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diff --git a/old/62958-0.txt b/old/62958-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2e2f0f0..0000000 --- a/old/62958-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36482 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Pharmacologia, by John Ayrton Paris - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Pharmacologia - Fourth American from the Seventh London Edition - -Author: John Ayrton Paris - -Annotator: John B. Beck - -Release Date: August 17, 2020 [EBook #62958] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHARMACOLOGIA *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Sonya Schermann, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -[Illustration: - - MEDICINAL DYNAMETER - _AND - SCALE OF EQUIVALENTS_. - - _Engraved for the Second American Edition of Paris’s Pharmacologia._ - - EXPLANATION. - - _This Instrument will shew on bare inspection, the quantity of active - matter contained in any given weight or measure (according as it is - solid or liquid) of any Officinal compound, and the dose of any - preparation which will be equivalent in strength to any given - quantity of any other of the same class. The active principles, or - Medicinal Bases, are distinguished by capital letters, placed in - coloured squares; and each Officinal Preparation is marked by a line - corresponding in colour with that of its active ingredient. If we - require the quantity of active matter in any given dose of an - Officinal Preparation, we have only to bring such preparation to the - number in question and the figure opposite the active ingredient - answers the question, while those opposite to the other compounds of - the same class denote the equivalent quantities. Unless otherwise - expressed, the figures denote Grains for the solids, and Minim for - the liquids._ -] - - - - - PHARMACOLOGIA. - - FOURTH AMERICAN, - _FROM THE SEVENTH LONDON EDITION_. - - - BY - J. A. PARIS, M.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. - FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF LONDON, ETC., ETC., ETC. - - - Quis Pharmacopœo dabit leges, ignarus ipse agendorum?—Vis profecto dici - potest, quantum hæc ignorantia rei medicæ inferat detrimentum. - - GAUB: METHOD: CONCINN: FORMUL. - - - WITH NOTES AND ADDITIONS, - - BY - - JOHN B. BECK, M.D. - - PROFESSOR OF MATERIA MEDICA AND MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE IN THE UNIVERSITY - OF THE STATE OF NEW-YORK, CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE MEDICAL SOCIETY OF - LONDON, &C., &C. - - - NEW-YORK: - _W. E. DEAN, PRINTER_. - COLLINS AND HANNAY, COLLINS AND CO., AND WHITE, GALLAHER AND WHITE. - - - 1831. - - - - -_Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year One Thousand -Eight Hundred and Thirty-one, by W. E. Dean, in the Clerk’s Office of -the Southern District of New-York._ - - - - - TO - - WILLIAM GEORGE MATON, M.D. F.R.S. - FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS, - VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE LINNÆAN SOCIETY, - &c., &c., &c. - - MY DEAR SIR, - -There is not an individual in the whole circle of the profession, to -whom I could with greater satisfaction, or with so much propriety, -dedicate this work, as to yourself. - -Ardent and zealous in the advancement of our science, you must deeply -deplore the prejudices that retard its progress;—eminently enlightened -in Natural History, you can justly appreciate the importance of its -applications to Medicine; while your well known earnestness in upholding -the dignity, and in encouraging the legitimate exercise of our -profession, marks you as the most proper patron of a work, the aim of -which is to extinguish the false lights of empiricism, and to substitute -a steady beacon on the solid and permanent basis of truth and science: -at the same time, the extensive practice which your talents and urbanity -so justly command in this metropolis, must long since have taught you -the full extent of that empiricism which it has been my endeavour to -expose, and the practical mischief of that ignorance which it has been -my object to enlighten. - -Nor let me omit to mention the claims of that friendship which has for -many years subsisted between us; be assured that I am gratefully -sensible of those personal obligations which so fully justify this -public avowal of them; confidently trusting that you will not measure -the gratitude which your kindness has inspired, by the merits of the -offering by which it is acknowledged, but rather by the truth and -sincerity of the Dedication, by which I am enabled to express - - My respect for your talents; - esteem for your virtues; - and wishes for your happiness; - JOHN AYRTON PARIS. - - _Dover-street, April, 1829._ - - - - - TO THE - - STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE - - OF - - PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS - - IN THE - - CITY OF NEW-YORK, - - THE PRESENT - - EDITION OF THIS WORK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, - - BY THEIR - - FRIEND AND INSTRUCTOR, - - THE EDITOR. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PREFACE. - HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. - PHARMACOLOGIA. ON THE OPERATIONS OF MEDICINAL BODIES, AND ON THE - CLASSIFICATIONS FOUNDED ON THEM. - ON THE THEORY AND ART OF PRESCRIBING. - A COLLECTION OF FORMULÆ INTENDED TO ILLUSTRATE THE FOREGOING PRECEPTS, - and to furnish the inexperienced Prescriber WITH A SERIES OF USEFUL - AND INSTRUCTIVE LESSONS. - A SYNOPSIS OF THE Principles of Combination, AS INVESTIGATED IN THE - PRECEDING PAGES, ARRANGED IN A TABULAR FORM SO AS TO AFFORD THE - STUDENT AN EASY REFERENCE TO THE KEY LETTERS. - OF THE MEDICINAL DYNAMETER. - PHARMACOLOGIA. - INDEX. - INDEX TO THE PATENT MEDICINES, AND NOSTRUMS, DESCRIBED IN THIS WORK. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - PREFACE. - - -The Public are already in possession of many pharmaceutical compendiums -and epitomes of plausible pretensions, composed with the view of -directing the practice of the junior, and of relieving the occasional -embarrassments of the more experienced practitioner. Nothing is farther -from my intention than to disparage their several merits, or to question -their claims to professional utility; but in truth and justice it must -be confessed that, as far as these works relate to the art of composing -scientific prescriptions, their authors have not escaped the too common -error of supposing that the reader is already grounded in the first -principles of the science; or, to borrow the figurative illustration of -a popular writer, _that while they are in the ship of science, they -forget the disciple cannot arrive without a boat_. I am not acquainted -with any book that is calculated to furnish such assistance, or which -professes to teach the GRAMMAR, and ground-work of this important branch -of medical knowledge. Numerous are the works which present us with the -detail, but no one with the philosophy of the subject. We have copious -catalogues of formal recipes, and many of unexceptionable propriety, but -the compilers do not venture to discuss the principles upon which they -were constructed, nor do they explain the part which each ingredient is -supposed to perform in the general scheme of the formula; they cannot -therefore lead to any useful generalization, and the young practitioner, -without a beacon that can direct his course in safety, is abandoned to -the alternative of two great evils—a feeble and servile routine, on one -hand, or a wild and lawless empiricism, on the other. The present volume -is an attempt to supply this deficiency: and while I am anxious to -‘catch the ideas which lead from ignorance to knowledge,’ it is not -without hope that I may also be able to suggest the means by which our -already acquired knowledge may be more widely and usefully extended; -and, by offering a collective and arranged view of the objects and -resources of medicinal combination, to establish its practice upon the -basis of science, and thereby to render its future career of improvement -progressive with that of the other branches of medicine; or, to follow -up the figurative illustration already introduced, _to furnish a boat, -which may not only convey the disciple to the ship, but which may also -assist in piloting the ship herself from her shallow and treacherous -moorings_. That the design however of the present work may not be -mistaken, it is essential to remark that it is elementary only in -reference to the art of prescribing, for it is presumed that the student -is already acquainted with the common manipulations of pharmacy, and -with the first principles of chemistry. When any allusions are made to -the processes of the Pharmacopœia, they are to be understood as being -only supplementary, or as explanatory of their nature, in reference to -the application or medicinal powers of the substance in question. The -term PHARMACOLOGIA, as applied to the present work, may therefore be -considered as contradistinctive to that of PHARMACOPŒIA; for while the -latter denotes the processes for _preparing_, the former comprehends the -scientific methods of _administering_ medicinal bodies, and explains the -objects and theory of their operation. The articles of the Materia -Medica have been arranged in alphabetical order, not only as being that -best calculated for reference, but one which, in an elementary work at -least, is less likely to mislead, than any arrangement founded on their -medicinal powers; for in consequence of the difficulty of discriminating -in every case between the primary and secondary effects of a medicine, -substances very dissimilar in their nature, have been enlisted into the -same artificial group, and when several of such bodies have, from a -reliance upon their unity of action, been associated together in a -medicinal mixture, it has often happened that, like the armed men of -Cadmus, they have opposed and destroyed each other. The object and -application of the black marginal letters, to which the name of _Key -Letters_ has been given, are fully explained in the First Part of the -work, and it is hoped, that the scheme possesses a more substantial -claim to notice than that of mere novelty: it will be perceived that in -the enumeration of the officinal formulæ these letters are also -occasionally introduced, to express the manner in which the particular -substance, under the head of which it stands, operates in the -combination. If any apology be necessary for the introduction of the -medicinal formulæ, it may be offered in the words of Quintillian, who -very justly observes, “_In omnibus fere minus valent præcepta quam -exempla_;” or in the language of Seneca; “_Longum est iter per præcepta, -breve et efficax per exempla_.” Under the history of each article, I -have endeavoured to concentrate all that is required to be known for its -efficacious administration, such as, 1. _Its sensible qualities._ 2. -_Its chemical composition_, or the constituents in which its medicinal -activity resides. 3. _Its relative solubility in different menstrua, and -the proportions in which it should be mixed, or combined with different -bodies, in order to produce suspension, or saturation._ 4. _The -Incompatible Substances_; that is to say, those substances which are -capable of destroying its properties, or of rendering its flavour or -aspect unpleasant or disgusting. 5. _The most eligible forms in which it -can be exhibited._ 6. _Its specific doses._ 7. _Its Medicinal Uses, and -Effects._ 8. _Its Preparations, Officinal_ as well as _Extemporaneous_. -9. _Its Adulterations._ That such information is indispensible for the -elegant and successful exhibition of a remedy, must be sufficiently -apparent; the injurious changes and modifications which substances -undergo when they are improperly combined by the ignorant practitioner, -are not as some have supposed imaginary, the mere _deliramenta -doctrinæ_, or the whimsical suggestions of theoretical refinement, but -they are really such as to render their powers unavailing, or to impart -a dangerous violence to their operation. “_Unda dabit flammas et dabit -ignis aquas._” - -In the history of the different medicinal preparations, the pharmacopœia -of the London College is the standard to which I have always referred, -although it will be perceived that I have frequently availed myself of -the resources with which the pharmacopœias of Edinburgh and Dublin -abound. To a knowledge of the numerous adulterations to which each -article is so shamefully exposed, too much importance can be scarcely -attached; and under this palpable source of medicinal fallacy and -failure, may be fairly included those secret and illegitimate deviations -from the acknowledged modes of preparation, as laid down in the -pharmacopœia, whether practised as expedients to obtain a lucrative -notoriety, or from a conceit of their being improvements upon the -ordinary processes; for instance, we have lately heard of a wholesale -chemist who professes to supply a syrup of roses of very superior -beauty, and who, for this purpose, substitutes the petals of the _red_ -(rosa gallica) for those of the _damask_ rose (rosa centifolia); we need -not be told, that a preparation of a more exquisite colour may be thus -afforded, but allow me to ask if this _underhanded_ substitution be not -a manifest act of injustice to the medical practitioner, who, instead of -a laxative syrup, receives one which is marked by the opposite character -of astringency. These observations will not apply, of course, to those -articles which are _avowedly_ prepared by a new process; for in that -case the practitioner is enabled to make his election, and either to -adopt or refuse them at his discretion. Thus has Mr. Barry applied his -ingenious patent apparatus for boiling _in vacuo_, to the purpose of -making Extracts; we might almost say _a priori_, that the results must -be more active than those obtained in the ordinary way, but they must -pass the ordeal of experience before they can be admitted into practice. -As a brief notice of the most notorious _Quack Medicines_ may be -acceptable, the formulæ for their preparation have been appended in -notes, each being placed at the foot of the particular article which -constitutes its prominent ingredient; indeed it is essential that the -practitioner should be acquainted with their composition, for although -he would refuse to superintend the operation of a boasted _panacea_, it -is but too probable that he may be called upon to counteract its baleful -influence. - -The _Historical Introduction_, comprehending the substance of the -lectures delivered before the Royal College of Physicians of London, -from the recently established chair of Materia Medica, has been prefixed -to the work, at the desire of several of the auditors; and I confess my -readiness to comply with this request, as it enabled me at once to -obviate any misconception or unjust representation of those remarks -which I felt it my bounden duty to offer to the College. - -It will be observed that the work itself is divided into two separate -and very distinct parts, the _First_ comprehending the principles of the -art of combination,—the _Second_, the medicinal history, and chemical -habitudes of the bodies which are the subjects of such combination. -These comprise every legitimate source of instruction, and to the young -and industrious student, they are at once the LOOM and the RAW MATERIAL. -Let him therefore abandon those flimsy and ill-adapted textures, that -are kept ready fabricated for the service of ignorance and indolence, -and by actuating the machinery himself, weave the materials with which -he is here presented into the forms and objects that may best fulfil his -intentions, and meet the various exigencies of each particular occasion. - - J. A. P. - - _Dover-street, January, 1820._ - - - - - HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. - - - COMPREHENDING - - THE - - SUBSTANCE OF SEVERAL LECTURES - - DELIVERED BY THE AUTHOR - - BEFORE THE - - _ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS_, - - FROM THE - - CHAIR OF MATERIA MEDICA, - - In the Years 1819–20 and 21. - - - “_It has been very justly observed that there is a certain maturity of - the human mind acquired from generation to generation, in the_ - MASS, _as there is in the different stages of life in the_ - INDIVIDUAL _man;—What is history when thus philosophically - studied, but the faithful record of this progress? pointing out - for our instruction the various causes which have retarded or - accelerated it in different ages and countries._” - - _Historical Introduction, p. 4._ - - - - - HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. - - - AN ANALYTICAL INQUIRY INTO THE MORE REMARKABLE CAUSES WHICH HAVE, IN - DIFFERENT AGES AND COUNTRIES, OPERATED IN PRODUCING THE - REVOLUTIONS THAT CHARACTERISE THE HISTORY OF MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES. - - - “_Historia quoquo modo scripta delectat._” - - -Before I proceed to discuss the particular views which I am prepared to -submit to the College, on the important but obscure subject of medicinal -combination, I propose to take a sweeping and rapid sketch of the -different moral and physical causes which have operated in producing the -extraordinary vicissitudes, so eminently characteristic of the history -of Materia Medica. Such an introduction is naturally suggested by the -first glance at the extensive and motly assemblage of substances with -which our cabinets[1] are overwhelmed. It is impossible to cast our eyes -over such multiplied groups, without being forcibly struck with the -palpable absurdity of some—the total want of activity in many—and the -uncertain and precarious reputation of all—or, without feeling an eager -curiosity to enquire, from the combination of what causes it can have -happened, that substances, at one period in the highest esteem, and of -generally acknowledged utility, have fallen into total neglect and -disrepute;—why others, of humble pretensions and little significance, -have maintained their ground for so many centuries; and on what account, -materials of no energy whatever, have received the indisputable sanction -and unqualified support of the best and wisest practitioners of the age. -That such fluctuations in opinion and versatility in practice should -have produced, even in the most candid and learned observers, an -unfavourable impression with regard to the general efficacy of -medicines, can hardly excite our astonishment, much less our -indignation; nor can we be surprised to find, that another portion of -mankind has at once arraigned Physic as a fallacious art, or derided it -as a composition of error and fraud.[2] They ask—and it must be -confessed that they ask with reason—what pledge can be afforded them, -that the boasted remedies of the present day will not, like their -predecessors, fall into disrepute, and in their turn serve only as -humiliating memorials of the credulity and infatuation of the physicians -who commended and prescribed them? There is surely no question connected -with our subject which can be more interesting and important, no one -which requires a more cool and dispassionate inquiry, and certainly not -any which can be more appropriate for a lecture, introductory to the -history of Materia Medica. I shall therefore proceed to examine with -some attention the revolutions which have thus taken place in the -opinions and belief of mankind, with regard to the efficacy and powers -of different medicinal agents; such an inquiry, by referring them to -causes capable of a philosophical investigation, is calculated to remove -many of the unjust prejudices which have been excited, to quiet the -doubts and alarms which have been so industriously propagated, and, at -the same time, to obviate the recurrence of several sources of error and -disappointment. - -This moral view of events, without any regard to chronological minutiæ, -may be denominated the PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY, and should be carefully -distinguished from that technical and barren erudition, which consists -in a mere knowledge of _names_ and _dates_, and which is perused by the -medical student with as much apathy, and as little profit, as the monk -counts his bead-roll. It has been very justly observed, that there is a -certain maturity of the human mind, acquired from generation to -generation, in the _mass_, as there is in the different stages of life, -in the _individual_ man; what is history, when thus philosophically -studied, but the faithful record of this progress? pointing out for our -instruction the various causes which have retarded or accelerated it in -different ages and countries. - -In tracing the history of the Materia Medica to its earliest periods, we -shall find that its progress towards its present advanced state, has -been very slow and unequal, very unlike the steady and successive -improvement which has attended other branches of natural knowledge; we -shall perceive even that its advancement has been continually arrested, -and often entirely subverted, by the caprices, prejudices, -superstitions, and knavery of mankind; unlike too the other branches of -science, it is incapable of successful generalization; in the progress -of the history of remedies, when are we able to produce a discovery or -improvement, which has been the result of that happy combination of -Observation, Analogy, and Experiment,[3] which has so eminently rewarded -the labours of modern science? Thus, OBSERVATION led Newton to discover -that the refractive power of transparent substances was, in general, in -the ratio of their density, but that, of substances of equal density, -those which possessed the refractive power in a higher degree were -inflammable.[4] ANALOGY induced him to conclude that, on this account, -water must contain an inflammable principle, and EXPERIMENT enabled -Cavendish and Lavoisier to demonstrate the surprising truth of Newton’s -induction, in their immortal discovery of the chemical composition of -that fluid. - -The history of Astronomy furnishes another illustration equally -beautiful and instructive,—The Astronomer _observed_ certain -oscillations in the motions of Saturn and Jupiter; by _Analogy_ he -conjectured that this phenomenon was produced by the influence of a -planet still more remote: a supposition which was happily confirmed by a -telescopic _experiment_, in the discovery of Uranus, by Herschel. - -But it is clear that such principles of research, and combination of -methods, can rarely be applied in the investigation of remedies, for -every problem which involves the phenomena of life is unavoidably -embarrassed by circumstances, so complicated in their nature, and -fluctuating in their operation, as to set at defiance every attempt to -appreciate their influence; thus an observation or experiment upon the -effects of a medicine is liable to a thousand fallacies, unless it be -carefully repeated under the various circumstances of health and -disease, in different climates, and on different constitutions. We all -know how very differently opium, or mercury, will act upon different -individuals, or even upon the same individual, at different times, or -under different circumstances; the effect of a stimulant upon the living -body is not in the ratio of the intensity of its impulse, but in -proportion to the degree of excitement, or vital susceptibility of the -individual, to whom it is applied. This is illustrated in a clear and -familiar manner, by the very different sensations of heat which the same -temperature will produce under different circumstances. In the road over -the Andes, at about half way between the foot and the summit, there is a -cottage in which the ascending and descending travellers meet; the -former, who have just quitted the sultry vallies at the base, are so -relaxed, that the sudden diminution of temperature produces in them the -feeling of intense cold, whilst the latter, who have left the frozen -summits of the mountain, are overcome by the distressing sensation of -extreme heat. - -But we need not climb the Andes for an illustration; if we plunge one -hand into a basin of hot, and the other into one of cold water, and then -mix the contents of each vessel, and replace both hands in the mixture, -we shall experience the sensation of heat and cold, from one and the -same medium; the hand, that had been previously in the hot, will feel -cold, whilst that which had been immersed in the cold water, will -experience a sensation of heat. Upon the same principle, ardent spirits -will produce very opposite effects upon different constitutions and -temperaments, and we are thus enabled to reconcile the conflicting -testimonies respecting the powers of opium in the cure of fever: -aliments, also, which under ordinary circumstances would occasion but -little effect, may in certain conditions of the system, act as powerful -stimulants; a fact which is well exemplified by the history of persons -who have been enclosed in coal mines for several days without food, from -the accidental falling in of the surrounding strata, when they have been -as much intoxicated by a basin of broth, as a person, in common -circumstances, would have been by two or more bottles of wine.[5] Many -instances will suggest themselves to the practitioner in farther -illustration of these views, and I shall have occasion to recur to the -subject at a future period. - -To such causes we must attribute the barren labours of the ancient -empirics, who saw without discerning, administered without -discriminating, and concluded without reasoning; nor should we be -surprised at the very imperfect state of the materia medica, as far as -it depends upon what is commonly called experience, complicated as this -subject is by its numberless relations with Physiology, Pathology, and -Chemistry. John Ray attempted to enumerate the virtues of plants from -_experience_, and the system serves only to commemorate his failure. -Vogel likewise professed to assign to substances, those powers which had -been learnt from accumulated experience; and he speaks of _roasted -toad_[6] as a specific for the pains of gout, and asserts that a person -may secure himself for the whole year from angina by eating a roasted -swallow! Such must ever be the case, when medicines derive their origin -from false experience, and their reputation from blind credulity. - -ANALOGY has undoubtedly been a powerful instrument in the improvement, -extension, and correction of the materia medica, but it has been chiefly -confined to modern times; for in the earlier ages, Chemistry had not so -far unfolded the composition of bodies, as to furnish any just idea of -their relations to each other, nor had the science of Botany taught us -the value and importance of the natural affinities which exist in the -vegetable kingdom. - -With respect to the fallacies to which such analogies are exposed, I -shall hereafter speak at some length, and examine the pretensions of -those _ultra_ chemists of the present day who have upon every occasion -arraigned, at their self-constituted tribunal, the propriety of our -medicinal combinations, and the validity of our national pharmacopœias. - -In addition to the obstacles already enumerated, the progress of our -knowledge respecting the virtues of medicines has met with others of a -moral character, which have deprived us in a great degree of another -obvious method of research, and rendered our dependance upon testimony -uncertain, and often entirely fallacious. The human understanding, as -Lord Bacon justly remarks, is not a mere faculty of apprehension, but is -affected, more or less, by the will and the passions; what man wishes to -be true, that he too easily believes to be so, and I conceive that -physic has, of all the sciences, the least pretensions to proclaim -itself independent of the empire of the passions. - -In our researches to discover and fix the period when remedies were -first applied for the alleviation of bodily suffering, we are soon lost -in conjecture, or involved in fable; we are unable to reach the period -in any country, when the inhabitants were destitute of medical -resources, and we find among the most uncultivated tribes, that medicine -is cherished as a blessing and practised as an art, as by the -inhabitants of New Holland and New Zealand, by those of Lapland and -Greenland, of North America, and of the interior of Africa. The personal -feelings of the sufferer, and the anxiety of those about him, must, in -the rudest state of society, have incited a spirit of industry and -research to procure alleviation, the modification of heat and cold, of -moisture and dryness, and the regulation and change of diet and habit, -must have intuitively suggested themselves for the relief of pain;[7] -and when these resources failed, charms, amulets, and incantations,[8] -were the natural expedients of the barbarian, ever more inclined to -indulge the delusive hope of superstition, than to listen to the voice -of sober reason. Traces of amulets may be discovered in very early -history. The learned Dr. Warburton is evidently mistaken, when he -assigns the origin of these magical instruments to the age of the -Ptolemies, which was not more than 300 years before Christ; this is at -once refuted by the testimony of Galen, who tells us that the Egyptian -king, Nechepsus, who lived 630 years before the Christian era, had -written, that a green jasper cut into the form of a dragon surrounded -with rays, if applied externally, would strengthen the stomach and -organs of digestion.[9] We have moreover the authority of the Scriptures -in support of this opinion; for what were the ear-rings which Jacob -buried under the oak of Sechem, as related in Genesis, but amulets? and -we are informed by Josephus, in his Antiquities of the Jews,[10] that -Solomon discovered a plant efficacious in the cure of Epilepsy, and that -he employed the aid of a charm or spell for the purpose of assisting its -virtues; the root of the herb was concealed in a ring, which was applied -to the nostrils of the Demoniac, and Josephus remarks that he himself -saw a Jewish Priest practise the art of Solomon with complete success in -the presence of Vespasian, his sons, and the tribunes of the Roman -army.[11] Nor were such means confined to dark and barbarous ages; -Theophrastus pronounced Pericles to be insane, because he discovered -that he wore an amulet about his neck; and, in the declining æra of the -Roman empire, we find that this superstitious custom was so general, -that the Emperor Caracalla was induced to make a public edict ordaining -that no man should wear any superstitious amulets about his person. - -In the progress of civilization, various fortuitous incidents,[12] and -even errors in the choice and preparation of aliments, must have -gradually unfolded the remedial powers of many natural substances; these -were recorded, and the authentic history of medicine may date its -commencement from the period when such records began. - -The Chaldeans and Babylonians, we are told by Herodotus, carried their -sick to the public roads and markets, that travellers might converse -with them, and communicate any remedies which had been successfully used -in similar cases; this custom continued during many ages in Assyria; and -Strabo states that it prevailed also amongst the ancient Lusitanians, or -Portuguese: in this manner, however, the results of experience descended -only by oral tradition; it was in the temple of Esculapius in Greece -that medical information was first recorded; diseases and cures were -there registered on durable tablets of marble; the priests[13] and -priestesses, who were the guardians of the temple, prepared the remedies -and directed their application, and thus commenced the profession of -Physic. With respect to the actual nature of these remedies, it is -useless to inquire; the lapse of ages, loss of records, change of -language, and ambiguity of description, have rendered every learned -research unsatisfactory; indeed we are in doubt with regard to many of -the medicines which even Hippocrates employed. It is however clearly -shewn by the earliest records, that the ancients were in the possession -of many powerful remedies; thus Melampus of Argos, the most ancient -Greek physician with whom we are acquainted, is said to have cured one -of the Argonauts of sterility, by administering the rust of iron in wine -for ten days; and the same physician used hellebore as a purge, on the -daughters of king Prætus, who were afflicted with melancholy. -Venesection was also a remedy of very early origin; for Podalirius, on -his return from the Trojan war, cured the daughter of Damethus, who had -fallen from a height, by bleeding her in both arms. Opium, or a -preparation of the poppy, was certainly known in the earliest ages; it -was probably opium that Helen mixed with wine, and gave to the guests of -Menelaus, under the expressive name of _nepenthe_,[14] to drive away -their cares, and increase their hilarity; and this conjecture receives -much support from the fact, that the _nepenthe_ of Homer was obtained -from the Egyptian Thebes;[15] and if we may credit the opinion of Dr. -Darwin, the Cumæan Sibyll never sat on the portending tripod without -first swallowing a few drops of the juice of the _Cherry-laurel_.[16] - - “At Phœbi nondum patiens, immanis in antro - Bacchatur Vates, magnum si pectore possit - Excussisse deum: tanto magis ille fatigat - Os rabidum, fera corda domans, fingitque premendo.” - ÆNEID, l. vi. 78. - -There is reason to believe that the Pagan priesthood were under the -influence of some powerful narcotic during the display of their oracular -powers, but the effects produced would seem to resemble rather those of -Opium, or perhaps of Stramonium, than of the Prussic acid. Monardes -tells us that the priests of the American Indians, whenever they were -consulted by the chief gentlemen, or _casiques_ as they are called, took -certain leaves of the Tobacco, and cast them into the fire, and then -received the smoke, which they thus produced, in their mouths, in -consequence of which they fell down upon the ground; and that after -having remained for some time in a stupor, they recovered, and delivered -the answers which they pretended to have received, during their supposed -intercourse with the world of spirits. - -The sedative powers of the _Lactuca Sativa_, or Lettuce,[17] were known -also in the earliest times; among the fables of antiquity, we read that -after the death of Adonis, Venus threw herself on a bed of lettuces, to -lull her grief, and repress her desires. The sea onion or _Squill_, was -administered in cases of dropsy by the Egyptians, under the mystic title -of the _Eye of Typhon_. The practices of incision and scarification were -employed in the camp of the Greeks before Troy, and the application of -spirit to wounds was also understood, for we find the experienced Nestor -applying a cataplasm, composed of cheese, onion, and meal, mixed up with -the wine of Pramnos, to the wounds of Machaon.[18] - -The revolutions and vicissitudes which remedies have undergone, in -medical as well as popular opinion, from the ignorance of some ages, -the learning of others, the superstitions of the weak, and the designs -of the crafty, afford ample subject for philosophical reflection; some -of these revolutions I shall proceed to investigate, classing them -under the prominent causes which have produced them, viz. -Superstition—Credulity—Scepticism—False Theory—Devotion to Authority, -and Established Routine—The assigning to Art that which was the effect -of unassisted Nature—The assigning to peculiar substances Properties, -deduced from Experiments made on inferior Animals—Ambiguity of -Nomenclature—The progress of Botanical Science—The application, and -misapplication of Chemical Philosophy—The Influence of Climate and -Season on Diseases, as well as on the properties, and operations of -their Remedies—The ignorant Preparation, or fraudulent Adulteration of -Medicines—The unseasonable collection of those remedies which are of -vegetable origin,—and, the obscurity which has attended the operation -of compound medicines. - - - SUPERSTITION. - -A belief in the interposition of supernatural powers in the direction of -earthly events, has prevailed in every age and country, in an inverse -ratio with its state of civilization, or in the exact proportion to its -want of knowledge. “In the opinion of the ignorant multitude,” says Lord -Bacon, “witches and impostors have always held a competition with -physicians.” Galen also complains of this circumstance, and observes -that his patients were more obedient to the oracle in the temple of -Esculapius, or to their own dreams, than they were to his prescriptions. -The same popular imbecility is evidently allegorized in the mythology of -the ancient poets, when they made both ESCULAPIUS and CIRCE the children -of APOLLO; in truth, there is an unaccountable propensity in the human -mind, unless subjected to a very long course of discipline, to indulge -in the belief of what is improbable and supernatural; and this is -perhaps more conspicuous with respect to physic than to any other affair -of common life, both because the nature of diseases and the art of -curing them are more obscure, and because disease necessarily awakens -fear, and fear and ignorance are the natural parents of superstition; -every disease therefore, the origin and cause of which did not -immediately strike the senses, has in all ages been attributed by the -ignorant to the wrath of heaven, to the resentment of some invisible -demon, or to some malignant aspect of the stars;[19] and hence the -introduction of a rabble of superstitious remedies, not a few of which -were rather intended as expiations at the shrines of these offended -spirits, than as natural agents possessing medicinal powers. The -introduction of precious stones into the materia medica, arose from an -Arabian superstition of this kind; indeed De Boot, who has written -extensively upon the subject, does not pretend to account for the -virtues of gems, upon any philosophical principle, but from their being -the residence of spirits, and he adds that such substances, from their -beauty, splendour and value, are well adapted as receptacles for _good_ -spirits![20] - -Every substance whose origin is involved in mystery,[21] has at -different times been eagerly applied to the purposes of medicine: not -long since, one of those showers which are now known to consist of the -excrement of insects, fell in the north of Italy; the inhabitants -regarded it as Manna, or some supernatural panacea, and they swallowed -it with such avidity, that it was only by extreme address, that a small -quantity was obtained for a chemical examination. - -A propensity to attribute every ordinary and natural effect to some -extraordinary and unnatural cause, is one of the striking peculiarities -of medical superstition; it seeks also explanations from the most -preposterous agents, when obvious and natural ones are in readiness to -solve the problem. Soranus, for instance, who was cotemporary with -Galen, and wrote the life of Hippocrates![22] tells us that honey proved -an easy remedy for the aphthæ of children, but instead of at once -referring the fact to the medical qualities of the honey, he very -gravely explains it, from its having been taken from bees that hived -near the tomb of Hippocrates! And even those salutary virtues which many -herbs possess, were, in these times of superstitious delusion, -attributed rather to the planet under whose ascendancy they were -collected or prepared, than to any natural and intrinsic properties in -the plants themselves; indeed such was the supposed importance of -planetary influence,[23] that it was usual to prefix to receipts a -symbol of the planet under whose reign the ingredients were to be -collected, and it is not perhaps generally known, that the character -which we at this day place at the head of our prescriptions, and which -is understood, and supposed to mean _Recipe_, is a relict of the -astrological symbol of Jupiter, as may be seen in many of the older -works on pharmacy, although it is at present so disguised by the -addition of the down stroke, which converts it into the letter ℞, that -were it not for its _cloven_ foot, we might be led to question the fact -of its superstitious origin. - -[Illustration] - -A knowledge of this ancient and popular belief in Sideral influence, -will enable us to explain many superstitions in Physic; the custom, for -instance, of administering cathartic medicines at stated periods and -seasons, originated in an impression of their being more active at -particular stages of the moon, or at certain conjunctions of the -planets: a remnant of this superstition still exists to a considerable -extent in Germany; and the practice of bleeding at ‘spring and fall,’ so -long observed in this country, owed its existence to a similar belief. -It was in consequence of the same superstition, that the metals were -first distinguished by the names and signs of the planets; and as the -latter were supposed to hold dominion over time, so were astrologers led -to believe that some, more than others, had an influence on certain days -of the week; and, moreover, that they could impart to the corresponding -metals considerable efficacy upon the particular days which were devoted -to them;[24] from the same belief, some bodies were only prepared on -certain days in the year; the celebrated earth of Lemnos was, as Galen -describes, periodically dug with great ceremony, and it continued for -many ages to be highly esteemed for its virtues; even at this day, the -pit in which the clay is found is annually opened, with solemn rites by -the priests, on the sixth day of August, six hours after sun rising, -when a quantity is taken out, washed, dried, and then sealed with the -Grand Signior’s seal, and sent to Constantinople. Formerly it was death -to open the pit, or to seal the earth, on any other day in the year. In -the botanical history of the middle ages, as more especially developed -in Macer’s Herbal, there was not a plant of medicinal use, that was not -placed under the dominion of some planet, and must neither be gathered -nor applied but with observances that savoured of the most absurd -superstition, and which we find were preserved as late as the -seventeenth century, by the astrological herbalists, Turner, Culpepper, -and Lovel. - -It is not the least extraordinary feature in the history of medical -superstition, that it should so frequently involve in its trammels -persons who, on every other occasion, would resent with indignation any -attempt to talk them out of their reason, and still more so, to persuade -them out of their senses; and yet we have continual proofs of its -extensive influence over powerful and cultivated minds; in ancient times -we may adduce the wise Cicero, and the no less philosophical Aurelius, -while in modern days we need only recall to our recollection the number -of persons of superior rank and intelligence, who were actually -persuaded to submit to the magnetising operations of Miss Prescott, and -some of them were even induced to believe that a beneficial influence -had been produced by the spells of this modern Circe. - -Lord Bacon, with all his philosophy, betrayed a disposition to believe -in the virtue of charms and amulets; and Boyle[25] seriously recommends -the thigh bone of an executed criminal, as a powerful remedy in -dysentery. Amongst the remedies of Sir Theodore Mayerne, known to -commentators as the Doctor Caius of Shakspeare, who was physician to -three English Sovereigns, and who, by his personal authority, put an end -to the distinctions of chemical and galenical practitioners in England, -we shall find the secundines of a woman in her first labour with a male -child; the bowels of a mole, cut open alive; mummy made of the lungs of -a man who had died a violent death; with a variety of remedies, equally -absurd, and alike disgusting. - -It merits notice, that the medicinal celebrity of a substance has not -unfrequently survived the tradition of its superstitious origin, in the -same manner that many of our popular customs and rites have continued, -through a series of years, to exact a respectful observance, although -the circumstances which gave origin to them have been obscured and lost -in the gloom of unrecorded ages. Does not the fond parent still suspend -the coral toy around the neck of her infant, without being in the least -aware of the superstitious belief[26] from which the custom originated? -while the chorus of _derry down_ is re-echoed by those who never heard -of the Druids, much less of the choral hymns with which their groves -resounded, at the time of their gathering the misletoe; and how many a -medical practitioner continues to administer this sacred plant, (_Viscus -Quercinus_) for the cure of his epileptic patients, without the least -suspicion that it owes its reputation to the same mysterious source of -superstition and imposture? Nor is this the only faint vestige of -druidism which can be adduced. Mr. Lightfoot states, with much -plausibility, that in the highlands of Scotland, evidence still exists -in proof of the high esteem in which those ancient Magi held the Quicken -tree, or Mountain Ash, (_Sorbus Aucuparia_) for it is more frequently -than any other, found planted in the neighbourhood of druidical circles -of stones; and it is a curious fact, that it should be still believed -that a small part of this tree, carried about a person, is a charm -against all bodily evils,—the dairy-maid drives the cattle with a switch -of the _Roan_ tree, for so it is called in the highlands; and in one -part of Scotland, the sheep and lambs are, on the first of May, ever -made to pass through a hoop of _Roan wood_. - -It is also necessary to state, that many of the practices which -superstition has at different times suggested, have not been alike -absurd; nay, some of them have even possessed, by accident, natural -powers of considerable efficacy, whilst others, although, ridiculous in -themselves, have actually led to results and discoveries of great -practical importance. The most remarkable instance of this kind upon -record is that of the _Sympathetic_ powder of Sir Kenelm Digby,[27] -Knight of Montpellier. Whenever any wound had been inflicted, this -powder was applied to the weapon that had inflicted it, which was, -moreover, covered with ointment, and dressed two or three times -a-day.[28] The wound itself in the mean time was directed to be brought -together, and carefully bound up with clean linen rags, but, ABOVE ALL, -TO BE LET ALONE for seven days; at the end of which period the bandages -were removed, when the wound was generally found perfectly united. The -triumph of the cure was decreed to the mysterious agency of the -sympathetic powder which had been so assiduously applied to the weapon; -whereas, it is hardly necessary to observe, that the promptness of the -cure depended upon the total exclusion of air from the wound, and upon -the sanative operations of nature not having received any disturbance -from the officious interference of art; the result, beyond all doubt, -furnished the first hint, which led surgeons to the improved practice of -healing wounds by what is technically called the _first intention_. - -The rust of the spear of Telephus, mentioned in Homer as a cure for the -wounds which that weapon inflicted, was probably _Verdegris_, and led to -the discovery of its use as a surgical application. - -Soon after the introduction of Gunpowder, _cold water_ was very -generally employed throughout Italy, as a dressing to gun-shot wounds; -not however from any theory connected with the influence of diminished -temperature or of moisture, but from a belief in a supernatural agency -imparted to it by certain mysterious and magical ceremonies, which were -duly performed immediately previous to its application: the continuance -of the practice, however, threw some light upon the surgical treatment -of these wounds, and led to a more rational management of them. - -The inoculation of the small-pox in India, Turkey, and Wales, observes -Sir Gilbert Blane, was practised on a superstitious principle, long -before it was introduced as a rational practice into this country. The -superstition consisted in buying it—for the efficacy of the operation, -in giving safety, was supposed to depend upon a piece of money being -left by the person who took it for insertion. The members of the -National Vaccine Establishment, during the period I had a seat at the -board, received from Mr. Dubois, a Missionary in India, a very -interesting account of the services, derived from superstitious -influence, in propagating the practice of vaccination through that -uncivilized part of the globe. It appears from this document, that the -greatest obstacle which vaccination encountered was a belief that the -natural small-pox was a dispensation of a mischievous deity among them, -whom they called MAH-RY UMMA, or rather, that this disease was an -incarnation of the dire Goddess herself, into the person who was -infected with it; the fear of irritating her, and of exposing themselves -to her resentment, necessarily rendered the natives of the East -decidedly averse to vaccination, until a superstitious impression, -equally powerful with respect to the new practice, was happily effected; -this was no other than a belief, that the Goddess MAH-RY UMMA had -spontaneously chosen this new and milder mode of manifesting herself to -her votaries, and that she might be worshipped with equal respect under -this new shape. - -HYDROMANCY is another superstition which has incidentally led to the -discovery of the medicinal virtues of many mineral waters; a belief in -the divining nature of certain springs and fountains is, perhaps, the -most ancient and universal of all superstitions. The Castalian fountain, -and many others amongst the Grecians, were supposed to be of a prophetic -nature; by dipping a fair mirror into a well, the Patræans of Greece -received, as they imagined, some notice of ensuing sickness or health. -At this very day, the sick and lame are attracted to various hallowed -springs; and to this practice, which has been observed for so many ages -and in such different countries, we are no doubt indebted for a -knowledge of the sanative powers of many mineral waters. There can be no -doubt, moreover, but that in many cases, by affording encouragement and -confidence to a dejected patient, and serenity to his mind, whether by -the aid of reason or the influence of superstition, much benefit may -arise; for the salutary and curative efforts of nature, in such a state -of mind, must be much more likely to succeed; equally evident is it, -that the most powerful effects may be induced by the administration of -remedies which, from their disgusting nature, are calculated to excite -strong and painful sensations of the mind.[29] Celsus mentions, with -confidence, several medicines of this kind for the cure of Epilepsy, as -_the warm blood of a recently slain Gladiator_, or a certain portion of -_human_, or _horse flesh_! and we find that remedies of this description -were actually exhibited, and with success, by Kaw Boerhaave, in the cure -of Epileptics in the poor-house at Haerlem. The powerful influence of -confidence in the cure and prevention of disease, was well understood by -the sages of antiquity; the Romans, in times of pestilence, elected a -dictator with great solemnity, for the sole purpose of driving a nail -into the wall of the temple of Jupiter—the effect was generally -instantaneous—and while they thus imagined that they propitiated an -offended deity, they in truth did but diminish the susceptibility to -disease, by appeasing their own fears. Nor are there wanting in modern -times, striking examples of the progress of an epidemic disease having -been suddenly arrested by some exhilarating impression made upon the -mass of the population. - -In the celebrated siege of Breda, in 1625, by Spinola, the garrison -suffered extreme distress from the ravages of Scurvy, and the Prince of -Orange being unable to relieve the place, sent in, by a confidential -messenger, a preparation which was directed to be added to a very large -quantity of water, and to be given as a specific for the epidemic; the -remedy was administered, and the garrison recovered its health, when it -was afterwards acknowledged, that the substance in question was no other -than a little colouring matter. - -Amongst the numerous instances which have been cited to shew the power -of faith over disease, or of the mind over the body, the _cures -performed by Royal Touch_[30] have been generally selected; but it would -appear, upon the authority of Wiseman, that the cures which were thus -effected, were in reality produced by a very different cause; for he -states, that part of the duty of the Royal Physicians and Serjeant -Surgeons was to select such patients, afflicted with scrofula, as -evinced a tendency towards recovery, and that they took especial care to -choose those who approached the age of puberty; in short, those only -were produced whom nature had shewn a disposition to cure; and as the -touch of the king, like the sympathetic powder of Digby, secured the -patient from the mischievous importunities of art, so were the efforts -of nature left free and uncontrolled, and the cure of the disease was -not retarded or opposed by the operation of adverse remedies. The -wonderful cures of Valentine Greatracks, performed in 1666, which were -witnessed by cotemporary prelates, members of parliament, and fellows of -the royal society, amongst whom was the celebrated Mr. Boyle, would -probably upon investigation admit of a similar explanation; it deserves, -however, to be noticed, that in all records of extraordinary cures -performed by mysterious agents, there is a great desire to conceal the -remedies and other curative means, which were simultaneously -administered with them; thus Oribasius commends in high terms a necklace -of _Pœony root_, for the cure of Epilepsy; but we learn that he always -took care to accompany its use with copious evacuations, although he -assigns to them no share of credit in the cure. In later times we have a -good specimen of this deception presented to us in a work on Scrofula, -by Mr. Morley, written, as we are informed, for the sole purpose of -restoring the much injured character and use of the _Vervain_; in which -the author directs the root of this plant to be tied with a _yard of -whited satin ribband_, around the neck, where it is to remain until the -patient is cured; but mark,—during this interval he calls to his aid the -most active medicines in the materia medica! - -The advantages which I have stated to have occasionally arisen from -superstitious influence, must be understood as being generally -accidental; indeed, in the history of superstitious practices, we do not -find that their application was exclusively commended in cases likely to -be influenced by the powers of faith or of the imagination, but, on the -contrary, that they were as frequently directed in affections that were -entirely placed beyond the control of the mind. Homer tells us, for -instance, that the bleeding of Ulysses was stopped by a charm:[31] and -Cato the censor has favoured us with an incantation for the reduction of -a dislocated limb. In certain instances, however, we are certainly bound -to admit that the pagan priesthood, with their characteristic cunning, -were careful to perform their superstitious incantations, in such cases -only as were likely to receive the sanative assistance of Nature, so -that they might attribute the fortunate results of her efforts, to the -potent influence of their own arts. The extraordinary success which is -related to have attended various superstitious ceremonials will thus -find a plausible explanation: the miraculous gift, attributed by -Herodotus to the Priestesses of Helen, is one amongst many others of -this kind that might be adduced; the Grecian historian relates, that -when the heads of ugly infants were adjusted on the altar of this -temple, the individuals so treated acquired comeliness, and even beauty, -as they advanced in growth: but is not such a change the ordinary and -unassisted result of natural developement? Those large and prominent -outlines which impart an unpleasing physiognomy to the infant, when -proportioned and matured by growth, will generally assume features of -intelligence in the adult face. - -I shall conclude these observations, by remarking that, in the history -of religious ceremonials, we sometimes discover that they were intended -to preserve useful customs or to conceal important truths; which, had -they not been thus _embalmed_ by superstition, could never have been -perpetuated for the use and advantage of posterity. I shall illustrate -this assertion by one or two examples. Whenever the ancients proposed to -build a town, or to pitch a camp, a sacrifice was offered to the gods, -and the Soothsayer declared, _from the appearance of the entrails_, -whether they were propitious or not to the design. What was this but a -physiological inquiry into the salubrity of the situation, and the -purity of the waters that supplied it? for we well know that in -unwholesome districts, especially when swampy, the cattle will uniformly -present an appearance of disease in the viscera, which an experienced -eye can readily detect; and when we reflect upon the age and climate in -which these ceremonies were performed, we cannot but believe that their -introduction was suggested by principles of wise and useful policy. In -the same manner, _Bathing_, which at one period of the world, was -essentially necessary, to prevent the diffusion of Leprosy, and other -infectious diseases, was wisely converted into an act of religion, and -the priests persuaded the people that they could only obtain absolution -on washing away their sins by frequent ablutions; but since the use of -linen shirts has become general, and every one has provided for the -cleanliness of his own person, the frequent bath ceases to be so -essential, and therefore no evil has arisen from the change of religious -belief respecting its connection with the welfare and purity of the -soul. Among the religious impurities and rules of purification of the -Hindoos, we shall be able to discern the same principle although -distorted by the grossest superstition. The ancient custom of erecting -“_Acerræ_” or Altars, near the bed of the deceased, in order that his -friends might daily _burn Incense_ until his burial, was long practised -by the Romans. The Chinese observe a similar custom; they place upon the -altar thus erected an image of the dead person, to which every one who -approaches it bows four times, and offers oblations and _perfumes_. Can -there be any difficulty in recognising, in this tribute to the dead, a -wise provision for the preservation of the living? The original -intention was, beyond doubt, to overcome any offensive smell, and to -obviate the dangers that might arise from the emanations of the corpse. -These instances are sufficient to shew the justness of my position: if -time and space would allow, many others of a striking and interesting -character might be adduced.[32] - - - CREDULITY. - -Although it is nearly allied to Superstition, yet it differs very widely -from it. Credulity is an unbounded belief in what is possible, although -destitute of proof and perhaps of probability; but Superstition is a -belief in what is wholly repugnant to the laws of the physical and moral -world. Thus, if we believe that an inert plant possesses any remedial -power, we are _credulous_; but if we were to fancy that, by carrying it -about with us, we should become invulnerable, we should in that case be -_superstitious_. Credulity is a far greater source of error than -Superstition; for the latter must be always more limited in its -influence, and can exist only, to any considerable extent, in the most -ignorant portion of society; whereas the former diffuses itself through -the minds of all classes, by which the rank and dignity of science are -degraded, its valuable labours confounded with the vain pretensions of -empiricism, and ignorance is enabled to claim for itself the -prescriptive right of delivering oracles, amidst all the triumphs of -truth, and the progress of philosophy. This is very lamentable; and yet, -if it were even possible to remove the film that thus obscures the -public discernment, I question whether the adoption of such a plan would -not be outvoted by the majority of our own profession. In Chili, says -Zimmerman, the physicians blow around the beds of their patients to -drive away diseases; and as the people in that country believe that -physic consists wholly in this wind, their doctors would take it very -ill of any person who should attempt to make the method of cure more -difficult—_they think they know enough, when they know how to blow_. - -But this mental imbecility is not characteristic of any age or country. -England has, indeed, by a late continental writer,[33] been accused of -possessing a larger share of credulity than its neighbours, and it has -been emphatically called “_The Paradise of Quacks_,” but with as little -truth as candour. If we refer to the works of Ætius, written more than -1300 years ago, we shall discover the existence of a similar infirmity -with regard to physic. This author has collected a multitude of -receipts, particularly those that had been celebrated, or used as -_Nostrums_,[34] many of which he mentions with no other view than to -expose their folly, and to inform us at what an extravagant price they -were purchased. We accordingly learn from him that the collyrium of -Danaus was sold at Constantinople for 120 numismata, and the cholical -antidote of Nicostratus for two talents; in short, we shall find an -unbounded credulity with respect to the powers of inert medicines, from -the elixir and _alkahest_ of Paracelsus and Van-Helmont, to the tar -water of bishop Berkeley, the metallic tractors of Perkins, the animal -magnetism of Miss Prescott, and may I not add, with equal justice, to -the nitro-muriatic acid bath of Dr. Scott? The description of Thessalus, -the Roman empiric in the reign of Nero, as drawn by Galen, applies with -equal fidelity and force to the medical Charlatan of the present day; -and, if we examine the writings of Scribonius Largus, we shall obtain -ample evidence that the same ungenerous selfishness of keeping medicines -secret, prevailed in ancient no less than in modern times; while we have -only to read the sacred orations of Aristides to be satisfied, that the -flagrant conduct of the Asclepiades, from which he so severely -suffered,[35] was the very prototype of the cruel and remorseless -frauds, so wickedly practised by the unprincipled Quack Doctors and -advertising “_Medical Boards_,” of our own times: and I challenge the -apologist of ancient purity to produce a more glaring instance of -empirical effrontery and success, in the annals of the nineteenth -century, than that of the sacred impostor described in the Alexander of -Lucian, who established himself in the deserted temple of Esculapius, -and entrapped in his snares some of the most eminent of the Roman -senators. - - - SCEPTICISM. - -Credulity has been justly defined, _Belief without Reason_. Scepticism -is its opposite, _Reason without Belief_ and is the natural and -invariable consequence of credulity: for it may be generally observed, -that men who believe without reason, are succeeded by others whom no -reasoning can convince; a fact which has occasioned many extraordinary -and violent revolutions in the _Materia Medica_, and a knowledge of it -will enable us to explain the otherwise unaccountable rise and fall of -many useless, as well as important articles. It will also suggest to the -reflecting practitioner, a caution of great moment, to avoid the -dangerous fault imputed to Galen by Dioscorides, of ascribing too many -and too great virtues to one and the same medicine. _By bestowing -unworthy and extravagant praise upon a remedy, we in reality do but -detract from its reputation,[36] and run the risk of banishing it from -practice_; for when the sober practitioner discovers by experience that -a medicine falls so far short of the efficacy ascribed to it, he -abandons its use in disgust, and is even unwilling to concede to it that -degree of merit to which in truth and justice it may be entitled; the -inflated eulogiums bestowed upon the operation of _Digitalis_ in -pulmonary diseases, excited, for a time, a very unfair impression -against its use; and the injudicious manner in which the antisyphilitic -powers of _Nitric Acid_ have been aggrandised, had very nearly exploded -a valuable auxiliary from modern practice. - -It is well known with what avidity the public embraced the expectations -given by Stöerk of Vienna in 1760, with respect to the efficacy of -_Hemlock_; every body, says Dr. Fothergill, made the extract, and every -body prescribed it, but finding that it would not perform the wonders -ascribed to it, and that a multitude of discordant diseases refused to -yield, as it was asserted they would, to its narcotic powers, -practitioners fell into the opposite extreme of absurdity, and declaring -that it could do nothing at all, dismissed it at once as inert and -useless. Can we not then predict the fate of the _Cubebs_, which has -been lately restored to notice with such extravagant praise and -unqualified approbation? May the sanguine advocates for the virtues of -the Colchicum derive a useful lesson of practical caution from these -precepts: it would be a matter of regret that a remedy which, under -skilful management, certainly possesses considerable virtue, should -again fall into obscurity and neglect from the disgust excited by the -extravagant zeal of its supporters. - -There are, moreover, those who cherish a spirit of scepticism, from an -idea that it denotes the exercise of a superior intellect; it must be -admitted, that at that period in the history of Europe, when reason -first began to throw off the yoke of authority, it required superiority -of understanding as well as intrepidity of conduct, to resist the powers -of that superstition which had so long held it in captivity; but in the -present age, observes Mr. Dugald Stewart, “_unlimited scepticism is as -much the child of imbecility as implicit credulity_.” “He who at the end -of the eighteenth century,” says Rousseau, “has brought himself to -abandon all his early principles, without discrimination, would probably -have been a bigot in the days of the league.” - - - FALSE THEORIES, AND ABSURD CONCEITS. - -He who is governed by preconceived opinions, may be compared to a -spectator who views the surrounding objects through coloured glasses, -each assuming a tinge similar to that of the glass employed; thus have -crowds of inert and insignificant drugs been indebted to an ephemeral -popularity, from the prevalence of a false theory; the celebrated -hypothesis of Galen respecting the virtues and operation of medicines, -may serve as an example; it is a web of philosophical fiction, which was -never surpassed in absurdity. He conceives that the properties of all -medicines are derived from what he calls their elementary or _cardinal_ -qualities, HEAT, COLD, MOISTURE, and DRYNESS. Each of these qualities is -again sub-divided into four degrees, and a plant or medicine, according -to his notion, is cold or hot, in the first, second, third, or fourth -gradation; if the disease be hot, or cold in any of these four stages, a -medicine possessed of a contrary quality, and in the same proportionate -degree of elementary heat or cold, must be prescribed. Saltness, -bitterness, and acridness depend, in his idea, upon the relative degrees -of heat and dryness in different bodies. It will be easily seen how a -belief in such an hypothesis must have multiplied the list of inert -articles in the materia medica, and have corrupted the practice of -physic. The variety of seeds derived its origin from this source, and -until lately, medical writers, in the true jargon of Galen, spoke of the -_four_ greater and lesser _hot_ and _cold_ seeds; and in the London -Dispensatory of 1721, we find the powders of _hot_ and _cold_ precious -stones, and those of the _hot_ and _cold_ compound powders of pearl. -Several of the ancient combinations of opium, with various aromatics, -are also indebted to Galen for their origin, and to the blind influence -of his authority for their existence and lasting reputation. Galen -asserted that opium was _cold in the fourth degree_, and must therefore -require some corresponding hot medicine to moderate its frigidity.[37] - -THE METHODIC SECT, which was founded by the Roman physician -Themison,[38] a disciple of Asclepiades, as they conceived all diseases -to depend upon _overbracing_, or on _relaxation_, so did they class all -medicines under the head of _relaxing_ and _bracing_ remedies; and -although this theory has been long since banished from the schools, yet -it continues at this day to exert a secret influence on medical -practice, and to preserve from neglect some unimportant medicines. The -general belief in the relaxing effect of the _warm_, and the equally -strengthening influence of the _cold_ bath, may be traced to conclusions -deduced from the operations of hot and cold water upon parchment and -other inert bodies.[39] - -THE STAHLIANS, under the impression of their ideal system, introduced -_Archœal_ remedies, and many of a superstitious and inert kind; whilst, -as they on all occasions trusted to the constant attention and wisdom of -nature, so did they zealously oppose the use of some of the most -efficacious instruments of art, as the Peruvian _bark_; and few -physicians were so reserved in the use of general remedies, as bleeding, -vomiting, and the like; their practice was therefore imbecile, and it -has been aptly enough denominated, “_a meditation upon death_.” They -were however vigilant in observation and acute in discernment, and we -are indebted to them for some faithful and minute descriptions. - -THE MECHANICAL THEORY, which recognised “_lentor and morbid viscidity of -the blood_,” as the principal cause of all diseases, introduced -attenuant and diluent medicines, or substances endued with some -mechanical force; thus Fourcroy explained the operation of mercury by -its specific gravity,[40] and the advocates of this doctrine favoured -the general introduction of the preparations of iron, especially in -schirrus of the spleen or liver, upon the same hypothetical principle; -for, say they, whatever is most forcible in removing the obstruction, -must be the most proper instrument of cure; such is _Steel_, which, -besides the attenuating power with which it is furnished, has still a -greater force in this case from the _gravity_ of its particles, which, -being seven times specifically heavier than any vegetable, acts in -proportion with a stronger impulse, and therefore is a more powerful -deobstruent. This may be taken as a specimen of the style in which these -mechanical physicians reasoned and practised. - -THE CHEMISTS, as they acknowledged no source of disease but the presence -of some hostile acid or alkali, or some deranged condition in the -chemical composition of the fluid or solid parts, so they conceived all -remedies must act by producing chemical changes in the body. We find -Tournefort busily engaged in testing every vegetable juice, in order to -discover in it some traces of an acid or alkaline ingredient, which -might confer upon it medicinal activity. The fatal errors into which -such an hypothesis was liable to betray the practitioner, receive an -awful illustration in the history of the memorable fever that raged at -Leyden in the year 1699, and which consigned two thirds of the -population of that city to an untimely grave; an event which, in a great -measure, depended upon the Professor Sylvius de la Boe, who having just -embraced the chemical doctrines of Van Helmont, assigned the origin of -the distemper to a prevailing acid, and declared that its cure could -alone be effected by the copious administration of absorbent and -testaceous medicines; an extravagance into which Van Helmont, himself, -would hardly have been betrayed:—but thus it is in Philosophy, as in -Politics, that the partisans of a popular leader are always more -sanguine, and less reasonable, than their master; they are not only -ready to delude the world, but most anxious to deceive themselves, and -while they warmly defend their favourite system from the attacks of -those that may assail it, they willingly close their own eyes, and -conceal from themselves the different points that are untenable; or, to -borrow the figurative language of a French writer, they are like the -pious children of Noah,[41] who went backwards, that they might not see -the nakedness which they approached for the purpose of covering. - -Unlike the mechanical physicians, the chemists explain the beneficial -operation of iron by supposing that it increases the proportion of red -globules in the blood, on the erroneous[42] hypothesis that iron -constitutes the principal element of these bodies. Thus has iron, from -its acknowledged powers, been enlisted into the service of every -prevailing hypothesis; and it is not a little singular, as a late writer -has justly observed, that theories however different, and even adverse, -do nevertheless often coincide in matters of practice, as well with each -other as with long established empirical usages, each bending as it -were, and conforming, in order to do homage to truth and experience. And -yet iron, whose medicinal virtues have been so generally allowed, has -not escaped those vicissitudes in reputation which almost every valuable -remedy has been doomed to suffer: at one period the ancients imagined -that wounds inflicted by iron instruments, were never disposed to heal, -for which reason Porsenna, after the expulsion of the Tarquins, actually -stipulated with the Romans that they should not use iron, except in -agriculture; and Avicenna was so alarmed at the idea of its internal use -as a remedy, when given in substance, that he seriously advised the -exhibition of a magnet[43] after it to prevent any direful consequences. -The fame even of Peruvian bark has been occasionally obscured by the -clouds of false theory some condemned its use altogether, “because it -did not evacuate the morbific matter,” others, “because it bred -obstructions in the viscera,” others again, “because it only bound up -the spirits, and stopped the paroxysms for a time, and favoured the -translation of the peccant matter into the more noble parts.” Thus we -learn from Morton,[44] that Oliver Cromwell fell a victim to an -intermittent fever, because the Physicians were too timid to make a -trial of the bark. It was sold first by the Jesuits for its weight in -silver;[45] and Condamine relates that in 1690, about thirty years -afterwards, several thousand pounds of it lay at Piura and Payta for -want of a purchaser. - -Nor has Sugar escaped the venom of fanciful hypothesis. Dr. Willis -raised a popular outcry against its domestic use, declaring that “it -contained within its particles a secret acid—a dangerous -sharpness,—which caused scurvys, consumptions, and other dreadful -diseases.”[46] - -Although I profess to offer merely a few illustrations of those -doctrines, whose perverted applications have influenced the history of -the Materia Medica, I cannot pass over in silence that of John Brown, -“the child of genius and misfortune.” As he generalized diseases, and -brought all within the compass of two grand classes, those of -_increased_ and _diminished_ excitement, so did he abridge our remedies, -maintaining, that every agent which could operate on the human body was -a _Stimulant_, having an identity of action, and differing only in the -degree of its force; so that, according to his views, the lancet and the -brandy bottle were but the opposite extremes of one and the same class: -the mischievous tendency of such a doctrine is too obvious to require a -comment. - -But the most absurd and preposterous hypothesis that has disgraced the -annals of medicine, and bestowed medicinal reputation upon substances of -no intrinsic worth, is that of the DOCTRINE OF SIGNATURES, as it has -been called, which is no less than a belief that _every natural -substance which possesses any medicinal virtue, indicates by an obvious -and well-marked external character, the disease for which it is a -remedy, or the object for which it should be employed_![47] This -extraordinary monster of the fancy has been principally adopted and -cherished by Paracelsus, Baptista Porta, and Crollius, although traces -of its existence may be certainly discovered in very ancient authors. -The root of the _Mandrake_, from its supposed resemblance to the human -form, was esteemed as a remedy for Sterility: thus did Rachael demand -from her sister the Mandrakes (_Dudaim_) which Reuben had gathered in -the field; impressed, as it would appear, with a belief in the efficacy -of that plant against barrenness.[48] There would moreover appear in -this case to have been some idea of additional virtue arising from the -person who gathered it, for great stress was laid upon this -circumstance, “_my son’s_ Mandrakes:” such a notion is by no means -uncommon in the history of charms. The supposed virtues of the _Lapis -Ætites_, or _Eagle stone_,[49] described by Dioscorides, Ætius and -Pliny, who assert that if tied to the arm it will prevent abortion, and -if fixed to the thigh forward delivery, were, as we learn from ancient -authority, solely suggested by the manner in which the nodule contained -within the stone moves and rattles, whenever it is shaken. “_Ætites -lapis agitatus, sonitum edit, velut ex altero lapide prægnans._” The -conceit however did not assume the importance of a theory until the end -of the fourteenth century, at which period we find several authors -engaged in the support of its truth, and it will not be unamusing to -offer a specimen of their sophistry; they affirm, that since man is the -lord of the creation, all other creatures are designed for his use, and -_therefore_, that their beneficial qualities and excellencies must be -expressed by such characters as can be seen and understood by every one; -and as man discovers his reason by speech, and brutes their sensations -by various sounds, motions, and gestures, so the vast variety and -diversity of figures, colours, and consistencies, observable in -inanimate creatures, is certainly designed for some wise purpose. It -_must be_, in order to manifest these peculiar qualities and -excellencies, which could not be so effectually done in any other way, -not even by speech, since no language is universal. Thus, the lungs of a -fox must be a specific for asthma, _because_ that animal is remarkable -for its strong powers of respiration. _Turmerick_ has a brilliant yellow -colour, which indicates that it has the power of curing the jaundice; by -the same rule, _Poppies_ must relieve diseases of the head; _Agaricus_ -those of the bladder; _Cassia fistula_ the affections of the intestines, -and _Aristolochia_ the disorders of the uterus: the polished surface and -stony hardness which so eminently characterise the seeds of the -_Lithospermum Officinale_ (Common Gromwell) were deemed a certain -indication of their efficacy in calculous and gravelly disorders; for a -similar reason the roots of the _Saxifraga Granulata_ (White Saxifrage) -gained reputation in the cure of the same disease; and the _Euphrasia_ -(Eye-bright) acquired fame, as an application in complaints of the eye, -because it exhibits a black spot in its corolla resembling the pupil. - -In the curious work of _Chrysostom Magnenus_, we meet with a whimsical -account of the _Signature_ of Tobacco. “In the first place,” says he, -“the manner in which the flowers adhere to the head of the plant -indicates the _Infundibulum Cerebri_, and _Pituitary Gland_. In the next -place, the three membranes of which its leaves are composed announce -their value to the stomach which has three membranes.”[50] - -The blood-stone, the _Heliotropium_ of the ancients, from the occasional -small specks or points of a blood red colour exhibited on its green -surface, is even at this day employed in many parts of England and -Scotland, to stop a bleeding from the nose; and nettle-tea continues a -popular remedy for the cure of _Urticaria_. It is also asserted that -some substances bear the SIGNATURES of the humours, as the petals of the -red rose that of the blood, and the roots of rhubarb and the flowers of -saffron, that of the bile.[51] - -I apprehend that John of Gaddesden, in the fourteenth century, -celebrated by Chaucer, must have been directed by some remote analogy of -this kind, when he ordered the son of Edward the First, who was -dangerously ill with the small-pox, to be wrapped in scarlet cloth, as -well as all those who attended upon him, or came into his presence, and -even the bed and room in which he was laid were covered with the same -drapery; and so completely did it answer, say the credulous historians -of that day, that the Prince was cured without having so much as a -single mark left upon him. - -In enumerating the conceits of Physic, as relating to the Materia -Medica, we must not pass over the idea, so prevalent at one period, that -_all poisonous substances possess a powerful and mutual elective -attraction for each other_; and that consequently, if a substance of -this kind were suspended around the neck, it would, by intercepting and -absorbing every noxious particle, preserve the body from the virulence -of contagious matter. Angelus Sala, accordingly, gives us a formula for -what he terms his _Magnes Arsenicalis_, which he asserts will not only -defend the body from the influence of poison, but will, from its powers -of attraction, draw out the venom from an infected person. In the -celebrated plague of London, we are informed that amulets of arsenic -were upon this principle suspended over the region of the heart, as a -preservative against infection. - -There is yet to be mentioned another absurd conceit which long existed -respecting the subject of Antidotes,—a belief that every natural poison -carried within itself its own antidote; thus we learn from the writings -of Dioscorides, Galen, and Pliny, that the _virus_ of the _Cantharis -Vesicatoria_ existed in the body of the fly, and that the head, feet, -and wings, contained its antidote; for the same potent reason were the -hairs of the rabid dog esteemed the true specific for Hydrophobia.[52] - - - DEVOTION TO AUTHORITY, AND ESTABLISHED ROUTINE. - -This has always been the means of opposing the progress of reason—the -advancement of natural truths—and the prosecution of new discoveries; -whilst, with effects no less baneful, has it perpetuated many of the -stupendous errors which have been already enumerated, as well as others -no less weighty, and which are reserved for future discussion. - -To give general currency to an hypothetical opinion, or medicinal -reputation to an inert substance, requires only the talismanic aid of a -few great names; when once established upon such a basis, ingenuity, -argument, and even experiment, may open their ineffectual batteries. The -laconic sentiment of the Roman Satirist is ever opposed to our -remonstrance—“Marcus dixit?—ita est.” - - “Did Marcus say ’twas fact? then fact it is, - No proof so valid as a word of his.” - -A physician cannot err, in the opinion of the public, if he implicitly -obeys the dogmas of authority; in the most barbarous ages of ancient -Egypt, he was punished or rewarded according to the extent of his -success, but to escape the former, it was only necessary to shew that an -orthodox plan of cure had been followed, such as was prescribed in the -acknowledged writings of Hermes. It is an instinct in our nature to -follow the track pointed out by a few leaders; we are gregarious -animals, in a moral as well as a physical sense, and we are addicted to -routine, because it is always easier to follow the opinions of others -than to reason and judge for ourselves. “The mass of mankind,” as Dr. -Paley observes, “act more from habit than reflection.” What, but such a -temper could have upheld the preposterous system of Galen for more than -thirteen centuries; and have enabled it to give universal laws in -medicine to Europe—Africa—and part of Asia?[53] What, but authority, -could have inspired a general belief, that the sooty washings of -rosin[54] would act as an universal remedy? What, but a blind devotion -to authority, or an insuperable attachment to established custom and -routine, could have so long preserved from oblivion the absurd medicines -which abound in our earlier dispensatories? for example, the “_Decoctum -ad Ictericos_,” of the Edinburgh College, which never had any other -foundation than the doctrine of signatures, in favour of the _Curcuma_ -and _Chelidonium Majus_;[55] and it is only within a few years, that the -_Theriaca Andromachi_, in its ancient absurd form, has been dismissed -from the British Pharmocopœia.[56] The CODEX-MEDICAMENTARIUS of Paris, -recently edited, still cherishes this many-headed[57] monster of -pharmacy, in all its pristine deformity, under the appropriate title of -“_Electuarium Opiatum Polupharmacum_.” - -It is, however, evidently indebted for this unexpected rescue from -oblivion to a cause very remote from that which may be at first -imagined; not from any belief in its powers or reliance upon its -efficacy, but from a disinclination to oppose the torrent of popular -prejudice, and to reject what has been established by authority and -sanctioned by time. For the same reason, and in violation of their -better judgment, the editors have retained the absurd formula of Diest -for the preparation of an extract of opium; which, after directing -various successive operations, concludes by ordering the decoction to be -boiled incessantly for six months, supplying the waste of water at -intervals! Many of the compound formulæ in this new CODEX, it is frankly -allowed, possess an unnecessary and unmeaning, if not an injurious -complexity; and yet, such force has habit, and so paramount are the -_verba magistri_, that the editors are satisfied in distinguishing the -more important ingredients by printing them in _Italics_, leaving the -rest to be supplied at the whim and caprice of the dispenser, and thus -are the grand objects and use of a national Pharmacopœia defeated, which -should above all things insure uniformity in the strength and -composition of its officinal preparations. - -The same devotion to authority which induces us to retain an accustomed -remedy for pertinacity, will always oppose the introduction of a novel -practice with asperity, unless indeed it be supported by authority of -still greater weight and consideration. The history of various articles -of diet and medicine will prove in a striking manner, how greatly their -reputation and fate have depended upon authority. It was not until many -years after _Ipecacuan_ had been imported into Europe, that Helvetius, -under the patronage of Louis XIV. succeeded in introducing it into -practice: and to the eulogy of Katharine, queen of Charles II. we are -indebted for the general introduction of Tea into England.[58] - -That most extraordinary plant,[59] _Tobacco_, notwithstanding its powers -of fascination, has suffered romantic vicissitudes in its fame and -character; it has been successively opposed, and commended by -physicians—condemned, and eulogised by priests and kings—and proscribed, -and protected by governments; whilst at length this once insignificant -production of a little island, or an obscure district, has succeeded in -diffusing itself through every climate, and in subjecting the -inhabitants of every country to its dominion. The Arab cultivates it in -the burning desert—The Laplander and Esquimaux risk their lives to -procure a refreshment so delicious in their wintry solitude—the Seaman, -grant him but this luxury, and he will endure with cheerfulness every -other privation, and defy the fury of the raging elements; and in the -higher walks of civilized society, at the shrine of fashion, in the -palace, and in the cottage, the fascinating influence of this singular -plant commands an equal tribute of devotion and attachment. The history -of the Potatoe is perhaps not less extraordinary, and is strikingly -illustrative of the omnipotent influence of authority; the introduction -of this valuable plant received, for more than two centuries, an -unexampled opposition from vulgar prejudice, which all the philosophy of -the age was unable to dissipate, until Louis the XVth wore a bunch of -the flowers of the potatoe in the midst of his court, on a day of -festivity; the people then for the first time obsequiously acknowledged -its utility, and ventured to express their astonishment at the apathy -which had so long prevailed with regard to its general cultivation; that -which authority thus established, time and experience have fully -ratified, and scientific research has extended the numerous resources -which this plant is so wonderfully calculated to furnish; thus, its -stalk, considered as a textile plant, produces in Austria a cottony -flax—in Sweden, sugar is extracted from its root—by combustion its -different parts yield a very considerable quantity of potass,—its -apples, when ripe, ferment and yield vinegar by exposure, or spirit by -distillation—its tubercles made into a pulp, are a substitute for soap -in bleaching,—cooked by steam, the potatoe is the most wholesome and -nutritious, and, at the same time, the most economical of all vegetable -aliments.[60]—by different manipulations it furnishes two kinds of -flour, a gruel, and a parenchyma, which in times of scarcity may be made -into bread, or applied to increase the bulk of bread made from grain,—to -the invalid it furnishes both aliment and medicine; its starch is not in -the least inferior to the Indian arrow root, and Dr. Latham has lately -shown that an extract may be prepared from its leaves and flowers, which -possesses valuable properties as an anodyne remedy.[61] - -The history of the warm bath[62] presents us with another curious -instance of the vicissitudes to which the reputation of our valuable -resources are so universally exposed; that which for so many ages was -esteemed the greatest luxury in health,[63] and the most efficacious -remedy in disease, fell into total disrepute in the reign of Augustus, -for no other reason than because Antonius Musa had cured the Emperor of -a dangerous malady by the use of the _cold_ bath. The most frigid water -that could be procured was, in consequence, recommended on every -occasion: thus Horace, in his epistle to Vala, exclaims— - - “——Caput ac stomachum supponere fontibus audent. - Clusinis, gabiosque petunt, et frigida rura.”—_Epist._ xv. _Lib._ 1. - -This practice, however, was doomed but to an ephemeral popularity, for -although it had restored the Emperor to health, it shortly afterwards -killed his nephew and son in law, Marcellus; an event which at once -deprived the remedy of its credit, and the physician of his popularity. - -The history of the Peruvian Bark would furnish a very curious -illustration of the overbearing influence of authority in giving -celebrity to a medicine, or in depriving it of that reputation to which -its virtues entitle it. This heroic remedy was first brought to Spain in -the year 1632, and we learn from Villerobel that it remained for seven -years in that country before any trial was made of its powers, a certain -ecclesiastic of Alcala being the first person in Spain to whom it was -administered in the year 1639; but even at this period its use was -limited, and it would have sunk into oblivion but for the supreme power -of the Roman church, by whose auspices it was enabled to gain a -temporary triumph over the passions and prejudices which opposed its -introduction; Innocent the Tenth, at the intercession of Cardinal de -Lugo, who was formerly a Spanish Jesuit, ordered that the nature and -effects of it should be duly examined, and upon being reported as both -innocent and salutary, it immediately rose into public notice;[64] its -career, however, was suddenly stopped by its having unfortunately failed -in the autumn of 1652 to cure Leopold, Archduke of Austria, of a Quartan -Intermittent; this disappointment kindled the resentment of the prince’s -principal physician, Chifletius, who published a violent philippic -against the virtues of Peruvian Bark, which so fomented the prejudices -against its use, that it had nearly fallen into total neglect and -disrepute. - -Thus there exists a fashion in medicine, as in the other affairs of -life, regulated by the caprice and supported by the authority of a few -leading practitioners, which has been frequently the occasion of -dismissing from practice valuable medicines, and of substituting others -less certain in their effects and more questionable in their nature. As -years and fashions revolve, so have these neglected remedies, each in -its turn, risen again into favour and notice, whilst old receipts, like -old almanacks, are abandoned until the period may arrive, that will once -more adapt them to the spirit and fashion of the times. Thus it happens -that most of our “_New Discoveries_” in the Materia Medica have turned -out to be no more than the revival and adaptation of ancient practices. -In the last century, the root of the _Aspidium Filix_, the Male Fern, -was retailed as a secret nostrum by Madame Nouffleur, a French empiric, -for the cure of tape worm; the secret was purchased for a considerable -sum of money by Louis XV. and the physicians then discovered that the -same remedy had been administered in that complaint by Galen.[65] - -The history of popular medicines for the cure of Gout, will also furnish -us with ample matter for the illustration of this subject. The -celebrated Duke of Portland’s Powder was no other than the -_Diacentaureon_ of Cælius Aurelianus, or the _Antidotos ex duobus -Centaureæ generibus_ of Ætius,[66] the receipt for which a friend of his -Grace brought from Switzerland; into which country it had been probably -introduced by the early medical writers, who had transcribed its virtues -from the Greek volumes soon after their arrival into the western parts -of Europe. The active ingredient of a no less celebrated remedy for the -same disease, _the Eau Medicinale_,[67] has been discovered to be the -_Colchicum Autumnale_ or Meadow Saffron; upon investigating the -properties of this medicine, it was observed that similar effects in the -cure of the gout were ascribed to a certain plant, called -_Hermodactyllus_[68] by Oribasius and Ætius, but more particularly by -Alexander of Tralles,[69] a physician of Asia Minor in the fourth -century; an inquiry was accordingly instituted after this unknown plant, -and upon procuring a specimen of it from Constantinople, it was actually -found to be a species of _Colchicum_. - -The use of Prussic acid in the cure of Phthisis, which has been lately -proposed by Dr. Majendie, and introduced into the _Codex -Medicamentarius_ of Paris, is little else than the revival of the Dutch -practice in this complaint; for Linnæus informs us, in the fourth volume -of his “_Amænitates Academicæ_,” that distilled Laurel water was -frequently used in Holland for the cure of pulmonary consumption. - -The celebrated fever powder of Dr. James was evidently not his original -composition, but an Italian nostrum invented by a person of the name of -Lisle, a receipt for the preparation of which is to be found at length -in _Colborne’s Complete English Dispensatory for the year 1756_. - -The various secret preparations of Opium, which have been extolled as -the invention of modern times, may be recognized in the works of ancient -authors; for instance, Wedelius in his _Opiologia_ describes an acetic -solution; and the _Magisterium_ of Ludovicus, as noticed by Etmuller, -was a preparation made by dissolving Opium in vinegar, and precipitating -with Salt of Tartar;[70] Van Helmont recommends a preparation, similar -to the black drop, under the title of _Laudanum Cydoniatum:_ then again -we have Langelott’s Laudanum, and Le Mort’s “_Extract out of Rain -water_,” preparations which owe their mildness to the abstraction of the -resinous element of opium. - -The works of Glauber contain accounts of many discoveries that have been -claimed by the chemists of our own day; he recommends the use of -muriatic acid in sea scurvy, and describes an apparatus for its -preparation exactly similar to that which has been extolled as the -invention of Wolff; he also notices the production of _Pyro-acetic -Acid_, under the title of “_Vinegar of Wood_,” so that the fact of the -identity of this acid and Vinegar, so lately announced by Vauquelin as a -_New Discovery_, was evidently known to Glauber nearly two centuries -ago. - -We have within the last few years heard much of the efficacy of Henbane -fumigations in the tooth-ache, an application which may be easily shewn -to be the revival only of a very ancient practice.[71] - -But while we might thus proceed to annul many other claims for -originality, we ought not to close our eyes to the fallacies to which -such investigations are peculiarly exposed. Nothing is more easy than to -invest the doubtful sentence of an obscure author with an interpretation -best adapted for the support of a favourite theory, and instances might -be adduced where the medical antiquarian[72] has by violence and -distortion forced the most contradictory passages into his service; -treating, in short, the oracles of Physic just as Lord Peter treated his -father’s will in the _Tale of a Tub_,—determined to discover the word -“_Shoulder Knots_,” he picks it out, letter by letter, and is even at -last obliged to substitute C for K in the orthography. - -Nor has Fashion confined her baneful interference to the selection of -remedies; she has ventured even to decide upon the nature of Diseases, -and to change and modify their appellations according to the whim and -caprice by which she is governed. The Princess, afterwards Queen Anne, -was subject to Hypochondriacal attacks, which her Physicians pronounced -to be _Spleen_, _Vapours_, or _Hyp_, and recommended Rawleigh’s -Confection, and Pearl Cordial, for its cure: this circumstance was -sufficient to render both the Disease and Remedy _fashionable_; no other -complaint was ever heard of in the precincts of the court but that of -the _Vapours_, nor any medicine esteemed but that of Rawleigh. Some -years afterwards, in consequence of Dr. Whytt’s publication on “_Nervous -diseases_,” a lady of Fashion was pronounced to be _Nervous_—the term -became general, and the disease _fashionable_; and _Spleen_, _Vapours_, -and _Hyp_ were consigned to oblivion: the reign of Nervous Diseases, -however, did not long continue, for a popular work appeared on Biliary -Concretions, and all the world became _bilious_. We have not patience to -pursue the history of these follies; a transient glance at the ephemeral -productions of the last twenty years would furnish a sad display of the -versatility of medical opinions, and of the instability of the practice -which has been founded upon them: and they will no doubt furnish the -future historian with strong and forcible illustrations. - - -THE ASSIGNING TO ART THAT WHICH WAS THE EFFECT OF UNASSISTED NATURE, OR - THE CONSEQUENCE OF INCIDENTAL CHANGES OF HABIT, DIET, &c. - -Our inability upon all occasions to appreciate the efforts of nature in -the cure of disease, must always render our notions, with respect to the -powers of art, liable to numerous errors and multiplied deceptions. -Nothing is more natural, and at the same time more erroneous, than to -attribute the cure of a disease to the last medicine that had been -employed; the advocates of amulets and charms[73] have even been thus -enabled to appeal to the testimony of what they call experience, in -justification of their superstitions; and cases which, in truth and -justice, ought to be considered most lucky escapes, have been -triumphantly pronounced as skilful cures; and thus have medicines and -practitioners alike acquired unmerited praise, or unjust censure. Upon -Mrs. Stephens offering her remedy for the stone to Parliament,[74] a -committee of professional men was nominated to ascertain its efficacy; a -patient with stone was selected, and he took the remedy; his sufferings -were soon relieved, and upon examining the bladder in the usual way, no -stone could be felt, it was therefore agreed that the patient had been -cured, and that the stone had been dissolved; some time afterwards this -patient died, and on being opened, a large stone was found in a pouch, -formed by a part of the bladder, and which communicated with it. When -the yellow fever raged in America, the practitioners trusted exclusively -to the copious use of mercury; at first, this plan was deemed so -universally efficacious, that in the enthusiasm of the moment, it was -triumphantly proclaimed that death never took place after the mercury -had evinced its effect upon the system: all this was very true, but it -furnished no proof of the efficacy of that metal, since the disease, in -its aggravated form, was so rapid in its career, that it swept away its -victims long before the system could be brought under mercurial -influence, while in its milder shape it passed off equally well without -any assistance from art. - -Let us then, before we decree the honours of a cure to a favourite -medicine, carefully and candidly ascertain the exact circumstances under -which it was exhibited, or we shall rapidly accumulate examples of the -fallacies to which our art is exposed; what has been more common than to -attribute to the efficacy of a mineral water, those fortunate changes of -constitution that have entirely or in great measure, arisen from -salubrity of situation, hilarity of mind, exercise of body, and -regularity of habits, which have incidentally accompanied its potation. -Thus, the celebrated John Wesley, while he commemorates the triumph of -‘Sulphur and Supplication’ over his bodily infirmity, forgets to -appreciate the resuscitating influence of four months repose from his -apostolic labours; and such is the disposition of the human mind to -place confidence in the operation of mysterious agents, that we find him -more disposed to attribute his cure to a brown paper plaister of egg and -brimstone, than to Dr. Fothergill’s salutary prescription of country -air, rest, asses milk, and horse exercise.[75] The ancient physicians -duly appreciated the influence of such agents; their temples, like our -watering places, were the resort of those whom medicine could not cure, -and we are expressly told by Plutarch that these temples, especially -that of Esculapius, were erected on elevated spots, with the most -congenial aspects; a circumstance which, when aided by the invigorating -effects of hope, by the diversions which the patient experienced in his -journey, and perhaps by the exercise to which he had been unaccustomed, -certainly performed many cures. It follows then that in the -recommendation of a _watering place_, something more than the -composition of a mineral spring is to direct our choice,—the chemist -will tell us, that the springs of Hampstead and Islington rival those of -Tunbridge and Malvern, that the waters of Bagnigge Wells, as a -chalybeate purgative, might supersede those of Cheltenham and -Scarborough, and that an invalid would frequent the spring in the -vicinity of the Dog and Duck, in St. George’s Fields, with as much -advantage as the celebrated Spa at Leamington; but the physician is well -aware that by the adoption of such advice, he would deprive his patient -of those most powerful auxiliaries to which I have alluded, and above -all, lose the advantages of the “_Medicina Mentis_.” On the other hand, -the recommendation of change of air and habits will rarely inspire -confidence, unless it be associated with some medicinal treatment; a -truth which it is more easy and satisfactory to elucidate and enforce by -examples than by precept—let the following story by Voltaire serve as an -illustration.—“Ogul, a voluptuary who could be managed but with -difficulty by his physician, on finding himself extremely ill from -indolence and intemperance, requested advice:—‘Eat a Basilisk, stewed in -rose-water,’ replied the physician. In vain did the slaves search for a -_Basilisk_, until they met with Zadig, who, approaching Ogul, exclaimed, -‘Behold that which thou desirest;’ ‘but, my Lord,’ continued he, ‘it is -not to be eaten; all its virtues must enter through thy pores, I have -therefore enclosed it in a little ball, blown up, and covered with a -fine skin; thou must strike this ball with all thy might, and I must -strike it back again, for a considerable time, and by observing this -regimen, and taking no other drink than rose-water for a few days, thou -wilt see, and acknowledge the effect of my art.’ The first day Ogul was -out of breath, and thought he should have died from fatigue; the second -he was less fatigued, and slept better: in eight days he recovered all -his strength; Zadig then said to him, ‘There is no such thing in nature -as a Basilisk! but _thou hast taken exercise and been temperate, and -hast therefore recovered thy health_!’ But the medical practitioner may -perhaps receive more satisfaction from a modern illustration; if so, the -following anecdote, related by Sydenham, may not be unacceptable. This -great physician having long attended a gentleman of fortune with little -or no advantage, frankly avowed his inability to render him any farther -service, adding at the same time, that there was a physician of the name -of Robinson, at Inverness, who had distinguished himself by the -performance of many remarkable cures of the same complaint as that under -which his patient laboured, and expressing a conviction that, if he -applied to him, he would come back cured. This was too encouraging a -proposal to be rejected; the gentleman received from Sydenham a -statement of his case, with the necessary letter of introduction, and -proceeded without delay to the place in question. On arriving at -Inverness, and anxiously enquiring for the residence of Dr. Robinson, he -found to his utter dismay and disappointment, that there was no -physician of that name, nor ever had been in the memory of any person -there. The gentleman returned, vowing eternal hostility to the peace of -Sydenham; and on his arrival at home, instantly expressed his -indignation at having been sent on a journey of so many hundred miles -for no purpose. “Well,” replies Sydenham, “are you better in -health?”—“Yes, I am now quite well, but no thanks to you,”—“No,” says -Sydenham, “but you may thank Dr. Robinson for curing you. I wished to -send you a journey with some object of interest in view; I knew it would -be of service to you; in going you had Dr. Robinson and his wonderful -cures in contemplation; and in returning, you were equally engaged in -thinking of scolding me.” - - - AMBIGUITY OF NOMENCLATURE. - -It has been already stated that we are to a great degree ignorant of the -Simples used by the ancient Physicians; we are often quite unable to -determine what the plants are of which Dioscorides treats. It does not -appear that out of the 700 plants of which his Materia Medica consists, -that more than 400 are correctly ascertained; and yet no labour has been -spared to clear the subject of its difficulties; Cullen even laments -that so much pains should have been bestowed upon so barren an -occasion.[76] The early history of botany presents us with such a chaos -of nomenclature, that it must have been impossible for the herbarist and -physician to have communicated their mutual lights; every one was -occupied with disputes upon words and names, and every useful inquiry -was suspended, from an inability to decide what plant each author -intended; thus, for instance, the _Herba Britannica_ of Dioscorides and -Pliny, so celebrated for the cure of the soldiers of Julius Cæsar on the -Rhine, of a disease called ‘_Scelotyrbe_’, and supposed to resemble our -sea scurvy, remains quite unknown, notwithstanding the labours of our -most intelligent commentators.[77] It seems also very doubtful whether -the plant which we denominate _Hemlock_ was the poison usually -administered at the Athenian executions,[78] and which deprived Socrates -and Phocion of life. Pliny informs us that the word _Cicuta_, amongst -the ancients, was not indicative of any particular species of plant, but -of vegetable poisons in general; this is a circumstance to which I am -particularly anxious to fix your attention; it is by no means uncommon -to find a word which is used to express general characters, subsequently -become the name of a specific substance in which such characters are -predominant; and we shall find that some important anomalies in -nomenclature may be thus explained. The term ‘Αρσενικον,’ from which the -word _Arsenic_ is derived, was an ancient epithet, applied to those -natural substances which possessed strong and acrimonious properties, -and as the poisonous quality of arsenic was found to be remarkably -powerful, the term was especially applied to Orpiment, the form in which -this metal more usually occurred. So the term _Verbena_ (quasi _Hebena_) -originally denoted _all those_ herbs that were held sacred on account of -their being employed in the rites of sacrifice, as we learn from the -poets;[79] but as _one_ herb was usually adopted upon these occasions, -the word _Verbena_ came to denote that particular herb _only_, and it is -transmitted to us to this day under the same title, viz. _Verbena_, or -_Vervain_, and indeed until lately it enjoyed the medical reputation -which its sacred origin conferred upon it, for it was worn suspended -around the neck as an amulet. _Vitriol_, in the original application of -the word, denoted _any_ crystalline body with a certain degree of -transparency (_Vitrum_); it is hardly necessary to observe that the term -is now appropriated to a particular species: in the same manner, _Bark_, -which is a general term, is applied to express _one_ genus, and by way -of eminence, it has the article, _The_, prefixed, as _The_ Bark: the -same observation will apply to the word _Opium_, which in its primitive -sense signifies _any_ juice (οπος _Succus_) while it now only denotes -_one_ species, viz. that of the Poppy. So again, _Elaterium_ was used by -Hippocrates, to signify various internal applications, especially -purgatives of a violent and drastic nature (from the word ‘Ελαυνω,’ -_agito_, _moveo_, _stimulo_), but by succeeding authors it was -_exclusively_ applied to denote the active matter which subsides from -the juice of the _wild cucumber_. The word _Fecula_, again, originally -meant to imply _any_ substance which was derived by spontaneous -subsidence from a liquid, (from _fæx_, the grounds or settlement of -_any_ liquor); afterwards it was applied to _Starch_, which is deposited -in this manner by agitating the flour of wheat in water; and lastly, it -has been applied to a peculiar vegetable principle, which like -_starch_[80] is insoluble in cold, but completely soluble in boiling -water, with which it forms a gelatinous solution; this indefinite -meaning of the word _fecula_ has created numerous mistakes in -pharmaceutic chemistry; Elaterium, for instance, is said to be a -_fecula_, and in the original sense of the word it is properly so -called, inasmuch as it is procured from a vegetable juice by spontaneous -subsidence, but in the limited and modern acceptation of the term, it -conveys an erroneous idea; for instead of the active principle of the -juice residing in _fecula_, it is a peculiar proximate principle, _sui -generis_, to which I have ventured to bestow the name of _Elatin_. For -the same reason, much doubt and obscurity involve the meaning of the -word _Extract_, because it is applied _generally_ to any substance -obtained by the evaporation of a vegetable solution, and _specifically_ -to a peculiar proximate principle, possessed of certain characters, by -which it is distinguished from every other elementary body—See -_Extracta_. On the other hand, we find that many words which were -originally only used to denote particular substances, have, at length, -become subservient to the expression of General Characters; thus the -term _Alkali_, in its originally sense, signified that particular -residuum which was alone obtained by lixiviating the ashes of the plant -named _Kali_, but the word is now so generalized that it denotes _any_ -body possessed of a certain number of definite properties. - -Another source of botanical ambiguity and error is the circumstance of -certain plants having acquired the names of others very different in -their nature, but which were supposed to possess a similarity in -external character; thus our POTATOE,[81] (_Solanum Tuberosum_) when it -was first imported into England by the colonists in the reign of Queen -Elizabeth, gained its appellation from its supposed resemblance to an -esculent vegetable at that time in common use, under the name of the -Sweet Potatoe (_Convolvulus Battatas_,) and which, like _Eringo Root_, -had the reputation of being able to restore decayed vigour, thus -Falstaff— - - “Let the sky rain Potatoes, hail kissing Comfits, and snow Eringoes.” - _Merry Wives of Windsor, Act 5, - Scene 5._ - -A similar instance is presented to us in the culinary vegetable well -known under the name of the JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE, which derived its -appellation in consequence of its flavour having been considered like -that of the common artichoke; it is hardly necessary to observe that it -has no botanic relation whatever to such a plant, it being an Heliotrope -(_Heliotropium Tuberosum_), the epithet _Jerusalem_ is a curious -corruption of the Italian term _Gira-Sole_, that is, _turn-sun_, in -English, or _Heliotrope_ in Greek. This instance of verbal corruption is -not solitary in medical botany; CASTOR OIL will suggest itself as -another example; this oil, from its supposed efficacy in curing and -assuaging the unnatural heat of the body, and in soothing the passions, -was called by the French _Agnus Castus_, whence the inhabitants of St. -Kitt’s in the West Indies, who were formerly blended with the French in -that Island, called it _Castor_ oil. In some cases again, a plant has -received a modern name, compounded of two ancient ones; it appears from -Pliny that the _Assarum_ was not uncommonly confounded with the -_Baccharis_; an English name was accordingly bestowed upon it, which is -a curious compromise of the question, for it is a compound of both, viz. -_Assara-bacca_. - -In some instances the most alarming mistakes have occurred from -substances of a very different nature having been mentioned under -similar names, _Arsenic_ for instance, has actually been inhaled,[82] -together with the vapours of Frankincense, Myrrh, and those of other -gums, during a paroxysm of Asthma! a practice which arose from the -practitioner having confounded the Gum Juniper, or _Vernix_ of the -Arabians, which was prescribed for fumigations under the name of -_Sandarach_, with the Σανδαρακη of Aristotle, and which was a sulpheret -of Arsenic. The gum which we know at the present day under the name of -_Sanguis Draconis_, or _Dragon’s blood_, was called by the ancient -Greeks Κινναβαρὶ, a term which has been incorrectly transferred to a -Sulphuret of Mercury, for no other reason than because this mineral has -the same red colour as the gum. - -The advanced state of BOTANICAL SCIENCE will now prevent the recurrence -of those doubts and difficulties which have formerly embarrassed the -history of vegetable remedies, by furnishing a strictly philosophical -language, independent of all theory, and founded upon natural structure, -and therefore necessarily beyond the controul of opinion; while the -advancement of chemical knowledge, by enabling us better to distinguish -and identify the different substances we employ, will also materially -assist in preventing the confusion which has formerly oppressed us. At -the same time, I am unwilling to join in the commendations so liberally -bestowed upon our chemical nomenclature; nay, I am disposed to consider -it as a matter of regret that the names of our medicinal compounds -should have any relation to their chemical composition, for in the -present unsettled state of this science, such a language must -necessarily convey theory instead of truth, and opinions rather than -facts; in short, it places us at the mercy and disposal of every new -hypothesis, which may lay our boasted fabric in ruins, and in its place -raise another superstructure, equally frail in its materials and -ephemeral in its duration: thus CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE was a _muriate_ of -Mercury, or an _oxy-muriate_, until Sir H. Davy established his new -theory of chlorine, and then it became a _bi-chloride_; at some future -period, Chlorine will be found to be a compound, and then it must have -another name; for the same reason the term CALOMEL,[83] is surely to be -preferred to _sub-muriate_, or _Chloride_. TARTARIZED ANTIMONY, again, -has been called by our nomenclatural reformers the _Tartrate of Antimony -and Potass_; but is it a triple compound? Gay Lussac thinks not, and -considers it as a combination, in which _Cream of Tartar_ acts the part -of a simple acid. - -Again,—we have only to revert to the nomenclature of the Salts in our -Materia Medica to discover the actual change in meaning which the same -word has undergone in a very few years. It was originally understood -that the term _Sub_, when prefixed to the generic name of a Salt, -indicated the presence of certain qualities depending upon an excess of -base; but now, forsooth, the term has reference only to atomic -composition, without any regard to qualities.[84] That salt alone being -acknowledged as a true _Sub_-salt, in which there is less than one atom -of acid to each atom of base; thus our “_Sub_-carbonate of Soda,” is no -longer considered a _Sub_-salt, for the reason above stated; and -notwithstanding the predominance of its alkaline characters, it is known -to chemists by the appellation of _Carbonate_ of soda. It is far from my -intention to question the propriety of these changes, I only maintain -that, amidst such chemical doubts, the Pharmaceutist is the last person -who should become arbiter; let him await the issue in unobtrusive -silence, and take care that the language of Pharmacy partakes of the -same neutrality. - -Such was the feeling of the Committee appointed by the College for the -revision of the late London Pharmacopœia, and it sufficiently explains -why the nomenclature of the alkaline salts has been left unchanged in -the present edition of that work. - -The French, in their new _Codex_, are absurdly extravagant in their -application of chemical nomenclature; thus, the sub-carbonate of potass -is called by them _sub-deuto-carbonas potassii_. The first part of this -quadruple name indicates the comparative quantity of acid in the salt, -the second that of oxygen contained in the base, the thud announces the -acid, and the fourth the basis of the base! - - - THE PROGRESS OF BOTANICAL SCIENCE. - -It has been just stated, that we have derived from botanical science a -philosophical language which enables us to describe the structure and -habits of any plant, with a luminous brevity and an unerring -perspicuity; but we are moreover indebted to botany for another service -no less important to the successful investigation of the Materia -Medica,—that of throwing into well defined groups, those plants which -possess obvious natural affinities, and which will be found at the same -time to present certain medicinal analogies; indeed, as a general rule, -we may admit the axiom, “_Quæ genere conveniunt, virtute -conveniunt_.”[85] - -The _Umbelliferæ_ which grow on dry ground are aromatic, whilst the -aquatic species are among the most deadly poisons. The _Cruciform_ -plants are aromatic and acrid in their nature, containing essential -oils, (hence the peculiar smell of cabbage-water, &c.) which are -obtainable by distillation; and Linnæus asserts that “among all the -_Leguminous_ or _Papilionaceous_ tribe there is no deleterious plant to -be found:” this however is not exactly true. Some of the individuals in -these natural orders, although very nearly related, do nevertheless -possess various, and even opposite qualities; in the leguminous tribe -above mentioned, which is as consistent as any one we possess, we have -the _Cytisus Laburnum_, the seeds of which are violently emetic, and -those of _Lathyrus Sativus_, which have been supposed at Florence to -soften the bones and cause death. - -In the subdivision of a genus there is often a remarkable difference in -the properties of the species; there are, for instance, _Solanums_, -_Lettuces_, _Cucumbers_, and _Mushrooms_, both esculent and poisonous. -The _Digitalis_ or _Foxglove_, and the _Verbascum_, or common _Mullein_ -of our fields, are included in the same Natural family, and yet the one -is as active, as the other is mild in its effects; the plants of the -natural family of _Contortæ_ abound with a highly acrid milky juice, but -Dr. Afzelius met with a shrub of this order at Sierra Leone, the milk of -whose fruit was so sweet, as well as copious, as to be used instead of -cream for tea; this is certainly what no one could have guessed from -analogy. The same individual will vary from culture or other -circumstances, as much as any two plants which have no botanic affinity; -the Chamomile, _Anthemis Nobilis_, with which we are well acquainted, -may have its whole disk changed by cultivation, to ligulate white -florets, destitute of medicinal properties. But, what is more -embarrassing, the different parts of the same plant have often very -different powers; a fact which is beautifully exemplified in the -_Podophyllum Peltatum_, or May Apple, the _leaves_ of which are -poisonous, the root powerfully cathartic, and the _fruit_ agreeably -esculent; so the leaves of the _Jatropa Manihot_ are employed as a -common esculent, while its root secretes a most virulent poison; but we -need not seek further for an example than the fruit of the Lemon, the -juice of which is _acid_, its seeds _bitter_, and its _rind aromatic_; -in some instances it happens that the energy of a plant is concentrated -in one particular part, and that all the rest is absolutely inert; thus, -the root of the _Convolvulus Scammonia_, is the only portion of that -plant which possesses any medicinal quality;[86] and the tree which -yields the drastic _Camboge_, presents at the same time an esculent -fruit, which is eaten by the natives with as much impunity as the -orange; yet, notwithstanding all these difficulties, botany is capable -of furnishing us with analogies which will lead to important conclusions -with respect to the medicinal properties of different vegetables. - -The system of Linnæus, although in a great degree artificial, -corresponds in a surprising manner with the natural properties of -plants; thus a plant whose _calyx_ is a double valved _glume_, with -three _stamina_, two _pistils_, and one _naked seed_, bears seeds of a -farinaceous and nutritious quality; a flower with twelve, or more -_stamina_, all of which are inserted in the internal side of the -_calyx_, will furnish a wholesome fruit; whereas a plant whose flower -has five _stamina_, one _pistil_, one _petal_, and whose fruit is of the -_berry_ kind, may at once be pronounced as poisonous. - -It is also in a great degree true that the sensible qualities of plants, -such as _colour_, _taste_, and _smell_, have an intimate relation to -their properties, and may often lead by analogy to an indication of -their powers; we have an example of this in the dark and gloomy aspect -of the _Luridæ_, which is indicative of their narcotic and very -dangerous qualities, as _Datura_, _Hyoscyamus_, _Atropa_, and -_Nicotiana_. _Colour_ is certainly in many cases a test of activity; the -deepest coloured flowers of the _Digitalis_, for example, are the most -active, and when the leaves of powerful plants lose their green hue, we -may conclude that a corresponding deterioration has taken place with -respect to their virtues; but Linnæus ascribed too much importance to -such an indication, and his aphorisms are unsupported by facts; for -instance, he says “Color pallidus _insipidum_, viridis _crudum_, luteus -_amarum_, ruber _acidum_, albus _dulce_, niger _ingratum_, indicat.”