near the head of the glacier, but may take place anywhere -throughout its course; abrasion or scouring is effective underneath most -sections of the glacier, particularly where the ice moves in a -well-defined channel. - - [Illustration: MT. OBERLIN CIRQUE AND BIRD WOMAN FALLS (HILEMAN - PHOTO)] - -In plucking, the glacier actually quarries out masses of rock, -incorporates them within itself, and carries them along. At the head of -the glacier this is accomplished mainly by water which trickles into -crevices and freezes around blocks of rock, causing them to be pulled -out by the glacier, and also by the weight of the glacier, squeezing ice -into the cracks in the rock. As the glacier moves forward these blocks -of ice are dragged or carried along with it. Usually a large crevasse, -the bergschrund, develops in the ice at the head of a glacier. The -bergschrund of most glaciers in the park consists of an opening, usually -10 to 20 feet wide at the top and as much as 50 feet deep, between the -head of the glacier and the mountain wall. On Sperry Glacier, however, -it is more typical of that found on larger valley glaciers and consists -of several conspicuous crevasses separating the firn area (where the -snow is compacted into ice) on top of Gunsight Mountain from the glacier -proper below (see photo on the cover). It is at this site that plucking -is most dominant because water enters by day and freezes in the rock -crevices at night. This quarrying headward and downward finally results -in the formation of a steep-sided basin called a cirque or glacial -amphitheatre. Because the cirque is the first place that ice forms and -the place from which it disappears last, it is subjected to glacial -erosion longer than any other part of the valley. Thus its floor is -frequently plucked and scraped out to a comparatively great depth so -that a body of water known as a cirque lake forms after the glacier -disappears. Iceberg Lake lies in one of the most magnificent cirques in -the Park. The lowest point on the crest of the wall encircling three -sides of the lake is more than 1500 feet above the water. Prior to 1940 -this cirque contained a small glacier. It has been shrinking rapidly for -about two decades, and in the last two or three years of its existence -was hardly recognizable as a glacier. Its disappearance is made more -remarkable by the knowledge that in 1920 the front of the glacier rose -in a sheer wall of ice nearly 100 feet above the surface of the lake. -All that remains of this glacier which once kept the lake filled with -icebergs each summer is a large bank of snow at the base of the cirque -wall at the head of the lake. Other good examples of cirques are those -which hold Hidden, Avalanche and Cracker Lakes. The tremendous cliff on -the south side of the latter rises 4,100 feet from the lake to the -summit of Mount Siyeh. Other notable cirque lakes are Ellen Wilson, -Gunsight, Ptarmigan and Upper Two Medicine. - - [Illustration: ST. MARY VALLEY FROM LOGAN PASS SHOWING GLACIAL - PROFILE (HILEMAN PHOTO)] - -Rock fragments of various sizes frozen into the bottom and sides of the -ice form a huge file or rasp which abrades or wears away the bottom and -sides of the valley down which the glacier flows. The valley thus -attains a characteristic U-shaped cross section, with steep sides (not -necessarily vertical) and a broad bottom. A mountain valley cut entirely -by a stream does not have such shape because the stream cuts only in the -bottom of the valley, whereas a glacier, filling its valley to a great -depth, abrades along the sides as well as on the floor. Practically all -valleys of the Park, especially the major ones, possess the U-shaped -cross section. This feature can best be seen by looking down from the -head of the valley rather than from the valley floor. Splendid examples -are the Swiftcurrent Valley viewed from Swiftcurrent Pass or Lookout; -St. Mary Valley from east of Logan Pass; the Belly River Valley from -Ptarmigan Tunnel; and Cataract Creek Valley from Grinnell Glacier. - - [Illustration: FIGURE 1. IDEALIZED SKETCH OF A GLACIAL STAIRWAY FROM - THE ARETE AT THE CENTER OF THE RANGE TO THE ICE AGE MORAINE AT THE - MOUTH OF THE VALLEY.] - - Cirque wall - Glacier - Lake - Moraine - -The floors of many of the Park’s major U-shaped valleys instead of -having a more or less uniform slope, steeper near the head than farther -down, as is usually the case in a normal stream valley, are marked by -several steep drops or “steps,” between which the valley floor has a -comparatively gentle slope. Such a valley floor, throughout its entire -course, is sometimes termed the glacial stairway. Most of the steps, -particularly those in the lower courses of the valleys, are due to -differences in resistance of the rocks over