[87] -A peculiar heavy odour, which is well known, but is with difficulty -defined, is a sure indication of narcotic properties. Bitterness, when -not extreme, denotes a tonic quality, which will stimulate the stomach -and intestines, and promote the process of digestion. When the -bitterness is more intense and pungent,[88] as in _Aloes_, _Colocynth_, -_&c._ we may infer that such substances will produce a more active -effect upon the _primæ viæ_, and that catharsis will follow their -administration. - -Botanical, like human physiognomy, may frequently afford an insight into -character, but it is very often a fallacious index. With regard to the -indications of _Smell_ and _Taste_, it may be observed that in the -examination of an unknown substance we instinctively apply to these -senses for information respecting its properties. It is certainly -reasonable to suppose, that those bodies which produce upon the organs -of taste a sensible, astringent, or pungent effect, may occasion an -impression, corresponding in degree upon the stomach or intestines, -which are but an extension of the same structure. But what numerous -exceptions are there to such a law? nay, some of the most poisonous -substances affect in a very slight degree the organs of taste, -especially those that belong to the mineral kingdom, as _Arsenious -Acid_, _Oxyd of Antimony_, _Calomel_, _&c._; yet some of these are, -perhaps, but apparent exceptions, depending upon the degree of -solubility which they possess, in consequence of which their energies -are not developed until they have traversed a considerable portion of -mucous surface. Nor ought it to be forgotten, that cultivation and -artificial habits may have blunted the natural susceptibility of our -organs, and in some instances changed and depraved their functions: -certain qualities for instance are so strongly connected with each other -by the chain of association, that by presenting only one to the mind, -the other links follow in succession.[89] It has been remarked, that -persons in social life, are more affected by vegetable odours, while the -Savage smells better the putrid and fœtid exhalations of animal -bodies:[90] thus the people of Kamskatcha, did not smell the perfume of -a vegetable Essence (_Aqua Melissæ_,) but they discovered by their -olfactory sense, a rotten fish, or a stranded whale at a considerable -distance.[91] There is no sense more under the dominion of imagination, -or more liable to be perverted by education, than those of taste and -smell; we are also liable to form unjust prejudices from the indications -of colour; for particular colours, from the influence of hidden -associations, are not unfrequently the exciting cause of agreeable or -unpleasant impressions. I have met with a person who regards green food, -if it be of an animal nature, with unconquerable aversion and disgust, -indeed an idea of unwholesomeness has not unfrequently been attached to -this colour, without the least foundation of truth; the bones of the Gar -fish, or Sea Needle, (_Esox Helone_,) have been deemed unwholesome from -the circumstance of their turning green on being boiled, although not a -single instance can be adduced in which that fish ever occasioned any -harm. I have met with persons who have been made violently sick from -eating the green part of the oyster;[92] an effect which can have no -other cause than that of unjust prejudice; these examples are sufficient -to shew, with what caution such indications respecting the medicinal -qualities of bodies are to be received. - - - THE APPLICATION AND MISAPPLICATION OF CHEMICAL SCIENCE. - -Amongst the researches of different authors, who, animated with a sacred -zeal for ancient learning, have endeavoured to establish the antiquity -of chemical science, we find many conclusions deduced from an ingenious -interpretation of the mythological fables[93] which are supposed to have -been transmitted by the Egyptians; who, previous to the invention of -letters, adopted this method of perpetuating their discoveries in -natural philosophy. Thus, wherever Homer studiously describes the stolen -embraces of Mars and Venus, they recognise some chemical secret, some -combination of iron with copper, shadowed in the glowing ornaments of -fiction. Lord Bacon[94] conceived that the union of spirit and matter -was allegorised in the fable of Proserpine being seized by Pluto as she -was gathering flowers; an allusion, says Dr. Darwin, which is rendered -more curiously exact by the late discovery, that pure air, (_oxygen_) is -given out by vegetables, and that in this state it is greedily absorbed -by inflammable bodies. The same ingenious Poet supposes that the fable -of Jupiter and Juno, by whose union the vernal showers were said to be -produced, was meant to pourtray the production of water by the -combination of its two elements; an opinion which, says he, is strongly -supported by the fact that, in the ancient mythology, the purer air or -_æther_, was always represented by Jupiter, and the inferior by Juno. -Were the elegant author of the Botanic Garden now living, he would, no -doubt, with a taste and delicacy peculiarly his own, avail himself of -the singular discovery of Mr. Smithson, who has detected in the juice of -the mulberry _two_ distinct species of colouring matter;—the mingled -blood of the unfortunate Pyramus and Thisbe: - - “Signa tene cædis: pullosque et luctibus aptos - Semper habe feætus, _gemina_ monumenta cruoris.” - _Ovid. Metamorph. Lib._ iv. 160. - -Sir William Drummond, the learned apologist of Egyptian science, -conceives that the laws of _latent_ heat were even known to the -philosophers of that ancient nation, and that caloric in such a state, -was symbolically represented by VULCAN, while _free_ or _sensible_ -caloric was as clearly described in the character of VESTA. Those who -maintain the antiquity of chemistry, and suppose that the fabulous -conceptions of the ancients were but a mysterious veil ingeniously -thrown by philosophy between nature and the lower order of people, -consider that the alchemical secret is metaphorically concealed in the -fable of the GOLDEN FLEECE of the Argonauts, and reject the more -probable solution of this story by Strabo, who says that the Iberians, -near neighbours of the Colchians, used to receive the gold, brought down -from the high lands by the torrents, into sieves and sheep skins, and -that from thence arose the fable of the golden fleece. Dionysius, of -Mytilene, offers a different explanation of the fable, and supposes it -to allude to a book _written on skins_, and containing an account of the -process of _making gold_ according to the art of alchemy. - -Notwithstanding the confidence with which modern philosophers have -claimed the discovery, the experimental mode of investigation was -undoubtedly known and pursued by the ancients, who appear, says _Mr. -Leslie_,[95] to have concealed their notions respecting it, under the -veil of allegory. _Proteus_ signified the mutable and changing forms of -material objects, and the inquisitive philosopher was counselled by the -Poets[96] to watch their slippery demon when slumbering on the shore, to -bind him, and compel the reluctant captive to reveal his secrets. This, -adds Mr. Leslie, gives a lively picture of the cautious, but intrepid -advances of the skilful experimenter;—he tries to press nature into a -corner,—he endeavours to separate the different principles of action,—he -seeks to concentrate the predominant agent, and labours to exclude, as -much as possible, every disturbing influence. - -But with whatever ingenuity and success the antiquity of chemical -knowledge may be advocated, as it relates to the various arts of life, -yet it must be allowed that not the most remote trace of its application -to physic can be discovered in the medical writers of Greece or Rome. -The operation of distillation[97] is not even mentioned by Hippocrates -or Galen; and the waters of different plants, as described by some later -authors, are to be understood, as we are informed by Gesner, merely as -simple decoctions, and not as the products of any chemical process; -while the Essences of Dioscorides, Galen, Oribasius, and others, were -only the extracts produced by the evaporation of such infusions. - -Upon the downfall of the Roman Empire, all the sciences, the arts, and -literature, were overwhelmed in the general wreck, and the early -Mahometans, in the first paroxysms of their fanaticism, endeavoured to -destroy every record of the former progress of the human mind; -consigning to destruction, by the conflagration of the Alexandrian -library, no less than seven hundred thousand volumes, which comprised -the most valuable works of science and literature.[98] It is not a -little extraordinary that this same people were destined at a more -advanced period, to rekindle the light of letters,[99] which they had -taken such pains to extinguish, and to become the inventors and -cultivators of a new science, boundless in its views, and inexhaustible -in its applications. The medical profession too was more particularly -selected as an object of reward and encouragement; and we may say, with -much truth, that our _Materia Medica_ is more indebted to the zeal and -industry of the Arabians, than to the learning of the Greeks, or to the -refinement of the Romans. From this source we have acquired the milder -purges of _Manna_, _Cassia_, _Senna_, _Rhubarb_, and many plants and -oriental aromatics, amongst, which we may notice _Musk_, _Nutmeg_, -_Mace_, and _Cloves_; the introduction of which into medicine was -greatly facilitated by the situation of Bagdat, and its connection with -India; and although Archigenes and Aretæus had long before applied -_Blisters_, yet it is to the Arabian physicians that we are indebted for -a practical acquaintance with their value, for in general, the Greeks -and Romans prescribed acrid _Sinapisms_ for such a purpose. We are also -indebted to the Arabians for our knowledge respecting Camphor, as its -name imports, for the original word was _Cafur_ or _Canfur_.[100] They -are also the first upon record, who speak of sugar, and sugar-candy, -extracted from the sugar-cane, which they call _honey of cane_; and they -ushered into practice _Syrups_, _Juleps_, and _Conserves_. At the same -time, it is but just to allow, that from the disgusting ostentation of -this people, and their strong attachment to the marvellous, many absurd -medicines have been introduced. Gold, Silver, Bezoars, and precious -stones were received into their materia medica, and surprising virtues -were attributed to them. Amongst a people thus disposed to magnificence, -and from the very spirit of their religion credulous and romantic, it is -not a matter of surprise that their first researches into the nature of -bodies should have raised a hope, and excited a belief, that the baser -metals might be converted into gold. - -They conceived that gold was the metallic element, in a state of perfect -purity, and that all the other metals differed from it in proportion -only to the extent of their individual contamination, and hence the -origin of the epithet _base_, as applied to such metals; this hypothesis -explains the origin of alchemy; but, in every history, we are informed -that the earlier alchemists expected, by the same means that they hoped -to convert the _baser_ metals into gold, to produce a universal remedy, -calculated to prolong indefinitely the span of human existence. - -It is difficult to imagine what connection could exist in their ideas -between the “_Philosopher’s Stone_,” which was to transmute metals, and -a remedy which could arrest the progress of bodily infirmity: upon -searching into the writings of these times, it clearly appears that this -conceit originated with the alchemists from the application of false -analogies, and that the error was subsequently diffused and exaggerated -by a misconstruction of alchemical metaphors.[101] - -An example of reasoning by false analogy is presented to us by -Paracelsus, in his work _de vita longa_, wherein, speaking of anatomy, -he exclaims: “_Sicut antimonium finit aurum, sic, eadem ratione et -forma, corpus humanum purum reddit._” - -The processes of alchemy were always veiled in the most enigmatic and -obscure language; the earliest alchemist whose name has reached -posterity, is Geber, an Arabian prince of the seventh century, whose -language was so proverbially obscure, that Dr. Johnson supposes the word -gibberish or _geberish_ to have been derived from this circumstance; -sometimes the processes of alchemy were expressed by a figurative and -metaphorical style of description; thus Geber exclaims, “_Bring me the -six lepers that I may cleanse them_;” by which he implied the conversion -of the six metals,[102] the only ones then known, into gold. From the -works of later alchemists it also appears that they constantly -represented _gold_ as a sound, healthy, and durable man, the imperfect -metals as diseased men, and the means or processes by which the latter -were to be transmuted into the former, they designated by the name of -_medicines_; and hence, those who were anxious to dive into the secrets -of these magicians, or =Adepts=, as they termed themselves, without -possessing a key to their language, supposed that these descriptions -were to be understood in a literal sense, and that the imperfect metals -might be changed into gold, and the bodies of sick persons into healthy -ones, by one and the same chemical preparation. - -The hieroglyphical style of writing adopted by the earlier alchemists, -was in a great degree supported by the prevailing idea that the elements -were under the dominion of spiritual beings, who might be submitted to -human power; and Sir Humphry Davy has observed that the notions of -fairies, and of genii, which have been depicted with so much vividness -of fancy and liveliness of description in THE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS, -seem to have been connected with the pursuit of the science of -transmutation, and the production of the elixir of life. That the -Arabian Nights’ Entertainment admits of a mystic interpretation, is an -opinion which I have long entertained. How strikingly is the effect of -fermented spirit, in banishing the pressure of the melancholy which -occurs in solitude, depicted in the story of Sinbad when he encountered -the withered and decrepid hag, on the uninhabited island—but, to return -from this digression to the subject of medical chemistry. - -It was not in fact until several years had elapsed in the delusive -researches of alchemy, that the application of chemical knowledge became -instrumental in the advancement of the medical art. RHASES and AVICENNA, -who were the celebrated physicians of the age, are the first who -introduced pharmaceutical preparations into their works, or made any -improvement in the mode of conducting pharmaceutical processes. Avicenna -describes, particularly, the method of conducting _Distillation_; he -mentions also, for the first time, the three _Mineral Acids_, and -distinguishes between the _vegetable_ and _mineral Alkalies_; he speaks -likewise of the _Distilled Water of Roses_, of _Sublimed Arsenic_, and -of _Corrosive Sublimate_. - -In the year 1226, ROGER BACON, a native of Ilchester in Somersetshire, -and a Franciscan monk of Westminster Abbey, laid the foundations of -chemical science in Europe; his discoveries were so extraordinary that -he was excommunicated by the Pope, and imprisoned ten years for supposed -dealings with the devil; it appears that he was a believer in an -universal Elixir, for he proposed one to Pope Clement the Tenth, which -he extolled highly, as the invention of Petro de Maharncourt. - -This wonderful man was succeeded at the end of the same century by -Arnoldus de Villa Nova, a Frenchman, or as others assert, a Spaniard, -who deserves to be noticed on this occasion, as being the first to -recommend the distilled spirit of wine, impregnated with certain herbs, -as a valuable remedy; from which we may date the introduction of -_Tinctures_ into medical practice; for, although Thaddæus, a Florentine, -who died in 1270, at the age of eighty, bestows great commendation upon -the virtues of _Spirit of Wine_, yet he never used it as a solvent for -active vegetable matter. - -It was not however until the end of the thirteenth century, that -Chemistry can be said to have added any considerable power to the arm of -Physic. - -BASIL VALENTINE, a German Benedictine monk, led the way to the internal -administration of metallic medicine, by a variety of experiments on the -nature of _Antimony_, and in his “_Currus Triumphalis Antimonii_,” a -work written in high Dutch, he has described a number of the -combinations of that metal. If however we may credit a vague tradition, -he was extremely unfortunate in his first experiments upon his brother -monks, all of whom he injured if not killed; those who have keen ears -for etymological sounds will instantly recognise, in this circumstance, -the origin of the word _Antimony_,—ἁντί Μονοχους. - -It appears that the ancients were ignorant of the internal use and -administration of the metals, with the exception of iron, although they -frequently used them in external applications. Hippocrates recommends -_Lead_ in several parts of his works, as an _epulotic_ application, and -for other external purposes. _Litharge of Gold_ and _Cerusse_ also -entered the composition of several powders extolled by that ancient -physician as possessing great efficacy in defluxions of the eyes. -Oribasius and Ætius added “_Lithargyrium_” to several plaisters, and the -composition of the “_Snow-like plaister_,” from _Minium_, was long -preserved amongst their most valuable secrets. Whether antimony is the -_Stimmi_ or _Stibium_ of the ancients has been a matter of conjecture; -for Pliny, in speaking of its preparation observes, “Ante omnia urendi -modus necessarius, ne _Plumbum_ fiat.” This plumbum however was -evidently the revived metal of _Antimony_, with which the ancients were -unacquainted, and therefore mistook it for _Lead_; besides, the word -_Plumbum_, like many others which I have before mentioned, was used as a -general term; thus, according to Pliny, Tin was called _Plumbum album_; -and Agricola calls Lead Plumbum _nigrum_.[103] - -The question however is unimportant, for this _Stibium_ was never used -but as an external Astringent, especially for the purpose of contracting -the eye-lids, and thereby of making the eyes appear very large, which -has been considered from the most remote antiquity, as a feature of -great beauty; thus the epithet βοῶπὶς is constantly applied by Homer to -Juno. This practice appears also to have been followed by the Jews, for -Jezebel is said to have painted her eye-brows to make the eyes appear -big;[104] the expression also shews that the drug employed was the -_Stimmi_. Εστὶμμὶσατο τους οφθαλμους ἁυτης. - -To BASIL VALENTINE we are moreover indebted for the discovery of the -_Volatile Alkali_, and of its preparation from _Sal Ammoniac_; he also -first used mineral acids as solvents, and noticed the production of -_Ether_ from Alcohol; he seems also to have understood the virtues of -_sulphate of iron_, for he says, when internally administered, it is -tonic and comforting to a weak stomach, and that externally applied, it -is astringent and styptic: he moreover recommended a _fixed alkali_ made -from vine twigs cut in the beginning of March, for the cure of gout and -gravel. - -In the year 1493, was born near Zurich in Switzerland, PARACELSUS, or as -he termed himself, Philippus, Theophrastus, Bombastus, Paracelsus de -Hohenheim, a man who was destined to produce a greater revolution in the -Materia Medica, and a greater change in medical opinions and practice, -than any person who had appeared since the days of Galen. He travelled -all over the Continent of Europe to obtain knowledge in Chemistry and -Physic, and was a great admirer of Basil Valentine, declaring that -Antimony was not to be equalled for medicinal virtue, by any other -substance in nature: this opinion however does not deserve our respect, -for it was not founded upon observation and experiment, but on a -fanciful analogy, derived from a property which this metal possesses of -refining gold, as I have before related. He also used _Mercury_ without -reserve, and appears to have been the first who ventured to administer -it internally,[105] for although Avicenna asserts that it was not so -poisonous as the ancients had imagined, yet he does not attribute to it -any virtues; he merely says, “Argentum quidem vivum, plurimi qui bibunt, -_non læduntur_ eo.” Its effects, when applied externally, were well -known to Theodoric the friar, afterwards Bishop of Cervia, in the -twelfth century, who describes the salivation which mercurial frictions -will produce. Paracelsus, moreover, employed Lead internally in -fevers,—“_Saturnus purgat febres_” was one of his most favourite maxims. -He also gives us directions for the preparation of _Red Precipitate_ -with _Mercury_ and _Aqua fortis_. - -Paracelsus, thus armed with opium, mercury, and antimony, remedies of no -trifling importance, travelled in all directions and performed many -extraordinary cures, amongst which was that of the famous printer -Frobenius of Basil, a circumstance which immediately brought him -acquainted with Erasmus,[106] and made him known to the magistracy of -Basil, who elected him professor of chemistry in the year 1527, which -was the first professorship that was established in Europe for the -promotion and dissemination of chemical science. But notwithstanding -this testimony of his success, if we may credit Libavius, he often, like -our modern quacks, left his patients more diseased than he found them; -and it is acknowledged by his own disciple Oporinus, that when he was -sent for to any town, for the purpose of administering his remedies, he -was rarely suffered to protract his visit, on account of the general -resentment of the inhabitants. - -While seated in his chair, he burnt with great solemnity the writings of -Galen and Avicenna, and declared to his audience that if God would not -impart the secrets of physic, it was not only allowable but even -justifiable to consult the devil. His cotemporary physicians he treated -with the most sottish vanity and illiberal insolence; in the preface to -his work entitled “Paragranum,” he tells them “that the very down of his -bald pate had more knowledge than all their writers, the buckles of his -shoes more learning than Galen and Avicenna, and his beard more -experience than all their Universities.” With such a temper it could not -be supposed that he would long retain his chair, in fact he quitted it -in consequence of a quarrel with the magistrates, after which he -continued to ramble about the country, generally intoxicated, and seldom -changing his clothes, or even going to bed; and although he boasted of -possessing a _Panacea_ which was capable of curing all diseases in an -instant, and even of prolonging life to an indefinite length, yet this -drunkard and prince of empirics died after a few hours illness, in the -forty-eighth year of his age, at Salzburg in Bavaria, with a bottle of -his immortal _Catholicon_ in his pocket. - -In contemplating the career of this extraordinary man, it is difficult -to say whether disgust or astonishment is the most predominant feeling; -his insolence and unparalleled conceit, his insincerity, and brutal -singularities, and his habits of immorality and debauchery, are beyond -all censure; whilst the important services he has rendered mankind, by -opposing the bigotry of the schools and introducing powerful remedies -into practice, cannot be recorded without feelings of gratitude and -respect: but in whatever estimation Paracelsus may be held, there can be -no doubt but that his fame produced a very considerable influence on the -character of the age, by exciting the envy of some, the emulation of -others, and the industry of all.[107] - -About a century after Paracelsus, VAN HELMONT took the lead in physic; -he was a man of most indefatigable industry, and spent fifty years in -torturing by every chemical experiment he could devise, the various -objects in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. He was the first -physician who applied _alum_ in uterine hemorrhage, and he acquired a -great reputation from the success of the practice. - -SYLVIUS DE LA BOE, and OTHO TACHENIUS, followed in the track of Van -Helmont. - -A prejudice in favour of chemical remedies having been thus introduced, -the merited success which attended their operation, and the zeal and -perseverance which distinguished the votaries of that science, soon -kindled a more general enthusiasm in its favour. It is impossible to -reduce into miniature the historical features of these chemical times, -so as to bring them within the compass of a lecture: I must therefore -rest satisfied with delineating a few of the more prominent outlines. -The Galenists, who were in possession of the schools, and whose -reasonings were fettered by the strongest predilection for their own -doctrines, instantly took the alarm; and the celebrated contest ensued -between the _Galenical_ and _Chemical_ sects, which has given such a -controversial tone to the writers of the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries. As this revolt from orthodox authority was in a great degree -attributed to the mischievous introduction and unmerited success of -Antimonial remedies, so were the preparations of this metal denounced -with all the virulence of party spirit;[108] and upon this occasion, in -order to support their ground and oppress and persecute their -adversaries, the Galenists actually solicited the assistance of secular -power; the Supreme Council of Paris accordingly proscribed its use by an -edict in 1566, and Besnier was expelled the faculty of medicine in 1609, -for having administered it to a patient. In 1637, _Antimonial wine_ was -by public authority received into the number of purgatives; and in 1650, -a new _arrêt_ rescinded that of 1566, and again restored Antimony to -public favour and general reputation; and before we conclude our remarks -upon the revolutionary history of this extraordinary metal, it deserves -to be remarked, that this very same government that had with such great -virulence, and so little justice, persecuted every practitioner who had -shewn any predilection for its use, in the year 1720 actually purchased -the secret of an antimonial preparation called _Panacea Glauberiana_, -and which has been since known by the title of _Kermes Mineral_, from a -surgeon of the name of La Legerie, who had acquired the secret from a -pupil of Glauber. Before this period the invention of _Calomel_ had -taken place; this preparation is first mentioned, although very -obscurely, by Oswald Crollius, in his _Basilica Chemica_, in 1608, and -in the same year Beguin described it most fully and clearly under the -title of _Draco Mitigatus_, in his _Tirocinium Chemicum_, which he -published in Paris. - -Chemistry, at this period[109] took possession of the schools, and -whilst it was gradually grafted into the theory of medicine, it soon -became the only guide to its practice, the absurdity of which has been -already dwelt upon. - -In tracing the march of chemical improvement during the last century, we -cannot but be struck with the new and powerful remedies which it has -introduced, and the many unimportant and feeble articles which it has -dismissed from medical practice. - -In the present century, the rapid progress of Chemistry has outstripped -the anticipations of its most sanguine votaries; and even in the -department of vegetable analysis, a correctness has been attained, the -very attempt at which had been abandoned by the most illustrious -chemists of the former age as hopeless and chimerical; let us for -instance only compare the results obtained by the Academicians of Paris, -and published by Geoffroy, in their analyses of several hundred plants -by the operation of heat, with the elegant and satisfactory researches -in this branch of science lately conducted in the same country; whilst -the former failed in establishing any distinction between the most inert -and the most poisonous plants, the latter have succeeded in detecting, -separating, and concentrating several of their most subtile -constituents. _Opium_ has been at length compelled to confess its secret -source of action, and _Ipecacuan_ to yield its emetic element in a state -of perfect purity. - -Our Pharmacopœias and Dispensatories[110] have cautiously kept pace -with the scientific progress of the age; and in tracing them from -their origin to the present time[111] it is gratifying to observe the -gradual influence of knowledge in reducing the number of their -articles—simplifying the composition of their formulæ—and improving -the processes for their preparation.[112] Chemistry has also been the -means of establishing the identity of many bodies which were long -considered as specifically different; thus an extensive list of animal -substances has been discarded, since it is known that they owe their -properties to one and the same common principle, as to _gelatine_, -_albumen_, _carbonate of lime_, &c.; so again the fixed alkaline salt -produced by the incineration of different vegetables, has been found -to be potass, from whatever plant it may have been obtained, with the -exception of sea plants, and perhaps some of the Tetradynamia, the -former of which yield _Soda_ and the latter _Ammonia_. Previous to the -Pharmacopœia of 1745, every vegetable was supposed to yield a salt -essentially different, and therefore a number of alkaline preparations -were recommended, each bearing the name of the particular plant from -which it had been procured, as salt of _Wormwood_—salt of -_Broom_,—_Salt of Bean-Stalks_, &c. - -But, from the very nature and object of a Pharmacopœia, it cannot be -supposed to proceed _pari passu_ with the march of chemical science, -indeed it would be dangerous that it should, for a chemical theory must -receive the seal and stamp of experience before it can become current: a -Pharmacopœia however is always an object of abuse, because it is a -national work of authority, which is quite a sufficient reason why the -ignorant and conceited should question its title to respect, and its -claim to utility. “_Plures audivi_,” says Huxham, “_totas blaterantes -Pharmacopœias, qui tamen ne intellexerint quidem quid vel ipse pulsus -significabat_.” - -It is very evident, that the greater number of these attacks has not -been levelled with any view to elicit truth or to advance science, but -to excite public attention, and to provoke unfair discussion for -individual and unworthy advantage; their obscure and presumptuous -authors vainly hope, that they may gain for their ephemeral writings -some share of importance, and for themselves some degree of reputation, -if they can only obtain notoriety by provoking a discussion with the -College or with some of its responsible members, though such a combat -should be sure to terminate in their defeat. Like the Scythian Abaris, -who upon being wounded by Apollo, plucked the arrow from his side, and -heedless of the pain and disgrace of his wound, exclaimed in triumph -that the weapon would in future enable him to deliver Oracles. - -It is not to such persons that the observations which are contained in -this work are addressed, for with them I am most anxious to avoid a -contest, in which, as a worthy Fellow of our College expresses it, -“_Victory itself must be disgraceful_.” - -When, however, we are assailed upon every occasion by a gentleman whose -talents entitle him to respect, and whose public situation commands -notice, I apprehend that a humble individual like myself, may, in the -conscientious discharge of a public duty, deliver his sentiments from -the chair to which he has been called by his professional brethren, -without any risk of compromising the dignity of the College, or of -drawing upon himself the charge of an unnecessary and injudicious -interference. - -The attack to which I chiefly allude, is contained in an historical -preface by Mr. Professor Brande, to the _Supplement of the Fourth and -Fifth Editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica_; in which, speaking of -the writings of BOERHAAVE, he says, “The observations which he has made -upon the usefulness of Chemistry, and of its necessity to the medical -practitioner, may be well enforced at the present day; for, except in -the schools of London and Edinburgh, Chemistry, as a branch of -education, is either entirely neglected, or, what is perhaps worse, -superficially and imperfectly taught; this is especially the case in the -English Universities, and the London Pharmacopœia is a record of the -want of chemical knowledge, where it is most imperiously required.” - -The learned Professor of Oxford, Dr. Kidd, naturally anxious to repel a -charge which he considered individually unfair, and to vindicate his -University from an aspersion which he felt to be generally unjust, -published an animated, but at the same time, a cool and candid defence, -to which I have much pleasure in referring you. With respect to the -Sister University, my own _Alma Mater_, I feel that I should be the most -ungrateful of her sons, were I, upon this occasion, to omit expressing -similar sentiments with respect to the course of chemistry, and that of -its collateral branches, which are annually delivered in the crouded -schools at Cambridge. Is Mr. Brande acquainted with the discipline of -our University?—Is he aware that the chemical chair has been -successively filled by BISHOP WATSON—MILNER—WOLLASTON[113]—and the late -lamented Mr. TENNANT?—“_Master Builders in the Science_.” To say that -such men have been the lecturers, is surely a sufficient testimony to -shew that the science of chemistry heretofore _could not_ “have been -neglected, or what perhaps is still worse, imperfectly taught;” and the -zeal and ability displayed by the present Professor, ought to have -shielded him from any such attack. Is Mr. Brande aware that the eloquent -appeal of BISHOP WATSON from the chair at Cambridge,[114] on the general -importance and utility of chemistry, gave the first impulse to that -public taste for this science which so eminently distinguishes our -Augustan age, and which has been the means of founding and supporting -the Royal, and other Public Institutions in this Metropolis, as well as -in the other towns of the British Empire? - -I need make no farther remark upon this part of Mr. Brande’s assertion; -the sequel, judging from the construction of the sentence, is evidently -intended to be understood as a consequence, viz. and _therefore_ “the -London Pharmacopœia is a record of the want of chemical knowledge where -it is most imperiously required,” _because Oxford and Cambridge -Physicians were its Editors_. Is not this the obvious construction? - -It appears from Mr. Brande’s laconic answer to Dr. Young, published in -“_The Journal of Science and the Arts_,” that his objections are those -of Mr. Phillips, contained in his experimental examination of the -Pharmacopœia; a work which, I confess, appears to me to furnish a -testimony of the experimental tact, subtile ingenuity, and caustic style -of criticism, which its author so eminently possesses, rather than a -proof of any fatal or material inaccuracy in the Pharmacopœia; and I may -urge this with greater force and propriety, when it is considered that, -at the time of its publication, I was not a Fellow of the College, and -therefore had no voice upon the subject of its composition, and -consequently must be _personally_ disinterested in its reputation. - -I cannot conclude these observations upon Mr. Brande’s attack, without -expressing a deep feeling of regret, that a gentleman, whose deserved -rank in society, and whose talents and acquirements must entitle him to -our respect, should have condescended to countenance and encourage that -vile and wretched taste of depreciating the value and importance of our -most venerable institutions, and of bringing into contempt those -acknowledged authorities which must always meet with the approbation of -the best, and the sanction and support of the wisest portion of mankind. - -And I shall here protest against the prevailing fashion of examining and -deciding upon the pretensions of every medicinal compound to our -confidence, by a _mere chemical_ investigation of its composition, and -of rejecting, as fallacious, every medical testimony which may appear -contradictory to the results of the Laboratory; there is no subject in -science to which the maxim of Cicero more strictly applies, than to the -present case; let the _Ultra_ Chemist therefore cherish it in his -remembrance, and profit by its application—“PRÆSTAT NATURÆ VOCE DOCERI, -QUAM INGENIO SUO SAPERE.” - -Has not experience fully established the value of many medicinal -combinations, which, at the time of their adoption could not receive the -sanction of any chemical law? We well remember the opposition, which on -this ground was for a long time offered to the introduction of the -_Anti-hectic Mixture_ of Dr. Griffith,—the _Mistura Ferri Composita_ of -the present Pharmacopœia, and yet subsequent inquiry has confirmed upon -scientific principles the justness of our former practical conclusion; -for it has been shewn that the chemical decompositions which constituted -the objection to its use, are in fact the causes of its utility (_see -Mist. Ferri_,); the explanation, moreover, has thrown additional light -upon the theory of other preparations; so true is the observation of the -celebrated Morveau, that “_We never profit more than by these unexpected -results of Experiments, which contradict our Analogies and preconceived -Theories_.” - -Whenever a medicine is found by experience to be effectual, the -practitioner should listen with great circumspection to any _chemical_ -advice for its correction or improvement. From a mistaken notion of this -kind the _Extractum Colocynthidis compositum_, with a view of making it -chemically compatible with _Calomel_, has been deprived of the _Soap_ -which formerly entered into its composition, in consequence of which its -solubility in the stomach is considerably modified, its activity is -therefore impaired, and its mildness diminished.[115] - -On the other hand, substances may be medically inconsistent, which are -chemically compatible, as I shall have frequent opportunities of -exemplifying. The stomach has a chemical code of its own, by which the -usual affinities of bodies are frequently modified, often suspended, and -sometimes entirely subverted; this truth is illustrated in a very -striking manner by the interesting experiments of M. Drouard, who found -that Copper, swallowed in its metallic state, was not rendered poisonous -by meeting with oils, or fatty bodies; nor even with _Vinegar_, in the -digestive organs. Other bodies, on the contrary, seem to possess the -same habitudes in the stomach as in the laboratory, and are alike -influenced in both situations by the chemical action of various bodies, -many examples of which are to be found under the consideration of the -influence which solubility exerts upon the medicinal activity of -substances; so again, acidity in the stomach is neutralized by -_Alkalies_, and if a _Carbonate_ be employed for that purpose, we have a -copious disengagement of _Carbonic acid gas_, which has been frequently -very distressing to the patient; lastly, many bodies taken into the -stomach undergo decompositions and changes _in transitu_, independent of -any play of chemical affinities from the hidden powers of digestion, -some of which we are enabled to appreciate, and they will accordingly -form a subject of investigation in the course of the present work. - -The powers of the stomach would seem to consist in decomposing the -_Ingesta_, and reducing them into simpler forms, rather than in -complicating them, by favouring new combinations. - -But every rational physician must feel in its full force, the absurdity -of expecting to account for the phænomena of life upon principles -deduced from the analogies of inert matter, and we therefore find that -the most intelligent physiologists of modern times have been anxious to -discourage the attempt, and to deprecate its folly. Sir Gilbert Blane, -in his luminous work on MEDICAL LOGIC, when speaking of the different -theories of digestion, tells us that Dr. William Hunter, whose peculiar -sagacity and precision of mind detected at a glance the hollowness of -such delusive hypotheses, and saw the danger which theorists run in -trusting themselves on such slippery ground, expressed himself in his -public lectures, with that solidity of judgment combined with -facetiousness of expression, which rendered him unparalleled as a public -teacher. “Gentlemen,” said he, “Physiologists will have it that the -stomach is a mill—others, that it is a fermenting-vat—others again, that -it is a stew-pan,—but in my view of the matter, it is neither a mill, a -fermenting-vat, nor a stew-pan—but a STOMACH, Gentlemen, a STOMACH.” - -What can illustrate in a more familiar and striking manner the singular -powers of _Gastric Chemistry_, than the fact of the shortness of time in -which the aliment becomes acid in depraved digestion? A series of -changes is thus produced in a few hours, which would require in the -laboratory as many weeks,[116] while in acute affections of the -alimentary canal the functions of the stomach are nearly suspended, and -hence under such circumstances, whatever is introduced into this organ -remains unchanged, even the nutritious mucilages are not digested. - -From what has been said, it is very evident that the mere chemist can -have no pretensions to the art of composing or discriminating -remedies; whenever he arraigns the scientific propriety of our -Prescriptions, in direct contradiction to the deductions of true -medical experience,—whenever he forsakes his laboratory for the -bed-side, he forfeits all his claims to our respect, and his title to -our confidence. It is amusing to see the ridiculous errors into which -the chemist falls, when he turns physician; as soon as Seguin found -that Peruvian bark contained a peculiar principle that precipitated -_Tannin_, he immediately concluded that this _could not be any other_ -than _Gelatine_, and upon the faith of this blunder, the French, -Italian, and German physicians,[117] gave their patients nothing but -_Clarified Glue_, in intermittent fevers!—But I desist—not however -without expressing a hope, in which I am sure my medical brethren will -concur, that, should Mr. Brande again condescend to favour us with a -commentary upon Boerhaave, he will select that passage in his work, -where, alluding to the application of Chemistry to Physic, he -emphatically exclaims, “EGREGIA ILLIUS ANCILLA EST, NON ALIA PEJOR -DOMINA.” - - - THE INFLUENCE OF SOIL, CULTURE, CLIMATE, AND SEASON. - -The facts hitherto collected upon this subject are so scanty and -unsatisfactory, that I introduce its consideration in this place, rather -with a wish to excite farther enquiry, than with any hope of imparting -much additional information. - -There can be little doubt, but that Soil, Culture, Climate, and -Season,[118] may very materially influence the active properties of a -medicinal plant; while the two latter of these causes may as essentially -change the type and character of a disease, and modify the vital -susceptibility of the patient; the natives of the south of Europe, for -instance, do not bear bleeding, and other modes of depletion, so well as -those of the north. This must be admitted to its full extent, or it will -be extremely difficult to explain the contradictory and even opposite -opinions, and to reconcile the conflicting testimonies of the physicians -of different countries, with respect to the efficacy of the same remedy, -in similar diseases. - -THE INFLUENCE OF SOIL may be exemplified by many well known facts; thus, -strongly smelling plants lose their odour in a sandy soil, and do not -again recover it by transplantation into a richer one; a fact upon which -Rozier founded his proposal for the improvement of Rape oil; so again, -no management could induce the _Ricotia Ægyptiaca_ to flower, until -Linnæus suggested the expediency of mixing clay with the earth in the -pot; _Assafœtida_ is one of those plants that vary much according to -station and soil, not only in the shape of the leaves, but in the -peculiar nauseous quality of the juice which impregnates them, and Dr. -Woodville states that it is frequently so modified that the leaves are -eaten by goats; Gmelin informs us, on the authority of Steller, that the -effects of the _Rhododendron_ have been found to vary materially -according to the “_solum natale_;” for example, that produced in a -certain spot has proved uniformly _narcotic_, that in another, -_cathartic_, while a sense of suffocation has been the only symptom -occasioned by a third. Rhubarb, as grown in England, will differ greatly -in its purgative qualities, according to the soil in which it may have -been cultivated; that produced in a dry gravel being more efficacious -than that which is reared in a clayey one. Dr. Carter, in his account of -the “_Principal Hospitals of France, Italy, and Switzerland_,” tells us -that at Nice, the _Digitalis_ is commonly given in doses of a scruple in -powder, or in that of half an ounce of the infusion made according to -the London Pharmacopœia, every hour, and without any sensible effect; -this fact he explains by stating that the _Digitalis_, in the -neighbourhood of Nice, is much smaller, and is probably less powerful -than the same plant as it grows in England. - -CLIMATE also produces a powerful impression upon vegetable and animal -life. It is probable that in southern countries some vegetables enjoy -more energetic properties than in northern climes. The history of opium -immediately countenances such an opinion; thus Egypt produces a stronger -_opium_ than any of the countries on the north side of the -Mediterranean,—France, than England or Germany;—and Languedoc, than the -northern parts of France;—while Smyrna, Natolia, Aleppo, and Apulia, -furnish a juice far more narcotic than Languedoc: so again, _Senna_ by -transplantation from Arabia into the south of France (Provence) assumes -a marked change in its physiognomy and virtues, its leaves are more -obtuse, and its taste less bitter and nauseous than the pointed leaved -variety, while its effects will be found to be less purgative. -_Cruciform_ plants degenerate within the tropics, but acquire increased -energies, as _Antiscorbutics_, in cold regions; the _Menthæ_ have not so -penetrating an essential oil in the south of Europe as in England and in -the north of France. The relative proportions of gluten vary in the -wheat of different countries, and as in the south of Europe, its -quantity greatly predominates over the other principles, we at once -discover the cause that gives such excellence to the Maccaroni of Italy. -Many species of plants secrete juices in warmer regions, which are -unknown in their œconomy, in colder climates; thus the Ash yields -_Manna_ in Calabria, but loses that faculty as it advances towards the -north. The influence of climate, in its relations to moisture and -dryness, upon vegetable productions, is also worthy of investigation; in -wet and cold seasons, our herbage is far less nutritive to cattle, and -we accordingly find that they are constantly grazing, in order to -compensate by quantity, for what is deficient in quality, whereas in dry -seasons, a larger proportion of their time is consumed in rumination; -the same causes, however, that diminish the nutritive powers of plants, -frequently increase the energy of those principles upon which their -medicinal value depends: it is obvious that many herbs are more rank and -virulent in wet and gloomy seasons: this would appear to be a wise and -provident law, in order to apportion the natural condiment of the -vegetable, to the deteriorated state of its nutritive elements, when the -digestive organs must require more than the ordinary stimulus for the -due exercise of their functions. It is hardly necessary to observe that -plants, which in temperate climates are merely shrubs, have been -developed into trees, by the hot and humid plains of Africa and Asia; -while in the arid deserts of Nubia or in the frigid plains of Siberia, -vegetable life is confined to stunted shrubs and humble mosses: cold -also suppresses the colour of flowers, and indeed even that of the -leaves, as is witnessed in the _Cyclamen_, _Amaranthus_, and -_Ranunculus_ of Lapland and Siberia. But climate not only modifies the -powers of a remedy by influencing its structure and composition, but it -renders it more or less active, by increasing or diminishing the -susceptibility of the body to its impression; can a more striking proof -of this fact be adduced than the well known effects of perfumes at Rome? -The inhabitants are unable to sustain the strong scent of flowers in -that climate, without experiencing a sensation highly oppressive, and -which in some cases is even succeeded by syncope,[119] and thus -realising the well known line of the poet, - - “_Die of a Rose, in aromatic pain._” - -As I have been favoured with some very interesting observations upon -this subject by Dr. Richard Harrison, who resided for a considerable -time in Italy, and was thus enabled to institute a satisfactory inquiry -into this curious subject, I feel no hesitation in introducing a -quotation from his letter to my readers.—“You ask me what experience I -have had on the subject of climate, as affecting the powers and -operation of remedies; I have no difficulty in asserting that Narcotics -act with greater force even in smaller doses at Naples, where I had the -advantages of much experience, than in England. I might adduce as an -example the _Extract of Hyoscyamus_, which, when given to the extent of -three grains thrice a day, produced in two patients a temporary -amaurosis, which disappeared and again recurred on the alternate -suspension and administration of this medicine; and it deserves -particular notice that these very patients had been in the habit of -taking similar doses of the same remedy in England, without any -unpleasant result. Now that this depended upon an increased -susceptibility of the patient, in the warmer climate, rather than an -increased power in the remedy, is unquestionable, since the extract -which was administered in Italy had been procured from London; indeed a -high state of nervous irritation is the prevalent disorder of Naples. I -treated several cases of Epilepsy in Italy with the _nitrate of silver_, -and with complete success, while in England I certainly have not met -with the same successful results. During my residence at Naples, I spent -some time in the island of Ischia, so celebrated all over the continent -for its baths; many of the patients who were then trying their efficacy, -had been attacked by Paralysis, Apoplexy, and almost every degree of -loss of mental and muscular power, and among them I certainly witnessed -what with propriety might be denominated a genuine case of _Nervous -Apoplexy_. These complaints I was generally able to trace to the abuse -of _Mercury_, whence we may, I think, very fairly conclude that this -metal is more active in its effects in that, than in our own country. -Before I quit this subject, I ought to mention that the doses of -medicines, as seen in the prescriptions and works of English Physicians, -excite universal astonishment among the faculty of Italy. In fact, as I -have just stated, the human constitution in this part of the continent -is certainly more susceptible of nervous impression than in England: it -is perfectly true that flowers or perfumes in a chamber, will frequently -produce syncope in persons apparently strong and healthy, and the fact -is so universally admitted, that the Italians avoid them with the -greatest caution.” On the other hand, it appears equally evident that -some remedies succeed in cold climates which produce little or no -benefit in warmer latitudes. Soon after the publication of the first -edition of my Pharmacologia, I received a letter from Dr. Halliday of -Moscow, upon the subject of the “_Eau Medicinale_,” and as it offers a -striking proof of the efficacy of the _Rhododendron Chrysanthum_ in -curing the rheumatism of the North, whilst in this country the plant has -been repeatedly tried without any signal proof of success, I shall here -subjoin an extract from the letter of my correspondent: “In reading your -account of the ‘_Eau Medicinale_,’ I perceive that, upon the authority -of Mr. James Moore, you state it to be a preparation of the _White -Hellebore_; may I be allowed to suggest the probability of its being -made from the leaves of the _Rhododendron Chrysanthum_? for so far as I -can learn, the effects of the French medicine are precisely those which -are experienced from an infusion of the above plant, which the Siberians -and Russians regard as an infallible specific in the cure of chronic -rheumatism and gout, and from which I myself, as well as other -physicians in Russia, have witnessed the most desirable and decided -effects, whenever we had it in our power to administer the remedy with -confidence and courage. We have seldom given it in any other form or -dose than that adopted by the Siberians themselves, which is to infuse -in a warm place, generally near a furnace and during the night, two -drachms of the fresh leaves in about twelve ounces of boiling water, -taking care that the liquid never boils. This dose is to be taken in the -morning upon an empty stomach, and during its nauseating operation, -which generally commences within a quarter of an hour after it has been -swallowed, neither solids nor liquids of any description are allowed; -after an interval of three or four hours, I have seen the patient obtain -a copious and black fœtid stool, and get up free from pain. Should it -happen that the patient does not recover from the first dose, another is -administered on the succeeding day, and I have known it to be taken for -three days in succession, when the severest fits of gout have been -removed.[120] Is it not then probable that some cunning Frenchman has -availed himself of this Siberian specific, and concentrated it in such a -form, as to defy all the learned to find it out?” - -Dr. Halliday adds, “The Siberians denominate the leaves of this plant, -when infused in water, _Intoxicating Tea_; and a weaker infusion is in -daily use, especially for treating their neighbours, just as the -Europeans do with tea from China.” - -Before we quit the consideration of Climate, as being capable of -influencing the activity of a remedy, the important fact should not be -overlooked, that in India, and other colonies of similar temperature, -Mercurial Medicines, in order to produce their beneficial effects, -require to be administered to an extent which would prove destructive to -the inhabitants of this island. - -But of all the circumstances that produce the greatest change in the -aspect as well as in the virtues of the vegetable creation, is -CULTIVATION, which may either destroy the medicinal properties of a -plant, or raise in it new and most valuable qualities: cultivation -converts single into double flowers, by developing the stamens into -petals, a change which in many cases destroys their efficacy, as in the -camomile, _Anthemis Nobilis_; for, since all the virtues of this flower -reside in the disc florets, it is of course greatly deteriorated by -being converted into the double-flowered variety; by the operation of -_grafting_ extraordinary changes may also be produced; Olivier, in his -travels, informs us that a soft _Mastiche_, having all the qualities of -that resin, except its consistence, which is that of turpentine, is -procured by engrafting the Lentisk on the Chian Turpentine tree. - -Buffon states that our wheat is a factitious production raised to its -present condition by the art of agriculture. M. Virey[121] observes, -that by suppressing the growth of one part of a plant we may -respectively give rise to an increased developement in others; thus are -some vegetables rendered eunuchs, or are deprived of seeds by -obliteration, and only propagate themselves by slips; such a condition -is frequently produced by culture, continued through a long succession -of generations; this is the case with the _Banana_, _Sugar Cane_, and -other fruits that have carefully been made to deviate for a long series -of years from their original types, and having been continually -transplanted by slips, suckers, or roots, at length only propagate -themselves in this way, whereby the roots, as those of the common -potatoe, become inordinately developed, drawing to themselves the -succulence and nutrition originally possessed by the berries. It seems -probable that we may thus have lost many vegetable species; the -_Tuberes_ of Pliny, for example, are supposed by Mr. Andrew Knight to -have been intermediate productions, formed during the advancement of the -Almond to the Peach, or in other words that they were swollen almonds or -imperfect peaches; if this conjecture be admitted, it will explain the -fact stated by Columella, that the peach possessed deleterious qualities -when it was first introduced from Persia into the Roman Empire. If there -be any who feel sceptical upon the subject of such metamorphoses, let -him visit the fairy bowers of Horticulture, and he will there perceive -that her magic wand has not only converted the tough, coriaceous -covering of the Almond into the soft and melting flesh of the Peach, but -that by her spells, the sour Sloe has ripened into the delicious Plum, -and the austere Crab of our woods into the Golden Pippin; that this -again has been made to sport in endless variety, emulating in beauty of -form and colour, in exuberance of fertility and in richness of flavour, -the rarer productions of warmer regions, and more propitious climates! -In our culinary vegetables the same progressive amelioration and -advancement may be traced; thus has the acrid and disagreeable _Apium -graveolens_ been changed into delicious _Celery_, and the common -_Colewort_, by culture continued through many ages, appears under the -improved and more useful forms of Cabbage, Savoy, and Cauliflower. It -has been already observed that the alimentary and medicinal virtues are -frequently in opposition to each other, and that while cultivation -improves the former, it equally diminishes the latter; I shall have -occasion to offer some additional facts upon this curious subject, under -the consideration of _Bitter Extractive_; _see Note on this Extract, in -the article_ “_Tonics_.” - - - THE IGNORANT PREPARATION AND FRAUDULENT ADULTERATION OF MEDICINES. - -The circumstances comprehended under this head certainly deserve to be -ranked amongst the more powerful causes, which have operated in -affecting the reputation of many medicinal substances. The Peruvian Bark -fell into total discredit in the year 1779, from its inability to cure -the ague; and it was afterwards discovered to have been adulterated with -bark of an inferior species; indeed Sydenham speaks of the adulteration -of this substance before the year 1678; he tells us that he had never -used to exceed two drachms of _Cinchona_ in the cure of any -intermittent, but that of late the drug was so inert, rotten, and -adulterated, it became necessary to increase its dose to one, two, or -three ounces. The subject is copious and full of importance, and I have -taken considerable pains to collect very fully, the various modes in -which our remedies are thus deprived of their most valuable properties, -and to suggest the best tests by which such frauds may be discovered. -Very few practitioners have an idea of the alarming extent to which this -nefarious practice is carried, or of the systematic manner in which it -is conducted: there can be no doubt but that the sophistication of -medicines has been practised in degree in all ages,[122] but the -refinements of chemistry have enabled the manufacturers of the present -day, not only to execute these frauds with greater address, but -unfortunately, at the same time, to vend them with less chance of -detection. It will be scarcely credited, when I affirm that many hundred -persons are supported in this metropolis by the art of adulterating -drugs, besides a number of women and children who find ample employment -and excellent profit in _counterfeiting_ Cochineal with coloured dough, -Isinglass with pieces of bladder and the dried skin of soles, and by -filling up with powdered Sassafras the holes which are bored in spice -and nutmegs, for the purpose of plundering their essential oils. - - - THE UNSEASONABLE COLLECTION OF VEGETABLE REMEDIES. - -Vegetable physiology has demonstrated, that during the progress of -vegetation most remarkable changes occur in succession, in the chemical -composition, as well as in the sensible qualities of a plant; time will -not allow me to be prodigal of examples, take therefore one which is -familiar and striking,—the aromatic and spicy qualities of the -unexpanded flowers of the _Caryophyllus Aromaticus_ (_Cloves_) are well -known to every body, but if the flower-bud be fully developed it loses -these properties altogether, and the fruit of the tree is not in the -least degree aromatic; so the berries of Pimento, when they come to full -maturity, lose their aromatic warmth and acquire a flavour very -analogous to that of Juniper. The _Colchicum autumnale_ may be cited as -another example in which the medicinal properties of the vegetable are -entirely changed during the natural progress of its developement. See -also _Inspissated Juices_, under the article _Extract_. - - - THE OBSCURITY WHICH HAS ATTENDED THE OPERATION OF COMPOUND MEDICINES. - -It is evident that the fallacies to which our observations and -experience are liable with respect to the efficacy of certain bodies, as -remedies, must be necessarily multiplied when such bodies are exhibited -in a state of complicated combination, since it must be always -difficult, and often impossible, to ascertain to which ingredient the -effects produced ought to be attributed. - -How many frivolous substances have from this cause alone gained a share -of credit, which belonged exclusively to the medicines with which they -happened to be accidentally administered?[123] Numerous are the examples -which I might adduce in proof of this assertion; the history of -Bezoar[124] would in itself furnish a mass of striking evidence, indeed -the reputation of this absurd substance was maintained much longer than -it otherwise would have been, by its exhibition having been frequently -accompanied with that of more active articles. Monardes, for instance, -extols the efficacy of the _Bezoar_ as a vermifuge, but he states that -it should be mixed with the seeds of _Wormwood_. Besides, in the -exuberance of mixture, certain re-actions and important changes are -mutually produced, by which the identity of the original ingredients is -destroyed; but this subject will be introduced for discussion in the -first part of the Pharmacologia. - -The practice of mixing together different medicinal substances, so as to -form one remedy, may boast of very ancient origin, for most of the -prescriptions which have descended from the Greek physicians are of this -description; the uncertain and vague results of such a practice appear -also to have been early felt, and often condemned, and even Erasistratus -declaimed with great warmth against the complicated medicines which were -administered in his time; the greater number of these compositions -present a mass of incongruous materials, put together without any -apparent order or intention; indeed it would almost appear as if they -regarded a medical formula as a problem in _Permutation_, the only -object of which was to discover and assign the number of changes that -can be made in any given number of things, all different from each -other. - -At the same time it must in justice be allowed, that some of the earlier -physicians entertained just notions with regard to the use and abuse of -combination, although their knowledge of the subject was of course -extremely limited and imperfect. - -ORIBASIUS[125] recommends in high terms certain combinations of -_Evacuant_ and _Roborant_ medicines, and the remarks of ALEXANDER -TRALLIANUS on a remedy which he exhibited in paralysis, serve to shew -that he was well acquainted with the fact, that certain substances lose -their efficacy when they stimulate the bowels to excess, for he cautions -us against adding a greater proportion of _Scammony_ to it; many, he -observes, think that by so doing, they increase the force of the -medicine, whereas in fact they make it _useless_, by carrying it -immediately through the bowels, instead of suffering it to remain and be -conveyed to the remote parts. - -In modern Europe, the same attachment to luxuriancy of composition has -been transmitted to our own times: there are several prescriptions of -Huxham extant, which contain more than _four hundred_ ingredients. I -have already observed that all extravagant systems tend, in the course -of time, to introduce practices of an opposite kind; this truth finds -another powerful illustration in the history of medicinal combination, -and it becomes a serious question, which it will be my duty to discuss, -whether the disgust so justly excited by the _poly-pharmacy_ of our -predecessors, may not have induced the physician of the present day to -carry his ideas of simplicity _too far_, so as to neglect and lose the -advantages which in many cases beyond all doubt may be obtained by -scientific combinations. “To those,” says Sir A. Crichton, “who think -that the Science of Medicine is improved by an affected simplicity in -prescribing, I would remark, that modern pharmacopœias are shorn so much -of old and approved receipts,[126] on account of their being -extraordinary compounds, so as to be almost useless in some cases.” - -In the year 1799, Dr. FORDYCE, in a valuable paper published in the -second volume of the Transactions of the Medical Society, investigated -this subject with much perspicuity and success: unfortunately, however, -this memoir terminates with the investigation of _similar_ remedies, -that is to say, of those which produce upon the body similar effects, -and he is entirely silent upon the advantages which may be obtained by -the combination of those medicines which possess _different_, or even -_opposite_ qualities; it must be also remembered that at the time this -memoir was composed by its eminent author, Chemistry had scarcely -extended its illuminating rays into the recesses of physic. Under such -circumstances, I am induced to undertake the arduous task of inquiring -into the several relations in which each article of a compound formula -may be advantageously situated with respect to the others; and I am -farther encouraged in this investigation, by a conviction of its -practical importance, as well as by feeling that it has hitherto never -received the share of attention which it merits. “I think,” says Dr. -Powell, “it may be asserted, without fear of contradiction, that no -medicine compounded of five or six simple articles, has hitherto had its -powers examined in a rational manner.” If this attempt should be the -means of directing the attention of future practitioners to the subject, -and thereby of rendering the Art of Composition more efficient, by -placing it upon the permanent basis of science, I shall feel that I have -profitably devoted my time and attention to the most useful of all -medical subjects. “_Res est maximi momenti in arte medendi, cum, Formula -in se considerata, possit esse profecto mortis vel vitæ sententia._” - - - - - PHARMACOLOGIA.|| ON THE| OPERATIONS OF MEDICINAL BODIES,| AND ON THE| - CLASSIFICATIONS FOUNDED ON THEM. - - - “_Medicos tandem tædet et pudet, diutius garrire de Remediis, - Specificis, et Alexipharmicis, et cæteris, nisi eorum naturam et - modum quo prosint, quodammodo ostendere et explanare possint._” - - CONSPECT. MED. THEOR. - - - - - PHARMACOLOGIA. - - ON THE - OPERATIONS OF MEDICINAL BODIES, - AND ON THE - CLASSIFICATIONS FOUNDED ON THEM. - - -Medicinal Substances are those bodies, which, by due administration, are -capable of producing certain changes in the condition of the living -system, whereby its morbid actions may be entirely removed, or -advantageously controlled. - -In adopting this definition we intentionally exclude those alimentary -substances which are more immediately subservient to the support of -life, and to the repair of that diurnal waste, which the exercise of its -functions so inevitably occasions. - -It has been generally supposed, that substances whose application does -not produce any sensible action upon the healthy system, cannot possess -medicinal energy; and, on the contrary, that those bodies which occasion -an apparent effect in health, must necessarily prove active in the cure -or palliation of disease. Under certain limitations we may perhaps -venture to assent to this general proposition; but it cannot be too -forcibly or too frequently impressed upon the mind of the medical -practitioner, that _Medicines are frequently but relative agents_, -producing their effects in reference only to the state of the living -frame; we must therefore concur with Sir Gilbert Blane in stating, that -the virtues of Medicines cannot be fairly essayed, nor beneficially -ascertained, by trying their effects on sound subjects, because that -particular morbid condition does not exist which they may be exclusively -calculated to remove;[127] thus in certain states of debility, _Tonics_ -may excite the system when languid, by their sympathetic influence upon -the _primæ viæ_, while in a robust condition of the body, the effects of -the same agents may be wholly inappreciable. - -The MODUS OPERANDI of remedies, or the general principle upon which they -effect salutary changes in the morbid states of the body, is involved in -considerable obscurity, and has given rise to much ingenious speculation -and scientific controversy. It would seem that the immediate impression -of a remedy may depend upon mechanical, chemical, or vital agencies; and -that the sanative impulse thus occasioned may either be Absolute, or -Relative;—Primary, or Secondary;—Local, or General;—Direct, or -Sympathetic;—Permanent, or Transient;—thus certain purgatives will -occasion intestinal excretions in every condition of the body, and may -therefore be justly considered as _absolute_ agents; while diuretics, -since they generally require for their success, a certain state of the -living system, may with equal truth be denominated _relative_ in their -operation. That the obvious effect of a remedy may either depend upon -its _Primary_, or upon its _Secondary_ and incidental operation, will at -once be apparent by inspecting the diagram which exhibits the -classification of diuretic medicines; the same scheme will also shew -that remedies may be _local_ or _general_ in their effects, and may -excite an action in distant organs, either by entering the circulating -mass, and being thus brought into contact with their textures;—by -occasioning an impulse conveyed through the nervous system,—or by -exciting a local impression upon the stomach and _primæ viæ_, and thus -arousing their energies through the mysterious medium of -sympathetic[128] communication. - -That certain bodies are capable of evading the assimilating functions, -and of entering, unchanged, into the circulating current, either through -the branches of the thoracic duct, or of the _vena portarum_, is a fact -which admits of chemical demonstration; many of the alkaline salts are -thus conveyed to the kidneys, and being excreted from the blood by its -vessels, are to be easily detected in the urine by appropriate reagents; -I have made many experiments upon this subject, and am prepared to state -some results which may perhaps explain the occasional value of such -bodies as medicines. Some essential oils, particular _bitter_ -principles,[129] and certain colouring matter,[130] seem also capable of -passing the barriers of digestion, and of circulating to the remote -parts of the body; Mercury, and several of the other metals, would -likewise appear, under certain circumstances, to possess a similar -privilege, and the former to be able moreover to facilitate the -absorption of other bodies with which it may be associated, as I shall -hereafter more fully exemplify. - -In some instances, the medicinal body undergoes a partial decomposition -by the digestive organs, _in transitu_, by which some of its -constituents escape into the circulation, while the others are -completely digested, and converted into chyle; this occurs with saline -compounds into which vegetable acids enter as constituents. See _Potassæ -Acetas_. It is also stated in the history of Diluents, that there is -reason to believe that _Water_ may under particular circumstances suffer -decomposition, and transfer its elements for the formation of new -compounds, furnishing _oxygen_ to some, and _hydrogen_ to others. There -is likewise reason to suppose, that in particular conditions of the -digestive functions, a remedy may be at once rendered inert by its -entire decomposition.[131] - -That an impression made upon the stomach by a medicinal agent, should be -the means of exciting an action in the distant parts of the machine, -will not appear extraordinary when we consider how universal a sympathy -and control this central organ exercises over every function of the -body; imbued with exquisite and diversified sensibilities,—subjected to -the first and coarsest impressions of our various ingesta,—stretched -occasionally to an enormous extent by the unrestricted indulgence of -appetite,—disturbed by the passions,—exhausted by volition, and -debilitated by intense thinking; in short, assailed by numerous foes -from _without_, and harassed by various revolutions from _within_, can -we feel surprised that the aberrations of this viscus should give origin -to the greater number of maladies with which we are afflicted, or that -those medicinal applications should be effective that are directed for -their cure, through the medium of its sympathies? - -A dose of Ipecacuan, by exciting the stomach, will abate both the force -and velocity of the heart in its vital motion, and affect the whole -series of blood vessels, from their origin to their most minute -ramifications, as is evinced by the pallor of the skin under its -operation, as well as by its efficacy in arresting hemorrhage; so the -brain, when disordered by vertigo, frequently derives instantaneous -relief from the administration of a tea-spoonful of æther in a glass of -water. The stomach however is not in every case the medium of sympathy; -a substance may excite a powerful impression upon a distant part, by the -instrumentality of the nerves, without any concurrence of the stomach; -thus, the _Belladonna_, by coming in contact with the _Tunica -Conjunctiva_ of the eye, will occasion immediate dilatation of the -_Iris_, although no other part of the system is in the slightest degree -affected. - -But there is yet another mode by which remedies may be made to exert a -sanative effect upon particular organs of the body, through the medium -of what Mr. Hunter called _contiguous_ sympathy, and whose existence -appears to depend upon the mere proximity and contiguity of parts, -without any relation to the distribution of the nerves; thus it is, that -relief is afforded to a deep-seated inflammation, by scarifying the -nearest external surface; while we know from long experience that the -thoracic or abdominal viscera, when similarly affected, receive -corresponding relief from the same topical use of bleeding, blistering, -or fomenting. - - -With respect to the _Modus Operandi_ of medicines the following -classification may be established. - - THE PARTICULAR ORGANS OF THE BODY MAY BE EXCITED INTO ACTION, THROUGH - FOUR DISTINCT AND DIFFERENT MODES OF COMMUNICATION. - - I. _By the actual contact of the appropriate remedy._ - - 1. _Conveyed by absorption_, WITHOUT DECOMPOSITION. - - _Internally._│_a._ _through the branches of the Thoracic duct_. - „ │_b._ _through the branches of the Vena - │ Portarum_.[132] - - _Externally._│_c._ _through the branches of divided - │ blood-vessels_. - „ │_d._ _through the branches of Lymphatics_.[133] - - 2. _Conveyed by absorption_, WITH DECOMPOSITION, _by which one or - more of its constituents are developed, and pass into the - circulating current_. - - II. _By an impulse conveyed through the instrumentality of the - nerves._ - - III. _By the sympathetic control exerted by the stomach on distant - parts._ - - IV. _By the operation of contiguous sympathy, or of that which is - excited by the mere proximity and continuity of parts._ - -And it is important to observe, that these are frequently antagonist -operations, and consequently, that remedies, although they should -occasion the same apparent effects, unless they act through the same -medium, are not SIMILAR agents, but on the contrary, are generally -medicinally incompatible with each other; for an illustration of this -truth, the practitioner may refer to the observations which I have -offered under the history of diuretics. - -The difficulty of justly appreciating these phenomena, in every -instance, has furnished a powerful objection against the validity of any -classification of medicinal substances which is founded on their -supposed modes of operation; and it must be acknowledged that, if we are -unable to assign to remedies their primary action, or to distinguish -this from their more obvious, though perhaps secondary effects, we shall -frequently be compelled to place similar medicines under opposite heads, -and to include those of very dissimilar characters under the same -artificial division; an error which has contributed more generally to -embarrass and misguide our practice than any other therapeutical -fallacy, and it was the conviction of this truth which induced me to -introduce the present chapter, and to impress the importance of its -subject upon the attention of my practical readers. - -It is probable that, in philosophical strictness, no two medicines in -our Materia Medica are perfectly similar, although they recede from each -other by such insensible shades of gradation that we may with practical -advantage admit their parallelism; at the same time, it must be ever -kept in remembrance, that _those Medicines only are practically similar, -whose operations have been found by experience to continue similar under -every condition of the human body; and which, moreover, owe such -similarity to modes of operation which are compatible with each other, -and consonant with the general indications of cure_. - -The importance of admitting this proposition will be frequently -illustrated in the sequel; and it may be observed in this place, that -every classification in which it is not recognised as a leading -principle, must be as imperfect in its execution, as it will be unjust -and erroneous in its views. - -Before I proceed to any farther discussion upon the present subject, it -will be necessary to offer a synoptical view of an arrangement of -medicinal bodies founded upon the basis of their operations, in order -that I may be better enabled to illustrate the observations which it is -my intention to introduce: for this purpose I shall present the reader -with three different classifications of this kind; the first being that -proposed by Dr. Cullen,[134] and which is now admitted to rest on -principles nearly altogether false, but the investigation of which will -afford many useful lessons of practical importance; the second -classification is by Dr. Young;[135] and the third is that proposed by -Dr. Murray,[136] which, from its simplicity and strict conformity with -the views I intend to offer, will be adopted as being the most eligible -for the occasion. - - - CULLEN’S ARRANGEMENT OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. - - Medicamenta agunt in - - SOLIDA. │SIMPLICIA. - „ │ _Astringentia._ - „ │ _Tonica._ - „ │ _Emollientia._ - „ │ _Erodentia._ - „ │ - „ │VIVA. - „ │ _Stimulantia._ - „ │ _Sedantia._ - „ │ _Narcotica._ - „ │ _Refrigerantia._ - „ │ _Antispasmodica._ - - FLUIDA. │IMMUTANTIA. - „ │ Fluiditatem. - „ │ _Attenuantia._ - „ │ _Inspissantia._ - „ │ Misturam. - „ │ Acrimoniam Corrigentia. - „ │ _In Genere._ - „ │ _Demulcentia._ - „ │ _In Specie._ - „ │ _Ant-acida._ - „ │ _Ant-alkalina._ - „ │ _Antiseptica._ - „ │ - „ │EVACUANTIA. - „ │ _Errhina._ - „ │ _Sialogoga._ - „ │ _Expectorantia._ - „ │ _Emetica._ - „ │ _Cathartica._ - „ │ _Diuretica._ - „ │ _Diaphoretica._ - „ │ _Menagoga._ - - - CLASSIFICATION OF THE MATERIA MEDICA - BY DR. YOUNG. - - I. CHEMICAL AGENTS. - - │1. _Caustics._ - │2. _Antiseptics._ - │3. _Antidotes._ - │4. _Demulcents._ - │5. _Diluents._ - - II. VITAL AGENTS. - - _A._ SUPPORTING STRENGTH. - │1. _Nutrients._ - - _B._ CAUSING ACTION. - PARTIAL & TRANSIENT.│1. _Expergefacients._ - „ │2. _Excitants._ - „ │3. _Calefacients._ - „ │4. _Sudorifics._ - „ │5. _Errhines._ - „ │6. _Sialogogues._ - „ │7. _Expectorants._ - „ │8. _Stomachics._ - „ │9. _Emetics._ - „ │10. _Cathartics._ - „ │11. _Chologogues._ - „ │12. _Hydrogogues._ - „ │13. _Simply Propellents._ - „ │14. _Anthelmintics._ - „ │15. _Diuretics._ - „ │16. _Carminatives._ - „ │17. _Emmenagogues._ - „ │18. _Epispastics._ - „ │19. _Suppuratories._ - „ │20. _Sorbefacients._ - „ │21. _Astringents._ - - PERMANENT. │ _Tonics._ - - _C._ DIMINISHING ACTION OR SENSATION. - _Primarily_ │1. _Narcotics._ - „ │2. _Sedatives._ - „ │3. _Nauseants._ - „ │4. _Diaphoretics._ - - _Secondarily_│ _Exhaurients._ - - III. INSENSIBLE AGENTS. - │ _Specifics._ - - - CLASSIFICATION OF REMEDIES BY DR. MURRAY. - - _A._ GENERAL STIMULANTS. - - a. _Diffusible._ { _Narcotics._ - „ { _Antispasmodics._ - - b. _Permanent._ { _Tonics._ - „ { _Astringents._ - - _B._ LOCAL STIMULANTS. - - _Emetics._ - _Cathartics._ - _Emmenagogues._ - _Diuretics._ - _Diaphoretics._ - _Expectorants._ - _Sialogogues._ - _Errhines._ - _Epispastics._ - - _C._ CHEMICAL REMEDIES. - - _Refrigerants._ - _Antacids._ - _Lithontriptics._ - _Escharotics._ - - _D._ MECHANICAL REMEDIES. - - _Anthelmintics._ - _Demulcents._ - _Diluents._ - _Emollients._ - - -With respect to the classification of Dr. Cullen, we may commence our -objections by stating, that the very basis upon which it rests is a mere -gratuitous assumption, viz. _that certain medicines act on the fluids of -the body_. With the exception of a very few substances, it is now -generally admitted that medicines produce their effects by acting on the -living materials of which our organs are composed, and not by modifying -the specific gravity, or chemical composition, of the fluids which they -may happen to evacuate. The origin of this latter opinion is to be -traced to the exploded notions of the humoral pathologists, and to the -exclusive doctrine of the earlier chemists; for as the former recognised -a depraved condition of the fluids as the source of every disease, so -did the latter imagine that every remedy operated by producing a -chemical change upon its composition; and the remedial value of a -medicinal substance was estimated by its effects upon inert matter. Thus -were experiments made with different substances upon the blood, and -other fluids of the body, in order to deduce, from the results, the -nature and extent of their powers as agents upon the living frame; for -instance, the _spirit_ and _salt of hartshorn_, as they were found to -render the blood more fluid, when added to it, _out of the body_, were -indiscriminately administered in almost every complaint, with a view to -dissolve that “lentor of the fluids” which was regarded as the more -general source of disease. For similar reasons, a tribe of medicines -were introduced into practice under the title of _Antiseptics_, for the -prevention of a process which very probably never takes place in the -living body: the powers of these supposed agents were, as usual, -inferred from their effects in resisting and preventing the putrefaction -of dead matter. - -Nor is the distinction assumed by Dr. Cullen, between the action of -remedies on the _Simple_ and _Living_ solids less hypothetical. Tonics -and astringents may certainly exert a beneficial effect upon the animal -fibre, but not by any immediate action on its materials, but through the -agency of its living principle.—“_Medicamentum non agit in cadaver._” - -The classification of Dr. Young, although it presents many points of -interest and value, is not altogether free from objection; his classes -in some instances are perhaps unnecessarily sub-divided, without a -sufficient regard to the primary and secondary operations of the -substances which they include. The arrangement of Murray has been -adopted in the present inquiry, not as being less objectionable, in a -general point of view, but as one which from its simplicity, is better -calculated, as a frame-work, if I may so express myself, for the display -of those particular facts, the knowledge of which I consider essential -for the successful administration of medicinal agents, and for the full -comprehension of those practical doctrines which it is the exclusive -object of this work to inculcate. - -Dr. Murray observes that, in this arrangement, he places in the first -division those substances which exert a GENERAL STIMULANT operation on -the system. Of this there are two sub-divisions, the DIFFUSIBLE and the -PERMANENT; the former including the class of _Narcotics_, with which may -be associated, as not very remote in their operation, the class of -_Antispasmodics_; the latter comprising two classes, viz. _Tonics and -Astringents_. Through these there is a gradual transition from the most -highly diffusible stimulant, to those most slow and durable in their -action. - -A second division comprehends LOCAL STIMULANTS, those, the action of -which is determined to particular parts of the system. Such are the -classes of _Emetics_, _Cathartics_, _Emmenagogues_, _Diuretics_, -_Diaphoretics_, _Expectorants_, and _Sialogogues_; with which may be -associated the classes of _Errhines_ and of _Epispastics_, founded on -direct local application. - -The remaining classes include substances which do not operate according -to laws peculiar to the living system. To one division may be referred -those, whose effects depend on the CHEMICAL changes they produce in the -fluids or solids; the classes which may be established on this principle -are _Refrigerants_, _Antacids_, _Lithonthriptics_, and _Escharotics_. To -another division belong those, the operation of which is purely -MECHANICAL, as _Anthelmintics_, _Demulcents_, _Diluents_, _Emollients_, -and certain _Laxatives_. - -Under the above classes, says Dr. Murray,[137] may be comprehended all -those substances which are capable of producing salutary changes in the -human system, and which are used as remedies. I have stated my reasons -for adopting this as a general basis of classification, although I shall -deviate very considerably in the subordinate divisions of the plan, in -the hope of establishing some distinctions that may tend to practical -utility. - - - 1. GENERAL STIMULANTS. - -The four classes comprehended under this first division, are NARCOTICS, -ANTISPASMODICS, TONICS, and ASTRINGENTS. - -Although these remedies differ very essentially in the degree and -permanence of their action, as well as in the character of their -apparent effects, yet, as it is conceived that their _primary_ operation -is stimulant, they are considered as possessing sufficient general -similitude to sanction their arrangement under one comprehensive -division. - - - NARCOTICS. - - Synon: _Sedatives._ _Anodynes._ _Hypnotics._ _Soporifics._ - -Substances which, in a moderate dose, occasion a temporary increase of -the actions of the nervous and vascular systems, but which is followed -by a greater depression of the vital powers than is commensurate with -the degree of previous excitement, and which is generally followed by -sleep. - -The relative intensity of these primary and secondary effects varies in -the different narcotics,[138] and even in the same narcotic in different -doses; in some cases, especially if the quantity administered be -considerable, the symptoms of diminished sense and action follow so -immediately, that the previous stage of increased action is very -obscure, or not in the least perceptible, while in other cases, the -operation of the substance is more particularly directed towards the -heart and arteries, and syncope succeeds its exhibition. These facts -have led many physiologists to deny the stimulant nature of these -bodies, and to consider their primary operation as one of a depressing -kind, whence they have bestowed upon them the name of SEDATIVES; in -referring to the classification of Cullen and Young, we shall find that -the arrangement of these substances has been directed in strict -conformity with such a view of the subject; but it may be asked, how the -increased excitement and exhilaration which so obviously follow the use -of these bodies, in small doses, can be reconciled with that theory -which considers them as absolutely and primarily sedative? In order to -combat an argument so fatal to his hypothesis, Dr. Cullen summons to his -aid the potent intercession of his tutelar deity, the _Vis Medicatrix_, -a power which he supposes to preside over our living body, and with -anxious vigilance, to resist the invasion of every thing that is -noxious, or hostile to its health and well being; with such assistance -it was not difficult to explain any paradox in physiology, and the -anomalies attending the agency of narcotic medicines were accordingly, -in the school of Cullen, easily reconciled with the views of a favourite -theory. He supposed that whenever a _sedative_ was applied in a moderate -dose, the _Vis Medicatrix_ took the alarm, and excited all the powers of -the system, in order to throw off the noxious application, and that thus -_indirectly_ arose those peculiar symptoms of increased action; but when -the dose was more considerable, he contended that the preserving power -of the system was silenced, and unable to offer any salutary resistance, -and consequently that universal depression immediately followed; but -there is no direct evidence in support of the existence of such a power, -and still less of its influence upon such occasions; it is far more -philosophical to refer the operation of narcotics to a peculiar -stimulating power, remarkable for the extreme rapidity with which it -exhausts the energy of the nervous system. No one will deny the -stimulating powers of alcohol, and yet a very large draught of this -liquor will occasion extreme exhaustion without the occurrence of any -signs of previous excitement; nor will any one be disposed to question -the depressing influence of opium, and yet small doses have enkindled -excitement and sustained the powers of life, under circumstances of -extreme and alarming exhaustion.[139] - -From the celerity with which narcotics produce their effects, it is -reasonable to suppose that they act upon the nervous system through the -sympathetic relations of the stomach, although in some instances it is -highly probable that these bodies are actually absorbed into the -circulation; I am inclined to think that this occurs with opium, as -death is accelerated in cases of persons poisoned by it, by the adoption -of those measures which are best calculated to promote its absorption: -(_see Opium_.) A still more striking proof is furnished by the fact of -opium, when externally applied to ulcers, producing all its -constitutional effects, such as costiveness, head-ache, nausea, &c. -Whether the effects of spirituous potations are to be attributed to the -introduction of alcohol into the blood, or to the sympathies existing -between the stomach and brain, is still a question of doubt. Dr. -Cooke[140] relates a case, on the authority of Sir A. Carlisle, of a -person who was brought dead into the Westminster Hospital, in -consequence of having drank a quart of gin for a wager, and that upon -examination, a considerable quantity of a limpid fluid was found within -the lateral ventricles of the brain, _distinctly impregnated with gin_. -I very well remember the case, for it occurred during the period that I -held the situation of Physician to that hospital, but it is very -doubtful whether such an absorption occurs under ordinary circumstances. -We well know the facility with which certain odorous bodies enter the -circulation, and are developed in distant organs; it is therefore very -possible that the apparent odour of the gin, which has been sometimes -recognized in the secretions, may depend upon the presence of the -flavouring ingredients, independent of the alcohol? - -At one period, substances supposed to possess narcotic virtues were -placed about the bed to obviate watchfulness; the plant _Anethum_, or -_Dill_, was very commonly suspended over the head for such a purpose, -while in modern times the _Hop_ has been introduced into the pillow. - -In concluding the history of Narcotics, it may be observed, that there -is, perhaps, no class of medicinal bodies, the individuals of which are -less disposed to bend and conform to an artificial arrangement; each -would seem to have its own particular mode of operation, and to affect -sensibility in its own peculiar manner; and hence the practitioner will -often find that, after the failure of one narcotic, the administration -of another will induce sleep. - - - ANTISPASMODICS. - -Substances which have the power of allaying the inordinate action of -muscular structures, and of assuaging pain, without occasioning that -state of insensibility which characterises the operation of narcotics. - -There are certain medicinal bodies which would appear to exert a -specific control over spasmodic action, from whatever cause it may have -originated, such are _Assafœtida_, _Galbanum_, _Musk_, _Castor_, -_Ammonia_, _Valerian_, _&c._ To such remedies the term antispasmodic -more exclusively belongs, but in a more general view of the subject we -must admit that this class branches, by indefinable gradations, into -narcotics and tonics; for since spasm may be connected with the most -opposite states of the body, it is very evident that many of the -individuals included in the class of antispasmodics, can only be -relative agents: spasm, for instance, may arise from excessive -irritability, as from teething, wounds, worms, &c. in which case a -narcotic would prove beneficial; or it may depend upon a state of -general debility, the proper remedy for which would be the -administration of an Aromatic Stimulant, or the assiduous exhibition of -some permanent tonic. - - - TONICS. - -Substances, whose continued administration gives strength and vigour to -the body. - -It is very justly admitted, that a state of permanent tension in the -fibres of the body is necessary for the existence of life, and that any -undue departure from such a condition is followed by debility. Thus, Sir -Gilbert Blane observes, that no muscle, whether voluntary or -involuntary, can act unless its fibres are previously in such a state, -that if divided they would shrink by their own resiliency, leaving an -interval between the cut extremities; the same may be said of the -vascular system in all its ramifications, in order to give play to their -contraction in grasping and propelling their contained fluids. It -appears that there are certain medicinal bodies that have the power of -affecting this state of tension, and when their effects contribute to -its restoration, they are properly denominated _Tonics_. We are not, -however, to consider them as producing such a change by any mechanical -operation upon the matter of which the fibre is composed, but by a -direct action upon its living principle; it seems probable that certain -poisons may thus produce sudden death by their agency on the vital -principle, by which the tension of the heart and whole arterial system -is immediately relaxed. In this point of view, _Tonics_, like the other -remedies which we have described, may be _relative_ or _absolute_ in -their operation. Venesection, purgation, or whatever will, under certain -conditions of the body, occasion a salutary change in its vital powers, -may produce a corresponding alteration in the tension of its fibres, and -consequently fall under the denomination of a tonic remedy: but -independent of the state of the body, there would seem to be certain -substances that act as specific stimuli upon the living fibre, and are -in certain cases indispensable for the maintenance of its healthy tone; -such are vegetable bitters, which produce a powerful effect upon the -digestive organs, and by nervous sympathy, upon the rest of the system. -_Bitter Extractive_,[141] seems to be as essential to the digestion of -herbivorous, as salt is to that of carnivorous animals; it acts as a -natural stimulant, for it has been shewn by a variety of experiments -that it passes through the body without suffering any diminution in its -quantity, or change in its nature. No cattle will thrive upon grasses -which do not contain a portion of this vegetable principle; this fact -has been most satisfactorily proved by the late researches of Mr. -Sinclair, gardener to the Duke of Bedford, which are recorded in that -magnificent work, the “HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS.” They shew, that if -sheep are fed on _Yellow Turnips_, which contain little or no bitter -principle, they instinctively seek for, and greedily devour any -provender which may contain it, and if they cannot so obtain it they -become diseased and die. We are ourselves conscious of the invigorating -effects of slight bitters upon our stomach; and their presence in malt -liquors not only tends to diminish the noxious effects of such -potations, by counteracting the indirect debility which they are liable -to occasion, but even to render them, when taken in moderation, -promoters of digestion. The custom of infusing bitter herbs in vinous -drinks is very ancient and universal; the _Poculum Absinthiatum_ was -regarded in remote ages as a wholesome beverage, and the Wormwood was -supposed to act as an antidote against drunkenness. The Swiss peasant -cheers himself amidst the frigid solitude of his glaciers, with a spirit -distilled from _Gentian_, the extreme bitterness of which is relished -with a glee that is quite unintelligible to a more cultivated taste. -With regard to the natural use of _Bitter Extractive_, it may be laid -down as a truth, that it stimulates the stomach,—corrects putrefying and -unwholesome nutriment,—promotes tardy digestion,—increases the nutritive -powers of those vegetable substances to which it is united,—and -furnishes a natural remedy for the deranged functions of the stomach in -particular, and through the sympathetic medium of that organ, for the -atony of remote parts in general; and I shall hereafter shew, that in -its medicinal applications it certainly imparts additional activity to -many remedies, while it renders the stomach and system more susceptible -of their salutary energies. As an essential ingredient in the provender -of herbivorous animals, it may I think be admitted as a fact, that its -importance is _in an inverse ratio_ with the nutritive powers[142] of -the food, and we accordingly find, in conformity with that universal -scheme of self-adjustment and compensation, which influences all the -operations of nature, that cultivation, which extends the nutritive -powers of vegetable bodies, generally diminishes their bitterness in the -same proportion; the natural history of the Potatoe offers a good -illustration of this fact, for the roots of this useful plant which have -been so greatly improved by culture, are in their wild state both small -and _bitter_.[143] Gummy matter, which seems to result from the first -change of the sap, is undoubtedly rendered more digestible and nutritive -by the presence of a _bitter_; pure gum is not very much disposed to -yield to the assimilative functions; “it frequently passes through the -bowels,” says Dr. Chapman,[144] “very little changed, as I have -witnessed a thousand times.” We see therefore the value of the bitter -principle, in the economy of the _Lichen Islandicus_, which is intended -as the food of animals in northern latitudes; we are told that boiled -linseed constituted the sole diet of the people of Zealand during a -scarcity of long continuance, on which occasion, symptoms of great -debility occurred, attended with those of dyspepsia; so again Professor -Fritze, in his Medical Annals, states that vegetable mucilage, when used -as a principal article of diet, relaxes the organs of digestion, and -produces a viscid slimy mucus, and a morbid action in the primæ viæ, an -effect which analogy shews might be obviated by the addition of bitter -extractive. For the same reason animals that feed in marshy lands, on -food containing but little nourishment, are best defended from the -diseases they are liable to contract in such situations by the ingestion -of bitter plants.[145] Upon these occasions nature is very kind, for the -particular situation that engenders endemic diseases is generally -congenial to the growth of the plants that operate as antidotes to them. - -I have offered these views upon the subject of _Bitter Extractive_, from -a conviction that they will essentially contribute to the establishing -of just and philosophical notions, respecting the necessity and _modus -operandi_ of many vegetable tonics. - -As the action of tonics is gradual, so their operation is not followed -by that exhaustion consequent upon the use of diffusible stimulants. - -The substances which compose the class of tonics are derived from the -vegetable and mineral kingdoms; those of the former are generally -bitter, and produce their effects by a primary action on the stomach, -and are not absorbed into the circulation, as experiments upon _Bitter -Extractive_ have most fully demonstrated; those derived from the mineral -kingdom, comprehending several of the metals, appear in some instances -to pass into the circulation, although several of them, like the -vegetable tonics, act primarily on the _primæ viæ_; I apprehend this -observation applies to the _nitrate of silver_, which certainly -possesses considerable powers as a tonic in certain cases of dyspepsia, -for which it may perhaps be indebted to the bitterness which -distinguishes it. - - - AROMATICS. - -Substances of a fragrant smell,[146] which produce upon the organs of -taste a peculiar sensation of warmth and pungency, and occasion, when -swallowed, a corresponding impulse upon the stomach, which is rapidly -communicated to the remote parts of the body. - -The vegetable bodies which constitute the class of aromatic stimulants -are very intimately related with that of tonics; indeed in the most -efficient vegetables of the latter kind, the two qualities are generally -blended, and the transition from these to the more pure bitters and -aromatics is so imperceptible, that it is extremely difficult to arrange -them in different classes; Dr. Murray has accordingly in his -classification not attempted to separate substances which are so -intimately connected. _Aromatic Stimulants_, however, in a practical -point of view, must be distinguished from tonics, as the former are -valuable for the _rapidity_, the latter, for the _permanency_ of their -effects. Their characteristic properties appear to depend chiefly, if -not entirely, on an essential oil which, when extracted from the -vegetable, exhibits all its aromatic power in a very concentrated form. - -Medicines of this kind, when administered for the purpose of dispelling -wind from the alimentary canal, have been termed _Carminatives_.[147] -They would seem to act by imparting energy to the distended and weakened -muscular coat of the stomach, by which the accumulated _gas_ is -propelled through the upper orifice; for this viscus, like the bladder, -when greatly distended, becomes unable to relieve itself, partly in -consequence of the exhausted state of the over-stretched fibres of its -muscular coat, and partly perhaps from a contraction of the _Cardia_, or -upper orifice; for it has been already stated that a loss of power, and -spasmodic action, are often the simultaneous results of debility. - - - ASTRINGENTS. - -Substances which, when applied to the human body, corrugate and condense -its fibres, and at the same time, exert a tonic influence through the -medium of its living principle. - -Astringency in any substance may be at once recognised by the organs of -taste; its power in corrugating the papillæ of the tongue, and in -imparting a sensation of harshness and roughness to the palate, being -too peculiar to be mistaken; this is a fortunate circumstance, for there -does not exist any one chemical test by which we can invariably detect -the property of astringency, since it is found to reside in many -different classes of substances: thus, acids, especially the stronger -mineral ones, are powerfully astringent; so are many of the metallic -salts, as those of iron, zinc, copper, and lead; and some of the earths, -when combined with acids, of which alum is a striking example. The -vegetable kingdom, however, furnishes the greater number of astringent -remedies; and chemistry has shewn that this property uniformly depends -upon a peculiar proximate principle, characterized by its power of -forming an insoluble compound with animal gelatine; to this principle -the name of TANNIN has been given. As tannin generally exists in union -with gallic acid, and as the latter body is known by its property of -striking an inky blackness with the salts of iron, solutions of this -metal were long, but erroneously, regarded as the proper test of -vegetable astringency; the fallacy of this is at once shewn by the -habitudes of Catechu, one of the strongest of our astringents, but -which, nevertheless, will not yield the smallest degree of blackness to -the solutions of iron, because it contains only tannin, the true -principle of astringency, without a trace of its usual associate the -gallic acid. From the power which these substances possess of -astringing, and condensing the animal solids, their medicinal properties -are supposed to arise, and we may perhaps, in this instance, admit such -a mechanical explanation; but astringents possess also some power over -the living principle of the matter which they astringe, for they are -capable of acting as permanent stimulants, of curing intermitting fever, -and of obviating states of general debility. Astringents would seem to -moderate the morbidly increased secretions of distant parts, and to -restrain hemorrhage, by their corrugating influence upon the _primæ -viæ_,[148] which is extended by sympathetic action to the vascular -fibre; it is not difficult for any person to conceive the possibility of -such a sympathy, who has ever experienced the thrilling and singular -feeling which is produced over the whole body, by the _acerb_ taste of -the sloe-juice. As however the primary operation of these bodies, by -their actual contact with the animal fibre, must be much more powerful -than that which can result from the mere sympathy of parts, we find that -the efficacy of astringents is principally displayed in the cure of -diarrhœa, or serous evacuations from the intestinal canal; their -operation, in checking profuse fluor albus, gleet, and the inordinate -secretions of other distant organs, is much less striking and -unequivocal, and it is a question whether in many of such cases the -benefit arising from their use may not depend upon their tonic powers. -As the morbid excess of different evacuations may arise from various and -opposite states of the living system, so may the individuals of the -other classes become astringents; and we are bound to admit upon this, -as we have on other occasions, the existence of _absolute_ and -_relative_ remedies. - -Narcotics, at the head of which stands opium, will frequently assume the -character of astringents, by diminishing the irritability upon which -increased discharges depend. In Diarrhœa, an astringent, properly so -called, diminishes the flow of those acrid fluids into the intestines, -by which their peristaltic motions are præternaturally increased, and it -consequently represses the diarrhœa; a narcotic, under similar -circumstances, might not repress the flow of the acrid matter to which I -have alluded, but it would render the bowels less susceptible to its -stimulus, and would therefore produce the same apparent alleviation, -although by a very different mode of operation. There is yet a third -species of remedy, which may operate in restraining a diarrhœa of this -description; not by stopping the flow of acrid matter, nor by -diminishing the irritability of the intestinal organs, as in the -instances above recited, but, simply, by _acting chemically_ upon the -offending matter, so as to disarm it of its acrid qualities; such, for -instance, is the nature of _absorbent_ and _testaceous_ medicines. In -the cure of hemorrhage, if it be _active_, that is to say, connected -with a state of strong tonic contractility of the blood-vessels, a very -different remedy will be required as an astringent, than in cases of -_passive_ hemorrhage, in which the vascular fibres are in a state of -relaxation or collapse. Sir Gilbert Blane has offered some valuable -remarks upon this subject, with a view to settle the difference of -opinion which has arisen respecting the treatment of flooding after -child-birth. (_Medical Logic_, _Edit._ 2d. p. 100.) - -Astringents are capable of being exclusively used as local applications, -and when they are so employed for the purpose of stopping hemorrhage, -they are termed STYPTICS.[149] With respect to these latter agents it -must be confessed, that great popular error still exists, much of which -has evidently arisen from deductions drawn from the effects of such -remedies upon inferior animals; thus have several substances gained the -reputation of _Styptics_, from the result which may have followed their -application to the wounded and bleeding vessels in the extremities of -the horse and ass; whereas the fact is, that the blood-vessels of these -animals possess an inherent power of contraction which does not exist in -those of man, and to which alone the cessation of the hemorrhage, -fallaciously attributed to the _Styptic_, is to be wholly attributed. In -many cases an application may owe its styptic qualities to its power of -coagulating the blood around the orifice of the wound; in this way the -contact of heated metal will sometimes arrest the flow of blood from a -cut surface. - - - LOCAL STIMULANTS. - -This Second Division comprehends those medicinal substances, which have -been generally classed under the head of EVACUANTS; for, as they -stimulate particular organs, so do they occasion by their local -operation, an increased secretion, or evacuation from them. - - - EMETICS. - -Substances which excite vomiting, independent of any effect arising from -the stimulus of quantity, or of that occasioned by any nauseous taste or -flavour. - -Before we can determine the _modus operandi_ of emetics, it will be -necessary to take an accurate view of the phenomena and pathology of -vomiting. It is an important fact that any extraordinary stimulus -applied to the stomach, instead of increasing its motions, as it would -in other instances, actually inverts them: the wisdom of such a peculiar -provision is manifest; it is intended to prevent the protrusion of the -food into the duodenum before it has undergone those necessary changes -in the stomach, by which it is prepared for the more elaborate process -of chylification. The act of vomiting, however, is not effected, as Dr. -Haygarth formerly supposed, by the sole influence of the stomach; the -brain is an important accessary: Dr. Majendie goes so far as to -attribute the operation of vomiting, exclusively, to the agency of this -latter organ upon the abdominal muscles, and regards the stomach as a -mere passive instrument in the act;[150] this doctrine was supported in -an elaborate experimental memoir, presented by this indefatigable -physiologist to the Royal Institute of France in the year 1812. - -Although we shall not be disposed to receive this theory in its full -extent, yet we cannot hesitate to admit that the influence of the -nervous system is indispensably necessary for producing vomiting; and we -accordingly find that this act will not take place, however forcibly the -stomach may be goaded by emetics, where the energy of the nervous system -is suspended, as in cases of profound intoxication, or in violent wounds -and contusions of the head; while if the brain be only partially -influenced, as by incipient intoxication, or by a less violent blow upon -the head, its irritability is increased instead of being paralysed, and -vomiting under such circumstances is excited by the slightest causes: -the fact of such opposite results being produced by the same impulse in -different degrees of intensity, is no less curious than instructive. Dr. -Richard Harrison, in his Gulstonian Lecture before the College of -Physicians, treated the subject of vomiting with much ingenuity, and I -am disposed to adopt the views which he offered. He observed, that -although the experiments of Majendie sufficiently testify the importance -of the pressure of the abdominal muscles upon the stomach in the act of -vomiting, and which can only be explained by the influence of the brain -and nervous system, yet that he has attributed too much to their agency; -“it appears to me,” continued he, “that vomiting may be explained in the -following manner:—_the irritation of the stomach makes a call upon the -brain for the aid of the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles, in order -to expel its contents; the diaphragm then becomes contracted and fixed, -the ribs drawn down, and the abdominal muscles drawn inwards, so that -the stomach is pressed on all sides by voluntary muscles, which, -together_ WITH ITS OWN CONTRACTION, _expel the contents_.” Now it must -be obvious that where the brain, from oppression or injury, is unable to -transmit its influence to these muscles,[151] and disregards the call of -the stomach, vomiting can only be excited with difficulty, or it will be -prevented altogether. - -Under such circumstances venesection may in some cases prove a powerful -adjuvant, by unloading the vessels of the brain, and thus restoring to -the nervous system its necessary excitability; where its powers have -been paralysed by the operation of a narcotic, a copious draught of some -vegetable acid, or the affusion of cold water upon the surface of the -body may impart efficiency to an emetic; the operation of _Nightshade_ -and some other narcotic poisons may be adduced in farther illustration -of this subject;—an excessive dose of the _Atropa Belladonna_ produces -symptoms of alarming stupor, and so difficult is it to evacuate the -stomach under such circumstances, that as much as fourteen grains of -_Tartarized Antimony_ have been administered without effect: now if in -such a case a copious draught of some vegetable acid be given, the -emetic will be more likely to succeed: here then we perceive, that the -brain, being paralysed by a narcotic poison, is unable to lend its aid -to the muscles requisite for the operation of vomiting, until its -energies are restored by the anti-narcotic powers of a vegetable acid. -The practical precaution which this view of the subject affords, is -extremely important,—_not to allow the apparently inactive state of the -stomach to induce us, inconsiderately, to augment the dose of an -emetic:_ for although the stomach, for the reasons just stated, may be -unable to void its contents by vomiting, it may nevertheless retain its -sensibility, and be therefore liable to inflammation: Dr. Harrison has -reported a case of this kind, where the practitioner, in attempting to -excite emesis in an epileptic patient, by a very large dose of _sulphate -of zinc_, produced an inflammation in the viscus that terminated -fatally. - -Vomiting may also be produced by the _primary_ operation of certain -agents upon the brain, by which its energy is disturbed, as by -narcotics, or by the motions of swinging, whirling, and sailing: in such -cases, the series of actions necessary for the establishing of vomiting, -commences in the brain, and is propagated by nervous sympathy to the -stomach. - -When an emetic is taken into the stomach, an interval of twenty minutes -or longer, usually passes without any apparent effect; an uneasy -sensation, which we term nausea, is then felt, and this continues to -increase until vomiting begins; here then we perceive are two distinct -stages, each of which is marked by its own proper symptoms; the relative -intensity and duration of which will be found to vary according to the -nature of the exciting causes; thus some Emetics, as _Sulphate of Zinc_, -act without occasioning much nausea, while others, as _Tobacco_ excite -it to a degree which is far greater than is proportioned to their emetic -power: this is a fact of great importance in directing us in the -selection of an Emetic, for we shall find that in some diseases it is a -great object to avoid that state of system which invariably accompanies -nausea, while in others it affords the best mode of answering an -important indication of cure. - -Nausea would seem to depend upon the exertions of the stomach and -muscles, not being proportioned to the effects of the brain, in order to -produce vomiting. Where this balance however is maintained, as during -the operation of an ordinary emetic, the following are the symptoms -which characterise the two stages;—while the nausea only is present, the -countenance is pale and shrunken, the pulse feeble, quick, and -irregular, and there is a feeling of cold; but as soon as vomiting -commences, the face becomes flushed, the pulse quicker and stronger, -although it seldom returns to its natural standard, until some time -after the vomiting has ceased. A degree of languor, a disposition to -sleep, and a general moisture upon the skin, are the circumstances which -occur after the total cessation of the paroxysm. - -The feeble state of the circulation, as indicated by the pulse, and the -general coldness and languor experienced during a paroxysm of nausea, -are to be ascribed to those sympathetic relations by which the brain, -stomach, and heart, are reciprocally influenced. - -The advantages to be obtained from the administration of an emetic in -the cure of disease, may either depend upon its _primary_, or -_secondary_ operations, that is to say, upon the mere evacuation of the -stomach, or upon those changes which occur in distant parts from -sympathy; and the judicious practitioner, in the selection of an emetic, -will always be guided by the nature of the indication which he intends -to fulfil; if his object be to evacuate the stomach quickly and -completely, he will avoid those emetics that are distinguished by their -nauseating tendency, as in cases of disease which depend on a disordered -state of stomach, connected with undue distention, and the presence of -acrid and indigestible matter; if, on the other hand, his intention be -to influence some remote organ through the sympathetic powers of the -stomach, an emetic of an opposite tendency may be better calculated to -answer such indications: in some cases, he is to seek a beneficial -result from the mechanical action of the diaphragm and abdominal -muscles, by whose pressure the gall-bladder and hepatic ducts are -emptied of their contents, and hence jaundice, arising from the -obstruction of biliary calculi, has been suddenly removed by the -_concussion_ of an emetic: a similar pressure upon the thoracic viscera -may occasion expectoration, and relieve the bronchial vessels in cases -of asthma, catarrh, and croup. - -Vomiting, when produced by the operation of a mild emetic, does not -appear to exhaust the excitability of the stomach, but on the contrary -to increase its tone; for we generally find the process of digestion is -carried on more vigorously afterwards; although it is probable that, by -frequent repetition, a different result would be obtained, and we should -find that its motion would become liable to inversion by slight stimuli: -we may therefore question the propriety of that practice which is so -strenuously recommended by Hippocrates,[152] and other ancient -physicians, to administer emetics frequently to those in health, in -order to prevent the incursions of disease. - -The benefits arising from the secondary effects of an emetic are -numerous and extensive. It has been observed that during nausea the -force of the circulation is considerably abated, hence the use of these -remedies in hemorrhage; and, as the energy of absorption is generally in -an inverse ratio to that of the circulation,[153] we frequently obtain -from a nauseating dose of an emetic, considerable assistance in the -treatment of anasarca, and other dropsical swellings. Those medicines -that are liable to produce at once, full vomiting, without any previous -stage of nausea, are of course less calculated to fulfil such -indications. In the same manner we should select a _nauseating_ emetic, -when our object is to promote the passage of a gall stone through the -_ductus communis_, for the nausea so excited will relax the duct, while -the mechanical concussion tends to push the obstructing matter forward. -On the other hand, whenever our object is to evacuate the stomach, and -to prevent absorption, we must take care to cut short the nauseating -stage; a precaution which is highly important in the treatment of a case -of poisoning. The state of the stomach produced by vomiting is very -frequently extended, by sympathy, to the vessels of the skin; in -consequence of which, a diaphoresis not unusually follows the operation. -In the different varieties of febrile disease, this circumstance stamps -additional value upon the class of Emetics; while, at the same time, -that they eject any offensive matter which may be present in the -stomach, they thus control the accelerated circulation. - -From the violent muscular exertions which take place in the act of -vomiting, the administration of an emetic may be very injurious in -certain states of the body. In consequence of the pressure applied to -the descending aorta, and the interrupted circulation through the lungs, -from impeded respiration, the blood returns with difficulty from the -head during a paroxysm of vomiting, and in plethoric states of the body, -or in cases of determination of blood to the cerebral or pulmonary -organs, the act of vomiting cannot be considered as free from danger. -The concussion of an emetic may also produce mischief in the advanced -stage of pregnancy, and in _hernia_ and _prolapsus uteri_; while in -extreme debility, there is the danger of a syncope being produced, from -which the patient may never recover, as I once witnessed in the last -stage of Phthisis, where an emetic was imprudently given, with the -intention of dislodging the pus with which the lungs were embarrassed. - -By violent and protracted retching, a person will sometimes become -jaundiced; the stomach, diaphragm, and abdominal muscles, are, under -such repeated efforts, apt to be rendered, to an eminent degree, -irritable; so that at each effort of the former to discharge its -contents, the latter will frequently be thrown into strong spasmodic -contractions, and the liver together with the gall bladder will be -suddenly caught, and, as it were, squeezed in a powerful press; in -consequence of which the bile will regurgitate, and be carried into the -_Venæ cavæ_; for Haller has shewn with what facility a subtle injection, -when thrown into the hepatic duct, will escape by the hepatic veins; and -upon which Dr. Saunders observes, “I know this to be a fact, for I have -ascertained by experiment, that water injected in the same direction, -will return by the veins in a full stream, though very little force be -used.” When a jaundice is thus produced it will gradually disappear -without the aid of any medicine; the kidneys are the principal means by -which all unnecessary bodies are extracted from the circulating mass, a -portion of bile will therefore under such circumstances be eliminated in -every discharge of urine. - -The different emetics employed in practice are derived from the -vegetable and mineral kingdoms, some of which appear to produce their -effects by an immediate impression upon the nerves of the stomach, while -others require to be absorbed into the circulation before they display -their energies. _Ipecacuanha_ would seem to act primarily on the -stomach, but _Tartarized Antimony_ has been found, by experiment, to -occasion vomiting, when injected into the veins of an animal; while the -other mineral emetics, _viz._ the preparations of _Copper_ and _Zinc_, -undoubtedly operate on the stomach, and without inducing much nausea. - - - CATHARTICS: - -Medicines which quicken or increase the evacuation from the intestines, -or which, when given in a certain dose, occasion purging. - -These remedies, from a general difference in their modes of operation, -have been classed under two divisions—LAXATIVES and PURGATIVES. The -former operate so mildly that they merely evacuate the contents of the -intestines, without occasioning any general excitement in the body, or -even stimulating the exhalant vessels of the canal; the latter produce a -considerable influx of fluids from these vessels, and extend their -stimulant effect to the system in general; and where these effects are -very violent, the purgative is further distinguished by the epithet -DRASTIC. Laxatives then may be said to empty the bowels simply, and to -carry off extraneous matter, which is out of the course of the -circulation; but purgatives, as they occasion a constitutional effect, -may be made subservient to very important purposes. The effects of a -purgative may depend upon three different modes of operation; viz. - - 1. _By stimulating the muscular fibres of the Intestines, whence - their peristaltic motion is augmented, and the contents of the - bowels more quickly and completely discharged._ - - 2. _By stimulating the exhalent vessels, terminating in the inner - coat of the intestines, and the mouths of the excretory ducts of - the mucous glands; by which an increased flow of serous fluids - takes place from the former, and a more copious discharge of - mucus from the latter; the effect of which is to render the fæcal - matter thinner and more abundant._ - - 3. _By stimulating the neighbouring viscera, as the Liver and - Pancreas, so as to produce a more copious flow of their - secretions into the intestines._ - -It appears that different purgatives have very different powers in -relation to the several modes of operation above specified; some -medicines, for example, urge the bowels to evacuate their contents by an -imperceptible action upon the muscular fibres, and little or no increase -of serous discharge attends the evacuation, such are _Manna_, _Sulphur_, -and _Magnesia_; there would seem, moreover, to be certain bodies that -have the property of increasing the peristaltic motions by operating as -mechanical stimulants upon the fibre; it would not be difficult to -derive many illustrations of this fact, from the history of herbivorous -quadrupeds, and I have been disposed to consider the harsh and coarse -texture which certain grasses assume in moist situations, as a wise -provision in Nature to furnish an increased stimulus to the intestines -of the animals who feed upon them, at a time when their diminished -nutritive qualities must render such a result desirable; but the -operation of a mechanical laxative may be demonstrated by a more -familiar example; the addition of bran to our bread, constituting what -is known by the name of _Brown bread_, induces laxative effects, merely -from the mechanical friction of the rough particles, or scales of the -bran, upon the inner coats of the intestines, for the wheat without the -bran in bread is not particularly laxative.[154] Other cathartics -stimulate the fibres to a much greater degree, and the effects are -either confined to a part of the canal, or communicated to the whole -range of the intestines, from the duodenum to the extremity of the -rectum; _Aloes_ will furnish a good example of the former, and -_Colocynth_ may be adduced as an instance of the latter mode of -operation. Other cathartics, again, direct all their stimulus to the -exhalant vessels, and are accordingly distinguished by the force with -which they produce serous evacuations; and for which they were formerly -denominated _Hydragogues_, such are _Saline Purgatives_, and certain -vegetable bodies to be hereafter described. Dr. Cullen has even supposed -that some of these medicines may act solely in this way, and without -increasing directly the peristaltic motion; there is, however, as Dr. -Murray very justly remarks, no proof of such an hypothesis, and it seems -scarcely probable that any substance should act as a stimulant on these -vessels, without at the same time stimulating the mobile fibres of the -intestines. _Mercurial Purgatives_ appear to possess, in an eminent -degree, the power of exciting the functions of the liver, and of thereby -occasioning an influx of bile into the intestines. From the indications -which cathartics are capable of fulfilling, their utility in many -diseases must be apparent; the extent of their importance and value -were, however, never justly appreciated until the valuable publication -of Dr. Hamilton on this subject, in which the author has pointed out -with more precision than any preceding writers had done, the therapeutic -principles which should regulate their administration. His practice has -clearly proved that a state of bowels may exist in many diseases, giving -rise to a retention of feculent matter, which will not be obviated by -the occasional administration of a purgative, but which requires a -continuation of the alvine stimulant, until the healthy action of the -bowels is re-established. Since this view of the subject has been -adopted, numerous diseases have received alleviation from the use of -purgatives that were formerly treated with a different class of -remedies, and which were not supposed to have any connection with the -state of the alvine evacuations; thus in fever, the peristaltic motion -of the intestines is diminished, and their feculent contents are unduly -retained, and perhaps, in part, absorbed, becoming of course a source of -morbid irritation; this fact has long been understood, and the practice -of administering cathartic medicines under such circumstances has been -very generally adopted; but until the publication of Dr. Hamilton, -physicians were not aware of the necessity of carrying the plan to an -extent beyond that of merely emptying the _primæ viæ_, and they did not -continue the free use of these remedies through the whole progress of -the disease. - -Cathartics are essentially serviceable also in several diseases of the -class NEUROSES, which are generally intimately connected with a morbid -condition of the alimentary passages; _Chorea_ and _Hysteria_ have been -very successfully treated in this manner. The diseases incident to -puberty in both sexes are also best relieved by a course of purgative -medicines, and their effects in _Chlorosis_ have conferred upon many of -them the specific title of EMMENAGOGUES. - -But the therapeutical utility of Cathartics extends beyond the mere -feculent evacuations which they may occasion. In consequence of the -stimulating action which some of them exert upon the exhalent vessels, -they abstract a considerable portion of fluid from the general current -of the circulation, and are, on that account, beneficial as -_Anti-phlogistics_. For the same reason they may act as powerful -promoters of absorption, for there exists an established relation -between the powers of exhalation and absorption, so that when the action -of one is increased, that of the other is augmented. - -Certain Purgatives, as I have just stated, exert their influence upon -the neighbouring organs, and are calculated not only to remove alvine -_sordes_, but to detach and eliminate foul congestions from the biliary -ducts and pores. - -With such facts before us, it is impossible to concede to the opinion of -Dr. Hamilton,[155] that the different species of purgative medicines _do -not possess distinct powers over the different species of matter to be -evacuated_; on the contrary, there is reason for reviving the ancient -theory, too inconsiderately abandoned, and which acknowledged these -different distinctions in the operations of cathartic medicines, under -the appropriate names of _Hydragogues_, _Cholagogues_, &c. - -The importance of cathartic medicines having been shewn, and the -distinctions in their modes of operation established, it only remains to -say a few words upon the subject of their abuse. All the remedies of -this class, but more especially those of considerable power, require -caution in their administration, even in those diseases where they are -indicated by peculiar symptoms, especially if there be any tendency to -inflammation, or to extreme debility, although this latter symptom is -often rather apparent than real, and is at once removed by the brisk -operation upon the bowels; during pregnancy and immediately after -delivery, and during the flow of the menses, the prudent practitioner -will use a discretionary caution in their exhibition. The too frequent -use of these medicines will induce marasmus, and render the bowels so -morbidly irritable, that purging is easily excited by the ordinary -stimulus of our aliments; while in some habits the contrary obtains, and -the resource to which the valetudinarian flies for relief only increases -the torpor of the intestines, and confirms his costiveness. - -The mode of adapting, combining, and administering Cathartics, will -present subjects for our future consideration. - - - EMMENAGOGUES: - -Medicines which are capable of producing the Menstrual discharge. - -As Amenorrhœa, or retention of the menses, is generally the effect of a -morbid state of the body, it follows that remedies capable of acting as -Emmenagogues can only be _relative_ agents, unless indeed we are -disposed to accede to the opinion so generally maintained in the -writings of the older physicians, but now generally discarded, _that -certain substances exert a specific[156] action upon the uterus_. It may -certainly be asserted without fear of contradiction, that there are many -substances which, when received into the stomach, have their stimulant -operation more particularly determined to one part than to another; -alkalics, for example, to the kidneys; cantharides to the bladder; -mercury to the salivary glands, &c. Reasoning therefore by analogy, it -was not unphilosophical to conclude, that similar medicines might exist -with respect to the uterus; but experience has negatived the -supposition, there being no proof of any of the substances styled -_Emmenagogues_ producing their effects by any _specific_ influence upon -the uterine system. If the term _Emmenagogue_ be assumed conventionally, -according to this view of the subject, it may be retained without any -fear of error, otherwise it would be wiser to remove the name from our -classification. - -The suppression of the catamenia usually depends upon a debilitated -state of the body, although it is sometimes the consequence of a -plethoric diathesis; in the former cases tonics, in the latter, -venesection may display the powers of an emmenagogue; upon which -occasion, I have frequently derived the greatest benefit by cupping the -patient upon the loins. Where the disease occurs in young women, about -the age of puberty, it is very generally connected with extreme debility -of the system; the preparations of iron, bark, and other invigorating -medicines, are accordingly the most likely to succeed in its cure. -Whereas in full florid habits, when the catamenia are suddenly -suppressed, _Laxatives_, _Diaphoretics_, or _blood-letting_, afford the -surest means of relief. - -There are two other classes of medicine which may occasionally prove -emmenagogue—ACRID PURGATIVES, which act upon the rectum, and hence by -_contiguous sympathy_ upon the uterus, as _Aloes_, &c. and STIMULATING -DIURETICS, as _Cantharides_, the _Turpentines_, &c. which are supposed -to excite the womb, sympathetically, by their stimulus upon the bladder. -Nor is the advantageous influence of mercury to be overlooked, which, in -cases of morbid action in the secreting functions, prove a Herculean -remedy. - - - DIURETICS: - -Medicines which increase the urinary discharge. - -This effect is produced by very different modes of operation; and as -some of them are mutually incompatible with each other, it is essential -that we should understand the _modus operandi_ of each individual of -which the class consists, in order that we may direct its application -with precision. - -There is undoubtedly no tribe of medicinal agents more precarious in -their nature and effects than that of Diuretics; this fact in a great -measure depends upon the uncontrollable character of the organs upon -which they act, but it must at the same time be admitted, that their -failure frequently depends upon their modes of operation being directly -incompatible with the state of the system at the time of their -administration. - -The following classification may perhaps serve to bring together the -principal facts which are known upon the subject, and at the same time -to display them in an order which is calculated to demonstrate their -practical bearings and relations. - - - DIURETICS, - - ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR SUPPOSED MODES OF OPERATION. - - CL: I.—MEDICINES WHICH ACT _PRIMARILY_ ON THE URINARY ORGANS. - - 1. _By stimulating the secreting vessels of the kidneys_, BY - CONTACT. - - _a_ The medicines not undergoing any decomposition _in - transitu_. - - 1. _Potassa._ - - 2. _Potassæ Nitras._ - - 3. _Oleum Terebinthinæ._ - - 4. _Juniperus Communis._ - - 5. _Cantharides._ - - _b_ The Medicines undergoing decomposition _in transitu_. - - 1. _Potassæ Acetas._ - - 2. _Potassæ Super-tartras._ - - 3. _Scilla Maritima._ - - 4. _Colchicum Autumnale._ - - 5. _Copaifera Officinalis._ - - 6. _Spartii Cacumina._ - - CL: II.—MEDICINES WHICH ACT _PRIMARILY_ ON THE ABSORBENTS, AND - _SECONDARILY_ ON THE KIDNEYS. - - _Mercury._ - - CL: III.—MEDICINES WHICH ACT _PRIMARILY_ ON THE STOMACH AND PRIMÆ VIÆ, - AND _SECONDARILY_ ON THE ABSORBENTS. - - -1. _By diminishing arterial action, and increasing that of Absorption._ - - 1. _Digitalis._ - - 2. _Nicotiana._ - - 2. _By increasing the tone of the Body in general, and that of the - absorbent system in particular._ - - _Bitter Tonics_, _&c._ _&c._ - - 3. _By producing Catharsis, and thereby increasing the action of - the Exhalants_ directly, _and that of the Absorbents_ - indirectly. - - 1. _Elaterium._ - - 2. _Jalap_, _&c._ _&c._ - - -C. 1. OF MEDICINES WHICH ACT PRIMARILY ON THE URINARY ORGANS. - - 1. _By stimulating the secreting vessels of the kidneys, by actual - contact._ - - _a_ The substance not undergoing any decomposition _in - transitu_. - -It is easy to imagine that any substance which is capable of entering -the current of the circulation, and of stimulating the kidneys by a -direct application to their secerning vessels, may occasion a more -copious urinary discharge; in this manner the different saline[157] -preparations, _Potass_, _Soda_, _Nitrate of Potass_, _&c._ are brought -to the kidneys in the course of the circulation, and exciting the -vessels to an increased action, promote the secretion of a larger -proportion of watery fluid from the blood, in consequence of which, the -absorbents are indirectly stimulated in order to supply the deficiency, -and in this manner dropsical swellings are reduced. - -Water, as a simple diluent, will promote the action of the kidneys, and -it is very judiciously remarked by Dr. Cullen, that by withholding the -use of fluids in dropsy, you will diminish the quantity of fluids -secreted, and allow the secretories of the kidneys to fall into a state -of inactivity and collapse. This is a sufficient answer to those who -defend the practice of enjoining an abstinence from all drinks in -dropsy. - - b. _The diuretic remedy undergoing decomposition_ IN TRANSITU. - -The digestive organs appear to possess the power of readily decomposing -all saline compounds into which _vegetable_ acids enter as ingredients, -and of eliminating their alkaline base, which, being in the course of -the circulation, carried to the kidneys, excites them into action, and -promotes the excretion of urine; and it is probably in this way that the -_Acetate_, _Citrate_, _Super-tartrate_, and other analogous combinations -of _Potass_ and _Soda_ prove diuretic: on the other hand, it is equally -evident that salts containing the _mineral_ acids are not under the -control of the decomposing powers of the _chylo-poietic_ organs, and -consequently do not undergo any changes _in transitu_, although some of -these salts, as I have just stated, especially the more soluble ones, -are absorbed entire, and prove diuretic. _Sulphate of Potass_, from its -insolubility, is not readily absorbed, and its composition will not -allow the developement of its base; we perceive therefore that it has -not any tendency to produce an influence upon the urinary secretion. - -Certain vegetable bodies likewise appear to occasion diuresis by a -similar mode of operation, and it is worthy of notice that these -medicines generally contain a bitter principle, which is probably -separated by the analysing powers of the stomach; as exemplified in -_Scilla maritima_; _Colchicum autumnale_; _Lactuca Virosa_; _Gratiola -officinalis_; _Spartium Scoparium_ (Summitates); _Juniperus communis_; -_Copaifera Officinalis_ (Balsamum,) &c. The stimulant powers of a bitter -vegetable principle upon the _primæ viæ_, have already been fully -noticed under the consideration of TONICS, (_page 78_), and it is -reasonable to suppose, that an analogous principle, if introduced into -the circulation, may exert a corresponding impulse upon the organs with -which it comes into contact. - -It particularly merits attention, that the diuretic operation of any -body that acts by being absorbed, is at once suspended if catharsis -follows its administration, whether in consequence of the largeness of -its dose, its increased solubility, or from the effect of its -combination with some purgative; for it is a law, _that the processes of -assimilation, and absorption from the duodenum, are arrested, or very -imperfectly performed during any alvine excitement_; the different -effects of the saline compounds of the alkalies with tartaric acid, -elucidate the truth of this law in a very striking manner—thus, -_Super-tartrate of Potass_, or Cream of Tartar, in well regulated doses, -acts, as we all know, upon the kidneys; the tartaric acid being, as I -suppose in this case, abstracted and assimilated by the digestive -process, and at the same time the alkaline base (Potass) eliminated, and -subsequently carried into the circulation; but if we increase the -solubility of the compound, by reducing it to the state of a neutral -tartrate (_soluble tartar_), or by combining it with _Boracic acid_, or -some body that has a similar effect; or what is equivalent to it, if we -so increase the dose[158] of the _cream of tartar_, that full catharsis -follows its administration, then diuresis will not ensue, since no -decomposition can take place under such circumstances, nor can it be -carried by absorption into the circulation. _Nitre_ and those salts -which are carried to the kidneys without previous decomposition _in -transitu_, are subject to the same law; for, if we combine them with -purgatives, their presence can no longer be recognised in the urine, as -I have ascertained by experiment. _Oil of Turpentine_ in doses of two -fluid-drachms, may so excite the urinary organs as to produce even -bloody urine; whereas a fluid-ounce will scarcely occasion any apparent -influence upon those functions, because the increased dose acts upon the -bowels, and consequently prevents its passage into the circulation. - -_Sulphate of Magnesia_ does not readily produce any diuresis, because it -operates upon the bowels, but the experiments of Vitet and Bracy Clarke -have shewn, that if this saline compound be administered to the horse -whose bowels are not easily affected by purgatives, it acts powerfully -upon the kidneys;[159] and I will take occasion in this place to observe -that, on account of the inirritability of the bowels of the horse, -diuretic medicines are more certain in their operation, than in the -human subject; a fact which, in itself, shews the importance of -attending to the state of the bowels, during a course of those diuretics -which require to be absorbed before they can produce their specific -effects. - -Equally necessary is it to attend to the state of the vessels of the -skin, for if during the administration of a Diuretic, these vessels be -excited by external warmth, its action may be diverted from the urinary -organs to the exhalants on the surface, and occasion diaphoresis; but if -the surface of the body be kept cool, this diversion will not occur: so -greatly indeed does cooling the surface determine to the kidneys, that -the usual diaphoretic medicines may, by an attention to this -circumstance, be converted into powerful diuretics. - - -C. II. MEDICINES WHICH ACT _Primarily_ ON THE ABSORBENTS, AND -_Secondarily_ ON THE KIDNEYS. - -It has been shewn, in the former division, that by increasing the action -of the kidneys, we diminish the quantity of water in the blood, and -consequently occasion an extraordinary action of the absorbents to -supply the deficiency, whence dropsical accumulations disappear; it -remains to be stated that an operation, which may be considered the -converse of the one just described, is not unfrequently established: the -absorbent vessels, in this case, are first roused to extraordinary -action, and the blood therefore becomes surcharged with serous matter, -in consequence of which the kidneys are stimulated, and it is eliminated -through the urinary passages: so that in the former case the absorbent -may be said to be called into action by the kidneys, while in the -latter, the kidneys are obviously subservient to the increased energy of -the absorbent system. The preparations of Mercury are perhaps the only -medicinal bodies which we can strictly consider as specific stimulants -to the absorbent system; and of their power in directly acting upon -these organs there are such ample proofs, that it is unnecessary to -adduce any additional evidence upon the subject. In instances of -increased absorption from the agency of other medicines, the effect must -be considered as rather arising from their _secondary_ than primary -operations; the most important of which will constitute objects of -inquiry in the succeeding divisions of the subject. - - -C. III. MEDICINES WHICH ACT _Primarily_ ON THE STOMACH OR SYSTEM, AND -_Secondarily_ ON THE URINARY ORGANS. - -A Diuretic effect is very frequently occasioned by substances which act -on the stomach and _primæ viæ_, producing a peculiar state of these -organs, which _sympathetically_ affects the whole body, and more -particularly the absorbent system, and the vessels concerned in the -secretion of urine from the blood. As this primary influence upon the -stomach, and the effects to which it gives rise in remote parts, are -very different in their character, according to the nature of the remedy -employed, and the state of the system at the time of its administration; -the present attempt to investigate and generalize these relations, and -to adopt them as the basis of a classification, may ultimately lead the -practitioner to some distinctions of practical utility. - - -1. _By diminishing Arterial Action, and increasing that of Absorption._ - -It would appear that the action of the vessels employed in the -circulation of the blood, and the energy of the absorbents are, to a -certain extent, antagonist powers; the experiments of Majendie -demonstrate that the absorption of a poisonous substance is retarded by -a plethoric, and accelerated by a depleted state of the sanguineous -system; the fact is practically established by numerous phenomena in -pathology. Dr. Blackall has very satisfactorily shewn the existence -which subsists between increased arterial action and diminished -absorption. Hence it follows that remedies capable of controlling the -circulation may affect the activity of absorption, increase diuresis, -and cure dropsy; in this manner the _Digitalis Purpurea_ acts as a -sorbefacient, and it may be remarked that it seldom or never produces -its diuretic effects, without a concomitant reduction of the frequency -of the pulse; its power too appears only when it is administered in -dropsy; in a state of health it will reduce the pulse, but not increase -the discharge of urine. Tobacco has also somewhat analogous powers in -promoting absorption, and its operation is accompanied with a -corresponding depression of vascular action. Venesection, upon the same -principle, may occasion, in certain cases of dropsy, a discharge of the -accumulated fluid. - - -2. _By increasing the tone of the Body in general, and that of the -Absorbent System in particular._ - -That diminished absorption, and the consequent accumulation of serous -fluids in the cellular texture, and different cavities, frequently -depends upon general debility is very obvious, whence fevers, whether of -the intermittent, or continued kind, which have been long protracted, -are followed by _œdematous_ swellings. In states of extreme debility the -exhalant vessels would seem, from their laxity, to permit the thinner -parts of the blood to pass too readily through them; this is proved by -the circumstance that palsied limbs, in which such a laxity may be -presumed to exist, are frequently affected with _œdema_, and the truth -of this explanation is still farther corroborated by the advantages -which accrue on these occasions from the mechanical support of pressure -from bandages. In such cases, those remedies which are capable of -renovating the vigour of the body can alone prove of any signal service. -Dr. Blackall presents us with an illustrative case of this nature, on -the authority of Mr. Johnson of Exeter, in which the tonic powers of -well fermented bread occasioned in the space of a few hours an effect so -powerfully diuretic, as to have cured sailors on board of the Asia East -Indiaman, who had been attacked with Dropsy, in consequence of the use -of damaged Rice. - -Thus then do Diuretics, in some cases, CURE BY EVACUATING, while in -others, as in the instance above cited, they EVACUATE BY CURING. - -A case has lately occurred in my own practice, which not only affords a -striking illustration of the present views, but is well calculated to -convey to the inexperienced practitioner a very instructive lesson of -caution. A man of the age of thirty-five, of the most dissolute habits, -was attacked after a debauch of several days’ continuance, with -inflammatory symptoms in the chest; a very large quantity of blood was -suddenly abstracted, and the bleeding was repeated after the interval of -a few hours. The respiration became laborious, and I was desired to -visit the patient; I found that little or no urine had been evacuated -since the attack, and that there were evident symptoms of effusion, the -legs were swollen, and the difficulty of breathing was rapidly -increasing. Under these circumstances I directed a large dose of -_Ammonia_ with some stimulating diuretics, which were to be repeated at -short intervals. On the following day the distressing symptoms had -subsided, a large quantity of urine had passed, and the patient -expressed himself greatly relieved; unfortunately, however, in -consequence of a slight increase of his distress in the evening, an -injudicious friend in attendance, took more blood from the arm—the -dropsical effusions rapidly increased, and life was extinguished in the -course of three days by confirmed Hydrothorax. - - -3. _By producing Catharsis, and thereby increasing the action of the -Exhalants_ directly, _and that of the absorbents_ indirectly. - -It has been already stated, under the consideration of Cathartics, that -certain medicines of that class excite the exhalants of the alimentary -canal, and occasion a very copious discharge of serous matter: by this -operation the blood is deprived of a large portion of water, and the -absorbents are thus indirectly stimulated to supply the deficiency; -_Elaterium_, and some other _hydragogue_ cathartics, may be thus -employed with extraordinary success for the cure of certain forms of -Dropsy, where the vital powers of the patient can sustain the violence -of the remedy;—in the whole circle of medicinal operations there is -nothing more wonderful than this, that an impression made on the -internal surface of the _primæ viæ_, by a few particles of matter, -should thus convey by magic as it were, an impulse to the most remote -extremities, rousing their absorbents to action; and, in case of _œdema_ -there, awakening the sleeping energies of these vessels, which like -millions of pumps at work, transmit the morbid fluid to the intestines -and urinary passages, effecting a detumescence of the hydropic limbs in -the course of a few hours, and thus affording a striking illustration of -the sympathetic action of medicines, and an instructive example of the -operation of those of the sorbefacient class.[160] - -The observations which I have thus offered will lead the practitioner to -select the particular diuretic which is best calculated to fulfil the -indications of each individual case; and they will at the same time -point out those which cannot be administered in combination, without a -violation of the law of medicinal compatibility. With respect to the -general efficacy of these medicines it may be stated, that where the -disease originates from _organic_ affections of the chylo-poietic -viscera, it will not be cured by the mere evacuation of the water by -diuretics; but that where it has taken place from diminished absorption, -these remedies may be reasonably expected to effect a cure. - - - DIAPHORETICS. - -The term _Diaphoretic_ has been applied to those medicines which -increase the natural exhalation of the skin, and when they act so -powerfully as to occasion sweating, they have been commonly -distinguished by the name of _Sudorifics_, but as no difference exists -between these remedies, but in the degree of force with which they act, -we may very properly comprehend the whole under the general title of -Diaphoretics: the fluid effused is also in both cases similar, but in -the one it is discharged more slowly, and is carried off by the -conducting[161] power of the air, in the insensible form of vapour, -while in the other case it is so copiously effused from the exhalant -vessels, as to appear in the liquid form. - -As obstructed perspiration may depend upon very different, and even -opposite states of the system, so may the most adverse medicines fall -under the denomination of diaphoretic remedies. - -In some affections, a deficient diaphoresis may be associated with -increased vascular action, and in others, with a slow languid -circulation. - -Diaphoretics may be considered as operating, either by directly -stimulating the cutaneous capillaries;—by increasing the general action -of the vascular system;—by relaxing the morbidly constricted mouths of -the perspiratory vessels;—or, lastly, by producing at once both the -latter of these effects. - -In conformity with the plan adopted on other occasions, I shall proceed -to investigate the powers of this class of medicines, according to their -supposed modes of operation. - - - DIAPHORETICS - -Occasion their effects— - - I. BY STIMULATING THE CUTANEOUS CAPILLARIES. - - _A._ By external application. - - _The Stimulus of Heat_, _Frictions_, _&c._ - - _B._ By Medicines which enter the circulation and stimulate the - cutaneous vessels _by contact_. - - _Mercurials_—_Sulphur_. - - _C._ By Medicines which act on the surface _sympathetically_, - through the medium of the Stomach. - - _Cold Drinks_, _&c._ - - II. BY INCREASING THE GENERAL ACTION OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM. - - _Violent Exercise_—_Ammonia_—_Guaiacum_—_Alcohol_—_Warm Bath_. - - III. BY RELAXING THE MORBIDLY CONSTRICTED MOUTHS OF THE PERSPIRATORY - VESSELS. - - _Antimonials_—_Cold Affusion_—_Venesection_—_Saline - Diaphoretics_. - -The action of the cutaneous vessels may be augmented by heat, without -necessarily increasing, at the same time, that of the heart and -arteries; hence it is that heat is, of itself, often sufficient to -produce sweating, while it generally accelerates the operation of a -sudorific medicine. To this general proposition, however, there are some -very important exceptions; and, indeed, in certain conditions of the -cutaneous surface, the stimulus of heat will be even found to impede, -rather than to promote, diaphoresis; thus in the hot stage of a -continued fever, there would seem to exist a peculiar constriction of -the perspiratory vessels, accompanied with extreme heat and dryness. In -such a state, remedies of the third class must be applied, or conjoined -with those of the former. The warm bath may be said to partake of _all_ -the qualities upon which our classification is founded; it will -stimulate the cutaneous capillaries,—increase vascular action, -generally, and, by its emollient powers, relax the morbidly constricted -mouths of the perspiratory vessels. During the ardent heat of fever, the -external application of cold is the most efficient sudorific, as the -valuable reports of Dr. Currie have very satisfactorily established. - -Although the _external_ application of cold was not often employed in -the hot stage of fever, until within the last thirty years, yet the -administration of cold _drinks_ appears to have been practised by the -ancients, as an expedient to produce perspiration. Galen, and his -immediate disciples, as well as the physicians of the sixteenth century, -seem to have frequently administered cold water for the purpose of -exciting sweat in fevers.[162] Celsus also describes the beneficial -effects which arise from copious draughts of cold water in ardent -fevers, “fereque post longam sitim et vigiliam, post multam satietatem, -post infractum calorem, plenus somnus venit, per quem _ingens sudor -effunditur_, idque præsentissimum auxilium est.”[163] Cold water, when -introduced into the stomach in the hot stage of fever, must produce its -diaphoretic effect through the sympathetic relation which subsists -between that organ and the skin. Nauseating doses of _Antimony_, and of -other emetics, occasion a relaxation of the surface from the same mode -of operation, and in this latter case, if the force of the circulation -be at the same time increased by tepid diluents, the diaphoretic effect -is more certain and considerable. - -_Alcohol_, _Guaiacum_, and other powerful stimulants, produce their -effects by merely accelerating the circulation; but in employing such -remedies for the purpose of exciting sweat, we must be careful to adapt -them to the circumstances of the case, and to the degree of action which -prevails. In all febrile diseases attended with much increased heat, or -connected with local inflammation, diaphoretics of this description must -be very cautiously administered, for by accelerating the circulation -they might counteract any benefit which they would otherwise confer by -relaxing the vessels of the skin. In the whole history of medical -opinions there is scarcely a theory which has proved so fatal in its -practical applications as that maintained by Van Helmont, and his -disciples, viz. that _acute diseases were to be cured by expelling some -morbific matter, after its proper concoction_—a theory which suggested -the administration of the most stimulating sudorifics, together with -high temperature[164] in every grade of febrile exacerbation. The fatal -effects of such a practice during the seventeenth, and early parts of -the eighteenth centuries, are incalculable, and may be very -satisfactorily contrasted with the beneficial results which have -accrued, in the same diseases, in the present age, from the use of -diaphoretics of the refrigerant kind. - -_Saline Diaphoretics_, as they readily pass with the chyle, may be -supposed to enter the circulation, and be thus brought to act, directly, -on the cutaneous vessels; at the same time it seems extremely probable -that such remedies may also occasion an impression on the stomach, which -is sympathetically communicated to the vessels of the skin; they have -undoubtedly little or no influence on the general vascular system, and -neither augment the force nor the velocity of the circulating current. - -It is not, however, in febrile affections alone that this class of -remedies proves highly beneficial; the very intimate sympathetic -connection which subsists between the functions of the lungs and skins, -renders the use of such medicines particularly advantageous in the cure -of the diseases incident to the former of these organs; a fact upon -which we shall hereafter offer some remarks under the history of -_Expectorants_. - -So again, in the treatment of bowel affections, in consequence of the -intimate relation which exists between the cutaneous capillaries and -those of the internal organs, gentle diaphoretics offer a valuable -resource in their cure. How frequently do Diarrhæa, Enteritis, &c. ensue -from the sudden suppression of perspiration by cold? - -From the influence which these medicines exert upon the extreme vessels -of the skin, they are also highly serviceable in various obstinate -cutaneous affections, as _Herpes_, _Lepra_, &c. - -As evacuating the serous part of the blood must necessarily have an -indirect effect in promoting absorption, _Sudorifics_ have been -occasionally exhibited in Dropsy, especially in that form of the disease -called _Anasarca_. It has been already observed that cases too -frequently occur in which the discharge of urine cannot be increased by -art; upon such occasions practitioners have sometimes had recourse to a -trial of Sudorifics,[165] but from the great difficulty which generally -exists in exciting sweating in such affections, the indication has -rarely been fulfilled. Where however a sudorific does succeed, it is -less liable to debilitate than the other alternative of a drastic -purgative. - -There is still another point of view in which the therapeutic importance -of Diaphoretics may be considered. It is generally acknowledged that by -cutaneous transpiration a portion of excrementitious matter is ejected -from the system; hence by the failure or imperfect performance of this -function, a deleterious fluid is retained which may give origin to -disease; to such a cause may perhaps be attributed the generation of -Calculi, and other diseases of the urinary system, as we shall have -occasion to notice under the head of _Lithonthryptics_. - -The increased efficacy which these medicines derive from combination -with each other, will form a subject of interesting enquiry in the -succeeding essay. - - - EXPECTORANTS. - -Medicines which are supposed to be capable of facilitating the excretion -of mucus from the breast, _ex pectore_, that is, from the trachea, and -cells and passages of the lungs. - -If the term _Expectorant_ be intended to express a medicinal substance -which has the power of promoting the expulsion of fluid from the lungs, -by some _specific action_ on the parts concerned, we can have no -hesitation in at once rejecting the word, and denying the existence of -such remedies: if, however the term be received, conventionally, as -comprehending all those substances which are capable, according to the -state of the system in each particular case, of producing expectoration, -it will be extremely proper to recognise, and practically useful to -retain, such a class of medicinal agents. In order that their _modus -operandi_ may be correctly understood, the following classification is -submitted to the reader. - - * * * * * - - - A CLASSIFICATION OF EXPECTORANTS, - - According to their supposed Modes of Operation. - - CL: I—MEDICINES WHICH INCREASE PULMONARY EXHALATION, AND THEREBY - DILUTE THE MUCUS IN THE FOLLICLES OF THE LUNGS. - - _a._ By removing constriction of the Pulmonary Exhalant vessels. - - _Blisters._ - - _Venesection._ - - _Nauseants._ - - _b._ By stimulating these vessels by the _actual contact_ of a - medicinal substance. - - _Allium._ - - _Scilla?_ - - _The different Balsams._ - - _fœtid Gums._ - - _c._ By stimulating the top of the trachea, and thereby increasing - the action of the exhalant vessels of the lungs, by a species - of _Contiguous Sympathy_. - - _Stimulating Lozenges_, _Linctusses_, _The Inhalation of - certain vapours_, _&c._ - - CL: II.—MEDICINES WHICH DIMINISH THE INORDINATE FLOW OF FLUID INTO THE - LUNGS, AND RENDER THE EXPECTORATION OF THE REMAINDER MORE EASY. - - _a._ By removing the debility of the Exhalants. - - _Sulphate of Zinc._ - - _Bitter Tonics._ - - _b._ By increasing the power of the Absorbents. - - _Digitalis._ - - _Nicotiana._ - - _c._ By determining to the skin by gentle diaphoresis. - - _Tartarized Antimony._ - - _d._ By exciting serous discharges from the bowels. - - _Saline Purgatives._ - - CL: III.—MEDICINES WHICH OPERATE, MECHANICALLY, IN PROMOTING THE - REJECTION OF ACCUMULATED MUCUS. - - _a._ By stimulating the muscles of Respiration. - - _Ammonia._ - - _b._ By exciting vomiting, and thereby compressing the thoracic - viscera. - - _Emetics._ - - -I. OF MEDICINES WHICH INCREASE PULMONARY EXHALATION. - - -_a._ _By removing constriction of the Pulmonary Exhalant vessels._ - -There can be no doubt but that, in certain states of disease, the -exhalants of the lungs, like those of the skin, are affected by a -spasmodic constriction, in consequence of which the usual quantity of -fluid for the lubrication of these parts, is not effused, whence a train -of morbid phenomena arise; this appears to happen in _Pneumonia_, -_Asthma_, and certain other diseases of the pulmonary organs. In order -to remove such a constriction, remedies of the Antispasmodic class may -be exhibited with advantage; nauseating doses of Tartarized Antimony, or -of Ipecacuanha, are likewise calculated to fulfil the same indication, -by an operation analogous to that by which Diaphoresis is produced. If -the term might be allowed we should call such remedies _Pulmonary -Diaphoretics_. It is in this way that Venesection, Blisters, and other -anti-phlogistic remedies, may in certain states of the lungs restore a -healthy excretion from these vessels. - - -_b._ _By stimulating the Pulmonary Exhalants, by the actual contact of a -medicinal substance._ - -There certainly appear to be substances which enter the circulation, and -are more peculiarly determined to the pulmonary vessels, since their -odour is to be distinctly recognised in the air that is expired. -_Garlic_ may be adduced as an example of this kind; so penetrating is -its odorous principle, that if it be only applied to the soles of the -feet it may be perceived in the breath. Such substances may stimulate -the exhalant vessels through which they pass, and by this stimulus the -secretion may be increased, and the mucus contained in the follicles -diluted, so as to be poured out in a less viscid form, and consequently -in a state to be more easily brought up by expectoration. - - -_c._ _By stimulating the top of the trachea, and thereby increasing the -activity of the Exhalant vessels of the lungs, by a species of -contiguous sympathy._ - -The salutary operation of those various remedies, which are allowed to -pass slowly over the fauces, sufficiently establish the fact which is -here announced. In this manner I apprehend that much benefit may arise -from the use of a _Linctus_, and I am satisfied from experience that -certain cases of hoarseness are to be frequently removed by such an -application of stimulating syrups. - -The inhalation of certain vapours will also enable us to make a more -direct application to these parts; as, however, it is my intention to -dedicate a chapter to the consideration of this form of remedy, it is -unnecessary to dwell upon it in this place. - - - II. OF MEDICINES WHICH DIMINISH THE INORDINATE FLOW OF FLUID INTO THE - LUNGS. - - -_a._ _By removing the debility of the Exhalants._ - -It not unfrequently occurs in persons either debilitated by age or -disease, that the exhalant vessels of the lungs lose their tone, and -pour out a larger quantity of fluid than is necessary for the -lubrication of these organs; this is particularly observable in the -disease called _humoral asthma_, and in the catarrh of old persons: if -this excess be restrained by strengthening the tone of the system -generally, or by astringing these vessels in particular, the -expectoration of the remainder will be rendered much more easy. -According to my experience, _sulphate of zinc_ displays considerable -powers in moderating this effusion of fluid, and it appears to produce -this effect by increasing the tone of the exhalant vessels of the lungs; -several medicines also, which are included in the former division of -this classification, may, by stimulating these organs, not only promote -the exhalation when it is too scanty, but repress it when it is too -abundant. - - -_b._ _By increasing the power of the Absorbents._ - -In some cases, the mucous inundation may not depend upon any fault in -the exhalants, but upon a torpid state of the pulmonary absorbents: our -remedy for this evil is to be found amongst that class of medicines -which have the power of promoting absorption, as small doses of some -mercurial preparation, _Digitalis_, and perhaps _Nicotiana_, &c. - - -_c._ _By determining to the skin by a gentle diaphoresis._ - -It is evident that an increase of the cutaneous exhalation is generally -attended with a relative diminution in the other serous excretions of -body; this is so obvious with respect to our urinary discharge, that -every person must have noticed the variation of its quantity at -different seasons of the year: in like manner the exhalation from the -lungs, although less capable of becoming an object of observation, is -not less affected by the state of the cutaneous discharge; hence -medicines capable of promoting it, are calculated to diminish the -quantity of serous exhalation from the lungs; and it is upon this -principle, that well regulated doses of the compound powder of -Ipecacuan], frequently furnish the oppressed asthmatic with a valuable -resource. - - -_d._ _By exciting serous discharges from the bowels._ - -Upon the principle announced in the preceding section, the operation of -a saline cathartic may relieve the pulmonary organs when loaded with a -preternatural accumulation of fluid, and consequently assist -expectoration. On the contrary, if the exhalation be deficient, this -class of remedies may increase pulmonary irritation, and check -expectoration, a fact which coincides with the concurrent testimony of -many able practitioners. - - - III. OF MEDICINES WHICH OPERATE _mechanically_. - - -_a._ _By imparting vigour to the respiratory muscles, engaged in the act -of expectorating._ - -It must be admitted that, to a certain extent, expectoration is a -voluntary operation, connected with the action of a variety of muscles, -which in a state of extreme debility are not easily excited into action: -every practitioner must have noticed this fact during the treatment of -the coughs of exhausted patients, and have witnessed the distress -necessarily arising from it; in this condition, the exhibition of a -stimulant may so far renew the exhausted excitability of these organs, -as to enable them to undergo the necessary exertions. - - -_b._ _By compressing the thoracic viscera, through the operation of an -emetic._ - -The beneficial results which frequently attend the concussion of an -emetic, in cases of mucous accumulations in the lungs, are too well -known and understood to require much elucidation: in the act of vomiting -the thoracic viscera are violently compressed, the neighbouring muscles -are also called into strong action, and both expiration and inspiration -are thus rendered more forcible, and the expulsion of mucus from the -cavity of the lungs necessarily accomplished. - -The safety and expediency of such a resource must, however, in each -particular case be left to the discretion of the medical practitioner. - -Besides the remedies above enumerated, there are some others which -afford relief in certain coughs, and have therefore in popular medicine, -been considered as _Expectorants_; but their operation, if they exert -any, is to be explained upon principles altogether different from that -of facilitating expectoration, and will more properly fall under the -head of _Demulcents_. - -Atmospheric changes, in relation to moisture and dryness, deserve some -notice before we conclude the history of expectorant agents: the subject -teems with curious and important facts, and the advantages which the -asthmatic patient derives from such changes merit farther investigation. -That the lungs are constantly giving off aqueous vapour is made evident -by condensing the expired air on a cold surface of glass or metal; and -it is easy to imagine that when the atmosphere is saturated with -moisture, its power of conducting off this vapour will be proportionably -diminished, and that an accumulation of fluid may thus take place in the -lungs; on the other hand, we may suppose the air to be so dry as to have -an increased capacity for moisture, and to carry off the expired vapour -with preternatural avidity; in either of these cases, the excretions -from the lungs will be materially influenced, whether to the benefit or -disadvantage of the patient will depend, in each particular instance, -upon the nature of the disease under which he suffers. I have known a -person who could breathe with more freedom in the thick fogs of the -metropolis than in the pure air of a mountainous region, and it would -not be difficult to adduce many examples in illustration of a -diametrically opposite constitution of the pulmonary organs. - -From the same cause we may frequently observe remarkable changes occur -in the character of a cough, at the breaking up of a frost; in some -cases the expectoration will be checked, and in others promoted by a -sudden change from a dry to a moist atmosphere. Can a more instructive -illustration be offered of that important fact, which I have been -labouring in every page to impress upon the mind of the young -practitioner, that, _remedies are only relative agents_? - -In the course of considerable experience in the treatment of pulmonary -complaints, and in the influence of climate and seasons upon them, I -have repeatedly observed the rapid transition from moisture to dryness -to occasion very remarkable effects upon the disease; and I much -question whether an attention to such a condition of the atmosphere does -not deserve as much consideration in the election of a suitable place of -residence for such invalids, as the more obvious circumstance of -temperature. I have been long in the habit of recommending to persons -confined in artificially warmed apartments, to evaporate a certain -portion of water, whenever the external air has become excessively dry -by the prevalence of the north-east winds, which so frequently infest -this island during the months of Spring; and the most marked advantage -has attended the practice. But in such cases the practitioner must ever -be guided by the symptoms of each particular case; it would be worse -than useless to lay down any general precept for his guidance. We cannot -then be surprised that such a difference of opinion should exist amongst -practitioners of equal eminence, respecting the influence of a marine -atmosphere; some advocating its advantages to the pulmonary invalid, and -others maintaining with equal confidence the injurious tendency of such -localities; each party appeals to _experience_ in justification of his -opinion, and with equal candour and justice; but the cases from the -results of which the medical inference has been drawn, however parallel -they may have appeared, differed in those essential points to which we -have alluded, and upon which the question of climate would seem to turn. -There is another circumstance connected with the subject of atmospheric -moisture which it is also essential to remember,—that the air gains a -considerable increase in its power of conducting caloric, by becoming -saturated with aqueous vapour; thus, when a thaw takes place, and the -thermometer rises a few degrees above 32°, the air, instead of -impressing us with the sensation of increased temperature, actually -appears much colder. - - - SIALOGOGUES; - -Substances which increase the salivary[166] discharge. This class -comprehends two orders of medicines, viz. - -1st. Those which increase the salivary excretion by _external_ -application to the secreting vessels, by mastication, as the following -acrimonious and pungent substances, _Anthemis Pyrethrum_; _Colchearia -Armoracia_; _Daphne Mezereum_; _Nicotiana Tabacum_, &c. - -2nd. Those whose _internal_ exhibition affects these organs through the -medium of the circulation, of which _Mercury_ is the only true example; -for all the preparations of this metal, when administered in certain -quantities, produce salivation. - -The acrid Sialogogues, or Masticatories, by stimulating the excretory -ducts, and increasing the secretion of saliva, sometimes relieve the -pain of tooth-ache, and are commonly resorted to for that purpose; they -are besides supposed capable of relieving other congestions, or -inflammatory dispositions, in remote parts of the head, by the -derivation they occasion from the neighbouring vessels, especially the -branches of the external carotid. - -Mercury, in its metallic state,[167] is perfectly inert, and does not -exert any influence whatever upon the living body: this fact is -sufficient, if any serious refutation were necessary, to overturn the -theory which attributes its sialogogue property to the gravity of its -particles, by which “it is disposed to retain the _direct line_ in which -it is propelled from the heart, and is therefore more certainly -determined to the vessels of the head.” It has been also supposed to act -by diminishing the _lentor_ of the blood, and disposing it to pass more -easily into the salivary glands, so as to increase their secretion: -equally gratuitous and improbable are the chemical hypothesis which have -been offered to explain this curious and singular property; Dr. Cullen -endeavoured to solve the problem, by supposing that “_Mercury has a -particular disposition to unite with ammoniacal salts, and that such -salts are disposed to pass off by the salivary glands more copiously -than by any other excretion_.” Dr. Murray, however, very justly remarks -that mercury has not any peculiar tendency of this kind; and that if it -had, these salts are not more abundant in the saliva, than in some other -secretions. Dr. Murray then proceeds to submit a theory which he -considers better calculated to explain the phenomenon; he observes, that -the urine appears more peculiarly designed to convey matter which has -been received into the circulating mass, but which is still -excrementitious, from the system. To pass, however, with this fluid, it -is necessary that the matter conveyed should be soluble in it; and when -it is so, we can discover it in the secretion by chemical tests. If -there is any property connected with it, therefore, which shall prevent -this solubility, it probably will prevent the substance from being -secreted. Now, the _phosphoric acid_, abundant in urine, must in this -mode counteract the secretion of mercury in any form of preparation, by -forming with it a compound, insoluble, and to which the slight excess of -acid cannot communicate solubility; the mercury, therefore, existing in -the circulating mass, when brought in the course of the circulation to -the secreting vessels of the kidneys, will not pass through their whole -course; but if conveyed so far as to be combined with _phosphoric acid_, -will, from this combination, be incapable of being conveyed onwards, and -will therefore be retained in the composition of that part of the blood -which does not enter into the secretion, but returns into the -circulation. It must be discharged by some other emunctory; a portion of -it appears, from some facts, to pass off by the insensible perspiration; -but the _tenuity_ of this secretion, if the term may be employed, must -be unfavourable to this mode of discharge. The salivary secretion is one -by which it may be more easily transmitted; and this transmission may -even be facilitated by the affinity exerted to the _Oxide of Mercury_ by -the _Muriatic Acid_, the _Soda_, and _Ammonia_, which are the chief -saline ingredients in saliva; for it deserves to be remarked that triple -compounds of these substances are, to a certain extent, soluble in -water; and if the _Mercury_ is thus secreted, it will of course -stimulate the secreting vessels through which it passes, and increase -the discharge. - -Sir Gilbert Blane[168] has lately advanced another hypothesis to account -for the effects of mercury as a sialogogue; he considers the salivary -glands as one of the outlets for the _ramenta_ of the bones, for by -analysing the saliva we discover the principles of which they consist; -indeed the osseous matter not unfrequently concretes on the teeth, and -sometimes on the salivary ducts, in the form of what is called _Tartar:_ -“does not this fact,” says Sir Gilbert Blane, “in some measure account -for these glands being the parts upon which determination is made by the -operation of mercury, which consists in exciting an active absorption of -solid parts, as I have elsewhere observed?”[169] - -But do not the kidneys, and other excretory glands also furnish outlets, -through which the _detritus_ of the body is eliminated. How does it -happen, therefore, that the kidneys are not as equally affected as the -salivary glands by the action of mercury? In the present state of our -knowledge it will be more prudent to rest on the phenomenon as an -ultimate fact, than in attempting to ascend higher in the scale of -causes, to involve ourselves in impenetrable darkness. - -During the prevalence of the theory which attributed to _Nitric acid_ -all the antisyphilitic powers of mercury, it was even maintained that -this acid also excited ptyalism; experience however has disproved the -effects thus attributed to it, and no one attempts to support its -pretensions, as a sialogogue, except indeed as it may perchance, by its -acrid qualities, influence the excretory ducts of the glands, -externally, in the act of being swallowed. - -It has very lately been stated by Dr. Macleod,[170] that the -_Hydro-cyanic acid_ occasionally produces soreness of the gums, and a -disposition to ptyalism; this, if true, is a very remarkable fact, and -well deserves attentive consideration. - -Some theorists may, perhaps, be inclined to consider certain Nauseating -Medicines as possessing sialogogue properties. It cannot be denied that -an increased discharge of saliva will take place during the operation of -such remedies, but it is very transient, and can never be rendered -available to any therapeutic object. I shall however have occasion to -refer to this fact hereafter, and to the inference deduced from it by -Dr. Eberle, in explanation of the effect of nauseating medicines in -promoting the operation of Mercury. - - - ERRHINES, or STERNUTATORIES: - -Substances which, by direct application to the pituitary membrane, -occasion a discharge from the nostrils either of a mucous or serous -fluid. This class contains several different species, whose operation -varies in intensity, as well as in duration. - -Errhines have been regarded as useful in consequence of the evacuation -they occasion, but in this respect their value has been greatly -over-rated; it has been stated, that they diminish the quantity of fluid -circulating in the neighbouring vessels, and even extend their influence -to all the branches of the external carotid; and Dr. Cullen says that he -has, apparently from this operation, known head-ache, pain of the ear, -and some cases of ophthalmia, cured or relieved by the use of Errhines. -There can be no doubt that local stimulants of this kind will frequently -remove pain from the head and neighbouring parts, but not merely by -occasioning vascular depletion, as Dr. Cullen supposed, but by a -stimulant operation conveyed through the medium of nervous -communication, or contiguous sympathy. - -Dr. Cullen has moreover supposed, that these substances may be useful in -preventing apoplexy or palsy. Morgagni[171] however relates a case in -which sneezing induced a fatal attack of this disease; and Van -Swieten[172] has satisfactorily shewn, that continued paroxysms of -sneezing tend to load the vessels of the head with blood; for the -violent contraction of the chest impedes, for a time, the passage of the -blood through the lungs, and therefore obstructs the return of the -venous blood from the brain, the vessels of which are in consequence -greatly distended; the face therefore reddens and becomes turgid, the -eyes are suffused with water, and appear full and distended. Its -occasional dangerous violence is said to have given origin to the -benediction so universally bestowed on those who sneeze.[173] - -It has been a subject of popular inquiry, how far the habitual use of -Snuff may prove beneficial or injurious; and whether the habit, when -once fully established, can be discontinued with impunity? It may be -remarked that Snuff, by habitual use, soon ceases to produce the effect -of an Errhine, for which reason its discontinuance cannot, generally, be -regarded as likely to be attended with any danger; in those cases, -however, in which the discharge is perpetuated, a contrary judgment -should be pronounced, for all artificial discharges become -constitutional by long continuance, and can therefore be seldom checked -with impunity. Dr. Cullen states, from experience, that “whenever the -nasal discharge has been considerable, the laying aside the custom of -taking snuff has been productive of evil.” - - - EPISPASTICS. _Vesicatories._ _Blisters._ - -External applications to the skin, which produce a serous or puriform -discharge, by previously exciting a high state of inflammation. - -When these agents act so mildly as merely to excite inflammation, -without occasioning the effusion of serum, they are denominated -RUBEFACIENTS. - -Various substances have at different times, been proposed for the -accomplishment of this object,—such as _Nitric Acid_, _Boiling Water_, -_Strong Acetic Acid_, _Tartarized Antimony_, &c. It is, however, -generally admitted, that no substance ever employed equals in efficacy, -or certainty, the _Cantharis Vesicatoria_, the common blistering, or -Spanish fly; and whose effects may serve to illustrate the _modus -operandi_ of this class of remedies. - -By the application of a _Blister_, the extreme blood vessels are excited -into increased action, by which inflammation is occasioned, and the -exhalants made to pour out a thin serous fluid which separates the -cuticle from the true skin, and forms a vesicle or blister. - -From this simple view of the subject it will appear evident, that -blisters may produce their salutary effects by several different modes -of operation; by a just estimate of which the practitioner will be -enabled to reconcile the discordant opinions which have been delivered -upon the subject, and to employ these agents with greater satisfaction -and advantage. - -Blisters may act— - - 1. AS DERIVATIVES, i. e. _by producing a derivation of the circulation - from the inflamed and engorged vessels of the neighbouring organs - to the blistered surface_. This mode of operation was long - overlooked by the physicians, who ascribed all the beneficial - effects of a blister to the evacuation which it produced, while - the humoral pathologist, moreover, considered the matter so - discharged to be of a morbific nature. That such agents owe their - salutary tendency to causes independent of their powers as - evacuants, is at once rendered evident by the relief which they - afford, when used only as Rubefacients. - - 2. AS EVACUANTS—_by occasioning an effusion of Fluids_. In this case - the vesicated part may be considered in the light of a new - excretory organ, the formation of which requires the establishment - of a new current or determination of blood; so long as the - discharge continues, so long will there be an especial demand of - blood in the blistered part, and a consequent derivation of the - circulation from the inflamed and engorged vessels of the - neighbouring organs.[174] The nature of the fluid effused is at - first serous, but after some time it becomes purulent, and this - stage of its operation must be considered as, by far, the most - beneficial; hence the great advantages derived from a “_perpetual - blister_.” - - 3. AS GENERAL STIMULANTS, _by raising the vigour of the - circulation_.[175] That Blisters have such a tendency there exist - too many proofs to allow us to doubt. Hence in fevers they - frequently prove valuable auxiliaries, but since the application - of any stimulus, in such diseases, must be regulated by the degree - of excitement, it is evident that they can only be made with - success in particular stages; this simple fact will at once - explain the cause of that want of unanimity in Physicians with - respect to the value of blisters in febrile diseases. Rush - considered that there was one particular period, in the course of - a continued fever, intermediate between its stage of high - excitement and the appearance of a collapse, in which blisters - will generally produce unequivocal good effects, and to this he - gave the name of the _Blistering point_. - - 4. AS ANTISPASMODICS.—_Relieving pain through the medium of Contiguous - Sympathy._ This effect would frequently appear to be independent - of the operations above enumerated; a similar principle seems to - exist with regard to the _pain_ excited by blisters, which may - also be applied to the explanation of the advantages derived from - them in several diseases. It has long been remarked that, by - exciting one pain we may often relieve another, and hence blisters - afford relief in tooth-ache, and other painful affections. - Epilepsy and Hysteria, arising from irritation, have been removed - by such applications, apparently from their exciting powers. - -It remains for us to make a few observations upon the abuse of these -remedies, for, notwithstanding the popular adage that “_Blisters are -always safe things_,” that “_if they do no good, they can do no harm_,” -they will be found, like all other potent applications, capable of -producing much mischief when directed by unskilful hands. In stages of -high vascular excitement in the pulmonary organs, blisters have -increased the irritation they were designed to allay, and in some cases -have promoted a tendency to effusion; in the treatment of acute -Hydrocephalus the common practice of blistering the head appears very -questionable, and has too often, I am well persuaded, accelerated the -fatal termination, by increasing the disposition to serous effusion. - - - ISSUES (_Fonticuli_) and SETONS (_Setacea_[176]). - -The effects of these processes bear a strong analogy to those which are -produced by Vesicatories; they are, however, more permanent, and are on -that account better adapted to the relief of those chronic affections -which would seem to require a remedy of long continued influence. In -pulmonary affections, for instance, a seton in the side is frequently -attended with very considerable benefit. The popular belief in humoral -pathology, which continues to influence the mass of mankind, has perhaps -assigned to these remedies a greater share of credit than that to which -they are really entitled, but it must still be acknowledged that when an -ulcer having existed a great length of time, is healed or _dried up_, or -any constitutional discharge is suddenly checked, the health may become -affected. In such cases the establishing a discharge by means of an -Issue is undoubtedly a safe, and often a beneficial operation. - - - III. OF CHEMICAL REMEDIES. - -There is no principle in physiology better established than that which -considers vitality as a power engaged in continual conflict with the -physical, chemical, and mechanical laws, to which every species of -inanimate matter is invariably subject. Every phenomenon of the living -body might be advanced in illustration and support of this general -position. The animal machine is constantly surrounded and assailed by -agents, whose elective attractions for the principles of which it -consists, are so numerous and energetic, that its decomposition would -inevitably and speedily result, were not the adhesion of its molecules -maintained by the conservative influence of a superior power. The -compositions and decompositions which manifest themselves in the -elaborate operations of chylification, sanguification, and secretion, -are carried on by agencies totally distinct from those which govern the -combinations of inert matter, and must be investigated upon principles -essentially different. How then, it may be asked, can a medicinal -substance be brought to act _chemically_ upon the _living_ body? -Notwithstanding the general proposition, that the animal processes to -which we have alluded, are governed by laws peculiar to life, yet it -must be admitted that such processes are occasionally influenced,[177] -modified, and controlled by powers strictly chemical in their operation; -although in some cases it will be seen that such effects afford only -apparent exceptions to the general law: for several of the remedies -whose operations have been regarded as purely chemical, exert their -influence on parts which cannot be strictly considered under the control -of the living principle; of which _Antacids_, and certain _Antidotes_ -and _Antiseptics_, to be hereafter explained, may be considered as -examples: in like manner will cataplasms of acetic acid hasten the -exfoliation of carious bone; a practice which has lately been employed -with much success in the Infirmary at Gloucester. Upon the same -principle alkaline applications may be made to dissolve coagulated -blood; suppose, for the sake of illustration, that the bladder should -become filled with coagulum through hemorrhage from the prostate gland, -and that the most serious consequences were to be apprehended from the -distention; in such an emergency, a dilute and tepid solution of potass, -if injected through the catheter, might prove eminently serviceable; -although such a practice would require the utmost skill for its safe -direction, since the removal of the plug, thus afforded by Nature to the -bleeding vessel, might be followed by an immediate return of active -hemorrhage. On the contrary, other agents destroy the vitality of the -organ before they can produce any change in the matter of which it is -composed, as the action of _Escharotics_ will clearly demonstrate. - - - REFRIGERANTS. - -Substances which directly diminish the force of the circulation, and -reduce the heat of the body, without occasioning any diminution of -sensibility or nervous energy. - -These remedies may be considered either as external and local, or as -internal and general. In the first case, there will not be much -difficulty in substantiating their claims to be considered _Chemical -Agents_, but in the latter case, the theory of their operation is -unsatisfactory and obscure; and even the facts which are adduced to -establish the existence of such a class of remedies, are of a very -problematical character. - -TOPICAL REFRIGERANTS. In the case of external inflammation, -refrigeration may be produced by the application of cold substances, -such as water, ice, or certain saline solutions, or by the abstraction -of heat by means of evaporation, which is very effectually accomplished -by the use of lotions composed of spirit or ether. By these methods we -are capable of directly diminishing the activity of the vessels of the -part; thus, in burns and scalds, the pain is instantly relieved, and the -inflammation effectually reduced. - -INTERNAL REFRIGERANTS. There are certain saline substances which, by -undergoing a rapid solution, and acquiring an increased capacity for -caloric, produce a diminution of temperature, and if this takes place in -the stomach, the sensation of cold which it will produce is equivalent -to a partial abstraction of stimulus; which, being extended by sympathy -to the heart, occasions a transient reduction in the force of the -circulation, and by this, or by a similar sympathetic affection, causes -a sensation of cold over the whole body; in this manner Dr. Murray -explains the refrigerant operation of nitre, which after all is of a -very doubtful nature. We shall perhaps not feel much difficulty in -accepting this theory, and in allowing that general refrigerant effects -may be temporarily produced, by occasioning an impression of cold upon -the stomach. The theory which is proposed to explain the refrigerant -operation of vegetable acids and certain other substances, and which we -have now to consider, is derived from those chemical views respecting -animal heat, in which the consumption of oxygen in the act of -respiration is considered the principal source. Dr. Murray,[178] who has -given a luminous exposition of this theory, says “it is established by -numerous experiments and observations, that the quantity of oxygen -consumed in the lungs is materially influenced by the nature of the -ingesta received into the stomach. When the food and drink are composed -of substances which contain a small proportion of oxygen, it is known -that the consumption of oxygen in the lungs is increased, and this even -in a short time after the aliment has been received; thus Mr. Spalding, -the celebrated diver, observed, that whenever he used a diet of animal -food, or drank spirituous liquors, he consumed in a much shorter time -the oxygen of the atmospheric air in his diving-bell; and therefore he -had learned from experience to confine himself to a vegetable diet, and -to water for drink, when following his profession.”[179] During -digestion too, it was established by the experiments of Lavoisier and -Seguin, that a larger proportion of oxygen than usual is consumed. - -But it is known, that the animal temperature is derived from the -consumption of oxygen gas by respiration; and, that an increase in that -consumption will occasion a greater evolution of caloric in the system, -and consequently an increase of temperature in the body, while a -diminution in the consumption of oxygen will have an opposite effect. -If, then, when the temperature of the body is morbidly increased, we -introduce into the stomach substances containing a large proportion of -oxygen, especially in a loose state of combination, we may succeed in -reducing the general temperature. This we accomplish in part by a -vegetable diet, but still more effectually by the free use of the -_Acids_. The vegetable acids in particular, which are found by -experience to be the best refrigerants, are readily acted upon by the -digestive powers, and assimilated with the food; and as the large -quantity of oxygen which they contain is already in a concrete state, -little sensible heat can be produced by the combination of that element -with the other principles of the food. The nutritious matter which is -received into the blood, containing thus a larger proportion of oxygen -than usual, will be disposed to abstract less of it from the air in the -lungs, and consequently less caloric will be evolved; the temperature of -the body will be reduced; and this, again operating as a reduction of -stimulus, will lessen the number and force of the contractions of the -heart. - -Such is the philosophical web which chemical ingenuity has wove for -us,—the device is beautiful, but the fabric will be found too frail to -endure the touch. The experiments of Dr. Crawford, in proof of the -chemical origin of animal heat, are highly ingenious and plausible, but -it is now generally admitted that the temperature of animals depends -upon the living principle[180] which animates them, and that although -the absorption of oxygen, in the act of respiration, may directly -contribute something to its production, yet that its chief action is -that of serving as a stimulus to the living power in generating it; for, -as Sir Gilbert Blane[181] remarks, oxygen plays an interesting and -active part as an exciting power throughout all nature, both animate and -inanimate. If the heat of the body depended on respiration alone, any -one might, by a voluntary effort of quick, deep, and prolonged -respiration, increase the temperature of his body at will; the effect -also of the emotions of the mind, in generating both heat and cold, adds -Sir Gilbert, is proof sufficient of temperature depending on a vital, -and not on a chemical cause. - - - ANTACIDS: - -Remedies which obviate acidity in the stomach, by combining with the -acid, and neutralizing it. - -This is the most decided instance of chemical action which occurs in the -history of medicinal operations. We have an acid whose presence excites -morbid symptoms in the _primæ viæ_, and these are immediately removed by -the administration of any one of those substances which are capable of -forming a natural compound with the acid in question, _out of the body_, -and the same proportions are required in both cases for saturation. If a -carbonated alkali be employed, the same disengagement of carbonic acid -takes place in the stomach as would occur in the laboratory, and a new -compound is produced, whose operation varies according to the chemical -nature of the substance employed; thus, the salt which magnesia forms -with the acid in the stomach proves slightly purgative, while that which -lime produces under similar circumstances is distinguished by an -opposite property. - - - ANTILITHICS AND LITHONTHRYPTICS. - -ANTILITHICS[182] are remedies which have the power of preventing the -formation of those mechanical deposites from the urine, which give -origin to calculous concretions; and may belong either to the class of -Vital, or Chemical Agents. - -LITHONTHRYPTICS[183] are those medicines which, by a chemical operation, -are capable of dissolving calculous concretions. - -It has been already shewn, while treating the subject of Diuretics, that -certain substances, when internally administered, are capable of passing -the barriers of digestion, and of entering the circulation; and that, -moreover, these bodies may be again separated by the secretory vessels -of the kidneys, and be ejected from the body in the urine. It cannot -therefore be contended, that the urinary calculus is placed beyond the -sphere of direct medicinal influence, nor can any argument, founded upon -the alleged incompatibility of chemical and vital action, be fairly -maintained in this case; for the urinary calculus, as well as the urine -itself,[184] may very justly be considered as extraneous to the living -body. The existence of such a class of remedies as that of -Lithonthryptics being thus established, we have to consider the mode and -possible extent of their operation in the different varieties of the -disease, which they are thus calculated to palliate or cure. In entering -upon this inquiry, it is not my intention to prosecute the subject -farther than may be necessary to explain the _modus operandi_ of the -remedies in question, and in conformity with the object and plan of this -work, to establish some general principles that are to direct us in -their election, combination, and administration; for farther details the -practitioner must consult the systematic treatises of _Prout_[185] and -_Marcet_,[186] and the very able papers of Mr. _Brande_,[187] and Dr. -_Wilson Philip_.[188] - -The urine may be considered as one of the most heterogeneous of the -animal fluids;[189] and since a knowledge of its composition, and that -of the morbid changes of which it is susceptible, must constitute the -basis of all our knowledge respecting the formation and cure of -calculous affections, the following results of an elaborate analysis by -_Berzelius_, are submitted with a view to elucidate our pathological -researches. - - _Animal Principles._│Water 933·00 - „ │Urea 30·10 - „ │Lithic Acid 1·00 - „ │Pure Lactic Acid, Lactate of Ammonia, and - │ Animal matters not separable from these 17·14 - „ │Mucus of the Bladder ·32 - - _Alkaline and Earthy│Sulphate of Potass - Salts._ │ 3·71 - „ │Sulphate of Soda 3·16 - „ │Phosphate of Soda 2·94 - „ │Phosphate of Ammonia 1·65 - „ │Muriate of Soda 4·45 - „ │Muriate of Ammonia 1·50 - „ │Earthy Phosphates with a trace of Fluate - │ of Lime 1·00 - „ │Silex ·03 - ——————— - 1000·00 - ——————— - -Besides the above ingredients, which appear to be essential to healthy -urine, Dr. Prout observes that in different diseases it may contain -Albumen, Fibrin, and the red particles of the blood; Nitric acid; -various acids, which are found to be modifications of the Lithic; Oxalic -acid; Benzoic acid; Carbonic acid;[190] Xanthic Oxide; Cystic Oxide; -Sugar; Bile; and Pus. - -It will be necessary in this place to make a few observations upon the -nature and habitudes of those principles, which are more immediately -active in the production of calculi— - - 1. _Urea_ is a principle peculiar to urine, and must be regarded as a - result of the action of the kidneys upon some of the constituents - of the blood, perhaps, as Dr. Prout suggests, upon its albuminous - matter. For a long time it was regarded as the peculiar principle - upon which the colour and other sensible qualities of the urine - depended; Berzelius however has corrected this fallacy, and - considers that the Lactic acid, and its accompanying animal - matters, are the bodies which impart to this fluid the - characteristic smell and colour which distinguish it.[191] - - 2. _Lithic_, or _Uric[192] Acid_. As this principle is not found in - the blood, but is constantly present in healthy urine, it follows - that it must be generated by the action of the kidneys. M. - Majendie[193] has lately endeavoured to prove that its secretion - depends upon the _Azote_ received in alimentary substances, and - for the following reasons, _viz._ 1. Azote is a component part of - _Lithic Acid_[194]—2. Those persons who use a large portion of - animal food, and fermented liquors, are liable to calculous - disorders—3. When animals are confined to food which contains no - Azote, no Lithic acid is formed—but of this anon.—Berzelius and - other animal chemists have supposed that this acid exists in urine - in a free state; but Dr. Prout, whose arguments appear very - satisfactory and decisive, is of opinion that it is always in - combination with ammonia (_Lithate of Ammonia_), from which - however it is very easily separated by the addition of any acid, - even the carbonic, in the form of a red powder. It moreover - appears to be susceptible of several important modifications, with - which it behoves the pathologist to be acquainted; the profession - is greatly indebted to the ingenuity and industry of Dr. Prout for - some very essential additions to our knowledge, respecting the - habitudes of _Lithic acid_ with different bodies. - - _Erythric Acid._ When nitric acid diluted with about an equal bulk of - water, is poured upon pure lithic acid, and a moderate heat is - applied, an effervescence takes place, and the lithic acid is - dissolved; if we then concentrate this solution by a gentle - evaporation, we obtain transparent colourless crystals, which have - been found to constitute a peculiar acid, to which M. Brugnatelli - has given the name of _Erythric acid_. - - _Purpuric Acid._ Dr. Prout has discovered that if into a strong - solution of the above crystals in water, whilst boiling hot, we - carefully drop some pure ammonia, the solution acquires a - beautiful purple[195] colour, and crystals of _purpurate of - ammonia_ speedily begin to form and subside. If these crystals are - treated by means of potass and sulphuric acid, pure _Purpuric - acid_ is obtained in the form of a yellowish, or cream-coloured - powder. - - 3. _The Phosphates._ As the Phosphoric acid and its compounds perform - an important part in the generation of calculi, their origin[196] - and history demand particular attention from the chemist. The - Phosphoric acid frequently exists in the urine in a free state, - when it would appear to act, like any other acid, as a precipitant - of the Lithic acid; this however is not the circumstance that - renders its presence formidable; it is to the abundance of its - compounds that we are to look for mischief. In healthy urine the - phosphoric acid appears to exist in union with soda and ammonia, - and partly with lime and magnesia; the latter salts being retained - in solution by an excess of acid; but the proportion of these - bodies is liable to considerable variation.[197] - -Having thus briefly noticed those particular points in the chemistry of -the subject with which the therapeutic principles are more immediately -connected, we shall be better prepared to examine and appreciate the -several plans of treatment which have been proposed for the prevention, -cure, or palliation of calculous disorders; and here the subject -naturally divides itself into two parts; the one comprehending the -_modus operandi_ of Antilithics, or those remedies which prevent or -correct the calculous diathesis; the other, explaining the solvent -action of Lithonthryptics over concretions already formed. - -The line of demarcation by which healthy and morbid urine are separated, -is so slight that it is difficult to define its limits; nor would the -circumstance appear to be materially important, for the boundary is -daily exceeded, not only with impunity, but even without our -consciousness of the event; and Dr. Prout has accordingly denominated -such occasional deviations, the “_Sediments of Health_.” - -The same enlightened author considers that mechanical deposites from the -urine, although composed of the same general ingredients, may, in a -pathological point of view, be conveniently divided into three classes, -viz. _Pulverulent_ or _Amorphous Sediments_; 2. _Crystalline Sediments_, -usually denominated gravel; and 3. _Solid Concretions_, or calculi -formed by the aggregation of these latter sediments. The first of these -may be passed over, as unconnected with the present subject; the latter -however constitutes an essential object of research; for a complete -acquaintance with the chemical history of calculi can alone furnish the -true indications of cure. - -Scheele,[198] with whom the inquiry originated, conceived that every -calculus consisted of a peculiar concrete acid, soluble in alkaline -lixivia, and which Morveau denominated the _Lithic Acid_; but the -subsequent researches of Fourcroy, Vauquelin, Wollaston, Pearson, Henry, -Brande, Marcet, and Prout, have demonstrated the existence of _several_ -bodies in the composition of urinary calculi, viz. _Lithic Acid_; -_Phosphate of Lime_; _Ammoniaco-magnesian Phosphate_; _Oxalate of Lime_; -_Cystic Oxide_;[199] and _Xanthic Oxide_;[200] to which may be added an -_animal cementing ingredient_. The varieties of calculi produced by the -combination or intermixture of these ingredients, are represented in the -following Tabular Arrangement. - - ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ - │ A TABULAR VIEW OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF URINARY CALCULI. │ - ├───────────────┬─────────────────┬─────────────────┬─────────────────┤ - │ SPECIES OF │ EXTERNAL │ CHEMICAL │ REMARKS. │ - │ CALCULI. │ CHARACTERS. │ COMPOSITION. │ │ - ├───────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┤ - │1. LITHIC or │_Form_, a │It consists │It is the │ - │ URIC. │ flattened oval;│ principally of │ prevailing │ - │ │ _Specific │ _Lithic Acid_; │ species; but │ - │ │ gravity_, │ when treated │ the surface │ - │ │ generally │ with nitric │ sometimes │ - │ │ exceeds 1·500; │ acid, a │ occurs finely │ - │ │ _Colour_, │ beautiful pink │ tuberculated. │ - │ │ brownish or │ substance │ It frequently │ - │ │ fawn-like; │ results. This │ constitutes the│ - │ │ _surface_ │ calculus is │ _Nuclei_ of the│ - │ │ smooth, texture│ slightly │ other species. │ - │ │ laminated. │ soluble in │ │ - │ │ │ water, │ │ - │ │ │ abundantly in │ │ - │ │ │ the pure │ │ - │ │ │ alkalies. │ │ - ├───────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┤ - │2. MULBERRY. │_Colour_, │It is _Oxalate of│This species │ - │ │ dark-brown; │ Lime_, and is │ includes some │ - │ │ _texture_, │ decomposed in │ varieties which│ - │ │ harder than │ the flame of a │ are remarkably │ - │ │ that of the │ spirit lamp, │ smooth and pale│ - │ │ other species; │ swelling out │ coloured, │ - │ │ _Sp. grav._ │ into a white │ resembling a │ - │ │ from 1·428 to │ efflorescence, │ _hemp seed_. │ - │ │ 1·976. │ which is │ │ - │ │ _Surface_, │ _Quick-lime_. │ │ - │ │ studded with │ │ │ - │ │ tubercles. │ │ │ - ├───────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┤ - │3. BONE EARTH. │_Colour_, pale │Principally │ │ - │ │ brown or gray; │ _Phosphate of │ │ - │ │ _surface_ │ Lime_. It is │ │ - │ │ smooth and │ soluble in │ │ - │ │ polished; │ muriatic acid. │ │ - │ │ _structure_, │ │ │ - │ │ regularly │ │ │ - │ │ laminated; the │ │ │ - │ │ laminæ easily │ │ │ - │ │ separating into│ │ │ - │ │ concrete │ │ │ - │ │ crusts. │ │ │ - ├───────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┤ - │4. TRIPLE. │_Colour_, │It is an │This species │ - │ │ generally │ _Ammoniaco- │ attains a │ - │ │ brilliant │ magnesian │ larger size │ - │ │ white; │ phosphate_, │ than any of the│ - │ │ _surface_ │ generally mixed│ others. │ - │ │ uneven, studded│ with phosphate │ │ - │ │ with shining │ of lime; pure │ │ - │ │ crystals; less │ alkalies │ │ - │ │ compact than │ decompose it, │ │ - │ │ the preceding │ extricating its│ │ - │ │ species; │ ammonia. │ │ - │ │ between its │ │ │ - │ │ laminæ, small │ │ │ - │ │ cells occur, │ │ │ - │ │ filled with │ │ │ - │ │ sparkling │ │ │ - │ │ particles. │ │ │ - ├───────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┤ - │5. FUSIBLE. │_Colour_, │A compound of the│It is very │ - │ │ greyish-white. │ two foregoing │ fusible, │ - │ │ │ species. │ melting into a │ - │ │ │ │ vitreous │ - │ │ │ │ globule. │ - ├───────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┤ - │6. CYSTIC. │Very like the │It consists of │It is a rare │ - │ │ Triple │ _Cystic Oxide_;│ species. │ - │ │ Calculus, but │ under the │ │ - │ │ it is │ blow-pipe it │ │ - │ │ unstratified │ yields a │ │ - │ │ and more │ peculiarly │ │ - │ │ compact, and │ fetid odour. It│ │ - │ │ homogeneous. │ is soluble in │ │ - │ │ │ acids, and in │ │ - │ │ │ alkalies even │ │ - │ │ │ if they are │ │ - │ │ │ fully saturated│ │ - │ │ │ with carbonic │ │ - │ │ │ acid. │ │ - ├───────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┤ - │7. ALTERNATING.│Its section │Compound of │ │ - │ │ exhibits │ several │ │ - │ │ different │ species, │ │ - │ │ concentric │ alternating │ │ - │ │ laminæ. │ with each │ │ - │ │ │ other. │ │ - ├───────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┤ - │8. COMPOUND. │No characteristic│The ingredients │ │ - │ │ form. │ are separable │ │ - │ │ │ only by │ │ - │ │ │ chemical │ │ - │ │ │ analysis. │ │ - └───────────────┴─────────────────┴─────────────────┴─────────────────┘ - -Let us now inquire into the circumstances under which the several -substances enumerated in the foregoing table, are found to be deposited; -and first of the _Lithic acid Diathesis_. It has been already stated, -that the lithic acid exists in the urine in combination with ammonia, so -as to be held in solution under ordinary circumstances; if however any -free acid be generated, the lithic acid is immediately precipitated, -giving rise to the appearance so well known under the name of _red -gravel_; from this view of the subject the lithic acid deposite must be -considered as arising, not from the excess of that substance in the -urine, but from a decomposition of the compounds into which it enters by -the agency of a free acid. M. Majendie is therefore incorrect in -attributing its appearance to the quantity of azote in the ingesta; an -opinion which has been very ably controverted by Dr. Philip, in a paper -published in the sixth volume of the Medical Transactions. It appears, -moreover, that whatever tends to disturb the process of digestion, by -favouring the production of acid, may be considered as the exciting -cause of the lithic deposites; especially where the cutaneous functions -are imperfectly performed; for Dr. Philip is of opinion, that the -precipitating acid, in a healthy state of the system, is thrown off by -the skin; and he supposes that even when generated in excess, it may be -diverted to the surface of the body by merely increasing the insensible -perspiration. The medical treatment of the lithic diathesis is thus -rendered simple and satisfactory; and if the opinion of Dr. Prout be -true, that at least two-thirds of the whole number of calculi originate -from lithic acid, the extreme importance of the subject is too apparent -to require comment. Remedies, medicinal and dietetic, that are capable -of correcting dyspeptic symptoms, such as slight bitters,[201] will -doubtless prove valuable resources; while all those agents which have a -tendency to correct and regulate the insensible perspiration, will -necessarily fall under the head of anti-lithic remedies. Mr. Copland -Hutchison, in a paper which has been published in the Transactions of -the Medico-Chirurgical Society, has shewn a comparative rarity of -calculous disorders in British seamen. Can the quantity of muriate of -soda taken with their food, from its stimulating influence upon the -cutaneous functions, be considered as affording a plausible explanation -of this fact? The _Phosphatic Diathesis_ seems to be accompanied with -considerable derangement of the chylo-poietic viscera, and Dr. Prout -very justly remarks, what I have frequently observed, that the stools -are extremely unnatural; as the phosphates are retained in solution by -an excess of acid, it would appear as if an alkaline principle was -occasionally developed, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that this -may be sometimes derived from bilious regurgitations;[202] in some -cases, the alkali is derived from the spontaneous decomposition of urine -itself, especially where the bladder has lost its _governing -power_,[203] as from some injury[204] of the spine; or from some local -affection of the bladder or prostate gland; wherever the urine undergoes -an incipient process of decomposition, ammonia will be generated, and an -_ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate_[205] be immediately precipitated: hence -in cases where the bladder is unable to discharge its contents, this -deposite is very apt to take place, as in diseases in the prostate; and -this explains the reason why the triple phosphates are so frequently -formed in elderly people, who cannot wholly evacuate their bladder. - -It will appear evident from these cursory observations, that some -varieties of Calculi will be influenced by acids, and others by -alkalies, and that the exhibition of such remedies will be liable to -palliate, or to aggravate the symptoms, according to the character and -composition of the offending calculus, and according to the prevailing -diathesis of the patient; as a general rule to direct us in the -chemico-medical treatment of these cases, Dr. Marcet states, that -“_Whenever the lithic acid predominates, the alkalies[206] are the -appropriate remedies, but that when the calcareous or magnesian salts -prevail, the acids are to be resorted to_.” But if it be asked how we -are to discover the nature of the calculous affection, so as to direct -the suitable remedy? the reply is obvious—by an examination of the -sediment deposited by the recent urine, or by an analysis of the small -fragments which are frequently voided with it; the Phosphates subside -from the urine as a _white_, lithic acid, generally, as a _red_ deposit; -and since the phosphates are held in solution in the urine by an excess -of acid, it is evident that whenever such acidity is diminished by the -hand of Nature or art, a white sabulous deposit will ensue; hence, says -Mr. Brande, it occurs in the urine of persons who drink soda water, or -take magnesia; the remedy of such a deposit, when it takes place -habitually, is a course of acidulous medicines; on the contrary, since -_lithic acid_ is precipitated by the acids, alkalies are naturally -suggested for the prevention of that deposit. In the _compound_ calculi, -acids and alkalies may be equally injurious or beneficial, for since -these bodies are composed of a variety of ingredients, the action of any -one solvent must be partial, and may convert the smooth calculus into a -rough and highly irritating body, or vice versa. In the _alternating_ -calculi it may be judicious to exhibit these remedies alternately, as -the symptoms of the case and the deposit of the urine may indicate. -After all, however, the solvent powers of Lithonthryptic remedies must -be very limited, and in advanced cases we can never expect to procure -more than palliation. With respect to the agency of these different -remedies, as _Antilithics_, I would observe, that while experience bears -us out in confiding in the production of certain chemical effects from -their use, we must not forget that much is to be effected by their -judicious administration as _vital_ agents: and it will be hereafter my -duty to point out the many advantages that may be obtained, by combining -in one formula, medicines which individually belong to each class. - -Independent of any chemical effect, alkaline substances are found by -daily experience to allay the morbid irritability of the urinary organs -in a manner not yet explained; alkalies may also prove _generally_ -serviceable in these disorders, by acting immediately upon the digestive -organs, for the disposition of forming calculi is always, more or less, -accompanied with the indications of deranged digestion; and it is -probable that the first link of the series of actions, which cause this -disposition, has its origin in the stomach. - -The alkaline carbonates are found to answer as effectually as the pure -alkalies, and they have the advantage of being less liable to disagree -with the stomach. Mr. Hatchett has proposed the carbonate of magnesia, -in doses of ℈j to ʒj, as a valuable substitute for alkaline remedies in -cases of lithic calculi; but as its insolubility must render its -absorption equivocal, the beneficial operation of the substance must -principally depend upon its neutralizing any excess of acid in the primæ -viæ, and in this way there can be no doubt of its lithonthryptic agency; -“but,” says Dr. Marcet, “such is the tendency which the public has to -over-rate the utility of a new practice, or to take a mistaken view of -its proper application, that there is every reason to believe that the -use of magnesia has of late years become a frequent source of evil in -calculous complaints.” Lime-water has been also recommended for the -purpose of fulfilling the same indications, and as not being liable to -produce that irritability of stomach which frequently attends the long -continued use of the fixed alkalies; besides which, some chemists have -maintained that it exerts a peculiar solvent power over the cementing -animal matter of the concretion, and thereby destroys its cohesion.[207] - -Where an acid is indicated, the _Muriatic_ will in my judgment be found -as convenient and effectual as any that can be administered. Mr. Brande -proposes _Cream of Tartar_ for this purpose; upon this point I differ -with him, for this salt, to say the least of it, is questionable in its -mode of operation; for although its first impression upon the stomach is -that of an acid, the subsequent processes of digestion decompose it, and -eliminate its base, which being absorbed acts upon the urinary organs as -an alkali. I have seen a white sabulous deposit, consisting of the -Phosphates, in the urine of persons after the constant use of _Imperial_ -as a beverage, which I am at a loss to explain upon any other principle. -Sir Gilbert Blane has also very satisfactorily shewn, that a fixed -alkali produces the same effect upon the urinary organs whether it be -exhibited alone, or in combination with citric acid; in this latter case -the salt undoubtedly undergoes a decomposition _in transitu_, as I have -more fully explained under the consideration of Diuretics, (_page 94_.) -During an alterative course of Lithonthryptic remedies it may be -beneficial to interpose occasionally a purgative medicine, but we must -not combine it with the lithonthryptic, at least, if we wish this latter -medicine to reach the urinary passages; for it is a law which I have -already attempted to establish (_see page 94_), that _Catharsis suspends -the process of alimentary absorption_. - -There remains to be considered another mode of applying a solvent, and -which would seem on the first view of the subject to be full of -promise,—that of injecting the proposed menstruum into the bladder. -Unfortunately, however, the irritable state of this organ will generally -preclude the possibility of preserving the menstruum, for a sufficient -length of time, in contact with the calculus to accomplish any material -solution; nor am I aware that any case, in favour of such a practice, -stands recorded. An ingenious and novel application of the powers of -Electro-chemistry has been lately[208] proposed by M M. Prevost and -Dumas, as capable of affording means for the solution of the calculus -within the bladder; the suggestion is highly plausible, and ought not to -be hastily rejected without trial. Could the functions of the part be -protected against the influence of so powerful an agent, it is evident -that, by a galvanic battery of sufficient intensity, a calculus composed -of alkaline or earthy salts might be transferred from the bladder by the -simple introduction of a double sound, communicating on one hand with -the calculus, and, on the other, with two vessels filled with water, in -which are plunged the opposite poles of a galvanic apparatus.[209] This -arrangement would transfer the acid constituents into the vessel -connected with the _positive_ end, and the bases into that of the -_negative_ end. So far, however, as the experiments have hitherto been -carried, this degree of galvanic operation would seem to excite too much -irritation in the bladder to be admissible; but it still offers a -resource of an apparently more practicable nature. This consists in -giving to the calculus a tendency to crumble from the slightest force; -such a friability, in short, as shall render it easily broken into -pieces sufficiently small to be evacuated through the urethra, -especially by the aid of dilating that passage, an operation upon which -much has lately been said and written. A fusible calculus from the human -subject was submitted to the action of a pile, consisting of 120 pairs -of plates, for twelve hours in succession. The platinum wires, -constituting the poles, were placed in contact with the calculus, about -six or eight lines distant from each other, and the whole plunged in a -vessel filled with pure water. During the galvanic action, the bases and -phosphoric acid first arrived at their respective poles, then re-entered -into combination, when the salt thus reformed was precipitated in the -state of powder. The calculus weighed 92 grains before the experiment, -and was reduced at its termination to 80. The process being continued, -at the end of sixteen hours it presented a mass of such friable texture -as to be reduced into small crystalline particles by the slightest -pressure; the largest of which did not exceed the size of a lentil, so -that it might have easily passed through the urethra. - -In order to ascertain how far this decomposition could be effected in -the living body, the ingenious experimentalists selected a dog of rather -large size, into whose bladder they introduced a fusible calculus -attached to a sound, and between two conductors of platinum; the bladder -was next distended by injecting tepid water, and the apparatus subjected -to galvanic influence. After a little struggling, the animal became -calm, and was subjected to the operation during an hour. On removing the -sound, the calculus shewed unequivocal marks of decomposition. The same -process was repeated, night and morning, during six days, when the -friability of the calculus rendered it impossible to continue the -experiment. It had lost weight in the same proportion as in the -preceding trial. The bladder, which was afterwards examined, exhibited -no appearance of injury or disease.[210] The authors assert that this -organ does not suffer any inconvenience from this more moderate degree -of galvanic action, and suggest, as a proof of the mildness of its -influence, that we should immerse the tongue in a vessel filled with -water, in which a calculus is undergoing decomposition, and it will be -found that the tongue, which is far more sensible than the bladder, will -scarcely perceive the galvanic action, even when decomposition is going -on briskly. The authors add, that this process cannot offer any -advantage for the removal of those calculi which consist wholly of _Uric -acid_, or which contain a large proportion of it.[211] - - - ANTIDOTES. - - Synon: _Alexipharmics._ _Alexiterials._ _Counter-poisons._ - -Medicines which are capable of preventing the ill effects of a poison; -or, of counteracting its fatal virulence. - -There is perhaps no subject upon which the credulity of mankind has been -so extravagantly exercised as on that of POISONS; nor is there, -certainly, any class of remedies whose history has suffered so many -vicissitudes from the caprice of hypothesis, as that of ANTIDOTES.[212] - -It is not my intention, on the present occasion,[213] to enumerate the -many extraordinary virtues[214] which credulity has, at different times, -assigned to such medicines; nor shall I consume the time of the reader -by attempting to expose the absurdity of those fearful powers with which -ignorance, terror, and imposture, have invested certain poisons,—a -subtlety so extreme as to defeat the most skilful caution, and a -virulence so manageable as to be capable of the most accurate -graduation; so that while the former attribute was believed to ensure -their deadly operation, although exerted through the most secret and -least suspicious medium, as that of gloves,[215] tapers, or letters, the -latter was said to enable the accomplished assassin to measure the -allotted moments of his victim with the nicest precision, and to -occasion his death at any period that might best answer the objects of -the assassination.[216] - -The abandonment of such notions may be considered as one among the many -advantages which have arisen to medicine, from the cultivation of -physiology. - -Without farther introduction, I shall proceed to the main object of this -work, and inquire how far a _chemical agent_ may be capable of -neutralizing, or of decomposing, a poisonous substance in the human -body; and endeavour to ascertain the degree of confidence to which it -may in each particular case be entitled; equally important is it to -learn, whether certain _vital_ agents may not be serviceable in cases of -poisoning, either by promoting the elimination of the poison, or by -producing a state of the system best calculated to resist its -deleterious operation. - -It may be safely asserted that we possess very few true antidotes; for -although several of the mineral poisons may be neutralized or decomposed -by various reagents, yet their destructive action is generally so rapid, -that the mischief is effected before any chemical changes can avail; -and, in other cases, the substances resulting from the chemical action, -are as poisonous as the original ingredients, as in the case of the -decomposition of _Corrosive Sublimate_, by the alkalies and earths, when -the precipitated oxide is as virulent as the original salt; while, under -certain circumstances, I suspect that the vital powers of the stomach -are in direct opposition to those changes and decompositions which so -readily, and so uniformly, take place in our laboratories. To _vital -agents_ then, the practitioner must principally look for succour; but -before we can establish any general rules for the treatment of -poisoning, it is essential to distinguish between the different modes in -which poisonous substances produce their effects, or at least to -determine the parts of the living system through which they act; for it -will be found, that each poison has its own _modus operandi_, from which -alone can be derived the particular indications of cure. - -The hypotheses devised by the ancient physicians, to account for the -destructive powers of these substances, were principally derived from -mechanical notions respecting the supposed form of their particles, -which they imagined capable of lacerating and disuniting the animal -fibres by the sharpness of their spiculæ;[217] it is however, now -satisfactorily established that the action of a poison in the human -stomach is very rarely, if ever, _mechanical_; sometimes _chemical_; but -for the most part _vital_ in its operation. - -Each of the three kingdoms of Nature furnishes a number of poisons, the -investigation of whose chemical properties and physiological actions, -and that of the symptoms to which their administration gives rise, the -lesions of structure which they occasion, and of the medical treatment -which they require, constitutes an elaborate branch of science -designated by the term TOXICOLOGY, and of which I have more fully -treated in my work on Medical Jurisprudence. - -Poisons differ materially from each other, not only with respect to the -modes in which they produce their effects in relation to the several -vital organs, but with respect to their application; some of those, for -instance, which, if introduced into a wound, are speedily fatal, may be -taken into the stomach with complete impunity, as in the instance of the -venom of the viper and other snakes, which appears to exert no influence -on the stomach; others, on the contrary, display their deleterious -action on the stomach alone, such as caustic acids, and alkalies, -corrosive sublimate, and some chemical poisons; while others, again, are -equally destructive whether applied to the inner surface of the stomach, -or to the lower intestines, in the form of clyster, or even to the -mucous membrane of the mouth or nose; to the eye; to the vagina and -orifice of the uterus, or to an abraded portion of the skin. There is, -moreover, a class of substances which may be termed _Aerial_ poisons, -for they may exist in the state of gas, or be held dissolved in the -atmosphere, and be received by respiration, or by the mucous membranes -of the nose and throat; the saliva may also thus become the medium for -transferring various subtile poisons from the atmosphere to the animal -body; this is well illustrated by the fact of the transfer of metallic -influence, as related in the case of a gentleman in perfect health who -became salivated in consequence of sitting for one hour by the side of a -person who was in a state of mercurial ptyalism, in order to give him a -lesson in botany. - -It also deserves notice, that a poison acts with different degrees of -force and celerity in different parts of the same tissue; its -absorption, for instance, would appear to be energetic in proportion to -the number of veins,[218] although several apparent exceptions to this -law might be adduced, and it is evident that the plethoric state of the -part with respect to its blood-vessels has a considerable share in -modifying the effects; this observation, however, has no relation to -those poisons which operate on the system through the sympathetic -communication of the nerves; Mr. Brodie, for instance, found that the -poison of bitter almonds acted more speedily when applied to the tongue -than when injected into the intestine, though the latter presents a much -better absorbing surface. - -_Foderé_, in the fourth volume of his _Medicine Legale_, arranges -poisons according to their action on the living system, and which, with -a slight alteration in the order of the classes, has been adopted by -_Orfila_, and most other writers on Toxicology. Poisons are thus reduced -into six classes: viz. 1. CORROSIVE or ESCHAROTIC, as the _Preparations -of Mercury_, _Arsenic_, _Antimony_, _Copper_, _Tin_, _Zinc_, _Silver_, -_Gold_, and _Bismuth_; the _concentrated Acids_, and _caustic Alkalies_, -and _Earths_; _Cantharides_; _glass and enamel powder_; _diamond -dust_.[219] 2. ASTRINGENT POISONS, of which the _preparations of Lead_ -constitute the only species. 3. ACRID or RUBEFACIENT POISONS, which, -with a few exceptions, are furnished by the vegetable kingdom, as -certain _drastic purgatives_, _Hellebore_, _Euphorbium_, &c. 4. NARCOTIC -POISONS, _Opium_, _Henbane_, the _Cherry-laurel_, _Stramonium_, &c. 5. -NARCOTICO-ACRID, embracing such articles as produce the united effects -of the two former, and which constitute some of the most deadly poisons, -as the _Ticunas_, _Nux-vomica_, _Belladonna_, _Tobacco_, _Hemlock_, -_Digitalis_, &c. 6. SEPTIC POISONS, _contagious miasmata_, _putrid -exhalations from animal matter_, _Sulphuretted Hydrogen_, the _venom of -the viper_, &c. - -The value of this classification has been very justly stated to consist -in its combining to a certain degree, the advantages of a pathological -arrangement with those of one founded on the basis of Natural History; -for, while it is strictly pathological, it at the same time distributes -the different poisons, with some few and unimportant exceptions, in an -order corresponding with that of their natural history. The First two -classes, for instance, present us with substances of a mineral origin; -the Third and Fourth, with those which are chiefly of a vegetable -nature; and the Sixth, with objects principally belonging to the animal -kingdom. The importance of acknowledging a division, which has a -reference to the organic and inorganic kingdoms of Nature, is -considerable in a chemical point of view; for in enumerating the various -experiments to be instituted for the detection of poisons, we are thus -enabled to bring together a connected series of processes, nearly allied -to, intimately connected with, and in some respects mutually dependent -upon, each other. At the same time it must be acknowledged, that this -classification has many defects and some fallacies. In the first place, -it has little or no reference to the enlarged views of the modern -physiologist, respecting the “_modus operandi_” of Poisons; nor indeed -is its construction susceptible of such modifications and improvements, -as can ever render its degree of perfection progressive with the -advancement of science. In the next place, the classes are in many -particulars ill defined, and indistinctly, if not erroneously, divided. -How questionable, for instance, are the boundaries which separate -_Corrosive_ from _Acrid_ poisons? the respective species, even, of each -class are, in many cases, less allied to each other, than are the great -divisions to which they are subordinate. As an exemplification of this -fact we have only to compare the physiological actions of _Arsenic_ and -_Corrosive Sublimate_, both of which are arranged under the class of -Corrosive Poisons. The former of these substances undoubtedly occasions -death by being absorbed, and thus acting as a vital agent; the latter, -by its local action, as a caustic on the textures with which it -immediately comes into contact. In the same manner, if we examine the -individual actions of the different species composing the class of -“_Acrid_ Poisons,” we shall discover the same want of uniformity; thus, -the _Spurge Flax_, and the _Iatropa Curcas_, act by occasioning a local -inflammation, while the _Hellebore_, being rapidly absorbed, exerts a -fatal action on the nervous system, and produces only a very slight -inflammation. The class of Narcotic Poisons is certainly more absolute -in its definition, and more uniform in its physiological affinities, and -therefore less objectionable than the divisions to which we have just -alluded; but the propriety of the class “_Narcotico-Acrid_” is by no -means equally unexceptionable; indeed Orfila himself questions it, -“because the narcotic or sedative effects only follow the previous -excitement.” Some of the poisons of this division also are rapidly -absorbed, and act, through the medium of the circulation, on the nervous -system, without producing any local inflammation; while others, on the -contrary, merely act upon the extremities of the nerves, with which they -come in contact, and, without being absorbed, occasion death by a -species of sympathetic action. - -These few objections, and many more might be urged, are sufficient to -demonstrate the imperfection of the classification under consideration, -and which must render it wholly unavailable to the physician in the -treatment of cases of poisoning, who must derive his plan of cure from -the physiological action of the substance against which he has to -contend; thus, for instance, _Arsenic_ and _Corrosive Sublimate_ are -both corrosive poisons, but so materially do they differ from each other -in their physiological actions that, when swallowed, they will require -for the preservation of the individual, a very different system of -treatment. - -For such reasons I have ventured to propose a new arrangement of -Poisons, which may furnish the practitioner with a general theorem for -the administration of Antidotes. - - A SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF POISONS, - - NEWLY ARRANGED - - ACCORDING TO THE DIFFERENT PRIMARY OPERATIONS, BY WHICH THEY PRODUCE - THEIR EFFECTS, - - With a view to furnish a General Theorem for the administration of - Antidotes. - - ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── - CLASS I. POISONS WHICH ACT PRIMARILY, THROUGH THE MEDIUM OF THE - NERVES, WITHOUT BEING ABSORBED; OR EXCITING LOCAL - INFLAMMATION. - - _Order 1._ _By which the functions of the Nervous System are - suspended, or destroyed._ - - (_Death by Suffocation from paralysis of the - Respiratory muscles._) - - Alcohol. - Aconite. - Oil of Tobacco. - Essential Oil of Almonds.[220] - Camphor.[220] - Opium?[220] - Salts of Lead? - Croton Tiglium.[221] - - _Order 2._ _By which the heart is rendered insensible to the - Stimulus of the Blood._ - - (_Death by Syncope._) - - Infusion of Tobacco. - Upas Antiar. - - - CLASS II. POISONS WHICH, BY ENTERING THE CIRCULATION, ACT THROUGH THAT - MEDIUM, WITH DIFFERENT DEGREES OF ENERGY, ON THE HEART, - BRAIN, AND ALIMENTARY CANAL. - - (_Death in many forms._) - - Arsenic. - Emetic Tartar. - Muriate of Baryta. - Hellebore. - Savine. - Meadow Saffron. - Squill. - Opium?[221] - Lettuce. - Henbane. - Prussic Acid. - Deadly Nightshade.[221] - Hemlock. - Camphor.[221] - Coculus Indicus. - - - CLASS III. POISONS WHICH, THROUGH THE MEDIUM OF THE CIRCULATION, EXPEND - THEIR ENERGIES UPON THE SPINAL MARROW, WITHOUT DIRECTLY - INVOLVING THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN. - - (_Death by Tetanic Convulsions._) - - Nux Vomica—and the whole tribe of - _Strychnus_. - - - CLASS IV. POISONS WHICH PRODUCE A DIRECT LOCAL ACTION ON THE MUCOUS - MEMBRANE OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. - - (_Death by Gangrene._) - - Corrosive Sublimate.[220] - Verdigris. - Muriate and - Oxide of Tin. - Sulphate of Zinc. - Nitrate of Silver. - Concentrated Acids. - Caustic Alkalies. - Cantharides. - Bryony. - Elaterium. - Euphorbium. - Colocynth. - Hedge Hyssop. - Ranunculi. - Nitre. - ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── - -The _First Class_ of our arrangement comprehends such poisons as -operate, through the medium of the nerves, upon the organs immediately -subservient to life; in their application it is obvious that they cannot -require to be introduced into the stomach; they may convey their -destructive influence by an application to any part duly supplied with -nerves, and whose extremities are exposed to their action. It had been -long admitted that a poison might occasion death, by acting on the -nerves of the stomach and intestines without being absorbed; but to the -experimental labours of Mr. Brodie[222] we are principally indebted for -our present correct views of the subject. The class admits of two -important divisions, into one comprehending those poisons which destroy -the functions of the brain, and into another, including those which -direct their influence upon the heart. We shall offer a few observations -upon the facts which have suggested such a division, and upon the -practical advantages which may attend its adoption. - -It was observed by _Bichât_, and the observation has been fully -confirmed by _Brodie_, that the influence of the brain is not _directly_ -necessary to the action of the heart; and is _immediately_ necessary to -life, only because the muscles of respiration owe their action to its -influence.