which the former ice flowed. -On the east side of the Lewis Range, where the steps are especially -pronounced, the rock strata of which the mountains are composed dip -toward the southwest, directly opposite to the direction of the slope of -the valley floors (Figure 1). Thus, as glaciers flowed from the center -of the range down toward the plains, they cut across the edges of these -tilted rock layers; where the ice flowed over weaker beds it was able to -scour out the valley floor more deeply creating a “tread” of the glacial -stairway. The more resistant rock formations were less easily removed, -and the ice stream, in moving away from the edges of these resistant -strata, employed its powers of plucking and quarrying to give rise to -cliffs or “risers.” Lakes dammed partly by the resistant rock strata now -fill depressions scoured out of the weaker rock on the treads (Figure 1 -). These are rock-basin lakes, and where several of them are strung out -along the course of the valley they are referred to as paternoster lakes -because their arrangement resembles that of beads on a string. -Well-known examples of such bodies of water are Swiftcurrent and -Bullhead Lakes, two of the long series which stretches for seven miles -between Many Glacier Hotel and Swiftcurrent Pass. Resistant layers in -the lower portion of the Altyn formation, the upper part of the -Appekunny, and the upper part of the Grinnell[2] normally create risers. - - [Illustration: TYPICAL GLACIAL VALLEY WITH CHAIN OF ROCK-BASIN - LAKES. GLENN AND CROSSLEY LAKES IN DISTANCE; UNNAMED LAKE IN - FOREGROUND RESTS IN A HANGING VALLEY AND ITS OUTLET DROPS SEVERAL - HUNDRED FEET TO THE MAIN VALLEY (HILEMAN PHOTO)] - -The tributaries of glacial valleys are also peculiar in that they -usually enter the main valley high above its floor and for this reason -are known as hanging valleys. The thicker a stream of ice, the more -erosion it is capable of performing; consequently, the main valley -becomes greatly deepened, whereas the smaller glacier in the tributary -valley does not cut down so rapidly, leaving its valley hanging high -above the floor of the major valley. The valleys of Virginia and -Florence Creeks, tributary to the St. Mary Valley are excellent examples -of hanging valleys. A splendid view of Virginia Creek valley may be had -from Going-to-the-Sun Road near the head of St. Mary Lake. The valley -above Bird Woman Falls as seen from Going-to-the-Sun Road just west of -Logan Pass is a spectacular illustration of a hanging valley. In -addition there are many others, such as Preston Park, on the trail from -St. Mary to Piegan Pass; and the Hanging Gardens near Logan Pass. - - [Illustration: REYNOLDS MOUNTAIN AT LOGAN PASS—A TYPICAL HORN] - -Even more conspicuous than the large U-shaped valleys and their hanging -tributaries are the long, sharp-crested, jagged ridges which form most -of the backbone of the Lewis Range. These features of which the Garden -Wall is one of the most noticeable, are known as aretes and owe their -origin to glaciers. As the former long valley glaciers enlarged their -cirques by cutting farther in toward the center of the range, the latter -finally was reduced to a very narrow steep-sided ridge, the arete. The -imposing height of the Garden Wall can readily be determined by using -the layer of diorite as a scale. The conspicuous black band formed by -the edge of this layer has an average width of 75 feet. So, from the -porch of the Many Glacier Hotel a Park visitor can readily see that the -Garden Wall, even though five miles distant, is about 4,200 feet high. -The height of other aretes can be just as readily obtained, for the band -of diorite appears on the faces of most of them. In certain places -glaciers on opposite sides of the arete nearly cut through creating a -low place known as a col, usually called a pass. Gunsight, Logan, Red -Eagle, Stoney Indian and Piegan are only a few of the many such passes -in the Park. At places three or more glaciers plucked their way back -toward a common point leaving at their heads a conspicuous, -sharp-pointed peak known as a horn. Innumerable such horn peaks occur -throughout both the Lewis and Livingstone Ranges. Excellent examples -near Logan Pass are Reynolds, Bearhat, and Clements Mountains. Other -imposing horns are Split Mountain at the head of Red Eagle Valley, -Kinnerly Peak in the Kintla Valley, and Mount Wilbur in Swiftcurrent -Valley. The horn peak, because of its precipitous sides, is especially -attractive to mountain climbers. The comparatively recent dates of first -ascents on many Park peaks attest to the difficulties they offer the -mountaineer. Mount Wilbur, despite proximity to Many Glacier Hotel and -camp, was unclimbed until 1923; Mount St. Nicholas succumbed in 1926, -and the first