[223] For when the functions of the brain are destroyed, even -when the head is removed, the heart continues to contract for some time -afterwards, and then ceases only in consequence of the suspension of -respiration, which is under the direct influence of the brain. Assuming -this as a fact, it will appear evident that certain poisons may, by -affecting the brain, so paralyse the muscles of respiration as to -occasion death by suffocation, and by such a mode of operation I imagine -that those substances, arranged in the former division of my first -class, prove mortal. _Mr. Brodie_ accordingly found that, by the -administration of a large dose of alcohol to a rabbit, the pupils of its -eyes became dilated, the extremities convulsed, and the respiration -laborious, and that this latter function was gradually performed at -longer and longer intervals, and that it at length entirely ceased. Two -minutes after the apparent death of the animal, he opened the thorax, -and found the heart acting with moderate force and frequency, -_circulating dark coloured blood_; he then introduced a tube into the -trachea, and produced artificial respiration by inflating the lungs, and -he found that by these means the action of the heart might be kept up to -the natural standard, as in an animal from whom the head is removed. The -same phenomena resulted from the injection of two drops of the -_Essential Oil of Bitter Almonds_, diffused in half an ounce of water, -into the rectum of a cat; and from the application of the empyreumatic -oil of _Tobacco_ to the tongue, and rectum of cats and dogs. Now it is -obvious that the functions of the brain are immediately disordered by -the influence of these poisons on the tongue, stomach, and lower bowels -of animals, so instantaneously, that it is impossible absorption should -have already taken place. - -Although the general proposition seems to be established, that the brain -is not _immediately_ necessary to the action of the heart, yet it must -not lead us to the conclusion that the heart is therefore incapable of -being affected by violent impressions on the nervous system; the fact is -quite otherwise, for although the brain may be removed, and the -circulation be nevertheless maintained by artificial respiration, yet an -injury of another kind inflicted on the brain, may be followed by those -immediately fatal consequences which decapitation itself would not -produce; thus is a blow on the head commonly followed by syncope, and -there are certain poisons that would seem to act in the same manner, -such is the _Infusion of Tobacco_,[224] which suspends the action of the -heart long before the animal ceases to respire, and kills by producing -syncope, although in this latter case it has been questioned whether the -spinal marrow may not be primarily affected, which has been shewn by -recent experiments to have an intimate relation with the action of the -heart. Be this as it may, it is sufficiently obvious, that the second -division of the first class is sanctioned by theory, and confirmed by -experiment. - -We come now to speak of the Second Class,—of those Poisons which enter -the circulation, and act through that medium on the heart, brain, and -alimentary canal. These organs, however, are affected in very different -degrees by different poisons, or even by the same poisons, under -different circumstances. _Mr. Brodie_ has shewn that vegetable poison, -although when introduced into the alimentary canal affect life, in -consequence of the nervous sympathy which subsists between these -surfaces and the common sensorium, yet, that the same poisons applied -externally to a wound, produce their effects exclusively through the -medium of the circulation, being conveyed to the brain only by mixing -with the blood in its vessels, and not by being conveyed through the -lymphatics, for a ligature upon the great blood-vessels prevents their -producing deleterious effects; whereas a ligature upon the thoracic -duct, or general canal through which all the absorbents pour their -contents into the blood, does _not_ in the least retard or prevent the -operation of the poison. There are also several of the mineral poisons -which, whether introduced into the stomach, or applied externally to a -wound, poison the animal in consequence of being carried into the -circulation. It had long been supposed that Arsenic occasioned death by -inflaming the stomach; but _Mr. Brodie_ has very satisfactorily shewn -that its influence arises from its absorption, and that it must be -regarded rather as a _vital_, than as a _chemical_ agent. In the first -place, he has found the inflammation of the stomach, in several cases, -so slight, that on a superficial examination it might have been easily -overlooked; and, in most of his experiments with Arsenic, death took -place in too short a time to be considered as the result of -inflammation; and in the next place, in whatever manner the poison is -applied, whether _externally_ to a wound, or _internally_ to the -membrane of the stomach, the inflammation is confined to the stomach and -intestines; and, indeed, it is commonly more violent, and even more -immediate, when applied to a wound, than when internally administered; -and it also precedes any inflammation of the wound. This important fact -was proved by an experiment made by Mr. Hunter and Sir Everard Home, and -subsequently by the repeated investigations of Mr. Brodie. - -It has been just stated that after a poison has found its way into the -circulation, it expends its virulence upon some particular organs. In -some cases this is much more striking than in others. The preparations -of _Baryta_, and of _Tartarized Antimony_, attack the heart, and -occasion death by syncope. _Arsenic_ is less definite in its action, it -influences both the brain and the heart, but with different degrees of -force in different cases, so that it is often difficult to ascertain -which of these organs is the first to fail in its functions. -_Hydro-cyanic Acid_ is absorbed, and destroys life by its action upon -the nervous system, whose energies it would seem to extinguish without -any ostensible injury to the respiration and circulation; for in all -those animals which were killed by it in the experiments of _Orfila_, -_Brodie_, and others, the heart was found acting regularly, and -circulating dark-coloured blood; and in some cases, this phenomenon was -visible for many minutes after the animal was in other respects -apparently dead. - -Some substances would seem to direct their powers to various parts of -the alimentary canal; and the appearance so produced might be mistaken -for the effects of the local action of the poison, had they not been -clearly proved by experiment to have arisen from an application -addressed through the medium of the circulation; thus is inflammation of -the _primæ viæ_ induced by the contact of Arsenic with an external -surface of the body! - - -The _Third Class_ of my arrangement includes those poisons which enter -the circulation, and, through that medium, expend their influence upon -the spinal marrow, without _directly_ involving the functions of the -brain. _M. Majendie_, in the year 1809, submitted to the first class of -the French Institute a series of experiments which had conducted him to -the extraordinary result above stated. He found that an entire class of -vegetables (the _bitter Strychnus_) possesses this singular property. - - -The _Fourth Class_ comprehends all those substances which destroy life -by a local action upon the alimentary canal, not by any impression upon -their nerves, but by simply inducing a fatal lesion in the membranes. - -Through one or more of the above modes of operation all poisons may be -said to produce their fatal effects. In some cases a poisonous substance -will be found to act in several different ways; thus, the _Nightshade_ -is evidently absorbed, carried into the circulation, and is enabled, -through that medium to act upon the brain; at the same time it exerts a -local action upon the stomach, although less violent than that -occasioned by the acrid poisons; it moreover would appear, upon some -occasions, to act directly through the medium of the nerves, like those -substances which have been received in our first class, or else, how -shall we explain the fact of the pupil of the eye becoming permanently -dilated by the contact of the _Belladonna_ with the tunica conjunctiva? -It would appear therefore that this plant unites within itself all the -three great modes of action, upon which I have just attempted to -establish a physiological arrangement of Poisons. So again, _Corrosive -Sublimate_, although placed in the fourth division, as being a substance -which destroys by inflicting local mischief, is nevertheless capable of -being absorbed. The embarrassments, however, which might be supposed to -arise from this double mode of operation, are of but trifling -importance. It is to the primary operation of a poison to which we are -to direct our attention, the subsequent effects are less important in as -much as they are more capable of being controlled. - -Having thus offered a summary of our present views respecting the -physiological action of Poisons, we are prepared to lay down a general -plan of treatment, which, it will be seen, can only be successful when -conducted on principles strictly conformable with the just notions which -the preceding experiments have so satisfactorily established. - -Where a poisonous substance has, either through accident or design, -found its way into the alimentary canal, three important indications -are, if possible, to be fulfilled; and under these heads I shall offer -such observations as may serve to instruct the practitioner in the -philosophy of the general treatment, reserving the details to be -observed in that of each poison, for more particular notice in a -subsequent part of the work, where the history of these substances will -be individually considered. The indications to which I allude are the -following, viz. - - -1. _The immediate ejectment of the poison from the body, by the -operation of vomiting and purging._ - -Whatever may be the nature of the poison, we should endeavour with all -possible expedition, to eject it from the body; and upon the promptness -with which this is effected, the safety of the patient will generally -depend; for the dangerous effects of such substances advance in a very -increasing ratio, with the time they remain in contact with a living -surface. A question may arise, whether in some cases it would not be -judicious to attempt in the first instance the neutralization or -decomposition of the poison; where a mineral acid, or a caustic alkali -has been swallowed, it would undoubtedly be right to neutralize, and -dilute it, as soon as possible, and then to excite vomiting, which may -be advantageously effected by thrusting the finger down the throat, or -by tickling the internal fauces with a feather: where an emetic is at -hand, whatever may be its nature, it should be promptly given, but if -circumstances will allow us the opportunity of selection, _Antimony_, -_Ipecacuanha_, &c. should be rejected, and _Sulphate of Zinc_, or -_Sulphate of Copper_, for several reasons, be preferred; in the first -place they do not require much dilution[225] for their action, a -circumstance of no small importance in the treatment of poisons that act -by being absorbed; in the next place, they are extremely expeditious, a -dose of fifteen or twenty grains producing almost instantaneous -vomiting, without exciting that previous stage of nausea which so -frequently characterises other emetics, and which occasions a state of -the vascular system highly favourable to the function of absorption, (as -I have so fully explained at page 86, &c.) - -The practice of emptying the stomach by means of a syringe, as proposed -by Boerhaave, has lately been revived with all the confidence of a _new_ -invention. There are cases of narcotic poisoning in which there can be -no doubt it would furnish the practitioner with a valuable resource, but -I much fear that it will be found to be less successful than its more -sanguine advocates have anticipated; for where the stomach has so far -lost its power as to be insensible to the stimulus of a potent emetic, -the chances of recovery are small; the practice, however, in such cases -ought never to be neglected, for it cannot possibly do harm, and may -perhaps be beneficial. - -After all has been ejected, which the operations of art can effect, we -are to proceed, without delay, to the fulfilment of the second -indication; viz. - - -2. _The Decomposition of any remaining Portion, and the adoption of -measures best calculated to obviate its absorption._ - -Where the substance is in a solid form, and acts by absorption, we -should be very cautious how we favour its solution; while, if it exists -in a liquid state, our object must be to render its active portion -insoluble; this problem involves a series of questions which are wholly -_chemical_. In order to prevent, or retard, the absorption of the active -matter, we must, to a great degree, depend upon the agency of _vital_ -adjuvants; this latter indication however does not apply to _Corrosive -Sublimate_ and other substances which act upon the stomach locally, and -are not absorbed; copious dilution also, in such cases, will frequently -disarm the poison of its virulence,[226] but it should be followed as -quickly as possible by vomiting. In cases where the poison requires to -be absorbed, before it can display its energies, it would be generally -unsafe to administer any solvent. Nothing therefore can be less true as -an aphorism, nor more dangerous as a precept, than the unqualified -assertion of Boerhaave, “_Aqua omnia venena enervat, quæ cum aqua -misceri possunt_.” (Prælect. in Instit: T. vi. p. 289.) _Alkaline_ -solutions and _Magnesia_, in cases of the ingestion of arsenic, -accelerate its fatal effects, by promoting its solution,[227] whereas -_Lime_, or its _Carbonate_, has as an opposite tendency,[228] in -consequence of the insolubility of _Arsenite of Lime_; so again, Orfila -has shewn that the pernicious qualities of the _Muriate of Baryta_ are -counteracted by the administration of any soluble _Sulphate_, which -renders the former substance _insoluble_. In cases where _Verdegris_ has -been swallowed, the administration of vinegar greatly increases its -virulence, as M. Drouard has ascertained, by converting the substance -into a soluble _acetate of copper_. This view of the subject will -explain why the pure earth _Baryta_ is so slow, and comparatively inert, -in its effects upon the system, while its _muriate_ is distinguished by -the extreme rapidity and virulence with which it operates. The propriety -of administering _vinegar_, _lemonade_, and different acid potations, in -order to counteract the baneful effects of _Opium_, which has been so -often questioned, will thus also receive ample explanation; it must -appear that, if any quantity of the substance of opium remain in the -primæ viæ, acid, or mucilaginous drinks will, by favouring its solution -and absorption, accelerate its fatal effects;[229] but should it have -been previously ejected from the stomach, that then the anti-narcotic -influence of a vegetable acid[230] may remove the consecutive stupor and -delirium, and thus realize the expectations which Virgil has so -poetically raised. - - “Media fert tristes succos tardumque saporem - Felicis Mali: quo non præsentius ullum - (Pocula si quando sævæ infecere novercæ - Miscueruntque herbas, et non innoxia verba) - Auxilium venit, ac membris agit atra venena.” - - “Nor be the Citron, Media’s boast unsung, - Though harsh the juice, and ling’ring on the tongue. - When the drug’d bowl mid witching curses brew’d - Wastes the pale youth by step-dame hate pursu’d, - Its powerful aid unbinds the mutter’d spell - And frees the victim from the draught of hell.” - -Chardin, in his travels through Persia, informs us that when a Persian -finds himself in a distressed situation, he has recourse to a piece of -opium as large as the thumb, and that immediately afterwards he drinks a -glassful of vinegar; by which he is thrown into a fit of laughter, -terminating in convulsions and death. - -With regard to the use of _Antidotes_, it has been already stated how -little they are to be depended upon; in certain cases, however, we are -bound to acknowledge their power, but they should be very rarely -trusted, unless subsequent to, or in conjunction with, the operation of -an emetic; in many cases the effects of this latter remedy may be -promoted by the ingestion of liquids holding the particular antidote in -solution, a practice which offers the double advantage of accelerating -the elimination of the poison, and at the same time of decomposing any -which may remain. Orfila has fully established the fact of _Albumen_ -being a counter-poison to _Corrosive Sublimate_; vomiting may therefore -be very judiciously promoted in cases of such poisoning by water holding -the white of egg in solution; with equal effect, where _Verdegris_ has -been swallowed, sugared water may be used as a diluent to encourage -emesis; and _Muriate of Soda_ in solution will be found the most -efficient antidote to _Nitrate of Silver_; and _Sulphate of Magnesia_ to -_Acetate of Lead_. Where an emetic salt, like _Tartarized Antimony_, has -been taken, copious dilution with common water will in general so -provoke vomiting, as to render it its own antidote; but it may be useful -to remember, that the _Infusion of Galls_, and according to Berthollet, -the _Decoctions of Bark_, at the temperature of from 30° to 40° _Fah._ -have the power of decomposing it; while Orfila considers milk the most -efficient counter-poison to the _Sulphate of Zinc_. - -Having ejected from the stomach all the poisonous matter we can by -vomiting, and attempted to decompose what remains, we are to pursue such -measures as may be calculated to prevent the absorption of the poison -into the circulation; it has been already observed that on this account -nauseating emetics should be avoided; the reader is now requested to -refer to our _exposé_ of the celebrated doctrine of _Majendie_, (_page -86_, _note_) and he will see that _Venesection_ proves one of the most -powerful means of exciting the function of absorption; hence in -poisoning by arsenic, such an expedient should never be -recommended,[231] while a particle of that substance remains in the -body; where _Corrosive Sublimate_ has been swallowed, the same -precaution is unnecessary. The last indication which remains to be -fulfilled is— - - -3. _To anticipate the occurrence of the Consecutive Phœnomena, and to -combat them by appropriate treatment._ - -This is to be conducted on the general principles of Therapeutics; the -treatment must necessarily vary in each particular case. Where the -exhaustion of nervous energy is to be feared, as after poisoning by -_Prussic Acid_, ammonia, and other diffusible stimulants, together with -external warmth, will furnish the best resource; for the same reason -Venesection should be performed with great caution and judgment after a -narcotic poison. Where, on the other hand, inflammatory action is to be -anticipated, it is unnecessary to detail the plan of treatment which may -be adopted with the greatest chance of success. In cases where the -nervous system is stupified, the symptoms may be combated by vegetable -acids, infusion of coffee, &c. but where it is in a state of -præternatural excitement, recourse must be had to opiates. - - - ESCHAROTICS:[232] - -Substances whose application to the animal solids, erodes, or decomposes -them. - -The operation of these bodies may, in general, be considered chemical; -for having destroyed the life of the part to which they are applied, -they cause, as if by a species of resulting affinity, the elements of -the animal matter to enter into a new state of combination; this is well -exemplified in the action of caustic potass, where the nascent elements -thus disengaged by the decomposition of the animal substance, reunite in -proportions to generate an oily matter, which may be observed to form a -film over the ulcerated surface, while the excess of nitrogen and -hydrogen constitute ammonia, which is disengaged during the action of -the caustic; and may be rendered sensible by inverting over the surface, -a small jar moistened with muriatic acid, when the fumes of _Muriate of -Ammonia_ become visible.[233] - -Their surgical value consists in their power to remove excrescencies, to -establish an ulcer, or to convert an ulcerated surface into a simple -sore. - - - IV. OF MECHANICAL REMEDIES. - -This subdivision includes those classes of remedies, whose operation -depends entirely upon _mechanical_ principles; and we must agree with -Dr. Murray in considering them as the least important of all the -articles which we have enumerated, and which cannot therefore constitute -objects of elaborate inquiry. - - - ANTHELMINTICS: - -Remedies which expel worms[234] from the intestinal canal. - -It has been already stated, (_page 90_) that certain bodies have the -power of increasing the peristaltic motions of the intestinal canal, by -operating as mechanical stimulants upon its fibres; in this manner the -filings of tin and iron, or the irritating down which covers the pods of -the _Dolichos Pruriens_, are supposed to act in dislodging and -evacuating the worms from the intestines. But there is a variety of -remedies employed as vermifuges, which must owe their effects to a very -different mode of operation; _Bitters_ for instance appear to prove an -absolute poison[235] to these animals, while they, at the same time, -give an increased tone to the organs of digestion; from whose debility -the generation of worms would seem to arise. Other remedies, again, -obviously depend upon their simple cathartic property, for the powers -which they possess in the evacuation of worms. See _Terebinthinæ -Oleum_—_Cambogia_. - -In the cure of Ascarides the local application of the remedy becomes -necessary, in the form of glyster, and which acts both _mechanically_ in -washing out the gut, and _medicinally_ in proving obnoxious to the -animals. According to the experience of some of our best practitioners, -a strong decoction of the _Semina Santonici_ proves most efficacious -upon these occasions. - - - DEMULCENTS: - -Medicines which are capable of shielding sensible surfaces from the -action of acrid matter, by involving it in a mild and viscid medium. - -It cannot be denied that where these remedies admit of direct -application, considerable benefit may arise; in the progress of a -catarrh, we have all experienced the relief that may be occasioned by -lubricating the fauces with demulcents, which, by soothing the top of -the trachea, quiets, by a kind of contiguous sympathy, the whole -pulmonary structure; in certain states of intestinal irritation, the -same remedies have furnished considerable benefit, and in ophthalmia, -relief has been obtained by the application of a demulcent to the -inflamed conjunctiva, by which it is defended from the irritation of the -tears; see also _Formula 61_; but in parts beyond the reach of the first -passages, and to which no fluid can arrive but through the medium of the -secretions, it is very difficult to explain the principle upon which -their beneficial operation can depend; and it seems indeed highly -probable that they act in such cases as simple diluents, for the process -of digestion must necessarily deprive them of their characteristic -viscidity. The administration of demulcent drinks in gonorrhæa is -probably of no farther service in assuaging the _ardor urinæ_, than an -equivalent quantity of pure water; although Dr. Murray observes, “it is -sufficiently certain, that many substances, which undergo the process of -digestion, are afterwards separated in their entire state from the -blood, by particular secreting organs; and there is, continues he, no -gland which has this power more particularly than the kidneys; -substances received into the stomach and digested, afterwards passing -off in the urine with all their peculiar properties.” This is -undoubtedly very true, but mucilaginous substances rarely or never pass -off in this manner; if they evade the assimilative functions, they pass -through the alimentary canal, and are thus eliminated. I can state, as -the result of experiment, that the urine undergoes no change except in -the relative proportion of its water, by the copious and repeated -administration of mild mucilages. Dr. Saunders has very justly remarked -that the long list of _Ptisans_, _Decoctions_, _&c._ usually prescribed -upon these occasions, generally owe their virtues to the watery diluent -itself. - -The pharmaceutical applications of this class of medicines constitute, -perhaps, not the least part of their value, by which we are enabled to -introduce acrid substances into the stomach with safety and effect; but -such services will more properly fall under our notice in a future part -of the work. - - - DILUENTS: - -Watery liquors, which increase the fluidity of the blood, and render -several of the secreted and excreted fluids less viscid. - -There are certainly few remedies whose operation is more simple, -obvious, or important; and yet there are scarcely any whose value has -been more mistaken, or whose application has been so frequently -perverted through the suggestions of false theory; water is the -universal beverage of animals, and the necessity of its supply is -indicated by thirst, a sensation which in excess, is borne with less -tranquillity even than that of hunger; in certain morbid states of the -body its presence is to be regarded as indicating the necessity of -copious potation; and yet how often has the prejudiced physician, under -such circumstances, aggravated the pressure of disease, by adding the -sufferings of Tantalus. In febrile affections, the irritation of thirst -tends to keep up the disease, and hence diluents, besides the other -beneficial effects which they may produce, must be regarded as important -remedies. There are also diseases of the alimentary canal which may be -removed by the same agents; when water is conveyed into the intestines -it will have a tendency, by mixing with, and diluting the biliary -secretion, to diminish its acrimony, and thus to obviate a source of -morbid irritation; the dilution of the chyme and chyle may also have a -salutary tendency, and favour the absorption of the finer and more -nutritive parts of the lacteals; and by increasing the fluidity of the -mass, expedite the numerous combinations which it is destined to -undergo. The blood itself is also thus modified in its fluidity; -although it has been very truly observed that in healthy bodies, or such -as are without any obstruction of the excretions, an unusual distension -of the vessels cannot be produced, or at least long subsist; for it is -evident that such an increased quantity of water in the blood will -immediately pass off by one or other of the excretions; this effect, -however, in itself, renders the operation of diluents of signal service -in the treatment of the disease; in consequence, for instance, of their -disposition to pass off by urine, they furnish valuable resources in -diseases of the urinary organs, allaying the pain of strangury, and the -irritation from an inflamed bladder. From these observations, the -practitioner will be led to appreciate the value of diluents; and many -of the beneficial effects which are daily experienced from the copious -potation of mineral waters, are, without doubt, to be wholly attributed -to simple dilution. See _Aqua_. - -It is here necessary to say a few words upon the misapplication of this -order of remedies. Dr. Davy found by experiment that when an animal is -bled to death, the last portions of blood that flow are of a much lower -specific gravity than that which flows first, in consequence of the -former containing more water, which it may be inferred was derived by -the increased activity of the absorbents, exerted chiefly on mucous and -serous membranes. Since then venesection promotes and accelerates -absorption,[236] it is clear that, in inflammatory diseases, where we -have recourse to blood-letting, in order to diminish the volume of -circulating fluids, we ought not to suffer the patient to indulge in an -unrestrained use of liquids, which he eagerly demands to satisfy a -thirst which, in all probability, is the natural consequence of -increased absorption. In such cases, it is often better to take liquids -in small divided doses, which will have the effect of moderating the -thirst, without overloading the arterial system, and bringing on that -tension and plenitude which are liable to be produced by swallowing too -large a proportion of liquids. - -In the use of water upon such occasions, it may moreover be observed, -that its temperature ought to be attended to; as a general rule it may -be laid down, that in the _cold_ stage it should be hot, in the _hot_, -cold, and in the _sweating_, tepid. - -With regard to the value of diluents, as capable of promoting the -operation of other remedies, many observations of great practical -importance might be adduced; but this subject will be more properly -elucidated when we come to consider the influence of solubility in -modifying the activity of medicinal substances, and which constitutes a -very curious and interesting object of chemico-medical enquiry. - -While speaking of Diluents it may be cursorily noticed, that water -appears, under certain circumstances of the body, to suffer -decomposition, and to have its elements appropriated to new -combinations. Count Rumford has endeavoured to prove, that the -surprisingly small quantity of solid food which is sufficient for -nourishment, when converted into rich and palatable soup, is owing to -the culinary process having prepared the water for chemical -decomposition,[237] and that this is ultimately effected during the act -of Digestion.[238] It cannot be denied that the exorbitant potation of -water has a tendency to produce fat, but this may depend upon the -vascular distention which is thus occasioned. Gin drinkers, before they -become materially injured by the habit, grow extremely corpulent, as may -often be witnessed in unfortunate cyprians of the lower orders. Can the -hydrogen of the spirit contribute to this effect? - - - EMOLLIENTS: - -Substances whose application diminishes the force of cohesion in the -particles of the solid matter of the human body, and thereby renders -them more lax and flexible. - -According to this definition, which we derive from Dr. Cullen, the -primary operation of emollients would appear to be purely mechanical, -for they are insinuated into the matter of the solid fibre, and either -diminish its density, or lessen the friction between its particles; this -explanation will undoubtedly apply to those emollients which consist of -unctuous bodies, and which are introduced into the animal fibre by -friction; but it is evident that the beneficial effects of _Cataplasms_ -and _Fomentations_ cannot be so explained; for in these instances, none -of the materials can be absorbed through the entire cuticle; and yet the -relaxation and consequent ease which such warm applications produce on -inflamed surfaces is very considerable, but it must be wholly attributed -to the relaxing effects of warmth and moisture upon the extreme vessels -of the surface, propagated by _contiguous sympathy_ to the deeper seated -organs. - -The operation of those substances which afford relief to excoriated -surfaces by their bland qualities, as mucilaginous lotions in -erysipelatous affections, is too obvious to require explanation. - - -Having thus investigated the manner in which medicinal substances -produce their effects upon the living system, we shall be better -prepared to appreciate the advantages which are to be derived from their -combination with each other, and to escape the too common error of -uniting in one formula, remedies which are rendered adverse by the -incompatibility of their physiological actions. - - - - - ON THE - - THEORY AND ART - - OF - - PRESCRIBING. - - - “_To know - “That which before us lies in daily life, - “Is the prime wisdom._” - MILTON. - - - - - ON THE - THEORY AND ART - OF - PRESCRIBING. - - - OF MEDICINAL COMBINATION. - - “_Variorum mixtura novas sæpe vires generet, in simplicibus nequaquam - reperiundas longe saluberrimas._” - - GAUBIUS. - -It is a truth universally admitted, that the arm of physic has derived -much additional power and increased energy, from the resources which are -furnished by the mixture and combination of medicinal bodies. I by no -means intend to insinuate that the physician cannot frequently fulfil -his most important indications by the administration of one simple -remedy; I only contend that, in many cases, by its scientific -combination with other medicines, it will not only act with greater -certainty and less inconvenience, but that its sphere of influence may -be thus more widely extended, and its powers so modified or changed, as -to give rise to a remedy of new powers. Such a theory is amply justified -by the state of combination in which certain medicinal principles are -found in our more efficient vegetable remedies, while the medicinal -practice founded upon it is thus, as it were, sanctioned by Nature’s own -prescriptions; enter but her laboratory, and you will soon be satisfied, -that many of her potent remedies do not owe their valuable powers to any -one specific ingredient, but to the combined or modified energies of -various, and sometimes opposite principles. This view of the subject -opens an interesting and unexplored field[239] of medical and chemical -research, and I shall endeavour to avail myself of the novelties its -investigation may present, and of the hints it may suggest for the -improvement of _extemporaneous combination_. By contemplating the laws -by which Nature effects her wise purposes, we may learn to emulate her -processes, and even in some cases to correct and assist her -operations:[240] such at least has been the happy result of our labours -in the other departments of natural knowledge. It is said for instance -that by observing the means used by nature for preventing the diffusion -of light in the eye-ball, Euler derived an important hint for the -improvement of his telescope; and more lately, the structure of the -crystalline humour of the eye has been successfully imitated in the -invention of achromatic lenses. On the other hand, it is hardly -necessary to observe to what extent these instruments of art are capable -of improving and multiplying the powers of that natural organ, to the -contemplation of whose structure and functions, we are, as I have just -stated, so greatly indebted for their origin and perfection. So shall I -endeavour to shew, in the progress of this work, that the combinations -of nature, as exemplified in her more valuable remedies, are capable, if -properly studied, of suggesting many important hints for improving the -arrangements of art; while art in return may frequently supply the -defects, or extend the advantages of natural compounds. - - - AN ANALYSIS - OF -THE OBJECTS TO BE OBTAINED BY MIXING AND COMBINING MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES. - -The objects to be attained, and the resources which are furnished, by -MEDICINAL COMBINATION, together with the different modes of its -operation, and the laws by which it is governed, may with much practical -advantage be arranged in the following order. - - - I. - TO PROMOTE THE ACTION OF THE BASIS, OR PRINCIPAL MEDICINE. - - -A.—_By combining together several different Forms, or Preparations, of -the same substance_. - -The utility of such a combination is obvious, whenever we desire the -full and general effects of _all_ the principles of a medicinal body in -solution; thus, where the _Bark_ is required in the cure of an -intermittent fever, and the stomach will not allow the exhibition of the -powder, it will be eligible to conjoin in one formula, the tincture, -decoction, and extract, as exemplified by _Formulæ 42, 126, 127_. The -necessity of such a combination may be expressed by the following canon. -_Whenever the chemical nature of the medicinal substance will not admit -of the full solution of all its active principles in any_ ONE _Solvent_, -_and its exhibition in substance is at the same time impracticable_. For -farther illustrations see _Form. 2, 25, 33, 38, 70, 109_. - -Practitoners, probably without having reasoned upon the theory, have -very generally adopted the practice, of combining the different -solutions of the same substance; for in the prescriptions of practical -physicians we commonly find, that the decoction or infusion of a -vegetable remedy is quickened by a certain portion of a corresponding -tincture. - - -B.—_By combining the Basis with Substances which are of the_ SAME -NATURE, _that is, which are_ INDIVIDUALLY _capable of producing the same -effect, but with less energy than when in combination with each other._ - -Dr. FORDYCE first established the existence of the singular and -important law, that _a combination of similar[241] remedies will produce -a more certain, speedy, and considerable effect than an equivalent dose -of any single one_; a fact which does not appear to have been known to -any ancient physician. The earliest mention of it that I can find is by -VALISNIERI, the favourite pupil of Malpighi, who filled the medical -chair at Padua in 1711, nearly ninety years before Fordyce published his -valuable memoir on the combination of medicines, but he does not attempt -any generalization[242] of the subject; he merely states, as the result -of careful experiments, that twelve drachms of _Cassia Pulp_ are about -equivalent in purgative strength to four ounces of _Manna_; and yet, -says he, if we give eight drachms of _Cassia Pulp_, in combination with -four drachms of _Manna_, we obtain double the effect! How, adds the -professor, can this possibly happen? Surely the very contrary _ought_ to -obtain, since four drachms of _Cassia_ are much more than equivalent to -an equal weight of _Manna_; the strength of the former being to that of -the latter as 8 to 3. - -The truth of this law of medicinal combination must be continually felt -by the practitioner in the ordinary routine of his practice, viz. - -NARCOTICS will better fulfil the intention of allaying irritation and -pain, when composed of several of such medicines in combination, than -when they consist of any single one, even should the dose, in this -latter case, be increased. See _Formulæ 3, 4, 5_. - -ANTISPASMODICS acquire increased efficacy by the application of the same -principle. _Form. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25_. - -BITTER TONICS are also thus exalted, see _Form. 39, 40, 41_. The -beneficial effects, however, which arise from combinations of this kind -will admit of a satisfactory explanation upon another principle; we may, -for instance, consider them as medicines, differing from each other in -their composition, and producing by their union an assemblage of bitter, -astringent, and aromatic principles. - -AROMATIC and DIFFUSIBLE STIMULANTS. There are perhaps no remedies which -receive greater mutual benefit be intermixture with each other, than the -individuals which compose this class; for they not only thus acquire -increased force and efficacy, but at the same time they lose much of -their acrimony; if, for instance, any one spice, as the dried capsule of -the _Capsicum_, be taken into the stomach, it will excite a sense of -heat and pain; in like manner will a quantity of _Black Pepper_; but if -an equivalent quantity of these two stimulants be given in combination -with each other, no such sense of pain is produced, but, on the -contrary, a pleasant warmth is experienced, and a genial glow felt over -the whole body; and if a greater number of spices be joined together, -the chance of pain and inflammation being produced is still farther -diminished. The truth of this law is also strikingly illustrated, as Dr. -Fordyce has observed, by that universal maxim in cookery, _never to -employ one spice, if more can be procured_; the object, in this case, -being to make the stomach bear a large quantity of food without -nausea.[243] This same principle also finds an illustration of its -importance, as it regards the class of stimulants, in the following -preparations of our Pharmacopœia, viz. “_Pulvis Cinnamomi Compositus_; -_Infusum Armoraciæ compositum_; _Infusum Aurantii Compositum_; _Spiritus -Lavendulæ compositus_; _Tinctura Cinchonæ composita_; _Tinctura -Valeriana Ammoniata_; and the _Confectio Opii_, the elegant and -scientific substitute for the celebrated _Mithridate_ or _Theriaca_. The -practitioner is also referred to _Form. 45, 47_, and to _Allii Radix_.” - -The local action of these stimulants would appear to be placed under the -dominion of the same law, and perhaps the origin of the custom, so long -observed, of mixing together the varieties of snuff, may thus receive a -plausible and philosophical explanation; certain it is that by such -combination the harsh pungency of each ingredient will be diminished, -whilst the general potency of the application, in exciting the nerves, -will be increased, and rendered more grateful; the same principle will -direct the formation of safe and efficient plaisters and lotions; the -_Emplastrum Cumini_ of the London, and the _Emplastrum Aromaticum_ of -the Dublin Pharmacopœia, offer examples of its judicious application. - -ASTRINGENTS. For illustrations see _Form. 51, 58_. - -EMETICS are certainly more efficient when composed of _Ipecacuan_ united -with _Tartarized Antimony_, or _Sulphate of Zinc_, than when they simply -consist of any one of such substances in an equivalent dose. See _Form. -63, 65_. - -CATHARTICS not only acquire a very great increase of power by -combination with each other, but they are at the same time rendered less -irritating in their operation; the _Extractum Colocynthidis compositum_ -affords an excellent example of a compound purgative mass being much -more active and manageable, and less liable to irritate, than any one of -its components separately taken. Additional examples of this fact are -furnished by _Formulæ 70, 76, 78, 79, 81, 88_. In many cases, however, -the fact of purgatives thus accelerating and correcting each other’s -operation may be explained by considering them as substances endowed -with different powers, as already demonstrated, (p. 88), and which will -be more fully considered in the third division of this Essay. - -DIURETICS. Under this class of medicinal agents it may be observed that, -_whenever a medicine is liable to produce effects different from those -we desire, its combination with similar remedies is particularly -eligible_, by which the action of the basis may be directed and fixed; -thus the individuals which compose the class of Diuretics are uncertain -in their operation, and disposed when exhibited singly to produce -diaphoretic, and other contrary effects; it is, therefore, in such -cases, highly judicious to unite several of them in one Formula, by -which we increase their powers, and are more likely to ensure their -operation. _Formulæ 101, 103, 108, 109, 110, 111, 115_, are constructed -upon this principle. - -DIAPHORETICS. Our maxim, “VIS UNITA FORTIOR,” certainly applies with -equal truth to this class of medicinal agents. _Form. 122, 124_. - -EXPECTORANTS. More is frequently to be gained by the co-operation of -these remedies than can be obtained by the exhibition of them -separately, as in _Form. 134, 135_. - -DEMULCENTS do not appear to obtain any other benefit from combination -than, occasionally, a convenience and efficacy of application arising -from a suitable degree of consistence and solubility. See article -“_Trochisci_.” - -The operation of the law which has thus formed the first object of this -inquiry, will be found, like every other, to have a natural and well -defined limit; it is easy to perceive that by multiplying the number of -ingredients too far, we shall either so increase the quantity and bulk -of the medicine as to render it nauseous and cumbersome, or so reduce -the dose of each constituent as to fritter away the force and energy of -the combination. - -The propriety of combining _several_ stimulants, of the diffusible -class, in _one_ formula, has been questioned on different grounds. Dr. -Chapman, in his work on Therapeutics, adduces some arguments on this -point, which, although they fail in establishing his general position, -certainly suggest an important exception to the practice in question; -“by directing,” says he, “stimulating remedies, _separately_, we shall -economise our resources in many lingering diseases.” The justness of -this statement must be admitted to its fullest extent, and practitioners -will, on certain occasions, do well to act in conformity with the views -that suggested it; for instance, in the feeble forms of protracted -fevers, where the indications are to be met with the continued action of -stimulants, it will certainly be salutary to alternate the use of -_camphor_, _ammonia_, and other remedies of a similar nature, in -preference to presenting them all at once in combination, so that the -system may not lose its susceptibility by the continued impression of -the same stimulant; the same motive should induce us, on particular -occasions, to employ in succession different narcotics, for each of them -affects sensibility in its own peculiar manner.[244] The nervous system, -as _Richerand_ has very justly observed, may be compared to a soil, rich -in different juices, and which requires the cultivator to plant the -germs of a diversified vegetation to develope the whole of its -fecundity; to insure a perpetual return, therefore, it will be right to -sow a succession of different seeds. Hoffman also has offered us some -advice upon this subject; he directs us in the treatment of chronic -diseases to suspend the administration of remedies, at intervals, and -afterwards to resume them, lest the system should become _habituated_, -and ultimately _insensible_ to their influence. - -But there remains for our investigation a still more important -precaution respecting this law of medicinal combination;—that, in -combining substances in the manner, and for the object just related, the -practitioner should be well satisfied that their medicinal virtues are -in reality _practically_ SIMILAR, or he will fall into an error of the -most fatal tendency; it has been already shewn, and I hope I shall not -be considered tedious by again directing the reader’s attention to the -fact, that medicines are not necessarily similar because they have been -arranged in the same artificial division of remedies; in order to -establish a perfect similarity _their operations must be found by -experience to continue similar under every condition of the human body; -and that, moreover, they must owe such similarity to modes of operation -which are compatible with each other, and consonant with the general -mode of cure_; we have only to refer to the history of Diuretics (_page -92_) for a full illustration of this important truth; thus _Squill_, -_Calomel_, and _Digitalis_, are each powerful Diuretics, but -nevertheless they cannot be considered _similar_ remedies, since -_Digitalis_ will entirely fail in its effects in the very cases that -_Calomel and Squill_ succeed; and _Squill_ will prove inert when -_Digitalis_ is capable of producing the most powerful influence; this -arises from their modes of operation being dissimilar, and consequently -requiring for their success such different states of the living system. -_Squill_, it will be seen, acts _primarily_ on the urinary organs, by -stimulating the secreting vessels of the kidneys; _Mercury_, on the -contrary, acts primarily on the absorbents, and _secondarily_ on the -kidneys; whereas _Digitalis_ produces its effects by diminishing -arterial action, and increasing that of absorption. - -Dr. Blackall, in his “Observations upon the Cure of Dropsies,” has -offered some remarks so valuable in themselves, and so illustrative of -this important subject, that I shall take leave to quote the passage. -“Many physicians,” he observes, “are fond of combining _Squill_, -_Calomel_, and _Digitalis_, as a diuretic in dropsy; a practice unsafe, -and not very decidedly possessing the merit even of being consistent. -_Digitalis_ greatly depresses the action of the heart and arteries, and -controls the circulation, and it seems most unreasonable to believe that -its curative powers can be independent of such an effect; on the other -hand, _Mercury_, if it does not pass off quickly, is always exciting -fever, and raising and hardening the pulse; speaking from experience, -where the urine is coaguable, and _Digitalis_ agrees, both the others -are, often at least, positively injurious. On the contrary, where the -urine is foul, and not coaguable, and _Squills_ with _Calomel_ render -service, I have on that very account, made less trial of Digitalis, and -cannot therefore speak of it from much experience.” See _Form. 103_, and -the _note_ thereon. - -The individual medicines which compose the class of DIAPHORETICS vary no -less in their primary operations, as the synoptical arrangement at _page -99_ very fully exemplifies; thus, in the cure of intermittent fevers, -diaphoretics are useful both in the paroxysm, and during the -intermission; in the first case they shorten its duration; in the second -they support the tone of the extreme vessels, and prevent its -recurrence; but in these opposite states of disease a very different -kind of diaphoretic is required—to fulfil the first indication, a -cooling and relaxing one is necessary; to answer the second, the -stimulating diaphoretic is exacted; the one may be said to _solicit_, -the other to _extort_, perspiration. So again EMMENAGOGUES can only be -considered relative agents, since the suppression of the catamenia may -depend upon, or be connected with, very different states of the system; -in some cases with a diminished, and in others with an increased state -of excitement; for on many occasions the suppression of the menses is -the effect, and not the cause of disease; _Boerhaave_ has very justly -observed, that it is a most dangerous error to ascribe all the diseases -of young females to a retention of the catamenia, which often do not -appear because the patients are disordered from other causes. If, -therefore, we were to attempt a combination of the several medicines -which have gained reputation as _Emmenagogues_, it is very obvious, that -we should bring together an assemblage of adverse and incompatible -remedies; nor would the physician be less inconsistent were he to -combine EXPECTORANTS, without a due regard to their modes of operation; -it is only necessary to observe their classification, as presented at -page 102, to become satisfied how greatly the success of such remedies -must depend upon their scientific adaptation to each particular case. - -The class of ANTISPASMODICS may likewise embrace remedies of the most -opposite tendency, for spasm may occur under the most opposite -circumstances—in an extreme condition of weakness, as in nervous -affections, and in an highly excited state, as in cholic, &c.; it is -hardly necessary, therefore, to point out the mischief that must arise -from the fortuitous and indiscriminate admixture of the individual -substances which are thus unavoidably arranged in the same artificial -classification. _Bark_ and _Steel_ are also too often considered as -equivalent _Tonics_; in Dropsy, says Dr. Blackall, it is far otherwise, -the former being infinitely to be preferred after the dropsy of young -persons, of acute disease, and of sound stamina; the latter being suited -to a vitiated rather than to a feeble habit, and indicated more by a -pale sallow complexion, and a want of red colour in the blood, as shewn -by the paleness of the lips, than by any other signs. Need we then -adduce farther illustrations of the obvious but important fact, that the -terms employed to denote the different classes of remedies are -frequently but relative ones, expressive of effects which are produced -only in reference to a particular state of the living body? and as this -necessarily varies in different states of health and disease, it follows -that medicines are convertible agents, and that when we attempt to -institute general rules respecting their administration, without taking -into consideration the constitution and circumstances of the patient -upon whom they are to operate, we shall generally be disappointed in the -result. We may say of medicines what Van Swieten said of diet, “to -assert that such, or such a thing be wholesome, without a knowledge of -the condition of the person for whom it is intended, is like a sailor -pronouncing the wind to be fair without knowing to what port the vessel -is bound.” Boerhaave was so fully impressed with this truth that he -exclaimed, “_nullum ego cognosco remedium, nisi quod tempestivo usu fiat -tale_.” - -Although medicines which produce the same ultimate effects by modes of -operation obviously different, cannot be considered SIMILAR, in the -sense affixed to the term in the present section, yet if these different -modes of operation be not physiologically incompatible with each other, -the union of such remedies may not only be admissible, but even useful; -and it will, accordingly, constitute an object of inquiry in a -succeeding section. (III. A.) - - -C.—_By combining the Basis with Substances of a_ DIFFERENT NATURE, _and -which do not exert any Chemical influence upon it, but are found, by -experience, to be capable of rendering the Stomach, or System, or any -particular organ, more susceptible of its action_. - -Thus it is that the system is rendered more susceptible of the influence -of Mercury, by combining it with Antimony and Opium.[245] Where the -stomach is insensible to impressions, the exhibition of Opium previous -to, or in combination with, any active medicine, often assists its -operation; this is remarkably striking in some states of mania, when -emetics will fail, unless the stomach be previously influenced and -prepared by a narcotic; indeed, in ordinary cases of inirritability of -stomach, the addition of a small quantity of opium will often render an -emetic active.[246] - -So again the system, when it is in that particular condition which is -indicated by a hot and dry skin, is unsusceptible of the expectorant -powers of Squill, unless it be in union with antimony or some powerful -diaphoretic, (_Form. 134_.) Squill is by no means disposed to act upon -the urinary organs, when exhibited singly; but calomel, and some other -mercurial preparations,[247] when in conjunction with it, appear to -direct its influence to the kidneys, and to render these organs more -susceptible of its operation; (103, 106.) Upon the same principle, -_Antimonial Wine_ quickens the operation of saline cathartics (69); -_Opium_ increases the sudorific powers of _Antimony_ (124); and the -purgative operation of _Jalap_ is promoted by _Ipecacuan_ (84). Dr. -Aikin asserts that fifteen grains of the former purgative when combined -with two or three grains of the latter root, will purge more than double -that quantity of Jalap when administered without such an adjunct. - -Sir John Pringle speaks of the advantages which may be obtained by -combining an alkali with a bitter infusion, by which the diuretic -effects of the former will be increased, while the latter is calculated -to remove any gastric debility, and to impart a general tone to the -body: there is no doubt but that _Bitters_, from their invigorating -influence upon the _primæ viæ_, (_see page 78_) increase the effects of -remedies whose operation is connected with changes _in transitu_, or -with absorption, as in the exhibition of certain diuretics;[248] they -also frequently render the stomach and bowels more susceptible of bodies -that act by impression, as purgatives, emetics, &c. - -We may discover the operation of such a principle in some of the more -active compounds presented to us by nature: many herbs owe their -efficacy to a cause of this kind. _Elaterium_, as I have ascertained by -experiment, contains a purgative element, _sui generis_, (_Elatin_) and -a bitter principle, which in itself is quite inert, and yet its presence -in the compound renders the alimentary canal more susceptible of the -impression of the active ingredient, and therefore increases its force. -See _Extract_. _Elaterii._ The history of _Senna_ will afford some -interesting facts in farther elucidation of this subject; the leaves of -this plant, like _Elaterium_, appear to contain an active principle, in -combination with a bitter, which latter ingredient, although destitute -of purgative properties, considerably increases those of the former; for -if this be removed, as happens when Senna is transplanted into the south -of France, the purgative principle is weakened, but may be again -restored by the artificial addition of some bitter extractive. The fruit -or pods of Senna[249] contain only the purgative principle, and are -therefore comparatively feeble, unless the defect be compensated by art. -Dr. Cullen has observed that a much smaller quantity of the leaves is -required for a dose if they be infused in company with some bitter -plant; and it has been found that the watery infusion of _Rhubarb_ is -rendered more purgative by the addition of _Calumba_. - -The experiments of Seguin have established beyond all doubt that the -active principle of vegetable astringents is a peculiar element, to -which the name of _Tannin_ has been given; but the efficacy of this -ingredient is undoubtedly enhanced by the presence of the gallic acid -with which it is usually associated, although this acid, when separated -from the native combination, is incapable of producing the least -astringent effect; that peculiar flavour which we so commonly experience -in unripe fruits, and which we designate by the term _acerbness_, is the -result of a combination of the astringent principle with some vegetable -acid. The relative sweetness of sugar, when in different degrees of -purity, depends upon the operation of the same law of combination; _pure -sugar_, as Dr. Mac Culloch has very justly observed, however paradoxical -it may appear, _is not so sweet as that which is impure_; the sweetness -of _melasses_, compared with that of refined sugar, is too well known to -require more than a bare mention; the vegetable extractive matter in -this case, increases the effect of the saccharine principle with which -it is combined; for the same reason grapes, differing very materially in -their proportion of saccharine matter, may seem _to the taste_ equally -sweet, and such in fact is the case on comparing the luscious grapes of -Spain, with the _Chasselas_ of Paris; and yet the vinous produce is -entirely different, the result of the one being a sweet and luscious -wine, while that of the other is hard and dry, because, in truth, these -grapes contain very different proportions of sugar; and however -powerfully the extractive matter may modify the effects of this -principle upon the palate and organs of taste, it cannot alter the -quantity of alcohol resulting from its fermentation.[250] Crystallized -sugar also appears less sweet to the taste than loaf sugar, but this may -depend upon the different state of aggregation, and, consequently, the -different degrees of solubility possessed by the sugar in these two -forms. - -In some cases, the addition of certain bodies will induce the absorbents -to admit and carry into the circulation remedies which, in a more simple -state, they would reject as injurious; this position is supported by the -fact of mercury being more readily absorbed when in combination with -animal matter, see _Ung: Hydrarg:_ and it is probable that iron, in the -form of a _tanno-gallate_, will be more acceptable than when presented -in a more purely mineral state: see _Ferri Sulphas_. - -Does it not therefore appear from the preceding remarks, that _certain -elements exist in the composition of vegetable remedies, as furnished by -nature, which, although individually inert, confer additional strength -and impulse upon the principle of activity with which they are -associated_.[251] - -The solutions of saline cathartics appear likewise to gain an accession -of power and celerity of operation by impregnation with _Carbonic acid -gas_, depending probably upon the intestines thus receiving a degree of -distention favourable to the action of the salt, (19, 23.) Certain it is -that the operation of emetics, as well as that of glysters, is -materially increased by the stimulus of distention. - -In enumerating the methods to be adopted for increasing the energies of -a remedy, by rendering the system more susceptible of its action, it is -right to know that, under certain circumstances, Venesection deserves a -distinguished rank amongst the ADJUVANTIA. The fact is strikingly -discovered in the exhibition of _Mercurial[252] Preparations_, and some -other alterative medicines. Whether the “_Vis Conservatrix_,” which -Nature, when in a state of health and vigour, opposes to the admission -of poisonous substances into the circulation, be overcome by -blood-letting, is a question which I shall leave others to decide; but -thus much reiterated practice has taught me, that the system in a strong -and healthy condition frequently is overcome the moment the stomach -becomes deranged, the circulation languid, or the general tone of the -system impaired. I have frequently seen this during my Hospital -practice: if a patient who has been using mercurial friction, or taking -the preparations of that metal without effect, be transferred into a -close and unhealthy ward, his appetite soon fails, the tongue becomes -furred, and the system instantly yields to the influence of the remedy. -Nauseating doses of _antimony_[253] frequently repeated, or the -accidental supervention of any disease of debility, will be attended -with the same phenomena. My practice has also afforded me an opportunity -of appreciating the debilitating effects of despondency in a case of -this description; a patient had been taking mercurial medicines, and -using frictions for a considerable period, without any apparent effect: -under these circumstances he was abruptly told that he would fall a -victim to his disease; the unhappy man experienced an unusual shock at -this opinion, and in a few hours became violently salivated.[254] - -VENESECTION, moreover, increases the effects of cathartic medicines. I -have often noticed this fact in contending with a plethoric diathesis; -whenever the bleeding preceded the purgative, the effects of the latter -have been uniformly more speedy and considerable; in obstinate -constipation the same fact has been observed, and mild remedies have -been known to act more powerfully, when preceded by blood-letting, than -potent ones have when exhibited antecedent to it. Venesection has -certainly an extraordinary power in awakening the susceptibility of the -_primæ viæ_ to remedial impressions; in some diseases, as in the -_Cynanche Trachealis_, or Croup, so great is the insensibility of the -stomach, that Emetics frequently fail in their effects; and Dr. Hamilton -has given as much as a hundred grains of _Calomel_ in the twenty-four -hours: in such cases previous venesection affords most extraordinary -assistance. Dr. Fothergill also remarks that emetics are more beneficial -after bleeding, (_Dissert. Med. Inaug. de Emet. usu._) The effects of -_Bark_, _Steel_, and other tonics, are certainly influenced in the same -manner; whether in any case it may be prudent or judicious to have -recourse to such a practice, is a question not immediately connected -with the present inquiry. - -Limited must have been the experience of that practitioner who has not -frequently witnessed the utility of Venesection in producing a state of -system favourable to the operation of various remedies. In acute -diseases, how frequently does an opiate succeed in allaying irritation -after copious bleeding, which could not be made to occasion any -beneficial influence previous to that operation? In Pneumonia I have -repeatedly seen such a plan of treatment act like a charm upon the -patient. - -PURGATIVES also awaken the susceptibility of the body to mercurial -impressions, and it is remarked by Dr. Chapman that this practice -affords a resource which rarely disappoints the practitioner. This class -of remedies moreover seems capable of exalting the efficacy, and indeed -of accelerating the benefit to be derived from many alteratives, when -administered _previous_ to the exhibition of these latter substances; -the advantages of a course of Steel medicines are undoubtedly increased -by such means. The febrifugous and antiseptic properties of diluted -muriatic acid (see _Form. 145_.) are inconsiderable, unless its -exhibition be accompanied with cathartics. I beg to refer the -practitioner to some cases published by me in the _Medical and Physical -Journal for December_, 1809, in further illustration of these views. -Experience enables me also to state that _Diuretics_ are considerably -assisted by similar means, having many instances in my case book of the -failure of these agents before, and their successful operation after, -the exhibition of a cathartic. Dr. Darwin observes that “_Absorptions -are always increased by Inanition_,” and in support of this position -refers to the frequent advantage derived from evacuations in the cure of -ulcers. I have certainly seen obstinate sores in the leg cured by small -and repeated bleedings. Dr. Chapman arrives at the same conclusion, -although by a different train of reasoning; he states that the -blood-vessels and absorbents[255] are to a certain extent “antagonising -powers:” instructed by this obvious fact, we ought, says he, in the -exhibition of diuretics to regulate the state of the system by -interposing purgatives, or even venesection, as the state of the -circulation may indicate. - -EMETICS also, in certain conditions of the system, would appear to -render the stomach more sensible to the impression of other remedies; -Dr. Eberle, of Philadelphia,[256] has remarked such an effect with -respect to the administration of the Peruvian Bark. - -CHANGE OF DIET AND OF HABITS may be also classed amongst the -_Ajuvantia_, but the young practitioner must be warned that he is not to -exercise his _Caduceus_ as Sancho’s Doctor did his wand. I have seen a -young disciple of Esculapius so vex his patient, that his food became -more nauseous to him than his medicine, and I verily believe his -Physician was more irksome than his disease. It was well observed by Dr. -Percival that the prejudices of the sick should never be contemned with -wantonness, or opposed with harshness; for, silenced by authority, they -will operate secretly and forcibly on the mind, creating fear, anxiety, -and watchfulness. And with regard to diet it may be here stated, that no -function of the body is so materially influenced by mental impressions -as that series of actions constituting what is termed _Digestion_—the -unexpected communication of any distressing event destroys the keenest -appetite,[257] and converts the sensation of hunger into one of disgust -at the bare idea of food: a fact which did not escape the penetrating -eye of our immortal Shakespeare, for he represents Henry dismissing -Wolsey from his government with these words— - - —— Read o’er this; - And after, this: and then to breakfast - _with what appetite_ you have. - -If feelings of disgust are excited by the repast, the stomach will never -act with healthy energy on the ingesta; and in cases of extreme -aversion, they are either returned, or they pass through the alimentary -canal almost unchanged: on the other hand, the gratification which -attends a favourite meal is in itself a specific stimulus to the organs -of digestion, especially in weak and debilitated habits. Dr. Merriman -has lately communicated to me a case which affords a striking -illustration of the powerful influence of the mind upon these organs: a -lady of rank labouring under menorrhagia, suffered with that irritable -and unrelenting state of stomach which so commonly attends that disease, -and to such a degree that every kind of aliment and medicine was alike -rejected: after the total failure of the usual expedients to appease the -stomach and procure relief, she applied to Miss Prescott, and was -_magnetised_, when she immediately, to the astonishment of all her -friends, ate a beef steak, and continued to repeat the meal every day -for six weeks, without the least inconvenience! but the disease itself, -notwithstanding this treacherous amnesty of the stomach, continued with -unabated violence, and shortly afterwards terminated her life. - -The diet of a sick person ought never to _combine too much nutriment in -too small a space_;[258] when so given it will even in health be -followed by _fermentation_ instead of _digestion_; and although we may -admit the expediency of that domestic maxim, “_a little and often_,” yet -this is to be received with limitation; no one, for instance, who -possesses any philosophical knowledge, will adapt his practice to the -notions of Sir William Temple, who asserted that “the stomach of a -valetudinarian was like a school-boy, always doing mischief when -unemployed,” and that we should therefore not allow it any interval of -repose: to this I answer, that the conversion of aliment into blood is -effected by a series of elaborate processes, several of which are only -perfectly performed during the quiescence of the rest: it would seem, -for instance, that the process of _chylification_ is incompatible with -that by which the first changes are produced in the stomach; this is -evident from the well-known fact, that our appetite for food ceases when -the former process commences, although the repast should, at the time, -have been insufficient to satisfy the craving of nature; whereas, in -diseases of imperfect, or depraved digestion, as in _Diabetes_, _Tabes -Mesenterica_, &c. we find that the appetite for food is never satisfied -by the most nutritive meals. It merits notice also, that whenever the -stomach be called into action during the assimilating stages of -digestion, the process will, in weak persons, be much disturbed, if not -entirely suspended. These views have long since confirmed me in the -propriety of treating mesenteric affections in a manner very different -from that which is generally pursued; and I may add that the result has -been very satisfactory. The plan to which I allude, consists in -enforcing longer intervals between each meal, which should be scanty, -and in quantity short of what the appetite may require; in this way are -the unwilling absorbents induced to perform their duties with greater -promptitude and activity; but it is a practice which, from the extreme -anxiety of friends and relatives, the feelings of craving and hunger -expressed by the patient, and the mistaken but universal prejudice -respecting diet, it is always painful to propose, and generally -impossible to enforce; where, however, circumstances have given a full -and unreserved controul, the advantage of the plan has been most -decisive. - -There is still another remark which I am desirous of offering, in this -place, on the subject of Diet; _viz._—that in all cases of feeble or -imperfect digestion, _the Valetudinarian ought never to take his -principal meal in a state of fatigue_—and yet let me ask, whether there -is a habit more generally pursued, or more tenaciously defended? Aye, -and defended too upon _principle_—the invalid merchant, the banker, the -attorney, the government clerk, are all impressed with the same belief, -that after the sedentary occupations of the day, to walk several miles -to their villas, or to fatigue themselves with exercise before their -dinner, or rather early supper, will sharpen their tardy stomachs, and -invigorate their feeble organs of digestion. The consequence is -obvious,—instead of curing, such a practice is calculated to perpetuate, -and even to aggravate the malady under which they suffer; by calling -upon the powers of digestion at a period, when the body is in a state of -exhaustion from fatigue. Often have I, in the course of my practice in -this town, cured the Dyspeptic invalid, by merely inducing him to -abandon so mischievous a habit. - - - II. - TO CORRECT THE OPERATION OF THE BASIS, BY OBVIATING ANY UNPLEASANT - EFFECTS IT MIGHT BE LIKELY TO OCCASION, AND WHICH WOULD PERVERT ITS - INTENDED ACTION, AND DEFEAT THE OBJECTS OF ITS EXHIBITION. - - -A. _By_ MECHANICALLY _separating, or_ CHEMICALLY _neutralizing, the -offending Ingredient_. - -The scientific physician, from his knowledge of the chemical composition -of a medicine, and of the principles upon which its different qualities -depend, is enabled to remove or render inert the element which imparts -to it a deleterious operation; thus it has been found that the peculiar -principle in the _Spanish Fly_, which so frequently irritates the -urinary organs, is soluble in boiling water; ebullition in water -therefore offers the means of depriving it of the power of thus acting -upon the kidneys, while it does not effect any alteration in its -vesicatory properties. It is upon the same principle that many vegetable -substances of a very acrid nature, become harmless by boiling, or by -chemical manipulation, and some of them might even in times of scarcity -and want, be introduced as wholesome and nutritious articles of diet. -The experiments of _Westring_ shew that the bitterness of the _Lichen -Islandicus_ may be entirely removed by maceration in an alkaline ley, -and a tasteless, but highly nutritious fecula be thus obtained; in the -same manner the _Æsculus Hippocastanum_ (Horse Chesnut) may be deprived -of its bitterness, leaving a residuum which will afford a kind of bread; -and according to _Parmentier_ (_Recherches sur les vegetaux -nourissans_,) excellent starch may be also made from it. _Dr. Darwin_ -observes, that if the roots of _White Bryony_ be rasped into cold water, -and agitated with it, the acrid juice of the root along with the -mucilage will be dissolved, or swim in the water; while a starch -perfectly wholesome and nutritious will subside, and may be -advantageously used as food; by a similar species of address the French -prepare from the acrid _Arum_ the harmless, but highly prized cosmetic, -called _Cyprus powder_. - -There are many substances which receive a much pleasanter mode of -operation by having their solubilities increased or diminished; thus the -griping occasioned by several drastic purgatives is obviated by the -addition of some alkali: and the nauseating tendency of _Camboge_, which -arises from its too easy solubility, is prevented by incorporating it -with some insoluble body; as in the _Pilulæ Cambogiæ Comp:_ but the -farther consideration of this question will be resumed in the fourth -section of the Analysis. (iv. c.) - -Numerous attempts have been made to correct the inconvenient effects of -_Opium_, such as nausea, head-ache, and costiveness, by removing the -resinous element, upon which such evils have been supposed to depend, -and we have accordingly been at different times presented with a variety -of _Formulæ_ for the accomplishment of so desirable an object; (_see -Opium_). More recently, opium has been discovered to possess _two_ -active principles, viz. _Morphia_ and _Narcotine_, which would appear -from the researches of M. Majendie to exert very different powers upon -the animal system; the former imparting to opium its _soporific_, the -latter, its _exciting_ property; whence it is proposed to remove this -latter principle in order to render the operation of opium milder, and -at the same time to divest it of those objectionable properties which so -greatly limit its medicinal utility. _See Opium._ - - -B. _By adding some substance capable of guarding the stomach, or system, -against its deleterious effects._ - -The virtues of our most important remedies are frequently lost, or much -invalidated, for want of proper attention to the circumstances -comprehended in this section. It may be almost admitted as an axiom that -_whenever an_ ALTERATIVE _medicine acts with violence upon the primæ -viæ, its energies are uselessly expended, and the object of its -exhibition defeated_. So again, _Diaphoretics_, _Diuretics_, and many -other remedies, suffer a diminution in their effects, whenever they -stimulate the stomach or bowels to excess. _Guaiacum_ thus loses its -anti-arthritic, _Squill_ its diuretic, and _Antimony_ and _Ipecacuan_ -their diaphoretic, virtues; the action of these substances may therefore -require correction, and a medicine must be selected capable of -fulfilling that intention. _Opium_ has very extensive powers as a -corrigent. _See Form. 57, 100, 106, 110_. Dr. Mead combined alkaline -salts, when intended to act as diuretics, with opium, in order to -prevent their action upon the bowels. _Acetate of Lead_, when -administered in cases of hæmopthysis, or uterine hemorrhage, should also -be guarded by the addition of a small portion of the same narcotic. Dr. -Sutton, of Greenwich, has lately written a paper to shew, that where we -wish to limit the operation of an emetic to the stomach, and to prevent -its action on the bowels, we should add five or six drops of laudanum to -the emetic draught, which in his experience has answered the purpose in -question.[259] The griping and nauseating tendency of some remedies -receives correction by the addition of _Aromatic stimulants_, or -_Essential oils_, (69, 71, 78, 84, 85, 92,) or by small portions of a -corresponding tincture, (70, 76.) It has been already stated, that the -griping from _Senna_ and _resinous_ purgatives may be, in a great -degree, obviated by the addition of alkalies; it remains to be observed, -that the same remedies are also mitigated in severity, by _saline_ -purgatives, (77.) I learn from Sir Henry Halford, that in his practice -he has found the addition of _Extract of Hyoscyamus_ render the -operation of the _compound extract of Colocynth_ much more mild, and no -less efficacious. Of the value of such a combination, I am myself able -to bear ample testimony. _Alum_ is corrected in its tendency to disturb -the bowels by the addition of _Nutmeg_, (_Form. 53_,) or some aromatic; -and the drastic operation of _Colocynth_ may be mitigated by trituration -with _Camphor_. There are several substances which are deprived of their -acrimonious qualities by trituration with mucilage, milk, barley-water, -&c. The tendency which mercurial preparations possess of affecting the -bowels, is, with the exception of _Corrosive Sublimate_, corrected by -_Opium_, but the acrid operation of this latter salt is more securely -guarded against by the decoction of _Guaiacum_ or _Mezereon_, or by the -plentiful exhibition of mucilaginous drinks and broths. In certain -diseases of the uterus and vagina, astringent lotions are indicated, but -it may happen, as in the cauliflower excrescence, or in the oozing -tumour of the labium, that such applications are too irritating; in such -cases the effect of the lotion is _corrected_ by the addition of -mucilage. The enfeebling influence of _Digitalis_, _Tobacco_, and some -other narcotics, is successfully opposed by aromatics and stimulants. It -has already been stated that several attempts have been made to correct -the operation of _Opium_ by the application of mechanical and chemical -resources; it would, however, appear that, for obviating its effects -upon the intestinal excretions, the judicious addition of some purgative -will offer the most effectual corrigent; and, according to my own -experience, the _Aloetic_ preparations are to be preferred upon such an -occasion, as in _Form. 11, 12, 13_. In some cases, I have found that a -combination of the watery infusion of _Opium_ with some bitter, will -secure the narcotic virtues without those consecutive effects upon the -alimentary canal, which we are always so desirous to obviate; the -_Decoctum Aloes compositum_ also furnishes upon such an occasion a very -appropriate adjunct. Let us remember that one of the effects of opium is -to paralyse, for a time, the muscular fibres of the intestines: now -experience has taught us that the remedies above directed have a -peculiar tendency to augment the peristaltic motions of the _primæ viæ_. -Upon the same principle the addition of calomel will prevent the -paralysing influence of this narcotic upon the biliary functions. I have -known several patients who could never take opium unless in such a form -of combination. - -In general, a formula contains but one _corrigent_; but circumstances -may occur, where two different ingredients are required to obviate two -very different effects, as in _Form. 16_, in which the _Nitric acid_ is -introduced for the purpose of counteracting the deleterious effects of -the opium upon the nervous system, while the _Aloetic_ preparation is -calculated to obviate its particular tendency upon the alimentary canal. - -Sometimes the unpleasant or perverse operation of a medicine may be -obviated by changing the form of its exhibition, the period at which it -is taken, or the extent of its dose; Dr. Cullen, for instance, found -that the nauseating operation of _Camboge_ might be obviated, by -repeating small doses at short intervals. (89.) - -Before quitting the present subject, it deserves notice, that there is -frequently a _chemical_ condition of the stomach that may interfere with -the mild operation of a medicine, and may therefore require -consideration: this is particularly exemplified in the action of those -antimonial preparations which are liable to become emetic and drastic by -the presence of an acid; it is, for this reason, very eligible to guard -such substances with antacid adjuncts. See _Antimonii Sulphuretum_, and -_Form. 125, 128_. There is also, upon some occasions, an irritable state -of the _primæ viæ_ depending upon a deficient secretion of mucus, which -renders even small doses of any active medicine mischievous; -mucilaginous decoctions in such a case will offer the readiest -_corrigent_; see _Scammonia_. - -The vinous infusion of _Colchicum_ appears to act more violently when -acid is present in the stomach; small doses of _Magnesia_ may therefore -precede, and accompany its exhibition, with advantage. - - - III. - TO OBTAIN THE JOINT OPERATION OF TWO OR MORE MEDICINES. - - -A. _By uniting those substances which are calculated to produce the_ -SAME ULTIMATE RESULTS, _although by totally different modes of -operation_. - -It has been already stated, (_page 152_), that we may frequently combine -substances together whose modes of operation are dissimilar, with -considerable advantage, provided they be not physiologically -incompatible with each other. We may illustrate this subject by a -reference to the operation of purgatives; a series of medicinal -substances may be produced, each of which has the property of exciting -catharsis, but by a very different mode of action; one for instance -stimulates the muscular fibres of the intestines; a second acts upon the -exhalant vessels, and mucous glands; and a third exerts its influence -upon the neighbouring organs, so as to produce an increased flow of -their secretions into the bowels; but since such modes of action are -quite compatible with each other, they may be simultaneously -established, not only without any loss of efficacy, but with the most -decided advantage; suppose, for instance, we administer a substance -which, either from its insolubility or peculiar nature, acts exclusively -upon the muscular fibres of the alimentary canal, its peristaltic -motions will be undoubtedly thus increased, and the contents of the -bowels evacuated, but the operation will be slow, and probably -accompanied with considerable _tormina_; now it is evident that if to -such a remedy we add those which can produce an increased flow of serous -fluids, the effect will be both quicker and easier. _The infusion of -Senna_ is thus quickened and corrected by _Soluble Tartar_. In the same -manner various substances included in the class of diuretics, which, -although different, still if they be not adverse in their operation, may -be conjoined; _Digitalis_ and _Potass_ are not similar, nor are they -incompatible, for while the alkali, through the medium of the -circulation, stimulates the secreting organs of the kidneys, the -foxglove may, by its sympathetic action, rouse the energy of the -absorbents. In the administration of diaphoretics we shall frequently -derive additional force, as well as certainty, by combining those which -act by relaxing the cutaneous emunctories, with those which prove -diaphoretic by imparting a general increase of momentum to the blood. - - -B. _By combining Medicines which have entirely different powers, and -which are required to obviate different symptoms, or to answer different -indications._ - -Arrangements constructed upon this principle constitute some of the most -valuable remedies with which we are acquainted; they are in general -_extemporaneous_, because their value depends upon their being varied -and modified according to the symptoms and circumstances of each -particular case. The following general elucidation of the subject may -serve to demonstrate the nature and importance of such combinations. - -PURGATIVES _with_ ANTISPASMODICS. The practice suggested by Drs. Stoll -and Warren, in the treatment of _Cholica Pictonum_, affords a striking -example of the expediency of combinations of this nature. It is found in -that disease, as well as in others attended with spasmodic constriction -of the intestinal canal, that purgatives produce no effects unless the -spasm be allayed by combining them with _Opium_, (_see Form. 71, 75, -76_,) it is from such a cause that the purgative so popular with tailors -and shoemakers, and which consists of _Aloes_ with _Sagapenum_ or -_Galbanum_, affords such prompt relief in the spasmodic cholic to which -they are subject. - -PURGATIVES _with_ TONICS. In the exhibition of cathartics how frequently -it occurs in practice that the patient’s strength will hardly allow the -evacuation; in such a case the addition of _steel_ as a roborant (_Form. -72, 92, 93_,) or even of _æther_, or _ammonia_, as a diffusible -stimulant, is strongly indicated: the Cheltenham waters offer a natural -combination of this character. So again in the cure of dropsy we have -often two indications to fulfil—to evacuate the water, and to support -the strength of the patient; hence the necessity of combining brisk and -stimulating purges, such as _Scammony_, _Jalap_, &c. with active tonics, -(83.) In the treatment of amenorrhæa the same medicinal arrangement is -not unfrequently indicated. - -PURGATIVES _with_ MERCURIAL ALTERATIVES. In habitual costiveness, where -there appears to be a deficiency of bile, a combination of _Pilula -Hydrargyri_, with certain _Aloetic_ compounds, may prove serviceable; -for while the latter remedy will, in the absence of bile, supply to the -intestines a congenial stimulus, the former will tend to restore the -bilious secretion by its influence upon the hepatic system. _See Form. -79, 81_. - -PURGATIVES _with_ DIAPHORETICS. This combination of effects is often -useful in practice, but it is desirable that the latter should not be -established until the operation of the purgative upon the bowels has -subsided. This is accomplished by certain doses of _Tartarized Antimony_ -in conjunction with some purgative. The _Pulvis Aloes Compositus_ of our -Pharmacopœia produces a somewhat similar effect. - -DIAPHORETICS _with_ TONICS. How frequently is the practitioner desirous -of determining to the skin, and at the same time of supporting the -strength of the general system? in the progress of a continued fever we -are repeatedly called upon to fulfil such indications. Dr. Bree[260] -also observes that “in the exhibition of _Diaphoretics_ the addition of -a bitter infusion, or tincture, is frequently proper; for the stomach -should be gently excited and strengthened during the use of a -diaphoretic draught.” On the other hand, _Tonics_ not unfrequently -require the aid of a diaphoretic; for instance, in the cure of _Cynanche -maligna_, the use of bark is indicated; but if the skin be hot and dry, -it should be accompanied with a diaphoretic. _See Form. 126_. - -ANTISPASMODICS _with_ TONICS, _or_ NARCOTICS. Under the history of -Antispasmodics, (_page 78_) it is stated that there are certain bodies -which seem to exert an absolute control over inordinate muscular action, -from whatever general cause it may have arisen; in administering such -remedies, however, the intelligent practitioner will not overlook the -peculiar condition of the system in its relations to the disease; where -debility is present, the _Antispasmodic_ will be usefully combined with -a _Tonic_; and, in certain morbid states of the nervous system, with a -_Narcotic_. - -ASTRINGENTS _with_ DIAPHORETICS. Dr. Fordyce has observed, that -combinations of this kind are often indicated in cases of Diarrhœa, -where it is necessary to astringe the vessels of the intestines, and at -the same time to relax those of the skin; such an indication, he says, -may be fulfilled by exhibiting _Tormentil root_, or any other vegetable -astringent, with _Ipecacuan_. - -ASTRINGENTS _with_ NARCOTICS, and ABSORBENTS. It has been already -observed, that in a Diarrhœa, depending upon the influx of acrid fluids -into the intestines, there are three modes of treatment by which the -malady may be obviated, viz. by a narcotic, _diminishing the -irritability of the intestines_; by an astringent, _restraining the -serous excretion_; and by an absorbent, _neutralizing the acrid matter_. -As the modes of action are not incompatible with each other, they maybe -simultaneously established with the greatest advantage. _See Form. 52_. - -ASTRINGENTS _with_ TONICS. A combination of certain medicines belonging -to these two classes is frequently indicated; in the treatment of -passive hemorrhage, we have to astringe the bleeding vessels, and, at -the same time, to cure the hemorrhagic diathesis by remedies which are -capable of restoring the general tone of the system. In the treatment of -the chronic and humid coughs of old persons, I have very frequently -witnessed the beneficial union of the warm and stimulating influence of -_Myrrh_ with the astringent effects of _Sulphate of Zinc_. _Form. 69_ -presents the combination which I have usually adopted with success on -such occasions. - -DIURETICS _with_ TONICS. As Dropsy is frequently associated with great -debility, the practitioner should combine his diuretics with some tonic -medicine; but in forming a judgment upon the case he must be guided by -those precepts which have been laid down under the consideration of -Diuretics at page 97. See _Form. 114_. - -DIURETICS _with_ AROMATIC STIMULANTS. Such a combination will be found -advantageous in those cases where the powers of the system require to be -excited by more prompt measures than those afforded by the agency of -tonics. _Ethereal_ preparations, with Squill and other stimulating -diuretics, are well calculated upon such occasions to afford valuable -assistance. _Form. 101–116._ - -TONICS _with_ DIFFUSIBLE STIMULANTS. In the cure of dyspepsia, we -frequently require a remedy, for the purpose of obviating debility, that -is more sudden in its action, and prompt in its effects, than that of a -bitter _tonic_, whose operation is almost imperceptible; while the case -may at the same time stand in need of that permanent increase of tone, -which the latter remedy can alone supply; such an indication therefore -must be fulfilled by combination. _Form. 40, 42._ - -TONICS _with_ PURGATIVES. In the exhibition of tonic medicines it is -frequently essential to accompany their operation with purgation; in -intermittent fevers, for instance, when attended with a redundant -secretion of bile, or any obstruction of the viscera, the _bark_ must be -given in combination with some laxative, for which purpose Boerhaave has -recommended _Muriate of Ammonia_; _Mead_, _Rhubarb_; whilst in many -cases, experience suggests the propriety of selecting some of the warmer -cathartics, especially the Alöetic: and I shall take this opportunity to -observe, that notwithstanding the opinion so strongly expressed by -Sydenham, that “_to add any thing to the bark argues either ignorance or -craft_,” the most respectable testimony may be adduced to demonstrate -the great advantages which have arisen from the various combinations of -this heroic remedy. Sir George Baker has said that “_there is less of -reason than of severity_,” in the above remark of Sydenham; for that it -was found in the cure of the intermittent fever, which he describes, -that, according to circumstances, sometimes the _Virginian snake root_, -and in other cases _Myrrh_, were added with propriety and advantage; -and, according to the experience of several practitioners, a drachm of -the _rust of iron_, and the same quantity of the powder of _black -pepper_, added to each ounce of _bark_, were the means of subduing the -most inveterate agues. _Formula 44_ presents a combination, which we -learn from Dr. Petrie’s letter to Sir George Baker, constitutes a -celebrated Dutch remedy for an ague, and which was tried with success in -the hospital at Lincoln, in those obstinate intermittents which -prevailed in the year 1781. Hillary speaks of an epidemic intermittent -at Barbadoes, in which the bark was of no avail, unless combined with -saline remedies, or some of the tonic bitters. Dr. Barton has stated -that Bark combined with Mercury in a small proportion, is one of the -best remedies for removing the swelling of the spleen after an -intermittent. - -EXPECTORANTS _with_ DIFFUSIBLE STIMULANTS. We have seen that -expectorants may be usefully associated with tonics; it sometimes occurs -that these remedies require the addition of some diffusible stimulant. -In certain states of _Peripneumonia notha_, where the powers of life are -ebbing, and the lungs become inundated with viscid mucus, I have -experienced the value of a combination of some stimulating expectorant -and _ammonia_. - -ANTACIDS _with_ TONICS. In the cure of cardialgia we have obviously two -indications; to neutralize the offending acid by some chemical agent, -and to correct the morbid state of the digestive functions by some -appropriate remedy. _See Form. 152_. The same observation will apply in -the treatment of certain cases of chlorosis, where cardialgia is not -unfrequently a very vexatious attendant, and solicits the union of -emmenagogues with antacids, or absorbents, as in _Form. 99_. - -LITHONTHRYPTICS _with_ NARCOTICS. As a palliative in calculous -irritation, the union of alkalies and opium proves a valuable resource. -Henbane may likewise be advantageously combined with a Lithonthryptic; -for, be it remembered, that few narcotics are more efficacious in -allaying nephritic irritation. (_Form. 156._) We have also frequently -two important indications to fulfil in the treatment of urinary -concretions; where the lithic acid diathesis prevails, it will be -necessary to neutralize any acidity in the first passages, and at the -same time to regulate the functions of the skin; we have moreover to -give tone to the digestive organs; so that, in such cases, the art of -medicinal combination is well calculated to extend our resources. - -In the formation of these compounds we should rarely attempt to fulfil -more than two indications, although cases may occur in which it will be -eligible to assail the disease with an engine of _triple_ powers, as -exemplified by _Form. 52_ . - -In constructing, however, such complex arrangements the practitioner -must of course take care that he does not fall into the error of -CONTRAINDICATION, and combine substances which possess properties -essentially different, and which are at variance with, or directly -opposed to each other; it is an error of the most serious description, -and unfortunately is one of too common occurrence in the lower walks of -medical practice; “_crimine ab uno disce omnes_.” I lately met with a -country practitioner who, upon being asked by a lady whom he attended, -the intention of three different draughts which he had sent her, -replied, that one would warm, the second cool her, and that the third -was calculated to moderate the too violent effects of either; thus it is -that discredit and contempt fall upon the use of medicines, which ought -only to attach to the ignorant pretenders, or designing knaves who -administer them. - -Having, in the commencement of this inquiry, stated that all the -principles of combination, capable of practical application in the -construction of extemporaneous formulæ, are exemplified in the -composition of the various productions of Nature, I shall conclude the -present section by shewing, that _many of our most valuable vegetables -owe their useful properties to the joint operation of the several -distinct and different ingredients which enter into their composition_. -How many substances does Nature produce in the vegetable kingdom, in -which the permanent tonic quality of bitterness exerts its influence in -union with the transient stimulating powers of an aromatic principle? -indeed there is a series of vegetable remedies of this kind: commencing -with those that are simply bitter, we gradually proceed through the -different species, each blending as we advance an increasing proportion -of aroma, until we arrive at those in which the aromatic quality greatly -preponderates. _Peruvian Bark_ may be said to combine within itself the -properties of _bitterness_, _astringency_, and _aroma_; a fact which -suggested the probability of our being able to produce an artificial -compound that might emulate the effects of Cinchona, and to a certain -extent the idea appears to have been realised; for we are told by Dr. -Cullen, that he frequently succeeded in the cure of an intermittent by a -combination of _Oak Bark_ and _Gentian_, when neither bitters nor -astringents, separately, produced the least impression; and I am -informed by Dr. Harrison, that in the Horncastle Dispensary, of which he -was for many years physician, he never employed any other remedy for -curing the ague of Lincolnshire than equal parts of _Bistorta_ -(astringent) and _Calamus Aromaticus_ (bitter and aromatic), neither of -which plants, _individually_, ever produced the least benefit in such -diseases. Berzelius attempted to produce a compound of this description -by adding to the bark of the _Ash_ some _Tormentil root_ and _Ginger_; -and he observes that it acted as an excellent tonic, and that according -to the experiments of his friends it seemed to cure quartan agues.[261] -In the aromatic barks and woods, such as those of the _Canella_, -_Orange-peel_, _Sassafras_, &c. the aromatic principle[262] is combined -with a bitter ingredient; a union which proves of singular service in -the formidable bowel complaints so common in tropical climates. - -The great superiority of the hop, as an ingredient in our malt liquors, -depends upon the fact of its containing within itself several distinct -and independent elements of activity, which the other bitter herbs that -have at different times been employed as its substitute, do not possess. -The philosophy of its operation may be adduced as a striking -illustration of the present subject; first, then, it contains a _bitter_ -principle, which imparts to the beverage a tonic quality and an -agreeable flavour; while at the same time an _aromatic_ ingredient adds -a warm and stimulant property and modifies the bitterness; the hop, -moreover, contains an _astringent_ ingredient (_Tannin_ and _Gallic -Acid_), the effects of which are to precipitate the vegetable mucilage, -and thus to remove from the beer the active principle of its -fermentation; every attempt therefore to substitute an ordinary bitter -for that of the hop must necessarily fail, unless a compound can be so -artfully constructed as to contain in due proportions, the principles of -bitterness, astringency, and aroma. _Quassia_ must therefore necessarily -prove but a sorry substitute; it will impart bitterness enough, but it -will not be modified by agreeable aroma; and as it contains no -astringent principle, it will fail in precipitating the vegetable -mucilage, or gluten; in consequence of which the beer so manufactured -will be in a perpetual state of fermentation until it is entirely -spoilt.[263] _Rhubarb_ is another medical plant which may be brought -forward in elucidation of the analogies subsisting between natural and -artificial combinations; in this case Nature has presented us with a -singular and most important union of medicinal powers,—that of an -astringent, with a cathartic property! virtues, which we might, without -the light of experience, have pronounced to be incompatible with each -other; and yet we find that in this instance the property of astringency -never interferes with, or opposes the purgative force, since the former -does not display itself unless the substance be administered in small -doses; or, when given in larger ones, not until it has ceased to operate -as a cathartic. - - - IV. -TO OBTAIN A NEW AND ACTIVE REMEDY NOT AFFORDED BY ANY SINGLE SUBSTANCE. - - -A. _By combining medicines which excite different actions in the Stomach -and System, in consequence of which_ NEW, _or modified results, are -produced._ - -This constitutes by far the most obscure part of the subject of -medicinal combination, and must ever continue so until we become better -acquainted with the laws which govern the action of medicinal substances -upon the living system. That the most valuable effects, however, are -really produced by such arrangements, we have the testimony of long -experience, and examples are furnished in the valuable and well-known -operation of many officinal preparations; thus the “_Pulvis Ipecacuanhæ -compositus_” contains as its active elements, _Opium_ and _Ipecacuanha_; -and yet, in well regulated doses, it neither possesses the narcotic -operation of the former, nor the nauseating effects of the latter; they -appear to be mutually lost, and converted into a powerful diaphoretic: -so again, the emetic operation of _Sulphuret of Antimony_, and the -specific influence of _Calomel_, are changed by combination with each -other, giving rise to a remedy eminently distinguished for its powers as -an alterative. Dr. Bree observes that _Tincture of Squills_ combined -with _Extract of Henbane_, and the _Nitric Acid_, have been proved by -much experience to be expectorant and sedative in a paroxysm of asthma, -although each article, uncombined, had been given without success. See -_Form. 139_. The efficacy of _Hemlock_, in quieting Pulmonary -irritation, has been frequently adverted to in the course of this work; -I have to state, in this place, that its value, on such occasions, is -generally enhanced by combination with _Ipecacuanha_. - -It is probable that many of our natural remedies owe their efficacy to -the results of a similar species of combination. In the fourth edition -of this work it was stated that, according to the assertion of Dr. -Chapman, “_Kino_, when administered in union with _Calumba_, constituted -a pretty certain, and powerful purgative;” since the publication of this -fact, I have investigated what, if true, would appear to be a most -extraordinary anomaly in the philosophy of medicinal combination, and I -find that the statement of Dr. Chapman[264] is not borne out by -experiment. That we might arrive at a just conclusion upon this subject, -I requested the assistance of my friend Dr. John Davy, whose character -for experimental accuracy, and whose situation as Superintendant of the -Medical Division of the General Military Hospital at Chatham, seemed to -point him out as a person peculiarly adapted for such an inquiry; the -result of his trials does not establish that of the experiments of Dr. -Chapman, but on the contrary it seems to prove, that neither _Kino_ nor -_Calumba_, when taken separately, has a constipating effect, and that in -the form of powder (especially the _Calumba_) each has an aperient -quality, which is not increased by exhibiting the two medicines together -in a state of mixture. The trials from which these inferences are drawn -were made on different individuals in tolerable health, and they were -repeated more than once; in some cases they were given separately, and -in others, mixed together, in doses varying from a scruple to a drachm -of each. - - -B. _By combining Substances which have the property of acting chemically -upon each other; the result of which is the formation of_ NEW COMPOUNDS, -_or the decomposition of the original Ingredients, and the developement -of their more_ ACTIVE ELEMENTS. - - -A. _The Formation of New Compounds._ - -It is not necessary to extend our researches beyond the range of the -Pharmacopœiæ,[265] to collect a variety of interesting and important -examples, in illustration of this division of our subject; if we require -a striking example of the agency of chemical combination in destroying -the identity of the original constituents, and of giving origin to a -compound of new powers, it may be exemplified by the well known instance -of _Sulphate of Potass_, a substance possessing but a weak affinity for -water, and exerting but little energy upon the animal œconomy; whereas -the two ingredients of which it consists are distinguished for the -extreme eagerness with which they unite with water, and for the caustic -activity which they display in their action upon animal matter. - -Under this head the class of metals will also present itself to our -consideration, all the individuals of which, with the exception perhaps -of iron, are perfectly inert and harmless; even arsenic, lead, copper, -and mercury, which in certain states of combination constitute some of -the most virulent of known substances, exert no action upon the living -system, unless they be in union with some other body; but when so -united, how valuable do they become, and what various medicinal effects -may they not be made to produce. - -The _Acetic Acid_ and _Ammonia_ become neutralized by combination with -each other, affording a compound of new virtues. _Sulphate of Zinc_, and -_Acetate of Lead_, when mixed together in solution, decompose each -other, and the _Acetate of Zinc_ which is formed, affords a more -valuable remedy than either of the former salts, as an application in -ophthalmia. The “_Mistura Ferri Composita_” of our Pharmacopœia offers -another example of the same chemical resource. I also beg the reader to -refer to the construction of _Formula 82_, which presents an instance of -a purgative draught being produced by combination, in which the original -properties of every element are entirely changed. See also _Formula 87_, -the chemical actions of which are more complicated, but no less -instructive than the preceding one; the ingredients of the formula are -the _Carbonates of Soda_ and _Magnesia_,—_Sulphate of Iron_,—_Diluted -Sulphuric Acid_, and _Water_—and when mixed together, the following -decompositions would appear to take place; the free _Sulphuric Acid_, -together with that which exists in the _Sulphate of Iron_, being just -sufficient to decompose the _Carbonates of Soda_ and _Magnesia_, forms -two neutral _Sulphates_ (viz. _Sulphates of Soda_ and _Magnesia_,) and -thereby disengages a volume of _Carbonic Acid gas_, which not only -increases the purgative operation of the new saline compounds, but, by -its excess, holds in solution the _Carbonate of Iron_, which is formed -by the decomposition of the _Sulphate_, and which in that state displays -an effect powerfully tonic. - -Before we quit the consideration of medicinal compounds as the results -of chemical action, it is expedient to remind the practitioner of the -essential difference between _Mixture_ and _Combination_, a difference -which affects the medicinal virtues no less than the chemical characters -of bodies; it is determined by ample experience, that substances will -produce effects upon the living system when presented in a state of -simple mechanical mixture, very different from those which the same -medicines will occasion when they are combined by the agency of chemical -affinity, as is well exemplified in the comparative effects of alcohol -as existing in ardent spirits, and in wine (see _Vinum_); or in the -relative powers of _Mercury_ in the _Unguentum Hydrargyri_ of the London -College, and the _Unguentum Oxidi Hydrargyri cinerei_ of the -Pharmacopœia of Edinburgh, (see _Unguent. Hydrargyri_); the former of -which is a true chemical compound, whereas the latter is a simple -mixture of its ingredients. - - -B. _The Developement of Active Elements._ - -The accomplishment of such an effect is in many instances the sole -object of a pharmaceutical process. It is thus that we obtain pure -_Citric acid_ from the juice of the Lemon; _Tartaric acid_, from Cream -of Tartar; _Benzoic acid_, from the resinous substance known by the name -of _Gum Benzoin_; upon the same principle, the _Muriatic_ and _Nitric_ -acids are elicited from the saline compounds in which they exist. -_Ammonia_, in its pungent form, is developed from its inodorous -_Muriate_; and the fixed alkalies are obtained in their caustic state, -from the comparatively mild _carbonates_ in which they naturally exist. -But a more striking and instructive instance of the effect of chemical -action, in developing an active, or useful principle, cannot perhaps be -selected than that of the well known stimulant Plaister, composed of -_Muriate of Ammonia_, _Soap_, and _Lead Plaister_, in which the alkali -of soap enters into combination with the muriatic acid, when the -_Ammonia_, upon which the virtues of the plaister solely depend, is -slowly disengaged in the form of gas, producing a powerfully rubifacient -and stimulant effect: the “_Cataplasma Fermenti_,” or “_Yeast -Poultice_,” is indebted for its antiseptic properties to a similar -agency, for they do not depend upon any virtue in the ingredients -themselves, but upon their decomposition, and the consequent -developement of an active element, which is _Carbonic Acid_. The -practitioner unacquainted with the _modus operandi_ of these -combinations, would inevitably fall into an error by which their -efficacy must be lost; he would hardly apply them as soon as they were -formed, nor would he be aware of the necessity of repeating them at -short intervals. - -The decomposition of _Calomel_ by lime water, forming the well known -“_black wash_” and that of _corrosive sublimate_ in the same fluid, -constituting the “_aqua phagadenica_,” furnish remedies which derive all -their peculiar efficacy from the developement of the mercury in -different states of oxidation. The reader will find another, and a very -striking illustration of the same principle in the history of -“_Alterative Drops_,” under the article “_Hydrargyri Oxy-murias_.” - -A substance separated by chemical precipitation is often a valuable -remedy, being in a much more subtle and impalpable form than any body -can be rendered by mechanical triture and levigation;[266] for example, -the _Carbonate of Lead_, (Cerussa), when diffused in water, is according -to the experience of our best surgeons, far less active as a topical -application than the same substance when produced at once by -precipitation from the _Sub-acetate_ of that metal. In some cases, also, -the substance obtained by precipitation is in a different state of -oxidation from that which is prepared by a different process, see _Mist. -Ferri Comp:_ It is a question well worthy of consideration whether a -more active preparation of the _Antimonial powder_ might not be formed -by obtaining the oxide by the precipitation of _Tartarized Antimony_. - -Many interesting and important illustrations have been lately afforded -by an extended knowledge of vegetable chemistry, recent analyses having -developed principles of extreme activity from several of our most -esteemed plants; thus have Sertuerner and Robiquet succeeded in -separating a narcotic element from _Opium_ (_Morphia_); Majendie, and -_Pelletier_, an emetic principle from _Ipecacuan_, (_Emeta_); and the -last mentioned chemist, together with Caventou, a tonic one from -_Peruvian Bark_, (_Cinchonia_), the properties and applications of which -will be fully explained hereafter, under the history of the different -substances which contain them. - -It is only here necessary to caution the practitioner against those -fallacies into which the captivating theories of the chemist may seduce -him; and, if the views which I have offered upon the subject of -combination be correct, it will follow as a corollary, that the -concentration _of an active element must in many cases abridge its -powers as a remedy_; for although the matter thus removed may -_individually_ be quite inert, yet, in combination, it may subdivide the -particles of the essential constituent, or modify its solubility, and -give impulse and steadiness to its operation; thus the vegetable alkali -_Quina_, although it indisputably constitutes the active matter of bark, -will be found inefficacious when separated from it, unless it be -rendered soluble by the addition of sulphuric, or some other acid. - - -C. _By combining substances, between which no other chemical change is -induced, than a diminution, or an increase, in the_ SOLUBILITIES _of the -principles, which are the repositories of their medicinal virtues_. - -The degree of solubility possessed by a medicinal substance may perhaps -be regarded by some practitioners as a circumstance of but little or no -importance; it will however appear in many cases that _it not only -influences the activity of a remedy, but, like its dose, goes far to -determine its specific operation_; indeed, where a medicine is not, in -itself, very soluble, the increase of its solubility by any chemical -expedient, is tantamount to an increase of its dose. - -It is probably owing to the diversity which exists in the solubility of -the active elements of certain purgatives, that so great a diversity -occurs in their operation; it is, for instance, easy to conceive that a -medicine may act more immediately and specially on the stomach, small, -or large intestines, according to the relative facility with which its -principles of activity enter into solution; that those which are -dissolved before they pass the pylorus are quick and violent in their -effects, and liable to affect the stomach, as is exemplified by the -action of _Gamboge_, &c. whilst some resinous purgatives, on the other -hand, as they contain principles less soluble, seldom act until they -have passed out of the stomach, and often not until they have reached -the colon. _Colocynth_ has a wider range of operation, since its -principles of activity reside both in soluble and in insoluble elements. -_Aloes_ again, being still further insoluble, pass through the whole -alimentary canal before they are sufficiently dissolved, and act -therefore more particularly upon the rectum, by which they are liable to -produce piles, tenesmus, and the various effects which so usually attend -their operation. The characteristic effects of _Rhubarb_, _Senna_, -_Saline Cathartics_, and indeed of all individual substances which -compose the class of the purgative medicines, will also admit of a -satisfactory explanation from the application of these views. It ought -moreover to enable the practitioner, by changing the solubilities of -these substances, to change their medicinal effects. Experience shews -that this is the fact, and that it may be effected either _by the -intervention of substances that act_ CHEMICALLY; or, _by the addition of -Ingredients whose operation is entirely_ MECHANICAL; thus by combining -_Aloes_ with _Soap_ or an _Alkaline Salt_, we quicken their operation, -and remove their tendency to irritate the rectum; the _Compound -Decoction of Aloes_ affords a combination of this kind. _Gamboge_, whose -too ready solubility it is an object to obviate, should be intimately -incorporated with some insoluble purgative, as for instance _Aloes_; a -formula of this nature was introduced by Dr. George Fordyce, and it has -been since simplified and admitted into our Pharmacopœia, under the -title of “_Pilulæ Cambogiæ Compositæ_.” _Tartrate of Potash_, which, on -account of its comparative solubility, has gained the name of _Soluble -Tartar_, acts with corresponding briskness upon the small intestines; -but by increasing its proportion of _Tartaric Acid_, we convert it into -a _super-tartrate_ or “_Cream of Tartar_,” which is a substance -characterized by a comparative degree of insolubility, and a -correspondent change is produced in the medicinal activity of the salt; -its purgative effects are considerably diminished, whilst its diuretic -powers are rendered more considerable. We may even extend this -experiment by adding to the _Cream of Tartar_, _Boracic Acid_, a -substance capable of increasing to a certain extent its solubility, when -we shall again find that its purgative properties are strengthened in an -equal proportion. - -It has been observed that a mixture of different saline cathartics is -more efficient than an equivalent dose of any single one, a fact which -is strikingly exemplified in the prompt and active operation of -Cheltenham Salts, in comparatively small doses, as well as in that of -sea water. I submit whether this may not in some degree depend upon -increased solubility; for it is a law well known to the chemist, that -_when water has ceased to act upon a salt_, _in consequence of its -having obtained the term of saturation, the solution may still take up -another salt of a different kind_. I apprehend that an advantageous -application of this law might be frequently made in practice, and the -energies of a remedy thereby considerably extended.[267] - -Where the active principle of a cathartic is not sufficiently soluble, -it is apt to vex and irritate the bowels, producing tormina instead of -exciting a free and copious excretion; hence the reason why the -operation of resinous purgatives is so commonly attended with griping, -and why relief may be obtained by combining them with _neutral salts_. -Thus also _Senna_, whose virtues reside in extractive matter, is apt by -decoction, or long exposure to the air, to act with griping, in -consequence of the extractive matter becoming by oxidation, resinous and -comparatively insoluble: this effect is best counteracted by the -addition of _soluble Tartar_, that will quicken its action, or by an -alkaline salt that will increase its solubility. - -It appears then to be established as a pharmaceutical maxim, that _the -intensity and even specific action of a purgative medicine may be -modified or completely changed_, _by changing the degree of solubility -possessed by the principles in which its activity resides_. - -The application of this principle is highly important in practice, -directing us in the choice of the different purgatives, according to the -objects which we may wish to fulfil by them, and pointing out safe and -easy methods by which we may increase, diminish, retard, or accelerate -their operation; it thus enables us to construct new and powerful -combinations, by imparting to established remedies fresh activity, or by -mitigating the acrimony and violence of arrangements in other respects -efficacious and eligible. - -In the exhibition of solid substances, their mechanical state of -division may be capable of modifying their operation, from the influence -which this condition must necessarily exert upon their solubilities, -although I am by no means disposed to assign to it the importance which -Gaubius has ventured to express, “_Sunt quæ ruditer pulverata alvum, -subtilius vero urinas, aut alios humores movent_;” and Ray, speaking of -the _Asarum_ (Hist. p. 208) has the following remark—“_Quo tenuius est -tritum, eo magis urinas movere, minus autem alvum ducere creditur_;” and -Linnæus[268] observes that this same plant, when exhibited in the state -of _very fine_ powder, uniformly acts as an emetic, but that when -_coarsely_ powdered it always passes the stomach, and becomes cathartic. -M. Virey has made a similar observation with respect to -Hellebore,—“_L’Hellebore pulverisé fait vomiter; concassé il purge; et -en decoction prolongée, il en devient sudorifique ou diuretique._” I -have endeavoured under the article _Pulveres_ to establish some useful -precepts upon this subject, to which I beg to refer the reader. - -The influence of solubility upon the medicinal energies and specific -effects of remedies, may be farther illustrated by a comparative -examination of the virtues of the _Acetate_ and _Sub-acetate_ (Goulard’s -Extract) _of Lead:_ the former preserves its solubility and integrity -under any degree of dilution, while the latter, when slightly diluted -with the purest water, in consequence of the carbonic acid diffused -through it, gives out a copious precipitate; the acetate therefore is -undoubtedly the more immediately active application as a preparation of -lead, but it is nevertheless perhaps less adapted to remove inflammation -and abate irritation than the turbid mixture of the sub-acetate, since -the slow and gradual action which is ensured by the latter is more -desirable than the instantaneous operation of the same remedy, applied -in a more soluble form: the popular injection for gonorrhæa, consisting -of a mixed solution of _Sulphate of Zinc_ and _Acetate of Lead_, -probably owes much of its value to the insoluble precipitate of -_Sulphate_ of lead which necessarily takes place, and which, from -becoming entangled in the mucus of the urethra, produces a more -permanent stimulus than what could have happened from a soluble salt: -(_Form. 62_) thus again the _Sulphuret of Antimony_, and some other -preparations of that metal, of slow solubility, establish a more -permanent influence than _Tartarized Antimony_, and may be preferable to -it in cases where immediate and active evacuations are not required. - -Of remedies composed of vegetable tonics, the useful application of this -principle is also apparent. Thus the addition of _alkalies_, or -_lime-water_, to the infusions of _Gentian_, &c. or to the decoctions of -_Bark_, by rendering their extractive and resinous principles more -soluble, increase their elegance, and exalt their virtues, (_Form. 39, -41_,) although this law admits of an important exception to be hereafter -explained. A knowledge of this principle likewise offers many useful -hints connected with the successful exhibition of active remedies; it -points out the medicines which require dilution in order to promote -their operation, and those whose too speedy and violent effects may be -retarded and checked by an abstinence from all potation. Thus, in the -exhibition of _Diuretics_ likely to become cathartic or diaphoretic, no -liquid should be given for at least an hour after their administration; -the same caution applies with respect to the _Compound Powder of -Ipecacuan_, which has a strong tendency to excite vomiting. When the -remedy has passed out of the stomach, then the ingestion of fluids may, -and ought to be encouraged. - -To Sir Francis Milman the profession is highly indebted for hints -concerning the importance of accompanying the exhibition of _Diuretics_ -with plentiful dilution,[269] the arguments he adduces elucidate in a -very satisfactory manner the view which has been just taken of the -INFLUENCE OF SOLUBILITY. - -The influence of solubility[270] in increasing the virulence of a -poisonous substance, has already been illustrated very fully (_page -135_,) and it has also been shewn under what circumstance it may be -admissible. When these active substances are administered as remedies, -in small doses, the precept respecting their solubility is even more -important, for in such cases the smallness of the quantity places their -operation more immediately under the control of various incidental -agents; _destroy_ the solubility of a medicine, and you will probably -divest it of those properties which render it useful. _Nitrate of -Silver_, by coming in contact with a _Muriatic Salt_, is rendered quite -inert, and may be discovered unaltered in the fæces of persons to whom -it has been administered. See _Argenti Nitras_. - -Under the article _Plumbi Acetas_ the practitioner will also find that -the conjunction of this substance with any sulphuric salt, at once -deprives it of its valuable properties as a remedy in _Hæmopthysis_. - -Some practitioners, whose opinions I always receive with respect, have -considered these views respecting the influence of solubility as -savouring too much of the refinement of theory, and instances have been -suggested which would appear to invalidate their pretensions; upon -examination, however, it will be found that such exceptions are but -apparent, and depend upon the solvent action of the gastric fluid. Thus -the _Protoxide of Iron_ would appear to be soluble in the fluids of the -stomach, and is consequently an active medicine, whereas the _Peroxide_ -of the same metal, being insoluble under such circumstances, requires to -be combined with an acid, as in the _Tinctura Ferri Muriatis_, to render -it efficacious. The same remark will probably apply to the oxides of -antimony. - -I shall conclude this section upon the influence of Solubility, by the -relation of an anecdote which may tend to confirm the justness of the -views I have offered, more satisfactorily perhaps than any additional -arguments derived from a scientific examination of chemical and -medicinal facts; in as much as it presents us with a practice, the -utility of which has been discovered by unassisted experience, and must -consequently be independent of theory. The American Indians, whenever -they undertake a long journey, and are likely to be destitute of -provisions, employ Tobacco for the purpose of counteracting the uneasy -sensations of hunger, and in its preparation for such a purpose they -adopt an expedient for modifying its powers, and protracting its -effects, which affords an instructive illustration of the influence of -solubility; it consists in combining the juice of Tobacco, with the -pulverized shells of snails, cockles, and oysters;[271] the mass is -dried, and formed into pills, of a convenient size to be held between -the gum and lip, which being gradually dissolved and swallowed, fulfil -the intention required.[272] - - -V. -TO AFFORD AN ELIGIBLE FORM. - - -A. _By which the efficacy of the remedy is enhanced._ - -After the views which have been submitted in the progress of the present -inquiry, it is evident, that the _form_ in which a remedy is -administered may exert some influence upon its medicinal effects; for -additional proofs of this fact, and for more particular directions, see -_Decocta_, _Infusa_, _Tincturæ_, _Misturæ_, _Pilulæ_, _Pulveres_, &c. - -When a substance, or a combination of substances, requires the addition -of some other one, for the purpose of imparting a convenient, agreeable, -or efficacious form, _a vehicle should always be selected, whose effects -will be likely to correspond with the intention of the other -ingredients_. This precept may be exemplified by a reference to _Form. -80, 134_, and others, the _key-letters_ of which announce the _modus -operandi_ of their respective _vehicles_. - - -B. _By which its aspect or flavour is rendered more agreeable._ - -It should ever be the object of the practitioner to accommodate, as far -as he is able, the form and flavour of his medicines to the taste and -caprice of his patient, provided always that he does not compromise -their efficacy, and which often appears to be nearly connected with -those sensible qualities which render them disgusting and objectionable. - -Some medicines are more grateful to the stomach, as well as more -efficacious in their operation, when exhibited in the state of -effervescence. To effect this we have only to introduce an alkaline -carbonate into the formula, and to direct a portion of some vegetable -acid to be added just before it is swallowed. We must, however, take -care that the ingredients are of a nature not likely to be decomposed by -the alkali, in the first instance, or by the neutral salt, which is -formed, in the second. See _Form. 27, 82, 86_. - - -C. _By which it is_ PRESERVED _from the spontaneous decomposition to -which it is liable._ - -It is sometimes adviseable to add an ingredient for the purpose of -preventing the sudden decomposition of a medicine; thus is the _Compound -Tincture of Cardamoms_ added to the _Compound Decoction of Aloes_, in -order that the latter may be preserved a longer period without change. -The addition of sugar will prevent ointments from becoming rancid. -Vegetable infusions, that are susceptible of mouldiness, are best -preserved from such deterioration by some aromatic addition. For the -knowledge of this fact we are indebted to Dr. Mac Culloch, who in a very -interesting paper, lately published in the Edinburgh Philosophical -Journal[273] has observed, that perfumes, such as _Essential Oils_, &c. -will prevent the production and growth of those minute cryptogamous -vegetables, upon which the phenomenon of mouldiness depends.[274] - -Such are the objects which are to be attained by combining several -substances in one _Formula_, and such the laws by which these -compositions are to be regulated; but unless a physician can -satisfactorily trace the operation of each element in his prescription -to the accomplishment of one or more of the objects which I have -enumerated, SIMPLICITY should be regarded by him as the greatest -desideratum. I was once told by a practitioner in the country that the -quantity, or rather complexity of the medicines which he gave his -patients, for there never was any deficiency in the former, was always -increased in a ratio with the obscurity of their cases; “if,” said he, -“I fire a great profusion of shot, it is very extraordinary if some do -not hit the mark.” Sir Gilbert Blane[275] has given us a similar -anecdote; “a practitioner being asked by his patient why he put so many -ingredients into his prescription, is said to have answered more -facetiously than philosophically, _in order that the disease may take -which it likes best_.” A patient in the hands of such a practitioner has -not a much better chance than the Chinese Mandarin who, upon being -attacked with any disorder, calls in twelve or more physicians, and -swallows in one mixture all the potions which each separately -prescribes! - -Let not the young practitioner however be so deceived; he should -remember that unless he be well acquainted with the mutual actions which -bodies exert upon each other, and upon the living system, it may be laid -down as an axiom, that _in proportion as he complicates a medicine, he -does but multiply the chances of its failure_. SUPERFLUA NUNQUAM NON -NOCENT: let him cherish this maxim in his remembrance, and in forming -compounds, always discard from them every element which has not its mode -of action clearly defined, and as thoroughly understood. - -The perfection of a Medicinal Prescription may be defined by three -words; it should be PRECISE (in its _directions_,) CONCISE (in its -_construction_,) DECISIVE (in its _operation_.) It should carry upon its -very face an air of energy and decision, and speak intelligibly the -indications which it is to fulfil. It may be laid down as a position -which is not in much danger of being controverted, that _where the -intention of a medicinal compound is obscure, its operation will be -imbecile_. - -A Medicinal Formula has been divided into four constituent parts, a -division which will be found to admit of useful application to practice, -in as much as it was evidently suggested with a view of accomplishing -the more prominent objects which have been related in the preceding -pages; or, in the language of Asclepiades, of enabling the BASIS to -operate “CITO,” “TUTO,” et “JUCUNDE.” Quickly, Safely, and -Pleasantly—thus - - I. THE BASIS, or Principal Medicine. - - (_curare._) - - II. THE ADJUVANS; that which assists and promotes its operation. - - (“_Cito._”) - - III. THE CORRIGENS; that which corrects its operation. - - (“_Tuto._”) - - IV. THE CONSTITUENS; that which imparts an agreeable form. - - (“_Jucunde._”) - -These elements however are not all necessarily present in every -scientific formula, for many medicines do not require any addition to -promote their operation, and the mild and tractable nature of others -renders the addition of any corrective unnecessary; whilst many again -are in themselves sufficiently manageable, and do not therefore require -the _intermede_ of any _vehicle_ or _constituent_. It also frequently -occurs that one element is capable of fulfilling two or more of the -objects required; the ADJUVANS for instance, may at the same time act as -the CORRIGENS, or CONSTITUENS; thus the addition of _Soap_ to _Aloes_, -or _Extract of Jalap_, mitigates their acrimony, and at the same time -quickens their operation (80.) So again _Neutral Salts_ both quicken and -correct the griping which attends the operation of resinous purgatives. -The disposition of the key letters placed opposite to the elements of -the following _Formulæ_, will furnish the practitioner with a farther -elucidation of these principles, viz. 70, 71, 76, 77, 101, 102, 105, -135, &c. This coincidence, if possible, should be always attained, for -it simplifies the formula, and by decreasing the bulk of the remedy, -renders it less nauseous and more elegant.[276] - -This division also affords the best general rule for placing the -ingredients of a formula in proper order, for the order should -correspond with that of the arrangement; and those elements intended to -act in unity should be marshalled together. The chemical and mechanical -nature however of a medicinal substance will occasionally offer -exceptions to any general rule; thus the volatile ingredients should be -those last added, and the constituent or _vehicle_ should be placed next -the particular element to which it is intended to impart convenience or -efficacy of form, or a capability of mixing with the other ingredients, -as may be seen in Formulæ 69, 71, 127, 136, &c. This consideration -induced the Committee, appointed to revise the late Pharmacopœia, to -alter the order of the ingredients in the “_Mistura Ferri composita_,” -and to place the “_Spiritus Myristicæ_” next in succession to the -“_Potassæ Sub-carbonas_” and _Myrrh_. If any substance require decoction -or infusion, a question then arises, determinable only by a knowledge of -its chemical composition, whether the remaining ingredients should be -added previous to, during, or subsequent to, that operation; _Formula -40_, which is recommended by Pringle as a remedy for Typhus fever, may -serve to exemplify this principle. The preparation of the ingredients is -resolved into three distinct stages, and it is easy to discover that by -any other arrangement their several virtues could not be fully obtained, -and secured from change. The _Cinchona_, for instance, yields its full -powers only by decoction, a process which would necessarily impair those -of _Serpentaria_, connected as they are with an essential oil; whilst -the addition of the acid at any other stage of the process than that -directed, would produce decompositions in the vegetable substances; and -it is evident that were the _Spirit of Cinnamon_ added previously, it -would be entirely lost by vaporization. So in making the _Compound -Decoction of Sarsaparilla_, the _Sassafras_ should be added after the -other ingredients have undergone boiling. The Decoctions of _Lichen -Islandicus_ and _Sarsaparilla_ constitute a popular remedy on the -Continent, in certain forms of Phthisis; now it is evident that as the -former plant loses its virtues by long coction, and the latter requires -a protracted ebullition for the extraction of its virtues, they ought -not to be included under the same general directions; each decoction -should be separately performed, and the results subsequently mixed. - - -COMPOUND MEDICINES have been divided into two Classes, _viz_. - - -I. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS, - -which are those ordered in the Pharmacopœias, and kept ready prepared in -the shops. No uniform class of medicines however can answer the -indications of every case, and hence the necessity of - - -II. MAGISTRAL OR EXTEMPORANEOUS FORMULÆ. - -These are constructed by the practitioner at the moment, and may be -either arrangements altogether new, or officinal preparations with -additions, or modifications. Too much importance cannot be assigned to -the Art which thus enables the physician to adopt and graduate a -powerful remedy to each particular case by a prompt and accurate -prescription; without this knowledge, the practitioner of the nineteenth -century, with all the collateral aid of modern science, will be as -helpless in the chamber of sickness as the physicians of ancient Egypt, -who were obliged by the laws to follow with servile exactness the -unvarying mandates of their medical code. _Extemporaneous_ are also -preferable to _Officinal Formulæ_, whenever the powers of the compound -are less liable to deterioration from being long kept; for examples, see -_Mistura Ferri composita_; _Infusum Sennæ_; _Liquor Hydrargyri -Oxymuriatis_, &c. - - -THE CHEMICAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL ERRORS, WHICH MAY BE COMMITTED IN THE -COMPOSITION OF EXTEMPORANEOUS FORMULÆ, ARE REFERABLE TO THE FOLLOWING -SOURCES. - - -1.—_Substances are added together which are incapable of mixing, or, of -forming Compounds of uniform and suitable consistence._ - -This may be termed an error in the _Mechanism_ of the Prescription, and -has been generally regarded as being more inconvenient than dangerous, -more fatal to the credit of the Prescriber than to the case of the -Patient: the observations however which are offered in this work, -especially under the article _Pilulæ_, must satisfy the practitioner -that this error is more mischievous in its effects than has been usually -supposed; it is so palpable and self-evident in its nature, that it will -be unnecessary to illustrate it by more than one or two examples. -_Calomel_, for instance, has been ordered in an aqueous vehicle, and -certain _resinous tinctures_ have been directed in draughts, without the -necessary intervention of mucilage; so again, an intermixture of -substances has been formerly ordered in powder that possess the perverse -property of becoming liquid by triture (see _Pulveres_), and bodies have -been prescribed in the form of pills, whose consistence[277] renders it -impossible that they should preserve the globular form; or else they -have been so hard and insoluble, that they might be fired through a deal -board.[278] In the London Pharmacopœia of 1809, an error of this kind -unfortunately passed without correction with regard to the Formula for -preparing the _Syrup of Senna_. - - -II.—_Substances are added together which mutually decompose each other, -whence their original virtues are changed, or destroyed._ - -This is a more serious, but not a less frequent source of error; it has -been already shewn in this Analysis (IV. B) that the judicious and -scientific application of chemical science has furnished new and endless -resources to the physician, by exalting the efficacy and correcting the -acrimony of established remedies, or by combining inert substances so as -to create new and powerful medicines. With equal truth and confidence it -may be asserted, that the abuse of these means not only destroys the -virtues of the most valuable articles in the _Materia Medica_, but that -the mildest remedy may be thus converted into an instrument of torture, -and even of death. In a lecture delivered at Apothecaries’ Hall, Mr. -Brande stated that he had seen a prescription in which the _blue_, or -mercurial pill, was ordered in conjunction with nitric acid, and that -the patient was brought to “death’s door” from the formation of _nitrate -of mercury_ in his stomach! I have myself lately seen a _Recipe_, -professing to afford a preparation similar to the “_Black Drop_,” and -which directed a mixture of a _Tincture of Opium_, made with rectified -spirit, with _Nitric Acid_; in this case, it may be very safely inferred -that the author was not only ignorant of the chemical habitudes of these -bodies, but that he never performed the experiment in question, or he -would have learnt from dire experience, that in consequence of the rapid -evolution of _nitric ether_, the contents of the phial will explode with -violence, to the imminent hazard of the operator’s eye-sight. During the -course of my professional practice I have witnessed more than an -ordinary share of consumptive cases, and I can confidently state that in -the treatment of Hæmopthysis, the styptic properties of _Acetate of -lead_ are entirely invalidated by combination with _Alum_,[279] or by -its exhibition being accompanied with that of the acidulated _infusion -of roses_, or with small doses of _sulphate of magnesia_; and yet, I -would ask, whether this practice is not usual and general? The -practitioner however cannot be too often reminded that he is not to -reject a remedy whose value has been ascertained by experience, merely -because it appears to be unchemical: the popular and certainly useful -pill, consisting of calomel, rhubarb and soap, may be adduced as an -example of this kind. Of the _Mistura Ferri Composita_, I will only say -that it is a most valuable combination; and whether it be the product of -accident, or the result of philosophical induction, it equally deserves -a distinguished place in our list of tonic remedies: but it cannot be -denied that many of our esteemed arrangements, which are in apparent -contradiction to all the laws of composition, owe their efficacy to the -operation of affinities altogether blind and fortuitous. - -It has been observed that the practice of combining certain vegetable -tonics with lime-water, although very common, is in cases where we are -desirous to obtain their _astringent_ effects, of very doubtful -propriety; for the fact is, that _Tannin_ forms with the alkalies and -alkaline earths, compounds that are not soluble in water,[280] and which -are therefore probably inefficacious. It may perhaps be said that such -an argument cannot avail, because if the astringent matter be even -introduced into the stomach in its purest form, it will immediately form -an insoluble compound on its contact with _gelatine_.[281] We know so -little of the laws of _gastric chemistry_, that it is difficult to learn -what changes take place in the animal laboratory; but it would seem -probable that the powers of the stomach rather consist in decomposing -the ingesta into simple forms, than in complicating them by favoring new -combinations; besides which, if such a compound were formed, it would be -subsequently decomposed _in transitu_; for the experiments of Sir H. -Davy shew that vegetable astringent matter passes through the body -unchanged. (_page 82._) - -It is impossible to furnish any general rule that may enable the -practitioner to avoid mixing together substances which are incompatible -with each other; a knowledge of their chemical habitudes must in every -case direct him, and these are enumerated in the second part of this -work, under the history of each medicinal substance. The physician -however will find it useful to retain in his remembrance the simple and -beautiful law which has been so ably developed by the eminent author of -the “STATIQUE CHIMIQUE,” that _whenever two salts in a state of solution -are brought together, which contain, within themselves, elements capable -of producing a soluble and insoluble salt, a decomposition must -necessarily arise_;[282] he illustrates this law by the example of -_Nitrate of Silver_ and _Muriate of Potass_, whose elements are capable -of forming within themselves a soluble salt, _Nitrate of Potass_, and an -insoluble salt, _Muriate of Silver_. It deserves also to be remembered, -that a table of chemical affinity will not upon all occasions prove to -the medical practitioner an unerring pilot; in those cases for instance, -where a _super or sub Salt is readily formed, a substance less weakly -attracted by another than a third, will sometimes precipitate this third -from its combination with the second_, thus in the production of _Nitric -acid_, we decompose the _Nitrate of Potass_ by virtue of the superior -affinity of the _Sulphuric acid_ for its base, the nitric acid is -accordingly disengaged, and a _Sulphate of Potass_ remains in the -retort; now, paradoxical as it may appear, if nitric acid be poured upon -the _Sulphate of Potass_, a quantity of nitre will be reproduced, in -consequence of the saturation of a portion of the base, in such a -proportion as to enable the remaining atoms to form a _Bi-Sulphate of -Potass_. In the same manner the _Tartrate of Potass_ (Soluble Tartar) -is, contrary to the usual affinities, decomposed by all sub-acid -vegetables, which neutralize a portion of the base, and convert the salt -into the _Bi-tartrate of Potass_ (_Cream of Tartar_). The same effect is -even produced by _Carbonic acid_.[283] - -There are besides certain cases wherein _Triple Salts_ are produced, -which afford apparent exceptions to the usual affinities of the bodies -involved in the combination; we have a very good illustration of this -truth in the decomposition of the _Liquor Ammoniæ Acetatis_ by -_Magnesia_; if the practitioner refers to a table of affinities, he will -perceive that _Acetic acid_ has a greater attraction for _Ammonia_ than -for _Magnesia_; but if upon this assurance he were to administer these -bodies together, he, or his patient, would soon discover that ammonia is -developed with considerable pungency; now in this case the _Magnesia_ -forms a _triple Acetate_ with one part of the ammonia, and consequently -sets the remainder at liberty. - -A popular error exists with respect to the subject of chemical -incompatibility, against which it may be here advisable to caution the -inexperienced prescriber, viz. that _no important change is produced, on -the admixture of solutions, unless precipitation is occasioned_. This -however occurs only when the new compound produced is insoluble; thus -_Sulphuric acid_ may be added to _Lime water_, by which a _Sulphate of -Lime_ is formed, but as its proportion is not too large for the water to -dissolve, no precipitate occurs; so again, a solution of _Nitrate of -Silver_ is not apparently disturbed by the addition of _Ammonia_, -because the resulting _Ammoniuret_ is a soluble compound. We should, -nevertheless, commit a great error in supposing that, for such a reason, -these bodies were not _incompatible_. On the other hand, the medicinal -powers of a solution are not necessarily destroyed by the occurrence of -a precipitate, although such a result should always be regarded with -suspicion. - - -III.—_The Methods directed for the preparation of the Ingredients are -either inadequate to the accomplishment of the object, or they change -and destroy the efficacy of the Substances._ - -The observations already offered upon _Formula 40_, will sufficiently -explain the nature of the various errors comprehended under this head: -so, again, if the virtues of a plant reside in _essential oils_, which -are easily volatilized, or in _extractive matter_, which readily -becomes oxidized, DECOCTION must necessarily destroy its efficacy; a -striking example of this fact is presented us in the history of the -_Laurel_ and _Bitter Almond:_ the poisonous influence of the essential -oil and distilled water of these vegetable substances is well known, -but their watery extracts are perfectly innocuous. A still more -familiar example is to be found in the onion, or in garlic, which by -simple coction is deprived of all its acrimonious qualities. On the -other hand, an error equally injurious would be committed, by -directing a simple infusion of a vegetable, whose medicinal properties -depended upon resino-mucilaginous principles. Orfila found that an -extract of Hemlock, prepared by boiling the dried powder in water and -evaporating the decoction, was entirely destitute of activity. See -_Decocta_, _Infusa_, _Extracta_. - -An instance of the baneful effects which may arise from an erroneous -method of preparation happened some time ago to fall under my immediate -notice and care; it was in preparing an infusion of the root of the -_Veratrum_ with _Opium_, as directed by Mr. James Moore, when the -dispenser ignorantly substituted a spirituous for a vinous menstruum. - -A very common error may be here noticed, which is that of prescribing a -substance in such a form, as not to be acted upon with any effect by the -solvent; as an example it may be stated, that in preparing an infusion -of _Juniper Berries_, unless pains be taken by strong contusion to break -the seed, it will contain but little power as a medicine. - -The unbruised seeds of Mustard were commended by Dr. Mead,[284] in -Ascites, and by Bergius, in Intermittents; Dr. Cullen, however, has very -properly observed that the seeds given in the above manner are never -broken down or dissolved in the stomach, but pass away entire by stool, -and cannot therefore occasion any beneficial result. - -It is unnecessary to multiply examples in proof of the numerous errors -into which a physician must unavoidably fall, who presumes to compose -prescriptions without a knowledge of the chemical habitudes of the -different substances which he combines. The file of every apothecary -would furnish a volume of instances, where the ingredients of the -prescription are fighting together in the dark, or at least are so -adverse to each other, as to constitute a most incongruous and chaotic -mass. - - “Obstabat aliis aliud: quia corpore in uno - Frigida pugnabant calidis, humentia siccis, - Mollia cum duris, sine pondere, habentia pondus.” - _Ovid. Metamorph._ lib. 1. 19. - -THE DOSES OF MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES are specific with respect to each, and -can therefore be only learnt from experience; the young and eager -practitioner, however, is too often betrayed into the error of supposing -that the powers of a remedy always increase in an equal ratio with its -dose, whereas THE DOSE ALONE VERY OFTEN DETERMINES ITS SPECIFIC ACTION. -“_Medicines_,” says Linnæus, “_differ from poisons, not in their nature, -but in their dose_,” which is but a paraphrase of the well known -aphorism of Pliny, “_Ubi virus, ibi virtus_.”[285]—So that food, -remedies, and poisons, may be said to branch into each other by -indefinable gradations;—Five grains of _Camphor_ act as a mild sedative -and slight diaphoretic, but twenty grains induce nausea, and act as a -stimulant; so again, _Opium_, in too large doses, instead of promoting, -prevents sleep, and rather stimulates the bowels than acts as a -narcotic. Two ounces of any neutral salt are apt to be emetic, one ounce -even of _Alum_ to be cathartic, and two drachms to be refrigerant; in -like manner the preparations of _Antimony_ either vomit, purge, or -sweat, according to the quantity exhibited. - -Would it not appear that _powerful doses rather produce a local than a -general effect_? Experience seems to prove in this respect, that the -effect of an internal application is similar to that of an external -impression; if violent, it affects the part only to which it is applied, -as pinching does that of the skin, whereas titillation, which may be -said to differ only from the former in degree, acts upon the whole -system, and occasions itching and laughter, and if long continued, -weakness, sickness, vomiting, and convulsions; in like manner -_Digitalis_, if given in large doses, acts immediately upon the stomach -or bowels, becoming emetic and cathartic, but in smaller proportions it -produces a GENERAL effect, increasing all the excretions, especially -that of urine; so, again, large doses of the _Mercurial Pill_ act upon -the bowels, and are eliminated from the body, whereas the same remedy in -small doses affects the system generally, and excites a universal -influence. I am well satisfied that the regulation of the dose of a -medicine is even more important than it is usually supposed to be. -_Substances perfectly inert and useless in one dose may prove in another -active and valuable._ Hence may be explained the great efficacy of many -mineral waters, whilst the ingredients which impart activity to them are -found comparatively inert, when they become the elements of an -artificial combination; and hence probably the failure of many -_alterative_ medicines, when no other rational cause can be assigned for -it. We need not seek far for an example of the very different and -opposite effects which the same substance can produce in different -doses; the operation of _Common Salt_ is familiar to us all; Sir John -Pringle has shewn that in quantities such as we usually take with our -food, its action is highly septic, softening and resolving all meat to -which it is applied, whereas in large quantities it usually preserves -such substances from putrefaction, and therefore, when so taken, instead -of promoting, destroys digestion. - -It is moreover probable that medicinal, like nutritive substances, are -more readily absorbed into the circulating system when presented in -small quantities, than when applied in more considerable proportions. It -is upon this principle that a large quantity of food, taken seldom, does -not fatten so much as smaller quantities at shorter intervals, as is -exemplified in the universal good condition of cooks and their -attendants. It is not pressing the principle of analogy too far to -suppose that the action of _alteratives_, which require to be absorbed, -may be more effectually answered by similar management; that is, _by -exhibiting small doses at short intervals_. - -The operation of medicines is influenced by certain general -circumstances, which should be also kept in mind when we -apportion their dose; e.g. AGE—SEX—TEMPERAMENT—STRENGTH OF THE -PATIENT—HABIT—DIET—PROFESSION—CLIMATE—DURATION OF THE DISEASE—STATE OF -THE STOMACH—IDIOSYNCRASY—and THE VARIABLE ACTIVITY OF THE MEDICINAL -SUBSTANCE. - -Women generally require smaller doses than men. Habit, or the protracted -use of a medicine, generally diminishes its power, although certain -cathartics appear to offer an exception, for when long continued, their -activity is proportionally increased, as is well known to every person -who is familiar with the operation of the Cheltenham waters. Dr. Lamb -has also stated with regard to the operation of Lead, “that the -constitution, so far from being reconciled to it by habit, is rendered -more and more sensible to its irritation by continuance.” Emetics also -frequently become more powerful by repetition; Cullen informs us that he -knew a person so accustomed to excite vomiting in himself that the one -twentieth part of a grain of tartarized antimony was sufficient to -excite a convulsive action of the stomach; in some cases such an effect -may perhaps be referred to the operation of the mind; for after the -frequent use of an emetic, the mere sight of it, or even conversation -relative to it, has been found sufficient to excite nausea. - -In apportioning the dose of a very active medicine, it is of the -greatest moment to determine the relative degrees of power between the -system and the remedy, and to know to what extent the latter is likely -to be carried, consonantly with the powers of life to resist it; thus, -after a patient has been exhausted by protracted and severe suffering -and watching, a dose, different to one at the commencement of the -disease is requisite. The importance of this precept is impressed upon -my mind from having witnessed, in the course of my practice, several -instances of the mischief which has arisen from a want of attention to -it; that disease materially influences the condition of the body, and -its susceptibility to remedial impressions, has been already -demonstrated. Emetics act very readily in febrile affections, while in -those of the Neuroses[286] they produce their effects with difficulty. - -In the application of external remedies to diseased parts, it especially -behoves the Surgeon to take into consideration the degree of vitality -possessed by such parts, and to graduate their strength accordingly. - -Mr. Henry Earle[287] has published a very interesting case in -illustration of this principle. The arm of a person became paralytic, in -consequence of an injury of the axillary plexus of nerves from a -fracture of the collar bone; upon keeping the limb for nearly half an -hour in a tub of warm grains, ‘_which were previously ascertained by the -other hand not to be too hot_,’ the whole hand became blistered in a -most alarming manner, and sloughs formed at the extremities of the -fingers, and underneath the nails; a considerable degree of inflammation -subsequently spread in the course of the absorbents, and matter formed -in the axilla, which was soon absorbed, and the inflammation assuaged. -Whence it follows, that a limb deprived of its usual supply of nervous -energy cannot sustain, without injury, an elevation of temperature which -would not be in the least prejudicial to a healthy member. Mr. Earle -supports this conclusion by the relation of another case, in which the -ulnar nerve had been divided, for the cure of a painful affection of the -arm; the consequence of which operation was, that the patient was -incapable of washing in water at a temperature that was quite harmless -to every duly vitalized part, without suffering from vesication and -sloughs. - -Before we quit the subject of DOSE, it may be necessary to observe, that -there are many remedies that do not act with greater violence in a large -dose than in one comparatively small; _Ipecacuan_, for instance, is more -certain in its operation, but not more violent, when given in a large -quantity; the same may be said of _Aloes_, and several other medicines. - -THE VARIABLE ACTIVITY OF A MEDICINE should also be appreciated, and -perhaps the practitioner would act cautiously if he were to reduce the -dose, should it be a very considerable one, whenever a fresh parcel of -the medicine is commenced, especially of the powders of active -vegetables liable to deterioration from being kept, as those of -_Digitalis_, &c. - -THE TIME OF THE DAY at which remedies should be administered deserves -likewise some attention. _Evacuating Medicines_ ought to be exhibited -late at night or early in the morning. It would seem that during sleep -the bowels are not so irritable, and consequently not so easily acted -upon, which allows time for the full solution of the substance; the same -observation applies to _Alterative_ and other medicines which are liable -to suffer from a vexatious irritability of the bowels; it is on this -account eligible to exhibit _Guaiacum_, _Pilulæ Hydrargyri_, &c. when -they are not intended to purge, at bed time. On the other hand, where -the effects of a remedy are likely to be lost by perspiration, as is the -case with _Diuretics_, many of which are by external heat changed into -_Diaphoretics_, it may become a question with the judicious practitioner -whether he cannot select some more favourable period for their -exhibition. - -In fevers it is of importance to consult in all respects the quiet and -comfort of the patient; Dr. Hamilton therefore, in his valuable work on -Purgatives, very judiciously observes that, on this account, the -exhibition of purgative medicines should be so timed, that their effects -may be expected during the day. - -In some cases the time of administering a remedy must be regulated by -the stage of the disease; thus, in fevers, a dose of opium will either -increase the heat of the body, augment thirst and restlessness, or -occasion tranquillity and sleep, according to the temperature of the -body at the time of its administration; for this reason Dr. Currie -advises us not to give the evening dose of Opium in Typhoid fevers, till -very late, or about one or two o’clock in the morning, when the heat is -subsiding, and moisture is coming on. Emetics administered for the cure -of the slighter cases of Pyrexia should be given in the evening, as -their operation leaves a tendency to sleep and diaphoresis, which it is -useful to promote. Remedies that require to be _absorbed_ will probably -be more efficient in the morning after sleep; the old custom of giving -medicines on a morning _fasting_, is not quite so absurd as some modern -practitioners have been led to suppose. Diaphoretics should be always -given after the digestive process is ended, for during the performance -of this function the emunctories of the skin are less disposed to -action. - -THE INTERVALS BETWEEN EACH DOSE must be regulated by the nature of the -remedy and that of the objects which it is intended to fulfil, and -whether it be desirable or not that the latter dose should support the -effects of the preceding one, or whether there be any fear of a reaction -or collapse taking place after the effect of one dose has subsided, -unless immediately repeated; thus the effects of diffusible stimulants, -such as ammonia and æther, are very evanescent, they should therefore be -repeated at short intervals; the same may be said of _Diaphoretics_, -especially the lenient ones; we ought not to allow the period between -the doses to be so remote as to occasion any striking abatement in the -impression: so Opium, where its primary and stimulant operation is -required, as in diseases of debility, such as fevers of the typhoid -type, should be given in small doses at short intervals, so that it may -enkindle and sustain a uniform and regular state of excitement: but -where the object is to mitigate pain, allay irritation, and produce -sleep, it ought to be exhibited in full doses, at distant intervals. -There is a caution also which it is very necessary to impress upon the -practitioner, respecting the power which some medicines possess of -_accumulating_[288] in the system; this is notorious with regard to Lead -and Mercury, and probably with the preparations of Arsenic, and some -other metallic compounds. Dr. Withering has observed that the repetition -of small doses of _Digitalis_, at short intervals, till it produces a -sensible effect, is an unsafe practice, since a dangerous accumulation -will frequently take place before any signals of forbearance present -themselves. I have already alluded to the possibility of mercurial -accumulation, and its developement at a remote period. - -CONSTITUTIONAL PECULIARITIES, or IDIOSYNCRASIES, will sometimes render -the operation of the mildest medicine poisonous, “_Virum novi_,” says -Gaubius, “_qui cum fatuum lapidum cancrorum pulvisculum ingessit, vix -mitius afficitur quam alii ab Arsenico_.” I have seen a general -Erysipelas follow the application of a blister, and tormina of the -bowels, no less severe than those produced by the ingestion of -_Arsenic_, attend the operation of purgatives composed of _Senna_! In -some constitutions Antimony has been known to produce a ptyalism; Dr. -James assured Sir George Baker that he knew six instances of it, -although the patients thus affected had neither their teeth loosened, -nor their breath made offensive. The peculiar susceptibility of certain -individuals to the effects of particular plants is also very singular: -Murray relates that unpleasant symptoms have been experienced by merely -keeping _Aconite_ for some time in the hand, or on the bosom. I am -acquainted with two persons in whom the odour of Ipecacuan always -produces a most distressing dyspnæa; Mr. Chevalier informs us, that he -once knew a lady who could not take _Powdered_ Rhubarb, without an -erysipelatous efflorescence almost immediately shewing itself on the -skin, and yet she could take it in the form of _Infusion_ with perfect -impunity. There are some idiosyncrasies so singular and incredible, that -nothing but unimpeachable testimony could sanction our belief in their -existence. Schenkius relates a case in which the general law of -astringents and cathartics was always reversed. Donatus tells us of a -boy whose jaws swelled, whose face broke out in spots, and whose lips -frothed, whenever he eat an egg. - -The late Pope Pius VII. had such an antipathy to musk, that on one -occasion of presentation, an individual of the company having been -scented with that perfume, his holiness was obliged to dismiss the party -almost immediately.[289] Education, and early habits certainly establish -very extraordinary peculiarities in different countries with respect to -various objects of diet and luxury: what shall we say of the refinement -of the Ancients who regarded the flavour of the Citron with disgust, -while the odour of putrid fish was deemed by them so exquisite, that -they carried it about in caskets of onyx as a favourite perfume! Custom -makes the Greenlander relish his train oil; and Dr. Heberden tells us, -that there is a town in North America, where the spring-water is -brackish, and that, when the inhabitants visit any other province, they -choose to put salt into their tea or punch, in order, as they say, “_to -make it taste as it should do_.”[290] - -CLIMATE. Several observations have already been offered upon the -influence of Climate in affecting the activity of our remedies.[291] -With regard to its relations to _Dose_, I have only one remark to make -to the English practitioner, and that by the way of caution, that he -will not allow his own previous experience in hot climates, or the -persuasions of other tropical practitioners to induce him to administer -such doses of Mercury, in England, as may have been found salutary in -India, or in other Colonies of similar temperature. - -The popular scheme of Gaubius for graduating the doses of medicine to -different ages, which was published in several of the former editions of -this work, is now omitted, as being less easy of application than the -following simple formula by Dr. Young. - - - RULE. - - _For children under twelve years, the doses of most Medicines must be - diminished in the proportion of the Age, to the Age increased by - 12._ - - thus at two years to ⅐—viz. - - 2 1 - —————— = — - 2 + 12 7 - - At 21 the full dose may be given. - -Every general rule however respecting the doses of medicines will have -exceptions. Thus children will bear larger doses of _Calomel_ than even -adults, and many medicines which do not affect adults, although -exhibited in considerable quantities, prove injurious even in small -doses to children.[292] - -In concluding this part of the subject, it is proper to impress upon the -practitioner the importance of writing his prescriptions in legible -characters, and of avoiding all those abbreviations which are not -generally understood, or which are capable of misconstruction.[293] - - - ON THE PARTICULAR FORMS OF REMEDIES, AND THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES UPON - WHICH THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND ADMINISTRATION ARE TO BE REGULATED. - - - _SOLID FORMS._ - - - PULVERES. _Powders._ - -The form of powder is in many cases the most efficient and eligible mode -in which a medicinal substance can be exhibited, more especially under -the following circumstances. - - - 1. _Simple Powders._ - -1. Whenever a remedy requires the combination of all, or most of its -principles, to ensure its full effects, as _Bark_, _Ipecacuan_, _Jalap_, -&c. - -2. Where medicinal bodies are insoluble, and indisposed to undergo those -essential changes, _in transitu_, which render them operative; for it -must be remembered that by minute division, every particle is presented -to the stomach in a state of activity, being more immediately exposed to -the solvent or decomposing powers of that organ. - -3. Where the mechanical condition of the substance is such as to -occasion irritation[294] of the stomach, as the _Sulphuretum Antimonii_, -or in external applications to produce an improper effect upon the skin, -as _Hydrargyri nitrico-oxydum_. - -The degree of fineness to which substances should be reduced by -pulverization, in order to obtain their utmost efficacy, is a very -important question. The impalpable form appears to be extremely -injurious to some bodies, as to _cinchona_, _rhubarb_, _guaiacum_, and -to certain aromatics, in consequence, probably, of an essential part of -their substance being dissipated, or chemically changed by the -operation. Fabbroni, for instance, found by experiment that cinchona -yielded a much larger proportion of soluble extractive, when only -coarsely powdered. I think it may be laid down as a general rule, that -_extreme pulverization assists the operation of all substances whose -active principles are not easily soluble, and of compound powders whose -ingredients require, for their activity, an intermixture; whilst it -certainly injures, if it does not destroy, the virtues of such as -contain as their active constituent, a volatile principle which is -easily dissipated, or extractive matter which is readily oxidized_. - - - 2. _Compound Powders._ - -The disintegration of a substance is much accelerated and extended by -the addition of other materials; hence the pharmaceutical aphorism of -Gaubius, “_Celerior atque facilior succedat composita, quam simplex -pulverisatio._” Thus several refractory vegetable bodies, as _myrrh_, -_gamboge_, &c. are easily reduced by triturating them with sugar or a -hard gum; and some gum resins, as _assafœtida_ or _scammony_, by the -addition of a few drops of almond oil. Upon the same principle the -Pharmacopœia directs the trituration of aloes with clean white sand, in -the process for preparing _Vinum Aloes_, to facilitate the pulverization -and to prevent the particles of aloes, when moistened by the liquid, -from running together into masses; some dispensers very judiciously -adopt the same mechanical expedient in making a tincture of myrrh; so -again, in ordering a watery infusion of opium, it will be judicious to -advise the previous trituration of the opium with some hard and -insoluble substance, as directed in the _Pulvis Cornu Usti cum Opio_, -otherwise its particles will adhere with tenacity, and the water be -accordingly unable to exert a solvent operation upon its substance.[295] -It is equally evident that in the construction of compound medicinal -powders, the addition of an inert ingredient, which the mere chemist -might condemn and discard as useless, not unfrequently acts a very -important part in the combination, owing to its effects in dividing and -comminuting the mere active constituents: the _sulphate of potass_ in -Dover’s powder acts merely in dividing and mixing more intimately the -particles of opium and ipecacuan: the _phosphate of lime_ appears to act -in the same mechanical manner in the Antimonial Powder; so again, in the -_Pulvis Contrajervæ compositus_, the prepared oyster shells may be a -necessary ingredient: in the _Pulvis Jalapæ compositus_ of the Edinburgh -College, the cream of tartar greatly increases the activity of the -jalap, by breaking down its substance and dividing its particles; and -Van Swieten observes that the operation of this resinous purgative is -improved by bruising it with sugar, and adding some aromatic. The old -combination of _Pulvis Helvetii_ consisted of alum and dragon’s blood, -and there can be no doubt but that the effect of this latter ingredient, -which has been often ridiculed, was to retard the solution of alum in -the stomach, in consequence of which the preparation was likely to -produce less inconvenience, and could therefore be administered in -larger doses; the Edinburgh college has substituted gum Kino in their -_Pulvis Aluminis compositus_, which may have the same effect in -modifying the solubility of the alum. - -In rubbing together different substances, it is necessary to remember -that there are many saline bodies, which in the dry state become moist -and even liquid, by triture with each other, and that, under such -circumstances, they are susceptible of mutual decomposition. This change -is effected by the action of water, derived from the following sources. - -1. _From the water of crystallization._ This always operates when the -proportion contained in the original ingredients is greater than that -which the products can dispose of; that is to say, whenever the capacity -of the new compound for water is less than that of the original -ingredients. By previously driving off this water by heat, we shall of -course avoid such a source of solution, and no liquefaction can ensue. -Thus, if recently burnt quick-lime be triturated with calomel, the -resulting mixture will be white, shewing that no decomposition can have -arisen, but add a few drops of water, and it instantly assumes a dark -aspect. If _crystallized_ sulphate of copper be triturated with Acetate -of lead, the resulting mixture will assume a fine green colour, but if -the sulphate of copper be previously heated, and its water of -crystallization driven off, no change of colour will be produced; if, -for Acetate of lead, we substitute muriate of lime, and the sulphate of -copper be _crystallized_, we shall obtain a result of a yellow colour, -but if the sulphate of copper be _anhydrous_, the product will be -colourless, becoming however instantly yellow, like the former, on the -addition of a drop of water; and on a further addition of this fluid, -the yellow product in both instances will be rendered blue; which proves -that a chemical decomposition has taken place, and a muriate of copper -resulted; for this salt is rendered _yellow_ by a small, and _blue_ by a -larger proportion of water. The _Cuprum Ammoniatum_ presents another -illustration, for the ingredients, when rubbed together, become -extremely moist, and undergo a chemical decomposition. Certain resinous -bodies also, as _myrrh_, become liquid by triture with alkaline salts, -in which case the resin and alkali form a soluble compound, which the -water of crystallization, thus set at liberty, instantly dissolves. - -2. _From aqueous vapour in the atmosphere._ The water of the atmosphere -does not act upon these occasions, unless it be first attracted and -absorbed by one of the triturated bodies; e. g. if Acetate of lead and -recently burnt alum be triturated together, no change will be produced; -but, if the burnt alum be previously exposed for a short time to the -atmosphere, these bodies will, in that case, become liquid. - -The physician, without this chemical knowledge, will be often betrayed -into the most ridiculous blunders, an instance of which very lately came -to my knowledge in a prescription for the relief of cardialgia and -constipation, in the case of dyspepsia; it directed _sulphate of soda_ -and _carbonate of potass_, in the form of a powder, but the _fiat_ of -the physician, upon this occasion, only served to excite the ridicule of -the dispenser, who soon discovered that the ingredients in his mortar -dissolved into liquid. - -During the exhibition of powders containing insoluble matter, it is -always important to maintain a regularity in the alvine excretions, or -an accumulation may take place attended with very distressing symptoms. -Dr. Fothergill relates a case of this kind which succeeded the use of -powdered bark; and Mr. E. Brande has communicated a similar instance of -mechanical obstruction, produced by the habitual use of magnesia. I -could also add, if it were necessary, some striking facts of a similar -tendency, which occurred from eating bread that had been adulterated -with pulverized _felspar_. The precaution seems more particularly -necessary in the case of children, whose bowels are very impatient of -extraneous and insoluble contents.[296] The dose of a powder ought not -to exceed ʒj; and, when taken, should be diffused in water, wine, or any -other convenient liquid; resinous and metallic powders require a thick -and consistent vehicle, as syrup or honey, since they subside from those -which are more fluid. - - - PILULÆ. _Pills._ - -These are masses of a consistence sufficient to preserve the globular -form, and yet not so hard as to be of too difficult solution in the -stomach. The subject offers some extremely interesting points of -inquiry. The following general rules will enable the practitioner to -select those substances to which the form of pill is adapted, and to -reject those to which it is not suitable, as well as to direct, -_extemporaneously_, the most efficient mode of preparation. - - - I. THE SELECTION OF SUBSTANCES. - -1. _Suitable Substances_ are, 1, All remedies which operate in small -doses, as _Metallic Salts_; and 2, Those which are designed to act -slowly and gradually, as certain _Alterative Medicines_, or 3, which are -too easily soluble when exhibited in other forms, as _Gamboge_, &c. 4, -Substances which are not intended to act until they reach the larger -intestines, as in pills for habitual costiveness; _see Aloes_. 5, Bodies -whose specific gravities are too considerable to allow their suspension -in aqueous vehicles. _Efflorescent_ salts may also be exhibited in this -form, but they ought to be first deprived of their water of -crystallization, or the pills composed of them will crumble into powder -as they dry. - -2. _Unsuitable Substances_ are, 1, Those which operate only in large -doses. 2, Which deliquesce. 3, Whose consistence is such as to require a -very large proportion of dry powders to afford them a suitable tenacity, -as _oils, balsams_, &c. 4, Substances that are so extremely insoluble, -that when exhibited in a solid form they pass through the canal -unaltered, as certain _extracts_. - -Many remedies which are incompatible with each other in solution, may be -combined in pills, unless indeed their medicinal powers are adverse or -inconsistent, or their divellent affinities sufficiently powerful to -overcome their state of aggregation. - - - II. THEIR FORMATION INTO MASSES. - -This is a subject of far greater importance than is usually assigned to -it, as will be more fully explained in the sequel. - -1. Many substances, as _vegetable extracts_, may be formed into pills -without any addition; others, as _gum resins_, become sufficiently soft -by being beaten, or by the addition of a drop or two of spirit, or -_liquor potassæ_. Some dry substances react upon each other, and -produce, without the addition of any foreign matter, soft and -appropriate masses. The _Pilulæ Ferri Compositæ_, of our Pharmacopœia -afford a very striking example of this peculiar change of consistence, -which the mutual reaction of the ingredients produces by simple triture. -The _Pilulæ Aloes Compositæ_ offer another instance; for the extract of -gentian, upon being triturated with aloes, produces a very soft mass, so -that the addition of a syrup, as directed by the Pharmacopœia, is quite -unnecessary. See _Form: 12_. - -2. Many substances are, in themselves, so untractable, that the addition -of some matter foreign to the active ingredients, is absolutely -essential for imparting convenience of form. It is generally considered -that very little skill and judgment is required in the selection of such -a substance, provided it can fulfil the _mechanical_ intention just -alluded to—the fact however is, that _the medicinal power of the pill -may be materially controlled, modified, or even subverted, by the mode -in which it is formed into a mass_. Where the active element of a pill -is likely to be improved by minute division, a gummy or resinous -constituent may be usefully selected: under the history of Aloes, I have -alluded to a popular pill, known by the name of the _dinner-pill_, in -which case the _mastiche_ divides the particles of the aloes, and -modifies the solubility of the mass. The _Pilulæ Opii_ of the former -Pharmacopœia of London, consisted of equal proportions of opium and -extract of liquorice, and the mass was so insoluble that its effects -were extremely uncertain and precarious; in the present edition, soap -has been very judiciously substituted; but in certain cases where we -wish to protract the influence of opium, or that of any other active -body, so as not to obtain its full effects at once, we may very -advantageously modify its solubility by combining it with a gum resin or -some substance which will have the effect of retarding its solution in -the stomach. The _Pilulæ Styrace_ of the Dublin college, presents itself -as an efficient example of this species of pharmaceutical address; see -also _Form. 10, 11, 12_. I am well acquainted with many formulæ whose -utility has been sanctioned by experience, and I have no hesitation in -believing that their salutary mode of operation would receive a -plausible explanation from this simple law of combination. Dr. Young has -very justly stated in his Medical Literature,[297] that the _balsam of -copaiba_ envelopes metallic salts, so as to lessen their activity; he -says that the sub-carbonate of iron, made into pills with copaiba, was -given for some weeks without any apparent effect; and that a few hours -after the same quantity had been given, with gum only, the fæces were -perfectly black. I do not know a more striking and instructive proof of -the influence of a glutinous or viscid constituent, in wrapping up a -metallic salt, and defending the stomach from its action, than is -presented in the case published by the medical attendant Mr. Marshall, -in consequence of the attempt of Eliz. Fenning to poison the family of -Mr. Turner of Chancery-lane by arsenic, which she providentially -administered in a heavy yeast dumpling. _Soap_ is very frequently used -for the formation of pill-masses, and it is an excellent constituent for -substances likely to be injured by meeting with an acid in the _primæ -viæ_; many resinous bodies may also be reduced to a proper consistence -by soap, although in prescribing it, its levity should be attended to, -or otherwise the pills will be too bulky; in general it will combine -with an equal portion of any resinous powder, as _Rhubarb_, _Jalap_, -_&c._; it is of course ineligible where the substances are decomposed by -alkalies, as _Tartarized Antimony_; this last precaution will also apply -to _aromatic confection_ as a vehicle, on account of the carbonate of -lime contained in it. The _Conserve of Roses_ has the advantage of -retaining its consistency much longer than mucilage, but as it contains -an uncombined acid, it is frequently inadmissible; it could not for -instance be with propriety employed with the precipitated sulphuret of -antimony. Pills made with mucilage, are apt to crumble when they are -rolled out; this is the case with the _Pilulæ Hydrargyri submuriatis_; -some extract therefore would be a more convenient constituent; in this -particular case, however, the addition of a few drops of spirit would -supersede the necessity of _any_ constituent. Castor oil, in some cases, -especially with some of the harder purgative extracts, will impart an -eligible consistence. - -_Crumb of bread_, furnishes a convenient vehicle for those salts which -are ponderous, active in very small doses, or which are liable to be -decomposed by other vehicles; but an objection is attached even to this, -for it is liable to become so dry and hard when kept, that pills made -with it will frequently pass undissolved. Swediaur mentions this fact -with reference to Plenck’s mercurial pill, as well as to one of -corrosive sublimate, and he proposes for this reason to substitute -_starch_; the addition however of a small portion of sugar will prevent -the bread from becoming thus indurated, and with such a precaution it -may be very safely employed. For the purpose of forming active vegetable -powders into pills, such as _Digitalis, Conium_, &c., I am informed by -Mr. Hume of Long Acre, that in his experience _melasses_ or _treacle_ is -the best constituent that can be selected, for it undergoes no -decomposition by time, but maintains a proper consistency, and preserves -the sensible qualities of the plant quite unimpaired for many years. I -have deposited in the cabinet of the College, specimens of such pills, -of _hemlock_ and _foxglove_, which retain the characteristic odour of -these vegetables, notwithstanding they have been now made for several -years. _Honey_ has likewise the property of preserving vegetable -substances; _seeds_ may be kept in it for any length of time, some of -which, on being taken out, washed, and planted, will even vegetate. It -has also been used for the preservation of animal matter; the bodies of -the Spartan kings, who fell at a distance in battle, were thus -preserved, in order that they might be carried home.[298] - -_Water_ will on some occasions be found a convenient expedient; powdered -_Rhubarb_ or _Jalap_ may be thus made into masses without any increase -of bulk, but the pills will be apt, if kept, to become mouldy. - -3. In the formation of pills the ingredients should be hastily rubbed -together, whenever they are liable to be injured by long exposure to the -air; thus in the formation of _Pilulæ Hydrargyri submuriatis compositæ_, -the compound is rendered less active by too long continued triture. See -_Pulveres_. - -4. In dividing pill-masses, it is usual to add to them, and envelope -them in, magnesia; where calomel is present, I have satisfied myself by -experiment that a _muriate of magnesia_ is formed under such -circumstances, and it is owing to this partial decomposition, that the -surface of the pill exhibits a greenish hue; starch, powder of -liquorice,[299] or orrice root, might perhaps under such circumstances -be more judiciously preferred. In Germany, the powder of _Lycopodium_ is -generally used. Formerly, the pill was covered with gold leaf, which -protected it from the influence of the stomach, and frequently rendered -it unavailing. - -It has been observed that many of the pill-masses directed in our -Pharmacopœias, are liable to become so hard[300] and dry by being kept, -that they are unfit for that division for which they were originally -intended; indeed Dr. Powel considers it doubtful whether the greater -number of articles had not better be kept in powder, and their -application to the formation of pills left to extemporaneous direction; -the necessity of this is farther apparent, when we learn that it is a -common practice for the dispenser to soften these masses by the -application of a hot spatula, or pestle, which sometimes carbonizes, and -frequently decomposes them. - - - III. THEIR FORM OF PRESCRIPTION. - -In our extemporaneous directions, it is necessary to apportion with -accuracy the quantity of active materials which we may wish each pill to -contain, and since the proportion of the _constituent_ can rarely be -exactly defined, the equable division of the whole mass, into a given -number of pills, will be safer than defining the weight of each pill. - -A pill, the bulk of whose ingredient is vegetable matter, ought not to -exceed five grains in weight, but where the substances which compose it -are metallic and ponderous, it may without inconvenience weigh six or -even eight grains. - - - TROCHISCI. _Troches_, or _Lozenges_. - -As these are regarded as objects rather of confectionary than of -pharmacy, the London and Dublin Colleges have not condescended to notice -them; the Edinburgh Pharmacopœia, however, contains several formulæ for -their preparation; and as the form of lozenge offers a very commodious -and efficacious method of administering certain remedies, the theory of -its operation deserves some notice in the present work. It is -principally useful in cases where it is an object that the remedy should -pass _gradually_ into the stomach, in order to act as powerfully as -possible upon the pharynx and top of the trachea, as in certain -demulcents or astringents; for instance, _Nitre_, when intended to -operate in relaxed or inflamed states of the tonsils, is best applied in -this manner; so is _Sulphate of Zinc_ in chronic coughs, attended with -inordinate secretion. In order to retard as long as possible the -solution of the lozenge in the mouth, it ought to be composed of -_several_ demulcent substances, such as farinaceous matter, sugar, gum, -and isinglass; for such a mixture will be found to answer the purpose -better than any _one_ of these articles taken by itself; thus the -farinaceous matter will prevent the sugar and the gum from being too -soon dissolved; the viscidity of the sugar and gum will prevent the -farinaceous matter from being swallowed as soon as it would otherwise -be; and the isinglass will give a softness to the whole, and thus -prevent any sharp points from stimulating the membrane. - - - SUPPOSITORIA. _Suppositories._ - -This form of preparation is very ancient, and although it has of late -years fallen into disuse, it affords an efficacious mode of -administering many powerful remedies, and in some instances of producing -effects which the same medicine would not command if given in any other -form: besides which, it is found that after the stomach by long use has -lost its susceptibility to the action of medicine, such a substance will -operate with fresh and unabated force if applied to the rectum. There -are two great indications which _Suppositories_ are calculated to -fulfil, _viz._ - -1, _The alleviation of pain and irritation_, especially when it arises -from diseases of the bladder, prostate gland, uterus, and other parts in -the vicinity. Abortion may be thus frequently prevented. To fulfil these -intentions, a mixture of opium with two parts of soap, will be found -eligible. I can recommend such an application from a well grounded -experience in its efficacy. - -2, _The production of Catharsis_. In cases of Apoplexy, from the -counter-irritation which these remedies are likely to occasion, much -advantage may arise; and in the failure of more common measures, they -may be applied with certain success in the cure of Ascarides; see -_Formula 146_. Where a very efficient Suppository is required, one or -two grains of _Elaterium_ rubbed up with eight grains of hard soap, will -present us with a combination of great utility. - - - ELECTUARIA. _Electuaries._ - -This is an ancient form of prescription; for although the term -“_Electarium_” is first used by Cælius Aurelianus, yet the ἐκλὶκτον of -Hippocrates, and the _Antidotus_, _Confectio_, _Mithridatium_, -_Diascordium_, _Opiatum_, _Orvietanum_, _Philonium_, _Theriaca_, and -_Requies_ of other authors, were all Electuaries. They differ from -_Conserves_ in this, that the sugar in the latter preparations is in a -greater proportion, and is intended to _preserve_ the ingredients; -whereas in the former, it is merely intended to impart convenience of -form; see _Confectiones_. Electuaries are in general, _extemporaneous_ -preparations, composed of dry powders, formed into a proper consistence -by the addition of syrup, honey, or mucilage; when however the latter -substance is employed, the electuary very soon becomes dry and hard: and -when common syrup is used, the compound is apt to candy, and in a day or -two to grow too hard for use; this is owing to the crystallization of -the sugar; Deyeux therefore states, that the syrup should be previously -exposed to the heat of a stove so long as it forms any crystals, and -that the residual liquor, which from the presence of some vegetable acid -has no tendency to crystallize, may then be advantageously -applied;—_Melasses_ or Treacle may in some cases be employed, and from -experiments which I have repeated with some care, I am enabled to state -that the peculiar flavour of this liquid is entirely removed by a simple -operation, which consists in diluting it with an equal weight of water, -and then boiling it with about one eighth part of powdered charcoal for -half an hour, when the liquor is to be strained, and reduced by gentle -evaporation to a proper consistence;[301] and moreover it appears, that -active vegetable powders retain their characteristic qualities when -immersed in _treacle_, longer than in any other excipient. - - -In selecting and prescribing this form of exhibition, the following -general rules should be observed. - - I. Those substances which are nauseous, deliquescent, which require to - be given in large doses, or which are incapable of forming an - intimate union with syrup, as _fixed oils_, _balsams_, &c. should - never be prescribed in the form of an electuary. - - II. The quantity of syrup directed must be regulated by the nature and - specific gravities of the substances which enter into their - composition, viz. - - 1. _Dry Vegetable Powders_ require twice their weight of syrup, or - of honey. - - 2. _Gummy and Resinous Powders_ require an equal weight. - - 3. _Hard Mineral Substances_ should be formed into an electuary - with some conserve, as they are too ponderous to remain - suspended in syrup. It deserves also to be noticed, that in - consequence of the readiness with which metallic preparations - undergo change, it will be generally adviseable to keep the - active ingredients in the form of powder, and to add them to - the syrup only just before they are required; the Electuary of - the French Pharmacopœia, which is commonly called “_Opiata - Mesenterica_,” will furnish a good example, “_quantumvis molle - fuerit recens, progressu temporis, ob ferrum quod ipsi inest, - mirè indurescit_.” - - - LIQUID FORMS. - - - MISTURÆ. _Mixtures._ - -These preparations are generally _extemporaneous_, in which different -ingredients are mingled together in the liquid form, or, in which solid -substances are diffused through liquid, by the medium of mucilage or -syrup: for prescribing mixtures the following general rules may be laid -down. - - I. Substances which are capable of entering into chemical combination, - or of decomposing each other, ought not to be mixed together, - unless it be with a view of obtaining the new products as a - remedy. - - II. Transparency is not a necessary condition,[302] and hence - insoluble powders may be advantageously introduced into mixtures, - if the following precautions be observed. - - 1. They must be divisible and mechanically miscible in the liquid. - - 2. They must not possess too great a specific gravity. - - 3. They must not render the liquid too mucilaginous or thick; - _thus_, f℥j _should seldom contain more than_ ʒss _of a - vegetable powder_, ℈ij _of an electuary_, _and conserve_; _or_ - grs. xv, _or_ ℈j _of an extract_. - - III. The taste, the smell, and the general aspect of the mixture - should be rendered as pleasant as possible; _thus milk covers the - taste of bark, of the tinctures of guaiacum and valerian, and that - of lime water_; _and a light decoction of the liquorice root - disguises a bitter taste more effectually than sugar_. - - The Physician may also produce occasional changes in the - appearance of his mixture, in order to reconcile a delicate taste - to its continuance; he never ought however to alter the essential - part of plans which he finds advantageous. - -A DRAUGHT differs merely from a mixture in quantity; it is usually taken -at once, and should not exceed f℥iss; it should be always preferred -when, - - 1. _The remedy is to be taken in a precise dose._ - - 2. _Whenever it is liable to spontaneous decomposition._ - - 3. _Whenever the action of the atmosphere occasions change._ - -In apportioning the dose of mixtures, the following proportions are -admissible, although not perfectly accurate. A TABLE SPOON full -(_Cochleare Amplum_) f℥ss. DESSERT SPOON (_Cochleare Mediocre_) more -than fʒij. TEA SPOON (_Cochleare Minimum_) fʒj. A WINE GLASS (_Cyathus_) -although very variable, may be estimated as containing f℥iss. The custom -of measuring the dose of a liquid by dropping it from the mouth of a -phial is very erroneous;[303] it will therefore be proper to dilute an -active medicine that is to be so apportioned, with at least a triple -quantity of water, that its real dose may not be essentially altered by -any slight variation in the quantity. - -The temperature at which a liquid medicine should be given may perhaps -merit a few observations. In general, the ordinary degree of heat is -that which will best answer the intention, but in cases of dyspepsia, -the sense of weight and uneasiness, which often follows a dose of -medicine, will be prevented by giving it in a tepid state. This remark -will apply to the administration of the _Decoction of Sarsaparilla_; -Refrigerants should of course be given as cool as possible; Camomile -Infusion, and other vegetable Ptisans, which are designed to promote the -operation of an emetic, will be more efficient when warm. In delicate -chlorotic females I have sometimes found chalybeate draughts not only -more efficacious, but less distressing to the stomach, when exhibited in -a tepid state. - - - ENEMATA. _Clysters._[304] - - _“Lavamenta.”_ - -This form of applying a medicine furnishes the practitioner with many -valuable resources, although the remedy has not escaped its due share of -persecution. Paracelsus bestowed upon it the epithet “_turpissimum -medicamentum_,” and Van Helmont that of “_pudendum medicorum -subsidium_.” - -It is calculated to fulfil the following indications, viz. - - 1. _To promote the tardy operation of a Cathartic, or to evacuate the - bowels, where, from delicacy of stomach, medicines cannot be - retained, or from debility of body they cannot be safely - administered._ - -In the administration of a remedy of this kind, there are two essential -circumstances, independent of the _strength_ of its ingredients, which -will modify its activity, viz. IMPULSE and QUANTITY, by which we obtain -the stimulus of distention; warm water without any adjunct may thus be -made the means of overcoming those unrelenting obstructions, which had -refused obedience to more common measures: Clysters, however, when most -forcibly urged, rarely reach beyond the sigmoid flexure of the colon, -and yet when the largest quantity of fluid which the bowels will admit -is introduced with considerable impulse, the local impression is so -powerful that it is at once extended by the medium of sympathy, through -the whole of the alimentary canal, and very thorough and copious -discharges result. - -2. _To induce extreme relaxation:_ - -Which is best effected by an infusion of Tobacco. See _Tabaci Folia_. - -3. _To produce Astringent and Anodyne, or Carminative effects._ - -Common starch, with the addition of Tincture of Opium, is the most -common and convenient form for this purpose. See also _Assafœtida_, -_Terebinthinæ Oleum_, and _Formulæ 8, 9, 29, 30_. In some cases the -injection of _cold water_ acts as a powerful astringent, and from its -impression upon the rectum, will frequently afford instantaneous relief -in the piles. - -4. _To destroy Ascarides._ See _Form. 164_. - -5. _To act as an emollient fomentation._ - -6. _To convey nutriment._ - -In the administration of Clysters, for the fulfilment of any of the last -five indications, it is obvious, that the stimulus of distention should -be avoided, as being incompatible with our object; the quantity, or bulk -of the solution, ought to be also carefully graduated; to prevent, for -example, the opiate clyster from being too soon returned, Dr. Cullen has -remarked that it seldom should be made of more bulk than that of three -or four ounces of liquid, and this also of a very mild kind. In -administering a bitter decoction for the cure of Ascarides, the same -precaution is necessary, or the gut will suddenly contract and expel the -clyster, which always acts with more certainty when allowed to remain -for some time. The proportions of fluid vehicle necessary for the -different stages of life, under ordinary circumstances, may be stated as -follows:—An infant at its birth, or soon after, requires about one -_fluid ounce_; a child between the age of one and five years, from three -to four _fluid ounces_; a youth of ten or fifteen, from six to eight -_fluid ounces_; and an adult may take twelve. With regard to the dose of -the active ingredient of a _Lavement_, it may be estimated as triple of -that taken by the mouth. - - - INJECTIONES. - -Under this head may be comprehended the various medicinal preparations -which are employed as local applications;—to the urethra for the cure of -gonorrhæa, and to the vagina for that of the different discharges to -which females are liable. - -With respect to the former of these it has been truly observed, that -“among the whole class of remedies employed for surgical purposes, there -is scarcely one which has occasioned a greater diversity of opinion;” to -enter however into an examination of this subject would be entirely -foreign to the intention of the present work; it is only necessary to -state, that for their preparation the same principles of combination, -and the same chemical precautions, apply, as have been already -investigated under the head _Misturæ_. In some cases the practitioner -will find it useful to insure the entire solution of his active -ingredient; while in others, the presence of a precipitate may enhance -the efficacy of the application, as illustrated by _Form. 62_. - -In the preparation of injections for the cure of female discharges, it -must be remembered that, if they be of a vegetable nature, their -efficacy wholly depends upon the _Tannin_ which they contain, and the -prescriber must therefore take care not to invalidate the force of this -principle by any incompatible additions. - -And it deserves to be remembered, that as _Tannin_ has the power of -coagulating animal mucus, and of forming with it an insoluble -precipitate, its administration, as an injection, is liable to occasion -the evacuation of whitish or ash-coloured flakes, which will come away -from time to time, and excite in the patient’s mind, says Mr. Clarke, -the apprehension that she is voiding portions of the internal parts of -the body, unless her mind be prepared for the occurrence by a previous -explanation, and which the judicious practitioner will not neglect to -afford. In some cases it will be necessary to correct the irritating -effect of the astringent by the addition of a demulcent, as exemplified -in _Form. 61_. In applying this form of remedy an ivory syringe should -be always preferred to one of pewter, whenever the solution is likely to -be affected by the contact of a metal. - - - INHALATIONES. _Inhalations._ - -Under this general title may be comprehended two distinct classes of -volatilized substances, _viz._ - -Dry Fumes (_Suffitus_), and Watery Vapours (_Halitus_). - -Before we enter upon the consideration of this particular form of -remedy, it may be necessary to state, generally, that it appears to be -capable of affording a very expeditious and powerful mode of affecting -the body by certain medicines. If the power of a remedy be so greatly -modified by circumstances affecting its solubility, as we have already -proved, it cannot be a matter of surprise that the still farther -diminution of its cohesion should occasion a corresponding influence -upon its energies; indeed it would appear that some few substances are -entirely inert when applied under any other form, see _Hydrargyrum_, in -the after part of this work. We are, moreover enabled by these means, to -bring various bodies into immediate contact with organs, which are -inaccessible to such remedies in every other state of aggregation. This -observation applies more particularly to the lungs, and the subject has -lately occupied the attention of a worthy and skilful physician, whose -work[305] is well entitled to the serious consideration of the -profession. - -The practice of causing patients to inhale various volatilized -substances appears to have been of very ancient date. It has been -already stated in this work (p. 39) that the fumes of Orpiment were -directed to be breathed by Galen, and that the practice has been adopted -by practitioners of later date.[306] Few attempts of this kind however -were made, until the time of our countryman Bennet, the author of -“_Theatrum Tabidorum_,” who arranges volatilized substances into the two -classes which have been announced at the head of the present section, -_viz._ _Suffitus_, and _Halitus_. The numerous trials which have been -since made with the different gases must be in the remembrance of every -reader, but unfortunately, the injudicious and empirical spirit with -which these inquiries have hitherto been conducted, has thrown such -discredit upon the subject, that the practitioner who should resume the -investigation, must be prepared to hear his understanding, or his -integrity, questioned. - -SUFFITUS. _Fumes of Burning Substances._ The particular forms of -pulmonary disease in which Tar fumes appear to be most serviceable, are -of the chronic kind; where an inflammatory diathesis prevails, or any -tendency to hæmopthysis exists, the practice cannot be said to be free -from danger. In treatment of hooping cough the inhalation of tar fumes -have been also said to be beneficial. For the mode of applying this -remedy, see _Pix Liquida_. - -The practice of smoking the roots of _Stramonium_, _Tobacco_, &c. might -with propriety be noticed under this head. With the respect to the -former of these remedies, much has been said and written, and asthmatic -patients have occasionally expressed a belief in its palliative powers; -in my own practice however, I have never met with any success that has -inspired my confidence. See _Stramonii Herba_. - -HALITUS. _Aqueous Vapours._ In certain catarrhal affections, when -accompanied with painful and difficult expectoration, benefit may be -occasionally obtained from the inhalation of the steam of hot water, or -of vinegar and water, the acid in this case assisting the expectoration, -while the whole acts as an emollient and soothing application to the -tender and inflamed vessels of the internal surface of the bronchial -tubes. The same practice is also highly serviceable in Cynanche -Trachealis, and Tonsillaris. - -In Pneumonia, after the violence of the arterial excitement has been -reduced by depletory measures, the inhalation of the steam of hot water, -or decoctions of emollient herbs, will often contribute to the support -of an easy expectoration. - -It has been already stated under the history of Expectorants (_page -106_), that in certain dry states of the air, the evaporation of water -in an artificially warmed apartment, is frequently attended with -considerable relief to the pulmonary patient. - -In Dyspnæa, attended with a spasmodic condition of the pulmonary organs, -vapours impregnated with sulphuric æther have been recommended for -inhalation. Dr. Pearson also states that the efficacy of such an -application is materially enhanced by dissolving in it a portion of the -extract of Conium. Dr. Bôotcher of Copenhagen, has lately announced the -utility of vapours of camphor, in complaints affecting the cavities of -the nose, throat, and chest. He states that in the worst case of -stoppage of the nose from catarrh, a piece of camphor need only be kept -for a few minutes before it, to obtain great relief; the same -application has been known to produce good in Cynanche Tonsillaris. - -In order to apply such inhalations we may employ the inhaler invented by -Dr. Mudge, or if that instrument be not at hand, the spout of a tea pot, -or a common basin with an inverted funnel, will be found very convenient -substitutes. - - - REMEDIES OF EXTERNAL APPLICATION. - -This class of medicinal agents formerly comprised a much wider range of -forms than it at present contains; such as numerous _Epithems_; -_Vapours_; _Aromatic Bags_; _Medicated Quilts_, _&c._ - -The external remedies of the present day may be divided into two orders, -viz. - - 1. Those whose effects are entirely _local_, as exemplified in the - application of certain _refrigerating_ embrocations, _stimulating_ - cataplasms, and _astringent_ unguents. - - 2. Those which excite general effects, or produce an influence upon - parts remote from those to which the remedy is more immediately - addressed, as illustrated by the operation of mercurial liniments - and unguents, or by the general tonic effects of adhesive - plaisters. - -With respect to the former of these divisions it is unnecessary to -multiply our remarks; the objects which they embrace belong more -particularly to the department of surgery, and from the investigation of -the different modes and forms of external application we shall hereafter -derive very ample and instructive illustrations. In considering the -objects of the latter division, a very interesting and important -question immediately suggests itself for our consideration—How far a -medicinal substance, when locally applied to the surface of the body, -may be capable of affecting the general system, or some of its more -remote parts?—the experienced practitioner will feel no hesitation in -admitting numerous proofs of the existence of such agency; and it would -seem probable that topical applications may produce general effects by -several distinct modes of operation, viz. - - 1. _By exciting an impression on the nervous system._ - - 2. _By modifying the cuticular discharge._ - - 3. _By being absorbed into the circulation._ - -In considering the different forms of external applications, it will -appear that, for their extemporaneous construction, preparation, and -application, the same scientific knowledge, practical skill, and -pathological acumen will be required, as we have already stated to be so -indispensably requisite to enable the physician to prescribe, and the -pharmaceutist to prepare the various remedies intended for internal -administration; although in regard to the former, it may be stated -generally that the prescriber will more frequently be called upon to -exercise that species of knowledge and address which enables the -practitioner to impart a convenient and efficient _consistency_ to his -remedy; for an external application is far more dependent upon this -circumstance for its efficacy, than one intended for internal use. - - - LOTIONES: - -Remedies of a liquid nature, designed for external application. - -Under this generic term, which strictly signifies a _wash_, may be -comprehended several species of medicines, calculated for the fulfilment -of different indications, as EMBROCATIONES, COLLYRIA, FOMENTA, -LINIMENTA, &c. In some instances these applications are entirely local -in their effects, as where a morbid action of the skin is changed by a -stimulating lotion, as exemplified in the cure of Psora by the -_decoction of Hellebore_, or the relaxed vessels of the tunica -conjunctiva of the eye, by an astringent collyrium; in other cases, they -operate upon parts not in contact with the remedy, through the medium of -sympathetic communication, as where cholic and disorders of the bowels -are abated by the application of warm fomentations to the surface of the -abdomen, or where paralytic affections are relieved by pumping cold -water on the part affected. - -EMBROCATIONES. These, as the term[307] denotes, are compositions of -spirit, decoctions, infusions, or other liquids, applied by _sprinkling_ -or rubbing them on an affected part. - -LINIMENTA[308] are understood to differ from embrocations in -consistence, the former being of an oily, or mucilaginous density, which -increases their efficacy by imparting a certain emollient power, in -addition to their other virtues. In popular language, however, liniment -and embrocation are generally considered synonymous terms. They -constitute a valuable class of remedies, and the observations which Dr. -Percival has offered on their utility well merit the attention of the -medical practitioner. “Volatile and antispasmodic liniments are highly -useful remedies, and it is to be lamented that external applications of -this kind are not more frequently employed, for there is just reason to -apprehend that powerful effects might be expected from them in various -diseases.” In chronic affections of the viscera, such applications -appear highly serviceable, not only from the friction to which they give -origin, but from the influence of that species of sympathy which appears -to depend upon the mere proximity and continuity of parts, and which, as -Sir Gilbert Blane has observed, is particularly displayed “in the -containing on the contained parts, as that of the integuments on the -subjacent viscera.” - -COLLYRIA[309].—Liquid applications to the eyes. The Pharmacopœia -Chirurgica contains several different formulæ for lotions of this kind, -some of which are simply astringent, while others combine also the -virtues of a stimulant. - - - CATAPLASMATA.[310] _Poultices_, or _Pultices_. - -External applications of a pulpy, and somewhat coherent or tenacious -consistence. - - -They are generally extemporaneous preparations, and are calculated to -answer several different indications, viz. - - 1. As STIMULANTS, e. g. _Cataplasma Sinapis_, L. D. which generally - inflames the surface to which it is applied so much as to raise - blisters; common salt also, _muriate of soda_, constitutes the - active ingredient of a poultice which has lately been brought into - considerable repute for the reduction of indolent strumous - swellings and enlargements of the glands.[311] - - 2. ANTISEPTICS—_Cataplasma Fermenti_, L. (see p. 159.) A powerfully - antiseptic cataplasm may be also made by stirring finely powdered - charcoal into a common linseed meal poultice. A cataplasm of the - boiled carrot, beat into a pulp, has been likewise found very - effectual in sweetening foul ulcers. - - 3. SEDATIVES. The most efficient of these are composed of _Conium_, - _Digitalis_, or _Hyoscyamus_, and are eminently serviceable in - cancerous and scrophulous sores of a highly irritable and painful - nature, to diminish their sensibility and correct the acrid - discharges. See _Form. 18_. - - 4. REFRIGERANTS. In the formation of a cataplasm for this purpose we - must avoid the introduction of substances that are slow conductors - of caloric; suppose for example our object is to apply the - _sub-acetate of lead_ in this form, it will in such case be - judicious to mix the linseed meal, with oatmeal, or crumb of - bread; for if the former substance be used singly, it is liable, - from its tenacity, to become hard and dry, and in that state to - augment the temperature which it was designed to diminish. - - 5. EMOLLIENTS.—(The _modus operandi_ of these agents is explained at - p. 142.) For which purpose the common farinaceous poultice is the - most eligible, made by soaking slices of bread in milk, and - simmering them together over a gentle fire until they are reduced - to the proper consistence, which ought to be such as to prevent - its spreading farther than is designed, and yet not so hard as to - occasion any mechanical irritation; the whole is then to be beat - smooth with a spoon, and applied as warm as the patient’s feelings - will readily admit. Some practitioners have doubted the propriety - of milk as an ingredient in this composition, and have preferred - water as an excipient, not only because the former is very liable - to turn sour, but because it does not possess greater powers as an - emollient than water; the observations of the editor of the - Pharmacopœia Chirurgica upon this question are judicious, and - worthy our notice; “the objection,” he says, “will certainly hold - good whenever stale milk is made use of, or if the same poultice - be kept too long applied; but if the milk be fresh, and the - poultice renewed night and morning, we do not know any thing that - occasionally gives such ease and comfort to the patient as this - form of cataplasm. If water be substituted for milk, the poultice - is seldom of sufficient tenacity; it is true that this - inconvenience may be remedied by the addition of a little linseed - meal, but in some instances the meal appears to fret and irritate - the skin so much, that patients undergo considerable uneasiness - from this cause; an objection to which the cataplasm of bread and - milk is seldom subject, especially if it be not applied too hot.” - - Every substance, whether liquid or solid, may become an ingredient in - this species of composition, and although judicious and - experienced surgeons have of late very considerably improved the - form of their cataplasms, yet the principles of medicinal - combination, which it has been the object of the present work to - investigate and expound, will suggest many important hints for the - farther extension of their utility; and although the direction of - them is more frequently left to the nurse than to the medical - practitioner, yet in adapting them to each particular occasion - some share of chemical address may be necessary; we have already - seen that attention must be paid to the selection of ingredients, - with respect to their powers of conducting heat, and it is evident - that care must be taken not to reduce into pulp, by decoction, - substances that contain volatile principles; while in the - preparation of active liquids to be subsequently mixed with - linseed meal, it is equally evident that we must be directed by - the chemical nature of their composition. - - - EMPLASTRA. L.E.D. _Plasters._ - -These are solid and tenacious compounds, adhesive at the ordinary heat -of the human body; they owe their consistence to different causes, viz. - - 1. _To a due admixture of wax or fatty matter_, _and resin_, e. g. - _Emplast: Ceræ_, &c. - -They may be said to differ only in _consistence_ from liniments, -ointments, and cerates; Deyeux[312] accordingly proposes to distinguish -them by the appellation of _Solid Ointments_. - - 2. _To the chemical combination of the semivitreous oxide of lead with - oils or fat_, e. g. _Emplast: Plumbi_. - - 3. _To the chemical action of the component parts of the plaster on - each other_, as _Emplast: Ammoniaci_, &c. - -Plasters are generally kept in rolls, wrapped in paper, and when to be -used they are melted and spread on leather; in performing this operation -the practitioner ought not to apply a heat above that of boiling water; -for if metallic oxides be present, the fatty matter will, at a higher -temperature, reduce them, in consequence of the powerful affinity of oil -for oxygen at an exalted temperature; and if aromatic substances enter -as ingredients they will thus suffer in their strength, besides which -the fat itself will undergo a very injurious change by a mismanaged -application of heat, and the plaster will be less adhesive. - -They are employed as remedies to answer two general indications; -_mechanically_, to afford support to muscular parts and to prevent the -access of air; and _medicinally_, to operate as stimulants, discutients, -rubefacients, or anodyne applications. That by affording an artificial -support to the various parts of the body, by the application of -plasters, we are capable in certain diseases of effecting much benefit, -is a truth to be explained upon the principles of physiology, and is -daily confirmed by the results of practice; thus by giving support to -the muscles of the back, how frequently the stomach is steadied and -strengthened? Diseases of the kidneys are in the same way very -frequently relieved by tight bandages around the loins; the existence of -an intimate connexion between the external and internal parts is -strikingly exemplified by the distressing effects which are often -experienced in weak habits, such as sickness, giddiness, and other -uneasy sensations, from a want of any usual compression, as that of -stays, under-waistcoats, &c. The support afforded to persons who have -been tapped in Ascites is another instance. I have also lately met with -a case in which a morbidly relaxed state of the bowels had harassed the -patient for several years, and set at defiance every astringent -medicine; upon the application, however, of a tight bandage around the -abdomen, the healthy action of the intestines has been completely -restored. Sir Gilbert Blane has suggested the trial of mechanical -compression of the head in the cure of Hydrocephalus, and several cases, -apparently favourable, have been published. Dr. Thackrey of Cambridge -has related a very interesting history in support of the practice, and -judiciously recommends the substitution of straps of adhesive plaster -for the bandages of cloth originally proposed by Sir Gilbert. In -reasoning upon this treatment, it will be found strictly conformable -with the soundest principles of physiology, and with those views in -particular, for the illustration of which I have here directed the -reader’s attention to the subject. Where our object is simple support, -we should of course select a plaster which is the most adhesive and the -least irritating. Many plasters which have gained great celebrity for -their curative virtues will be found to owe all their powers to their -adhesiveness, such is the _Emplastrum Oxidi Ferri Rubri_ of the -Edinburgh Pharmacopœia, for it is impossible that the iron should -communicate any tonic effect. The same observation applies to many of -those empirical plasters which have at different times acquired so great -a share[313] of popular applause. In the cure of sore legs[314] the -importance of adhesive strapping is generally acknowledged, and on such -occasions nothing is superior to the _Emplastrum Resinæ_. - - - - - FORMULÆ - - IN - - ILLUSTRATION OF THE SUBJECT - - OF - - Medicinal Combination. - - - “_Longum est iter per Præcepta, breve et efficax per Exempla._” SENECA. - - - - - A COLLECTION OF FORMULÆ - INTENDED TO ILLUSTRATE THE FOREGOING PRECEPTS, - and to furnish the inexperienced Prescriber - WITH A SERIES OF - _USEFUL AND INSTRUCTIVE LESSONS_. - - - EXPLANATION OF THE KEY LETTERS. - -The _Modus Operandi_ of the different elements of each formula is -designated by a KEY LETTER, or _Symbol_, which is printed in a different -type, (thus =B=) and placed in the margin opposite to each. This letter -refers to a corresponding one in the Synopsis, and thereby shews the -division containing an exposition of the principles upon which the -operation of the ingredient is supposed to depend. - -Two or more KEY LETTERS denote that the element against which they are -so placed has several modes of operation, whilst the order in which the -letters succeed each other, serves to shew the relative importance of -them. - -Where any one of the letters is _small_, _i. e._ not a capital, it -denotes that the operation which it is intended to express is only -_incidental_ to, or subordinate in, the general scheme of the -combination. - -When any number of elements are included within a _vinculum_ or bracket, -it is intended to shew that they operate but as one substance, or, that -the virtues of each are not independent of the other; in this case the -KEY LETTER within the bracket expresses upon what principle this unity -depends, whilst that on the exterior shews the action of such a -combination upon the base, or the part which it performs in the general -scheme of the Formula. - -Let us exemplify it by a reference to _Formula 78_ which presents us -with a Purgative, in conjunction with a Stimulant. The base is _Aloes_, -which is succeeded by _Scammony_, and _Extract of Rhubarb_; these -substances appear by the bracket, to act in unison, a concurrence which -the interior letter =B= shews to depend upon their being SIMILAR -REMEDIES; the letter also on the exterior shews that its operation upon -the base depends upon the same principle. We next come to powdered -_Capsicum_, and _Oil of Cloves_; these ingredients are also shewn by a -bracket to act in unity, and the letter =B= in the interior, denotes -that it is in consequence of their possessing a similar mode of action, -whilst the letter =G= on the exterior, announces that they act in the -general scheme for the purpose of fulfilling a second indication; at the -same time the smaller letter _e_ informs us that the combination -likewise acts as a _corrector_ of the base.[315] - - - - - A SYNOPSIS - OF THE - Principles of Combination, - AS INVESTIGATED IN THE PRECEDING PAGES, - ARRANGED IN A TABULAR FORM - SO AS TO AFFORD THE STUDENT AN EASY - REFERENCE TO THE KEY LETTERS. - - - _A Synopsis of the Principles of Medicinal Combination._ - - - OBJECT I. - TO PROMOTE THE ACTION OF THE BASIS. - - Key Letters. - - =A= A.—_By combining the several different forms, or preparations - of the_ SAME SUBSTANCE. - - =B= B.—_By combining the Basis with Substances which are of the_ - SAME NATURE, _i. e, which are individually capable of - producing the same effects, but with less energy than when - in combination with each other_. - - =C= C.—_By combining the Basis with Substances of a_ DIFFERENT - NATURE, _and which do not exert any Chemical influence upon - it, but are found by experience, or inferred by analogy, - to be capable of rendering the stomach, or system, more - susceptible of its action_. - - - OBJECT II. - TO CORRECT THE OPERATION OF THE BASIS, BY OBVIATING ANY UNPLEASANT - EFFECTS IT MIGHT BE LIKELY TO OCCASION, AND WHICH WOULD PERVERT ITS - INTENDED ACTION, AND DEFEAT THE OBJECT OF ITS EXHIBITION. - - =D= A.—_By_ CHEMICALLY _neutralizing, or_ MECHANICALLY - _separating, the offending ingredient_. - - =E= B.—_By adding some substance calculated to guard the stomach, - or system against its deleterious effects._ - - - OBJECT III. - TO OBTAIN THE JOINT OPERATION OF TWO, OR MORE MEDICINES. - - =F= A.—_By uniting those Medicines which are calculated to produce - the_ SAME ULTIMATE RESULTS, _but by modes of operation - totally different_. - - =G= B.—_By combining Medicines which have entirely different - powers, and which are required to obviate different - symptoms, or to answer different indications._ - - - OBJECT IV. -TO OBTAIN A NEW AND ACTIVE REMEDY, NOT AFFORDED BY ANY SINGLE SUBSTANCE. - - =H= A.—_By combining Medicines which excite different actions in - the stomach and system, in consequence of which_ NEW, _or_ - MODIFIED RESULTS _are produced_. - - B.—_By combining substances which have the property of acting_ - CHEMICALLY _upon each other; the results of which are_— - - =I= a. _The Formation of New Compounds._ - - =K= b. _The Decomposition of the Original Ingredients, and the - developement of their more active elements._ - - C.—_By combining Substances, between which no other change is - induced than a diminution, or increase in the_ SOLUBILITY - _of the principles in which their Medicinal virtues reside_. - - =L= a. _By the intervention of Substances that act_ CHEMICALLY. - - =M= b. _By the addition of Ingredients whose operation is - entirely_ MECHANICAL. - - - OBJECT V. - TO AFFORD AN ELIGIBLE FORM. - - =N= a. _By which the_ EFFICACY _of the Remedy is enhanced_. - - =O= b. _By which its_ ASPECT _or_ FLAVOUR _is rendered more - agreeable, or its mode of administration more convenient_. - - =P= c. _By which it is_ PRESERVED _from the spontaneous - decomposition to which it is liable_. - - - NARCOTICS. - - - 1. ℞. Extract: Hyoscyami ℈j. - Camphoræ gr. viij =B.= - Spir: Rectificat: ♏︎ij =N.= - -Camphoram primum cum Spiritu in pulverem tere, deinde simul contunde et -divide massam in Pilulas xij, quarum sumantur tres, omni nocte. - - - 2. ℞. Extract: Conii ʒj - Folior: Conii exsiccat: - et in pulverem tritorum, q. s. =A.= - ut fiant Pilulæ; singulis grana duo - pendentibus. - -Initio sumat æger pilulam unam pro dosi, mane et nocte; postea, binas, -et deinde tres vel quatuor; et denique augeatur dosis quantum possit. - - _Stoerck._ - - - 3. ℞. Opii puri gr. iv - Extract: Hyoscyam: et =B. } B.= - Extract: Conii āā gr. xv. =}= - -Simul contunde, et fiat massa in Pilulas sex dividenda, e quibus sumatur -una omni nocte. - - - 4. ℞. Extract: Conii - et - Extract: Hyoscyam: (_in vacuo_ pp:) āā gr. - iij =B.= - -Fiat Pil. bis quotidie sumenda. - - - 5. ℞. Tinct: Opii ♏︎xv - Syrup: Papaveris fʒij =A.= - Spir: Cinnamom: fʒj =O.= - Aquæ puræ f℥jss =N.= - -Fiat Haustus, invadente paroxysmo caloris in febribus intermittentibus -sumendus. - - _Lind._ - - - 6. ℞ Opii puri, et - Camphor: āā ʒss =F.= - Emplast: Lithargyri ʒij =O.= - -Sit scuto pectori. - - _Bree._ - - - 7. ℞. Mist: Camphoræ f℥j - Spir: Ether: comp: fʒss =B.= - Tinct: Opii ♏︎x =F. } A.= - Syrup: Papav: fʒji =}= - -Fiat Haustus hora decubitus sumendus. - - - 8. ℞. Tinct: Opii fʒj - Infus: Lini f℥vj =G.N.= - -Fiat Enema. - - - 9. ℞. Opii puri gr. ij - Mucilag: Acaciæ f℥ss =M. } N.G.= - Lactis tepefacti f℥vj =}= - -Misce pro Enemate. - - _Hartman._ - - - 10. ℞. Opii puri gr. j. - Pil: Galb: comp: gr. v. =M.F.=c. - -Fiat Pilula, h. s. sumenda. - - - 11. ℞. Opii puri gr. j. - Pil: Aloes cum Myrrha gr. iv. =E.M.= - -Fiat Pilula, h. s. sumenda. - - - 12. ℞. Opii puri gr. ij. - Extract: Aloes Spicat: gr. x. =E.M.= - -ut fiat Massa in Pil: iij dividend: e quibus sumatur una, h. s. - - - 13. ℞. Opii puri gr. j. - Extract: Aloes Spicat gr. iij =E.=1.=M.= - Extract: Gent: gr. v. =E.=2. - -Fiat Massa in Pil: duas dividend: et sint pro dosi. - - - 14. ℞. Opii puri gr. ij. - Saponis duri Hispan: gr. iv =L.N.= - -Simul contunde, donec corpus unum sit, et fiat Massa pro Suppositorio. - - - 15. ℞. Opii puri gr. ij. - Confect: Aromat: ʒss =G.N.= - -Fiat Massa in Pilulas viij dividenda, e quibus capiatur una, quarta -quaque hora. - -_In Typhus._ - - - 16. ℞. Opii duri contriti gr. iv. - Aquæ bullientis f℥ijss =D.= - -Infunde, prope ignem, per horam, et cola. - - - ℞. Liquoris Colati f℥j - Acid: Nitric: dilut: ♏︎x =E.=1. - Træ Aloes comp: fʒj =E.=2. - -Fiat Haustus. - - - 17. ℞. Conii foliorum exsiccat: ℥j - Coque ex aquæ oiiss ad oij - et cola. - -Panni lanei hocce decocto calido madefacti, deinde expressi, parti -affectæ imponantur, et sæpius renoventur. - - _Collin._ - -_In Carcinomatous, Venereal, and sordid Ulcers._ - - - 18. ℞. Conii Folior: exsiccat: ℥ij. - Medullæ panis ℥vj =} N.O.= - Aquæ oiss =}= - -Coquantur simul, ut fiat Cataplasma. - - - 19. ℞. Extract: Conii - Extract: Hyoscyam: āā gr. v. =B.= - Mucilag: Acaciæ fʒij =N.= - Tere simul, donec quam optime misceantur, et - deinde adde, - Liquor: Ammon; Acetat: =} G.= - Aquæ puræ āā f℥ss =}= - Syrup: Rhæados fʒj =O.= - -Fiat Haustus, quarta quaque hora sumendus. - -_In Pulmonary irritation._ - - _J. A. P._ - - - ANTISPASMODICS. - - - 20. ℞. Tincturæ Castorei fʒj - Ætheris: Sulphurici ♏︎x =B.= - Tinct: Opii ♏︎vij =G.= - Aquæ Cinnamomi f℥iss =N.O.= - -Fiat Haustus ter quotidie sumendus. - - - 21. ℞. Moschi gr. xv - Camphoræ gr. v. =B.= - Spir: rectificat: ♏︎ij =L.= - Confect: Rosæ gall: q. s. =O.= - -Camphoram primùm cum Spiritu tere, et deinde, secundum artem, fiat -bolus. - - - 22. ℞. Moschi ℈j - Acaciæ gummi contriti ʒss =M.= - Tere optime simul, et adde paulatim, - Aquæ Rosæ f℥j =O.= - Ætheris Sulphuric: fʒj =B.= - -Fiat Haustus, p. r. n, sumendus. - - - 23. ℞. Assafœtidæ ʒj - Aquæ Menth: Pip. f℥jss =L.= - -Tere assafœtidam cum Aquâ paulatim instillata, donec quam optime -misceantur, et deinde adde - - - Tinct: Valerian: Ammoniat: fʒij =}= - Tinct: Castorei fʒiij =B. } B.= - Ætheris Sulphuric: fʒj =}= - -Fiat Mistura, de qua sumatur Cochleare unum amplum secundis horis. - -Signetur.—_Anti-hysteric Mixture._ - - - 24. ℞. Mist: Camphoræ f℥j - Spir: Ammoniæ Fœtid: fʒss =B.= - -Fiat Haustus, urgenti flatu, sumendus. - - - 25. ℞. Valerianæ Radicis, in pulverem redact: ℈j - Tinct: Valerian: Ammoniat: =A.= - Tinct: Castorei āā fʒj =B. } B.= - Mist: Camphoræ fʒxij =}= - -Fiat Haustus ter quotidie sumendus. - - - 26. ℞. Tabaci Foliorum ℈j - Aquæ ferventis f℥viij - -Macera per horam in vase leviter clauso, et cola. Fiat pro Enemate. - - - 27. ℞. Massæ Pil: Galb: comp. gr. x. - Divide in Pilulas binas, et sint pro dosi. - - - 28. ℞. Tinct: Opii ♏︎vj. - Vini Ipecacuanhæ fʒj =H.= - Aquæ puræ f℥j =N.= - Syrup: Simpl: fʒiij =O.= - Sodæ Sub-carbonat: gr. xxiv. =G.= - -Sumat Infans sextam partem quartis vel sextis horis. - -_In Tussi Convulsiva._ - - R. Pearson. - - - 29. ℞. Assafœtidæ ʒij - Decoct: Avenæ f℥x =N.O.= - -Misce pro enemate, secundum artem. - -_In Flatulent Cholic._ - - _Bang._ - - - 30. ℞. Moschi gr. xij - Sacch: purificat: ℈ij =} M.= - Acaciæ Gummi contriti ℈j =}= - -Simul tritis admisceantur Jusculi cujusvis tenuioris f℥iv, ut fiat -enema, alternis vel tertiis horis injiciendum. - - _Wall._ - - - 31. ℞. Cinchonæ lancifoliæ Corticis contriti ℥j. - Valerianæ Radicis Pul: ʒiij =G.= - Syrup: Aurantiorum q.s. =O.= - -Ut fiat electuarium, cujus devoret drachmam, mane ac vesperi. - - _Mead._ - - - 32. ℞. Tinct: Digitalis ♏︎x—xv - Mist: Camphoræ fʒx =F. } G.O.= - Tinct: Calumbæ fʒi =}= - -Fiat Haustus, bis quotidie sumendus. - -_In Palpitation of the Heart, accompanied with great nervous -irritability._ - - - TONICS. - - - 33. ℞. Infus: Cascarillæ f℥iss - Tinct: Cascarillæ f℥ij =A.= - Tinct: Zingiberis fʒj =G.= - -Fiat Haustus ter quotidie sumendus. - - - 34. ℞. Ferri Tartarizati gr. x. - Pulv: Calumbæ gr. xv =F.=m. - -Fiat Pulvis, quarta quaque hora sumendus. - - - 35. ℞. Infusi Quassiæ fʒx - Tinct: Calumbæ fʒj =B.= - Tinct: Ferri muriat: ♏︎x =F.= - -Fiat Haustus, quotidie, hora meridiana sumendus. - - - 36. ℞. Ferri Ammoniati ʒj - Extract: Gentian: =F.M.= - et - Extract: Aloe āā ʒss =G.M.= - -Contunde simul, et divide massam in Pil. xxx. quarum sumat binas ter -quotidie. - -_Tonic and Purgative._ - - - 37. ℞. Cinchonæ lancifoliæ contritæ ℥ss - Magnesiæ Sulphatis ʒvj =G.= - -Tere optime simul, et divide in quatuor partes, ex quibus sumatur una -alternis horis inter paroxysmos. - -_In Intermittents._ - - _Cleghorn._ - - - 38. ℞. Ferri Sub-carbonatis gr. v—x. - Pulv: Valerian: ʒss =G.= - Syrup: Zingib: q. s. =E.O.= - -Fiat Bolus. - - - 39. ℞. Infusi Gentianæ comp: f℥j - Liquor: Potassæ Sub-carb: fʒss =O.L.G.= - Tinct: Cascarillæ fʒj =B.= - -Fiat Haustus. - - - 40. ℞. Cinchonæ lancifoliæ Cort: contus: ℥ss - Coque ex aquæ puræ f℥xvj - ad consumpt: dimid: adjectis sub finem coctionis, - Serpentāriæ radicis contus: ʒij =B.= - Stent per horam, et Colaturæ admisce, - Spir: Cinnamomi comp: f℥iss =E.= - Acid: Sulphuric: dilut: fʒiss =G.= - -Sumantur f℥ij sexta quaque hora. - - _Pringle._ - - - 41.[316] ℞. Decoct: Cinchonæ f℥iiss - Infus: Gentian: comp: f℥j =B. { B.= - Tinct: Cascarillæ fʒij ={= - Liquor: Potassæ Sub-carb: fʒij =G.1.= - -Fiat Mistura, de qua sumr: Cochl: duo ampla bis de die. - - - 42.[316] ℞. Decoct: Cinchonæ f℥vj - Tinct: Cinchonæ f℥ss =A.= - Confect: Aromat: ℈j =B. { G.E.= - Spir: Ammon: Aromat: fʒj ={= - -Fiat Mistura. - - - 43. ℞. Ferri Ammoniat: gr. v. - Rhei Rad: Contrit: gr. iij =G.= - -Fiat Pulvis ex quolibet vehiculo idoneo quotidie sumendus. - - - 44. ℞. Cinchonæ Pulv: subtiliss: - Potassæ Super-tart: āā ℥j =G.1.= - Caryophyll: contrit: No. xxx =G.2.= - -Misce, et detur drachma cum semisse tertiis horis. - - _Petrie._ - - - AROMATIC STIMULANTS. - - - 45. ℞. Sinapeos semin: contus: - Armoraciæ Radicis concisæ āā ℥ss =B.= - Aquæ ferventis oj =N.O.= - -Macera per horam, et cola. - - - ℞. Colaturæ f℥vii - Spir: Ammon: Aromat. fʒj =B. { B.= - Spir: Pimentæ f℥ss ={= - - Fiat Mistura; de qua sumr: Cochl: duo ampla ter quotidie. - -_In Paralysis._ - - - 46. ℞. Lactis Vaccini oj - Sinap: Semin: contus: ℥j - -Coquantur simul, donec pars caseosa in coagulum abierit, deinde coletur -serum, et sumatur cyathus subinde. - - _Disp: Fuld:_ - - - 47. ℞. Mist: Camphoræ f℥j - Spir: Ether: Sulphuric: fʒij =}= - Tinct: Cardamom: comp: f℥ss =}= - Spir: Anisi fʒvj =B. } B.= - Olei Carui ♏︎xij =}= - Syrup: Zingib: fʒij =}= - Aquæ Menthæ Pip: f℥vss =}= - -Fiat Mistura, cujus sumantur Cochlearia duo ampla, urgenti flatu. - -_In Flatulent Cholic._ - - - 48. ℞. Ammoniæ Sub-carb: ʒss - Aquæ Menth: Pip: f℥vij =N.B.= - Syrup: Aurant: f℥ss =O.= - -Sumatur octava pars in languoribus. - - - 49. ℞. Cantharid: in pulverem trit: gr. j - Ammoniæ Sub-carb: =B. } F.= - Confect: Aromat: āā gr. v. =}= - Syrup: q. s. =O.= - -ut fiat bolus, quartis vel sextis horis sumendus, cum haustu Infusi -Armoraciæ compositi. - - - 50. ℞. Olei Terebinthinæ fʒij - Mellis Despumat: ℥j =} O.= - Pulv: Rad: Glycyrrhizæ, q. s. =}= - -ut fiat linctus: de quo sumatur cochl: parv: nocte, maneque, cum haustu -cujusvis potus tenuioris tepefacti. - - - ASTRINGENTS. - - - 51. ℞. Quercus Cort: contus: ℥ss - Aquæ ferventis f℥xiij - - Macera per horam, et cola. - - - ℞. Hujus Colaturæ f℥iss =}= - Pulv: Gallarum gr x. =B. } B.= - Tinct: Catechu fʒss =}= - Tinct: Cardamom: comp: fʒss =G.E.O.= - Syrup: Cort: Aurant: fʒj =O.= - -Fiat Haustus. - - - 52. ℞. Misturæ Cretæ f℥iss - Tinct: Opii ♏︎xv. =F.1.= - Tinct: Catechu fʒj =F.2.= - -Fiat Haustus, post singulas sedes liquidas sumendus. - -_In Diarrhœa._ - - - 53. ℞. Aluminis Contriti gr. v. - Myristicæ Nucl: Contrit, gr. v. =E.= - Extract: Gentian: q. s, =F.O.= - -ut fiat massa in Pil: ij dividend: - - - 54. ℞. Lactis Vaccini bullient: oj. - Aluminis Contrit. ʒij. - -Ebulliant simul ut fiat coagulum; coletur serum, et sumatur cyathus, -subinde. - - - 55. ℞. Gallarum pulverisat: ʒj. - Adipis præparat: ʒj =O.= - - Fiat Unguentum, parti affectæ applicand: - -_In Hæmorrhoidibus._ - - _Cullen._ - - - 56. ℞. Infus: Ros: comp: f℥iiiss - Alum: contrit: gr. x. =B.= - Oxymel fʒiij =B.O.= - -Sit pro Gargarismate. - - - 57. ℞. Plumbi Acetat: gr. iij - Opii puri gr. i. =B. } B.= - Extract: Conii gr. x. =}= - -Fiat Massa in Pilulas tres dividenda; quarum sumatur una bis quotidie, -superbibendo haustum ex acido acetico comp: - - - 58. ℞. Infus: Cuspariæ f℥j - Minct: Catechu fʒj =B.= - Pulv: Ipecac: gr. x. =G.= - -Fiat Haustus. - - - 59. ℞. Zinc: Sulphat: gr. x. - Myrrhæ in pulv: trii: ʒiss =G.= - Confect: Ros: q. s, =N.O.= - -ut fiant Pilulæ xx, e quibus sumantur binæ bis quotidie. - - - 60. ℞. Tinct: Ferri Muriat: ♏︎x - Aquæ puræ f℥j. =N.= - -Fiat Haustus, tertia quaque hora sumend: - -_In Uterine Hemorrhage._ - - - 61. ℞. Cort: Quercus contus: ʒvj - Aquæ distillat: f℥x - -Coque per sextam partem horæ, et cola. - - - 62. ℞. Colaturæ et - Infus: Lini āā f℥iv =E.= - -Sit pro injectione per vaginam. - -_In Uterine Discharges attended with an irritable state of the vagina._ - - - EMETICS. - - - 63. ℞. Antimonii Tartarizati gr. i - Vini Ipecac: fʒij =B.= - Aquæ puræ f℥iss =N.= - -Fiat Haustus. - - - 64. ℞. Antimonii Tartarizati gr. ij - Aquæ distillatæ f℥iv =N.= - -Solve—Hujus danda sunt cochlearia duo mediocria, singulis horæ -quadrantibus, donec vomitus excitatus sit. - - - 65. ℞. Pulv: Ipecac: ʒss - Antimon: Tart: gr. i =B. } B.= - Tinct: Scillæ fʒi =}= - Aquæ distillat: f℥viiss =N.= - -Fiat Mistura, cujus sumat quamprimum cochlearia majora quatuor; et -cochlearia duo, sexta quaque horæ parte, donec supervenerit vomitus. - - - 66. ℞. Zinc: Sulph: ℈i - Confect: Ros: canin: q. s, =O.= - ut fiat bolus, ex pauxillo Infus: Anthemid: =O.= - -hauriendus. Post quamlibet vomitionem superbibantur cyathi aliquot -infusi ejusdem tepidi. - - - 67. ℞. Tabaci Foliorum ℥j - Aquæ fontis, q. s, =N.= - -Simul contunde, ut fiat epithema, regioni epigastricæ admovend: - - - 68. ℞. Cupri Sulphatis gr. x.—℈j. - Aquæ distillatæ f℥ij =N.= - -Fiat pro haustu emetico. - - - CATHARTICS. - - - 69. ℞. Magnesiæ Sulphatis =}= - et =B. }= - Sodæ Sulphatis āā ʒiij =}= - Aquæ Menthæ Viridis f℥vss =N.O.= - Vini Antimon: Tart: fʒj =O.= - -Fiat Mistura, de qua sumr. Cochl: duo ampla ter quotidie. - - - 70. ℞. Infusi Sennæ f℥j - Tinct: Sennæ =}= - et =B. } E.B.= - Tinct: Jalapæ āā fʒj =}= - Potassæ Tart: ʒj =F.E.=2. - Syrup: Sennæ fʒj =A.O.= - -Fiat Haustus, summo mane sumendus. - - - 71. ℞. Extract: Colocynth: comp: ʒj - Opii puri gr. iij =G.= - Olei nucis Moschat ♏︎iv =E.= - -Fiat massa in pilulas xii dividend: e quibus capiat duas, omni hora, -donec bis dejecerit alvus. - - - 72. ℞. Magnesiæ Sulphat: =}= - et =B. }= - Sodæ Sulphat: āā ℥ss =}= - Ferri Sulphat: gr. v. =G.= - Misturæ Camphoræ f℥viiss =L.O.= - -Fiat mistura, de qua sumantur Cochl: duo ampla bis indies. - - - 73. ℞. Jalapæ Radicis contrit: gr. xv. - Hydrarg: Sub-muriat: gr. v. =F.= - Confect: Ros: canin: q. s. =N.O.= - -ut fiat bolus. - - - 74. ℞. Confect: Sennæ ℥iss - Sulphur: Præcipitat: ℥ss =G.= - Syrup: Ros. q. s. =N.O.= - -ut fiat Electuarium, de quo, ad nucis Moschatæ magnitudinem, capiatur, -ter vel quater quotidie, donec alvus commode purgetur. - -_In Hæmorrhoids._ - - - 75. ℞. Olei Ricini f℥ss - Vitelli Ovi, q. s. =O.= - tere simul, et adde - Syrup: Papaveris fʒij =B. } G.= - Tinct: Opii ♏︎v =}= - Aquæ distillatæ f℥j =L.= - -Fiat Haustus tertiis vel quartis horis sumendus. - -_In Cholic from Lead._ - - - 76. ℞. Magnesiæ Sulphatis ʒvj - Infusi Sennæ f℥iss =F.L.= - Tinct: Jalap: fʒj =E.F.= - Tinct: Opii ♏︎x =F. } G.= - Tinct: Castorei fʒj =}= - -Fiat Haustus, ut supra, dandus. - - - 77. ℞. Infusi Sennæ f℥ij - Sodæ Tartariz: ʒvj =F.E.= - Aquæ Cinnamomi f℥ss =E.O.= - -Fiat solutio, duabus vicibus, sumenda. - - - 78. ℞. Aloës Spicat: ℈j - Scammoneæ gr. xij =B. } F.= - Extract: Rhei ℈ij =}= - Bacc: Capsici pulv: gr. vj =B. } G.=e. - Olei Caryophyll: ♏︎v =}= - -Fiant Pilulæ xvj, e quibus sumantur binæ, hora decubitus, p. r. n. - - - 79. ℞. Pil. Hydrarg: - et - Aloes Spicat: āā ℈j =G.= - -Fiat Massa in Pil: vj dividend: e quibus sumantur binæ, h. s. - - - 80. ℞. Pulv: Aloes comp: ʒj - Pulv: Antimon: gr. v. =C.= - Saponis duri gr. x. =L.N.O.= - Decoct: Aloes comp: q. s. =O.=a. - -Fiat Massa in Pilulas xx dividend: e quibus capiantur binæ ad alvum -officii immemorem excitandam. - - - 81. ℞. Extract: Colocynth: comp: gr. xxiv - Pil: Aloes cum Myrrha ʒj =F. } F.= - Hydrarg: Sub-muriat: gr. xv =}= - -Fiat Massa in Pil: xx dividend: e quibus sumr una vel altera, p. r. n. - - - 82. ℞. Sodæ Sub-carbonat: (_cryst:_) ʒiiss =}= - Potassæ Super-tart: ʒiij =K. } I.= - Aquæ puræ f℥viij =}= - -Stent in lagena bene obturata per triduum, et deinde sit in promptu pro -potu cathartico. - - _Young._ - -_Medical Literature, Edit. 2, p. 481._ - - - 83. ℞. Scammoneæ gr. v. - Pulv: Rhei gr. xv =F.= - Ammoniæ Sub-carbonat: gr. v =G.E.= - -Fiat Pulvis, ex vehiculo aliquo idoneo sumendus. - - - 84. ℞. Pulv: Jalap: gr. xv - Pulv: Ipecac: gr. v =C.= - Olei Cinnamom: ♏︎ij =E.= - -Fiat Pulvis, ut supra, dandus. - - - 85. ℞. Pulv: Rhei gr. xv. - Potassæ Super-sulphat: gr. x =B.O.= - Aquæ Cinnamomi f℥j =O.=e. - -Fiat Haustus. - - - 86. ℞. Sodæ Tartarizat: ʒij - Sodæ Carbonat: ℈j =}= - Aquæ puræ f℥iss =I.K. } O.= - Fiat Haustus, cum Cochl: uno amplo Succi - Limonum =}= - -In impetu effervescentiæ sumendus. Quotidie mane. - - - 87. ℞. Sodæ Carbonatis ʒij =}= - Ferri Sulphat: gr. iij =}= - Magnesiæ Sub-carb: ʒj =} I.K.= - Aquæ puræ oss =}= - Acidi Sulphurici dilut: fʒx =}= - -Infundatur primum lagenæ aqua, deinde immittantur Salina, et denique -Acidum Sulphuricum; illico obturetur lagena, et in loco frigido -servetur. - -NOTE.—_The decompositions which take place in this formula are described -in the Essay on the Art of Prescribing, p. 170. There is, however, a -precaution respecting the proportion of Sulphuric acid which it is -essential to remember, viz.—that it should never be added in excess; for -in that case the Sulphate of Iron would not undergo the necessary -decomposition._ - - - 88. ℞. Hydrarg: Sub-muriat: gr. x - Pil: Cambogiæ comp: =F. } F.= - et Extract: Colocynth: comp: āā gr. xv =}= - Syrup: Zingib, q. s. =E.= - -ut fiant Pilulæ xij, e quibus sumantur binæ, hora decubitus, vel summo -mane, ad alvum officii immemorem excitandam. - - - 89. ℞. Cambogiæ Contritæ gr. iij - Sacch: purificat: ℈j =M.O.E.= - -Tere optime simul, ut fiat Pulvis, tertia quaque hora sumendus, donec -alvus commode purgetur. - - - 90. ℞. Foliorum Sennæ ʒiij - Sodæ Sulphat: ℥j =F.= - Aquæ fervent: oj =L.N.O= - -Infunde, et cola, ut fiat Enema. - - - 91. ℞. Resinæ Terebinthinæ f℥ss - Vitelli ovi, q. s. =M.= - Infus: Lini f℥x =N.O.= - -Tere Resinam cum vitello ovi, hisque, inter terendum Infusum Lini -paulatim adjice. _Fiat Enema._ - - - 92. ℞. Potassæ Super-tart: ℥ij - Ferri Tartarizat: ʒiij =G.= - Zingib: ℈j =E.= - Syrup: Simp: q. s. =O.= - -dosis ʒij ter die. - - - 93. ℞. Confect: Sennæ ℥ij - Ferri Tartarizat: ℈ij =G.= - -Fiat Electuarium, ad nucis moschatæ magnitudinem sumendum. - - - EMMENAGOGUES. - - - 94. ℞. Sabinæ Foliorum exsiccat: - Zingib: rad: contus: āā ℈ss =E.= - Potassæ Sulphatis ʒss =G.M.= - -M. Fiat Pulvis bis die sumendus. - - - 95. ℞. Myrrhæ pulv: ℈j - Ferri Ammoniati gr. vj =G.= - -tere simul et adde - - - Syrup: Zingib: q. s. ut fiat Electuarium, de quo - sumatur ad myristicæ nuclei magnitudinem bis - quotidie. - - - 96. ℞. Mist: Ferri comp: f℥ss - Aquæ Cinnamomi f℥j =O.= - -Ft. Haustus bis de die sumendus. - - - 97. ℞. Tinct: Ferri Muriatis - Tinct: Aloes comp: āā f℥ss =G.=1. - Tinct: Castorei fʒij =G.=2. - -M. de qua sumatur cochl: unum minimum ex cyatho Infus: Anthemid: Flor: -ter quotidie. - -_Emmenagogue and Antispasmodic._ - - - 98. ℞. Pil: Aloes cum Myrrha - et - Pil: Galbani comp: āā ʒj =B.= - -Divide in Pil: xxiv, e quibus sumantur binæ bis quotidie. - - - 99. ℞. Pill: Aloes cum Myrrha - et - Pil: Ferri comp: āā ʒj =G.=1. - Sodæ Sub-Carbonatis ℈j =G.=2._l._ - -Divide Massam in Pilulas xxx e quibus sumantur binæ bis quotidie. - - - DIURETICS. - - - 100. ℞. Scillæ Radicis exsiccat: gr. iij - Pulveris Opii gr. ss =C.E.= - Cinnamomi Corticis gr. x =E.O.= - -Fiat pulvis bis quotidie sumendus. - - - 101. ℞. Potassæ Sub-Carbonatis gr. x - Infus: Gentian: comp: f℥iss =C.N.= - Spir: Etheris comp: fʒss =B } G.E.= - Træ Cinnamomi fʒi =}= - -Fiat Haustus. - -_Diuretic and Stimulant._ - - - 102. ℞. Scillæ Radicis exsiccat: gr. xij - Potassæ Nitratis ʒi =F.= - Sacchari purificat: =B } M.E.= - et Cinnamomi cort: contrit: =}= - -āā ʒi. fiat pulvis in sex partes æquales dividend: Sumatur una bis -indies. - - - 103.[317] ℞. Scillæ Rad: exsiccat: gr. iv - Digitalis Foliorum gr. x =B.= - Hydrargyri Sub-muriat: gr. vj =C.= - Myrrhæ Pulv: ℈i =}= - simul tere et adde =B. } G.= - Assafœtidæ ʒss =}= - Extract: Gentian. q. s. =C. O.= - -Fiat massa in Pilulas xv dividend: e quibus sumatur una, nocte maneque. - - - 104. ℞. Massæ Pil. Scillæ ʒi - Hydrarg: Sub-muriat: gr. v =C.= - -Fiat massa in Pilulas xv dividenda, quarum sumantur duæ singulis -noctibus. - - - 105. ℞. Sodæ Carbonat: exsiccat: ʒi - Saponis duri ℈iv =N.B.= - Olei Juniperi =F.E.= - Syrupi Zingiberis q. s. =E.N.= - -Fiat massa in Pilulas xxx dividenda, e quibus capiat tres, indies, -contra calculos renum. - - _Beddoes._ - - - 106. ℞. Scillæ Radicis exsiccat: gr. ij - Pilulæ Hydrargyri gr. v =G.C.= - Opii gr. ss =E.C.= - -Fiat Pilula hora decubitus per tres vel quatuor noctes consequentes -capienda. - - - 107. ℞. Potassæ Sub-carbonat: ℈i =}= - Succi Limonum: f℥ss, vel q. s. =I. } K.= - Aquæ Cinnamomi f℥i =}= - Aceti Scillæ fʒiss =B.= - Tinct: Opii ♏︎v =C.= - Syrupi Aurantii fʒss =O.= - -Fiat Haustus bis indies sumendus. - - - 108. ℞. Potassæ Acetatis ʒi - Oxymel; Colchici fʒij =B.= - tere simul cum aquæ puræ f℥i =N.= - Spir: Juniperi comp: f℥ss =B.O.= - -Fiat Haustus, ut supra dandus. - - - 109. ℞. Baccarum Juniperi contus: ʒij - Semin: Anisi contus: ʒij - Aquæ: ferventis oj - -Macera per tres horas, dein cola. - - - ℞. Colaturæ f℥xij =A. }= - Spir: Junip: comp: f℥ij =}= - Træ Scillæ fʒi =B.= - Potassæ Nitratis ℈ij =F.= - -Fiat Mistura, de qua sumatur cyathus subinde. - - - 110. ℞. Infus: Digitalis f℥iv =A. }= - Træ Digitalis fʒss =}= - Potassæ Acetat: ʒi =B.= - Tinct: Opii ♏︎v =C.E.= - -Fiat Mistura, de qua sumatur coch: unum amplum bis terve indes. - - - 111. ℞. Liquoris Ammoniæ Acetat: f℥ss - Potassæ Acetatis ʒi =B.= - Aquæ puræ f℥j =N.O.= - -Fiat Haustus ter quotidie sumendus. - - - 112. ℞. Potassæ Supertartratis ʒi - Pulveris Scillæ exsiccat: gr. iij =B.= - Pulveris Zingiberis gr. v =E.= - -Fiat pulvis, sexta quaque hora capiendus. - - - 113. ℞. Spartii cacum: concis: ℥i - Aquæ puræ oj - -Decoque ad octarium dimidium, et cola. - - - ℞. Colaturæ f℥i - Spir: Etheris Nitrici ♏︎x =B.E.= - -Sumatur alternis horis. - - - 114. ℞. Tinct: Ferri Muriat: ♏︎xv - Infus: Quassiæ f℥i =C.N.= - -Fiat Haustus tertia quaque hora sumendus. - - - 115. ℞. Potassæ Nitratis ʒi - Misturæ Ammoniaci f℥vj =N.= - Spir: Juniperi comp: f℥iss =B. } B.E.= - Aceti Scillæ fʒvi =}= - -Fiat Mistura de qua capiat cochl: j amplum quartis horis. - - - 116. ℞. Tincturæ Lyttæ ♏︎x - Spiritus Ætheris Nitrici fʒi =F.= - Misturæ Camphoræ fʒxij =E.N.= - Syrup: Zingiberis fʒi =E.O.