ascent of Kinnerly Peak was made by several members of the -Sierra Club in 1937. - -Another feature of the Park which must be attributed partly to -glaciation is the waterfall. There are two principal types, one which -occurs in the bottom of the main valleys and one at the mouth of the -hanging tributary valleys. The former, exemplified by Swiftcurrent, Red -Rock, Dawn Mist, Trick, Morning Eagle and others, is located where -streams drop over the risers of the glacial stairway. In other words, -resistant layers of rock which the former glaciers were unable to -entirely wear away give rise to this type of fall. - -Examples of the hanging tributary type of fall which is due directly to -the activity of the glaciers are Florence, Bird Woman, Virginia, -Grinnell, Lincoln, and many others. - - [Illustration: TRICK FALLS IN THE TWO MEDICINE RIVER] - -No less conspicuous than the mountains themselves are the lakes. In most -instances glaciers have been either directly or indirectly responsible -for the origin of the several hundred in the Park. In general, these -lakes may be divided into five main types, depending upon their origin. - -(1) Cirque lakes. This type of lake frequently is circular in outline -and fills the depression plucked out of solid rock by a glacier at its -source. Some of the most typical examples are listed in the foregoing -discussion of cirques. - -(2) Other rock-basin lakes. This type, referred to above, fills basins -created where glaciers moved over areas of comparatively weak rock. In -all cases the lake is held in by a bedrock dam. A typical example is -Swiftcurrent, which lies behind a dam of massive Altyn Limestone layers. -The highway, just before it reaches Many Glacier Hotel, crosses this -riser of the glacier stairway. - -(3) Lakes held in by outwash. Most of the large lakes on the west side -of the Park fall in this category. The dams holding in these lakes are -composed of stratified gravel which was washed out from former glaciers -when they extended down into the lower parts of the valleys. Lake -McDonald, largest in the Park, is of this type. - - [Illustration: ST. MARY LAKE FROM GOOSE ISLAND OVERLOOK] - -(4) Lakes held by alluvial fans. St. Mary, Waterton, Lower St. Mary, and -Lower Two Medicine Lakes belong in this group. These bodies of water may -have been rock-basin lakes, but at a recent date on their history -streams entering the lake valley have completely blocked the valley with -deposits of gravel; thus either creating a lake or raising the level of -one already present. St. Mary and Lower St. Mary Lakes probably were -joined originally to make a lake 17 miles long. More recently Divide -Creek, entering this long lake from the south, built an alluvial fan of -gravel where it entered the lake. This fan was large enough to cut the -lake into the two present bodies of water. The St. Mary Entrance Station -at the eastern end of Going-to-the-Sun Road, is located on this alluvial -fan, the form of which can readily be distinguished from a point along -the road at the north side of the upper lake near its outlet. - -(5) Moraine lakes. Most lakes with moraines at their outlets are partly -dammed by outwash or rock ridges. One of the prominent examples is -Josephine Lake near Many Glacier Hotel. The moraine which is partly -responsible for the lake is a hill which can be seen from Many Glacier -Hotel. Several of the large lakes on the west side of the Park are also -held partly or entirely by moraines. - -Another type of moraine lake, which occurs only at Sperry and Grinnell -Glaciers, has already been mentioned. It differs from all other Park -lakes in having a glacier for part of its shoreline. There are two of -these lakes at Sperry and one at Grinnell. Despite their small size, -they are tremendously interesting, not only because of their relation to -the glacier, but also because they are ordinarily filled with icebergs -throughout the summer. Their surfaces often remain frozen until -mid-summer. - -There are several types of minor importance, the principal one of which -is that formed by a landslide damming the valley. - -One cannot remain long in Glacier National Park without noticing the -varying colors of its lake waters. In fact this feature is so striking -that ranger-naturalists probably are questioned more about it than about -any other feature or phenomenon. To find the answer we must go again, as -in so many instances, to the glaciers. As the ice moves it continually -breaks rock fragments loose. Some of these are ground into powder as -they move against each other and against the bedrock under the glacier. -Most types of rock, especially the limestones and shales on which the -Park glaciers rest, when ground fine enough yield a gray powder. All -melt-water streams issuing from glaciers are cloudy or milky from their -load of this finely ground “rock flour.” - -Water from Grinnell Glacier is so laden with rock flour that the small -lake along the edge of the ice into which the water pours is nearly -white. Much of the silt is deposited in this lake, but enough is carried -downstream to give Grinnell Lake a beautiful turquoise hue. Some of the -very finest sediment which fails to settle in Grinnell Lake is carried a -mile farther to Josephine Lake to give it a blue-green color. Even -Swiftcurrent Lake, still farther downstream, does not contain clear -water. - -The rock flour which colors these as well as other Park lakes can also -be seen in the streams. Baring Creek at Sunrift Gorge (see p. 13 in -Motorist’s Guide) is milky with powdered rock from Sexton Glacier. -Cataract Creek along the trail between Josephine and Grinnell Lakes is -noticeably milky, extraordinarily so in mid-afternoon on very warm days. -At such times melting of the glaciers is accelerated and more silt is -then supplied to the streams. - -Part of Sperry Glacier, in contrast to Grinnell, rests on a bright red -shaly rock (known to the geologists as argillite) which yields a -red-gray powder when finely ground. Hence the water in several small -lakes adjacent to the glacier has a pinkish tint. - -Although a large number of Park streams are fed by glaciers there are -many others, particularly in the south and west sections, which have no -ice as their source. On a trail trip from Sunrift Gorge to Virginia -Falls, one is certain to be impressed by the extreme clarity of the -water in Virginia Creek. For half a mile below the falls the trail -follows this cascading torrent from one crystal pool to another. So -clear is the water that we are apt to mistake for wading pools places -where the water may be five or more feet deep. Snyder Creek near Lake -McDonald Lodge nearly rivals Virginia Creek in clarity. The sources of -these two streams obviously are not melting glaciers. - -From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that glaciers constitute -one of the principal controlling factors in the color of the water in -Park streams and lakes. Where there are no ice masses streams are clear, -and where glaciers occur the water possesses many shades varying from -clear blue through turquoise to gray, and in rare cases even pink. - - [Illustration: MORAINE NEAR GRINNELL GLACIER IS 120 FEET HIGH. THE - GLACIER EXTENDED NEARLY TO TOP OF MORAINE 50 YEARS AGO. (DYSON - PHOTO)] - -Although the former large glaciers of the Ice Age transported huge -amounts of rock debris down the valleys of the Park, the moraines which -they deposited are, as a rule, not conspicuous features of the -landscape. The Going-to-the-Sun Road, however, crosses several -accumulations of moraine in which road cuts have been made. The road -traverses a number of such places along the shore of Lake McDonald. -Because of the large proportions of rock flour (clay) in these -accumulations, the material continually slumps, sometimes sliding onto -the road surface. One of these cuts has been partly stabilized by a -lattice-like framework of logs. The largest excavation in moraine along -the highway is located about three miles east of Logan Pass just below -the big loop where the road crosses Siyeh Creek. The surfaces of many -boulders in this moraine are marked by grooves and scratches, imparted -to them as they were scraped along the side of the valley by the glacier -10,000 or more years ago. - -A small moraine is exposed along the exit road from the parking lot at -Many Glacier Hotel. It contains a number of small red boulders, the -sources of which are the red rock ledges in the mountains several miles -up the Swiftcurrent Valley, plainly visible from the hotel. - -One of these ancient moraines which has been eroded into a series of -mounds (25 to 100 feet high) extends from Swiftcurrent Cabin Camp down -the valley on the north side of the road to a point near the entrance to -Many Glacier Ranger Station. Some of the cabins are actually situated in -a space between two of the highest mounds. - - [Illustration: LOOKING SOUTH ALONG THE GRINNELL GLACIER ICE FRONT. - NOTE CREVASSES ALONG WHICH BERGS ARE BREAKING OFF. (DYSON PHOTO)] - -Surrounding all existing Park glaciers are two sets of recent moraines -varying in height from a few feet to more than two hundred. So recently -(probably 800 to 900 years) have the glaciers withdrawn from the older -of these that only sparse willows and other forms of dwarf vegetation -are growing on them. - -The younger set of moraines, which has accumulated during the last -several hundred years, consists of unweathered rock on which only small -pioneer plants and lichens have begun to establish themselves. These -moraines are particularly