= - -Fiat Haustus ter in die sumendus. - - _a highly stimulating diuretic._ - - - DIAPHORETICS. - - - 117. ℞. Misturæ Camphoræ fj℥ss - Liquor: Ammon: Acet: f℥ss =F.= - Liquor: Antimonii Tart: ♏︎xx =H. } B.= - Tinct: Opii ♏︎x =}= - -Fiat Haustus. - - - 118. ℞. Potassæ Sulphureti gr. xv - Saponis duri ʒj =E.L.= - Balsam: Peru: q. s. =O.= - -Ut ft: Pilulæ xxx; sumat tres quarta quaqua hora ex cyatho Infusi calidi -Juniperi baccarum. - -_In Cutaneous Affections._ - - - 119. ℞. Pulveris Antimon: ʒss =}= - Opii Pulv: ℈ss =H. }= - Hydrargyri Sub-muriat: gr. v =}= - Confect: Opii q. s. =O.B.= - -Ut fiant Pilulæ decem, quarum capiat unam hora decubitus, et repetatur -p. r. n. - - - 120. ℞. Pulveris Ipecacuanhæ comp: gr. xv. - Pulv: Trag: comp: ℈ij =N.= - -Divide in partes quatuor æquales, quarum sumat unam omni hora. - - - 121. ℞. Pulv: Ipecacuanhæ comp: gr. xv - Pulv: Antimon: gr. ij =B.= - -Ft: pulvis, hora decubitus sumend: superbibendo Haustulum tepidum. - - - 122. ℞. Guaiaci gum-resinæ gr. x - Pulv: Ipecacuanhæ comp: gr. v =F.= - Confect: Rosæ q. s =O.= - -Ut fiat Bolus, h. s. sumendus. - - - 123. ℞. Potassæ Carbonatis gr. x =}= - Mist: Camphoræ: f℥j =I.K. }= - Ft: Haust: cum Succi Limonum =}= - -Cochleari uno amplo, in impetu ipso effervescentiæ sumendus. - - - 124. ℞. Guaiaci gum-resinæ gr. x - Antimonii Tart: =}= - et =H. } B.= - Opii puri āā gr. j =}= - Syrupi q. s. =O.= - -Fiat Bolus bis quotidie sumendus. - - - 125. ℞. Camphoræ - et Pulveris Antimon: āā gr. iij =H. } F.= - Opii puri gr. j =}= - Confect: Aromat: q. s =N.= - -Fiat Bolus, h. s. sumendus. - - - 126. ℞. Liquor: Ammoniæ Acetat: fʒij - Decoct: Cinchonæ fʒx =A. } G.= - Tinct: Cinchonæ fʒij =}= - Confect: Aromat: ʒss =N.= - -Ft. Haustus, tertia vel quarta quaque hora sumendus. - - - 127. ℞. Guaiaci gum-resinæ ʒij - Acaciæ gummi ʒij =M.= - Simul bene tritis adde - Træ Opii fʒss =C.= - Pulv: Cinchonæ ʒj =}= - Træ Cinchonæ fʒij =A. } G.= - Decoct: Cinchonæ f℥viij =}= - -Fiat Mistura cujus sumatur cyathus bis quotidie. - -_Rheumatism._ - - - 128. ℞. Extracti Aconiti - Antimonii Sulphureti =}= - Præcipitati āā gr. j. =E. } B.= - Magnesiæ Carbonatis ℈ss =}= - -Tere simul ut fiat pulvis. - - - 129. ℞. Pulv: Antimon: gr. iij. - Potassæ Sub-carbonatis gr. v. =E.= - Anthemid. Flor. exsiccat: ℈j =N.= - -M. Fiat Pulvis sexta quaque hora, per biduum vel triduum sumendus. - - - 130. ℞. Pulveris Ipecacuanhæ gr. ij =H. }= - Pulveris Opii gr. i. =}= - Potassæ Nitratis gr. xvj. =M.F.= - -Fiat Pulvis hora somni sumendus. - - - EXPECTORANTS. - - - 131. ℞. Assafœtidæ ℈ij - trituratione solve in - Aquæ Menthæ vir: f℥iij. =N.= - addeque Syrup: Tolu: f℥j =G.= - -Fiat Mistura, de qua sumatur cochl: unum amplum tertia quaque hora. - - - 132. ℞. Myrrhæ gum-resin: ʒss - Sacchari purificati ℥ss. =M.= - -Tere optime simul ut fiat Pulvis, partitis dosibus quotidie sumendus, in -vehiculo aliquo idoneo. - - - 133. ℞. Myrrhæ gum-resin: ʒiss - Scillæ exsiccat: ʒss =B.= - Extract: Hyoscyami ℈ij =G.= - Aquæ q. s. ut fiant Pil. xxx. =N.O.= - -E quibus sumantur binæ, nocte maneque. - - - 134. ℞. Scillæ exsiccatæ gr. viij - Pulveris Ipecacuanhæ gr. v =C.= - Camphoræ ℈j =G.= - Pulv: Antimon: gr. vj =C.= - Sacch: purificat: ʒj =M.= - -Tere in pulverem, in quatuor partes æquales dividendum. Pars una sumatur -bis quotidie, ex haustu decocti hordei. - - - 135. ℞. Oxymel: Scillæ - Syrupi Altheæ =B. } F.= - Mucilag: Acaciæ =}= - -āā f℥ss, misce, et fiat linctus, de quo lambat sæpe. - - - 136. ℞. Misturæ Ammoniac: - et Aquæ Cinnamomi āā f℥iss =N.= - Syrupi Tolut: f℥ss =N.O.= - Tinct: Castorei fʒij =B. } G.= - Tinct: Opii ♏︎v =}= - -Fiat Mistura, cujus sumatur Cochl: unum amplum subinde, ac repetatur -dosis p. r. n. - -_Expectorant & Antispasmodic. Hooping Cough, &c._ - - - 137. ℞. Mist: Amygdal: f℥j - Vini Ipecacuanhæ ♏︎x =G.= - Potassæ Carbonatis gr. x. =I.K. } G.= - Sumatur cum Succi Limon: fʒiij =}= - -In impetu ipso effervescentiæ. - - - 138. ℞. Pulveris Myrrhæ gr. xij - Pulv: Ipecacuanhæ gr. vj =F.= - Pulv: Potassæ Nitrat: ʒss =E.= - -Misce et divide in doses æquales quatuor, quarum sumat unam quartis -horis. - - - 139. ℞. Tinct: Scillæ ♏︎x - Acid: Nitric: dilut: ♏︎vj =C.= - Extract: Hyoscyam: gr. iij =G.= - Aquæ puræ f℥iss =N.= - -Fiat Haustus tertiis horis sumend: - - _Bree._ - - - 140. ℞. Acid: Nitric: fʒj =}= - Aquæ puræ f℥iv misce =} H.= - dein tere cum =}= - Ammoniaci ʒj =}= - donec emulsio evadit - -Dosis cochl: j medioc: ex liquore aliquo demulcenti. - - - SIALOGOGUES. - - - 141. ℞. Hydrarg: Oxyd: rubri gr. j. - Opii tertiam grani partem =C.= - Caryophyll: olei ♏︎j =E.= - -Fiat pilula, h. s, per hebdomadam sumenda. - - _J. Hunter._ - - - 142. ℞. Hydrarg: oxy-muriat: - Ammoniæ muriat: āā gr. v =L.= - Aquæ distillat: fʒss =N.= - Glycyrrhizæ rad: contrit: ℈iv =B. } O.= - Mellis ʒss =}= - -Cogantur in massam, quam divide in pil: xl, e quibus sumatur una ter -die. - - - 143. ℞. Pyrethri rad: contrit - Mastiches āā ʒj =M.N.= - -Fiant lege artis, ad ignem, masticatoria duo; teneat æger sœpius in ore, -et manducet hujusmodi medicamentum, exspuatque salivam. - - _Hartman._ - - - REFRIGERANTS. - - - 144. ℞. Potassæ Nitratis gr. xv - -Ft: Pulv: ex cyatho Aquæ perfrigidæ, illico post solutionem sumend: - - - 145. ℞. Acidi Muriatici fʒj - Decoct: Hordei oj =N.= - Syrupi fʒij vel q. s, =O.= - -ad acorem compescendum, et gustum conciliandum. Sumatur quotidie, instar -potus, et bibat quantum sitis exigat. - -_In Typhus and other Fevers._ - - - 146. ℞. Ammoniæ Muriat: ʒij - Acidi Acetici dilut: f℥ij =B.= - Spir: Camphor: f℥ss =G.= - -Misce ut fiat Lotio. - - - 147. ℞. Liquor: Plumbi Sub-acetat: fʒj - Acidi Acetici dilut: f℥ij =L.= - Spir: tenuior f℥ss =G.= - Aquæ destillatæ f℥viij =N.= - -Fiat lotio. - - - 148. ℞. Liquor: Ammon: Acetat: f℥vj - Spir: Rosmarini f℥ij =G.= - Aquæ puræ oj =N.= - -Sit pro Epithemate, capiti raso applicandum. - - - ANTACIDS AND ABSORBENTS. - - - 149. ℞. Liquoris Potassæ fʒij - Liquoris Calcis f℥vj =F.N.= - -M. Cujus capiat æger, acido infestante, cochleare amplum unum, vel -alterum, ex poculo jusculi bovini. - - - 150. ℞. Magnesiæ ʒss - Aquæ Menthæ Pip: fʒiiss =}= - Spir: Lav: comp: fʒss =B. } G.= - Spir: Carui fʒiv =}= - Syrup: Zingib: fʒij =}= - -Sumatur cochleare unum mediocre, p. r. n. - -_Antacid and Carminative._ - - - 151. ℞. Pulv: Cretæ co: cum Opio ℈j - Pulv: Catechu Extract: gr. xv =G.= - -Sit pulvis, post singulas sedes liquidas sumendus. - -_In Diarrhœa depending upon Acidity._ - - - 152. ℞. Ammoniæ Sub-carb: gr. v. - Extract: Rhei gr. viij =G.N.= - -Fiat massa in Pil: binas dividenda. - - - 153. ℞. Magnesiæ Sub-carbonat: gr. v - Sodæ Sub-carb: gr. v =B.= - Zingib: rad: contrit: gr. iv =E.= - Glycyrrhizæ rad: contrit: gr. xv =M.O.= - -M. et fiat pulvis, contra cardialgiam. - - - ANTILITHICS AND LITHONTHRYPTICS. - - - A. _In the Lithic Acid Diathesis._ - - - 154. ℞. Sodæ Sub-carb: gr. x - Infus: Quassiæ f℥j =G.C.= - Tinct: Calumbæ =E.= - -Fiat Haustus bis quotidie sumendus. - - - 155. ℞. Magnes: Sub-carbonat: ℈j - Infus: Calumbæ f℥j =A. } G.C.= - Tinct: Calumbæ fʒj =}= - -Fiat Haustus. - - - 156. ℞. Sodæ Sub-carbonat: gr. x - Mist: Amygdal: f℥j =N.O.= - Balsam: Copaib: (ope mucilag: mist:) fʒss =G.=1. - Tinct: Opii ♏︎v =G.=2. - -Fiat Haustus, urgenti dolore sumendus. - - - 157. ℞. Magnesiæ Sub-carbonat: gr. x - Pulv: Ipecac: gr. j =G.= - Sodæ Sub-carbonat: gr. v. =F.= - -Fiat Pulvis, ex vehiculo aliquo idoneo sumendus; superbibendo cyathum -Infusi Anthemid: Flor: - - - B. _In the Phosphatic Diathesis._ - - - 158. ℞. Acid: Muriatic: ♏︎v - Decoct: Hordei comp: f℥iss =N.= - -Fiat Haustus ter quotidie sumendus. - - - 159. ℞. Infus: Ros: f℥iss - Magnes: Sulphat: ʒj =G.= - Tinct: Calumbæ fʒij =E.= - -Fiat Haustus. - - - ANTHELMINTICS. - - - 160. ℞. Stanni Limat: ℥iij - Confect: Rosæ Gall: ℥ss =B. } N.= - Syrupi q. s. ut fiat Elect: =}= - -Capiat coch: amplum, quotidie mane, et repetatur dosis ad tres vices, et -deinde capiat æger Haustum aliquem purgantem. - - - 161. ℞. Cambogiæ g. viij - Hydrarg: Sub-muriat: gr. v =F.= - -Mucilag: Acaciæ q. s. ut fiat Bolus mane sumendus. - -_Contra Tæniam._ - - - 162. ℞. Sodæ Muriatis ℥ij - Coccinell: ℈ij =M.O.= - -Fiat Pulvis, et detur drachma dimidia pro dosi, tempore matutino. - - - 163. ℞. Ferri Sub-carbonat: ℈j - -Sumatur ex vehiculo aliquo crasso, singulis auroris. - - - 164. ℞. Camphoræ (Alcohole solutæ) ʒj - Ol: Olivæ fʒij =L.N.= - -Misce, Fiat Enema. - -Injiciatur h. s. tertia quaque nocte, ad tres vices: dein repetatur -alternis noctibus, ad quartam usque vicem, si opus fuerit. - -_Contra Ascarides._ - - - 165. ℞. Aloes Spicat: gr. x - Saponis Duri ʒj =L.N.= - -Fiat Suppositorium post Alvum exoneratam applicand. - - - DEMULCENTS. - - - 166. ℞. Olei Amygdal: f℥j - Acaciæ gummi ʒiij =M.N.= - tere simul, et dein gradatim adde - Aquæ destillatæ f℥vi =O.= - Syrup: Rhæados f℥ss =O.= - -Fiat Mistura, de qua sumantur Cochlearia duo ampla ter, quaterve, -indies. - - - 167. ℞. Olei Amygdal: fʒvj =I. }= - Liquoris Potassæ ♏︎L =}= - Aquæ Rosæ f℥viiss. =N.= - -Fiat Mistura, ut supra capienda. - - - 168. ℞. Mistur: Amygdal: f℥j =}= - Potassæ Carbonatis gr. x. =I.K. }= - Syrupi Rhæados fʒj =}= - Ft: haust: cum cochl: Succ: Limon: =}= - -in impetu effervescentiæ sumend: - -_Demulcent & Febrifuge._ - - - 169. ℞. Pulv: Cetacei - Pulv: Trag: comp: āā ℥ss =B.= - Syrupi Papaveris q. s. =N.O.= - -Misceantur, et fiat Linctus. Dosis cochl: minimum subinde. - - - 170. ℞. Cetacei ʒij - Pulv: Trag: comp: ʒj =}= - Syrup: Papaveris =B. } B.= - Syrup: Tolu: āā fʒij =}= - Confect: Ros: ʒvj =}= - Potassæ Nitratis ʒss =G.= - -Fiat Electuarium, de quo capiat ad nucis moschatæ magnitudinem. - - - 171. ℞. Cetacei ʒij - Vitelli ovi dimidium =}= - Syrupi f℥ss. =} B.= - Aquæ Cinnamomi f℥ij =}= - Aquæ destillatæ fʒiv =}= - -Fiat Mistura, de qua capiat æger cochleare amplum frequenter. - - - 172. ℞. Amyli ʒiij - Aquæ ferventis f℥iv. =L.= - Solve pro enemate, et adde, - si opus fuerit, - Tinct: Opii fʒss =G.= - - - 173. ℞. Decoct: Lichenis oss - Sumatur quotidie, cochleatim, - instar potus communis. - - - - - SUPPLEMENTARY FORMULÆ - FOR CERTAIN REMEDIES - NOT INCLUDED IN THE PHARMACOPŒIA. - - - 1. ℞. Acid: Hydro-cyanic: dilut: ♏︎v - Mist: Amygd: f℥iv =} O.= - Syrup: Tolutan: fʒj =}= - -Fiat Mistura, de qua sumatur Cochleare unum amplum tertia quaque hora. - - - 2. ℞. Acid: Hydro-cyanic: dilut: ♏︎xij - Tinct: Digitalis fʒss =F.= - Aquæ Cinnamom: f℥vss =O.= - -Sumatur Cochl: unum amplum quartis horis. - - - 3. ℞. Acid: Hydro-cyanic: dilut: fʒj - Aquæ Rosæ f℥iss - -Sit pro lotione contra Impetigines utend: - - - 4. ℞. Morphiæ Acetatis gr. xij - Aquæ destillat: f℥j =N.= - Acid: Acetic: dilut: ♏︎v =L.= - Spir: Rectificat: fʒj =P.= - -Sumantur guttæ x–xx, ad dolorem leniendum, et somnum conciliandum. - - - 5. ℞. Iodini ℈ij - Spir: Rectificat f℥j - -Solve et fiat Tinctura. - - - ℞. Tincturæ Iodini ♏︎v. - Aquæ destillat: f℥j =N.= - -Sumr: guttæ x ter quotidie. - - - 6. ℞. Quinæ Sulphat: gr. ij - Acid: Sulphuric: dilut: ♏︎ij =L.= - Aquæ destillat: f℥j - -Fiat Haustus, bis terve de die sumend: - - - - - OF THE - MEDICINAL DYNAMETER. - - -This instrument is capable of showing, on mere inspection, the absolute -as well as relative strengths of the different Officinal Preparations of -the Pharmacopœia. The active Principles, or Medicinal Bases, are -distinguished by CAPITAL LETTERS, placed in coloured compartments, and -each Officinal preparation is marked by a line corresponding in colour -with that of its active ingredient. Where a preparation contains two -active ingredients it is distinguished by two coloured lines, as may be -seen in the _Pulvis Ipecacuanhæ comp_. By this expedient the eye, at -once, recognises the different classes of medicines; all those, for -instance, coloured _red_ are Opiates; those _blue_, Mercurials; _green_, -Acetic acid; &c. The introduction of colours, moreover, immediately -indicates the basis to which any preparation refers, and thus prevents -the possibility of doubt or confusion. - -If we wish to learn the actual quantity of active matter contained in -any given proportion of a compound, we have only to turn the scale until -the name of such compound coincides with the number in question, when -the figure opposite to the basis solves the problem; thus—how much opium -is contained in 5 grains of the _Pulvis Ipecacuanhæ compositus_? By -having brought this preparation to 5, we shall see ½ opposite to Opium, -denoting that such a number of grains contains half a grain; for, unless -it be otherwise expressed, the figures denote _grains_ for the solids, -and _minims_ for the liquids. And, since the number opposite to the Base -denotes the absolute quantity of it contained in those several -proportions of its Officinal compounds, which are expressed by the -respective numbers opposite to each, it follows that these latter must -all be medicinally equivalent to each other; thus we have seen that 5 -grains of _Pulvis Ipecacuanhæ compositus_ contains ½ grain of Opium, if -we turn our eyes to the other Opiate preparations we shall perceive that -each has a different number opposite to it, these figures show the -number of grains of each which contains ½ grain of opium, and -consequently those numbers must be all Equivalents; thus 2½ grains of -_Pil. Saponis comp:_ 5 grains of the _Pulv: Corn: ust: cum Opio_, 9½ -minims of Tinctura Opii, 10 grains of _Pulv: Kino comp:_ 18 grains of -_Confectio Opii_, 20 grains of _Pulv: Cretæ comp: cum Opio_, and 120 -minims, or two fluid-drachms of _Tinctura Camphor: comp:_ contain half a -grain of Opium, and are consequently all equivalent to each other. This -system of Equivalents will be found of much practical value to the -practitioner, by enabling him, at once, to substitute one preparation -for another, without the risk of altering the dose of its active -ingredients. Suppose, for example, a patient had been taking 8 -fluid-drachms of _Mist: Ferri Comp._ and that we wish to give the same -quantity of Protoxide of Iron in the form of the _Pil: Ferri comp_. we -have only to bring the mixture in question to 8, and we shall see 13½ -grs. are equivalent, both these quantities of the respective -preparations containing ⅔ds of a grain of protoxide, or a little more -than a grain of the Proto-carbonate. Suppose again, that we have an -acetic acid of sp. gr. 1.059, and that we wish to produce, by its -dilution, two fluid-drachms, or any other quantity, of acid having the -strength of distilled vinegar, the question is, what are the proportions -of water and strong acid to be employed. We have only to bring the -Acidum Aceticum of 1.059, to 120, i. e. to fʒij, and the number opposite -to the strong acid, _viz._ 16, is its equivalent, if therefore we take -16 minims of it, and dilute it with 104 minims of water, we obtain the -mixture required. - -Those who are acquainted with the sliding rule of Gunter, or the -chymical scale of Dr. Wollaston, will immediately perceive that the -present circular scale is divided upon the same logometric principle, -and that the mechanical addition and subtraction of ratios here -performed by juxta-position, corresponds in effect to the multiplication -and division of the numbers by which the ratios are expressed in common -arithmetical notation. It is not necessary that I should trouble the -reader with the numerous difficulties and embarrassments which have -opposed themselves to the practical success of this instrument. They -have, after repeated failures, been at length overcome, except perhaps -with regard to a slight central error, which as it is found in the most -accurate brass instruments, could not be avoided where pasteboard alone -had been employed. The error, however, is not of the slightest practical -moment, not occasioning the difference of a hundredth part of a grain. - -The proportions of active matter, in the several preparations of each -class, have been, in general, derived from the best authorities, -although in many cases they have been deduced from experiments expressly -instituted for the occasion. - - - - - PHARMACOLOGIA. - - - COMPREHENDING - - THE MEDICINAL HISTORY AND CHEMICAL HABITUDES - - OF THE - - DIFFERENT ARTICLES THAT CONSTITUTE THE - - MATERIA MEDICA. - - - “_Omnium Simplicium Pharmacorum vires nosse oportet cum qui aliquot - compositum est facturus._” - - _Ætius._ - - - - - PHARMACOLOGIA. - - -ABIETIS[318] RESINA. L. E. D. (Pinus Abies, _Resina concreta_.) _Resin -of the Spruce Fir._ - -Olim, _Thus—Frankincense_.[319] - -QUALITIES. _Form_, tears or small brittle masses: _Odour_, very fragrant -when burning. It has all the chemical properties of a _Resin_, and is -used only for external purposes: see _Pix Arida_. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Empl: Aromatic:_ D. _Empl: Galban: comp:_ L. _Empl: Opii_ -L. _Empl: Thuris._ D. - - -ABSINTHIUM. (Artemisia Absinthium) _Common Wormwood._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, strong and peculiar. _Taste_, intensely bitter, -slightly pungent, and very unpleasant, as its name[320] implies. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Extractive, a small portion of resin, and a green -essential oil; in the first of which its bitterness resides, in the -last, a narcotic principle; hence the watery extract is not possessed of -the nauseous flavour of the plant but retains its bitterness almost -entire; the narcotic principle is therefore dissipated by decoction, but -its tonic and anthelmintic properties are not impaired by that process. -MEDICAL USES. The whole plant is powerfully antiseptic; and its -bitterness renders it stomachic. Infused in ale it forms the beverage -known by the name of _Purl_. Its powers as a vermifuge has bestowed upon -it the name of _Wormwood._ DOSE, ℈j, ℈ij; and of the infusion, (made in -the proportion of ℥j of the plant to oj of water,) f℥i-f℥iss. -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. Precipitates are produced in the decoction or -infusion by _Sulphate of Iron_, _Acetate of Lead_, and some other -metallic salts. Tartarized Antimony is not in the least affected by it. -OFF: PREP: _Extract: Absinth:_ D. - - -ACACIÆ GUMMI. L. (Acacia vera.) Mimosa. Nilotica. E. D. _Gum Arabic._ - -QUALITIES. It is dry, semi-transparent, brittle and insipid; by exposure -to the air it undergoes no other change than loss of colour. _Specific -Gravity_, 1·515. SOLUBILITY. It is soluble in water in every proportion, -forming a viscid solution, (_mucilage_). One part dissolved in water -affords a fluid of the consistence of syrup; and in two parts, a medium -well calculated for the union of dry powders. Gum is also soluble in -pure alkalies and lime water, as well as in vegetable acids, especially -vinegar, with which it forms a mucilage that may be used as a cement, -like the watery solution, and with the additional advantage of not being -susceptible of mouldiness.[321] It is insoluble in alcohol, as well as -in æther and oils. By strong sulphuric acid the gum is decomposed, and a -considerable proportion of carbon deposited.[322] For a farther history -of its habitudes see _Mucilago Acaciæ_. MEDICINAL USES. It is demulcent -and nutritious; although it appears in certain states of the body to -pass through the bowels without change. When triturated with gum-resins -it assists their mechanical division, as in _Form: 30_. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Mucilago Acaciæ._ L. E. D. _Emulsio Mimosæ Niloticæ._ E. -_Emulsio Arabica._ D. _Mist. Corn. ust._ L. D. (=O=) _Mist. Cretæ._ L. -D. (=O=) _Mist. Moschi._ L. (=O=) _Confect. Amygdal._ L. (=O=) _Pulv. -Cret. co._ L. (=O=) _Pulv. Tragacanth co._ L. (=B=) Trochisci _Carbonat. -Calcis_ E. (=O=) _Troch._ _Glycyrrh. Glab._ E. (=O=) _Troch. Glycyrrh. -cum Opio_ E. (=O=) _Troch. Gummos._ E. (=O=). ADULTERATIONS. Gum Senegal -is not unfrequently substituted for it, but this may be distinguished by -its clammy and tenacious nature; whereas genuine _gum arabic_ is dry and -brittle; the fraud is of no consequence in a medical point of view. It -is also occasionally mixed with the gum of plum and cherry trees; this -fraud however, is to be easily detected, for such gum has peculiar -properties by which it may be chemically distinguished; see _Mucilago -Tragacanth_. - - -ACETICA. L.E.D. _Preparations of Vinegar._ - -These preparations consist of vegetable principles dissolved in vinegar. -OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Acetum Aromaticum._ E. _Acidum Acetosum -camphoratum._ E. Medicated vinegars were formerly much extolled; the -first London Dispensatory contained no fewer than ten, at present the -number is reduced to two, viz. _Acetum Colchici._ L. _Acetum Scillæ._ -L.E.D. _which see_. - - -ACETIS HYDRARGYRI. E. Acetas Hydrargyri. D. _Acetate of Mercury._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, small flaky crystals; _Colour_, silvery white; -_Taste_, acrid. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Acetic Acid, and Oxyd of Mercury. -SOLUBILITY. It is soluble in hot, but very sparingly in cold water, and -quite insoluble in Alcohol. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. It should be always -given in pills,[323] it is however seldom used. DOSE, gr. j. As an -external application, a solution of it, in the proportion of grs. j. to -f℥i of rose water, has been commended as a cosmetic. - - - ACETOSÆ FOLIA. L.E. Rumex Acetosa. - - _Common Sorrel Leaves._ - -QUALITIES. _Taste_, grateful, austere and acidulous. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. All its qualities depend upon the presence of -_Super-oxalate of Potass_. In France the plant is commonly cultivated -for the use of the table. - - - ACETOSELLA. L. Oxalis Acetosella. - - _Wood Sorrel._ - -The qualities of this plant, like those of the preceding, depend upon -_Super-oxalate of Potass_. - - - ACETUM. L. _Vinegar._ - - Acidum Acetosum, E. Acetum Vini. D. - -QUALITIES. Too well known to require description.[324] CHYMICAL -COMPOSITION. Acetic acid largely diluted with water, vegetable gluten, -mucilage, sugar, extractive matter, and frequently malic and tartaric -acids, together with small proportions of sulphate of lime, sulphate of -potass, and alcohol. Its composition however varies according to the -fermented liquor from which it is obtained:[325] e. g. wine yields a -paler, purer, and stronger acid than fermented malt liquors or solutions -of sugar, hence the superiority of that prepared in France and Italy. -Vinegar is liable to spontaneous decomposition, or to become mouldy, and -consequently for the purposes of pharmacy it should be distilled; as -however the change depends upon the presence of gluten, it may if boiled -be kept for a much longer time, and if powdered _animal_[326] charcoal -be previously added, it will become quite colourless like distilled -vinegar, and that without being impaired in strength, whereas it always -becomes much weaker by distillation. It is a curious circumstance that -this is the only vegetable acid, except the _Prussic_, that rises in -distillation in combination with water. - -ADULTERATIONS. Sulphuric acid, as it does not produce any turbid -appearance in vinegar, is generally the acid selected for sharpening it; -but it must be remembered, that the maker is allowed by law, to mix one -thousandth of its weight of Sulphuric acid[327] with it; so that the -_muriate of baryta_ when added to such vinegar may be expected to -produce 1⅕ grain of insoluble _sulphate_ in every fluid-ounce; if a more -considerable quantity of precipitate occurs, we may infer that an -excessive proportion of sulphuric acid is present; although some -allowance ought perhaps to be made for the presence of the sulphates of -potass and lime, which are always contained in vinegar. Of this vinegar -1000 grains should saturate 148 grains of crystallized sub-carbonate of -soda; a fluid-ounce of the same, 68–3/4 grains.[328] For the purpose of -making the vinegar appear stronger, acrid vegetables, as _grains of -Paradise_, _berries of Spurge Flax_, _Capsicum_, _Pellitory of Spain_, -&c. are sometimes infused in it, but by tasting it with attention, the -pungency of such substances may be easily detected. For the other -adulterations, see _Acidum Aceticum_. - -The purest vinegar which I have ever examined is that manufactured from -malt, by Mr. Mackintosh of Glasgow. The strongest malt vinegar is termed -_proof vinegar_, and is called by the manufacturer No. 24; it is -estimated to contain 4·73 per cent. of real acetic acid.[329] Its -strength in relation to the other forms of acetic acid, will be seen by -referring to the MEDICINAL DYNAMETER, and to the table inserted under -the article ACIDUM ACETICUM FORTIUS. In the former Editions of this work -it was stated, that a Vinegar had of late years appeared in the market -produced from the distillation of wood, (_Pyroligneous Acid_.) This -article has now come into very general use; and the manufacturers have -at length succeeded in divesting it of that empyreumatic flavour which -had so long rendered it objectionable. See _Acidum Aceticum Fortius e -Ligno destillatum_. - - - ACETUM COLCHICI. L. _Vinegar of Meadow Saffron._ - -Vinegar appears to be a solvent of the acrid and medicinal principle -which resides in the bulb of this plant. DOSE fʒss to fʒij. in any bland -fluid. See _Colchici Radix_. - - - ACETUM SCILLÆ. L.E.D. _Vinegar of Squill._ - -This preparation is an acetic solution of the acrid matter of the -Squill, upon which its medicinal efficacy depends.[330] DOSE fʒss to -fʒij. in cinnamon or mint water. See _Scillæ Radix_. FORM. 107, 114. -Alkalies and their carbonates are chemically incompatible with these -_Vinegars_. This preparation, as well as the _Oxymel_, deposites when -long kept a precipitate consisting of _citrate of lime_ and _tannin_, -but its medicinal efficacy is not on that account impaired. - - - ACIDUM ACETICUM DILUTUM. L. Acidum Acetosum Distillatum. E. Acetum - Distillatum. D. - - _Common Distilled Vinegar._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, fainter and less agreeable than common vinegar -(_Acetum_): _Taste_, less acid; _Colour_, none. SPECIFIC GRAVITY; Mr. -Phillips states, that when prepared according to the directions of the -Pharmacopœia, it varies from 1·007 to 1·009; and that 1000 grains of the -latter require for their saturation, 145 grains of crystallized -sub-carbonate of soda. I apprehend, however, that it will be found quite -impossible to obtain a dilute acetic acid equal in strength or specific -gravity, to that last mentioned, by the process of the London -College;[331] it may even be doubted whether it can be produced of the -specific gravity 1·007. The general run of distilled vinegar as found in -the shop of the druggist, varies from 1·005 to 1·006, and contains from -2·80 to 2·826 per cent. of real acid; when of the specific gravity of -1·009 it would contain about 4·73 per cent. Dr. Powell states -(_Translation of the Pharmacop: of London_, 1815) that “one fluid-ounce -ought to dissolve at least thirteen grains of _white marble_;” or, what -is equivalent to it, 39·67 grains of crystallized _Sub-carbonate of -Soda_; acid of this strength corresponds very nearly with six degrees of -the Revenue Acetometer, the proportions being as follow, 100 grains of -Pharmacopœia strength will saturate 8·68 grains of crystallized -_Sub-carbonate of Soda_; 100 grains of acid of 6° of the Acetometer will -saturate 8·70 grains of the salt. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Acetic Acid more -largely diluted than that in vinegar, with very minute portions of -uncombined mucilage and extractive. SOLVENT POWERS. It is capable of -dissolving all those vegetable principles which are soluble in water, -and in some cases, as in _Squill_, _Colchicum_, and in several -_Aromatics_ and _Narcotics_, its acid appears to extend its solvent -powers; at the same time it often modifies or diminishes the medicinal -virtues of the substances, as for instance those of _Narcotics_; this -circumstance considerably limits its pharmaceutical application; when -however it is employed, a portion of spirit should be always added, in -order to counteract the spontaneous decomposition to which it is liable, -and the acetic compound should be preserved in stopped bottles. Acetic -acid does not dissolve true resins, but it has some action on gum -resins. MEDICINAL USES. It is refrigerant, and may be advantageously -administered in hemorrhage; especially in cases where the acetate of -lead has been given, since the solubility of this latter substance is -increased by it. See Form. 57; externally, it may be a convenient -adjunct to lotions containing lead. _See Form. 147._ In consequence of -its chemical action upon osseous matter, it has been much employed at -the Gloucester Infirmary to hasten exfoliation of carious bone. -ADULTERATIONS. _Sulphuric Acid_ may be detected by a precipitate being -produced on the addition of acetate of baryta: this test however will -not answer for its detection in common vinegar, for the reason stated -under that article. See _Acetum_. _Sulphurous Acid_ may be recognised by -drawing a little of the vapour into the lungs. The presence of _Nitric -Acid_ may be discovered by saturating the suspected sample with pure -potass, evaporating to dryness, and then treating the product with a -highly concentrated alcohol, the acetate of potass will be thus -dissolved, but as it exerts no action on the _Nitrate_ it will be found -in the residuum, and may be recognised by its deflagration, when thrown -upon burning charcoal;[332] _Copper_ may be detected by the acid -assuming a blue colour, when supersaturated with ammonia; and _Lead_, by -a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, producing a dark coloured -precipitate. _Tin_ however is the metal with which distilled vinegar is -more usually contaminated, for no vegetable acid will act upon lead -while any tin is present in the mixture, since the latter, being more -oxidable than the former, is exclusively dissolved. - - - ACIDUM ACETICUM FORTIUS. L. - - (_Acidum Aceticum._) - (_e Ligno Destillatum._) - - _vulgo, Pyroligneous Acid._ - -The acetic acid from wood has been very generally introduced to -supersede the use of distilled vinegar for the purposes of Medicine and -the Arts.[333] It is at length found to be capable of such complete -separation from all foreign matter as to afford a perfectly pure acetic -acid, invariable in its acidifying power, and immutable in its chemical -properties. In justice to the skill and industry of Messrs. Beaufoy and -Co. of South Lambeth, I beg to state that I have examined various -specimens of this acid from their manufactory, and that I find it free -from those impurities which have hitherto constituted an insuperable -objection to its introduction into the Materia Medica. The purified -_Pyroligneous_ acid, manufactured by this company, and sold under the -name of “_Improved Distilled Vinegar_,” is perfectly free from any -unpleasant taste, as well as colour and sediment; and it forms a limpid -and colourless solution with ammonia. The common distilled vinegar of -the shops varies essentially in strength as well as purity, differing in -acidifying power from 30 to 40 per cent. in value: it is sometimes 7 -degrees, and at others less than 5, by the Revenue Acetometer;[334] and -hence has arisen the difficulty of procuring an uniform article for -medical application, a difficulty which the introduction of the -_pyroligneous_ acid seems calculated to overcome, as it may be procured -from the manufacturers of any degree of concentration,[335] from 6 -degrees of the Acetometer, or 2·826 per cent. of real acetic acid to 130 -degrees, or 61·49 per cent. of acid; and even of still higher strength -if required; their common, or _Proof_ acid is about equivalent in -strength to that of the best Malt Vinegar, of which 100 grains will -saturate 14½ grains of crystallized _Sub-carbonate of Soda_, and -consequently contains 4·73 per cent. of real acid, and will require at -least one half part of water to reduce it to the strength of the best -common distilled vinegar. It is found that acetic acid of 45 per cent. -real acid, or of 95° of acetometer strength, dissolves Camphor and the -Essential Oils very readily. - -The “ACIDUM ACETICUM FORTIUS,” which is now introduced into the Materia -Medica of the London College, is directed to have a specific gravity of -1·046.[336] It is exactly six times the strength of Proof vinegar, or -the strong Malt vinegar manufactured, but it requires to be diluted with -nine times its weight of water to reduce it to the strength of the -ordinary samples of distilled vinegar. Mr. Phillips states, that he has -not met with acetic acid of greater specific gravity than 1·043,[337] -being five times the strength of vinegar of specific gravity 1·009.[338] -The strongest acid that can be procured is the _Glacial_ acid, which -exists in a crystallized state under 50° _Fah._ It contains 79 per cent. -of real acid, and is consequently of the strength of 167·5 of the -Acetometer. If this acid be kept perfectly still, it may be reduced -several degrees below its crystallizing point in a fluid state, when the -slightest agitation of the vessel instantly occasions it to solidify. It -will greatly facilitate our inquiries into the strength of different -samples of acetic acid to know, that the representative numbers of -acetic acid and pure white marble coincide on the scale of equivalents; -it therefore follows that the weight of marble dissolved by a hundred -grains of any acetic acid, will at once represent the percentage of real -acid in such a sample. - -The Impure Pyroligneous acid, as it first comes over, contaminated with -Tar, has, it is said, been very successfully employed as a lotion in -Lepra, scrophulous ulcerations, chronic inflammation of the eyes, and -edges of the eye-lids, and for promoting digestion of irritative ulcers, -or those connected with carious bone. It has also been injected into -sinuses to produce healthy discharge and adhesive inflammation.[339] M. -Monge discovered that this acid has the property of preventing the -decomposition of animal substances; it is sufficient to plunge meat for -a few moments in this acid, even slightly empyreumatic, to preserve it -as long as you please. “Putrefaction,” it is said, “not only stops but -retrogrades.” To the empyreumatic oil a part of this effect has been -ascribed, and hence has been explained the agency of wood smoke in the -preservation of tongues, hams, herrings, &c. - - - ACIDUM ACETOSUM FORTE, E. Acidum Aceticum. D. - - _Radical Vinegar._ - -The process for this preparation has not retained its place in the -London Pharmacopœia, as it is now universally superseded by the Acetic -acid distilled from wood. Since however it possesses peculiar chemical -habitudes, it claims some notice in this work. The concentrated acid -obtained from the decomposition of acetic salts, by the action of -sulphuric acid, is pungent, acrid, and volatile, and when heated with -free access of air, it takes fire very readily. Its solvent powers are -much greater than those of distilled vinegar; it is capable of -dissolving camphor, resins, and essential oils[340] copiously, but they -are precipitated by dilution; it combines with alcohol, and forms a -species of ether; with water it unites in any proportion, heat being -evolved by the mixture. Gold, platinum, glass, and earthenware, can -alone retain this acid without being corroded. It blisters the skin -immediately. - -I shall conclude this article by the introduction of a Table, which I -have constructed with considerable care, for the use of the practical -Chemist. The accuracy of the results may be depended upon, since it has -been tested by several different modes of enquiry. The Medicinal -Dynameter will give the equivalents in any other denomination that may -be required. - - A TABLE EXHIBITING THE ACETOMETER STRENGTHS, SPECIFIC GRAVITIES, - PERCENTAGE OF REAL ACID, EQUIVALENT VALUE, AND SATURATING POWER, OF THE - MORE IMPORTANT PREPARATIONS OF ACETIC ACID. - - ┌────────────────┬──────────┬────────┬──────────┬───────────┬─────────┐ - │ ACIDS. │ │ │ │ │Grains of│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ Sub- │ - │ │ │ │ │ │carbonate│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ of Soda │ - │ │ │ │ │ │saturated│ - │ │ │ │Percentage│ │ by 100 │ - │ │Acetometer│Specific│ of real │Equivalents│grains of│ - │ │strength. │Gravity.│ Acid. │in Minims. │ acid. │ - ├────────────────┼──────────┼────────┼──────────┼───────────┼─────────┤ - │Acetum │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Destillatum │ 5·9°│ 1·005│ 2·80│ 810│ 8·58│ - ├────────────────┼──────────┼────────┼──────────┼───────────┼─────────┤ - │ D° │ 6°│ 1·006│ 2·826│ 803│ 8·66│ - ├────────────────┼──────────┼────────┼──────────┼───────────┼─────────┤ - │ D° │ 7°│ 1·007│ 3·42│ 663│ 10·48│ - ├────────────────┼──────────┼────────┼──────────┼───────────┼─────────┤ - │ D° │ 10°│ 1·009│ 4·73│ 480│ 14·5│ - ├────────────────┼──────────┼────────┼──────────┼───────────┼─────────┤ - │Acetum (Proof) │ 10°│ 1·014│ 4·73│ 480│ 14·5│ - ├────────────────┼──────────┼────────┼──────────┼───────────┼─────────┤ - │Acid Acetic: │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Fort. │ 50°│ 1·043│ 23·67│ 96│ 72·5│ - ├────────────────┼──────────┼────────┼──────────┼───────────┼─────────┤ - │Acid Acet: Fort.│ │ │ │ │ │ - │ P. L. │ 60°│ 1·048│ 28·43│ 80│ 87│ - ├────────────────┼──────────┼────────┼──────────┼───────────┼─────────┤ - │Acid: Acet: │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Fort. │ 75°│ 1·059│ 35·475│ 64│ 108·75│ - ├────────────────┼──────────┼────────┼──────────┼───────────┼─────────┤ - │Acid: Acetic, D.│ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Acid: Acetos: │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Fort. E. │ 145°│ 1·070│ 68·5│ 33·1│ 210·25│ - ├────────────────┼──────────┼────────┼──────────┼───────────┼─────────┤ - │Acid: Acetic: │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Fort. │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ (_Glacial._) │ 167.5°│ 1·063│ 79│ 28·6│ 242·875│ - └────────────────┴──────────┴────────┴──────────┴───────────┴─────────┘ - -The reader will observe an anomaly with regard to the specific gravity -of the acid of 145 of the acetometer, when compared with the _glacial_ -acid. The fact is, that by diluting this latter preparation with a small -portion of water we augment its specific gravity, a circumstance -peculiar to this acid. - - - ACIDUM BENZOICUM. L.E.D. - - _Benzoic Acid._ Vulgo, Flowers of Benzoin, or _Benjamin_. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, small feathery crystals of a brilliant white colour, -which are not brittle, but possess a kind of ductility and elasticity, -and, on being rubbed in a mortar, assume the consistence of paste. -_Odour._ As generally met with, it possesses a peculiar aromatic smell, -but this depends upon the oily matter which adheres to it, for Mr. Guise -informs us, that on dissolving the benzoic acid in as little alcohol as -possible, filtering the solution, and precipitating by water, the acid -will be obtained pure, and void of smell, the odorous oil remaining -dissolved in the spirit. _Taste_, rather acrid and sour; _Specific -Gravity_, ·667. It is not altered by exposure to air. SOLUBILITY. Four -hundred parts of cold water dissolve but one, although the same quantity -of boiling water dissolves twenty parts, nineteen of which separate on -cooling; in alcohol it is soluble in a much greater proportion. -MEDICINAL USES. It is said to be stimulant and expectorant; in certain -cases of tracheal irritation, a pill, composed of two grains of Benzoic -acid, and three of Extract of Poppy, has been found serviceable. -OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Tinctura Camphoræ Composita_, L.D. _Tinct: Opii -Ammoniat:_ E. IMPURITIES. The crystals ought not to be discoloured; they -should dissolve without residuum in alcohol, and when subjected to heat, -ought to be entirely volatilized. - -Although this acid is commonly procured from the resinous substance -called Benzoin, yet it exists extensively in other vegetable, and in -some animal substances. In the Tonca bean (_Dipterix odorata_) it is -frequently to be seen beautifully crystallized on its surface. It exists -also in vanello; cinnamon; cloves; ambergris; in the urine of children, -and sometimes in that of adults, and always in that of quadrupeds living -on grass and hay. - - - ACIDUM CITRICUM. (_Crystalli_) Citric Acid. - - _Concrete Acid of Lemons._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, crystals which are right rhombic prisms, white, -semi-transparent, and persistent. _Taste_, extremely acid, almost -caustic. SOLUBILITY, f℥j of cold water dissolves ʒx, but of boiling, -℥ij. ʒx of the crystals dissolved in a pint of water, are about -equivalent to one pint of lemon juice, the solution however if kept is -liable to spontaneous decomposition. The following table of equivalents -may be found of practical use; the author is aware that they do not -exactly agree with the proportions of Dr. Haygarth, but they are the -results of careful and repeated experiments, and as such they are -submitted with confidence. - - EQUIVALENT PROPORTIONS OF CONCRETE CITRIC ACID AND LEMON JUICE, - NECESSARY FOR THE NEUTRALIZATION OF ALKALINE SALTS. - - ┌──────────────────────┬──────────────────────┬───────────────────────┐ - │ Citric Acid. │ Lemon Juice. │A Scruple of Alkalies. │ - ├──────────────────────┼──────────────────────┼───────────────────────┤ - │ grs. x. │ fʒiij │ Carbonate of Potass. │ - ├──────────────────────┼──────────────────────┼───────────────────────┤ - │ grs. xv. │ fʒiiij │ Sub-Carbonate of │ - │ │ │ Potass. │ - ├──────────────────────┼──────────────────────┼───────────────────────┤ - │ grs. xxv. │ fʒvij │ Sub-Carbonate of │ - │ │ │ Ammonia. │ - └──────────────────────┴──────────────────────┴───────────────────────┘ - -These alkaline citrates are decomposed by the _oxalic_, _tartaric_, and -the stronger _mineral acids_, and by the solutions of _lime_ and -_barytes_. _Form. 107, 123, 137, 168._ - -Citric acid decomposes the following salts, _viz._ _The Alkaline, -Earthy, and Metallic Carbonates_; _the Alkaline and Metallic Acetates_; -_the Sulphurets of Earths and Alkalies, and Alkaline Soaps_. It is also -incompatible with _Tartrate of Potass_, which it converts into citrate -and super-tartrate of potass. It curdles the milk of most animals, but -it does not produce that effect on human milk, whether applied hot or -cold. ADULTERATIONS. _Tartaric Acid_, with which it is sometimes mixed, -may be detected by adding to the solution an excess _of Potass_, which -will instantly form with it an insoluble super-tartrate, and precipitate -in granular crystals, or, if a little of the suspected acid be saturated -with potass, and then boiled with a dilute solution of muriate of -Platinum, if tartaric acid be present, a black protoxide of Platinum -will be precipitated. If we add the tartrate of potass for this purpose, -we may be deceived, for the citric acid, by neutralizing a portion of -its base, will convert the remainder into super-tartrate. See _Potassæ -Tartras_. _Sulphuric Acid_ is known by the acetate of lead producing a -precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid. _Muriatic Acid_ may be discovered -in the same manner, substituting only an acidulous solution of nitrate -of silver for the acetate of lead. The presence of _Oxalic Acid_ may be -inferred, if the solution, when added to that of sulphate of lime, -produce a precipitate. Malic acid has the power of precipitating silver, -mercury, and lead, from their solutions in nitric acid, but no doubt or -difficulty can arise from this circumstance, for the fact of its forming -a soluble salt with lime will prevent every chance of accidental -intrusion, and its price at once secures us against its fraudulent -introduction; it might moreover be easily detected by throwing the -suspected precipitate upon burning coals, when it would be decomposed. -Where the presence of _lime_ is suspected, it may be known by dissolving -some of the crystals in water, saturating the solution with ammonia, and -then treating it with the oxalate of that alkali, which, if lime be -present, will immediately separate it in a palpable form. The juices of -many other fruits besides the lemon and lime, will furnish the citric -acid in abundance, and may be obtained from them by a similar process; -e. g. VACCINIUM OXYCOCCUS, the _Cranberry_; PRUNUS PADUS, the _Bird’s -Cherry_; DULCAMARA SOLANUM, the berry of the _Nightshade_; CYNOSBATUS, -vel ROSA CANINA, the hep or fruit of the _Wild Briar_. There are many -plants whose juices contain combinations of the _Citric_ and _Malic_ -acids in considerable abundance, such as FRAGARIA VESCA, the _Wood -Strawberry_, and the common _Raspberry_; RIBES RUBRUM the _Red -Gooseberry_; VACCINIUM MYRTILLUS, the _Bilberry_; CRATÆGUS ARIA, the -_Hawthorn_; PRUNUS CERASUS, the _Black Cherry_, &c. This fact is -interesting, since the juices of such fruits have been long known to -possess the property of dissolving the _tartareous_ incrustations on the -teeth. - - - ACIDUM HYDRO-CYANICUM. - - _Hydro-cyanic Acid._ _Prussic Acid._ - -This peculiar acid exists in a great variety of native combinations in -the vegetable kingdom,[341] and imparts to them certain properties which -have been long known, and esteemed in medicine. It is, however, only -lately, that it has been administered in its simple but diluted form. As -few practitioners will choose to prepare the acid, it seems unnecessary -in the present work to dwell upon the merits of the different processes -which have been proposed for its preparation; for a full account of -them, as well as for other details of importance, the practitioner is -advised to consult a work by Dr. Granville, entitled “_An Historical and -Practical Treatise on the use of Prussic Acid. Second Edition. London, -1820._” - -QUALITIES. A colourless transparent liquid, although it occasionally -exhibits a yellow tinge; _Odour_ like that of bitter almonds; _Taste_ -bitterish and peculiar: these properties however are soon lost by -exposure to air and light, and the acid undergoes spontaneous -decomposition. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The true nature of _Prussic_ acid -was not ascertained until 1815, when Gay Lussac presented to the Royal -Institute of France, a memoir which at once developed its real chemical -constitution; and it is now admitted to consist of a peculiar gaseous -and highly inflammable compound of carbon and nitrogen, to which the -name _Cyanogene_ has been assigned, and of hydrogen; the latter body -acting as the acidifying principle, whence the term _Hydro-cyanic_ acid -is well contrived to express its composition. The medicinal, or -_diluted_ acid, however, contains but a small proportion of this -concentrated compound; according to M. Majendie, one part of the acid of -Gay Lussac and eight parts and a half of water, by weight, or one part -of acid with six times its volume of water, constitute the preparation -which should be used in medicine; and which, to avoid the possibility of -mistake, ought always to be prescribed as the Acidum Hydro-cyanicum -_dilutum_, and is, in fact, the _Prussic acid_ of Scheele. Dr. Ure, who -has lately taken considerable pains upon this subject, has constructed a -table exhibiting the relations between the specific gravities, and -quantities of real acid, in preparations of different strength; from -these experiments it would appear that an acid of specific gravity 0·996 -or 0·997 is such as is usually prescribed in medicine.[342] MEDICAL -USES. In a sufficient dose, hydro-cyanic acid instantly destroys life by -extinguishing the nervous energy of the body;[343] but it has at the -same time been observed that animals submitted to its action would often -continue to breathe for several hours freely, and to circulate their -blood, although no trace of sensibility or muscular contractility could -be found after its application. This remarkable property of -extinguishing the general sensibility, without any ostensible injury to -respiration and circulation, naturally led to a belief that the -hydro-cyanic acid, or prussic acid, might be advantageously used in -cases of excessive sensibility and irritation, particularly when these -two morbid states are likely to affect either the respiratory organs or -the circulation generally. This kind of analogical reasoning, it is -said, induced Professor Brera, ten years ago, to administer it in cases -of high pulmonary and other inflammations, in doses of four drops twice -a day; when, as we are told, the violence of the disease was quickly -subdued. The remedy, however, does not appear to have excited much -attention, until after the first essay of Dr. Majendie, who deserves -whatever credit may belong to its introduction. Seven years of trial -have elapsed, and the general sense of the medical profession with -respect to its utility may now be collected. As a palliative in certain -spasmodic coughs, there is reason for supposing that it _may sometimes_ -be useful, but in that species of pulmonary irritation for which it was -at first so greatly extolled, I will venture to assert that it is far -inferior in efficacy to well directed doses of _Conium_. But there is -another class of diseases in which its exhibition is said to prove -useful, in dyspeptic affections attended with heartburn; where it is -supposed to be capable of reducing the morbid irritability of the -stomach, and thereby of enabling the juices of that organ to be more -slowly secreted and of a more healthy character. Dr. Elliotson has -published the result of his treatment of stomach complaints with this -medicinal agent, and would appear to appropriate to himself the merit of -originating the practice, a claim which Mr. Thomson, in the third -edition of his Dispensatory, refuses to concede.[344] As a local remedy, -prussic acid has also received no small share of commendation, and it -has been said that it is the only application that can be depended upon -for allaying the cutaneous irritation so frequently attendant upon -certain impetiginous affections. It must, however, be confessed that -this medicine is rapidly declining in popularity.[345] Any prejudice -raised against it, upon the ground of its poisonous activity in large -doses, is too absurd to be believed; the knife and the caustic are -unquestionably powerful, and may therefore become dangerous instruments; -but who ever blames the surgeon for employing a sharp knife or an active -caustic, seeing that both are to be directed by his eye, and guided by -his hand? FORMS OF EXHIBITION. It may be conveniently administered in -any liquid vehicle, as distilled water, camphor mixture, or in some -vegetable infusion. See _Supplementary Formulæ_, 1, 2, 3. A question has -lately arisen whether the effects of the prussic acid might not be more -conveniently ensured by the administration of some vegetable[346] in -which it exists as a native ingredient; a company of associated -Physicians, Surgeons, and Naturalists at Florence, have accordingly -expressed their joint opinion, that the essential oil of the _Prunus -Lauro Cerasus_ is to be preferred in medical practice to all other -preparations which contain the hydro-cyanic acid; for, say they, unlike -the distilled water of the plant, and pure prussic acid, it contains the -same proportion of active matter, and of the same power, whether -recently prepared or not; whether made in one place or another; or -whether it has been exposed or not to the air, light, or heat. They are -also of opinion that olive oil forms the best vehicle for its exhibition -in the proportion of one ounce to twelve drops of the essential oil. -Other practitioners again prefer _Laurel Water_, made by distilling two -drachms of the fresh leaves chopped, with four ounces of water, -recommitting the distilled water twice afterwards on the same quantity -of fresh leaves, and making ultimately four ounces of the menstruum, of -which from ♏︎xxx to fʒj every six hours may be given until a sedative -effect is produced. See _Oleum Amygdalæ Amaræ_. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. -Hydro-cyanic acid is decomposed by most of the _oxydes_ usually employed -in medicine, particularly by those of _Mercury_ and _Antimony_. The -alkalies do not appear to diminish its efficacy. _Nitrate of Silver_, -and the salts of iron occasion precipitates; nor ought the _sulphurets_, -the _mineral acids_, or _chlorine_ to enter with it into prescriptions. -DOSE. Of the medicinal, or _diluted_ hydro-cyanic acid, ♏︎ij,–viij. -There is however considerable difficulty with regard to the strength of -the dilute acid employed in medicine, since the density is a criterion -of greater nicety than can be conveniently used by the majority of -practitioners; in fact, as Dr. Ure has observed, the liquid at 0·996, -contains about double the quantity of real acid, which it does at 0·998. -Dr. Ure has accordingly proposed another test of the strength of this -powerful and dangerous medicine, which is not only easier in use, but -more delicate in its indications;[347] it is as follows. To 100 grains, -or any other convenient quantity of the prussic acid, contained in a -small phial, add in succession, small quantities of the peroxide of -mercury, (the common _red precipitate_ of the shops) in fine powder, -till it ceases to be dissolved on agitation. The weight of the red -precipitate taken up, being divided by four, gives a quotient -representing the quantity of real prussic acid present. By weighing out -before hand, on a piece of paper, or a watch glass, forty or fifty -grains of the peroxide, the residual weight of it shews at once the -quantity expended. The operation may always be completed in five -minutes, for the red precipitate dissolves as rapidly in the dilute -prussic acid, with the aid of slight agitation, as sugar dissolves in -water. ADULTERATIONS. If, says Dr. Ure, the presence of muriatic acid be -suspected, then the specific gravity of the liquid compared with the -gravity of the peroxide dissolved, will shew how far the suspicion is -well founded; thus if 100 grains of acid, specific gravity 0·996, -dissolve more than 12 grains of the red precipitate, we may be sure that -the liquid has been contaminated with muriatic acid. _Nitrate of -Silver_, in common cases, so valuable a reagent for muriatic acid, is -unfortunately of little use here, for it gives with prussic acid, a -flocculent white precipitate, soluble in water of ammonia, and insoluble -in nitric acid, which may easily be mistaken by common observers, for -the _chloride_ of that metal. But the difference in the volatility of -prussiate and muriate of ammonia may be had recourse to with advantage; -the former exhaling at a very gentle heat, the latter requiring a -subliming temperature of about 300° _Fah._ After adding ammonia in -slight excess to the prussic acid, if we evaporate to dryness at a heat -of 212°, we may infer from the residuary sal ammoniac, the quantity of -muriatic acid present. - -ANTIDOTES. To counteract the poisonous effect of prussic acid, Orfila -recommends, after full vomiting has been excited, the exhibition of -three or four spoonsful of oil of turpentine, in the infusion of coffee, -at intervals of half an hour. M. Virey conceives that sulphate of iron -in solution is the best antidote, he having observed that the salt -restored a cow that was nearly killed by the essential oil of bitter -almonds. When an overdose has been taken, hot brandy and water, and the -ammoniated tincture of iron are recommended by Mr. Thomson; on the -former I should rely with much greater confidence than upon the latter -antidote, or, in other words, it is from vital agents, counteracting its -sedative influence, rather than from chemical substances, changing its -composition, that we can expect any benefit upon such an occasion. For -the chemical processes by which the presence of this acid may be -ascertained, the reader may consult my work on Medical Jurisprudence, -vol. 2, p. 408. - - - ACIDUM MURIATICUM. L.E.D. - - _Muriatic Acid._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a liquid of the specific gravity 1·16, a fluid-ounce -of which weighs about 527 grains, and according to Dr. Powell ought, -when diluted, to dissolve 220 grains of limestone. _Odour_, strong and -pungent; if exposed to the air it emits white fumes. _Taste_, intensely -sour and caustic; it is however the weakest of the three mineral acids; -and no remarkable elevation of temperature is produced by dilution. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The liquid acid is a solution of muriatic acid gas -in water; when of the specific gravity 1·16, according to Davy, it -contains 32·32 per cent of the gas, which recent experiments have shewn -to be a compound of _Chlorine_ (_Oxy-muriatic acid)_ and hydrogen in -equal volumes. It has therefore received a name expressive of its -composition, and is called _Hydro-chloric[348] acid_. We accordingly -find that the former element is disengaged from muriatic acid by adding -any substance capable of uniting with its hydrogen. For the purpose of -obtaining _Chlorine_, we may take three parts of common salt, one of -black oxide of manganese, and rather less than three of strong sulphuric -acid.[349] Accounts have been received from Spain, that in the midst of -the dreadful contagion which reigned in that country, the inhabitants -always escaped in those houses where fumigations of chlorine had been -used. In our own country, the Penitentiary has lately undergone -fumigation by this gas, under the superintendance of Mr. Faraday.[350] -Muriatic acid gas has also been strongly recommended for the same -purpose; it may be easily evolved by pouring sulphuric acid on common -salt. If nitric and muriatic acids be mixed, a mutual decomposition -takes place, of which water, chlorine, and nitrous acid are the results; -this constitutes “nitro-muriatic acid,” the _Aqua regia_ of the older -chemists. A bath acidulated with an acid of this kind has been -recommended by Dr. Scott, as a powerful remedy for diseases of the liver -in particular, and as a substitute for mercury in general. On the -possible influence of this bath, I would beg to make one -observation,—that the extensive application of a dilute acid to the -surface of the body, is, under certain circumstances, capable of -affecting the bowels. I have witnessed such an effect from sponging with -vinegar and water. In this way the acidulated bath may occasionally -produce benefit, but it is extremely difficult to conceive how it can be -indebted for its utility to any other mode of operation. (See _Journal -of Science and the Arts_, No. 2.) FORMS OF EXHIBITION. Muriatic acid -should be administered in some bland fluid, as barley water, gruel, &c. -(_Formula 145._) I have uniformly exhibited it with success in the most -malignant cases of typhus and scarlatina, during several years extensive -practice in the Westminster Hospital. See _page 157_. We should be -careful not to apportion its dose in a leaden or pewter spoon. The -antiseptic properties of this acid have been long known; Sir Wm. Fordyce -relates that a “dry-salter” acquired a large fortune from possessing a -secret that had enabled him to send out provisions to India in a better -state of preservation than any others of the trade; his secret consisted -in adding a small quantity of muriatic acid to the contents of each -cask. After a copious evacuation of the bowels, it is in my experience -the most efficacious remedy for preventing the generation of worms; for -which purpose the infusion of quassia, stronger than that of the -Pharmacopœia, is the best vehicle. DOSE, ♏︎v-xx, frequently repeated. It -may be here observed that where the permanent influence of an acid is -required, a mineral one should be always preferred, as such bodies -appear to be beyond the control of the digestive process,[351] and are -incapable of being decomposed by it; see _Form. 158_, whereas on the -contrary it seems probable that the organs of assimilation have command -over those of a vegetable nature, and generally decompose them. Dr. -Marcet has very judiciously noticed this fact in his luminous work on -the treatment of calculi, and I have ventured to offer some farther -observations upon this subject, which may be of practical value, under -the consideration of _Lithonthryptics_, page 123. ADULTERATIONS. -_Sulphuric acid_ is detected by diluting the acid with six parts of -distilled water, and adding a few drops of the muriate of baryta, which -occasions a white precipitate if any be present. _Iron_, by saturating a -diluted portion with pure carbonate of soda, and adding prussiate of -potass, which will indicate its presence by a blue precipitate; or by a -solution of ammonia, which, when added slightly in excess, throws down -the peroxide of iron of a reddish yellow colour. _Copper_, by the -production of a blue colour when supersaturated with ammonia. The yellow -tinge of the acid usually met with in commerce, may depend either upon -the presence of iron, vegetable extractive, or a small portion of -chlorine. This latter body may be recognised by the odour, or by its -power of dissolving gold leaf. - - - ACIDUM NITRICUM. L.E.D. _Nitric Acid._ - - Aqua Fortis. - -QUALITIES. A limpid liquid of the specific gravity 1·500, a fluid-ounce -of which is equal to about 11 drachms, 1 scruple by weight, and ought to -decompose of pure limestone an ounce; it emits white fumes of a -suffocating odour. _Taste_, extremely acid; it is highly corrosive, and -tinges the skin indelibly yellow; an effect which is considerably -heightened by the subsequent application of an alkali, so that these -agents afford the means of detecting minute portions of animal matter, -and were ingeniously employed for such an object by Mr. Hatchett. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. When of the specific gravity 1·500, it contains -74·895 per cent. of dry acid; (whose ultimate elements are one portion -of nitrogen and five of oxygen) the compliment 25·105 parts is water. It -is decomposed with violent action by all combustibles, and when mixed -with volatile oils, it causes their inflammation. It boils at 210°, and -when its specific gravity is below 1·4, it is strengthened, when -stronger than 1·45 it is weakened by ebullition. USES. It is principally -employed as a pharmaceutical agent; _viz._ for the preparation of -_Argenti Nitras_; _Liquor Ferri Alkalini_; _Hydrargyri Nitri-co-oxydum_; -_Spiritus Etheris Nitrici_; and _Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis_. As an -escharotic it has been frequently employed for the destruction of -tumours, and is certainly of value where an immediate destruction of -diseased parts is required. The method of using the strong nitric acid -in such cases is to smear all the sound parts in the immediate vicinity -of the ulcer with _Ung: Resin: Nig:_ and then to apply pledgets of lint -firmly upon the ulcer for a few seconds, by which the whole surface will -be deadened, and a deep slough remain, underneath which healthy -suppuration and granulations will ensue.[352] ADULTERATIONS. _Sulphuric -acid_ may be detected by a precipitate being produced on the addition of -nitrate of baryta; in the application however of this test, Mr. Hume has -shewn that unless this as well as the nitric acid be diluted, a -precipitate will occur, although sulphuric acid should not be present; a -circumstance which depends upon the barytic salt yielding its water of -solution to the acid under examination, and becoming insoluble. -_Muriatic acid_ is discovered by nitrate of silver, affording a -precipitate at first white, but becoming coloured by exposure to light; -the nitric acid ought to be perfectly colourless, but to preserve it in -such a state it must be closely stopped, and kept in a dark place, or it -will soon be converted into nitrous acid. - - - ACIDUM NITRICUM DILUTUM. L. - - Acidum Nitrosum Dilutum. E.D. - - _Dilute Nitric Acid._ - -It is much to be regretted that the proportion of water directed for the -dilution of the acid, varies considerably in the different -pharmacopœias; that prepared according to the Edinburgh and Dublin -formulæ, being in strength to that of the present Pharmacopœia of -London, as 4 to 1: _specific gravity_, 1·080; each fluid-drachm contains -nearly 8½ grains of the concentrated acid, and saturates 18 grains of -crystallized sub-carbonate of soda. DOSE ♏︎x to xl. The acid is a very -powerful anti-phlogistic remedy; it has been much extolled in diseases -of the liver, and in syphilis. Mr. Pearson however observes that we -ought not to rely upon it in any form of lues venerea, although it may -be often serviceable in restraining the progress of the disease when an -impaired constitution or other circumstances render the exhibition of -mercury improper; when sufficiently dilute, it forms an excellent lotion -for old indolent ulcers. It proves also expectorant, see _Form. 139, -140_; and it is occasionally used with success for the purpose of -counteracting the consecutive effects of opium. See _Form. 16_. - - - ACIDUM NITROSUM. E.D. _Nitrous Acid._ - -QUALITIES. A liquid emitting fumes of a flame-red colour, and of a very -pungent and remarkable odour. The acid is either blue, green, -straw-coloured, clear orange yellow, according to the proportion of -nitrous acid gas[353] with which it is charged. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. -This acid is improperly denominated _Nitrous_, for it is nitric acid, -holding nitrous acid gas loosely combined; by dilution this last -constituent is disengaged, and the acid, after passing through a -succession of different colours, becomes pure nitric acid; the -application of a gentle heat effects the same changes. - - - ACIDUM SULPHURICUM. L.E.D. Sulphuric Acid. - - _Oil of Vitriol, Vitriolic Acid._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a thick liquid of an oily consistence, specific -gravity 1·85; a fluid-ounce weighs a fraction of a grain more than -fourteen drachms. _Colour_, none, but it acquires a brown tinge from the -smallest portion of carbonaceous matter; mere exposure to the air is -sufficient for this purpose, in consequence of the acid disorganizing -and carbonating the vegetable and animal matter suspended in the -atmosphere; it is therefore evident that bottles in which it is -preserved ought not to have stoppers of cork, but those of glass. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Like the other mineral acids, it has never been -obtained in an insulated state without water; according to Davy, the -composition of the strongest acid may be thus expressed: sulphur 30, -oxygen 45, water 17. It has a very powerful affinity for water, and -produces when mixed with it a very considerable heat; exposed to the -atmosphere it imbibes at least seven times its own weight of water, and -so rapidly as to double its weight in a month; when of the specific -gravity 1·85, it rises in vapour at about 550°, and distils unaltered, -whereas weaker acids lose water by being boiled, and are brought to that -degree of concentration; when diluted with 12 or 13 per cent. of water, -an acid results of the specific gravity 1·780, and in this state of -dilution it boils at 435°, and freezes sooner than water; a knowledge of -this curious fact suggests to the prudent chemist an important -precaution; Mr. Parkes, in his Chemical Essays, vol. ii. relates the -occurrence of a terrible accident which happened in consequence of this -circumstance not having been attended to.—“Carboy after carboy burst by -the expansion of the acid in the act of freezing, and had not the packed -carboys that remained been immediately immersed in tepid water, not a -single one would have escaped the general wreck.” - -ADULTERATIONS. The ordinary acid of the shops contains in general 3 or 4 -per cent. of saline matter, which consists of about two-thirds of -sulphate of potass, and one-third of sulphate of lead. Dr. Ure observes, -that even more is occasionally found, in consequence of the employment -of nitre to remove the brown colour given to the acid by carbonaceous -matter; the amount of adulteration, he observes, may be readily -determined by evaporating a definite weight of the acid in a small -capsule of platinum; these impurities however in a medical point of view -are immaterial, since they are at once separated by dilution, but in a -commercial sense they deserve attention, as their presence considerably -increases the specific gravity of the acid. Dr. Ure is of opinion that -genuine commercial acid should never exceed 1·8485, and that any density -beyond this is the effect of saline combination. _Journal of Science and -the Arts, No. 7._ - - - ACIDUM SULPHURICUM DILUTUM. L.E.D. - - Dilute Sulphuric Acid. - -By the dilution of this acid two objects are accomplished,—it is -purified, and its dose is more easily apportioned; but it is a -circumstance of regret that the strength of this preparation should so -materially vary in the different Pharmacopœias. - -After the acid is diluted, the sediment ought to be carefully removed, -and the water employed for the purpose should be distilled, for although -it be in its purest natural state, it will nevertheless contain -impregnations capable of affecting the acid. USES. In addition to the -antiseptic and refrigerant virtues which it possesses in common with the -other mineral acids, it has astringent properties that render it a most -valuable medicine, especially in weakness and relaxation of the -digestive organs, in colliquative sweats, in internal hæmorrhagy; in -Epistaxis and Hemopthysis it was Sydenham’s favourite remedy; on the -same account, when sufficiently dilute, it has been successfully used as -a collyrium in the atonic stages of ophthalmia, and as an injection in -protracted gonorrhæa. Dose, ♏︎x to xl, the quantity of strong sulphuric -acid in any given quantity of the dilute may be found by the Dynameter. -To prevent it from injuring the enamel of the teeth it may be sucked -through a quill, and the mouth should be carefully washed after each -dose. The _Infusum Rosæ_ furnishes an elegant vehicle for its -administration. _See Form. 40_. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Acidum -Sulphuricum Aromaticum._[354] E. _Infusum Rosæ._ L. - - - ACIDUM TARTARICUM. L. - - _Tartaric Acid._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, Crystals of considerable size, whose primary form is -an oblique rhombic prism; they do not deliquesce when exposed to the -air, but melt at a heat a little exceeding 212°. _Taste_, very acid and -agreeable. SOLUBILITY. Water at 60° dissolves about one-fifth of its -weight, and when boiling, a much greater proportion. The solution, -which, if saturated, has the specific gravity 1·230, acquires, when -diluted, like that of most vegetable acids, a mouldy pellicle by -keeping. The saturating power of crystallized tartaric acid is almost -exactly equal to that of crystallized citric acid, the atomic weight of -the former being 76, and that of the latter 75. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. -When uncombined with water, as it exists in tartrate of potass, it is -composed of 5 atoms of oxygen, 3 atoms of hydrogen, and 4 atoms of -carbon. The crystals consist of 1 atom of acid and 1 of water. -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. Alkalies, Earths, and their carbonates; the -salts of lime and lead. The solutions of the salts of potass are -converted by it into bi-tartrate, or super-tartrate. MEDICINAL USES. It -is introduced into the Pharmacopœia as a cheap and efficient substitute -for the citric acid. It is also used in the preparation of _Sodaic -powders_, _Seidlitz powders_, &c. ADULTERATIONS. When carelessly -prepared it will contain sulphuric acid, to detect which, let a portion -be dissolved in distilled water, and a solution of acetate of lead be -added. A precipitate will appear which, if the acid be pure, will be -entirely redissolved by a few drops of acetic acid, or pure nitric acid. -If any portion remain undissolved, sulphuric acid is the cause. Muriate -of Baryta also, when sulphuric acid is present, but not otherwise, gives -a precipitate insoluble by an excess of muriatic acid. - - - ACONITI FOLIA. L.E.D. (_Aconitum Napellus._[355]) _Aconite._ - - _Woolfsbane, Monkshood._ - -QUALITIES. _Taste_, moderately bitter, and acrid, leaving in the mouth a -painful sensation of heat and roughness, followed by numbness in the -gums and lips which continues for two or three hours. _Odour_, faint and -narcotic; their peculiar properties are considerably deteriorated by -drying. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. M. Brandes has ascertained that the -narcotic principle of this plant is a peculiar alkali, to which he has -given the name _Aconita_.[356] SOLUBILITY, water and alcohol only -imperfectly extract their virtues. MEDICINAL USES. It is narcotic, and -occasions, in over-doses, nausea, vomiting, vertigo, hyper-catharsis, -cold sweats, convulsions, and death; effects which entirely depend upon -its action on the brain. It was first administered in 1702, by Stöerk, -of Vienna, in chronic rheumatism, gout, schirrus, and paralysis; more -lately it has been employed in scrofula, cancer, and intermittents, and -it is said with much effect. On account of the variable strength of the -leaves they can hardly be given with safety and effect; the extract -(_which see_,) presents the more eligible form of exhibition. The leaves -are, however, sometimes given in the form of powder, generally combined -with some mercurial alterative, or with antimonials, camphor, and other -diaphoretics. DOSE gr. i-x. OFFICINAL PREP: _Extractum Aconiti._ L.E. - - - ADEPS PRÆPARATA. L. ADEPS SUI SCROFÆ, _vulgo_ Axungia Porcina. E. ADEPS - SUILLUS PRÆPARATUS. D. - - _Prepared Hog’s Lard. Fat. Axunge._[357] - -QUALITIES. _Consistence_, soft or nearly semifluid. _Odour and Taste_, -none; at 97° it melts. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It consists of two distinct -bodies which appear to exist together in a state of mechanical mixture, -viz. _Stearin_, (from στεαρ tallow) which is white, brittle, and in -appearance somewhat resembling wax; and _Elain_ (from ελαὶον, oil) very -similar to vegetable oil in appearance, and is liquid at 59°. According -to the experiments of Braconnot, the proportion of _Elain_ is to that of -_Stearin_, in hog’s lard, as 62:38. SOLUBILITY. It is insoluble in water -and alcohol; with the alkalies it unites and forms soaps. INCOMPATIBLE -SUBSTANCES. _Extracts_, _Spirituous Preparations_, _Tinctures_, and -_Infusions_, are incapable of uniting perfectly with lard, without some -intermedium; the following substances on the contrary are capable of -contracting with it a most intimate union. 1. _All dry powders_, whether -of a vegetable or mineral nature. 2. _Fixed and Volatile Oils._ 3. -_Balsams._ 4. _Camphor._ 5. _Soaps._ It is principally employed in the -formation of ointments, plasters, and liniments. - -ÆRUGO. L. D. (Sub-acetas Cupri _Impura._) SUB-ACETIS CUPRI. E. - -_Verdigris._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a dry mass composed of minute crystals, not -deliquescent; _Colour_, bluish green. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Several -constituents enter into its composition, viz. Acetate and sub-acetate of -copper, carbonate of copper, and copper partly metallic and partly -oxidized; it contains also the stalks of grapes and other extraneous -substances. SOLUBILITY. Boiling water dissolves it in part, and produces -in it a chemical change, by transforming one portion of the -_sub_-acetate into the soluble acetate, and another into an oxyd of -copper, which is precipitated; with cold water this substance demeans -itself differently, the acetate is dissolved by it, whilst that portion -which is in the state of _sub_-salt remains suspended in the form of a -fine green powder. Vinegar converts all the _Ærugo_ into a soluble -acetate, this liquid therefore ought never to be employed for favouring -vomiting in cases where an overdose has been swallowed, for the reasons -stated in the first part of this work, p. 136. Sulphuric acid poured on -powdered _verdigris_ decomposes it with effervescence, and vapours of -acetic acid are disengaged. It appears from the experiments and -observations of Duval and Orfila, that sugar exercises a chemical action -on it, by which its solubility is diminished, and that on this account -it acts as a specific against its poisonous effects. USES. It is so -uncertain and violent in its operation that it is rarely employed, -except externally,[358] when it acts as a powerful detergent, and mild -escharotic; and in the form of ointment, is a valuable application for -many cutaneous affections, especially the aggravated kinds of Tetter. -OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Ærugo Præparata_, D. _Linimentum Æruginis._ L. -D. ADULTERATIONS. There is a spurious article sold under the name of -_English Verdigris_, which consists of sulphate of copper, triturated -with acetate of lead; and to make the fraud still more complete, the -soft mass is mixed with the stalks of Raisins. - - - ÆTHER SULPHURICUS RECTIFICATUS. L. - - _Rectified Sulphuric Æther._ - -QUALITIES. A colourless liquid of specific gravity 739°. _Odour_, -pungent and fragrant; it is highly volatile, and when perfectly free -from alcohol it boils at 98°; it is extremely inflammable, a -circumstance which should be remembered when it is poured from one -vessel to another by candle light. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. When pure it -consists of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon; the rectified æther however -still contains some water and alcohol, for Lovitz obtained an æther of -632. SOLUBILITY. One part requires for its solution ten of water; with -alcohol and ammonia it unites in every proportion. SOLVENT POWERS. It is -one of the most powerful solvents known in vegetable chemistry, as it -dissolves balsams, resins, gum-resins, wax, camphor, extractive, &c.; it -takes up about a twentieth of its weight of sulphur, but it exerts no -solvent power upon the fixed alkalies. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In any -liquid vehicle, if in decoctions or infusions, they should be previously -cooled. _See Formulæ 20, 22, 23_. MEDICAL USES. It is highly valuable as -a diffusible stimulant, narcotic, and antispasmodic. DOSE, fʒss to fʒij, -which, in order to produce the full effect of the remedy, must be -repeated at short intervals. Æther, independent of such virtues, has -another valuable property consequent upon its rapid evaporation, that of -producing cold and dryness; it is therefore, when externally applied and -allowed to evaporate, a most powerful refrigerant, and has proved -valuable in scalds or burns, in facilitating the reduction of -strangulated hernia, and in diminishing excessive circulation in the -brain; if however it be so confined, that its rapid evaporation is -prevented, a very opposite effect is produced, and it proves stimulant, -rubefacient, and even vesicatory. With regard to the other property -incidental to it, that of producing dryness, I am not aware that it has -hitherto been applied to any pharmaceutical purpose; the fact may be -satisfactorily shewn by a very simple experiment,—by rincing a phial -with æther, to the interior of which drops of water obstinately adhere, -when by exposing it to a current of air, it will be completely dry in a -few minutes. It may be noticed in this place that a mixture of sulphuric -and muriatic æthers evaporates instantaneously, and produces a degree of -cold considerably below 0 of Fahrenheit. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. -_Spiritus Æther: Sulph:_ L. _Spir: Æth: Sulph: comp:_ L. _Spir: Æth: -Aromat:_ L. ADULTERATIONS and IMPURITIES. Its specific gravity affords -the best indication of its purity; _Sulphuric Acid_ may be detected by a -precipitation on the addition of a solution of baryta, and by its -reddening the colour of litmus; _Alcohol_, by its forming with -phosphorus a milky instead of a limpid solution. M. Gay Lussac has -observed that when kept for a considerable time without disturbance, it -undergoes spontaneous decomposition, and that acetic acid, perhaps some -alcohol, and a particular oil, are produced from it. - - - ALCOHOL.[359] L.D. _Alcohol. Ardent Spirit._ - -QUALITIES. A transparent, and colourless liquid of the specific gravity -·815; it has not hitherto been rendered solid by any diminution of -temperature; it boils at 176°, and if water be added, its boiling point -is proportionably raised; hence, says Dr. Henry, the temperature at -which it boils is not a bad test of its strength; it is combustible, and -burns with a blue flame, leaving no residue. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. -Alcohol, in a state of complete purity, consists of carbon, hydrogen, -and oxygen, in proportions not hitherto determined with accuracy; this -preparation however contains 7 per cent. of water; Lovitz and Saussure -succeeded in obtaining it at a specific gravity of ·791, which may be -considered as nearly pure. Alcohol unites chemically with water; and -caloric is evolved during this union; the quantity of alcohol and water -in mixtures of different specific gravities, may be learned from Mr. -Gilpin’s tables, _Philosophical Transactions_, 1794, or _Nicholson’s -Journal_, _4to. vol._ 1. The Edinburgh Pharmacopœia has no process for -the preparation of alcohol, but it most incorrectly assigns the title to -that which is the “Rectified Spirit” of the other Colleges. SOLVENT -POWERS. Alcohol dissolves soap; vegetable extract; sugar; oxalic, -camphoric, tartaric, gallic, and benzoic acids; volatile oils; resins, -and balsams; it combines also with sulphur, and the pure fixed alkalies, -but not with their carbonates: for its other habitudes, and -applications, see _Spiritus Rectificatus_. - - - ALLII RADIX. L.E.D. Allium Sativum. - - _Garlic._[360] - -QUALITIES. This bulbous root has when recent a fœtid smell, and acrid -taste, which are extracted by watery infusion; by decoction they are -nearly lost; by expression, the root furnishes almost one-fourth of its -weight of a limpid juice, and by distillation, an odorous, acrid, -essential oil is procured, in which the existence of sulphur may be -detected. Garlic has a considerable analogy to squill and onion, and -like them, exerts a diuretic, diaphoretic, expectorant, and stimulant -operation; (see p. 103). It is a very common domestic remedy for the -expulsion of tænia, and it is undoubtedly of advantage in such cases; it -is usually administered in the form of a decoction, with milk, on an -empty stomach; it is however but rarely used in modern practice, as it -possesses no superiority over remedies less nauseous and objectionable; -the bruised root, externally applied, is highly stimulant, and -rubefacient. Sydenham speaks highly of the application of garlic to the -soles of the feet, as a powerful means of producing revulsion from the -head. OFFICINAL PREPARATION. _Syrupus Allii._ D.[361] - - - ALOES EXTRACTUM. _Aloes._ - -There are three species met with in the shops, viz. - - 1. ALÖE SPICATA, L. Socotorina, D. Socrotrine Aloes. - PERFOLIATA. E. Cape Aloes. - 2. ALÖE VULGARIS.[362] L. Hepatica, E. D. Common or Barbadoes Aloes. - 3. ALÖE CABALINA. Fetid, Cabaline, or Horse Employed only by Farriers. - Aloes. - -QUALITIES. The above varieties of aloe differ in their purity, and -likewise in their sensible qualities; the _Socotrine_ is the purest, it -is in small pieces of a reddish brown colour; the _Barbadoes_ is in -large masses, of a lighter colour, and having an odour much stronger and -less pleasant; the _Cabaline_ is still more impure and less powerful. -All the kinds are characterized by an intensely bitter taste, which, in -the _Socotrine_, is accompanied by an aromatic flavour. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. In this there appears to be some obscurity; M. Braconnot -(_Ann. Chim. tom. 68._) conceives it to be a substance, _sui generis_, -which he terms “_bitter resin_,” while others regard it as composed of -resin, gum, and extractive, the proportions of which are supposed to -vary in the different species, but that their peculiar virtues reside in -the extractive part. SOLUBILITY. It is to the slowness with which aloe -undergoes solution in the _primæ viæ_, that it is indebted for the -medicinal properties which distinguish this substance; by boiling water -it is dissolved, but on cooling a precipitation ensues, and by long -decoction it becomes quite inert; weak acids dissolve it more abundantly -than water, but proof spirit is the most perfect solvent: its solubility -is increased by the addition of alkaline salts and soaps, but by such a -combination it undergoes a material change in its medicinal properties; -the bitterness is diminished, its purgative effects impaired, and it -ceases to operate specifically upon the large intestines, a fact so far -valuable, as it enables us in certain cases to obviate its irritating -action upon the rectum. MEDICINAL USE. Aloe is a bitter stimulating -purgative, emptying the large intestines, without making the stools -thin; it likewise warms the habit, quickens the circulation, and -promotes the uterine and hemorrhoidal fluxes. DOSE, gr. v.–xv. No -greater effect is produced by a large dose than from one comparatively -moderate; its tendency, however, to irritate the rectum renders it, in -many cases, an objectionable remedy;[363] and its sympathetic action on -the uterus may occasionally produce mischief, in irritable habits, while -in other states it may, for reasons equally obvious, prove beneficial. -FORMS OF EXHIBITION. The form of pill should be preferred on account of -its extreme bitterness, as well as being, for the reasons above -mentioned, the one most likely to fulfil the intention of its -exhibition; for in addition to what has been stated in a preceding part -of this work, on the important influence of solubility, it may be here -observed that since the aloe does not undergo solution in the stomach, -it is admirably adapted for the basis of remedies intended to obviate -constitutional costiveness, for in our endeavours to supply the -deficiencies of nature by the resources of art, we should at least -attempt to imitate the modes of her operation; the natural stimulus of -the intestines, the bile, is poured into them below the stomach, and -whenever it regurgitates into that organ it produces disease; so it -happens with our cathartic medicines, and unless we so modify their -solubility that their operation cannot commence until after their -passage through the stomach, we shall find that we only increase the -evil we are endeavouring to obviate, and that, in addition to the torpor -of the intestinal canal, we shall induce the stomach to participate in -the disease, or excite a morbid fretfulness of that organ which will be -attended with the most distressing symptoms.[364] _See Formulæ_ 12, 13, -79, 80, 81. Aloes in combination with assafœtida furnishes an eligible -purgative in the dyspepsia of old persons; it is also well calculated to -obviate the costiveness so generally produced by Opium, (_Form:_ 11, 12, -13.) See also p. 162. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Pulv: Aloes comp:_ L. -_Pil: Alöes cum Myrrha._ L.E.D. Pil: _Aloes comp: Pil: Alöes cum -Assafœtida._ E. _Pil: Aloes cum Colocynthide._ E. _Pil: Cambogiæ comp:_ -(=B.M.=) L. _Pil: Rhei. comp:_ (=F=) E. _Pil. Scammon, cum Aloe._ D. -_Decoctum Aloes comp:_ L. _Extractum Aloes purificatum._ L.D. _Extractum -Colocynthidis comp:_ L.D. (=F=) _Tinct: Alöes_ L.E.D. _Tinct: Alöes -comp:_ L.E.D. Tinct: Alöes Ætherea, E. _Tinct: Benzoin: comp:_ (=G=) -L.E.D. _Tinct: Rhei et Aloes_ E. _Vinum Alöes._ L.E.D. ADULTERATIONS. It -is frequently adulterated with common resin, but the fraud more -generally committed is that of mixing with, or substituting the inferior -species for the Socotrine, but the _Barbadoes Aloes_ may, independent of -its want of aromatic flavour, be distinguished from the Socotrine by a -simple test, for the latter dissolves entirely in boiling water and -alcohol, whereas the former, when treated in a similar manner, leaves a -considerable residue; sometimes the _Horse Aloes_ is made to appear so -bright and pure, as not to be easily distinguished by the eye even from -the _Socotrine_, but its rank odour, of which no art can divest it, will -readily betray the fraud. - - - ALUMEN. (_Super-sulphas Aluminæ et Potassæ._) Sulphas Aluminæ. E. - - Alumen. D. _Alum._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, octohedral crystals, whose sides are equilateral -triangles; they are slightly efflorescent. _Taste_, sweet, rough, and -acidulous. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is a triple, or sometimes a -quadruple salt, with excess of acid, consisting of sulphuric acid and -alumina, with potass, or ammonia, or frequently both of them; the nature -of the alkali however does not in the least appear to affect the -properties of alum, although it produces a crystallographic -modification; for where potass is present the summit of the crystal will -exhibit a truncation. Dr. Ure has lately produced alum with soda, and -the combination differs from common alum only in its greater degree of -solubility, a property which at once recommends it to the attention of -the pharmaceutist and physician. SOLUBILITY. A fluid-ounce of cold water -dissolves 30 grains, but if boiling four drachms; it is insoluble in -alcohol. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Alkalies_ and _alkaline salts_, after -neutralizing the excess of acid, precipitate the alumine. It is also -decomposed by _carbonate_ and _muriate of ammonia_, _carbonate of -magnesia_, and _tartrate of potass_, by _lime-water_, _acetate of lead_, -and _the salts of mercury_, as well as by many vegetable and animal -substances, especially _galls_ and _kino_. It is on this account very -injudicious to combine alum with any vegetable astringent with a view to -encrease its virtues; thus the “_Pulvis Sulphatis Aluminæ compositus_” -of the Edinburgh college, is less powerful than any of the ingredients -of which it is composed; and the addition of alum to the decoction of -bark, undoubtedly diminishes its efficacy as an astringent injection. -MEDICINAL USES. Alum is internally a powerful astringent, in hæmorrhages -and inordinate fluxes, and is externally useful for repellent and -astringent lotions, gargles, and collyria. Dioscorides and Hippocrates -praised its effects as a lotion in various kinds of ulcers, and -particularly in sores of the mouth, and in spongy, swelled gums. -Van-Helmont was the first person who employed alum in uterine -hemorrhage, and the success of the practice very considerably enhanced -his reputation. _Boerhaave’s_ astringent powder for the ague consisted -of _Alum_ and _Nutmeg_ with the addition of _Armenian bole_. DOSE, gr. -x. In large doses it is liable to excite nausea, and to act upon the -bowels. Nutmeg or some aromatic should therefore be joined with it. -FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In solution, or in substance made into pills with -extract; (_Form: 53, 56_,) it is sometimes given with advantage in the -form of whey (_Alum-whey—Serum Aluminosum_) made by boiling ʒij with a -pint of milk, and then straining, the dose of which is a wine glass -full; (_Form; 54._) By briskly agitating a drachm of alum with the white -of an egg, a coagulum is formed, (_Alum curd of Riverius_; _Albumen. -Aluminosum_) which is serviceable in some species of ophthalmia, when -applied between two pieces of thin linen rag.[365] As alum is not -decomposed by sulphate of lime, hard water may be safely used for its -solution. It has the effect of retarding, and in some instances of -preventing, the acetous fermentation in vegetables; thus when added to -common _paste_ it prevents its becoming sour; animal substances, as -_glue_, are preserved by it in a similar manner. It has also the -property of clearing turbid water, wine, and spirituous liquors, for -which purpose it is extensively employed. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. -_Liquor Alum: co._ L. _Pulv: Alum: co._ E. - -ALUMEN EXSICCATUM, L. Ustum. D. _Dried Alum._ By the action of heat alum -undergoes watery fusion, yields its water of crystallization, and loses -more than one third of its weight; if the heat be too intense, or long -continued, it is deprived of a great part of its acid. It has been -recommended in doses of a scruple, in cholic, when it has been said to -operate gently upon the bowels, and to relieve the pain: I have myself -experienced this good effect when the cholic has been produced by the -action of lead: Dr. Grashuis, a Dutch Physician, first recommended its -use in Cholica Pictonum. The preparation however is principally used as -an external application, having a degree of escharotic power, which -renders it serviceable in venereal chancres, as well as in other ulcers -having weak and spongy granulations; it is also very frequently employed -to destroy fungous excrescencies, but it should be remembered that, as -it owes such power to an excess of acid, unless it be carefully -prepared, it must be inefficient. It ought to redden syrup of violets. - -ALUMEN RUPEUM. _Roche_ or _Rock Alum_. This variety was originally -brought from Roccha, formerly called Edessa, in Syria, in fragments of -about the size of an almond, covered with an efflorescence of a pale -rose colour; that however which is now sold under this name is common -English alum, artificially coloured. It is unimportant. - -ALUMEN ROMANUM. _Roman Alum_ is in irregular octohedral masses, powdery -on the surface; it is the purest kind, and contains no ammonia in its -composition. - - - AMMONIACUM. L.E.D. (_Heracleum Gummiferum._) - - Ammoniac. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, masses composed of fragments, of tears, yellow on the -surface, and white within; _Taste_, a nauseous sweet, followed by a -bitter flavour; _Odour_, faint but not unpleasant. _Specific gravity_, -1·200. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Gum-resin, gluten, and some volatile -matter. SOLUBILITY. It is partly soluble in water, vinegar, alcohol, -æther, and in the solutions of the alkalies; when triturated with water -a milky liquor is formed, which is a solution of gum holding the resin -in suspension, and if the yolk of an egg be employed the mixture is more -permanent; water appears to be its proper solvent. USES. Stimulant, -antispasmodic, and expectorant: in large doses gently purgative and -sometimes diuretic; after the exhibition of smart purgatives, in -combination with rhubarb, it proves valuable in mesenteric affections by -correcting the viscid secretion of the intestines; dissolved in nitric -acid, it is said to prove an excellent expectorant in cases where large -accumulations of purulent or viscid matter exist with feeble and -difficult expectoration. See _Form: 140_. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In -solution, see _Mist: Ammoniac:_ it may also be given when dissolved in -the _Liquor ammoniæ acetatis_; ʒij of the former may be dissolved in -℥iij of the latter; or it may be exhibited in pills with bitter -extracts, myrrh, and other gum-resins; if rubbed with camphor a mass is -at once produced very suitable for pills; vinegar renders it soft, and -adapts it for plasters. DOSE, grs. x to xxx. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. -_Mist: Ammoniac:_ L.D. _Pil: Scillæ co:_ L.E. (=B=) _Emplast: Ammoniac:_ -L. _Emplast: Gummos:_ E. _Emplast: Ammoniac: cum Hydrargyro_. L. -ADULTERATIONS. Two varieties are met with in the market, that in tears, -_guttæ ammoniaci_, ought to be white, clear, and dry; and that in lumps, -_lapis ammoniaci_, which sells for one-third the price of the former, -being very impure, is generally adulterated with common resin, for which -it may be purified by softening the mass in a bladder which is immersed -in boiling water, and straining it while fluid. - - - AMMONIÆ SUB-CARBONAS. L. Carbonas Ammoniæ. E.D. - - _Sub-carbonate of Ammonia._ - -QUALITIES. _Form:_ white, semi-transparent masses, of a striated or -crystalline aspect, which, on exposure to air effloresce; _Odour_, -pungent and peculiar; _Taste_, acrid but cooling. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. -It will be found to vary materially in its composition according to the -temperature employed for its preparation; the quantity of alkali varying -from 20 to 50 per cent. Mr. Phillips considers the _Sub_-carbonate of -ammonia to be a _Sesque_-carbonate, composed of 3 atoms of carbonic -acid, 2 atoms of ammonia, and 2 of water; or that it is a definite -compound of _Carbonate_ and _Bi-carbonate_, one atom of each, with two -atoms of water; one hundred parts, by experiment, consist, of 54·2 -_carb: acid_, 29·3 _Ammonia_, and 16·5 _water_; if we consider it as a -_Sesque-carbonate_, its constitution, according to Dr. Wollaston’s -scale, will be 55·72 _Carbonic Acid_, 29 _Ammonia_, 15·28 _water_. -SOLUBILITY. According to Duncan it is soluble in twice its weight of -cold water; Mr. Phillips states four times; the mean of these will be -found nearly correct. Its solubility however is increased by increase of -temperature, but when dissolved in boiling water it effervesces, and -undergoes a partial decomposition; it is quite insoluble in alcohol, and -hence on the addition of spirit to a strong solution, a dense coagulum -is produced. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. It is decomposed by _acids_, -_fixed alkalies_, and their _sub-carbonates_, _lime_, _solution of -muriate of lime_, _magnesia_, _alum_, _super-tartrate of potass_, and -all the _acidulous salts_, _sulphate of magnesia_, _acetate_, -_sub-muriate_, and _oxy-muriate of mercury_, _acetate_, and _sub-acetate -of lead_, and the _sulphates of iron and zinc_. If it be added to -decoctions and infusions they must be previously cooled. FORMS OF -EXHIBITION. Since by exposure to air its virtues are impaired, it ought -not to be kept in powdered mixtures; in the form of pill it is preserved -much longer, especially if it be combined with some vegetable extract. -USES. It is stimulant, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, powerfully antacid, -exceeding in this respect the fixed alkalies, and in large doses it is -emetic. It is highly useful as a stimulant in those gastric affections -which supervene habits of irregularity and debauchery; combined with -opium it affords a powerful resource in protracted diarrhœa attended -with debility of the alimentary canal: and in cases of muscular atony so -frequently witnessed, as the _sequela_ of chronic rheumatism, ammonia, -in large doses, offers the best remedy; I have moreover witnessed the -beneficial effects of this remedy in hoarseness depending upon relaxed -states of the throat. In typhus fever it has been particularly -recommended by Huxham, Pringle, and many other physicians, and some have -considered it superior to any other stimulant upon such occasions. It is -also useful in syncope and hysteria, in the form of smelling salts;[366] -with respect to its application for making saline draughts, see _Acid: -Citricum:_ DOSE, grs v to ℈j: to produce emesis ʒss. See _Form. 48, 49, -83, 152_. _Officinal Preparations._ _Liquor Ammoniæ sub-carbonatis_, L. -_Liquor Ammoniæ acetatis_ (=I=) L.E.D. _Liniment: Ammoniæ -Sub-carbonatis._ L. _Cuprum Ammoniatum_, (=I=) L.E.D. ADULTERATIONS. -This salt ought to be entirely volatilized by heat; if any thing remain -it may be considered impure; it ought also to be free from all fetor; -should this not be the case it may be corrected by subliming it in -conjunction with powdered charcoal; there is at present a large quantity -of this impure article in the market, which has been manufactured from -the residue sold by the gas light companies.[367] When long exposed to -the air, it becomes opaque and friable, and the excess of ammonia, upon -which its odour depends, escapes, carbonic acid is absorbed, and an -inodorous bi-carbonate remains, consisting of carbonic acid 55·70, -Ammonia 21·52, and water 22·76, or 2 atoms of carbonic acid, 1 atom of -ammonia, and 2 atoms of water. - - - AMMONIÆ MURIAS. L.E. Sal Ammoniacum. D. - - vulgo _Sal Ammoniac_. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, dense striated concavo-convex cakes which are -persistent in the air, or crystallized conical masses; in this latter -form it generally contains other salts, especially muriate of lime, -which render it deliquescent. _Taste_, bitter, acrid, and cool. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. In consequence of the present unsettled opinions respecting -the nature of muriatic acid and ammonia, and the changes which they -undergo by combination with each other, the composition of this salt is -involved in some obscurity. According to Dr. Thomson, it consists of -equal volumes of muriatic acid gas and ammoniacal gas, although he has -subsequently observed that from the peculiar properties of the -substance, it may be a compound of _Chlorine_ and _Ammonium_ (the -hypothetical base of ammonia.) Unlike all the other ammoniacal salts, it -does not undergo decomposition by heat. SOLUBILITY, f℥j of water at 66° -dissolves about two drachms and a half; at 212° it dissolves its own -weight; it is also soluble in 4½ parts of alcohol; its solution in water -is accompanied by considerable reduction of temperature. INCOMPATIBLE -SUBSTANCES. The sulphuric and nitric acids unite with the ammonia, and -disengage the muriatic acid, whilst ammonia is disengaged by the action -of potass and its carbonate, carbonate of soda, lime, magnesia, &c. -which combine with its muriatic acid; with oxy-muriate of mercury it -combines and increases its solubility, see _Hydrarg: Oxy-murias_. When -united with acetate of lead, it decomposes it, and a muriate of lead is -precipitated. It is obvious also that nitrate of silver, and all the -metallic salts whose bases form insoluble compounds with muriatic acid, -are incompatible with it. USES. Rarely employed as an internal remedy, -externally it is employed in lotions, either for the cold produced -during its solution, in which case it should be applied as soon as the -salt is dissolved, or for the stimulus of the salt, on which principle -it acts as a powerful discutient in indolent tumours (_Form. 146._) It -is also an ingredient in a very useful plaster, in which it undergoes -chemical decomposition; this plaster consists of _Soap_ ℥j, _lead -plaster_, ʒij, liquified together, to which, when nearly cold, are added -of _muriate of ammonia_ finely powdered ʒss. The alkali of the soap -enters into combination with the muriatic acid of the muriate of -ammonia, and forms thereby muriate of potass, or soda, and ammoniacal -gas (on which the virtue of the plaster depends) is slowly but -abundantly liberated, acting as a powerful stimulant and rubefacient: it -should be applied immediately after it is formed, and be renewed every -twenty-four hours, otherwise the intention is lost; (_Pharmacopœia -Chirurgica._) I have often applied this plaster with evident advantage -to the chest in pulmonary affections, and I wish to recommend it to the -attention of practitioners. It is very useful also in that rheumatic -affection of the muscles of the chest, which is so frequently met with -in persons in advanced life; during the last winter I was consulted in -two cases where the distress after exercise was so considerable as to -resemble angina pectoris. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Ammoniæ Sub-carbonas_ -(=I=). L.E.D. _Liquor: Ammoniæ_ (=K=). L. _Aqua Ammoniæ._ E.D. _Hydrarg: -præcip: alb:_ (=I=). L. _Alcohol Ammoniatum_, (=I=). E.D. _Ferrum -Ammoniat:_ (=G=). L.E.D. ADULTERATIONS. This salt, if pure, may be -entirely volatilized by a low heat; the _sulphate of ammonia_ however, -as it is also volatile, cannot be discovered except by the muriate of -baryta, which will indicate its presence by a copious precipitate. - - - AMYGDALÆ DULCES. {Varieties of “Amygdalus Communis.” - AMYGDALÆ AMARÆ. {Sweet and Bitter Almonds. - -QUALITIES. The _sweet almond_ is inodorous, and has a sweet, bland -taste; the _bitter almond_,[368] when triturated with water, has the -odour of the peach, and a pleasant bitter flavour. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. -Boullay has lately confirmed the analogy which Proust had stated to -exist between the emulsion of sweet almonds and human milk, viz. the -former consists of sweet oil 54, albumen 24, sugar 6, gum 3, with traces -of acetic acid; the indigestible property of the almond depends upon its -albuminous matter. The _bitter almond_, in addition to those -constituents, contains hydro-cyanic acid, (Prussic acid,) in union with -a peculiar volatile oil, upon which its narcotic properties depend; but -this deleterious element is so modified by the natural state of -combination in which it exists with sweet oil and albumen, that they may -be eaten without inconvenience. The bitter almond has long been regarded -as an antidote to drunkenness; Plutarch states it as a fact on the -authority of his physician Claudius. Other bitters were however supposed -to possess similar powers in this respect, hence the _Poculum -Absinthiatum_ to which we have before alluded. See page 79. Both sorts -of almonds yield by expression a large quantity of fixed oil, which is -perfectly mild. See _Oleum Amygdal_. The water distilled from the bitter -almond, when strongly impregnated, has been found to exert a deleterious -action on the human body, and to prove fatal to many animals. -SOLUBILITY. By trituration with water a milky mixture is produced, (_an -emulsion_), for which purpose the sweet almonds should be previously -freed from their cuticle, (_blanched_), and this ought to be performed -by infusing them in tepid water; for when hot it separates a portion of -their oil, as is evident from their being thus rendered yellow, and the -emulsion is therefore more liable to ferment, and be decomposed. ℥ij of -almonds saturate about f℥vj of water; since however this extemporaneous -preparation is tedious and inconvenient, the London Pharmacopœia very -judiciously directs a confection to be ready prepared, ʒj of which, when -triturated with f℥j of water, immediately forms an elegant emulsion. See -_Mistura Amygdal_. Almonds form a useful intermedium for suspending in -water many substances which are of themselves not miscible with it, as -camphor, and several of the gum-resins; they also assist in the -pulverization of refractory substances, as Ipecacuan, &c. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Confectio Amygdalarum._ L. _Emulsio Camphoræ_ (=M.=) E. -_Emulsio Acaciæ Arab:_ E. D. - -AMYGDALÆ PLACENTA. _Almond Cake_ is the substance left after the -expression of the oil, which when ground forms ALMOND POWDER, so -generally used for washing the hands.[369] - -OIL OF BITTER ALMONDS. For obtaining this oil, the expressed cake is -submitted to distillation, when a highly volatile, pungent, oil passes -over. See _Oleum Amygdalæ Amaræ_. - - - AMYLUM. L.E.D. _Starch._ (Triticum Hybernum _Amylum._[370]) - -QUALITIES. _Form_, white columnar masses; _Odour_ and _Taste_, none. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Fecula is one of the proximate principles of -vegetable matter, and _Starch_ is the fecula of wheat.[371] SOLUBILITY. -It is soluble in boiling water, forming with it a semi-transparent, -insipid, inodorous, and gelatinous paste, very susceptible of -mouldiness, but which is retarded by the addition of alum; it is -insoluble, but falls to powder in cold water; nor is it dissolved by -alcohol or ether; although potass dissolves starch, yet the solution of -it is not disturbed by potass, carbonate of potass, nor ammonia, but an -alcoholic solution of potass produces a precipitate; acetate of lead, -and infusion of galls occasion also precipitates. Starch is susceptible -of several interesting and important changes; thus, if it be exposed to -heat until its colour becomes yellow, its properties are so far altered -that it is no longer insoluble in cold water; and according to the -experiments of Saussure, if it be mixed with water, a spontaneous -decomposition takes place, and a quantity of sugar is formed, amounting -in weight to one half of the starch employed, in addition to which a -peculiar gummy matter results, and a substance intermediate between gum -and starch, to which the name of _Amidine_ has been given. Starch -moreover is convertible into saccharine matter by the agency of -sulphuric acid. USES. Being demulcent it is generally employed as a -vehicle for the exhibition of opium in the form of enema. The ordinary -blue starch is coloured by a solution of smalt and alum, and is unfit -for medicinal use; formerly it was tinged yellow with saffron or -turmeric, but this went out of fashion on the execution of the famous -midwife Mrs. Collier, who was hanged in a ruff starched with that -colour. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Mucilago Amyli._ L.E.D. _Pulvis -Tragacanth: comp:_ (=B=) L. _Pil: Hydrargyri_ (=M=) E. _Troschisi -Gummos:_ E. - -It has been lately observed that _Iodine_ is a delicate test of the -presence of starch; if a drop or two of a solution of this substance in -alcohol be added to an aqueous solution of starch, a blue compound is -formed which eventually precipitates. Iodine may therefore be employed -for ascertaining the goodness of starch, a test which is very important, -for much of what is sold under the name of starch, does not possess its -peculiar characters; it ought however to be stated, that the blue -indication is prevented from taking place by a variety of different -bodies, as _Arsenious acid_, _corrosive sublimate of mercury_, &c. &c. - - - ANETHI SEMINA. L. E. - - (_Anethum Graveolens._ _Semina._) Dill Seed. - -These seeds when dry have an aromatic sweetish odour, and a warm pungent -taste, qualities residing in an essential oil, which is extracted by -distillation with water and by digestion with alcohol; the bruised seeds -yield their flavour to boiling water by simple infusion. The seeds are -but rarely used. The distilled water is a valuable carminative for -children. - - - ANISI SEMINA. L. E. D. - - (_Pimpinella Anisum._ _Semina._) Anise Seeds. - -Like the dill seeds, warm and carminative; water extracts very little of -their flavour; rectified spirit the whole. It may be remarked in this -place that the value of aniseed, as well as all those seeds which yield -essential oil by distillation, may be estimated by their specific -gravity, the heaviest yielding the largest proportion of oil; a -chrondrometer employed by corn-chandlers might be very conveniently -applied to such a purpose.[372] The seeds imported from Spain, which are -smaller than the others, contain most oil, and are to be preferred. - - - ANTHEMIDIS FLORES. L. E. - - (_Anthemis Nobilis._) _Chamomile Flowers._ - -QUALITIES. The _Odour_ of the flowers is strong and fragrant; _Taste_, -bitter and aromatic, with a slight degree of warmth. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. The active principles are essential oil, resin, and bitter -extractive. SOLUBILITY. Both water and alcohol take up the active parts -of the flowers; hot water, by infusion, dissolves nearly one-fourth of -their weight, but boiling dissipates the essential oil, on which account -they should never form an ingredient in a decoction. USES. The flowers -given in substance are said to have cured intermittents; they are -however but rarely used; externally they are applied in fomentations. -See _Infusum Anthemidis_. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Decoctum Anthemidis -nobilis._ E.D. _Infusum Anthemidis_. L.[373] There is a great variety in -the quality and price of chamomile flowers; those which are large and -whitish are to be preferred as the freshest; by keeping they become -invalid, and are deprived of their aromatic principle and essential oil. -They are always inferior in wet seasons. The double flowered varieties -are also less powerful than the single kind, since the qualities reside -in the disc florets. - - - ANTIMONII SULPHURETUM. L. - - _Sulphuret of Antimony._ - -QUALITIES. This article appears in the market in conical loaves, which -are dark grey externally, but internally possess a bladed structure and -considerable brilliancy; the Edinburgh and Dublin colleges direct this -substance to be levigated with water, and kept in the state of powder; -it should however never be purchased in that form, as it is not -unfrequently adulterated with sulphuret of lead, whereas it cannot -contain such admixture when its form is characteristically crystalline -and bladed. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Antimony 100, Sulphur 35·572. From the -time of Basil Valentine to the present, this preparation has been known -in the market by the name of _Antimony_, a name which it is evident can -only with propriety be applied to the pure metal. SOLUBILITY. It is -insoluble in water and alcohol; since however it is slightly acted upon -by vegetable acids, cups were formerly made of it, which imparted to -wine that stood in them for some time, an emetic quality.[374] USES. It -is principally employed for the preparation of the other antimonial -combinations, for which purpose it is more eligible than the metal -itself, as being less contaminated with metallic impurities. Its -medicinal energies depend altogether upon the state of the stomach, and -must therefore be extremely uncertain; when it meets with any acid in -the stomach, it acts with extreme violence, a circumstance which -requires precaution. It was formerly much more employed as an Alterative -than at present. Stoll recommends its use in chronic rheumatism, and -advises its union with Myrrh. In the treatment of affections of the skin -it has been long used, both singly, and in union with other substances, -such as _Conium_, _Dulcamara_, _Guaiacum_, &c. In Scrophulous diseases, -connected with cutaneous eruptions, or ulcerations, it has been a -favourite remedy with many practitioners, and it forms the basis of -several foreign _Nostrums_. In times of remote antiquity it was used by -females as a black pigment for staining the eye-lashes, a custom which -continues to this day in the east.[375] It is at present given to horses -mixed with their food, to make their coats smooth, and very large doses -may be given to these animals without producing any deleterious effects. -OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. Dr. Black constructed a table representing a -view of all the preparations whose basis was antimony; many of these -however have fallen into disuse, and the nomenclature of all is changed. -The following arrangement of the medicines prepared from the sulphuret -of antimony,[376] is presented to us by Mr. Thomson, in his London -Dispensatory. 1. BY TRITURATION, _Sulphuretum Antimonii Præparatum_. -E.D. 2. BY THE ACTION OF HEAT WITH PHOSPHATE OF LIME, (oxidized) _Pulvis -Antimonialis_, L.D. _Oxidum Antimonii cum Phosphate Calcis._ E. 3. BY -THE ACTION OF ALKALIES, (oxidized), _Antimonii Sulphuretum -Præcipitatum._ L.E. _Sulphur Antimoniatum Fuscum_. D. 4. BY THE ACTION -OF ACIDS, (oxidized,) _Antimonii Oxydum_. L. _Oxydum Antimonii -Nitromuriaticum_. D. _Antimonium Tartarizatum_. L. _Tartris Antimonii_, -_olim Tartarus Emeticus_. E. _Tartarum Antimoniatum_, sive _Emeticum_, -D. _Vinum Antimonii Tartarizati_. L. _Vinum Tartaritis Antimonii_. E. - -ADULTERATIONS. The importance of employing this article in a state of -great purity, for the preparation of so many active and valuable -medicines, is obvious. It ought to be entirely volatilized by a read -heat; _Lead_ is discovered by its imparting to the antimony a foliated -instead of a bladed texture, and from not being vaporizable; _Arsenic_, -by the garlic odour emitted when thrown upon live coals; or by the -numerous tests mentioned under the history of that article; _Manganese_ -and _Iron_, from not being vaporizable, and from other tests: the most -usual adulteration is black oxide of iron, or the scoriæ of that metal, -“_Smithy dust_.” - - - ANTIMONII SULPHURETUM PRÆCIPITATUM. L. E. - - Sulphur Antimoniatum Fuscum. D. - - _Precipitated Sulphuret of Antimony._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a brilliant orange coloured powder; _Taste_, slightly -styptic, but inodorous. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Very complicated -attractions are exerted during the preparation of this substance; the -result of which is an hydro-sulphuret of Oxide of Antimony, with excess -of sulphur. SOLUBILITY. It is quite insoluble in water. USES. According -to the dose, it is diaphoretic, cathartic, or emetic; it is, however, -less certain than many other preparations, and, unless in combination -with mercury, for cutaneous affections, is not very often employed. -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. All acids and acidulous salts increase its -emetic properties; when therefore acid is suspected to prevail in the -primæ viæ, it should be combined with soap, magnesia, (_Form: 128_,) or -aromatic confection; on the contrary, the confection of roses, and -vehicles containing acids, should be carefully avoided. FORM OF -EXHIBITION. Pills. DOSE, grs. 1 to v. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Pilulæ -Hydrargyri Sub-Muriatis_ (=H=) L. ADULTERATIONS. It is often -sophisticated with chalk and other extraneous matter; it ought not to -effervesce with acids; it should be entirely vaporizable by heat, and -its colour should be that of bright orange. A spurious article is -vended, which consists of sulphur and sulphuret of antimony coloured -with Venetian red. - - - ANTIMONIUM TARTARIZATUM. L. - - Tartris Antimonii. E. Tartarum Antimoniatum. D. - - _Tartar Emetic._[377] - -QUALITIES. _Form_, crystals whose primitive form is the regular -tetrahedron, although it assumes a variety of secondary forms. _Colour_, -white. _Odour_, none. _Taste_, slightly styptic and metallic; on -exposure to the air, the crystals slightly effloresce and become opaque; -thrown upon burning coals, they become black and afford metallic -antimony. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. This is involved in much doubt and -obscurity; it is stated in the various dispensatories to be a triple -salt, consisting of tartaric acid, oxide of antimony,[378] and potass, -and which therefore, says Mr. Thomson, on the principles of the reformed -nomenclature, ought to be termed a _tartrate of antimony and potass_. -The truth of these views, however, is extremely questionable. I am -inclined to believe with Gay Lussac, that in the various metalline -compounds, of which super-tartrate of potass is an ingredient, this -latter substance acts the part of a simple acid; an opinion which -receives much support from the great solvent property of cream of -tartar, and from the striking fact that it is even capable of dissolving -various oxides which are insoluble in tartaric acid, of which the -protoxide of antimony is an example. According then to this view, tartar -emetic is a salt composed of bi-tartrate (_super-tartrate_) of potass, -which acts the part of an acid, and protoxide of antimony: from the -experiments of Mr. Phillips, it would appear that 100 parts of the -bi-tartrate will dissolve 70 of the protoxide. In this state of doubt it -must be admitted that no name can be more appropriate than _Antimonium -Tartarizatum_, and the London College have therefore properly -disregarded the suggestions which have been offered for changing its -name. SOLUBILITY. Much discrepancy of opinion exists upon this subject, -owing probably to the variations and incidental impurities to which the -salt is liable. Dr. Duncan, who selected very pure specimens for -examination, states that it is soluble in three times its weight of -water at 212°, and in fifteen at 60°. This solution, when the salt is -pure, is perfectly clear and transparent, but if long kept, unless a -portion of spirit be added, it undergoes decomposition; a precipitate -indeed sometimes takes place very rapidly, but this is generally -tartrate of lime, an incidental impurity, derived from the -super-tartrate of potass. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Mineral Acids, -Alkalies, and their Carbonates, most of the Metals, Soaps, -Hydro-Sulphurets, and many infusions and decoctions of bitter and -astringent Vegetables_, e. g. f℥j. of the decoction of yellow bark is -capable of completely decomposing ℈j of this salt, and of rendering it -inert.[379] Berthollet has accordingly recommended the immediate -exhibition of this decoction when an overdose of the salt has been -taken; and Orfila has given a very satisfactory case in which this -antidote succeeded. Infusion and tincture of galls throw down curdled -and inert precipitates of a dirty white colour, inclining to yellow. -Rhubarb is equally incompatible: the extract of this substance therefore -never ought to be employed in forming pills of tartar emetic: but it -deserves notice that this salt is not decomposed by the infusions of -gentian or wormwood. The _Alkaline Sulphates_, provided they be -perfectly neutral, produce no disturbance in solutions of _tartar -emetic_, and therefore cannot be considered incompatible with them; if -there be any excess of acid, as in _alum_, _bi-sulphate of potass_, &c. -then its decomposition is effected, and a white insoluble sulphate of -antimony is precipitated. It appears therefore that the famous -“Emeto-purgative” of the French school, consisting of sulphate of soda, -and tartarized antimony in solution, is by no means the unchemical -mixture which some have considered it to be, and that it really produces -its effects from the operation of its original ingredients, and not from -that of the compounds (_Sulphate of Antimony, Tartrate of Soda, and -Sulphate of Potass_) which have been erroneously supposed to result. -FORMS OF EXHIBITION. Solution is its best form, see _Liquor Antimonii -Tartarizati_. DOSE. It either vomits, purges, or sweats, according to -the quantity exhibited; thus gr. 1/4 will, if the skin be kept warm, -promote a diaphoresis; gr. ½ will procure some stools first, and -sweating afterwards; and gr. j will generally vomit and then purge, and -lastly sweat the patient; in very minute doses, as gr. 1/10 or 1/12 -combined with squill and ammoniacum, it acts as an expectorant, see -_Formulæ 1, 2, 3, 8, 60_. It is decidedly the most manageable, and the -least uncertain of all the antimonial preparations, and the practitioner -would probably have but little to regret, were all the other -combinations of this metal discarded from our pharmacopœias. Some -authors have considered this substance as possessing sedative powers, -independent of its nauseating and diaphoretic effects. It undoubtedly -acts upon the heart, and controls the force of the circulation in -fevers, without occasioning any other sensible effect. Mr. Brodie, after -having given large doses of this salt to animals, found that the heart -beat very feebly, and although artificial respiration was kept up, it -soon ceased to act altogether. Lenthois of Montpellier advises small -doses of it in incipient phthisis, and it would on some occasions appear -to diminish the febrile excitement. The following is the form in which -Dr. Lenthois recommends it to be exhibited upon such occasions. He -directs a grain of Tartarized Antimony to be dissolved in eight table -spoonsful of distilled water, which are to be added to six or eight -pints of water, and to be taken as common drink. Tartar emetic, when -triturated with lard, in the proportion of ʒiss or ʒij to ℥j of the -latter, forms a very powerful rubefacient, occasioning a pustular -eruption on the skin, and proving very serviceable in deep-seated -inflammation; or the application may be made by dusting a piece of -adhesive plaster with tartarized antimony, taking care to leave a margin -untouched that it may more firmly adhere. Dr. Jenner, in a late Essay on -the influence of artificial eruptions on certain diseases, recommends -the following formula for such a purpose.—℞. _Antimonii Tartarizati_ -(_in pulverem subtilem trit._) ʒij—_Unguenti Cetacei_ ʒix;—_Sacchari -albi_[380] ʒj;—_Hydrargyri Sulphureti Rubri_ gr. v. M. ut fiat -Unguentum. The Pustules which are produced by the inunction have been -generally compared to variolous pustules, they are, however, in general -much smaller, not so red at the base, nor so tense and white when fully -suppurated. They are very painful. In Hooping cough, frictions with this -ointment upon the region of the stomach have been greatly extolled. By -this application, says Dr. Jenner, we can not only create vesicles, but -we can do more,—we have at our command an application which will at the -same time both vesicate and produce diseased action on the skin itself, -by deeply deranging its structure beneath the surface. This is probably -one cause why the sympathetic affection excited by the use of -Cantharides, and those changes produced by Tartar Emetic are very -different. The eruption should be kept up for some time, either by the -re-application of small portions of the diluted tartaremetic ointment, -to the affected part, or by other gently stimulating ointments. Should -they become much irritated and very painful, a soft bread and milk -poultice will in general afford relief, without interfering with the -progress of the eruption. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. gr. j. is contained in -f℥ss of _Liquor Antimonii Tart:_ L. and _Vinum Tartratis Antimonii_. -E.[381] ADULTERATIONS. It should be always purchased in its crystalline -form; and a solution of it in distilled water ought to furnish a copious -gold coloured precipitate with sulphuret of ammonia; a precipitate -soluble in nitric acid, with acetate of lead; and a white and extremely -thick precipitate, dissolving with facility in pure nitric acid, with -lime water. If the crystals deliquesce, the presence of other salts may -be inferred. _M. Sexullas_, in a memoir of which there is a copious -extract in the _Journal de Pharmacie_ for 1821, has shewn that all the -antimonial preparations used in medicine, except carefully crystallized -_Tartar Emetic_, contain more or less arsenic, which metal was -originally combined with the antimony in the ore, and has continued -pertinaciously associated with it through all its modifications. - - - AQUA. _Water._ - -Water, from its extensive powers as a solvent, never occurs in a state -of absolute purity, although the nature and degree of its contamination -must necessarily vary according to circumstances and situation. It is -generally found holding earthy matter in a state of mechanical -suspension, or saline and other bodies in chemical solution. The usual -varieties of common water are classed and defined by Celsus; and modern -chemists have not found any reason to reject the arrangement. “_Aqua -levissima pluvialis est; deinde fontana, tum ex flumine, tum ex puteo; -posthæc ex nive, aut glacie; gravior his ex lacu; gravissima ex -palude._” - -1. RAIN WATER. _Aqua Pluvialis_, when collected in the open fields, is -certainly the purest natural water, and consequently of the least -specific gravity; the bodies which it holds in solution are, carbonic -acid, a minute portion of carbonate of lime, with traces of muriate of -lime. DEW is said to be water saturated with air. Rain water ought, -however, to be boiled and strained whenever it is collected near large -towns; Hippocrates gives this advice, and M. Margraaf of Berlin has -shewn the wisdom of the precaution by a satisfactory series of -experiments. - -2. SPRING WATER. _Aqua Fontana_, in addition to the substances detected -in rain water, generally contains a small portion of muriate of soda, -and frequently other salts; but the larger springs are purer than -smaller ones, and those which occur in primitive countries, and in -siliceous rocks, or beds of gravel, necessarily contain the least -impregnation. An important practical distinction has been founded upon -the fact, that the water of some springs dissolves soap, whilst that of -others decomposes, and curdles it; the former has been termed _soft_, -the latter _hard_ water; soft water is a more powerful solvent of all -vegetable matters, and is consequently to be preferred for domestic as -well as medicinal purposes; the brewer knows well from experience how -much more readily and copiously _soft_ water will dissolve the -extractive matter of his malt. Horses by an instinctive sagacity always -prefer soft water, and when by necessity or inattention they are -confined to that which is _hard_, their coats become rough and -ill-conditioned, and they are frequently attacked with the gripes. -Pigeons also refuse hard water when they have been accustomed to that -which is soft.[382] - -3. RIVER WATER. _Aqua ex Flumine_, being derived from the conflux of -numerous springs and rain water, generally possesses considerable -purity; that the proportion of its saline ingredients should be small, -is easily explained by the precipitation which must necessarily take -place from the union of different solutions; it is, however, liable to -hold in suspension particles of earthy matter, which impair its -transparency, and sometimes its salubrity; this is particularly observed -of the Seine, the Ganges, and the Nile.[383] - -4. WELL WATER. _Aqua ex Puteo_, is essentially the same as spring water, -being derived from the same source; it is, however, more liable to -impurity from its stagnation, or slow infiltration;[384] hence our old -wells furnish much purer water than those which are more recent, as the -soluble particles are gradually washed away. Mr. Dalton observes that -the more any spring is drawn from, the _softer_ the water becomes. - -5. SNOW WATER. _Aqua ex Nive_, has been supposed[385] to be unwholesome, -and in particular to produce bronchocele, from the prevalence of that -disease in the Alps, but it does not appear upon what principle its -insalubrity can depend; the prejudice however is a very ancient one, for -Hippocrates observes that snow or ice water is unwholesome, in -consequence of its finer particles being evaporated and lost during its -solution: it appears to differ only from rain water in being destitute -of air, to which water is certainly indebted for its briskness, and -perhaps for many of its good effects upon animals and vegetables. The -same observations apply to _Ice Water_. - -6. LAKE WATER. _Aqua ex Lacu_, is a collection of rain, spring, and -river waters, contaminated with various animal and vegetable bodies, -which from its stagnant nature have undergone putrefaction in it. - -7. MARSH WATER. _Aqua ex Palude_ being the most stagnant is the most -impure of all water, and is generally loaded with decomposing vegetable -matter. - -To what extent the impurities of water are capable of influencing its -salubrity, has been a subject of interesting inquiry from the age of -Hippocrates to the present day. To many of these natural contaminations, -too much importance has been certainly attached; it is an affected -refinement to suppose that the presence of minute portions of such -earthy and calcareous salts, as generally occur in solution, can impart -any noxious quality to water;[386] whilst on the contrary, animal and -vegetable impurities, or earthy bodies in a state of mechanical -suspension, cannot fail to prove injurious, and must be regarded as the -true “SCELERA AQUARUM.” Guided by false analogies many have supposed -that they recognised the origin of all calcareous diseases in the earthy -impurities of water; the researches however of chemistry have removed -this delusion, by demonstrating that the substances found in water never -enter into the composition of urinary calculi.[387] Metallic and other -accidental contaminations are necessarily highly injurious, and the -water in which their presence is suspected, should be submitted to the -most careful examination. - -For the purification and preservation of water numerous methods have -been adopted; the mechanical impurities may be removed by filtration, -which is performed through porous stones, or alternate layers of sand or -charcoal; muddy water may be also cleared by adding a few grains of alum -to each pint,[388] and in that proportion, the water is not rendered in -the least disagreeable: when water has contracted a putrid smell, it may -be rendered sweet by agitating it with a small portion of magnesia, or -with black oxide of manganese, in the proportion of 1½ parts to 250 -parts of water. Dr. Black observes that nitrate of silver, which is one -of the most antiseptic substances known, will preserve water from -putrefaction for ever, and that it may at any time be separated -therefrom in a few minutes by adding a small lump of common salt; this -fact in itself is curious, but the experiment is too hazardous to be -recommended. Dr. Alston prefers lime, as a preservative of the water, -and proposes to remove it by the addition of a carbonate of magnesia; -Dr. Henry has however found that it is more economically precipitated by -the introduction of a current of carbonic acid into the cask. As that -peculiar property of water which is termed _hardness_, generally depends -upon the presence of _sulphate of lime_, the addition of an alkaline -carbonate twenty-four hours previous to its being used, will be found to -restore it, or if it should depend upon _supercarbonate of lime_, long -ebullition without any addition will be found sufficient for its cure. - -Water when kept for a long time in casks, especially on long voyages, is -partially decomposed, and a volume of carburetted hydrogen is -evolved,[389] imparting to such water the peculiar smell and taste which -characterise it; this decomposition may in a great degree be obviated by -charring the interior of the water casks; it is, however, prevented in -the Navy by substituting iron tanks for wooden vessels. In Pharmacy it -ought to be remembered that whenever common water is employed it should -not be _hard_; filtered rainwater maybe recommended as the most eligible -on such occasions. - - - AQUA DESTILLATA. L.E.D. Distilled Water. - -QUALITIES. _Taste_, vapid from the absence of air, and slightly -empyreumatic in consequence probably of the presence of a small quantity -of extractive matter which has undergone partial decomposition; a -fluid-ounce weighs 454½ grains. MEDICINAL USE. In extemporaneous -prescriptions, distilled water should be always ordered whenever the -formula contains any of the following substances:—_Acidum Sulphuricum_; -_Acidum Citricum_; _Antimonium Tartarizatum_; _Argenti Nitras_; _Cuprum -Ammoniatum_; _Ferrum Tartarizatum_; _Hydrargyri Oxy-murias_; _Liquor -Ammoniæ_; _Liquor Plumbi Sub-Acetatis_; _Liquor Potassæ_; _Plumbi -Acetas_; _Solutio Muriatis Barytæ_; _Vinum Ferri_; _Zinci Sulphas_; -_Ferri Sulphas_. Distilled water ought also to be employed in -preparations where much water is evaporated, as in the formation of -extracts, since the residual matter of common water will remain mixed -with the product of the process, and uselessly add to its bulk, or even -in some cases produce in it chemical changes; unless however under such -circumstances, common water purified by filtration should be ordered, as -the air which it contains imparts to it a pleasant and sprightly -flavour. In making infusions or decoctions, it is very important that -the water should be free from those impurities which impart to it -_hardness_, and which render it a far less powerful solvent of vegetable -matter, nor indeed can resinous substances be mixed with such water, -even when assisted by a mucilaginous medium. On which account, in -prescribing emulsions, it may perhaps be prudent to direct the -employment of distilled water. TESTS OF ITS PURITY. Its transparency -ought not to be disturbed by the addition of nitrate of silver, or -muriate of baryta. - - - AQUA MARINA. Sea Water. - -Until the late able researches of Dr. Murray, we possessed but an -imperfect knowledge of the composition of sea water; it is not therefore -surprising that the analysis performed by different chemists should be -found to be so materially at variance; the true cause of such -discordance is now easily understood, for it appears, that in the -examination of a mineral water or any compound saline solution, the -substances obtained from it are not necessarily the original -ingredients, but frequently the products of new combinations established -by the operation of analysis, and that consequently the nature of the -result obtained may vary according to the modes in which such analysis -has been conducted, or even according to the degree of dilution in which -the saline substances exist.[390] The elements of the salts contained in -a pint of sea water are _Lime_ 2·9, _Magnesia_ 14·8, _Soda_ 96·3, -_Sulphuric Acid_ 14·4, _Muriatic Acid_ 97·7, total 226·1 grains, and -supposing these elements to be combined in the modes which Dr. Murray’s -views appear to establish, the saline contents of a pint of sea water -may be expressed as follows, _Muriate of Soda_ 159·3, _Muriate of -Magnesia_ 35·5, _Muriate of Lime_ 5·7, _Sulphate of Soda_ 25·6 grains, -total 226·1 grains; besides such saline contents, it is contaminated -with various animal and vegetable bodies, in consequence of which it -becomes, when long kept, highly offensive; it ought also to be stated -that Dr. Wollaston has discovered the presence of a minute proportion of -potass in sea water; and Dr. Marcet has more lately detected ammonia in -combination with muriatic acid. MEDICINAL USE. As a cathartic, a pint is -the ordinary quantity, which should be taken in the morning, at two -doses, with an interval of half an hour between each; this quantity -contains half an ounce of purgative salt, of which about three-fourths -are muriate of soda, but it is much more active than a similar portion -of any artificial combination. In procuring sea water for medicinal -purposes, there is a precaution, the importance of which experience has -suggested to me, that it be not hastily drank on the beach, before the -particles of sand, with which under such circumstances it is generally -mixed, are allowed to subside; from the neglect of this precaution I -have witnessed serious consequences. The most important advantages of -sea water are derived from its external use as a bath. - - - AQUÆ DESTILLATÆ. L.D. - - AQUÆ STILLATITIÆ. E. _Distilled Waters._ - -These are waters impregnated with the essential oils of vegetables, and -are principally designed as grateful vehicles for the exhibition of more -active remedies; ample directions for preparing them are given in the -several Pharmacopœias, and if they be rectified by redistillation they -may be kept for several years; the usual mode of preserving them is by -adding spirit, which has also the incidental advantage of preventing -them from being frozen during the winter season. Some recommend a film -of the essential oil to be diffused over the water’s surface. They may -be extemporaneously prepared by adding to water what have been called -_Essences_, which consist of essential oil and alcohol, or by rubbing -any essential oil with ten times its weight of sugar, or, what answers -still better, of magnesia: when however they are so prepared they never -retain their transparency. The college, in the present Pharmacopœia, -have directed the distillation off the essential oil, as well as off the -recent herb; this alteration is one of practical convenience. The -properties of each water may be learnt by referring to the vegetable -from which it is distilled. - - - AQUÆ MINERALES. Mineral Waters. - -Although all waters that flow from the earth, are, as they contain -mineral bodies in solution, strictly speaking, _mineral_ waters, yet -this term is conventionally applied to such only as are distinguished -from spring, lake, river, or other water, by a peculiarity in colour, -taste, smell, or any obvious properties, or by the medicinal effects -which they produce, or are known to be capable of producing. - -To the medical practitioner the history of these waters is most -interesting and instructive, involving highly important subjects of -chemical and physiological inquiry. These waters are without doubt -indebted for their medicinal virtues to the operation of the substances -which they hold dissolved, but this is so materially aided by the -peculiar state of dilution in which they exist, as well as by the mere -bulk and temperature of the water itself, as to render extremely -doubtful the success of every attempt to concentrate their powers by -evaporation. To what extent dilution may modify the chemical condition -of saline solutions has been satisfactorily demonstrated by the -researches of Dr. Murray (see _Aqua Marina_), and to what degree an -increase in the solubility of any remedy may influence its medicinal -properties has been considered at some length in the first part of this -work, (_page 172_.) It is certain that, in general, soluble salts are -capable of exerting a much more powerful effect upon the animal economy, -than those which are insoluble; on which account, the earthy muriates, -especially that of lime, are amongst the most active ingredients of -mineral waters. Although chemical analysis has frequently from its own -imperfection failed in ascertaining their presence, it seems probable -that _muriate of lime_ and _sulphate of soda_ exist in all those springs -that furnish, by the usual methods of examination, _sulphate of lime_ -and _muriate of soda_; for the same reasons it is equally probable that -iron, which in certain waters has been supposed from the analysis to -exist as a _carbonate_, is in its native solution a true _muriate_; this -is undoubtedly the fact with respect to the Bath waters. Is it then -surprising, that medical practitioners should hitherto have failed in -their attempts to emulate, by artificial arrangements, the medical -efficacy of active and mineral springs? For the investigation of the -true composition of mineral waters the researches of Dr. Murray furnish -a simple and elegant formula. _Determine by precipitants the weight of -the acids and bases, suppose them united in such a manner that they -shall form the most soluble salts, and these salts will constitute the -true saline constituents of the water under examination._ - -Mineral Waters admit of being divided into four classes, viz. - -1. ACIDULOUS; owing their properties chiefly to carbonic acid; they are -tonic and diuretic, and in large doses produce a transient exhilaration; -the most celebrated are _Pyrmont_, _Seltzer_, _Spa_, _Carlsbad_, and -_Scarborough_. - -2. CHALYBEATE; containing iron in the form of _sulphate_, _carbonate_, -or _muriate_;[391] they have a styptic, inky taste: _Hartfell_ near -_Moffat_, _Peterhead_, _Tunbridge_, _Brighton_, _Cheltenham_, _Bath_, -_Lemington Priors_, _Castle Horneck_, near _Penzance_, &c. - -3. SULPHUREOUS WATERS derive their character from sulphuretted hydrogen, -either uncombined, or united with lime, or an alkali: _Engien_, _Aix la -Chapelle_, _Harrowgate_, _Moffat_. - -4. SALINE; mostly purgative, and are advantageously employed in those -hypochondriacal and visceral diseases that require continued, and -moderate relaxation of the bowels; _Cheltenham_, _Leamington_, -_Seidlitz_, and all brackish waters. - -Some springs, as those of _Bath_, _Matlock_, and _Buxton_, owe their -virtues rather to temperature than to any other cause, and others, as -_Malvern_, to the diluent power of the water. - -In the Codex Medicamentarius of Paris, formulæ are introduced for the -preparation of several of the more distinguished mineral waters, under -the head “_Aquæ Minerales Arte Factæ_.”[392] - - - ARGENTI NITRAS. L. Nitras Argenti. E.D. - - _Fused Nitrate of Silver_, olim, _Lunar Caustic_. - -QUALITIES. Fused nitrate of silver is in small cylinders of a dark grey -colour, and presenting, when broken across, a crystalline structure. -_Odour_, none; _Taste_, intensely bitter, austere and metallic; it -tinges the skin indelibly black; when perfectly free from copper, it is -not deliquescent. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; oxide of silver 70, nitric acid -30, or one atom of oxide and one atom of acid. SOLUBILITY. In an equal -weight of water, at 60°; it is also soluble in alcohol. The solution -readily yields transparent colourless crystals, the primary form of -which is a _right rhombic prism_. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Fixed -alkalies_ and _alkaline earths_, the _muriatic_, _sulphuric_, and -_tartaric_ acids, and all the salts which contain them; _Soaps_, -_arsenic_, _hydro-sulphurets_, _astringent vegetable infusions_, -_undistilled waters_. The solutions of nitrate of silver are not -disturbed by ammonia, the _ammoniuret_ being very soluble; the carbonate -of ammonia, however, produces a precipitation. Nitrate of silver tinges -the skin and hair black, and has been frequently employed for the latter -purpose;[394] it likewise forms the basis of permanent ink.[395] -MEDICINAL USES. Tonic, antispasmodic, and escharotic; it is said to -prove efficacious in epilepsy, but during a trial for several years in -the Westminster hospital, I never could discover its virtues; many of -the cases in which it has been supposed to have been successful, -probably derived advantage from the purgative medicines which were -simultaneously administered. It possesses a bitter taste, and it has -been said to act like vegetable bitters upon the digestive organs, and -to offer a resource in dyspeptic complaints. It is principally useful as -an external application, and may be considered as the strongest and most -manageable caustic that we possess;[396] whilst in solution it acts as a -useful stimulant in indolent ulcers; and being possessed of the power of -coagulating animal matter, it does not spread to any extent, and is -therefore extremely convenient where a large eschar is to be avoided. A -weak solution of this metallic salt has lately been strongly recommended -by a French surgeon, as a remedy for piles of long standing; it also -forms an excellent lotion to excite the weak granulations of fungous -ulcers. It is, moreover, said to be highly useful as an injection in -cases of puriform discharges from the ear; before we direct however such -an application, it is highly necessary that we should ascertain the -tympanum to be entire, or the liquid may escape into the internal ear, -and occasion very alarming irritation; an event which unhappily -occurred, not long since, in the case of a noble duke of high military -renown. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. For internal use, in pills made with crumb -of bread, with the addition of some sugar, to prevent the mass from -being too hard. Dose, gr. 1/8, gradually increased to gr. j. -ADULTERATIONS. _Copper_ may be always suspected when it deliquesces, and -is to be immediately detected by its solution assuming a blue colour, -when supersaturated with ammonia. The sticks should be preserved in -closely stopped phials, and covered with soft and dry paper. ANTIDOTE. -When this substance has been taken in excess, muriate of soda is its -true antidote; indeed, so completely does it decompose, and separate it -from water, that if a saturated solution of nitrate of silver be -filtered through common salt, it may be afterwards drunk with impunity. -This circumstance alone, would of necessity render nitrate of silver a -very uncertain remedy; and yet it is evident that the basis of this salt -is occasionally absorbed, for there are several cases upon record, in -which the oxyd of silver has been deposited in the rete mucosum, and -given a purple hue of a very singular appearance to the patient; I have -lately witnessed an instance of this kind in a lady who had taken large -doses of the nitrate, for the purpose of curing a dyspeptic complaint; -and several other similar cases stand recorded in different works. - - - ARMORACIÆ RADIX. L.E. (_Cochlearia Armoracia_ ) - - Raphanus Rusticanus, D. _Horse[397] Radish Root._ - -QUALITIES. _Taste_, hot and acrid; _Odour_, pungent. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. All its virtues depend upon an essential oil. SOLUBILITY. -Both water and alcohol extract its active principles, but they are -dissipated by decoction. MEDICINAL USES. As a stimulant in paralysis it -is often useful; Sydenham found it successful in dropsies which were -consequent on intermittent fevers; Cullen recommends a syrup made with -the infusion of horse radish, to remove that species of hoarseness which -depends upon local relaxation; Dr. Withering extols an infusion of this -root in milk as a cosmetic both safe and effectual. INCOMPATIBLE -SUBSTANCES. Alkaline Carbonates; _Oxy-muriate of Mercury_; _Nitrate of -Silver_; the _Infusion of Galls_ and _of Yellow Cinchona Bark_, produce -precipitates with the infusion of this root. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In -substance, scraped or swallowed whole, or in infusion.[398] DOSE of the -substance ʒj, of an infusion f℥ij. See _Infus Armoraciæ comp_. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Infusum Armoraciæ comp:_ L. _Spiritus Armoraciæ comp:_ -L.D. - - - ARSENICUM ALBUM. (Acidum Arseniosum.) - - Oxydum Arsenici. E. Arsenicum. D. _White Arsenic_. - - _Arsenious Acid._ vulgo _Arsenic_. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, shining semivitreous lumps, breaking with a -conchoidal fracture, and when reduced to powder, bearing some -resemblance to white sugar; _Taste_, acrid and corrosive, but not in any -degree corresponding with its virulence, leaving an impression of -sweetness. _Specific gravity_ 3·7; it is volatilized at the temperature -of 383° _Fah:_ and by a strong heat is vitrified into a transparent -glass capable of crystallizing in tetrahedra with truncated angles, or -rather in octohedra. In the state of vapour it is quite inodorous, -although it is asserted in many chemical works of authority to yield a -smell like that of garlic; the fact is that the alliaceous or -garlic-like smell is wholly confined to _metallic_ arsenic in a state of -vapour, and whenever the arsenious acid seems to yield this odour, we -may infer that its decomposition has taken place; this happens when it -is projected upon ignited charcoal, or when heated in contact with those -metallic bodies which readily unite with oxygen, as _Antimony_ and -_Tin_. It is stated by Orfila and other chemists, that if it be -projected upon heated copper the alliaceous odour is evolved. This -assertion is undoubtedly true, but the fact requires to be explained -with more precision, or we may fall into an important error respecting -it. The phenomenon takes place only when the copper is in a state of -ignition, at which temperature its affinity for oxygen enables it to -reduce the arsenious acid; for I find by experiment that if a few grains -of this substance be heated on a plate of copper, by means of a spirit -lamp or blow-pipe, no odour is perceptible, for the whole of the acid is -dissipated before the copper can acquire a sufficiently exalted -temperature to deoxidize it. If the arsenious acid be heated on a plate -of zinc, the smell is not evolved until the metal is in the state of -fusion; if instead of these metals we employ in our experiments those of -gold, silver, or platinum, no alliaceous smell whatever is produced, at -any temperature. It however deserves particular notice, that the flame -of the spirit lamp is itself capable of decomposing the oxyd, in -consequence of the operation of its hydrogen: a fact which is very -likely to betray the chemist into the fallacious belief that the oxyd -does yield the odour in question.[399] It is probable that arsenical -vapours which yield this peculiar odour are less noxious than those -which are inodorous, but I am not aware that the knowledge of this fact -can be applied to any purpose of practical importance.[400] CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. This substance possesses many of the essential habitudes of -an acid, as for instance, that of combining with the pure alkalies to -saturation; it is therefore very properly denominated _Arsenious Acid_. -It may be farther acidified by distilling it with nitrous acid, and the -compound which results is a white concrete substance termed _Arsenic -Acid_; from experiments on the quantity of oxygen absorbed by metallic -arsenic, during its conversion into these two compounds, instituted by -Proust and Davy, it appears that the _arsenious_ acid consists of about -25 of oxygen and 75 of metal, and the _arsenic_ acid of 33 of oxygen and -67 of metal; or, the quantity of metal being the same, that the oxygen -in the latter compound is to that in the former nearly as three to two. -SOLUBILITY. We have but lately been set right upon this point; Klaproth -has shewn that it requires for its solution 400 parts of water at 60° -and only 13 at 212°, and moreover, that if 100 parts of water be boiled -on the arsenious acid, and suffered to cool, it will retain three grains -in solution, and deposit the remainder in tetrahedral crystals; this -fact shews the importance of employing boiling water in every chemical -examination of substances supposed to contain arsenic. It is soluble in -alcohol and oils, the former taking up two per cent.; with lime water it -produces a white precipitate of _arsenite of lime_, which is soluble in -an excess of arsenious acid; with magnesia it forms a soluble -_arsenite_, which proves very virulent. The poisonous effects of -arsenious acid are so amply detailed in medical works,[401] that it -would be superfluous to dwell upon them in this place; it may however be -interesting and useful to record an account of the pernicious influence -of arsenical fumes upon organized beings, as I have been enabled to -ascertain in the copper smelting works, and tin burning-houses of -Cornwall. This influence is very apparent in the condition both of the -animals and vegetables in the vicinity; horses and cows commonly lose -their hoofs, and the latter are often to be seen in the neighbouring -pastures crawling on their knees, and not unfrequently suffering from a -cancerous affection in their rumps, whilst the milch cows, in addition -to these miseries, are soon deprived of their milk; the men employed in -the works are more healthy than we could _a priori_ have supposed -possible; the antidote upon which they all rely with confidence, -whenever they are infested with more than an ordinary portion of -arsenical vapour, is _sweet oil_, and an annual sum is allowed by the -proprietors in order that it may be constantly supplied; this opinion is -not solitary, for Tachenius relates that the poisonous effects, such as -convulsions, gripes, and bloody stools, with which he was seized from -exposure to the fumes of arsenic, were relieved by milk and oil. - -It deserves notice that the smelters are occasionally affected with a -cancerous disease in the scrotum, similar to that which infests -chimney-sweepers, and it is singular that Stahl in describing the -putrescent tendency in the bodies of those who die from this poison, -mentions in particular the gangrenous appearance of these parts. It is a -very extraordinary fact that previous to the establishment of the copper -works in Cornwall, the marshes in their vicinity were continually -exciting intermittent fever, whereas since that period a case of ague -has not occurred in the neighbourhood; I have heard it remarked by the -men in the works, that the smoke _kills_ all fevers. The fact is here -stated without any other comment than that the agricultural improvements -which have taken place in the district, are not sufficient to afford any -clue to the explanation of the circumstance. MEDICINAL USES. Much has -been said upon this subject, and the propriety and safety of its -exhibition has been often questioned; there can be no doubt but that the -greatest circumspection is required in the practitioner who administers -it, and it ought not, in my opinion, to be employed until other remedies -have failed; that it is capable of accumulating in the system is very -evident, and this, in certain habits, may predispose the patient to -serious diseases; the form in which it is most manageable and least -dangerous, is that of solution. See _Liquor Arsenicalis_. Some -practitioners have exhibited it in substance, made into pills, by -rubbing one grain with ten of sugar, and then beating the mixture with a -sufficient quantity of crumb of bread to form ten pills, one of which is -a dose. The Chinese and other oriental nations form the sulphuret of -arsenic (_realgar_) into medical cups, and use lemon juice, after it has -stood some hours in them, by way of cathartic. As an external -application, arsenic has long been extolled in the cure of cancers; the -caustic so extensively used under the sanction of the late Mr. Justamond -in cases of open cancer, consisted of two parts of Antimony, and one of -Arsenious acid, fluxed together in a crucible, and afterwards levigated, -and reduced to the requisite degree of mildness by the addition of -powdered Opium.[402] But it deserves notice in this place, that repeated -experiments have proved that arsenic kills[403] more rapidly when -applied externally to an abraded part, than when internally -administered. See page 132. _Lionardo di Capoa_ relates the case of a -child killed by the violent vomiting and purging arising from a slight -wound made in the head by a comb, wet with oil, in which Arsenic had -been infused for the purpose of killing vermin; and we have numerous -instances on record, where the application of arsenical cerates and -ointments has been followed by violent and dangerous symptoms. We also -learn from the different historians of the Plague of London, that the -arsenical amulets which were worn, as preservatives, on that occasion, -were sometimes attended with deleterious consequences; _Crato_ (Epist. -168.) observed an ulcer of the breast produced by them. _Vernascha_, -violent pains and syncope. Amongst the foreign authors who have related -cases of poisoning by the external application of Arsenic we may mention -_Desgranges_ (_Recueil Period: de la Société de Med: de Paris_, T. vi. -p. 22.) who records the history of a chambermaid, poisoned by having -rubbed her head with an arsenical ointment for the purpose of destroying -vermin; and _Roux_ (_Nouveaux Elemens de Med: Operat. par. J. P. Roux_,) -who confessed to have killed a young girl of eighteen by an application -of the “_Pate Arsenicale_” to a cancerous breast. To the Empirics of our -own times we are indebted for many fatal illustrations of the subject. -Since the last edition of this work, a Lady applied to a well known -Quack, distinguished for his impudent pretensions in the treatment of -cancer, and submitted to a caustic application to the breast. In a short -time paralysis ensued, and the application was discovered to contain a -large proportion of Arsenic, and that the disease, for the cure of which -it had been applied, was _not_ cancer. A somewhat analogous case -occurred under the care of a bold empiric in the neighbourhood of St. -George’s Fields, who undertook to remove the deformity of bow legs in a -dandy drawing-master! by _rasping the shin bones_, and applying arsenic -to the surface of the wound; in consequence of which, in addition to -extensive local mischief, the unhappy dupe became paralytic. It is also -necessary to inform the practitioner that Arsenious acid has been known -to produce poisonous effects when applied to the _unbroken_ skin; a case -of this nature is related by Desgranges, in the sixth volume of the -_Recueil Periodique de la Soc: de Med_: another may be found in the 22d -volume of the _Acta Germanica_ (1730); and Renault obtained similar -results in his experiments on animals. When the system is under the -influence of arsenic, the following symptoms will appear, viz. -thickness, redness, and stiffness of the palpebræ, soreness of the gums, -ptyalism, itching over the surface of the body, restlessness, cough, -pain in the stomach and bowels, head-ache, and I have also occasionally -noticed paucity of urine, and even stranguary, a fact of which I find no -mention in other authors. Strange as it may appear, _Arsenic_ has been -inhaled, together with the vapours of frankincense, myrrh, and those of -other gums during a paroxysm of asthma! This extraordinary practice -arose from the practitioner mistaking the gum juniper, or _Vernix_ of -the Arabians, which by their medical authors was prescribed in -fumigations under the name of _Sandarach_, for the Σανδαρακη of -Aristotle, which was a sulphured of arsenic. - -ADULTERATIONS. It is frequently sophisticated with chalk, gypsum, or -sulphate of barytes; the fraud is instantly detected by its not being -entirely volatilized by heat, or by any insoluble residuum occurring in -preparing the _Liquor Arsenicalis_, according to the directions of the -pharmacopœia. To many the adulteration of so active a substance may seem -unimportant, but in consequence of its being thus rendered a medicine of -variable activity, it is one of the most dangerous frauds which can be -committed; a very unpleasant circumstance lately occurred from such a -cause in one of our public institutions: arsenic had been obtained from -the shop of a respectable chemist, who had not usually supplied the -establishment, for the purpose of preparing the arsenical solution: the -article happened to be less adulterated than that which had been -previously employed; the solution however was prepared in the usual way, -and the usual dose was continued, when the patients were soon seized -with violent pains in the bowels, and the cause was not detected until -by an examination of the bottle the usual sediment was not discovered. - -ANTIDOTES. Late researches have shewn that _sulphuret of potass_, on -which physicians have placed so much reliance, merits no confidence. The -great indication to be fulfilled in all cases of poisoning is to excite -vomiting, and to administer liquids which are the least liable to act as -solvents of the acrid matter, on which account lime water presents -itself as a very appropriate fluid. The subject, however, is very fully -considered in the first part of this work, to which I am very desirous -of directing the attention of the medical practitioner; see _Antidotes_. - - - _Methods of detecting the presence of Arsenious Acid._ - -1. _By its reduction to a metallic state._ Mix a portion of the -suspected powder with three times its weight of _black flux_;[404] put -the mixture into a thin glass tube, hermetically closed[405] at one end, -about eight inches in length, and one-fourth of an inch in diameter; -should any of the powder adhere to the sides of the tube, it must be -carefully brushed off with a feather, so that the inner surface of its -upper part may be perfectly clean and dry; the closed end of the tube, -by way of security, may be thinly coated with a mixture of pipe-clay and -sand,[406] but this operation is not absolutely necessary; the open -extremity is to be loosely plugged with a piece of paper; the coated end -must be now heated on a chaffing dish of red hot coals, when the -arsenic, if present, will sublime, and be found lining with a brilliant -metallic crust the upper part of the tube; a portion of this reduced -metal, if it be arsenic, will, when laid on heated iron, exhale in dense -fumes, which are characterised by a strong smell of garlic. Mr. Phillips -has lately stated that the tube may be sufficiently heated, for the -purpose of metallization, by means of a spirit lamp.[407] - -It merits particular notice, that in reducing by the above process the -arsenious acid to the state of metal, the presence of potass in the flux -is very essential, since it forms immediately an _arsenite of potass_, -and thereby fixes the arsenious acid, and prevents it from being -volatilized before the temperature is sufficiently high to enable the -charcoal to decompose it; an ignorance of this fact has not unfrequently -proved a source of disappointment and fallacy. - -Another method of identifying _white arsenic_ by metallization, is to -form at the moment of its reduction, an alloy with copper, which is -easily effected in the following manner,—Mix the suspected powder with -black flux, as in the former experiment, and place the mixture between -two polished plates of copper, bind them tight together by iron wire, -and expose them to a low read heat; if the included substance contained -arsenic, a silvery white stain will be left on the surface of the -copper, which is an alloy of the two metals. If in this, as in the -former experiment, charcoal be employed without the addition of a fixed -alkali, the result may, for the same reason, prove unsatisfactory. But, -with whatever care this experiment is conducted, it is, to say the -least, a clumsy and unsatisfactory test, and ought never to be relied -upon. - -2. _By the application of certain Reagents, or Tests, to its Solutions._ - -A great and important question has arisen in medical jurisprudence, -whether any chemical proof of the presence of _white arsenic_, short of -its actual reduction to the state of metal, can be depended upon, or -ought to be received as evidence in the courts of criminal law. After a -full experimental investigation of the subject, and an impartial review -of all the facts which bear upon the question, I feel no hesitation in -declaring it to be my conviction, that _white arsenic may be detected -without any fear of fallacy_, _by a proper application of certain -tests_, and that the contrary opinion is entirely founded in error, and -unsupported by experiment, as will more fully appear in the sequel.[408] - -(A) _Fused Nitrate of Silver_, or _Lunar Caustic_—For this test we are -indebted to Mr. Hume of London, who first gave it to the public in the -Philosophical Magazine for May 1809, vol. xxxiii. His method of applying -it is as follows: into a clean Florence flask introduce two or three -grains of the suspected powder, to which add about eight ounces of rain -or distilled water, and heat the solution until it begins to boil, then -while it boils frequently shake the flask, and add to the hot solution a -grain or two of sub-carbonate of potass, agitating the whole to make the -mixture uniform. Pour into a wine glass about two table spoonsful of the -solution, and touch the surface of the fluid with a stick of lunar -caustic. If arsenic be present, a beautiful yellow precipitate will -instantly proceed from the point of contact, and settle towards the -bottom of the glass as a flocculent and copious precipitate. - -By this test the 60th part of a grain may be satisfactorily recognised -in two ounces of water. The presence of some alkali is essential to the -success of the experiment, since arsenious acid is unable, by the -operation of simple affinity, to decompose the nitrate of silver.[409] -The validity of this test has been questioned on the following grounds, -which shall be fairly examined in order. - -OBJECTION 1. _The alkaline phosphates are found to produce precipitates -with silver, analogous in colour and appearance to the arsenite of -silver._ This is undoubtedly the case when the experiment is performed -in the manner just stated, but there are other reagents which will -immediately distinguish these bodies, as will be seen under the history -of the _Ammoniuret of silver_; I have also shewn that there is a mode of -so modifying the application of the silver test itself, that no error or -doubt can arise in the use of it from the presence of phosphoric -salts.[410] My method consists in conducting the trial on writing paper, -instead of in glasses, thus—drop the suspected fluid on a piece of white -paper, making with it a broad line; along this line a stick of lunar -caustic is to be slowly drawn several times successively, when a streak -is produced of a colour resembling that known by the name of _Indian -Yellow_; and this is equally produced by the presence of arsenic and -that of an alkaline phosphate, but the one from arsenic is rough, curdy, -and flocculent, as if effected by a crayon, that from a phosphate -homogeneous and uniform, resembling a water-colour laid smoothly on with -a brush; but a most important and distinctive peculiarity soon succeeds, -for in less than two minutes the phosphoric yellow fades into a _sad -green_, and becomes gradually darker, and ultimately quite black; while, -on the other hand, the arsenical yellow remains permanent, or nearly so, -for some time, when it becomes brown. In performing this experiment the -sun-shine should be avoided, or the transitions of the colour will take -place too rapidly. It would be prudent also for the inexperienced -operator to perform a similar experiment on a fluid known to contain -arsenic, and on another with a phosphoric salt, as a standard of -comparison. In this way the nitrate of silver, without the intervention -of any other test, is fully capable of removing every ambiguity, and of -furnishing a distinguishing mark of difference between the chemical -action of arsenic and that of the phosphates. Mr. Hume states that he -has repeated this experiment to his entire satisfaction,[411] and that, -in a late unfortunate case of poisoning, he derived considerable -information by its application. The laborious author of the London -Dispensatory accepts it as an excellent test, but observes that it is -rendered more luminous by brushing the streak lightly over with liquid -ammonia immediately after the application of the caustic, when, if the -arsenic be present, a bright queen’s yellow is produced which remains -permanent for nearly an hour; but that when the lunar caustic produces a -white-yellow before the ammonia is applied, we may infer the presence of -some alkaline phosphate, rather than that of arsenic. One of the great -advantages of this test is the very small quantity that is required for -examination; it would be well therefore for the operator to perform the -experiment in both ways on a separate paper. - -OBJECTION 2. _The Muriates produce precipitates with silver so copious -and flocculent as to overcome every indication which the presence of -arsenic would otherwise afford._ Dr. Marcet proposes to obviate this -difficulty, by adding to the fluid to be examined dilute nitric acid, -and then cautiously applying the nitrate of silver until the -precipitation ceases; in this way the muriatic acid will be entirely -removed, whilst the arsenic, if it be present, will remain in solution, -and may be rendered evident by the affusion of ammonia, which will -instantly produce the yellow precipitate in its characteristic form. -This mode however it must be confessed appears complicated, and requires -some chemical address for its accomplishment; it should be also known -that the yellow precipitate thus produced is not always permanent, for -it is soluble in the nitrate of ammonia formed during the process. Under -these circumstances, it is surely preferable to precipitate at once from -the suspected fluid all the substances which nitrate of silver can -effect, and then to expose the mixed and ambiguous precipitate so -obtained, to a low heat in a glass tube, when the arsenious acid will be -immediately separated by sublimation. In this way the presence of -muriates may even in certain cases be serviceable, especially if the -quantity of arsenic be minute; for by increasing the bulk of the -precipitate we shall decrease the difficulty of its examination. By this -process, also, I should propose to meet the embarrassments which arise -from the influence of various animal and vegetable substances, as milk, -broth, wine, &c. so frequently present in the suspected liquid, and -which are known to alter the character of the arsenical indications. In -this case, however, we must not rely upon any single precipitant; after -having thrown down all that is precipitable by the silver test, the -supernatant liquid should be decanted, slightly acidified by acetic -acid, and submitted to the action of Sulphuretted Hydrogen; when, should -any precipitate occur, it must be separated and added to the former. Dr. -Christison has demonstrated the importance of this proceeding by shewing -that the precipitates, occasioned by the Ammoniurets of silver and -copper, are soluble in certain vegetable infusions.[412] M. Orfila -proposes to remove the difficulties and embarrassments, occasioned by -the colouring matter of different media, by the application of -_Chlorine_, so as to change the colour to a shade that will not offer -any optical impediment to the characteristic indications of the -different tests. I am ready to admit that such a mode of proceeding may, -on certain occasions, assist the accomplished chemist in his analysis, -but in the hands of a person less accustomed to chemical manipulation, I -hesitate not to declare that it is subject to fatal fallacies;[413] -whereas, by precipitating the whole, and submitting the precipitate to -the process of sublimation, we shall avoid every source of error. Why -then should we attempt to pursue our game through the windings of a -labyrinth, when a direct road lies before us, by which we may at once -drive it into the open plain? Mr. Phillips has recently proposed the -addition of animal charcoal (_Ivory Black_) for the purpose of -destroying the colouring matter. He found that by mixing this substance -with the _Liquor Arsenicalis_, that the colouring matter was so -completely destroyed in a few minutes, that the test of nitrate of -silver, or any other might be readily applied. This experiment was -repeated with Port wine, gravy soup, and a strong infusion of onions, -and he succeeded in these cases in procuring a solution sufficiently -colourless for the application of the most delicate reagents. It might -be supposed, adds Mr. Phillips, that the Phosphoric acid which the -animal charcoal contains, might have some share in the production of the -yellow precipitate with silver; he found, however, that water, or wine, -which was merely digested on the animal charcoal, produced no effect -with the nitrate of silver, except a slight precipitate of chloride; and -this even, was prevented by lixiviation. I have, however, a serious -objection to offer to this proposal. Animal charcoal, by some mode of -operation not understood, possesses the property of removing certain -substances from their solution in water; I have already noticed this -effect with respect to Lime water, (see p. 247, _note_), and I have -lately found that it takes place with very dilute solutions of -Arsenic.[414] Hence charcoal, as we shall presently find, may be -employed for the purpose of detecting minute portions of arsenic. - -OBJECTION 3. _Chromate of potass produces, with Nitrate of Silver, a -yellow precipitate which, when placed side by side with one produced by -Arsenious acid, cannot be distinguished by colour or appearance from -it_. This fact has lately been announced by Dr. Porter of the University -of South Carolina. (Silliman’s Journal, iii, 355.) But as the presence -of chromate of potass can never be suspected in any research after -arsenic, in cases of forensic interest, the fact is of no importance to -the physician. - -Where the Arsenious acid is mixed with vegetable matter, and it becomes -difficult to separate it by filtration, the whole may be evaporated to -dryness, taking great care that the heat applied for such a purpose -never exceeds 250° _Fah:_ or we shall lose the arsenic by -volatilization. The residue thus obtained may then be submitted to a -higher temperature, in a subliming vessel, in order to procure the -arsenious acid in its pure state. Should the arsenious acid have, in the -first instance, been dissolved in oil, Dr. Ure proposes to boil the -solution in distilled water, and to separate the oil afterwards by the -capillary action of wick threads. If the arsenious acid be mixed with -resinous bodies, oil of turpentine may be employed as their solvent, -which will leave the arsenic untouched. Dr. Black directed the -application of alcohol for this purpose, but this is obviously improper, -since arsenious acid is soluble in that fluid. - -It has been stated that, in consequence of the inability of arsenious -acid to decompose nitrate of silver by simple elective attraction, the -presence of an alkali becomes indispensable in the examination, for -which purpose Dr. Marcet has suggested the superior advantages which -will attend the use of ammonia, in cases where the arsenic has not been -previously combined with a fixed alkali, since it does not, when added -singly, decompose nitrate of silver; a circumstance which in using the -fixed alkalies is very liable to occasion fallacy. This led Mr. Hume to -improve his original plan, by forming at once a compound, which he calls -the _Ammoniaco-nitrate of silver_, but which may with more propriety be -designated as an _Ammoniuret_.[415] This is a triumph in the art of -analysis; for whilst it obviates the necessity of ascertaining the exact -proportion of alkali required in each experiment,[416] it possesses the -valuable property of not in the least disturbing the phosphate of soda. - -(B.) _Sulphate of Copper._ Like the preceding test, this also requires, -for its success, that the arsenious acid should be combined with some -alkali, in which case, by the operation of double elective attraction, -an arsenite of copper is thrown down of a very striking and -characteristic colour, being that of the well-known pigment called -_Scheele’s green_; if arsenic be not present in the liquid so assayed, -and a fixed alkali has been employed, the result will be a delicate -_sky-blue_, instead of the _grass-green_ precipitate. - -Mr. Hume avails himself also of the peculiar property of ammonia to form -a metallic salt, and has employed it with copper: he takes the sulphate -or acetate of that metal, and by the same process as that described for -the preparation of an ammoniuret of silver, forms another test. In using -this, however, care must be taken that it be not too highly -concentrated, for in that state it will not produce precipitation. Much -controversy has taken place on the subject of sulphate of copper as a -test for arsenic, and it has been stated, with more confidence than -truth, that a _decoction of onions_ has the property of imparting to the -copper precipitate, which is produced by a fixed alkali, a colour and -appearance analogous to that which is occasioned by arsenic. This -opinion was boldly advanced and supported on a most important[417] trial -at the Lent assizes for Cornwall in 1817. Since this event an -opportunity[418] has occurred which has enabled me to examine this -alleged fact, by a fair and appropriate series of experiments, the -result of which satisfactorily proved that the opinion was grounded on -an optical fallacy, arising from the _blue_ precipitate assuming a -_green_ colour, in consequence of having been viewed through a yellow -medium.[419] The phosphoric salts may also, under similar circumstances, -be mistaken for arsenic, for the intense blue colour of the phosphate of -copper will thus necessarily appear green. This instance of optical -fallacy is not solitary, for _corrosive sublimate_ has been said to -possess the character of an alkali, because it turns the syrup of -violets green, whereas this change is to be attributed solely to the -combination of the yellow hue of the sublimate with the blue colour of -the violet. - -Whenever therefore such a source of fallacy can be suspected, the -operator would do well to repeat his experiment on white paper, in the -manner I have before proposed, and the results which are obtained in -glasses should always be examined by day-light, and viewed by reflected -and not by transmitted light. The presence of Peroxide of Iron in the -Cupreous salt will also impart a green colour to the precipitate -produced by an alkali. To obviate any fallacy which might arise from -this circumstance, Mr. Phillips proposes to add some pure Potass to the -sulphate of copper; if pure, a fine blue precipitate will be thus -obtained; to this may be then added the suspected solution, and if -Arsenious acid be present, it will then convert this blue precipitate to -a green one. - -(C.) _Sulphuretted Hydrogen._ This is a very delicate test for arsenic, -producing with its solution a beautiful golden coloured liquor, which -after a short time lets fall a precipitate. Mr. Phillips,[420] in -reviewing the third edition of the present work, has stated, that no -such precipitate occurs, but I find that in close, as well as in vessels -exposed to the air, it takes place by repose. By this reagent, so small -a quantity as 1⁄000,000 may be detected in solution; and it may be also -stated in farther proof of the utility of this test, that it is less -affected than any other by the presence of animal or vegetable matter. -The method of preparing a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen gas is -extremely simple. Put into an oil flask about two ounces of undiluted -muriatic acid and an ounce and a half of powdered Sulphuret of Antimony; -fit a cork to the flask and pass through it the short leg of a small -glass tube twice bent at right angles; pass the longer leg of the tube -into a phial containing distilled water, and then by the heat of a -spirit lamp applied to the flask, sulphuretted hydrogen gas will be -abundantly liberated, and though much of it will escape, yet a -sufficient quantity will be dissolved by the water. The annexed sketch -represents the apparatus proposed by Mr. Phillips, and which will -require but little practical skill, either for its construction or use. - -[Illustration] - -But it is not always necessary to prepare a watery solution of -Sulphuretted Hydrogen, a stream of the gas, introduced into the -suspected liquor by means of the above apparatus, will act with equal -delicacy, and possesses, as Dr. Christison has observed, the advantage -of not diluting it. Before applying this test, it is necessary to add an -acid, if any alkali should exist along with the Arsenic, otherwise no -precipitate will take place. - -(D.) _Alkaline Hydro-sulphurets._ These bodies do not affect the -arsenious solution, unless a few drops of acetic acid be added. To the -_Hydro-sulphuret_, or perhaps more properly, _Hydroguretted Sulphuret_, -of Ammonia there is an insuperable objection, since this fluid, when -diluted, possesses the colour which we expect to produce by the action -of Sulphuretted Hydrogen upon Arsenious Acid. - -(E.) _Charcoal Powder._ This test was proposed by Mr. A. Thomson, -(London Dispensatory, 2nd edition, p. 53.) Into the suspected solution -stir a moderate quantity of charcoal powder, allow it to settle, then -pour off the supernatant liquor, and when the powder which remains is -dry, sprinkle some of it on a red hot poker, when, if the solution -should contain Arsenic, the odour of Garlic will be rendered sensible. I -have already offered some remarks upon the cause of this phenomenon -(_page 304_.) - -There are several other tests by which arsenic may be identified. The -process described in the Dublin Pharmacopœia for the preparation of -_Arsenias Kali_, the arseniate, or rather super-arseniate of potass, -which has been long known under the name of “the arsenical salt of -Macquer,” has been strongly advised as a collateral proof; it consists -in decomposing the nitrate of potass[421] by the arsenious acid, but -since this problem requires that the suspected poison should be in a -solid and palpable form, it is impossible to examine its pretensions to -our confidence, without being reminded of the story so often told to us -in our infancy, of catching a bird by laying salt upon its tail. - -It is necessary to observe in this place, that the _arseniate_, like the -_arsenite of potass_, or that of _ammonia_, is obedient to the silver -test, but that instead of the yellow precipitate which is produced by -the latter salt, we obtain, by the former, a red or brick-coloured one. - -If arsenious acid and quick-lime be heated together in a glass tube, a -sudden ignition is occasioned at a certain temperature, when metallic -arsenic will sublime, and an arseniate of lime be formed. In this case -one portion of the arsenious acid is robbed of its oxygen to complete -the acidification of the remainder. - -In taking an impartial review of all the evidence which the -investigation of this subject can furnish, it must appear to the most -fastidious, that the silver and copper test above described are capable, -under proper management, of furnishing striking and infallible -indications, and that in most cases they will be equally conclusive, and -in some even more satisfactory in their results, than the metallic -reproduction upon which such stress has been laid, and for this obvious -reason, that unless the quantity of metal be considerable,[422] its -metallic splendour and appearance is often very ambiguous and -questionable. It has to my knowledge happened to a medical person, by no -means deficient in chemical address, to ascribe to the presence of -arsenic that which was no other than a film of very finely divided -charcoal: in this state of doubt the last resource was to ascertain -whether it yielded, or not, upon being heated, an alliaceous odour. -Surely an unprejudiced judge would prefer the evidence of sight, as -furnished by the arsenical tests, to that of smell, as afforded in the -last experiment. No one will attempt to deny that it is the duty of the -medical practitioner who is called upon to decide so important a -question as the presence of arsenic, to prosecute by experiment every -point which admits the least doubt; he should also remember that in a -criminal case, he has not only to satisfy his own conscience, but that -he is bound, as far as he is able, to convince the public mind of the -accuracy and truth of his researches; and he fails in his duty if he -omits, through any false principle of humanity, to express the strong -conviction which the success of his experiments must necessarily have -produced in his mind. Let it however be remembered, that the application -of chemical reagents on solutions suspected to contain arsenic, so far -from throwing any obstacle in the way of the metallic reduction of that -body, are the very steps which should be adopted as preparatory to the -“_experimentum crucis_,” since the precipitates which are thus produced -may be collected, and easily decomposed, as before stated. Those who for -judicial purposes may require farther information upon these subjects -are referred to the second volume of our work on “_Medical -Jurisprudence_.” _Tit: Poisons._ - - - ARSENICI OXYDUM SUBLIMATUM. L. - - _Prepared Oxide of Arsenic._ - -The object of this process is to ensure a pure and uniform oxide; it has -been already stated that a more dangerous fraud can scarcely be -committed than the adulteration of arsenic; I am therefore not inclined -to coincide with Mr. Thomson, and to regard “the present process as -superfluous,” and the committee of the college entertained a similar -opinion. - - - ASARI FOLIA. L.E.D. _Asarum Europæum._ - - Asarabacca Leaves. - -QUALITIES. The leaves, when recent, are nauseous, bitter, and -acrimonious, and prove violently purgative and emetic, properties which -are impaired by keeping. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, a peculiar acrid -principle, not well understood. SOLUBILITY, water by infusion extracts -their sensible properties, but they are lost by decoction. USES. As an -errhine, Dr. Cullen has remarked that they form the most useful species -of this genus of local stimulants. DOSE, gr. iij. to v. repeated every -night until the full effect is produced. OFFICINAL PREP. _Pulvis Asari -compositus._ E.D. - - - ASCLEPIAS TUBEROSA. - - _Pleurisy root. Radix._ - -[The root of this plant, which is very abundant in every part of the -United States, is the part used in medicine. It has a bitter taste, and -its most soluble portions are fecula and a bitter extractive matter. Its -best menstruum is boiling water. Its medicinal properties are -expectorant and diaphoretic. The diseases in which it has been found -useful are catarrh, bronchitis, the passive stage of pneumonia, and in -rheumatism. In substance it may be taken in doses from ℈j to ʒss. Of the -decoction, made by boiling half an ounce of the root in water, a tea cup -full may be taken frequently during the day.] - - - ASSAFŒTIDA.[423] L.E.D. - - Ferula Assafœtida. _Gummi Resina._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, small irregular masses, adhering together, of a -variegated texture, and containing many little shining tears of a -whitish, reddish, or violet hue. _Taste_, bitter and sub-acrid. _Odour_, -fœtid and alliaceous, but this latter property is very much impaired by -age. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Gum (or according to Brugnatelli, -_extractive_) 60, resin 30, and essential oil 10 parts. SOLUBILITY. It -yields all its virtues to alcohol and æther; if triturated with water it -forms a milky mixture, but which is not permanent, unless some intermede -be employed for the suspension of the gum-resin; for this purpose egg -may be added, in the proportion of one yolk to a drachm of assafœtida, -or a permanent mixture may be effected by carefully triturating the gum -resin with double its weight of mucilage. If ʒvj of assafœtida be -triturated with ʒss of camphor, a mass results of a proper consistence -for a plaster; if triturated with carbonate of ammonia, it is easily -reduced to powder, but undergoes no other change. FORMS OF EXHIBITION; -in mixture or in pills. The Indian physicians have an idea that on -account of its stimulating powers, it will, if administered to a -pregnant woman, produce abortion. DOSE, gr. v. to ℈j. _Form. 23, 29._ -MEDICINAL USES, stimulant, antispasmodic, expectorant, and anthelmintic; -in coughs, attended with pulmonary weakness, and a tendency to spasm, it -is very beneficial; in cases of flatulent cholic, it has, in the form of -enema, acted like a charm; in habitual costiveness it often proves an -invigorating aperient, and may be advantageously combined with resinous -purgatives in torpor of the bowels connected with nervous symptoms. -OFFICINAL PREP. _Mist: Assafœtid:_ L.D. _Tinct: Assafœtid:_ L.E.D. -_Spir: Ammoniæ fœtid:_ (=B=) L.E.D. _Tinct: Castori, comp:_ (=B=) E. -_Pil: Aloes cum Assafœtid:_ (=G=) E. _Pil: Galbani: comp:_ (=B=) L. -_Enema Fœtid:_ D. IMPURITIES. Its characteristic odour should be -powerful, and when broken, its fracture ought to exhibit a bluish-red -appearance. It ought not to be brittle. - - - AURUM. - - (Auri Murias.) _Muriate of Gold._ - -[Gold was early used as a medicine. It fell however into total disrepute -until its use was a few years since revived in France. Although it has -attracted some attention lately, it can hardly be said to have reclaimed -a permanent place in the materia medica. The most striking effects which -it produces on the system, are an increase of urine and perspiration. It -has been recommended in glandular swellings, gleets, schirrus of the -uterus, scrofula, and dropsy. It is however as an antisyphilitic remedy -that it has been principally celebrated. According to Dr. Chrestien of -Montpelier, it would appear that gold was not merely adequate to the -cure of syphilis in all its forms, but that it possesses very great -advantages over mercury—It does not affect the gums, nor does it in any -way disturb the general health of the patient. Notwithstanding this warm -recommendation of Dr. Chrestien, it is still doubtful whether gold is -adequate to the cure of syphilis. The best form in which the gold can be -given is that of the muriate, prepared according to the directions of -the Pharmacopœia of the United States; of this the dose is one fifteenth -to one fourth of a grain, in pills, given every six, eight, or twelve -hours.] - - - BALSAMUM PERUVIANUM. L.E.D. - - (Myroxylon Peruiferum). _Peruvian Balsam._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a viscid liquid of a reddish brown colour. _Odour_, -fragrant and aromatic. _Taste_, hot and bitter. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. -Resin, volatile oil, and benzoic acid; it is therefore a true _balsam:_ -this term was formerly applied to every vegetable resin having a strong -scent and the fluidity of treacle, and which was supposed to possess -many medicinal virtues; it is now restricted to those resins which -contain the benzoic acid in their composition, of which there are only -three, viz. the Balsams of _Peru_, _Tolu_, and _Benzoin_. SOLUBILITY. -Water when boiled upon it dissolves only a portion of benzoic acid; -æther is its most complete solvent; alcohol dissolves it completely, but -the quantity of this menstruum must be considerable. PROPERTIES, -stimulant and tonic, on which account in certain chronic affections of -the lungs, it has been found a serviceable expectorant; Sydenham gave it -in Phthisis, but wherever any inflammatory action is to be apprehended -Dr. Fothergill wisely cautions us against its use. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. -Diffused in water by means of mucilage, or made into pills with any -vegetable powder. DOSE, gr. v to ʒj. ADULTERATIONS. A mixture of resin -and some volatile oil with benzoin, is often sold for Peruvian Balsam, -and the fraud is not easily detected, and is probably of but little -importance. - - - BALSAMUM TOLUTANUM. L.E.D. - - (Toluifera Balsamum.) _Balsam of Tolu._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a thick tenacious liquid becoming concrete by age, in -which state it is usually found in the shops. _Taste_, warm and -sweetish. _Odour_, extremely fragrant, resembling that of lemons. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Volatile oil, resin, and benzoic acid. SOLUBILITY. -It is soluble in alcohol, forming a tincture which is rendered milky by -water, but no precipitate falls. When dissolved in the smallest quantity -of a solution of potass, its odour is changed into one that resembles -clove pink. MEDICINAL USES. It has been regarded as expectorant. In -turning to the classification of expectorants, p. 102, it will be found -to occupy a place in the second division of our first class, for it may -be considered as capable of stimulating the pulmonary exhalants; whence -its use in chronic coughs. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. It may be suspended in -water by means of mucilage, or yolk of egg, but it is rarely employed -except on account of its agreeable flavour;[424] its virtues are similar -to those of the balsam of Peru. OFFICINAL PREP. _Tinct: Benzoin. comp:_ -L.E.D. _Tinct: Toluiferi Balsam:_ E.D. _Syrup: Tolut:_ L. - - - BELLADONNÆ[425] FOLIA. L.E.D. - - (Atropa Belladonna.) _Deadly Nightshade._ - -QUALITIES. The leaves are inodorous. _Taste_, slightly nauseous, -sweetish, and sub-acrid; their peculiar properties are not lost by -drying. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Vauquelin found that the leaves contained -a substance analogous to albumen, salts with a base of potass, and a -bitter principle on which its narcotic properties depended, and more -lately the presence of an alkaline element has been detected, which has -received the appellation of _Atropia_, the sulphate of which -crystallizes very beautifully. SOLUBILITY. Water is the most powerful -solvent of its active matter. USES. It is a powerful sedative and -narcotic, both as an internal medicine and as an external application; -in this latter form, it alleviates local pains very effectually, but is -liable to affect the nervous system. The recent leaves powdered, and -made into an ointment with an equal weight of lard will be found an -efficient form for many purposes; rubbed over the penis it prevents -priapism and relieves chordee more effectually than any application -which has been proposed. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. Every part of the plant is -poisonous, and the berries from their beautiful appearance have often -tempted the unwary; the leaves however furnish the most convenient and -powerful form of exhibition; externally, they may be used as a poultice, -internally, one grain of the dry leaves powdered, and gradually -increased to 10 or 12 grains, or the leaves may be infused in boiling -water in the proportion of four grains to two fluid-ounces, which may be -given as a dose. A little of this infusion dropped into the eye -permanently dilates the pupil, for which intention it has been -successfully applied previous to an operation for the cataract. The -extract of this plant, since its active principle is fixed, ought to -possess activity, but as it occurs in commerce it is found to be very -uncertain and variable, a circumstance which entirely depends upon the -manner in which it has been prepared.[426] See _Extractum Belladonnæ_. -An overdose of belladonna produces the most distressing and alarming -symptoms, and so paralyzing is its influence, that vomiting can be -hardly excited by the strongest doses of tartarized antimony; in such -cases vinegar will be found the best antidote, or the affusion of cold -water over the surface of the body, after the application of which, -emetics are more likely to perform their duty, for physiological reasons -explained in p. 85. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Extract: Belladonnæ_ L. -_Succus spissatus Atropæ Belladonnæ_. E. - - - BENZOINUM. L.E. Benzoe. D. (Styrax Benzoin) - - vulgo, _Benjamin_. - -QUALITIES. Form, brittle masses, composed of white and brownish, or -yellowish fragments; _Odour_, fragrant; _Taste_, scarcely perceptible. -When heated, it exhales benzoic acid in the form of crystals. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. Resin, and a large proportion of benzoic acid. SOLUBILITY. -It is readily dissolved by alcohol and æther, and is again separated -from them by water; solutions of lime, and the fixed alkalies separate -the benzoic acid from it, which can afterwards be recovered from such -solutions by the addition of an acid. USES. It is considered -expectorant, and was formerly used in asthma, and other pulmonary -affections; it has however fallen into disuse, and is now principally -employed in perfumery, and odoriferous fumigations.[427] OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Acidum Benzoicum_ L.E.D. _Tinct: Benzoini comp:_[428] -L.E.D. IMPURITIES. It is found in the market in various degrees of -purity, the best is yellowish, studded with white spots: the worst is -full of dross, and very dark or black. - - - BISMUTHI SUB-NITRAS L. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a white, inodorous, tasteless powder. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. Oxide of Bismuth in combination with some water and a -little nitric acid. SOLUBILITY. It is insoluble in water and dilute -acids, but is dissolved by the concentrated acids, and is again -precipitated by water. The alkalies, Potass and Soda, also dissolve it, -but sparingly; it is more soluble in ammonia. USES. It was formerly -employed as a cosmetic, under the name of _Magistery of Bismuth_, or -that of _Pearl White_;[429] since, however, it becomes black from the -operation of Sulphuretted Hydrogen and its compounds,[430] much -inconvenience attends its application. Its medicinal powers appear to -have been first noticed by Jacobi,[431] but the remedy attracted little -or no attention until the publication of a paper upon the subject by -Odier[432] of Geneva. The diseases in which its powers as a tonic have -been more particularly displayed, are Gastrodynia, Pyrosis, and -Dyspepsia attended with cholic. Dr. Marcet in a paper read in 1801 -before the Medico-chirurgical Society of London, says, “I have had -frequent opportunities of trying the oxide of Bismuth in spasmodic -affections of the stomach in Guy’s Hospital, and those trials have fully -confirmed the opinion which I formerly gave of the utility of this -medicine.” The practitioner will receive a further confirmation of its -value by referring to Dr. Bradsley’s Medical Reports: and Dr. Yeats has -published in the Royal Institution Journal[433] a striking case -illustrative of its efficacy.[434] Dose, gr. v to xv, in the form of -pills. - - - BISTORTÆ RADIX. L.E.D. - - (Polygonum Bistorta.) _Bistort Root._ - -QUALITIES. This root has no odour, but is highly astringent. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. Its active principles are tannin and gallic acid. MED. -USES. It acts as an astringent, and is accordingly used in hemorrhages -and fluxes. DOSE of the root ℈j-ʒj; of a decoction f℥j-f℥ij. Combined -with _Calamus_ it has been successfully administered for the cure of -intermittent fevers. _See p. 167._ - - - CALAMI RADIX. L. Acori Calami Radix. E. - - Acorus. D. (Acorus Calamus). _Sweet Flag Root._ - -QUALITIES. This root is full of joints, crooked, and flattened on the -sides, internally of a white colour, and loose spongy texture. _Odour_, -fragrant and aromatic. _Taste_, bitter and pungent, qualities which are -improved by exsiccation. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The principles in which -its qualities reside appear to be essential oil, and bitter extractive; -the root likewise contains fecula, which is copiously precipitated from -its infusion by sub-acetate and acetate of lead. Watery infusion -extracts all its virtues, but decoction impairs them. Spirit is also an -appropriate solvent, and a resinous extract may be produced accordingly. -USES. It is not employed so frequently as it deserves;[435] it would be -a useful addition to many of the compound infusions of vegetable -stomachics. DOSE. A cupful of the infusion made by adding ʒvj of the -dried root to f℥xij of boiling water. It is so favourite a remedy with -the native practitioners of India, in the bowel complaints of children, -that there is a penalty incurred by any druggist who will not, in the -middle of the night, open his door and sell it, if demanded. - - - CALUMBÆ RADIX. L. (_Cocculus Palmatus._) - - Colomba, Radix. E.D. _Calumba Root._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, the dried root imported into this country is in -transverse sections; the bark is thick, and easily detached; the wood is -spongy and yellowish; the pieces are frequently perforated, evidently by -worms. _Odour_, slightly aromatic. _Taste_, bitter and somewhat acrid. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Cinchonia, bitter resin, volatile oil, and starch, -in addition to which M. Planche has found a peculiar animal-like -substance; it appears also to contain Malate and Sulphate of Lime. -SOLUBILITY. Boiling water takes up about one-third of its weight, but -proof spirit appears to be its most perfect menstruum. INCOMPATIBLE -SUBSTANCES. No change is occasioned in the infusion by the solutions of -nitrate of silver, sulphate of iron, muriate of mercury, or tartarized -antimony; but precipitates are produced by the _infusion of galls, and -yellow Cinchona bark_, by _sub-acetate and acetate of lead_, -_oxy-muriate of mercury_, and _lime-water_. The infusion very soon -spoils. DOSE of the powdered root gr. xv to ʒss; of the infusion f℥iss -to f℥ij. USES. It is one of the most valuable tonics and stomachics -which we possess. It seems to be superior to many others, from not -possessing astringent, and stimulant powers, on which account it is -singularly eligible in certain pulmonary and mesenteric affections; it -may be given in combination with chalybeates, aromatics, saline -purgatives, or with rhubarb, as circumstances may require. (_Form. 34, -155._) OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Infus: Calumbæ_. L. _Tinct: Calumbæ_. -L.E.D. It becomes worm-eaten by age, and, in that condition, should be -rejected. Those pieces which have the brightest colour, and the greatest -specific gravity, are the best. The root of _white briony_, tinged -yellow with the tincture of Calumba, has been fraudulently substituted -for this root. - - - CAMBOGIA. L. _Gamboge._ (_Stalagmitis Cambogioides._ ) Gambogia. E.D. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, lumps of a solid consistence, breaking with a -vitreous fracture; _Odour_, none; _Colour_, deep yellow, bordering on -red, and becoming, when moistened, a brilliant light yellow. _Sp. Grav:_ -1·221. _Taste_, slightly acrid, but which is not experienced unless it -be allowed to remain long in the mouth. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. One part -of gum, (_Cerasin_,) and four parts of a brittle resin; but this -knowledge throws no light on the nature of its cathartic property. -SOLUBILITY. When triturated with water two-thirds of its substance are -speedily dissolved, and a turbid solution results; alcohol dissolves -nine-tenths, and forms a yellow transparent tincture, which is rendered -turbid by the addition of water; sulphuric ether dissolves six-tenths of -the substance; it is also soluble in alkaline solutions, and the -resulting compound is not rendered turbid by water, but is instantly -decomposed by acids, and the precipitate so produced is of an extremely -brilliant yellow colour, and soluble in an excess of acid. INCOMPATIBLE -SUBSTANCES. No bodies appear to produce in gamboge such a chemical -change as to destroy the chemical properties which distinguish it, but -by a mechanical admixture, its solubility and consequently its -operation, may be materially modified. Dr. Cullen found that the -inconvenience arising from its too rapid solubility, and sudden -impression upon the stomach, might be obviated by diminishing the dose, -and repeating it at short intervals as directed in _Form: 89_. FORMS OF -EXHIBITION. No form is more judicious than that of pill. Its alkaline -solution has been sometimes exhibited in dropsy, when it is said to -operate both on the bowels and kidneys. DOSE, gr. 2 to gr. 6. USES. It -is a powerful drastic cathartic, and hydragogue, very liable to excite -vomiting, and from this peculiar action upon the stomach it has been -frequently employed with success in the expulsion of teniæ (_Form: -161_.) and it accordingly enters as an ingredient into many of the -empirical compositions which are sold for the cure of tape worms.[436] -OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Pil: Cambogiæ comp:_ L. There is considerable -difference in the degree of purity in which this substance occurs in the -market; it should be estimated by its clearness and brilliancy. - - - CAMPHORA. L.E.D. (_Laurus Camphora._[437]) - - Camphor. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a white brittle substance, unctuous to the touch, but -possessing at the same time a degree of ductility which prevents its -being easily pulverised, unless a few drops of spirit be previously -added. It is capable of affecting a crystalline form.[438] _Odour_, -peculiar, fragrant, and penetrating. _Taste_, bitter, pungent, and -aromatic. _Specific gravity_, ·9887, it therefore swims on water; it is -so volatile that during warm weather a considerable proportion will -evaporate, especially if at the same time the atmosphere be rather -moist, for the reason stated in page 175. It is readily ignited, and -burns with a brilliant flame and much smoke; it melts at 288°, and boils -at 400. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is a proximate vegetable principle, -resembling the essential oils in many of its habitudes, and probably -differs from them in composition only in containing a larger proportion -of carbon. SOLUBILITY. Water may be said to dissolve about a nine -hundredth part of its weight, or f℥j rather more than gr. ½, but its -solvent power is considerably increased by the addition of carbonic acid -gas; camphor is also rendered more soluble by trituration with magnesia; -it is soluble in an equal weight of alcohol, but it is again separated -by the addition of water; it is also dissolved by oils, both fixed and -volatile,[439] especially if their temperature be a little raised, and -by sulphuric and other æthers, but strong acetic acid may be said to be -its most powerful solvent. By repeatedly distilling it with nitric acid -it is converted into _Camphoric acid_, an acid distinguished by peculiar -properties, and composing, with alkalies and earths, a class of salts -called _Camphorates_, but which do not possess any medicinal value. The -alkalies do not produce any effect upon camphor. INCOMPATIBLE -SUBSTANCES. It is not affected by any substance with which we can -combine it. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. It is preferable in the form of -mixture, since it is very liable in the solid state to excite nausea, -and, from swimming on the contents of the stomach, to occasion pain at -its upper orifice. If a larger dose be required than that which water -can dissolve, an additional proportion may be suspended by means of -sugar, almonds, yelk of egg, or mucilage, for which purpose three times -its weight of gum arabic is required. If Camphor be first dissolved by -trituration in a very small portion of oil, it readily mixes with -mucilage of gum arabic, and may then be conveniently blended with -liquids. It has also the property of uniting with gum-resins, and of -converting them into permanently soft, and uniform masses; hence they -may sometimes be conveniently applied for diffusing it in water. It may -be formed into pill-masses by stiff mucilage, fœtid gums, or by a -confection. MEDICINAL USES. In moderate doses it exhilarates, without -raising the pulse, and gives a tendency to diaphoresis; and under -certain conditions of the body, when opium fails, it will frequently -promote sleep. As its effects are transient, its dose should be repeated -at short intervals. _Illustrative Formulæ_ 1, 6, 21, 125, 134, 164. -Camphor is said to correct the bad effects of opium, mezereon, -cantharides, and the drastic purgatives, and diuretics. DOSE, gr. ij to -℈j. In excessive doses it occasions anxiety, vomiting, syncope, and -delirium; these violent effects are best counteracted by opium. -OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Mistura Camphoræ._ L.D. _Emulsio Camphorata._ -E. _Spiritus Camphoræ_, L.E.D. _Tinctura Camphoræ comp:_ L.E.D. _Acidum -Acetosum Camphoratum._ E.D. _Linimentum Camphoræ._ L.E.D. _Liniment: -Camphoræ comp:_ L. _Liniment: Saponis_. (=G=) L.E.D. ADULTERATIONS. It -has been stated that pure camphor may be known by placing it upon hot -bread, when it will turn moist, whereas an adulterated specimen becomes -dry—but with what can it be adulterated? - - - CANELLÆ CORTEX. L.E.D. Canella Bark, (_Canella Alba Cortex._) - - _Wild Cinnamon._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_; it occurs in quilled and flat pieces; the former are -of a whitish-yellow colour, considerably thicker than cinnamon; the -latter, which are probably the bark of the larger branches, or of the -stem of the tree, are yellow on the outside, and pale brown within. -_Odour_, resembling that of cloves. _Taste_, warm, pungent, and slightly -bitter. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Its virtues depend upon an essential oil, -and a bitter resin. SOLUBILITY. Water extracts only the bitterness, but -proof spirits both the bitterness and aroma. MEDICINAL USES. As a warm -stimulant to the stomach, and as a corrigent to other medicines. In -America it is considered as a powerful antiscorbutic. DOSE of the -powdered bark gr. x to ʒss. Officinal Preparations. _Tinct. Gentian. -comp._ (=B. G.=) E. _Vinum Aloes_, (=G=) L.D. _Pulv. Aloes cum canella_, -(=G=) D. - - - CANTHARIDES.[440] (Cantharis Vesicatoria.) - - _Blistering, or Spanish Flies._ - -This beautiful insect of the beetle tribe is exceedingly abundant in the -southern parts of Europe, and particularly in Spain. They are collected -from the leaves of the different trees on which they delight to dwell, -in June and July, and are afterwards destroyed, as recommended by -Dioscorides, by the fumes of strong vinegar, and dried in the sun. The -chemical history of Cantharides is still involved in some obscurity; the -blistering principle has been obtained by Robiquet in a separate state, -when it assumes the form of small crystalline plates, having a micaceous -lustre, not unlike spermaceti; Dr. Thomson has given to it the name of -_Cantharidin_;[441] when pure, it is insoluble in water and in cold -alcohol; boiling alcohol, however, dissolves it, but precipitates it -again on being cooled. Æther and the oils dissolve it readily. Although -not soluble in water it is rendered so by the presence of a yellow -matter which exists in native combination with it. A very minute portion -of this substance dissolved in sweet oil, and applied to the skin with a -piece of paper, produces vesication in five or six hours. In addition to -this active principle, Cantharides contain a green concrete oil; a -yellow fluid oil; a peculiar black substance soluble in water and proof -spirit, but not in pure alcohol; a saponaceous or yellow substance, -soluble both in water and alcohol; Uric acid; Acetic acid; Phosphate of -Magnesia, and a parenchymatous substance.[442] MEDICINAL USES. -Cantharides, when administered internally, are powerfully stimulant and -diuretic;[443] and whether applied as a vesicatory to the skin, or taken -into the stomach, they have a peculiar tendency to act upon the urinary -organs, and especially to irritate and inflame the neck of the bladder, -and occasion strangury. On this account they have been very successfully -employed both for the cure of incontinence of urine, and suppression of -this discharge, from torpor or paralysis of the bladder; they have also -been used in gleet and leucorrhæa, and in cases of seminal weakness and -impotence. In consulting the works of Dioscorides, Galen, and Pliny, we -shall find they entertained a notion, that the _virus_ existed only in -the body of the fly, and that the head, feet and wings, contained its -antidote! Hippocrates prescribed them internally in Dropsy, Jaundice, -and Amenorrhœa; and yet in the end of the sixteenth century, Dr. -Groenvelt was charged and sued[444] for giving them inwardly, in -substance, for the cure of the stone. DOSE, in substance, not exceeding -gr. i, combined with opium or hyoscyamus. See _Tinctura: Cantharid_. A -strong decoction of the Cantharides in Oil of Turpentine furnishes a -most powerful Epispastic, and may be easily applied by means of dossils -of lint. As the general belief, which exists with respect to the -aphrodisiac powers of this substance, may induce persons to try its -efficacy in large doses, either for goading the exertions of exhausted -nature, or for incensing the passions of females whose seduction is -meditated, it behoves the medical practitioner to become acquainted with -the symptoms which it may produce, and of which the following may be -considered as the most prominent;—violent retching; copious alvine -evacuations, frequently bloody; very severe colics; active inflammation -of the stomach and intestines; sometimes universal convulsions, attended -with a horror of liquids, resembling that which occurs in hydrophobia; -furious delirium, &c. But the affections of the urinary passages, and -organs of generation, may be regarded κατεξοχην, as the peculiar -symptoms of poisoning by Cantharides; such as heat in the bladder, -bloody micturition, horrible strangury, painful and obstinate priapism, -_satyriasis_, &c. The method of treatment to be pursued on such -occasions will consist in copious bleeding, warm bath, local -fomentations, mild and mucilaginous drinks; and opium, especially in the -form of clyster or suppository. OFFICINAL PREP. _Tinct: Cantharid:_ L. -_Emplast: Cantharid:_ L. _Ceratum Cantharid:_ L. _Unguent: Infusi -Cantharid: Vesicat:_ E. _Unguent: Cantharid:_ D. The flies do not lose -their virtues by being kept; it is, however, curious that even those -acrid insects are soon reduced to dust by others feeding upon them; but -since the inert parenchymatous portion is alone selected by them, the -residue is extremely active.[445] - - - CAPSICI BACCÆ. L.E.D. Berries of the Capsicum. (Capsicum Annum.) - -QUALITIES. _Form_, pods, long, pointed, and pendulous; _Colour_, when -ripe, a bright orange red. _Odour_, aromatic and pungent. _Taste_, -extremely acrimonious and fiery. SOLUBILITY. Its qualities are partially -extracted by water, but more completely by æther and spirit. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. Cinchonia, resin, mucilage, and an acrid principle said to -be alkaline.[446] INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. The infusions of capsicum are -disturbed by _Infusion of Galls_; _Nitrate of Silver_; _Oxy-muriate of -Mercury_; _Acetate of Lead_; _the Sulphates of Iron, Copper and Zinc_; -_Ammonia, Carbonate of Potass, and Alum_, but not by sulphuric, nitric, -or muriatic acid. MEDICINAL USES. It is a most powerful stimulant to the -stomach, and is unaccompanied with any narcotic effect; as a gargle in -cynanche maligna, and in relaxed states of the throat, it furnishes a -valuable remedy; combined with purgatives, it proves serviceable in -dyspepsia, (_Form: 78_,) it has lately been given with success in the -advanced stages of acute rheumatism; in various diseases attended with -cold feet, it has been recommended to wear socks dusted with Cayenne -Pepper. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. It may be given, made into pills with crumb -of bread, or in the form of tincture, diluted with water; for the -purpose of a gargle, a simple infusion in the proportion of gr. j to f℥j -of boiling water, or fʒvi of the tincture to f℥viij of the _Infusum -Rosæ_, may be directed. DOSE, of the substance, gr. vj to x, of the -tincture fʒj to fʒij in an aqueous vehicle. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. -_Tinct: Capsici:_ L.D.[447] - -_Cayenne Pepper_ is an indiscriminate mixture of the powder of the dried -pods of several species of capsicum, but especially of the Capsicum -_baccatum_, (Bird pepper.) - -ADULTERATIONS. Cayenne pepper is generally mixed with _muriate of soda_, -which disposes it to deliquesce. _Red Lead_ may be detected by digesting -it in acetic acid, and adding to the solution sulphuret of ammonia, -which will produce, if any lead be present, a dark coloured precipitate; -or the fraud may be discovered by boiling some of the suspected pepper -in vinegar, and after filtering the solution adding to it sulphate of -soda, when a white precipitate will be formed, which, after being dried -and exposed to heat, and mixed with a little charcoal, will yield a -metallic globule of lead. - - - CARBO LIGNI. L.E.D. _Charcoal._ - -QUALITIES. It is a black, inodorous, insipid, brittle substance; when -newly prepared it possesses the property of absorbing very considerable -quantities of the different gases; it is also capable of destroying the -smell and taste of a variety of vegetable and animal substances, -especially of mucilages, oils, and of matter in which _extractive_ -abounds; and some medicines are said to be even deprived of their -characteristic odour by remaining in contact with it, as Valerian, -Galbanum, Balsam of Peru, and Musk. The use of charring the interior of -water casks, and of wrapping charcoal in cloths that have acquired a bad -smell, depends upon this property; for the same reason it furnishes a -very excellent tooth powder,[448] for which purpose, that which is -obtained from the shell of the cocoa nut is to be preferred. None of the -fluid menstrua with which we are acquainted have any action whatever as -solvents upon carbon.[449] MEDICINAL USES. It is antiseptic, and has -been administered internally, to correct the putrid eructations which -sometimes attend dyspepsia, but in order to produce this effect it -should be newly prepared, or such as has been preserved from the access -of air, for it operates by absorbing the putrid gas, as well as by -checking the decomposition of the undigested element.[450] DOSE, grs. x -to ʒj. It has been lately asserted to possess powers as an antidote to -arsenic; if this be true, its action can only be mechanical by absorbing -like a sponge the arsenical solution, and thereby defending the coats of -the stomach from its virulence.[451] Charcoal, when mixed with boiled -bread, forms a very valuable poultice for foul and gangrenous sores. In -a state of impalpable powder, it is said to be effectual as a styptic; -Dr. Odier informs us that the celebrated _powder of Faynard_, for -stopping hemorrhage, was nothing more than the charcoal of beech-wood -finely powdered. - -Charcoal is prepared for the purposes of medicine and the arts, from a -variety of substances, viz. - -BURNT SPONGE. _Spongia Usta._ L. Consists of charcoal with portions of -phosphate and carbonate of lime, and sub-carbonate of soda; it has been -highly commended in bronchocele and scrophulous complaints, in the form -of an electuary, or in that of a lozenge, and it has been lately -asserted that it owes its power to the presence of Iodine. - -VEGETABLE ÆTHIOPS. _Pulvis Quercus marinæ._ From the _fucus -vesiculosus_, or bladder-wrack, used as the preceding. - -IVORY BLACK. _Ebur Ustum._ From ivory shavings burned; used as a -dentifrice and a pigment, under the name of “_blue-black_,” for its hue -is bluish; but bone-black is usually sold for it. - -LAMP BLACK. _Fuligo Lampadum._ By burning resinous bodies, as the refuse -of pitch, in furnaces of a peculiar construction. - -WOOD SOOT. _Fuligo ligni_, collected from chimnies under which wood is -burnt. It contains sulphate of ammonia, which imparts to it its -characteristic bitterness. It has been considered antispasmodic, and a -tincture was formerly prepared of it. - - - CARDAMOMI SEMINA. L.D. ( Matonia[452] Cardamomum.) - - Amomum Repens. E. _Cardamom Seeds._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, aromatic and agreeable; _Taste_, warm and pungent, -but unlike the peppers, they do not immoderately heat the stomach. -SOLUBILITY. Water, alcohol and æther extract their virtues; the two -latter most completely, and the result is transparent, whereas the -watery infusion is turbid and mucilaginous. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. -Fecula, mucilage, and essential oil. MEDICINAL USES. They are -carminative and stomachic, and prove grateful adjuncts to bitter -infusions; they are principally employed to give warmth to other -remedies. DOSE of the powder, gr. vj to ℈j. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. -_Extract: Colocynth: comp:_ (=E=) L.D. _Tinct. Cardamomi_, L.E.D. -_Tinct. Cardamom: comp:_ L.D. _Tinct: Cinnamomi, co._ (=B=) L.E. _Tinct. -Gentian, co._ (=G=) L. _Tinct. Rhei_, (=E=) L.E.D. _Tinct. Rhei cum -Aloe_, (=G=) E. _Tinct. Sennæ_, (=E=) L.D. _Spir. Ether. Aromat._ (=B=) -L. _Vinum Aloes Socot._ (=G=) E. _Confect. Aromat._ (=B=) L. _Pulv. -Cinnamom. co._ (=B=) L.E.D. _Pil. Scilliticæ_, (=E=) E. _Infus. Sennæ._ -D. (=E=.) - -Cardamom seeds should be kept within their husks, or their virtues will -soon be considerably impaired; they are frequently mixed with _grains of -paradise_, which are much hotter and more spicy, but less aromatic in -their flavour. - - - CARICÆ FRUCTUS, L.D. Fici Caricæ Fructus, E. - - _The preserved Fruit of the Fig._ - -QUALITIES of the dried fig are too well known to require description. -The fig consists almost entirely of mucilage and sugar. USES. It has -been already stated that the most ancient cataplasm on record was made -of figs, (2 Kings, chap. xx. 7.) they are employed medicinally in many -demulcent decoctions, as _Decoctum Hordei comp:_ L.D. They are gently -aperient; it is curious to learn that they constituted the chief part of -the food of the ancient Athletæ. - - - CARYOPHYLLI. L. - - (Eugenia Caryophyllata. _The unopened flowers dried._) - - Caryophilli Aromatici Germen, E. - - Caryophilli aromat. Calyx, D. _Cloves._ - -Cloves are the unexpanded flowers, or flower-buds, of the clove tree, -which are first obtained when the tree is six years old; they are -gathered in October and November before they open, and when they are -still green; and are dried in the sun, after having been exposed to -smoke at a heat of 120°, till they assume a brown hue. It is a curious -fact that the flowers when fully developed are quite inodorous, and that -the real fruit is not in the least aromatic. QUALITIES. _Form_, that of -a nail, consisting of a globular head, formed of the four petals of the -corolla, and four leaves of the calyx not yet expanded; and a germen -situated below nearly cylindrical, and scarcely an inch in length. -_Odour_, strong, fragrant, and aromatic. _Taste_, acrid, aromatic and -permanent. Benzoic acid has lately been discovered in them. - -SOLUBILITY. Water extracts their odour, but little of their taste; -alcohol and ether take up both completely. MEDICINAL USES. They are more -stimulant than any of the other aromatics; they are sometimes given -alone, but more generally as a corrigent to other medicines. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Infusum Caryophyllorum._ L. _Spir. Lavand. co._ D. (=B=) -FRAUDS. The Dutch frequently mix the best cloves with those from which -the oil has been drawn. - -CARYOPHYLLORUM OLEUM. This essential oil, in consequence of the resinous -matter which it holds in solution, has a specific gravity of 1·020, and -consequently sinks in water. When the oil has a hot fiery taste, and a -great depth of colour, it is adulterated. It is imported from the spice -islands. On account of its stimulant properties, it is added to griping -extracts, or used as a local application in the tooth-ache. Vauquelin -obtained from the leaves of the _Agathophyllum ravensara_ an essential -oil, in every respect similar to that of cloves; and I am informed by -Dr. Davy that an oil exactly resembling in smell the oil of Cloves is -procured in Ceylon from the leaf of the Cinnamon tree; but very little, -if any, has ever been exported. - - - CASCARILLÆ CORTEX. L.D. Croton Eleutheria. E. (Croton Cascarilla.) - - _Cascarilla Bark._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, curled pieces, or rolled up into short quills; its -fracture is smooth and close, of a dark brown colour; _Odour_, light and -agreeable; when burning, it emits a smell resembling that of musk, which -at once distinguishes it from all other barks. _Taste_, moderately -bitter, with some aromatic warmth. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Mucilage, -bitter extractive, resin, volatile oil, and a large proportion of woody -fibre; neither _Cinchonia_ nor _Quina_ has hitherto been discovered in -it. SOLUBILITY. Its active constituents are partially extracted by -alcohol and water, and completely by proof spirit. MEDICINAL USES. -Carminative and tonic; it is an excellent adjunct to cinchona, rendering -it by its aromatic qualities more agreeable to the stomach, and -increasing its powers. It is valuable in dyspepsia and flatulent cholic, -in dysentery and diarrhœa, and in the gangrenous thrush peculiar to -children. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. It is most efficacious in substance; it -may however be given in the form of infusion, or tincture. Decoction -dissipates its aromatic principle; the extract therefore merely acts as -a simple bitter. See _Infus. Cascarillæ_. DOSE of the powder, grs. xij -to ʒss. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Infus. Cascarill._ L. _Tinct. -Cascarill._ L.D. _Extract. Cascarill._ D. - - - CASSIÆ PULPA. L.E.D. Cassia Pulp. (Cassia Fistula, _Lomentorum Pulpa._) - -The fruit is a cylindrical pod scarcely an inch in diameter, but a foot -or more in length; the exterior is a hard brown bark; the interior is -divided into numerous transverse cells, each of which contains an oval -seed imbedded in a soft black pulp. QUALITIES. _Odour_, faint and rather -sickly. _Taste_, sweet and mucilaginous. SOLUBILITY. Nearly the whole of -the pulp is dissolved by water, partially by alcohol and sulphuric -ether. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Sugar, gelatine, glutine, gum, and a small -portion of resin, extractive, and some colouring matter. USES. It is -gently laxative, and is adapted for children and very delicate women, -but it should be always given in combination with manna or some other -laxative, or it is apt to induce nausea, flatulence and griping. -OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Confectio Cassiæ._ L.E.D. _Confectio Sennæ_ -(=B.O.=) L.E.D.[453] There are two kinds of this drug in the market; -that from the West Indies, the pods of which are generally large, rough, -thick rinded, and contain a nauseous pulp; and that from the East -Indies, which is to be preferred, and which is distinguished by smaller -and smoother pods, and by their containing a much blacker pulp. The pulp -ought not to have a harsh flavour, which arises from the fruit having -been gathered before it was ripe, nor ought it to be sour, which it is -very apt to become by keeping. The heaviest pods, and those in which the -seeds do not rattle, are to be preferred. - - - CASTOREUM. L.E.D. _Castor._ (Castor Fiber. (_Rossicus._) _Concretum sui - generis._) - -This substance is secreted by the beaver, in bags near the rectum.[454] -QUALITIES. _Odour_, strong and aromatic. _Taste_, bitter, sub-acrid, and -nauseous. _Colour_, reddish brown. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Volatile oil, -resin, mucilage, extractive, iron, and small portions of the carbonate -of potass, lime and ammonia. It contains also, according to the analysis -of Laugier, a small quantity of Benzoic acid. The Canadian variety is -also stated by Laugier to contain benzoic acid both free and combined. -SOLUBILITY. Its active matter is dissolved by alcohol, proof spirit, and -partially by water; the tincture made with alcohol is the least -nauseous, and the most efficacious; the spirit of ammonia is also an -excellent menstruum, and in many cases improves its virtues. FORMS OF -EXHIBITION. It may be given in substance, as a bolus, or in the form of -tincture, but its exhibition in the form of extract or decoction is -chemically incorrect. DOSE, grs. x to ℈j, and, in clysters, to ʒj. -MEDICINAL USES. It is antispasmodic, and seems to act more particularly -on the uterine system. It certainly proves beneficial as an adjunct to -antihysteric combinations; it was highly esteemed by Van Swieten, De -Haen, and many other German practitioners. Baglivi states that it -counteracts the narcotic powers of opium, but this is not the case. -OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Tinct. Castorei_.[455] L.E.D. ADULTER: It is -sometimes counterfeited by a mixture of dried blood, gum ammoniacum, and -a little real castor, stuffed into the scrotum of a goat; the fraud is -detected by comparing the smell and taste with those of real castor; and -by the deficiency of the subaceous follicles, which are always attached -to genuine specimens. There are two kinds in the market, the Russian and -Canadian, the former however, which is the best, has become extremely -scarce; it may be distinguished from the latter, by being larger, -rounder, heavier, and less corrugated on the outside. - - - CATECHU EXTRACTUM, L.E.D. - - (Acacia Catechu, _Extractum_.) - - _Catechu_; olim _Terra Japonica_.[456] _Japan Earth._ - -QUALITIES. There are two varieties of catechu in the market, the one of -a light yellowish, the other of a chocolate colour; they differ only in -the latter having a more austere and bitter taste. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. -Tannin, a peculiar extractive matter, mucilage, and earthy impurities. -SOLUBILITY. It is almost totally dissolved both by water and spirit. -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. Its astringency is destroyed by alkaline salts; -and precipitates are produced by metallic salts, especially by those of -iron; and with gelatine it forms an insoluble compound. MEDICINAL USES. -It is a most valuable astringent. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In infusion, -tincture, or powder. (_Form. 51, 52, 58, 151._) In the form of a -lozenge, from its gradual solution, it may be very advantageously -applied in relaxed states of the uvula and fauces; I have found this -remedy successful in cases where the _sulphate of zinc_ was inefficient. -From its great astringency it also forms an excellent dentifrice, -especially when the gums are spongy; for this purpose I have employed -equal parts of powdered catechu, and Peruvian bark, with one-fourth the -quantity of the powder of myrrh. DOSE, grs. x to ℈i. OFFICINAL PREP. -_Infus. Catechu_, _Tinct. Catechu_, L.E.D. _Electuarium Mimosæ Catechu_, -E.D. - - - CENTAURII CACUMINA. L.E.D. - - (Chironia Centaurium[457] _Cacumina._) - - _The flowering tops of the common Centaury._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, none; _Taste_, intensely bitter. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. Mucilage, resin, and bitter matter. SOLUBILITY. Alcohol and -water dissolve all its active matter. MEDICINAL USES. All its value -depends upon its bitterness. It entered into the composition of the once -celebrated _Portland Powder_ for the gout, for an account of which see -page 32. DOSE, of an infusion, made in the proportion of ℥j to oj of -boiling water, f℥ij; of the dry powder ʒi. - - - CERA. L.E.D. _Wax._ - - It is admitted into the list of the Materia Medica under two forms, viz. - - 1. CERA FLAVA. _Yellow or Unbleached Wax._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, faintly honey-like; it is brittle yet soft; when -chewed, it does not, if pure, adhere to the teeth; it melts at 142°, and -burns entirely away. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is the honey-comb of the -bee melted with boiling water, pressed through cloth bags, and -ultimately cast into round cakes for the market. Whether it be an animal -product, or a vegetable substance merely collected by the bee, has been -a question of dispute; the former opinion is probably correct, although -wax is certainly produced as a secretion by many plants. The yellow wax -contains a portion of pollen which imparts its colour to it, and -increases its fusibility. SOLUBILITY. It is insoluble in water, and in -cold alcohol or ether, but it is soluble in boiling alcohol and ether, -in fixed oils, and in alkalies. USES. It is chiefly employed in the -composition of external applications. ADULTERATIONS. _Earth_ or -_peas-meal_ may be suspected when the cake is very brittle, and the -colour inclines to grey; _Resin_ is detected by putting it in cold -alcohol, which will dissolve the resinous part without acting on the -wax. _Tallow_ is discovered by the greater softness and unctuosity of -the cake, and by its suffocating smell when melted; when this latter -substance is employed, turmeric is added to disguise its paleness. - -2. CERA ALBA. _White, Bleached, or Virgin’s Wax._ - -QUALITIES. This substance differs only from the former, in being -colourless, harder, heavier, and less fusible. USES. It is said to be -demulcent, and very useful in dysentery, but it is rarely used. FORMS OF -EXHIBITION. It may be formed into a mixture by melting it with one-third -of its weight of soap, and then gradually adding to it any mucilaginous -liquid. ADULTERATIONS. _White Lead_ may be detected by melting the wax -in water, when the oxide will fall to the bottom of the vessel; _tallow_ -may be suspected when the cake wants its usual translucency. - - - CERATA. L.E. Cerates. - -These compositions are characterized by a degree of consistence, -intermediate between that of plasters, and that of ointments. As this -consistence is obtained from the wax which they contain, they very -properly derive from that substance the generic appellation of -_Cerates_. - -CERATUM CALAMINÆ. L. (_Ceratum lapidis Calaminaris._ P.L. 1787. _Ceratum -epuloticum. P.L._ 1745). Ceratum Carbonatis Zinci Impuri. E. Unguentum -Calaminare. D.—These preparations have been long known under the name of -_Turner’s Cerate_; they form the basis of many extemporaneous cerates, -in some of which nitric oxide of mercury, in the proportion of ʒj of the -oxide to ℥j of cerate, and in others, the liquor of sub-acetate of lead, -are introduced. By the former combination we obtain a very useful -application to indolent and ill-conditioned ulcers, a valuable stimulant -for inducing an action conducive to the regeneration of parts. By the -latter combination we derive a remedy highly extolled by our most -experienced surgeons, in the cure of burns and scalds. - -CERATUM CANTHARIDIS. L. The basis of this preparation is spermaceti -cerate _six parts_, to which is added, of powdered flies _one part:_ as -it is intended to promote a purulent discharge from a blistered surface, -it may be reduced in strength according to circumstances. - -CERATUM CETACEI. L. (_Ceratum Spermatis ceti. P.L._ 1787. Ceratum Album, -P.L. 1745). Ceratum Simplex. E. It furnishes a soft and cooling -dressing, and constitutes a convenient basis for more active -combinations, as in the following instance. - -CERATUM PLUMBI ACETATIS. L. (_Unguentum Cerussæ Acetatæ, P.L._ 1787.) -This is cooling for burns, excoriations, and inflamed surfaces. - -CERATUM PLUMBI COMPOSITUM. L. (_Cerat: Lithargyri acetati compositum. -P.L._ 1787.) This is “_Goulard’s Cerate_” and is applicable to the same -cases as the former cerate; the camphor which enters into its -composition imparts a gently stimulating power to it; it proves -extremely serviceable in chronic opthalmia of the tarsus, and for the -increased secretion of tears, which so frequently affects the eyes of -persons advanced in years. - -CERATUM RESINÆ. L. (_Ceratum resinæ flavæ, P.L._ 1787. _Ceratum -citrinum._ 1745. _Yellow Basilicon_). Unguent: Resinosum, E. Unguent: -Resinæ albæ. D. It is stimulant, digestive, and cleansing, and affords a -very excellent application for foul and indolent ulcers. - -CERATUM SABINÆ. L. _Savine Cerate._ It is intended to keep up a purulent -discharge from a blistered surface; in practice however it is often -found to fail from the difficulty of obtaining it good, since the acrid -principle of the plant is injured by long boiling, and by being -previously dried; the ointment also loses its virtue by exposure to the -air. - -CERATUM SAPONIS. L. This preparation was much used and recommended by -the late Mr. Pott; in preparing it the greatest possible caution is -required; the fire should never be too rapidly applied, the stirring -should be uniform and incessant, and the heat should only be sufficient -to keep the two compositions liquid at the time when they are united. -The original intention of the cerate was to afford, when spread upon -linen, a mechanical support to fractured limbs, and to keep the points -of the bone in due apposition, while in consequence of the _acetate of -lead_ which is formed in the first stage of the process for its -preparation, it possesses the virtues of a saturnine dressing. As a -mechanical agent it may prove at once effectual and dangerous, for if it -be applied before all inflammation and swelling have entirely -disappeared, the inflamed vessels may be completely strangulated by its -unrelenting pressure, and high erysipelatous inflammation, and a rapid -state of gangrene may be the result. - -CERATUM SIMPLEX. A useful application to excoriations and sores. - -Besides the above cerates, there are many magistral[458] preparations, -of great practical value, and I must refer the surgical student for an -account of them to that very useful little manual, entitled -“_Pharmacopœia Chirurgica_.” - - - CETACEUM. L. - - (Physeter Macrocephalus, _Concretum sui generis_.) - - Spermaceti. E.D. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, flakes, which are unctuous, friable, and white. -_Odour_ and _taste_, scarcely perceptible. _Sp. Grav._ 9·433. It melts -at 112°. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is a peculiar modification of fatty -matter. SOLUBILITY. It is insoluble in water and cold alcohol, but -soluble in hot alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine, but it concretes -again as the fluids cool; in the fixed oils it is completely soluble. -The alkaline carbonates do not affect it, but it is partially dissolved -in the pure alkalies, and with hot ammonia it forms an emulsion which is -not decomposed on cooling. USES. It is demulcent and emollient, but it -possesses no advantages over the bland oils. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. It may -be suspended in water by means of mucilage or yolk of egg. (_Formulæ 76, -78, 79._) OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Ceratum Simplex_. E. _Ceratum -Cetacei_. L. _Unguent. Cetacei_. L.D. From exposure to hot air, it -becomes rancid; but it may be again purified, by being washed in a warm -solution of potass. - - - CINCHONA. L.E.D. _Bark._ _Peruvian Bark._ - - _Jesuit’s Bark._ - -Notwithstanding the labours of the Spanish botanists, the history of -this important genus is still involved in considerable perplexity, and -owing to the mixture of the barks of several species,[459] and their -importation into Europe under one common name, it is extremely difficult -to reconcile the contradictory opinions which exist upon the subject, -nor indeed would such an investigation be consistent with the plan and -objects of this work. Under the trivial name _officinalis_, Linnæus -confounded no less than four distinct species of cinchona, and under the -same denomination the British Pharmacopœias, for a long period, placed -as varieties the three barks known in the shops; this error indeed is -still maintained in the Dublin Pharmacopœias, but the London and -Edinburgh colleges have at length adopted the arrangement of Mutis, a -celebrated botanist, who has resided in South America, and held the -official situation of Director of the exportation of bark for nearly -forty years. - -CINCHONÆ CORDIFOLIÆ CORTEX. L.E. Cortex Peruvianus. D. Heart-leaved -Cinchona Bark, commonly called _Yellow_ Bark. - -CINCHONÆ LANCIFOLIÆ CORTEX. L.E. Cortex Peruvianus. D. Lance-leaved -Cinchona Bark, common _Quilled_ bark—_Pale_ bark. - -CINCHONÆ OBLONGIFOLIÆ CORTEX. L.E. Cortex Peruvianus. D. Oblong-leaved -Cinchona Bark, called _Red_ bark. - -QUALITIES. The _odour_ and _taste_ of these three species are -essentially the same, although they differ in intensity. They are all -bitter, sub-astringent and aromatic, but the flavour of the _Yellow_ -bark is incomparably the most bitter, although less austere and -astringent, whilst the red bark has a taste much less bitter, but more -austere and nauseous than either of the other species. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. Few vegetable substances have been more frequently, or more -ably submitted to chemical analysis than the Peruvian bark, and yet but -few results of any great practical utility had been obtained previous to -the recent experiments of Pelletier and Caventou, communicated to the -Academy of Sciences at Paris, since the publication of the fourth -edition of the present work. - -Dr. Maton[460] had several years ago observed, that an infusion of -nutgalls produced a precipitate with the decoctions of Bark; a fact -which necessarily produced considerable speculation. Seguin was induced -to regard it as arising from the presence of _gelatine_, (_see p. 56_,) -an opinion which Dr. Duncan proved to be erroneous, and shewed that it -depended upon a new proximate principle, to which M. Gomez of Lisbon had -previously assigned the name of _Cinchonine_. Besides which, bark was -considered as containing resin, extractive, gluten, tannin, a small -portion of volatile oil, and some salts with a base of lime; one of -which however had been only found in _Yellow_ bark, and had been -discovered to contain a peculiar vegetable acid, denominated by -Vauquelin _Kinic_, a name which Dr. Duncan very judiciously superseded -by that of _Cinchonic_ acid. - -In the _Red_ bark, Fourcroy detected also a portion of citric acid, some -muriate of ammonia, and muriate of lime. Upon which of these principles -the tonic and febrifuge virtues of bark depends, has ever proved a -fruitful source of controversy. Deschamps attributed them to _Cinchonate -of Lime_, and asserted that two doses of thirty-six grains each, would -cure any intermittent. Westering considered _Tannin_ as the active -constituent; while M. Seguin assigned all the virtues to the principle -which precipitates gallic acid, and which, as it has been before stated, -he mistook for gelatine. Fabroni concluded from his experiments, that -the febrifuge power of the bark did not belong exclusively and -essentially to the astringent, bitter, or to any other individual -principle, since the quantity of these would necessarily be increased by -long boiling, whereas the virtues of the bark are notoriously diminished -by protracted ebullition. This argument however will not go far, when we -consider the chemical changes which the liquid is known to suffer during -that operation, and by which a considerable portion of its matter is -rendered insoluble. Such was the state of our knowledge respecting the -composition of the _Cinchona_, when Pelletier and Caventou, guided by -analogy, were led to infer the presence of an alkaline element of -activity in its composition. The merit, belonging to the researches of -these eminent chemists, does not so much consist in the discovery of new -elements, as in the proofs which they have furnished of the well known -principle, _Cinchonine_, being a salifiable base,[461] and in -demonstrating the peculiar states of combination in which it exists in -the different species of Cinchona. - - - 1. _Cinchona Lancifolia._ - -Their analysis of the _Pale Bark_, furnished the following principles. - - 1. _Acidulous Kinate of Cinchonia._[462] - - 2. _A green fatty matter._ - - 3. _Red Colouring matter, slightly soluble._ - - 4. _Ditto soluble._ (Tannin.) - - 5. _Yellow colouring matter._ - - 6. _Kinate of Lime._ - - 7. _Gum._ - - 8. _Starch._ - - 9. _Lignin._ - -_Cinchonia_, when obtained in an isolated form,[463] is distinguished by -the following characters and habitudes. - -It is white, transparent, and crystallizes in the form of needles; it -has but little taste, circumstance depending upon its comparative -insolubility, as it requires no less than 7000 parts of cold water for -its solution; in boiling water it is soluble in 2500 times its weight, -but a considerable part separates, on cooling. In alcohol and the acids -it is much more soluble, and imparts to such menstrua the characteristic -bitter of the bark; it dissolves only in small quantities in the fixed -and volatile oils, or in sulphuric ether. Cinchonia restores the colour -of litmus which has been reddened by an acid. With acids it combines and -forms neutral salts, of which the solubility and crystalline form vary -with the acid employed. - -_Sulphate of Cinchonia_, easily crystallizable and moderately soluble, -has been found to consist of _Cinchonia_ 100, _Sulphuric acid_ 13·02. - -_Nitrate of Cinchonia_, uncrystallizable, and sparingly soluble. - -_Muriate of Cinchonia_, crystallizes in very beautiful needles, and is -more soluble than the preceding salts. - -_Oxalate of Cinchonia_, nearly insoluble; hence by pouring oxalic acid, -or oxalate of ammonia into solutions of any of the soluble salts of -cinchonia, we obtain a very white and abundant precipitate, which might -be mistaken for oxalate of lime; it is however soluble in an excess of -acid, and in alcohol. - -_Gallate of Cinchonia_, equally as insoluble as the _Oxalate_, whence -the precipitate occasioned by pouring an infusion of galls into the -decoctions of genuine cinchona. - -Cinchonia, when heated, does not fuse before decomposition. Its ultimate -elements are _oxygen_, _hydrogen_, and _carbon_; the latter being -predominant. - -The _Kinic acid_, which exists in native combination with the -_Cinchonia_, amongst several other peculiar properties, is convertible -by means of heat into a substance (_acide pyrokinique_,) which is -crystallizable, and capable of producing with iron a most beautiful -green colour. - - - 2. _Cinchona Cordifolia._ - -In the _Yellow Bark_, these chemists discovered also a salifiable base, -quite distinct however in its character and habitudes from _Cinchonia_; -they accordingly have designated it by another name, viz. _Quinine_, but -which we shall hereafter call _Quina_. In speaking of these two bases, -the authors compare them, in point of dissimilarity, to the fixed -alkalies, potass and soda. _Quina_ is distinguished from _Cinchonia_ by -the following characters. It cannot, like this latter body, be -crystallized by evaporation from its alcoholic solution, although it may -be obtained in transparent plates. _It is very soluble in æther_; in -water it is as insoluble as cinchonia, but its taste is much more -bitter. The salts which it forms are different from those of cinchonia, -both in the proportion of their elements, and in the properties which -they possess, being generally much more bitter. In comparing their -composition, _Quina_ will appear to have less capacity of -saturation[464] than cinchonia. - -_Sulphate of Quina._ It forms crystals quite remarkable for their -satin-like and pearly lustre. It is soluble in cold water, a property -which is very considerably increased by an excess of acid.