striking at Grinnell, Sperry, Blackfoot, -Agassiz and Sexton Glaciers. On the last few yards of the spectacular -Grinnell Glacier trail all persons who make the trip to the glacier must -climb over the moraine before setting foot on the ice. From this vantage -point on the highest part of this moraine the visitor can look down upon -a huge crevassed mass of ice lying in a stupendous rock-walled -amphitheater, then merely by facing the opposite direction, he will see -unfolded before his view one of the most colorful vistas in the Park. -More than a thousand feet below in the head of a splendid U-shaped -valley lies the turquoise gem of Grinnell Lake. A mile farther away the -blue surface of Lake Josephine stands out in sharp contrast to the dark -green of the spruce which lines its shores. High above he can see the -red summit of Mount Allen carrying its white snowbanks into the deep -blue of a Montana sky. Despite this magnificence the visitor must soon -turn his attention to the tremendous accumulation upon which he stands, -for it is no less interesting than the mountains and lakes. Among the -many boulders which lie along the path are two prominent limestone -blocks each 10 to 15 feet in diameter. The underside of one was grooved -and polished as the ice pushed it across the rock surface underlying the -glacier. The other, partially embedded in the moraine, has a polished -upper surface because the glacier flowed over it for a time. Both these -boulders, although now nearly 300 yards from the ice front, were covered -by the glacier until about 20 years ago. - -Because of shrinkage many of the glaciers are no longer in contact with -these newer moraines. In some cases a quarter of a mile of bare rock -surface intervenes between the moraine and the glacier which made it. - -A few glaciers have disappeared within recent years, but their moraines -remain as evidence of former glacier activity. One of the most notable -examples is afforded by Clements Glacier, a small body of ice which -existed until about 1938 in the shadow of Clements Mountain at Logan -Pass. Its edge was bordered by a ridge-like moraine nearly a hundred -feet high. Today, the trail from Logan Pass to Hidden Lake skirts the -outside edge of the moraine. Should the hiker leave the trail and climb -the few yards to the top of this moraine he could see it stretched out -before him as a giant necklace encircling the base of Clements Mountain, -but between mountain and moraine, where a few years ago the glacier lay, -he will see only bare rock or drifted snow. - -Despite recent rapid shrinkage of glaciers and the disappearance of -some, Glacier National Park still is a land of ice, yet when the visitor -views its present day glaciers and its sublimely beautiful mountain -scenery he should not be unmindful of the powerful forces which, working -during many thousands of years, have brought it all about. Then, and -only then, can he properly appreciate the magnificence which Nature has -so generously bestowed upon us. - - [Illustration: CLEMENTS MOUNTAIN AND GLACIER. THE GLACIER HAS SINCE - DISAPPEARED. (HILEMAN PHOTO)] - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[1]Dr. Dyson worked as a ranger naturalist in Glacier National Park for - eight different summers starting in 1935. During that time he - undertook special research on park glaciers in addition to his - regular assignments. - -[2]For a brief description of these rock formations see Special Bulletin - No. 3 (Geologic Story) of the Glacier Natural History Association. - - - - - GLACIER NATURAL HISTORY ASSOCIATION, Inc. - Glacier National Park - West Glacier, Montana - - -Organized for the purpose of cooperating with the National Park Service -by assisting the Interpretive Division of Glacier National Park in the -development of a broad public understanding of the geology, plant and -animal life, history, Indians, and related subjects bearing on the park -region. It aids in the development of the Glacier National Park library, -museums, and wayside exhibits; offers books on natural history for sale -to the public; assists in the acquisition of non-federally owned lands -within the park in behalf of the United States Government; and -cooperates with the Government in the interest of Glacier National Park. - -Revenues obtained by the Association are devoted entirely to the -purposes outlined. Any person interested in the furtherance of these -purposes may become a member upon payment of the annual fee of one -dollar. Gifts and donations are accepted for land acquisition or general -use. - - [Illustration: GLACIER NATURAL HISTORY ASSOCIATION INC.] - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Glaciers and Glaciation in Glacier -National Park, by James L. 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