[465] It -appears from the observations of M. Callaude, apothecary at Annecy, that -_Sulphate of Quina_ exposed to a gentle heat, becomes highly luminous; -and M. Pelletier has since found that _Sulphate of Cinchonia_, when -exposed in a capsule to the steam of boiling water, exhibits the same -phenomenon, but that neither _Quina_ nor _Cinchonia_, by themselves, nor -their acetates, possess this phosphorescent quality. This appears to be -the most efficient of all the salts of Bark, and is the one from which I -have frequently derived much advantage. In its exhibition we must be -careful not to combine it with substances that form insoluble compounds -with it. The _Infusum Rosæ compositum_ is objectionable as a vehicle, on -account of the astringent matter which it contains, and which therefore -precipitates the _Quina_ from its solution. I have lately seen a -prescription, in which the salt is directed to be rubbed with a few -grains of _Cream of Tartar_, and then to be dissolved in mint water. -This is obviously injudicious, since Tartaric acid decomposes the -sulphate, and occasions an insoluble _Tartrate_, which is precipitated. -The form in which I have usually prescribed it is in that of solution, -with a small quantity of sulphuric acid, in the proportion of a minim to -every grain of the salt. A _Wine of Quina_ may be made by adding five -grains of the sulphate to a pint of Sherry; a Tincture, by dissolving -the same quantity in eight fluid-ounces of Rectified Spirit. The -sulphate is to be preferred to the pure _Quina_ in these cases, because, -when the tincture is made by using the alkali, not saturated by an acid, -a precipitate is formed on adding it to aqueous liquors. Dose of the -Sulphate, gr. i.–v. - -_Acetate of Quina_, very remarkable for the great facility with which it -crystallizes, and for the pearly aspect and agreeable stellated grouping -of the crystals; whereas the acetate of cinchonia crystallizes with -difficulty, and simply in plates transparent, and devoid of lustre. - -_Quina_ forms with the oxalic, gallic and tartaric acids, salts as -insoluble as those which the same acids form with _Cinchonia_. - - - 3. _Cinchona Oblongifolia._ - -The _Red Bark_ upon analysis was found to contain a double basis, and to -yield both _Cinchonia_ and _Quina_, and, what is still more -extraordinary, the quantity of each exceeded that which is known to -exist in the _grey_ and yellow _barks_. - -The latest experiments, however, made on very large quantities of the -bark, have shewn that _Quina_ and _Cinchonia_ exist simultaneously in -all the three species; but the _Cinchonia_ is, relatively to the -_Quina_, in greater quantity in the _grey_ bark; whilst, in the _yellow_ -bark, the _Quina_ so predominates, that the presence of the _Cinchonia_ -might well have escaped notice when small quantities were operated on. - -Having thus furnished a sketch of this curious discovery, we have next -to enquire whether the alkaline bases in question do actually -concentrate all the virtues of the barks in which they reside? M. -Majendie[466] informs us that Pelletier had very early after the -discovery transmitted to him a portion of the new substances for trial, -and that he has unequivocally determined that they do not possess any -deleterious qualities,[467] and are therefore essentially different from -the principles of _Nux vomica_, (_Strychnine_,) Opium, (_Morphia_,) &c. -According to the testimony of Dr. Double, as related in the same -journal, they would seem to possess the medicinal properties of the -cinchona. - -In the third number of _Majendie’s Journal_ we receive a report from M. -le docteur Renauldin, of an intermittent cured by the _Sulphate of -Cinchonia_, in doses of six grains. - -As the discovery of an alkaline element in Opium led the way to the -detection of salifiable bases in other active vegetables,[468] it has -seemed to me preferable that I should introduce those general -observations which I wish to offer upon the subject of those bodies, -under the history of that narcotic. It is only necessary in this place -to caution the practitioner against the hasty generalizations of the too -sanguine chemist; it has already been observed that those vegetable -remedies, whose value has been established by the sober experience of -ages, consist of different principles of activity, or, at least, owe a -modified power to the compound effect of their several ingredients. (_p. -154, note._) - -SOLUBILITY OF THE BARK.[469] Cold water extracts its bitter taste, with -some share of its odour; when assisted by a moderate heat, the infusion -is stronger, but becomes turbid as it cools; the infusion cannot be -kept, even for a short time, without undergoing decomposition, and being -spoiled; wine also extracts the virtues of bark, and is prevented by -this substance from becoming sour, a fact which probably depends upon -the avidity with which some of the principles of bark combine with -oxygen, and which may throw some light upon the cause of its antiseptic -virtues. The colouring matter of wine is precipitated by bark, as it is -by charcoal, in the course of a few days. By decoction the active matter -of cinchona is in a great degree extracted, but if the process be -protracted beyond eight or ten minutes, it undergoes a very important -chemical change, the precise nature of which is not well understood; the -balance of affinities, however, by which the different elements are -united, is evidently overthrown, and a considerable precipitation -ensues; oxygen would also appear to have been absorbed; whether the -_Cinchonia_ becomes insoluble has not yet been ascertained, but -experience has shewn that the general loss of solubility, produced by -such a process, is accompanied with a corresponding loss of medicinal -activity; on which account, the extract is necessarily a very -inefficient preparation; if we attempt to redissolve it, not more than -one half is soluble in water. Vinegar is a less powerful solvent than -water; the active matter of bark is rendered more soluble by the -addition of mineral acids, and by the earths and alkalies; these latter -bodies deepen its colour, and precipitate the _Cinchonia_, for which -reason, when they are employed, the decoction ought not to be filtered; -see _Form. 41, 42_, and note thereon. _Lime water_ has been recommended -as a solvent, and it affords an excellent form for children and -dyspeptic patients; for the same reason we obtain a stronger and perhaps -a more efficient preparation, by triturating it with magnesia, previous -to the process of infusion. Alcohol is a very powerful solvent, but the -great activity of this menstruum so limits its dose that we are -prevented from exhibiting a sufficient quantity of the bark in the form -of tincture; it furnishes however an excellent adjunct to other -preparations. - -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. Precipitates are produced by the _salts of -iron_, _sulphate of zinc_, _nitrate of silver_, _oxy-muriate of -mercury_, _tartarized antimony_, _solutions of arsenic_, _&c._ Any -considerable portion of a tincture produces also a precipitation, which -sometimes does not immediately take place, and the medicinal value of -the bark is probably not impaired by it. As the infusions of _nut galls_ -and some other vegetable astringents precipitate the cinchonia from -bark, it becomes a question how far such liquids are medicinally -compatible; saline additions, as _alum_, _muriate of ammonia_, _&c._ -have been frequently proposed, but in many such mixtures decompositions -arise which must deceive us with regard to the expected effects. FORMS -OF EXHIBITION. No form is so efficient as that of powder, a fact which -would seem to argue against the _exclusive_ value of the _Cinchonia_; -even the ligneous fibre which the chemist pronounces to be inert and -useless, may produce its share of benefit by modifying the solubility of -the other ingredients, or by performing some mechanical duty which we -are at present unable to understand or appreciate; but where the stomach -rejects it, it must be administered in _infusion_ or _decoction_, with -the addition of its _tincture_. In cases where it is necessary to join -cordials, an infusion of bark in Port wine[470] is a popular and very -useful form for its administration. DOSE of the powder, gr. v to ʒij or -more, of the infusion or decoction ℥ij. MEDICINAL USES. It is powerfully -tonic and antiseptic; it was introduced into practice for curing -intermittent fevers, but since that period it has been generally used in -diseases of debility, in fevers of the typhoid type, and in gangrene. It -was first conjectured to be useful in gout by Sydenham, and Dr. Haygarth -has strongly recommended its exhibition in acute rheumatism; when -however it is used in these diseases, the greatest attention ought to be -paid to the state of the bowels, and purgatives should be occasionally -interposed. In Dyspepsia, the use of the purer bitters is to be greatly -preferred to that of the bark. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Infus. -Cinchonæ_, L.E.D. _Decoct. Cinchon._ L.E.D. _Extractum Cinchon._ L.E. -_Extract. Cinchonæ resinosum._ L.D. _Tinct. Cinchonæ_, L.E.D. _Tinct. -Cinchonæ comp._ L.E.D. _Tinct. Cinchon. Ammoniat._ L. MAGISTRAL FORMULÆ, -31, 37, 40, 44, 127. ADULTERATIONS. The frauds committed under this head -are most extensive; it is not only mixed with inferior barks, but -frequently with genuine bark, the active constituents of which have been -entirely extracted by decoction with water. In selecting cinchona bark, -the following precautions may be useful; it should be dense, heavy and -dry, not musty, nor spoiled by moisture; a decoction made of it should -have a reddish colour when warm; but when cold, it should become paler, -and deposit a brownish red sediment. When the bark is of a dark _colour_ -between red and yellow, it is either of a bad species, or it has not -been well preserved. Its _taste_ should be bitter, with a slight -acidity, but not nauseous, nor very astringent; when chewed, it should -not appear in threads, nor of much length; the _odour_ is not very -strong, but when bark has been well cured, it is always perceptible, and -the stronger it is, provided it be pleasant, the better may the bark be -considered. In order to give bark the form of _quill_, the bark -gatherers not unfrequently call in the aid of artificial heat, by which -its virtues are deteriorated; the fraud is detected by the colour being -much darker, and upon splitting the bark, by the inside exhibiting -stripes of a whitish sickly hue. In the form of powder, cinchona is -always found more or less adulterated. During a late official inspection -of the shops of apothecaries and druggists, the Censors repeatedly met -with powdered cinchona having a harsh metallic taste, quite foreign to -that which characterizes good bark.[471] The best test of the goodness -of bark is afforded by the quantity of _Cinchonia_, or _Quina_ that may -be extracted from it; and the manufacturer should always institute such -a trial before he purchases any quantity, taking a certain number of -pieces indiscriminately from the bulk. Much has been said of late -concerning the probability of the genuine species of the cinchona tree -becoming extinct; in consequence of which some succedaneum has been -anxiously sought for; the bark of the broad-leaved willow, _Salix -Caprea_, has been proposed for this purpose. Vogel recommends the root -of _Geum urbanum avens_; others propose that of the _Dastisca canabina_. - -The _Cinchona Caribæa_ of the Edinburgh Pharmacopœia is said, by Dr. -Wright, to whom we are indebted for our knowledge of it, to have -satisfactorily answered in all cases where the Peruvian bark was -indicated. The _Geoffræa Intermis_ is often sold for it. - -M. Ré, Professor of the Materia Medica at the Veterinary School at -Turin, has announced that the _Lycopus Europæus_ of Linnæus, called by -the peasants of Piedmont the _Herb China_, is a complete succedaneum for -Peruvian Bark.[472] The success with which bark has been imitated by -medicinal combination, has already been noticed in the first part of -this work. - - - CINNAMOMI CORTEX. L.E.D (Laurus Cinnamomum.) - - _Cinnamon._ - -The qualities of Cinnamon depend upon the presence of an _essential -oil_. _Benzoic acid_ has been found in it. It is principally employed to -cover the taste of nauseous medicines, and to correct the griping -quality of different purgatives. It is, however, in itself, astringent -and tonic, whence it has been found efficacious in the relief of alvine -fluxes. ADULTERATIONS. It is sometimes intermixed with cinnamon from -which the oil has been drawn; the fraud is detected by the weakness of -the odour and taste of the specimen; sometimes it is mixed with -_cassia_, but this is soon discovered, for cassia is thick and clumsy, -breaks short, and smooth, and has a remarkable slimy taste, whereas the -fracture of cinnamon is shivery, and its flavour warm and clean. -Cinnamon ought not to leave a mawkish taste in the mouth; this -circumstance denotes an inferior quality. There is an inferior kind -imported into Europe from China, through the hands of private merchants; -this is distinguished by being darker coloured, rougher, denser, and by -breaking shorter; the taste is also harsher, more pungent, and ligneous, -without the sweetness of Ceylon cinnamon. DOSE of the cinnamon in powder -is from grs. x. to ℈j. OFFICINAL PREP. _Aqua Cinnamomi_, L.E.D, _Spir -Cinnamomi_, L.E.D. _Tinct. Cinnamomi_, L.E.D. _Tinct. Cinnamom. co._ L. -_Pulv. Cinnamom. comp._ L.E. - -CINNAMOMI OLEUM. It is principally imported from Ceylon: it has a -whitish yellow colour, a pungent burning taste, and the peculiar fine -flavour of cinnamon in a very great degree.[473] It should sink in -water, and be entirely soluble in alcohol. It is one of the most -powerful stimulants which we possess. Dose, ♏︎i to iij, on a lump of -sugar. - - - COCCUS. L.E. (Coccus Cacti.) Coccinella. D. - - _Cochineal._ - -It is an insect imported from Mexico and New Spain, and has the -appearance of a wrinkled berry or seed of a deep mulberry colour, with a -white powder between the wrinkles. USES. Its medicinal virtues are now -entirely discredited, and it is only employed for the sake of its -colouring matter, for the purpose of a dye; it was known to the -Phœnicians, and was the _tolu_ of the Jews. Its watery solution is of a -violet crimson, its alcoholic of a deep crimson, and its alkaline of a -purple hue; the colour of the watery infusion is brightened by acids, -cream of tartar, and alum, and at the same time partly precipitated. Dr. -John has given the name of _Cochenelin_ to this colouring principle, -which M. M. Pelletier and Caventou have lately obtained in a perfectly -pure state, as a very brilliant purple red powder with a granular -crystalline appearance; these chemists propose to call it _Carmine_, but -as Mr. Children very justly observes, if we adopt the term, its -termination should be altered, to avoid confounding the pure colouring -matter with the pigment in common use. It may be called _Carmina_, a -more harmonious name than Cochenelin, (Ann: de Chimie, vol. viii). -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. The colouring matter is decomposed by _sulphate -of iron_, _sulphate of zinc_, and _acetate of lead_. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Tinct: Cardamom: comp:_ L.D. _Tinct: Cinchon: comp:_ L.D. -_Tinct: Gentian_, _comp:_ E. _Tinct: Cantharid:_ D. ADULTERATIONS. It is -invariably adulterated with pieces of dough, formed in moulds, and -coloured with cochineal. I understand that this fraud gives employment -to a very considerable number of women and children in this metropolis. -A cargo of the counterfeit article was some time since exported, in -order to obtain the drawback; by throwing a suspected sample into water, -we shall dissolve the spurious ones, and ascertain the extent of the -adulteration. - - - COLCHICI RADIX, ET SEMINA. L.E.D. - - Colchicum Autumnale. - - The _Bulb_ of the Meadow Saffron. - -QUALITIES. When recent it has scarcely any _odour_, but its _taste_ is -bitter, hot and acrid. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Its properties reside in a -milky juice, and depend upon an alkaline principle; it contains also -gum, starch, inulin, and extractive matter, which, when in solution, -undergoes a chemical change, analogous, I apprehend, to that which takes -place in the infusion of Senna, and it would appear with similar -inconvenience. Sir Everard Home ascertained that this deposit, in the -vinous infusion, excites nausea and griping, but that it may be removed -without destroying the efficacy of the medicine. The alkaline element, -similar to that of the Hellebore (_Veratria_), lately found in it, -appears to exist in combination with gallic acid. (_Annales de Chimie_, -_tom._ xiv. _Mai_, 1820.) This alkaline body would seem to display its -greatest energies by its action upon mucous surfaces; in small portions -it excites violent sneezing, and when applied to the membrane of the -stomach, immediate vomiting and purging are the result.[474] See -_Veratri radix_. The virtues of the bulb of Colchicum are very variable, -according to the place of growth and season of the year. Since the third -edition of this work, I have been favoured with some valuable -observations upon this subject by Mr. Alexander Gordon; he says that it -is in its greatest perfection from the beginning of June until the -middle of August.[475] It is also necessary to extract the virtues of -the bulb as soon as it is gathered, for although removed from the earth, -the developing process of vegetation continues, and the substance -undergoes a corresponding series of chemical changes, and finally -becomes as inert as if it had remained in the ground. It is a problem of -some importance to discover a method of destroying the vegetable life of -the bulb, without at the same time injuring its virtues, for I apprehend -that a want of attention to the above precaution frequently renders the -vinous infusion inactive. The practitioner engaged in preparing this -vegetable remedy will find some valuable directions in the third edition -of Thomson’s Dispensatory. The flower of the _meadow saffron_ is very -poisonous to cattle. SOLUBILITY. Vinegar and wine[476] are the best -menstrua for extracting its active qualities; by decoction its essential -oil is dissipated. MEDICINAL USES. It has been much extolled on the -continent as a remedy in dropsy, especially in hydro-thorax, and in -humoral asthma; its operation however as a diuretic, is less certain -than squill, although its _modus operandi_ is analogous to it, as will -be seen by referring to our new arrangement of Diuretic remedies. As a -_specific_ in gout its efficacy has been fully ascertained; it allays -pain, and cuts short the paroxysm. It has also a decided action upon the -arterial system, which it would appear to control through the medium of -the nerves. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. In my opinion, acids, and all -oxygenated substances render the vinous infusion drastic; on the -contrary, alkalies render its principles more soluble, and its operation -more mild, but not less efficacious. Magnesia may judiciously accompany -its exhibition. DOSE of the saturated vinous infusion, the only form in -which its successful operation can be insured, fʒss to fʒj, whenever the -patient is in pain. See _Vinum Colchici_. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. -_Acetum Colchici_, L. _Oxymel Colchici_, D. _Vinum Colchici_, L. -_Spiritus Colchici Ammoniatus_, L. _Syrupus Colchici Autumnalis_, E. - -COLCHICI SEMINA. Dr. Williams of Ipswich has lately published an account -of the efficacy of the _Seeds_ of Colchicum, which he says possess all -the virtues of the root, without its pernicious[477] qualities; the form -in which he administers them, is in that of vinous infusion.[478] He -also informs me that he has experienced considerable tonic effects from -these seeds; and that unlike other narcotic remedies they do not appear -to produce, or favour congestion in the head. The seeds ought not to be -bruised, as their virtues reside chiefly in the husk, or cortical part. - - - COLOCYNTHIDIS PULPA. L.E.D. - - (Cucumis Colocynthis.) - - Colocynth. Coloquintida. _Bitter Cucumber._ - -QUALITIES. The medullary part of this fruit, which is alone made use of, -is a light, white, spongy body. _Taste_, intensely bitter and nauseous. -_Odour_, when dry, none. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Mucilage, resin, a bitter -principle, and some gallic acid. SOLUBILITY. Alcohol and water alike -extract its virtues, but the active principle resides both in the -portion soluble in water, and in that which is insoluble. MEDICINAL -USES. It is a very powerful drastic cathartic, and was employed by the -ancients in dropsical and lethargic diseases. Many attempts have been -made to mitigate its violence, which is best effected by triturating it -with gummy farinaceous substances, or the oily seeds; the watery -decoction or infusion is much less severe, and has been recommended in -worm cases, but it is rarely employed, except in combination with other -purgatives. Thunberg informs us, (_see his Travels_, _vol._ ii, _p._ -171) that this article is rendered so perfectly mild at the Cape of Good -Hope by being pickled, that it is absolutely used as food both by the -natives and colonists. Mixed with paste or other cements, it is used to -keep away insects, which it does by its extreme bitterness. DOSE, grs. -iv. to x. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. The infusion is disturbed by -_sub-acetate_, and _acetate of lead_; _nitrate of silver_; _sulphate of -iron_, and by the _fixed alkalies_. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Extract_. -_Colocynth_. L. _Extract. Colocynth. comp._ L.D. _Pil_. _Aloes cum -Colocynth._ D.E. (=B=) When the fruit is larger than a St. Michael’s -orange, and has black acute pointed seeds, it is not good. - - - CONFECTIONES L. _Confections._ - -Under this title the London College comprehends the _conserves_ and -_electuaries_ of its former Pharmacopœias; but in strict propriety, and -for practical convenience, the distinction between _conserves_ and -_electuaries_ ought to have been maintained. Saccharine matter enters -into each of these compositions, but in different proportions, and for -different objects. In conserves it is intended to preserve the virtues -of recent vegetables; in electuaries, to impart convenience of form. See -_Electuaria_. - -CONFECTIO AMYGDALARUM. L. This preparation affords an expeditious mode -of preparing the almond emulsion; it should be used in the proportion of -a drachm to each fluid-ounce of distilled water. - -CONFECTIO AROMATICA. L. _Electuarium Aromaticum_. E.D. This is a very -useful combination of various aromatics, to which the London and Dublin -colleges have added a _carbonate of lime_; this circumstance makes the -preparation a judicious constituent for the exhibition of active salts, -liable to be invalidated by the presence of acid in the stomach, but, at -the same time, rendering it incompatible with _acids_, _antimonial -wine_, &c. These observations do not of course extend to the _aromatic -electuary_ of the Edinburgh pharmacopœia. See _Form: 15, 42, 49, 125, -126_. DOSE, ℈j to ʒj. - -CONFECTIO CASSIÆ. L. The ingredients of this confection are manna, -tamarind pulp, and syrup of roses. It is gently laxative, and from its -agreeable flavour is well calculated for children. The pharmaceutist, in -preparing it, must take care that he does not substitute the syrup of -the _red_, for that of the _damask_ rose; a substitution, as stated -under the head of Syrupi, not very unusual. The confection does not -ferment or become acescent. DOSE, ʒj to ℥j. - -CONFECTIO OPII. L. _Electuarium Opiatum_. E. This is a combination of -aromatics with opium, intended as a substitute for the _Mithridate_ and -_Theriaca_ of the old pharmacopœias. It is highly useful in flatulent -cholic and diarrhœa, and in all cases where a stimulant narcotic is -indicated. One grain of opium is contained in grs. 36 of the London, and -in grs. 43 of the Edinburgh preparation. DOSE, grs. x to xxx. - -CONFECTIO PIPERIS NIGRI. L. This preparation has been introduced into -the Pharmacopœia, on the suggestion of several eminent practitioners, -who have experienced its utility in certain cases of Piles. It is -intended to resemble WARD’S[479] PASTE, whose composition has been given -in all the former editions of this work, and according to which Formula -the committee have directed the present preparation. It is principally -useful in those cases attended with considerable debility, in -leucophlegmatic habits, and when piles arise from a deficient secretion -in the rectum. On the other hand, the composition will as certainly -prove injurious in those cases which are accompanied with erysipelatous -inflammation, and which require cooling laxatives, and a total -abstinence from all stimulants, for their cure. - -CONFECTIO ROSÆ CANINÆ, olim _Conserva Cynosbati_. Its acidity depends -upon uncombined citric acid, a circumstance which it is essential to -remember when we direct its use in combination. The hip, or fruit of -this plant, beat up with sugar, and mixed with wine, is a very -acceptable treat in the north of Europe. - -CONFECTIO ROSÆ GALLICÆ. _Confection of the Red Rose._ Principally used -as a vehicle for more active medicines. It is sometimes brightened by -the addition of a small proportion of sulphuric acid; this is a -circumstance of great importance, where the confection is used for -making the mercurial pill. See _Pilulæ Hydrarg_. It is a very common -excipient for pills, see _Form: 21, 59, 66, 73, 122, 160, 170_. - -CONFECTIO RUTÆ, _Confection of Rue_. The principal use of this -preparation is as an ingredient in antispasmodic enemas. - -CONFECTIO SCAMMONEÆ. L.D. Scammony, _two parts_, powdered cloves and -ginger, of each, _one part_, to which are added a small portion of oil -of carraway, and of syrup of roses, q. s. It is a stimulating cathartic, -and may be given in the dose of ʒss to ʒj. - -CONFECTIO SENNÆ. L.E.D olim _Electuarium Lenitivum_. The ingredients of -this preparation are senna leaves, figs, tamarind pulp, cassia pulp, the -pulp of prunes, coriander seeds, liquorice root, and refined sugar. It -is gently laxative, and is an excellent vehicle for the exhibition of -more powerful cathartics. (_Form. 74, 93._) When properly made, it is an -elegant preparation, not apt to ferment, nor to become acescent; the -directions of the pharmacopœia are however rarely followed. Jalap -blackened with walnut liquor, is frequently substituted for the more -expensive article cassia; and the great bulk of it, sold in London, is -little else than prunes, figs, and jalap. I understand that a -considerable quantity is also manufactured in Staffordshire, into which -unsound and spoilt apples enter as a principal ingredient. The -preparation sold at Apothecaries’ Hall is certainly unique in -excellence. Dose, ʒij or more. - -The above are the principal confections which are employed in modern -practice, for happily the shops are at length disencumbered of those -nauseous insignificant conserves, unknown to the ancients, but which -were ushered into use by the Arabian physicians, and which continued for -so many years to disgrace our dispensatories and to embarrass our -practice. The French, in their new Codex Medicamentarius, have limited -their electuaries to a number not exceeding nine; they have however made -up in complexity for deficiency in number; the _Electuarium de croco_, -which is intended to answer the same ends as our confectio aromatica, -has no less than twelve ingredients, although the force of the -combination depends entirely upon carbonate of lime, cinnamon, and -saffron; and so it is with the rest. - - - CONII FOLIA. L.E. (Conium Maculatum.) - - Cicuta. D. _Hemlock._ - -QUALITIES. The leaves, when properly dried, have a strong and narcotic -odour, and a slightly bitter and nauseous taste: the fresh leaves -contain not only the narcotic, but also the acrid principle: by -exsiccation, the latter is nearly lost, but the former undergoes no -change; the medicinal properties of the leaves are therefore improved by -the operation of drying. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The medicinal activity of -the plant resides in a resinous element, which may be obtained in an -insulated form, by evaporating an ethereal tincture made with the -leaves, on the surface of water; it has a rich dark green colour, and -contains the peculiar odour and taste of hemlock in perfection; a dose -of half a grain will produce vertigo and head-ache. It may be -distinguished by the name of _Conein_. The watery extract of this plant -can therefore possess but little power, a fact which Orfila has fully -established by experiment. No part of the plant is entirely destitute of -efficacy, though the leaves possess the most activity. SOLUBILITY. -Alcohol and æther extract its virtues. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. Its -energies are greatly diminished by vegetable acids; hence vinegar is its -best antidote. MEDICINAL USES. It is a powerful sedative, and has been -deservedly commended for its powers in allaying morbid irritability: -according to my own experience, it is, in well directed doses, by far -the most efficacious of all palliatives, for quieting pulmonary -irritation. It has been extolled also in the cure of schirrus and -cancer, and it will without doubt prove in such cases a valuable -resource, from its sedative influence. Externally, it will afford -considerable relief in irritable ulcers, when applied in the form of -fomentation or cataplasm, see _Form. 17, 18_. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. The -dried leaves, powdered, and made into pills, (_Form. 2, 17, 18_.) The -powder ought to have a fine lively green colour. DOSE, gr. iij, -gradually increased, until some effect is produced. Several different -plants have been mistaken for, and employed in the place of hemlock, -such as _Cicuta Virosa_, (the water hemlock,) _Æthusa Cynapium_, -_Caucalis anthriscus_, and several species of _Chærophyllum_. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Extract._ _Conii._ L.E.D. - - - CONTRAJERVÆ RADIX. L.E. - - (Dorstenia Contrajerva, Radix.) _Contrajerva Root._ - -The qualities of this plant are alike extracted by spirit and water; the -watery decoction, however, is very mucilaginous; as it contains no -astringent matter, the salts of iron do not affect it. DOSE of the -powdered root, gr. v. to ʒss, but it is rarely used. It is considered -cordial, and diaphoretic. Has it any virtues? The Spanish Indians have -long used it as an antidote to poisons; the Spanish word _contrahiérba_ -signifies antidote. OFFICINAL PREP. _Pulv._ _Contrajerv. co._ L. - - - COPAIBA, L.E. (Copaifera Officinalis.) - - Balsamum Copaibæ. D. - - _Copaiba_, _Copaiva_, or _Capivi Balsam_. - -QUALITIES. _Consistence_, that of oil, or a little thicker. _Colour_, -pale golden yellow. _Odour_, fragrant and peculiar. _Taste_, aromatic, -bitter, and sharp. _Sp. Grav._ 0·950. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is -improperly denominated a balsam, for it contains no benzoic acid, but -consists of resin and essential oil. SOLUBILITY. It is insoluble in -water, but soluble in ten parts of alcohol, and in expressed and -essential oils; with the pure alkalies it forms white saponaceous -compounds which are soluble in water, forming opaque emulsions. -MEDICINAL USES. Stimulant, diuretic, and laxative; it seems to act more -powerfully on the urinary passages than any of the other resinous -fluids; hence its use in gleets and in fluor albus. Its use gives the -urine an intensely bitter taste, but not a violet smell, as the -turpentines do. By referring to the Synoptical arrangement of Diuretic -remedies, it will appear that _Copaiba_ is referred to Class I, 1. _b._ -for there is reason to believe that its active principle undergoes -absorption, and by coming in contact with the urinary organs, produces -the medicinal effects for which it is so highly valued. FORMS OF -EXHIBITION. Diffused in soft or distilled water by yolk of egg, or by -twice its weight of mucilage, fʒss to every f℥j of water, forms an -elegant mixture, or it may be given dropped on sugar, and in this latter -form it is certainly more disposed to act on the urinary organs, than -when exhibited in that of an emulsion. (_Form. 156._) Dr. Chapman has -proposed a new mode of exhibiting this medicine; he advises us to pour -the Copaiba on half a wine-glassful of water, and afterwards to add -slowly a few drops of a common bitter tincture, by which means the -Copaiba will be collected in a small globule that may be easily -swallowed, while its taste, so nauseous to most patients, will be -entirely masked by the bitterness of the vehicle. In whatever form, -however, this medicine is administered, it is extremely apt to derange -the digestive organs, if long continued, and the unpleasant effects thus -occasioned remain, in some cases, for a very long period.[480] -ADULTERATIONS. A considerable quantity sold in London is entirely -_factitious_. A curious trial took place some time since, between the -owner of certain premises that were burnt down, and the Governors of the -Sun Fire Office, in consequence of the latter refusing to indemnify the -proprietor for his loss, because the fire had been occasioned by his -_making_ Balsam of Copaiba. This article is also adulterated with -mastiche and oil; M. Bucholz asserts that if it does not dissolve in a -mixture of four parts of pure alcohol, and one of rectified æther, we -may infer its adulteration; _rape oil_ is also frequently mixed with it, -in which case if dropped into water, the drops will not retain their -spherical form, as they invariably will, if pure. - - - CORNUA. L.E.D. Cervus Elaphus. - - _Stag’s_, or _Hart’s Horn_. - -The horns of the stag differ only from bone, in containing less of the -phosphate of lime, and a larger proportion of gelatine; by boiling, they -yield a clear, transparent, and flavourless jelly, in quantity about -one-fourth of the weight of the shavings employed; to obtain which we -should boil ℥iv in f℥vij of water, until reduced to f℥vi. ADULTERATIONS. -This article is often sophisticated with the shavings of mutton bone; -the fraud is detected by their greater degree of brittleness. They were -formerly so much used for the preparation of ammonia, that the alkali -was commonly called _Salt_, or _Spirit_, _of Hartshorn_. - - - CORNUS FLORIDA. - - (Common Dogwood.) - - _Cortex._ - -[The dogwood is a common forest tree, abundant in almost every part of -the United States. It flowers in the months of May and June. The bark, -which is the part used in medicine, yields by analysis tannin, gallic -acid, resin, gum resin, bitter extractive, and mucilage. The dogwood is -a powerful tonic, and by many practitioners has been used as a -substitute for the Peruvian bark. The diseases in which it has been -found serviceable are intermitting and remitting fevers, dyspepsia, -general debility, &c. It may be given in substance, in doses of ʒj to -ʒij—in extract, from 5 to 15 grs. or in infusion or decoction.] - - - CRETA PRÆPARATA. L.D. - - Carbonas Calcis Preparatus. E. _Prepared Chalk._ - -This is common chalk, the coarser particles of which have been removed -by the mechanical operation of washing. It consists of carbonate of -lime, with various earthy impurities. The Dublin Pharmacopœia directs a -chemical process for obtaining a perfectly pure carbonate (_Creta -Præcipitata_), but it appears to be an unnecessary refinement. MED. -USES. It is antacid and absorbent, on which account it is useful in -acidities of the primæ viæ, and in diarrhœas, after removing all -irritating matters by previous evacuation. (_Form. 52._) From its -absorbent properties, it is a good external application to ulcers -discharging a thin ichorous matter. DOSE, grs. x to ℈ij, or more. It is -almost unnecessary to state that it must not be combined with acidulous -salts; I have however seen a formula for a powder, intended as an -astringent, in which chalk and alum entered as ingredients. OFFICINAL -PREP. _Hydrargyrum cum creta._ L. _Pulvis cretæ comp._ L.E. _Pulv. -Opiatus._ E. (=F=) _Mist. Cretæ._ L.E. _Trochisci Carbonatis Calcis._ E. -_Confectio Aromatica._ L.E. (=G=) - - - CROCI STIGMATA. L.E. - - (Crocus Sativus.) - - Crocus. D. _Saffron._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, cakes, consisting of the stigmata of the flower, -closely pressed together. _Odour_, sweet, penetrating and diffusive. -_Taste_, warm and bitterish. _Colour_, a rich and deep orange red. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. One hundred parts consist of sixty-two of -extractive, the remaining parts are chiefly ligneous fibre, with small -portions of resin and essential oil. Bouillon Lagrange and Vogel have -examined this extractive matter very accurately, and from the -circumstance of its watery infusion assuming different colours when -treated with different agents, they have named it _polychroite_. Thus -chlorine and light destroy its colour, sulphuric acid changes it to -indigo, which gradually becomes lilac, and nitric acid gives it a green -hue. SOLUBILITY. It yields its colour and active ingredients to water, -alcohol, proof spirit, wine, vinegar, and in a less degree to æther; the -watery infusion, and the vinous tincture soon grow sour, and lose their -properties, and the solution in vinegar becomes quickly colourless. MED. -USES. It is now never employed but for the sake of its colour or -aromatic flavour, as an adjunct to other substances. It is much used in -foreign cookery to colour rice, &c. OFFICINAL PREP. _Syrup. Croci._ L. -_Tinct. Croci sativi._ E. _Confect. Aromat._ L.D. (=O=). _Pil. Aloes cum -Myrrha_. L. (=G=). _Tinct. Aloes comp._ L.E.D. (=O=) _Tinct. Cinchonæ -comp._ L.D. _Tinct. Rhei._ L. (=O=). _Tinct. Rhei comp._ L. (=O=). -ADULTERATIONS. It is not unfrequently sophisticated with the fibres of -smoked beef, or the petals of flowers, especially of the marigold, -(_Calendula Officinalis_,) and of the safflower, (_Carthamus -Tinctorius_.) The former of these fraudulent ingredients is indicated by -the unpleasant odour which arises when the saffron is thrown upon live -coals; the latter, by infusing the specimen in hot water, when the -expanded stigmata may be easily distinguished from the other petals of -substituted flowers; a deficiency of colour and odour in the infusion -indicates that a tincture or infusion has already been drawn from the -saffron, and that it has been subsequently pressed again into a cake. In -the market is to be found saffron from Sicily, France, and Spain, -besides the English; that which is imported from Spain, is generally -spoiled with oil, in which it is dipt with the intention of preserving -it. The cake saffron sold in some of the less respectable shops, -consists of one part of saffron and nine of marigold, made into a cake -with oil, and then pressed; it is sold in considerable quantities for -the use of birds, when in moult. - - - CUBEBA.[481] L. (Piper Cubeba.) _Baccæ._ - - _Cubebs_, or _Java Pepper_. - -This Indian spice, a native of Java, formerly held a place in our -materia medica, and entered into the composition of _mithridate_ and -_theriaca_, but being inferior in pungency and aromatic warmth to -pepper, it fell into disuse. Lately, however, it has been ushered into -surgical practice for the cure of gonorrhœa, with all the extravagance -of praise which usually attends the revival of an old, or the -introduction of a new medicine.[482] It has been pronounced to be a -specific in this complaint, if taken in the early stages, in the dose of -a dessert-spoonful three times a day, in a sufficient quantity of -water.[483] The Indians have been long acquainted with the influence -which cubebs exerts upon these organs; thus Garcias, “_Apud Indos -cubebarum in vino maceratarum est usus ad exitandam venerem_.” CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. M. Vauquelin has lately made a very accurate analysis of -this pepper, from which its composition may be stated as follows: 1. A -volatile oil, which is nearly solid.—2. A resin, _resembling Balsam of -Copaiba_.—3. Another and coloured resin.—4. A coloured gummy matter.—5. -An extractive principle, similar to that which is found in leguminous -plants.—6. Some saline substances. He considers the resin _resembling -the Copaiba_, to be the peculiar matter in which that property resides, -which imparts to it the power of curing gonorrhœa. As the qualities of -this spice do not reside in volatile elements, an extract made with -rectified spirit will be found to possess the whole of its virtues. The -French, in their new _Codex Medicamentarius_, have introduced the cubebs -into their list of materia medica. There is a precaution, with respect -to the exhibition of Cubebs, which it is important for the practitioner -to remember—to keep the bowels thoroughly open; for where hardened fæces -are allowed to accumulate, the spice insinuates itself into the mass, -and produces excoriations in the rectum. ADULTERATIONS. The “Turkey -Yellow Berries,” i. e. the dried fruit of the _Rhamnus Catharticus_, are -often substituted for the Cubebs, and the similarity between them is so -great, that the casual observer may be easily deceived. - - - CUMINI[484] SEMINA. L. Cumin Seeds. - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, strong, heavy, and peculiar; _Taste_, bitterish and -warm. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Gum, resin, and a yellow pungent oil, upon -which the peculiar properties of the seeds depend. SOLUBILITY. Water -does not extract more than their odour, but alcohol dissolves all the -principles in which their virtues reside, and leaves upon evaporation a -powerful extract. MEDICINAL USES. Carminative and stomachic; they are -however but rarely used, except as an ingredient in plasters. - - - CUPRI SULPHAS. L.E.D. Sulphate of Copper. - - vulgo _Blue Vitriol_. _Blue Copperas._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, crystals, which are rhomboidal prisms. _Colour_, a -deep rich blue. _Taste_, harsh, acrid, and styptic; they slightly -effloresce; when treated with sulphuric acid, no effervescence occurs, a -circumstance which at once distinguishes this salt from _Œrugo_. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. According to the latest experiments, it is an -_oxy-sulphate_, consisting of one proportional of peroxide with two -proportionals of sulphuric acid, and when crystallized, it contains ten -proportionals of water; its beautiful colour depends on this last -ingredient. SOLUBILITY. It is soluble in four parts of water at 60, and -in less than two at 212°; the solution shews an excess of acid by -reddening litmus. In alcohol it is insoluble. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. -_Alkalies and their carbonates_; _sub-borate of soda_; _acetate of -ammonia_; _tartrate of potass_; _muriate of lime_; _nitrate of silver_; -_sub-acetate, and acetate of lead_; _oxy-muriate of mercury_; _all -astringent vegetable infusions and tinctures_. Iron immersed in the -solution, precipitates copper in a metallic form; hence the exhibition -of the filings of iron has been proposed as an antidote.[485] MEDICINAL -USES. It is emetic from grs. ij to xv. tonic gr. 1/4; it is, however, -but rarely used internally except as an emetic; externally it is -employed as an escharotic; and, in solution, as a stimulant to foul -obstinate ulcers.[487] In the proportion of half a drachm to eight -ounces of rose water, it forms a lotion which has been found very -efficacious in phagedenic ulcers of the face, and in allaying itching -when attended with erysipelatous inflammation about the anus and labia -pudendi. It is also a styptic when applied in solution. OFFICINAL -PREPARATION. _Solut. Cupri Sulphat. com._ E. _Cuprum Ammoniatum_ L.E.D. -(=I=) (_Form. 68._) - - - CUPRUM AMMONIATUM. L.D - - Ammoniaretum Cupri. E. _Ammoniated Copper._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a violet coloured mass, which on exposure to air -becomes green, and is probably converted into a carbonate. _Taste_, -styptic and metalline. _Odour_, ammoniacal. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is -a triple salt, a sub-sulphate of oxide of copper, and ammonia. The -Edinburgh College is certainly incorrect in calling it an _ammoniuret_. -SOLUBILITY, f℥j; of water dissolves ℈j of this salt. INCOMPATIBLE -SUBSTANCES; _Acids_; the _fixed Alkalies_; _Lime water_. MEDICINAL USES. -It is tonic and antispasmodic. Dr. Cullen first proposed its exhibition -in epilepsy, and it has frequently been employed with evident advantage -in that disease. It has been also given in chorea, after a course of -purgatives. Brera considers it quite equal to Arsenic, in the cure of -obstinate Intermittents; other physicians have commended it in cases of -Hysteria. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. It may be formed into pills with bread; -to which an addition of sugar has been recommended, to prevent them from -becoming hard; but we must remember that recent experiments have shewn -that sugar has the power of counteracting the operation of copper. Dose, -gr. 1/4 cautiously encreased to grs. v. twice a day. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Liquor Cupri Ammoniati._ L. - - - CUSPARIÆ CORTEX. L. (_Cusparia febrifuga._) - - BONPLANDIÆ TRIFOLIATÆ CORTEX. E. - - ANGUSTURA, CORTEX. D. - - _Cusparia, or Angustura Bark._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, pieces covered with a whitish wrinkled thin -epidermis; the inner surface is smooth, of a brownish yellow colour. -_Odour_, not strong, but peculiar. _Taste_, bitter, slightly aromatic, -and permanent. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Cinchonia, resin, extractive, -carbonate of ammonia, and essential oil. SOLUBILITY. Its active matter -is taken up by cold and hot water, and is not injured by long decoction, -but the addition of alcohol precipitates part of the extractive. Alcohol -dissolves its bitter and aromatic parts, but proof spirit appears to be -its most complete menstruum. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Sulphate of -Iron_; _Sulphate of Copper_; _Oxy-muriate of Mercury_; _Nitrate of -Silver_; _Tartarized Antimony_; _Sub-acetate_, _and Acetate of Lead_; -_Potass_; and perhaps the _Mineral Acids_, for they produce -precipitates, as do also the _infusions of Galls_, and _Yellow -Cinchona_. MEDICINAL USES. Stimulant and tonic; it does not, like -cinchona, oppress the stomach, but imparts a degree of warmth, expels -flatus, and increases the appetite for food: with respect to its powers -in the cure of intermittents, many doubts are entertained. FORMS OF -EXHIBITION. In substance, infusion, decoction, tincture, or extract; its -nauseous taste is best disguised by cinnamon. DOSE of the powder, grs. -v. to ℈j; of the infusion or decoction, f℥j; in large doses all the -forms are liable to produce nausea. _Form. 58._ OFFICINAL PREP. _Infusum -Cuspariæ._ L. _Tinct. Bonplandiæ Trifoliatæ._ E. _Tinct. Angusturæ._ D. -ADULTERATIONS. There is found in the market a particular bark, which has -been called FINE ANGUSTURA, but which is of a different species, and is -a very energetic poison. This bark is characterized by having its -epidermis covered with a matter which has the appearance of rust of -iron, and which, moreover, possesses certain chemical properties of this -metal; for if water acidulated with muriatic acid be agitated in contact -with its powder, it assumes a beautiful green colour, and affords with -an alkaline prussiate, (_Hydro-cyanate of Potass_) a Prussian blue -precipitate. Late researches have detected the presence of an alkaline -element in this bark, on which the name of _Brucia_ has been bestowed. -When this alkali is dissolved in boiling alcohol, and crystallized by -spontaneous evaporation, it yields colourless and transparent crystals -in the form of oblique quadrangular prisms. - - - DATURÆ STRAMONII HERBA. E.D. - - _The Herbaceous part of the Thorn Apple._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, fœtid and narcotic, occasioning head-ache and -stupor; _Taste_, bitter and somewhat nauseous. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. -Gum, resin, and carbonate of ammonia; the recent experiments of M. -Brandes have also developed an alkaline element of activity, to which -the name of _Daturia_ has been assigned; it appears to exist in native -combination with malic acid; when in an uncombined state it is nearly -insoluble in water, and in cold alcohol, but boiling alcohol dissolves -it. It has been obtained with difficulty in the form of quadrangular -prisms. SOLUBILITY. The medicinal powers of the herb are alike extracted -by aqueous and spirituous menstrua. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. The -infusion is precipitated by the salts of lead, silver, mercury, and -iron; the mineral acids would also appear to produce some essential -changes which may diminish its efficacy. Acetic acid increases its -powers, although it relieves the effects of an overdose, if administered -after the stomach has been emptied. This apparent anomaly is easily -explained when we consider, that in the first case its operation is -purely _chemical_, increasing the solubility of the active principle of -the plant, while in the latter case it operates as a _vital_ agent, -restoring to the nervous system that energy which has been suspended by -the narcotic influence of the vegetable. MEDICINAL USES. It is narcotic, -and has been regarded by many authors as eminently antispasmodic; Dr. -Barton, an American physician, made very extensive trials of its -efficacy in Mania, the result of which is highly favourable to its use. -Dr. Marcet first noticed its salutary effects in chronic diseases -attended with violent pain; he found it to lessen powerfully, and -quickly, sensibility and pain, and to produce a sort of nervous shock, -attended with a momentary affection of the head and eyes, with a degree -of nausea, and with phenomena resembling those which are produced by -intoxication. It seems to be more particularly beneficial in chronic -rheumatism, sciatica, &c. Its root, smoked in the manner of tobacco, has -been much extolled as a remedy in the paroxysms of spasmodic asthma; -this practice however, is not unattended with danger;[488] the same -transient feelings of relief may be procured by smoking a mixture of -opium and any aromatic herb. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. Some discrepancy of -opinion has existed upon this point; the native practitioners in the -Carnatic gave the powdered root; Hufeland recommends a tincture of the -whole plant; in this country an extract of the leaves, or, more lately, -of the seeds, has been preferred, and I have been recently informed by -Sir Henry Halford, that he has found a tincture made with the -seeds,[489] a very efficient and unobjectionable preparation. Dr. Davy, -at my request, has made a series of experiments upon the extracts -prepared by Mr. Barry _in vacuo_, and his report upon the effects of -that of Stramonium, will be found under the article _Extract. -Stramonii_, which see. DOSE. In the commencement, of the leaves powdered -gr. i. of the seeds gr. ss. It is said that the Turks sometimes use the -Stramonium instead of Opium, and the Chinese infuse the seeds in beer. -Cataplasms of the fresh bruised leaves have been very successfully used -in sores of a highly irritable and painful nature. OFFICINAL -PREPARATION. _Extract. Stramonii._ - - - DECOCTA. L.E.D. _Decoctions._ - -These are solutions of the active principles of vegetables obtained by -boiling them in water. To decide upon the expediency of this form of -preparation, in each particular case, requires a knowledge of the -chemical composition of the substance in question. In conducting the -operation, the following rules must be observed. - - 1. _Those substances only should be decocted, whose medicinal powers - reside in principles which are soluble in water._ - - 2. _If the active principle be volatile, decoction must be an - injurious process; and, if it consist of extractive matter, long - boiling, by favouring its oxidizement, will render it insipid, - insoluble, and inert._ - - 3. _The substances to be decocted should be previously bruised, or - sliced, so as to expose an extended surface to the action of the - water._ - - 4. _The substances should be completely covered with water, and the - vessel slightly closed, in order to prevent, as much as possible, - the access of air: the boiling should be continued without - interruption, and gently._ - - 5. _In compound decoctions, it is sometimes convenient not to put in - all the ingredients from the beginning, but in succession, according - to their hardness, and the difficulty with which their virtues are - extracted; and if any aromatic, or other substances containing - volatile principles, or oxidizable matter, enter into the - composition, the boiling decoction should be simply poured upon - them, and covered up until cold._ - - 6. _The relative proportions of different vegetable substances to - the water, must be regulated by their nature; the following general - rule may be admitted; of roots, barks, or dried woods, from ʒij to - ʒvj to every pint of water; of herbs, leaves, or flowers, half that - quantity will suffice._ - - 7. _The decoction ought to be filtered through linen, while hot, as - important portions of the dissolved matter are frequently deposited - on cooling; care must be also taken that the filtre is not too fine, - for it frequently happens, that the virtues of a decoction depend - upon the presence of particles which are suspended in a minutely - divided state._ - - 8. _A decoction should be prepared in small quantities only, and - never employed, especially in summer, forty-eight hours after it has - been made. It should be considered as an extemporaneous preparation, - but introduced into the pharmacopœia for the purpose of convenience, - and for the sake of abridging the labour of the physician._ - -It is very important that the water employed for making decoctions, -should be free from that quality which is denominated _hardness_. - -The officinal decoctions may be classed into simple and compound -preparations. - - - 1. _Simple._ - -DECOCTUM CINCHONÆ. See Cinchona, and _Form: 41, 42, 127_. The codex of -Paris directs a decoction of bark, “_Decoctum Kinœ Kinœ_,” which is only -half the strength of ours, but contains an addition of a small quantity -of carbonate of potass. - -DECOCTUM CYDONIÆ. The inner coats of the seeds of the Quince (_Pyrus -Cydonia_) yield a very large proportion of mucilage, but as hot water -extracts from them also fecula and other principles, the decoction very -soon decomposes. It has been strongly recommended as an application to -erysipelatous surfaces; and it would seem to be peculiarly adapted for -such a purpose, since it is not so easily washed away from the part to -which it is applied, as ordinary mucilage; for the same reason it has -been preferred as an ingredient in injections, gargles, &c. It is stated -by some practitioners to be a very useful application, when united with -the _acetate of lead_, in cases of acute ophthalmia; such a combination, -however, is extremely unchemical, and must invalidate the powers of the -other ingredients. The native practitioners of India employ it as a -cooling mucilaginous drink in gonorrhœa. An ounce of bruised Quince seed -will make three pints of water as thick and ropy as the white of an egg; -hence two drachms, the quantity directed by the College, is amply -sufficient for a pint of the decoction. It is coagulated by _alcohol_, -_acids_, and _metallic salts_. - -DECOCTUM DIGITALIS. D. This is a very improper form for the exhibition -of digitalis, being variable in strength. - -DECOCTUM DULCAMARÆ. L. In making this decoction we must take care that -the operation of boiling is not continued too long. See _Dulcamaræ -Caules_. DOSE from f℥ss to f℥j. - -DECOCTUM LICHENIS. L.E.D. In this preparation we have the bitter -principle of the plant united with its fecula. A portion of the former -may be removed by macerating the lichen, and rejecting the first water. -If ℥j of the mass be boiled for a quarter of an hour in f℥vj of water, -we shall obtain mucilage of a consistence similar to that composed of -one part of gum arabic and three of water. Its exhibition requires the -same precaution as that of _Mucilago Acaciæ_. From the large proportion -of fecula which this moss contains, it is perhaps as nutritive as any -vegetable substance, the _Cerealia_ of course excepted. See _Lichen -Island_. DOSE, a wine glass full occasionally. - -DECOCTUM PAPAVERIS. L. In making this decoction the whole of the capsule -should be bruised, in order to obtain its mucilage and anodyne -principle; the seeds should be also retained, as they yield a portion of -bland oil which increases the emollient quality of the decoction. A -large quantity of fixed oil is constantly in the market, which is -derived from the seeds of the poppy. This decoction is a useful -fomentation in painful swellings, &c. - -DECOCTUM QUERCUS. L.E. Decoction is the usual form in which _Oak Bark_ -is exhibited, since all its active principles are soluble in water. Its -astringent virtues depend upon gallic acid, tannin, and extractive. The -decoction is disturbed by the following substances; the _infusion of -yellow cinchona_; _sub-acetate_ and _acetate of lead_; _solutions of -isinglass_; the _preparations of iron_; _oxy-muriate of mercury_; and -_sulphate of zinc_; all _alkaline substances_ destroy its astringency, -and are consequently incompatible with it. It is principally useful as a -local astringent, in the forms of gargle, injection, or lotion. Its -internal exhibition in obstinate diarrhœas, and alvine hemorrhages, has -also proved highly beneficial. See _Form: 51, 61_. DOSE, f℥ss to f℥j. -Dr. Eberle states that in the Intermittents of very young children, he -has in some cases used this decoction as a bath with efficacy. - -DECOCTUM SARSAPARILLÆ. L.E.D. See Sarsaparilla. In making this -decoction, it is rarely properly digested or boiled for a sufficient -length of time to extract its virtues. The only salts which occasion -precipitates in this decoction are, _nitrate of mercury_ and _acetate of -lead_; _lime water_ has the same effect. DOSE, f℥iv to f℥vj. - -DECOCTUM VERATRI. Stimulant and acrid; internally, it is cathartic, but -too violent to be safely exhibited; it is useful as a lotion in scabies, -and other cutaneous eruptions. - - - 2. _Compound Decoctions._ - -DECOCTUM ALOES COMPOSITUM. It resembles the well known _Beaume de vie_, -although less purgative, and is a scientific preparation, constructed -upon the true principles of medicinal combination. Aloes is the base, to -which are added, 1st, sub-carbonate of potass, 2ndly, powdered myrrh, -3dly, extract of liquorice, 4thly, saffron, and after the decoction is -made, 5thly, compound tincture of cardamoms. By the 1st ingredient the -aloes is rendered more soluble; the 2d and 3d suspend the portion not -dissolved, and at the same time disguise its bitterness; the 4th imparts -an aromatic flavour, and the 5th not only renders it more grateful to -the stomach, but prevents any spontaneous decomposition from taking -place. Its taste is improved by keeping. It is a warm, gentle cathartic. -_Form: 80._ DOSE, f℥ss to f℥j. Its operation is different from that of -simple aloes. See _Aloes_. The following substances are incompatible -with it; _strong acids_, _oxy-muriate of mercury_; _tartarized -antimony_; _sulphate of zinc_; and _acetate of lead_; and those salts -which are decomposed by sub-carbonate of potass. - -DECOCTUM GUAIACI COMPOSITUM. E. Commonly called _Decoction of woods._ -This decoction has fallen into disuse, and deservedly, for it can -possess but little power, except, as a diluent, or demulcent; the water -takes up from the guaiacum only a small portion of extractive matter, -and the virtues of sassafras, if any, must be dissipated. DOSE, f℥ss to -f℥j. - -DECOCTUM HORDEI COMPOSITUM.[490] An elegant and useful demulcent, with -an aperient tendency. - -DECOCTUM SARSAPARILLÆ COMPOSITUM. L.D. This decoction, which is an -imitation of the once celebrated _Lisbon Diet Drink_,[491] differs -materially from the _Decoct: Guaiaci comp:_ from the addition of the -mezereon root, which renders it diaphoretic and alterative, and useful -in the treatment of secondary syphilis, and chronic rheumatism. DOSE, -from f℥iv to f℥vj three or four times a day. - - - DIGITALIS FOLIA. L.E.D. (_Digitalis Purpurea._) - - _Foxglove._ - -QUALITIES. The leaves, when properly dried, have a slight narcotic -_odour_, and a bitter nauseous _taste_, and when reduced to powder, a -beautiful green _colour_. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Extractive matter, and a -green resin, in both of which the narcotic properties reside; they -appear also to contain ammonia, and some other salts.[492] SOLUBILITY. -Both water and alcohol extract their virtues, but decoction injures -them. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. See _Infusum Digitalis_. MEDICINAL USES. -It is directly sedative, although some maintain the contrary opinion, -diminishing the frequency of the pulse, and the general irritability of -the system, and increasing the action of the absorbents, and the -discharge by urine. The effects appear to be in a great degree connected -with its sensible influence upon the body, which is indicated by -feelings of slight nausea and languor; accordingly, every attempt to -prevent these unpleasant effects, or to _correct_ the operation of -digitalis, by combining it with aromatic, or stimulant medicines, seems -to be fatal to the diuretic powers of the remedy. Dr. Blackall, in his -“Observations upon the cure of Dropsies,” has offered some remarks which -bear upon this point, and to which I have before referred. _See page 96 -& 150._ - -Several of the formulæ introduced under the class of diuretics are -combinations supported by high authority, but it is doubtful whether -their adoption can be sanctioned upon principle; they are however well -calculated to illustrate the nature of diuretic compounds, and this is -the only purpose for which they were selected. See _Form: 103_. The -French have introduced in their new Codex, an ethereal tincture, -_Tinctura Ætherea_ _Digitalis purpureæ_, in which the sedative influence -of the plant must be entirely overwhelmed by the stimulant properties of -the menstruum. Under the head of _Diuretics_, I have so fully considered -the value of diuretic combinations, and the _modus operandi_ of -Digitalis, that it is unnecessary to dwell upon the subject in this -place. Digitalis has considerable influence over the action of the -heart; and in certain diseases, attended with inordinate motions of that -organ, it proves eminently serviceable; I have employed it with great -satisfaction in cases of palpitation connected with a state of general -irritability, so frequently occurring in female disorders; and according -to my observations where it succeeds, opium generally does harm. _Form: -32._ FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In substance, tincture, or infusion; the -latter form is most efficient as a diuretic. DOSE of the powdered leaves -gr. j, in a pill, twice a day; the augmentation of the dose should -proceed at the rate of one-fourth of the original quantity, every second -day, until its operation becomes apparent, either on the kidneys, or on -the constitution generally. If it produce such a disturbance in the -primæ viæ as to occasion vomiting or purging, its diuretic powers will -be lost; in such a case the addition of a small portion of opium, or -opiate confection, may be expedient. The distressing effects of an -overdose are best counteracted by tincture of opium in brandy and water, -and by the application of a blister to the pit of the stomach. A London -Surgeon has lately stated that he has prescribed the tincture of -Digitalis, in the dose of twenty-five drops, three times a day, in -barley-water, with great success in Gonorrhæa. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. -_Infus: Digitalis_. L.E. _Tinct: Digital:_ L.E.D. _Decoct: Digitalis:_ -D. It is very important that the leaves of this plant be properly -collected, and accurately preserved; they should be gathered when the -plant is beginning to flower, and, as it is biennial, in the second year -of its growth; the largest and deepest coloured flowers should be also -selected, for they are the most powerful; they should be also carefully -dried until they become crisp, or they will lose much of their virtue; -the too common method of tying them in bundles, and hanging them up to -dry, should be avoided, for a fermentation is produced by such means, -and the parts least exposed soon become rotten. The powdered leaves -ought to be preserved in opaque bottles, and kept from the action of -light as well as of air and moisture; a damp atmosphere has, upon a -principle already explained, a very injurious operation, by carrying off -those faint poisonous effluvia with which its efficacy seems to be -ultimately connected. - - - DULCAMARÆ CAULES. L.D. - - (Solanum Dulcamara.) - - The Twigs of _Woody Nightshade_, or _Bitter-sweet_. - -The virtues of this plant are extracted by boiling water, but long -coction destroys them; the usual and best form in which it can be -administered is that of decoction or infusion. This plant is much more -appreciated on the continent than in this country; we rarely use it -except in cutaneous affections; Professor Richter of Gottingen states -that he has employed it in _Phthisis Pituitosa_ with very extraordinary -success; and Sir A. Crichton says that in the few cases of chronic -tubercular Phthisis in which he has given it, it appeared to increase -the powers of the Sarsaparilla with which it was usually combined. -OFFICINAL PREP: _Decoct: Dulcam:_ L. - - - ELATERII PEPONES. L.E.D. - - (Momordica Elaterium.) - - _Wild_, or _Squirting Cucumber_. - -This plant appears from the testimony of Dioscorides and other writers, -to have been employed by the ancient physicians with much confidence and -success. All the parts of the plants were considered as purgative, -although not in an equal degree; thus Geoffroy, “_radicum vis cathartica -major est quam foliorum, minor vero quam fructuum_.” This question has -very lately been set at rest by the judicious experiments of Dr. -Clutterbuck,[493] which prove that the active principle of this plant -resides more particularly in the juice which is lodged in the centre of -the fruit, and which spontaneously subsides from it; when this substance -is freed from extraneous matter, it possesses very energetic powers, and -appears to me to be entitled to consideration as a distinct proximate -principle, which I shall venture to call _Elatin_. See _Extractum -Elaterii_. - - - ELEMI. L.D. (Amyris Elemifera. _Resina._) _Elemi._ - -This substance is what is generally termed a _gum-resin_; that is, a -compound consisting of gum, resin, and volatile oil: late researches -however seem to shew that these bodies are compounds of a peculiar -character, consisting of a volatile substance, something between -essential oil and a constituent which possesses the properties of -extractive rather than those of gum. - -True Elemi has a fragrant aromatic odour, not unlike that of -fennel-seeds, but more potent. _Sp. gr._ 1·0182. When powdered it mixes -with any unguent; it also combines with balsams and oils, and by the aid -of heat, with turpentine. USES. It is only employed for forming the -_mild digestive ointment_ which bears its name, viz. _Unguent: Elemi_ -_comp:_ L.D. - - - EMPLASTRA. L.E.D. Plasters. - -The principles upon which this form of preparation is to be constructed -are fully detailed at p. 207. - -EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI. L. _Ammoniacum_ reduced to a suitable consistence -by distilled vinegar. It adheres to the skin without irritating it, and -without being attended with any unpleasant smell.[494] There is a -peculiar disease of the knee, to which servant maids, who scour floors -upon their knees, are liable, and for which this plaster is a specific. -I have also found it particularly eligible in cases of delicate women -with irritable skins. - -EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI CUM HYDRARGYRO. L.D. The mercury in this plaster is -in the state of oxidation _ad minimum_. It is discutient and resolvent, -and is applicable to indurated glands, and venereal nodes, and for -removing indurations of the periosteum, remaining after a course of -mercury; the addition of the ammoniacum increases the stimulating and -discutient powers of the mercury, which gives this plaster a superiority -over the _Emplastrum Hydrargyri_. It is also powerfully adhesive. - -EMPLASTRUM ASSAFŒTIDÆ. E. Emplast. Plumbi and Assafœtida, of each _two -parts_, galbanum and yellow wax, of each _one part_. I have seen it -useful in flatulent cholic, when applied over the umbilical region. - -EMPLASTRUM CANTHARIDIS. L. _Emplast: Cantharidis vesicatoriæ._ E.D. A -variety of substances has in different times been employed for producing -vesication, but no one has been found to answer with so much certainty -and mildness as the _Lyttæ_. All the others are apt to leave ill -conditioned ulcers: true it is, that the emplastrum lyttæ will -occasionally fail, but this is generally attributable to some -inattention, or want of caution on the part of the person who prepares -it; in spreading it, the spatula should never be heated beyond the -degree of boiling water; the plaster also should be sufficiently secured -on the part by slips of adhesive plaster, but it ought not to be bound -on too tight; where the cuticle is thick, the application of a poultice -for an hour, previous to that of the blister, will be useful, or the -part may be washed with vinegar. In consequence of the absorption of the -active principle of the _Lyttæ_, blisters are apt to occasion strangury -and bloody urine; it has been a problem therefore of some importance to -discover a plan by which such an absorption may be obviated, for this -purpose, camphor has been recommended to be mixed with the blistering -composition, and a piece of thin gauze has been interposed between the -plaster and the skin; but it has been lately found, that ebullition in -water deprives the _Cantharides_ of all power of thus acting on the -kidneys, without in the least diminishing their vesicatory properties: -the ordinary time required for the full action of a blister is ten or -twelve hours, but if it be applied to the head, double that period will -be necessary. Children, owing to delicacy of skin, are more speedily -blistered, the epispastic may therefore be removed earlier. In some -cases the blistered parts, instead of healing kindly, become a spreading -sore; whenever this occurs, poultices are the best applications; it may -arise from a peculiar irritability of the constitution, although I -apprehend that it not unfrequently depends upon the sophistication of -the plaster with euphorbium. In cases where it is desirable to keep up -the local irritation, it is still a question with some practitioners -whether it be more advisable to encourage a discharge from the vesicated -part by some appropriate stimulant, or to renew the vesication at short -intervals by repeated blisters; the latter mode is perhaps to be -preferred, as being more effectual, and certainly less troublesome to -the patient: it has moreover been stated,[495] that by a repeated -application of this nature, the influence excited appears to extend much -deeper, so as to derive a greater quantity of blood from the immediate -neighbourhood of the vessels, or from the vessels themselves which are -in a state of disease, than the influence excited by an application less -stimulating upon the surface of a part already abraded. The character of -the discharge would likewise appear essentially different; it being in -the latter cast a purulent secretion from the superficial exhalants of -the surface only; in the former, a copious effusion of serum, mixed with -a large portion of lymph, produced from a deeper order of vessels. - -EMPLASTRUM CERÆ. L. _Emplast: Simplex_. E. This is the _Emplast: Ceræ_ -of P.L. 1787, the _Emplast: Attrahens_ of 1745, so called because it was -formerly employed to keep up a discharge from a blistered surface, and -the _Emplastrum de melilolo simplex of_ 1720. - -EMPLASTRUM CUMINI. L. A valuable combination of warm and stimulant -ingredients. - -EMPLASTRUM GALBANI COMPOSITUM. L.D. _Emplast: Gummos_. E. More powerful -than the preceding plaster. In indolent glandular enlargements of a -strumous character, in fixed and long continued pains in the -neighbourhood of the joints, or in anomalous or arthritic pains of the -ligaments, this plaster is said to be frequently beneficial. - -EMPLASTRUM HYDRARGYRI. L.E. The mercury in this plaster is in the state -of oxidation _ad minimum_; each drachm containing about fifteen grains -of mercury, (_sixteen grains_, _Edinb._) It is alterative, discutient, -and sometimes sialogogue; but it is inferior to the _Emplast: Ammoniac: -cum Hydrargyro_. - -EMPLASTRUM OPII. L.E. This plaster is supposed to be anodyne, but it is -very doubtful whether the opium _can_, in such a state, produce any -specific effect. See _Form: 5_. - -EMPLASTRUM PICIS COMPOSITUM. L. _Emplast: Picis burgundicæ_, P.L. 1787. -It is stimulant and rubefacient, and is often employed as an application -to the chest, in pulmonary complaints; the serous exudation however -which it produces, frequently occasions so much irritation that we are -compelled to remove it. - -EMPLASTRUM PLUMBI. L. _Emplast: Oxydi Plumbi semi-vitrei._ E. _Emplast: -Lythargyri._ P.L. 1787. _Emplast: commune_, 1745. _Diachylon_[496] -_Simplex_, P.L. 1720. This is a very important plaster, since it forms -the basis of a great many others; under the name of _Diachylon_ it has -long been known, and employed as a common application to excoriations, -and for retaining the edges of fresh cut wounds in a state of -apposition, and at the same time for defending them from the action of -the air; when long kept it changes its colour, and loses its adhesive -properties, and by high temperature the oxyd of lead is revived.[497] - -EMPLASTRUM RESINÆ. L. Olim, _Emplast: commune adhæsivum_, P.L. 1745. -_Emplast: Resinosum_. E. _Emplast: Lithargyri cum Resina._ D. It is -defensive, adhesive, and stimulant.[498] - -EMPLASTRUM SAPONIS. L.D. _Emplastrum Saponaceum._ E. The Soap Plaster is -said to be a mild discutient application. - - - EUPATORIUM PERFOLIATUM. - - Boneset. - - _Herba et flores._ - -[The boneset is a plant indigenous to the United States, and is to be -found in the neighbourhood of marshes and low situations. It is -intensely bitter and somewhat astringent. According to the analysis of -Dr. Andrew Anderson of New-York, it yields, 1. A free acid; 2. Tannin; -3. Extractive matter; 4. A gummy matter; 5. A resin; 6. Azote; 7. Lime, -probably the acetate of lime; 8. Gallic acid, probably modified; 9. A -resiniform matter, soluble in water and in alcohol, and which seems to -contain a bitter principle. It also appears from this analysis that the -free acid may be obtained from all parts of the plant—that tannin is -obtained in much the largest quantity from the leaves, and least from -the roots—that the extractive and gummy matter reside chiefly in the -roots—that the leaves and flowers also contain a larger proportion of -resin than the roots—and that azote exists in the flowers, leaves, and -roots. The principal properties of the boneset are those of a tonic and -diaphoretic. The diseases in which it has been prescribed with success -are intermitting and remitting fevers, typhoid peripneumony and catarrh. -It may be given in powder, infusion, or tincture. When given as a tonic, -the tincture is the preferable form. The dose of the powder is from 20 -to 30 grains. When used as a sudorific, it is to be taken in infusion, -and in large quantities.] - - - EUPHORBIA IPECACUANHA. - - American Ipecacuanha. _Radix._ - -[This plant is peculiar to the United States. The root is perennial, and -of a sweetish taste. By analysis it yields caoutchouc, resin, mucus, and -fecula. In its medicinal properties it resembles, and perhaps equals, -the common ipecacuanha. As an emetic the dose is from 15 to 25 grains.] - - - EUPHORBIÆ GUMMI-RESINA. L. - - (Euphorbia Officinarum.) _Euphorbium._ - -QUALITIES. This substance is imported from Barbary, in drops or -irregular tears; its fracture is vitreous; it is inodorous, but yields a -very acrid burning impression to the tongue. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is -what is termed a _gum resin_, but its acrid constituent is exclusively -in that portion which is soluble in alcohol, and which might be named -_Euphorbin_; it appears to form as much as 37 per cent. to which are -added of wax 19, malate of lime 20·5, malate of potass 2, and water 5. -SOLUBILITY. Water by trituration is rendered milky, but dissolves only -one-seventh part; and alcohol one-fourth of it. USES. Internally -administered, it proves very violently drastic, but it is never employed -except as an errhine, cautiously diluted with starch, or some inert -powder. The Indian practitioners administer it as a purge in obstinate -visceral obstructions; and in those cases of costiveness which so often -attend an enlargement and induration of the spleen and liver. Farriers -use it for blistering horses, and there is good reason to believe that -it is sometimes fraudulently introduced to quicken the powers of our -Emplastrum Cantharidis. It enters as an ingredient into a plaster, which -has been much celebrated by Cheselden and others, as a stimulating -application, to relieve diseases of the hip-joint, and to keep up -inflammation of the skin in chronic states of visceral inflammation; the -following is its composition. ℞. _Emplast: Picis comp:_ ℥iv.—_Euphorbiæ -gum-resinœ_ ʒss.—_Terebinth: Vulgar, q. s._ CAUTION, in pulverizing this -substance, the dispenser should previously moisten it with vinegar to -prevent its rising and excoriating his face. - - - EXTRACTA. L.E.D. _Extracts._ - -These preparations are obtained by evaporating the watery or spirituous -solutions of vegetables, and the native juices obtained from fresh -plants by expression, to masses of a tenacious consistence. The London -college does not arrange the extracts under the titles of _watery_ and -_resinous_, which is the arrangement of the Edinburgh Pharmacopœia, nor -under those of simple and resinous, which is the division observed in -that of Dublin, but rejecting all _specific_ distinctions, includes, -under the _generic_ appellation of extract, both the species, as well as -all the _inspissated juices_. Since however the former of these -arrangements will afford greater facilities for introducing the -observations which it is my intention to offer, it is retained in this -work. - -The chemical nature of extracts must obviously be very complicated and -variable, depending in a great degree upon the powers of the _menstruum_ -employed for their preparation; although Fourcroy and Vauquelin -considered that _one peculiar_ principle was the basis of them all, -which they called _Extract_, _Extractive_, or the _Extractive -Principle_. It is distinguished by the following characters, _viz_. - -It has a strong taste, varying in different plants; it is soluble in -water, and in alcohol when it contains water, but is quite insoluble in -_absolute_ alcohol and æther; its aqueous solution soon runs into a -state of putrefaction; by repeated solutions and evaporations, or by -long ebullition, it acquires a deeper colour, and in consequence of its -combination with oxygen it becomes insoluble and inert, a fact which is -of extreme importance as it regards its pharmaceutical relations; it -unites with alumine, and if boiled with its salts, precipitates it, -hence wool, cotton, or thread, impregnated with alum, may be dyed of a -fawn-colour by _extractive_; its habitudes with alkalies are very -striking, combining most readily and forming with them compounds of a -brownish yellow colour, which are very soluble in water; if to a -colourless and extremely dilute solution of extractive, an alkali be -added, a brown or yellowish tint is immediately produced, so that under -certain circumstances I have found an alkali to be a serviceable test in -detecting the presence of extractive matter. The usual brown hue of the -_liquor ammoniæ acetatis_, is owing to the action of the ammonia upon -traces of vegetable extractive contained in the distilled vinegar. - -Much confusion has arisen from the word _extract_ having been employed -in this double meaning,—_chemically_ to express a peculiar vegetable -proximate principle, and _pharmaceutically_ to denote any substance -however complicated in its nature, which has been obtained by the -evaporation of a vegetable solution or a native vegetable juice. It is -in the latter sense that it is to be understood in the present article. - -The different proximate principles of vegetable matter undergo various -and indefinite changes with such rapidity, when acted upon by heat, that -the process of _extraction_ must necessarily more or less impair the -medicinal efficacy of a plant, and not unfrequently destroy it -altogether, and hence, says Dr. Murray, “with the exception of some of -the pure bitters, as gentian, or some of the saccharine vegetables, as -liquorice, there is no medicine perhaps but what may be given with more -advantage under some other form;” this however is not exactly true, for -when care is taken in the preparation, we are thus enabled to -concentrate _many_ very powerful qualities in a small space, and the -process lately adopted of evaporating the solutions by the aid of steam, -contributes very materially to obviate the failures which so frequently -occurred from a too exalted temperature. There is, for instance, great -reason to suppose that the black colour which so often characterises the -extracts of commerce, is frequently owing to the decomposition and -carbonization of the vegetable matter; the colour therefore of an -extract becomes in some degree a test of its goodness. I have lately -examined the extracts of commerce with some attention, and I find the -presence of iron by no means an uncommon circumstance; when thus -contaminated they afford a very dirty coloured solution, which rapidly -becomes darker on exposure to air. The extracts mentioned in the preface -as made by Mr. Barry, by _evaporating in vacuo_, deserve the attention -of the profession; the principle is without doubt well calculated to -secure the active matter of the plant from those changes to which it is -constantly liable during the ordinary operation of inspissation. The -extracts, thus prepared, are certainly more powerful in their effects, -and some few of them appear also to possess properties which are not to -be distinguished in the Extracts of Commerce; those of narcotic plants, -as _Hemlock_, _Hyoscyamus_, _&c._ are decidedly more efficacious; where -the practitioner directs their use, he should, to prevent any mistake, -add the words _in vacuo præp._ as in _Formula 4_; for on account of the -difference in the strength of these preparations, and of those prepared -by the ordinary method, they cannot be indiscriminately employed. Dr. -John Davy, at my request, has made trial of these extracts in the -Military Hospital at Fort Pitt, and as his results coincide with those -obtained in my own practice, I shall relate, under the history of each -Extract, the comparative conclusions which have been obtained. - - - 1. WATERY OR SIMPLE EXTRACTS. - - - _Mucilaginous_ Extracts of Rouelle. - -These extracts must, of course, contain all the principles of a plant -which are soluble in water, such as gum, extractive matter, tannin, -cinchonin, sugar, fecula, &c. together with any soluble salts which the -vegetable may contain. I have also found by experiment that an aqueous -extract may even contain, in small proportions, certain elements which, -although quite insoluble in water, are nevertheless partially soluble in -vegetable infusion. This law of vegetable chemistry has never been -expressed, although we have repeated instances of its truth, and a -knowledge of it may explain some hitherto unintelligible anomalies. It -has been stated that extractive matter is perfectly insoluble in æther, -but Mr. A. Thomson found repeatedly, that if a small portion of resin -was present, æther would in that case take up extractive in combination -with the resin which it so readily dissolves. As decoction or infusion -is a process preliminary to that of extraction, the practitioner must -refer to those articles for an enumeration of the different sources of -error which are attached to them. - -EXTRACTUM ALOES PURIFICATUM. L. The resinous element of the aloes is got -rid of in this preparation; on which account it is supposed, in an equal -dose, to be more purgative and less irritating. _Dose_, gr. x to xv. -_Form: 12, 13, 36._ - -EXTRACTUM ANTHEMIDIS. L.E. _Extract. Florum Chamœmeli._ D. This extract -furnishes an example of the change effected on some plants by the -process of extraction; in this case the volatile oil is dissipated, and -a simple bitter remains, possessing scarcely any of the characteristic -properties of chamomile. This remark, however, does not apply to this -extract, when prepared _in vacuo_. I have lately received from Mr. Pope -of Oxford Street, a specimen which retains, in the most eminent degree, -all the odour and taste of the recent flower. _Dose_, gr. x–℈j. - -EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ. L.D. The properties of the bark in this preparation -are much invalidated, owing to the oxidizement of its extractive matter, -which takes place to such an extent, that not more than one half of the -preparation is soluble in water; it is not however altogether devoid of -utility, and will often sit lightly on the stomach, when the powder is -rejected. Its taste is very bitter, but less austere than the powder. -The most beautiful extract of bark, which I have ever seen, was prepared -by Mr. Barry of Plough Court; its colour was that of a deep brilliant -ruby, and its flavour preserved all the characteristic peculiarity of -the recent substance.[499] _Dose_, grs. x to ʒss. Fourteen ounces of the -bark will yield about three ounces and a half of extract. It should be -kept _soft_, so as to be fit for forming pills, and _hard_, so that it -may be reduced to powder. - -EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS. L. This extract is much milder, although less -powerful, than the pulp; _Dose_, grs. v to ʒss. It soon becomes hard and -mouldy.[500] - -EXTRACTUM GENTIANÆ. L.E.D. The bitter principle suffers no deterioration -in the process: it is used principally as a vehicle for metallic -preparations. _Form. 36, 53, 103._ _Dose_, gr. x to ℈j. - -EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ. L.D. It is usually imported from Spain; in the -coarser kinds, the pulps of various plums and of prunes are added; it -should dissolve in water without leaving any feculence.[501] - -EXTRACTUM HÆMATOXYLI. L.E.D. The astringent properties of the _logwood_ -are preserved in the extract, but it becomes so extremely hard, that -pills made of it very commonly pass through the body without undergoing -the least change. _Dose_, grs. x to ʒss dissolved in cinnamon water: it -sometimes imparts a bloody hue to the urine of those who have taken it. - -EXTRACTUM HUMULI. L. The bitter taste of the hop characterises this -preparation; whether it possesses, or not, any anodyne properties, seems -very doubtful. _Dose_, grs. v to ℈j. - -EXTRACTUM OPII. L.D. As it contains less resinous matter than crude -opium, it is supposed to produce its effects with less subsequent -derangement. See _Opium_. _Dose_, gr. j to v, for an adult. - -EXTRACTUM PAPAVERIS. L.D. It is a weak opium. _Dose_, grs. ij to ℈j. - -EXTRACTUM SARSAPARILLÆ. Notwithstanding the reputation which this -preparation has acquired, it is very doubtful whether it possesses any -medicinal powers. _Dose_, gr. x to ʒj in pills, or dissolved in the -decoction. - -EXTRACTUM STRAMONII. This extract was first recommended by Stöerck, as a -powerful remedy in maniacal affections; its probable value in such -diseases appears to have been suggested by a very curious process of -reasoning, viz. that as it deranged the intellect of the sane, it might -possibly correct that of the insane. Experience has certainly not -confirmed the very sanguine report of Stöerck with regard to its powers, -but it has satisfactorily shewn its occasional value in violent -paroxysms, in quieting the mind, and procuring rest. I am informed by my -friend Dr. Davy, that, for such an object, it has been very frequently -and successfully given, in the Lunatic Military Hospital at Fort -Clarence. He farther states that he has himself made many trials with -the extract of Stramonium, prepared by Mr. Barry (_in vacuo_) as well as -with the common extract; and that he finds the former to be uniformly -more powerful. “In most diseases,” says he, “this medicine would seem -uncertain in its operation, sometimes occasioning an anodyne effect, -and, at other times, producing irritation, and preventing sleep; I have, -however, seen very beneficial effects from it in asthma, and in coughs -that have a nightly exacerbation, in doses of from gr. 1/4 to gr. 2, -daily.” - -EXTRACTUM TARAXACI. L.D. The medicinal powers of Dandelion are asserted -to exist unimpaired in this preparation, but it becomes inert by -keeping. See _Taraxacum_. _Dose._ grs. x to ʒj, in combination with -sulphate of potass. - - - 2. _Spirituous or Resinous Extracts._ - -These may contain, with the exception of gum, all the ingredients -contained in watery extracts, besides resin; their composition however -will greatly depend upon the strength of the spirit employed as the -solvent; but of this I shall speak more fully under the article -_Tincture_. - -EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ RESINOSUM. L.E.D. The operation of spirit in this -preparation is two-fold; it extracts from the bark the element which is -insoluble in water, and it diminishes the tendency in the extractive -matter to absorb oxygen during the process. _Dose_, grs. x to xxx. It is -said that a spurious extract of bark is to be met with in the market, -consisting of the extract of the horse-chesnut tree bark, and yellow -resin. - -EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITUM. L.D. _Extract. Catharticum._ P.L. -1775. _Pilulæ Rudii._ P.L. 1720. This preparation has been established -through successive pharmacopœias, and has undergone some modification in -each; in the present edition the soap has been restored, and its -solubility is thereby increased, as well as its mildness as a cathartic. -The omission of this ingredient was formerly suggested by the -consideration of its being incompatible with _Calomel_; this however is -_not_ the case. It presents a combination of purgative substances which -is highly judicious, and will be found to be more powerful than an -equivalent dose of any _one_ of the ingredients. _Dose_, gr. v to ʒss, -_Form. 71, 81, 88._ - -EXTRACTUM JALAPÆ. L.E.D. It is purgative, but is liable to gripe, unless -it be triturated with sugar and almonds, or mucilage, so as to form an -emulsion. _Dose_, grs. x to ℈j. - -EXTRACTUM RHEI. L. The powers of the Rhubarb are considerably impaired -in this extract. _Dose_, grs. x to ʒss. _Form. 78._ - - - 3. _Inspissated Juices._ - -These preparations are obtained by expressing the juices from fresh -plants, and evaporating them in a water-bath; they are generally of a -lighter colour than common extracts, and they are certainly much more -active, although there is a great difference in the activity of -different samples; and perhaps the _medicinal_ powers of the juices -themselves are very much under the controul of soil and season. That -they _vary in quantity_ from such causes we have ample proof; thus in -moist seasons, Beaumé obtained five pounds of inspissated juice from -thirty pounds of _elder berries_, whereas, in dry seasons, he could -rarely get more than two. From _hemlock_ he procured in October, 1796, -7·5 per cent. of inspissated juice, and in May of the same year only -3·7; on the contrary, in August, 1768, 4 per cent., and in May, 1776, as -much as 6·5; but in general, the product in the autumnal months was the -most considerable. - -The modes of preparing the inspissated juices of the same plant vary in -the different pharmacopœias, and in several points that are very -_essential_; some direct the expressed juices to be _immediately_ -inspissated, others allow them to undergo a slight degree of -fermentation, and some _defecate_ them, before they proceed to their -inspissation. - -EXTRACTUM (_Succus Spissatus._ E.) ACONITI. L.E. The medicinal -properties of this preparation are analogous to those of the recent -_Wolfsbane_, viz. narcotic, and in some cases diuretic, (see _Form. -128_.) It is however rarely used. _Dose_, at first, should not exceed -gr. ½, but it may be gradually increased. I have not yet, says Dr. Davy, -in a letter recently received from him, had much experience of the -_Extractum Aconiti_, but that little is favourable to its use; “in some -cases of chronic rheumatism, and in some of intermittent fever, -complicated with visceral disease, it has had a beneficial effect not to -be mistaken; the dose has been from one to two grains.” Dr. Stöerck, who -first tried this medicine, observed from it a powerful diaphoretic -effect; this, says Dr. Davy, “I have not noticed, and yet the extract -which I have used was prepared by Mr. Barry, _in vacuo_, which is -certainly far more powerful than that employed by Stöerck; the latter, -when applied to the tongue, “_levissimam tantum titillationem -excitabat_,” whereas that of Mr. Barry produces a most disagreeable -sensation of burning, which extends to the throat; and in one instance, -when applied to the tip of my tongue, it occasioned ulceration.” - -EXTRACTUM BELLADONNÆ. L.E. See _Belladonnæ Folia_. _Dose_, gr. j, -gradually increased to gr. v, in the form of pill. Dr. Davy has made a -few trials of Barry’s Extract; the results of which he informs me are -not at all favourable to the use of this medicine; it is much more -powerful than the common extract, and can only be given with safety in -small doses; “in several instances,” says he, “I have not been able to -repeat a grain dose daily, more than thrice, on account of the alarming -symptoms produced, as head-ache, vertigo, indistinct vision with dilated -pupil, and, in one case, irritation of the bladder, occasioning very -frequent micturition; in chronic rheumatism and catarrh, with severe -cough, the only diseases in which I have yet given it, it has not -appeared to be in the least serviceable; it may probably prove valuable -to the oculist; from trials that have been made of it here by Mr. -Miller, Assistant Surgeon to the Forces, it has been found to dilate the -pupil beyond the common extract. Stöerck even introduced his extract -into the eye with impunity. Acrid as the preparation is which I have -used, the patients have never complained of it, nor have I known any -disagreeable effects from it, when applied in solution, sufficiently -dilute.” - -EXTRACTUM (_Succus Spissatus._ E.D.) CONII. L. Much of this extract, as -it is found in commerce, has not been prepared with equal fidelity, nor -with due attention to the season when the plant is in its greatest -perfection; Dr. Fothergill says, “I know from repeated experiments, that -the extract which has been prepared from _hemlock_, before the plant -arrives at maturity, is much inferior to that which is made when the -plant has acquired its full vigour, and is rather on the verge of -decline: just when the flowers fade, the rudiments of the seeds become -observable, and the habit of the plant inclines to yellow, _is the -proper time_ to collect it;” the plants which grow in places exposed to -the sun should be selected, as being more _virose_ than those that grow -in the shade: still however with every precaution, it will always be -uncertain in strength. Orfila found that an extract prepared by boiling -the dried powder in water, and evaporating the decoction, was inert; in -fact, the whole of the activity of the plant resides in a resinous -element _insoluble_ in water, and for which I have proposed the name of -_Conein_. Extract of hemlock, when judiciously prepared, is a very -valuable sedative; I state this from ample experience, and when combined -with Hyoscyamus, and adapted by means of mucilage and syrup, to the form -of a mixture, it affords a more effectual palliative than any remedy -with which I am acquainted, for coughs and pulmonary irritation. _Form. -19._ is that from which I have derived the greatest benefit in such -cases. See also _Form. 2, 3, 4, 19, 57_. Since the fourth edition of the -present work, I requested my friend Dr. John Davy to make trial of its -efficacy in the Military Hospital at Chatham, and I here introduce his -report upon the subject;—“My experience of the effects of the _Extractum -Conii_ perfectly agrees with that of Dr. Paris, as stated in the fourth -edition of the Pharmacologia, and I am of his opinion that when properly -prepared, and administered, it is a very valuable sedative; I have given -it to the extent daily of from a scruple to a drachm, in chronic -catarrh, and in phthisis pulmonalis, either alone or in conjunction with -the Extract of Hyoscyamus, and it has afforded more relief than any -other medicine that I have tried. From two or three trials of it in -pneumonia, I am disposed to think it may be very serviceable in certain -forms of this disease, in which venesection is contra-indicated by -extreme debility; and also in measles. In the trials alluded to, I -commenced giving it in the large dose of a drachm, daily, suspended in -water containing in solution a grain of _Antimonium Tartarizatum_. In a -very few instances, where I have from the commencement given it in a -large dose, as from ʒj to ʒiss, it has occasioned hallucination of -ideas, which in two cases was attended with excitement of the sensorium -and increased action of the heart, and in one case, with diminished -activity of both. The Extract of Conium, prepared by Mr. Barry, is the -most powerful one I have ever used, indeed, until I tried it, I had no -just idea of the virtues of Conium as a medicine; but I am now disposed -to give credit to Stöerk’s account of its efficacy in various chronic -diseases; and I have no doubt but that this valuable medicine has fallen -into comparative disrepute and disuse from the bad quality of the -extract commonly employed.” Dr. Maton has found that the value of this -extract is greatly increased by including the seeds in its preparation. -_Dose_, grs. v to ℈j; or more, twice or thrice a day; in a full dose it -produces giddiness, a slight nausea, and a tremor of the body; a -peculiar heavy sensation is also experienced about the eyes; and the -bowels become gently relaxed: unless some of these sensations are -produced, we are never sure that the remedy has had a _fair trial_ of -its effects. Patients will generally bear a larger dose at night than at -noon, and at noon than in the morning. - -EXTRACTUM ELATERII. L. This substance spontaneously subsides from the -juice of the wild cucumber, in consequence I presume of one of those -series of changes which vegetable matter is perpetually undergoing, -although we are hitherto unable to express them by any known chemical -law. It is therefore not an _extract_, either in the chemical or -pharmaceutical acceptation of the term, nor an _inspissated juice_, nor -is it a _fecula_,[502] as it has been termed; the Dublin College has -perhaps been more correct in simply calling it _Elaterium_, the name -given to it by Dioscorides. - -It occurs in commerce in little thin cakes, or broken pieces, bearing -the impression of the muslin upon which it has been dried; its _colour_ -is greenish, its _taste_ bitter, and somewhat acrid; and when tolerably -pure, it is light, pulverulent, and inflammable. - -The early history of this medicinal substance is involved in great -perplexity, each author speaking of a different preparation by the same -name; for instance, the _Elaterium_ of Dioscorides must have been a very -different substance from that of _Theophrastus_; and, wherever -Hippocrates mentions the term, he evidently alludes to _any_ violent -purgative. “_Hippocrati Elaterium medicamentum est quod per alvum -expurgat._” (_Bod: in Theophrast_.) This will, in some degree, reconcile -the discordant testimonies of different authors with regard to the -powers of _Elaterium_; for example, Dioscorides states its dose to be -from grs. ii to ℈j—in Ætius, Paulus, and Actuarius, it is recommended to -the extent of ʒss—in Mesue from ℈ss to ℈j—in Bontius (_Med: Ind:_) from -℈j to ʒss—Massarias exhibits it in doses of gr. vj—Fernelius and -Sennertus to ℈j—Herman from grs. v vj—Quincy to grs. v—and Boerhaave -does not venture to give more than gr. iv—while the practitioners of the -present day limit their dose from gr. ½ to grs. ij. Dr. Clutterbuck, -with a laudable intention to discover some method of procuring this -article at a cheaper rate, and at the same time of establishing some -process which might ensure a preparation of more uniform strength, has -lately performed a series of interesting and instructive -experiments,[503] the results of which prove in a satisfactory manner -“that the active principle of this plant is neither lodged in the roots, -leaves, flowers, nor stalks, in _any considerable quantity:_ nor is it -to be found in the body of the fruit itself, or in the seeds, but in -_the juice around the seeds_; the substance which spontaneously subsides -from this liquor, obtained without pressure, is _genuine_ Elaterium, the -quantity of which, contained in the fruit, is extremely small, for Dr. -Clutterbuck obtained only six grains from _forty_ cucumbers.” This -gentleman communicated the detail of these experiments to the President -of the College of Physicians, who requested me, as professor of Materia -Medica, to report upon them. I accordingly deemed it to be my duty to -enter upon a series of new experiments, which I have lately completed, -with the able assistance of Mr. Faraday, in the laboratory of the Royal -Institution. The results of which will shew, that although Dr. -Clutterbuck found that an _eighth_ part of a grain of elaterium seldom -failed to _purge violently_, yet, strange as it may appear, that _not -more than one grain in ten_ of elaterium, as it occurs in commerce, -possesses any active properties, and that this decimal part is a -vegetable proximate principle, not hitherto noticed, to which I shall -give the name of ELATIN. I shall subjoin the detail of my experiments, -and I think it will appear that their results will authorise me to -express the chemical composition of Elaterium in the following manner. - - F. Water ·4 - { B. Extractive 2·6 - I. { B.DJ Fecula 2·8 - { C. Gluten ·5 - K. Woody matter 2·5 - H. _Elatin_ { 1·2 - G. Bitter Principle { - ——— - 10 grains. - - - Proximate Analysis of Elaterium. - - - _Experiments. Series 1st._ - - - A. - - Ten grains of Elaterium, obtained from a respectable chemist, and - having all the sensible properties which indicated it to be genuine, - were digested for twenty-four hours with distilled water, at a - temperature far below that of boiling; _four grains_ only were - dissolved. - - - B. - - The solution was intensely bitter, of a brownish yellow colour, and - was not in the least disturbed by alcohol, although a solution of - _Iodine_ produced a blue colour; the solution therefore contained no - gum, and only _slight traces_ of starch. - - - C. - - The solution, after standing twenty-four hours, yielded a _pellicle_ - of insoluble matter, which when burnt appeared to resemble _Gluten_. - - - D. - - The six grains which were insoluble in water, were treated for - forty-eight hours with alcohol of the specific gravity ·817, at 66° - of Fahrenheit; a green solution was obtained, but by slow - evaporation only _half a grain_ of solid green matter was procured. - The insoluble residue obstinately adhered to, and coated the filtre - like a varnish, and completely defended the mass from the action of - the alcohol; it is probable that it consisted principally of - _Starch_. - - - _Experiments. Series 2d._ - - - E. - - Ten grains of Elaterium, from the same sample, were treated with - alcohol of the specific gravity ·817, at 66° Fahrenheit, for - twenty-four hours; upon being filtered, and the residuum washed with - successive portions of alcohol, the Elaterium was found to have lost - 1·6 of _a grain_. The high specific gravity of the alcohol in this - experiment was important; had it been lower, different results would - have been produced. - - - F. - - The alcoholic solution obtained in the last experiment, was of a - most brilliant and beautiful green colour, resembling that of the - oil of cajeput, but brighter; upon slowly evaporating it, 1·2 - _grains_ of solid green matter were obtained. - - - G. - - The solid green matter of the last experiment was treated with - boiling distilled water, when a minute portion was thus dissolved, - and a solution of a most intensely bitter taste, and of a brownish - yellow colour, resulted. - - - H. - - The residue, insoluble in water, was inflammable, burning with smoke - and an aromatic odour, not in the least bitter; it was soluble in - alkalies, and was again precipitated from them unchanged in colour; - it formed, with pure alcohol, a beautiful tincture, which yielded an - odour of a very nauseous kind, but of very little flavour, and which - gave a precipitate with water; it was soft, and of considerable - specific gravity, sinking rapidly in water; circumstances which - distinguish it from common resin; in very minute quantities it - purges. It appears to be the element in which the purgative powers - of the Elaterium are concentrated, and which I have denominated - ELATIN. - - - I. - - The residuum, insoluble in alcohol, weighing 8·4 grs. (Expt. E) was - boiled in double distilled water, when 5·9 grs. were dissolved. - - - J. - - The above solution was copiously precipitated blue by a solution of - Iodine, and was scarcely disturbed by the Per-sulphate of Iron. - - - K. - - The part insoluble, both in alcohol and water, which was left after - Experiment I, amounting to 2·5 grains; it burnt like wood, and was - insoluble in alkalies. - -It appears that the whole of the _Elatin_ does not separate itself from -its native juice by spontaneous subsidence, and that, on this account, -the supernatant liquor possesses some powers as a cathartic. We cannot -be surprised therefore that the _Elaterium_ of commerce should be a very -variable and uncertain medicine; for independent of the great temptation -which its high price holds out for adulterating it, which is frequently -done with starch, it necessarily follows that where the active principle -of a compound bears so small a proportion to its bulk, it is liable to -be affected by the slightest variation in the process for its -preparation, and even by the temperature of the season; where pressure -is used for obtaining the juices, a greater or less quantity of the -inactive parts of the cucumber will be mixed with the _Elatin_, in -proportion to the extent of such pressure, and the _Elaterium_ will of -course be proportionally weak.[504] There is one curious result obtained -in my experiments which deserves notice, _viz._ that there is a _bitter_ -principle in the Elaterium, very distinct from its extractive matter, -and totally unconnected with its activity, for I diluted the solution -obtained in experiment G. and swallowed it, but it produced upon me no -effect, except that which I generally experience upon taking a powerful -bitter,—an increased appetite; and yet notwithstanding this fact, when -in combination with _Elatin_, it is far from being inert, since this -latter body is considerably quickened by its presence. See page 152. The -solution B was given to a person, but no effect whatever ensued. _Dose_ -of good _Elaterium_, as it occurs in commerce, is about one grain, or it -is better to give it only to the extent of half a grain at a time, and -to repeat that dose every hour until it begins to operate. It is -probably, when thus managed, the best hydragogue cathartic which we -possess; it differs however from the class of remedies to which it -belongs, for it excites the pulse and whole animal system, so as to -produce a considerable degree of febrile action. It was strongly -recommended by Sydenham, Lister, and Hoffman, and all their -cotemporaries and immediate successors, as a valuable remedy in dropsy; -but in consequence of some fatal results from its improper application, -it was driven from practice with a violence that marks prejudice rather -than conviction; one author, in descanting upon its virulence, exclaims, -“_Elaterium esse in catalogo diaboli quo necat homines_.” For its -restoration to medicine, we are indebted to Dr. Ferriar of Manchester, -who used it with great success in the cure of Hydrothorax. - -EXTRACTUM (_Succus Spissatus._ E.D.) HYOSCYAMI. L. This preparation is -certainly powerfully narcotic, and tends to relax rather than astringe -the bowels; where the constitution is rebellious to opium, it furnishes -a more valuable resource to the practitioner than any other narcotic -extract. _Dose_, gr. v to ℈j, in pills. _See Form. 1, 3, 4, 19, 139._ - -EXTRACTUM LACTUCÆ. L. SUCCUS SPISSATUS LACTUCÆ SATIVÆ. E. This -preparation has found its way into the London Pharmacopœia, in -consequence of the testimony of many highly respectable practitioners in -favour of its sedative properties. In the memoirs of the Caledonian -Horticultural Society, various suggestions are offered as to the best -mode of obtaining an extract from the milky juice of the garden Lettuce, -to which Dr. Duncan has bestowed the name of “LACTUCARIUM;” it was first -recommended to take the milk with cotton, afterwards with a sponge, and -more recently with a painter’s brush; all these methods however are -attended with considerable difficulty, and the juice cannot be collected -in any quantity. Mr. Probart, a chemist in Great Portland Street, has -lately cultivated large plantations of the lettuce, for the purpose of -instituting experiments upon the subject, and I am happy in being -enabled through his liberality, to introduce in this place, an account -of the process which he pursues, and which he considers the only one by -which the article can be brought into the market at any reasonable -price.[505] - -In concluding the history of Inspissated juices, it deserves notice that -the London College uniformly directs that the _feculence_ should be -preserved in the compound: there can be no doubt of the propriety of -such advice, but the Colleges of Edinburgh and Dublin reject it. The -French Codex gives directions for two extracts from each of these -substances, one containing what they please to denominate the _fecula_, -the other not; thus there is “_Extractum Cicutæ absque Fecula_” and -“_Extract: Cicut: cum Fecula_.” There is one curious fact respecting -these narcotic preparations, that most, if not all of them, contain -_nitre_, _common salt_, and _muriate of potass._ - -Manufacturing chemists, in order to give a smooth and glossy appearance -to their Extracts, generally add to every ℔j, about ʒss of gum, fʒj of -olive oil, and ♏︎xx of rectified spirit; there is no harm in the -practice. - - - FERRI SUB-CARBONAS. L. CARBONAS FERRI - - PRÆCIPITATUS. E. CARBONAS FERRI. D. - - _Carbonate of Iron._ - -In a former Pharmacopœia of London, a sub-carbonate of iron was -prepared, under the name of _ferri-rubigo_ (rust of iron,) by exposing -iron-filings to the action of air and water; and although the Colleges -of Edinburgh and Dublin still retain this mode of preparation, yet they -admit at the same time of another which, like the _sub-carbonate_ of the -present London Pharmacopœia, is produced by precipitation. QUALITIES. -_Form_, a chocolate brown powder. _Odour_, none. _Taste_, slightly -styptic. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Mr. Phillips has shewn that this -precipitate is liable to vary according to the temperature at which it -is prepared, as well as from other differences of manipulation; it -generally consists of mixtures of peroxide, and proto-carbonate of iron, -in the proportion of four parts of the latter, and six of the former. By -referring to the _Medicinal Dynameter_ the practitioner may find the -quantity of those ingredients in any given weight of the preparation, -and compare its strength with the other chalybeate medicines. -SOLUBILITY. It is insoluble in water, but acids dissolve it with -effervescence. _Forms of Exhibition._ In powder or pills, combined with -aromatics. DOSE, gr. v to xxx. (_Form. 38._) It has lately been brought -into particular notice by the publication of Mr. Hutchinson of -Southwell, who states that in doses of half a drachm to a drachm, two or -three times a day, it has proved in his hands a most efficacious remedy -in the cure of _Tic doloureux_. Mr. Hutchinson is well known to the -profession as a judicious and inquiring practitioner, and we are well -satisfied that he would not recommend any remedy to the attention of his -brethren, without a well grounded assurance of its efficacy; at the same -time it must be remembered that this disease is very frequently the -consequence of an irritation in some nerve, by the mechanical operation -of osseous spiculæ; in such cases we cannot expect the sub-carbonate of -Iron to afford relief. A noble Marquis who lost his leg at Waterloo, -suffered excruciating pains in his face, in consequence of exfoliation -in the stump, which were relieved as soon as the local irritation -subsided; and a late lamented physician appears to have owed his severe -sufferings to the irritation produced on the brain by a bony -excrescence. I have little doubt if cases of _Tic doloureux_ were more -carefully examined, they would be frequently found to derive their -origin from a similar source. If it were necessary I could add several -of such instances to those already enumerated.[506] - - - FERRI RAMENTA ET FILA. L. FILA ET - - LIMATURA. E. FERRI SCOBS. D. - - _Iron Filings and Wire._ - -Iron seems to be a metal that proves active in its _metallic_ state; its -filings may be given in the form of powder, conjoined to some aromatic, -or what is perhaps more eligible, in the form of an electuary. The -Mahometan practitioners are in the habit of prescribing them, in -conjunction with ginger, and cummin seeds, in cases requiring tonics. -DOSE, grs. v to ʒss. IMPURITIES. Iron filings should be carefully -purified by the application of the magnet, since those obtained from the -work-shops are generally mixed with copper and other metals. For -pharmaceutical purposes, iron wire should be preferred, as being the -most pure, since the softest iron only can be drawn, and Mr. Phillips -has shewn us, in his experiments upon the “_Ferrum Tartarizatum_” that -soft iron is more easily acted upon by Tartar. - - - FERRI SULPHAS. L. SULPHAS FERRI. E.D. - - Ferrum Vitriolatum. P.L. 1787. Sal Martis. P.L. 1745. - - Sal, seu Vitriolatum Martis. P.L. 1720. - - _Sulphate of Iron_, formerly _Green Vitriol_. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, crystals, which are rhomboidal prisms, transparent, -and of a fine green colour; when exposed to the air they effloresce, and -at the same time become covered with a yellow powder, owing to the -attraction of oxygen; when exposed to heat, they undergo watery fusion, -and at a higher temperature, the acid is driven off and the peroxide of -iron alone remains, which in commerce is known by the name of -_Colcothar_. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. According to Dr. Thomson, it consists -of 27·7 of sulphuric acid, 28·3 of protoxide of iron, and 45 of water; 8 -parts, however, of this water, exist in combination with the oxide of -iron. The Medicinal Dynameter will shew the proportion of protoxide in -any given weight of this salt. SOLUBILITY. It is soluble in two parts of -water at 60°, and three-fourths at 212°. The solution reddens vegetable -blues. It is insoluble in alcohol; when however the iron is farther -oxidized, it becomes soluble in that menstruum.[507] INCOMPATIBLE -SUBSTANCES. Every salt whose base forms an insoluble compound with -sulphuric acid; _the earths, the alkalies and their carbonates_; _borate -of soda_; _nitrate of potass_; _muriate of ammonia_; _tartrate of potass -and soda_; _acetate of ammonia_; _nitrate of silver_; _sub-acetate and -acetate of lead_; _and Soaps_. Whether the medicinal virtues of a salt -of iron are injured by combination with astringent vegetable matter, -seems to admit of doubt. Such substances have been usually ranked -amongst the _incompatibles_, but I am disposed to think without -sufficient grounds, for I have frequently witnessed the salutary effects -of iron when exhibited in this questionable state of combination—may not -the absorbents be more disposed to take up iron, when combined with -vegetable matter, than when it is presented in a more purely mineral -form?[508] MEDICINAL USES. Tonic, astringent, emmenagogue, and -anthelmintic; in large doses, it occasions griping in the bowels. DOSE, -gr. j to v, combined with rhubarb, or some bitter extract. (_form: 72, -87._) If given in solution, the water should be previously boiled, or -the oxygen contained in the atmospherical air, which is diffused through -it, will partially convert the salt into an _oxy_-sulphat, and render it -insoluble. As an external astringent it is useful in the aphthæ of -children.[509] OFFICINAL PREP. _Mist: Ferri comp:_ L. (=K=) _Pil: Ferri -comp:_ L. (=J=). - - - FERRUM AMMONIATUM. L. MURIAS - - AMMONIÆ ET FERRI. E.D. - - _Ferrum Ammoniacale, P.L._ 1787. _Flores Martiales._ - - _P.L._ 1745. _Ens Veneris. P.L._ 1720. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, crystalline grains, which deliquesce; _Colour_, -orange yellow; _Odour_, resembling that of saffron; _Taste_, styptic. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. This is very variable; depending upon the degree -of heat and length of time employed for its preparation. It seems to be -a mixed mass, consisting of sub-muriate of ammonia and sub-muriate of -iron, the metal being in the state of red oxide; and, Mr. Phillips -states that in the London preparation a portion of sub-carbonate of -ammonia is necessarily present. The same chemist has also shewn that the -proportion of Peroxide of iron in 200 grains is not more than three -grains. Its equivalents will be seen in the Medicinal Dynameter. -SOLUBILITY, f℥j of water dissolves ʒiv of it; it is also very soluble in -alcohol. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _The Alkalies, and their Carbonates_; -_Lime water_, and _Astringent vegetables_. MEDICINAL USES. It is tonic, -emmenagogue, and aperient, but it is so uncertain in its composition and -effects that it is rarely used. OFFICINAL PREP: _Tinct: Ferri Ammon:_ L. -_Form: 36, 43, 95._ IMPURITIES. These are indicated by the dull and pale -yellow colour of the salt; it may be purified by resubliming it. - - - FERRUM TARTARIZATUM. L. - - TARTRAS POTASSÆ ET FERRI. E. - - TARTARUM FERRI. D. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a powder of a brownish green colour; _Odour_, none; -_Taste_, slightly styptic; it attracts humidity from the atmosphere, but -does not deliquesce. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Mr. Phillips has devoted much -attention to this subject, and he states that as it is frequently -prepared, it is a mere mixture of metallic iron with super-tartrate of -potass, coloured by oxide of iron; when however it is made with more -care, it appears to be a double salt, consisting of tartrate of potass -and tartrate of iron; or may it not be one of those combinations which -cream of tartar forms with metals, and of which I have spoken under the -article _Antimonium Tartarizatum_? The quantity of peroxide of iron -contained in any weight of this preparation may be seen by referring to -the _Medicinal Dynameter_; five grains, for instance, will be found to -contain gr. j of peroxide, which, it will be observed, are equivalent to -♏︎xiv of the _Tinctura Ferri Muriatis_, and to ♏︎xxv of the _Liquor -Ferri Alkalini_, or to f℥j of the _Vinum Ferri_. SOLUBILITY. It is very -soluble in water, and the solution remains for a great length of time -without undergoing any change, except that of depositing _tartrate of -lime_, which is an incidental impurity in the super-tartrate of potass. -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _All strong acids_; _lime water_; -_hydro-sulphuret of potass_; _astringent vegetables_? _The fixed -alkalies and their carbonates_ decompose the solution very slowly, -unless heated; but _ammonia_ and its _sub-carbonate_ produce upon it no -effect, whether it be hot or cold; this fact, observes Mr. Phillips, -will enable us to exhibit iron in solution with an alkali, without the -occurrence of an precipitate. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. The perfect -preparation, from its tendency to deliquesce, cannot be well ordered in -the form of powder; that of solution is probably the most judicious. -MED. USES. It is supposed to add to its chalybeate virtues those of a -diuretic nature. DOSE, grs. x to ʒss. See _Form: 34, 53, 92_. Dr. -Bateman has recommended a watery solution of it, as a chalybeate -peculiarly suited to children, from its tasteless quality.[510] - - - FILICIS RADIX. L.E.D. - - (Aspidium Filix, _Mas._) - - Root of the _Male Fern_. - -QUALITIES. This root is nearly inodorous; its taste slightly bitter, -sweetish, sub-astringent, and mucilaginous; as it contains no volatile -ingredient, it may be given in decoction, but on account of its -astringency, it must not be conjoined with a _chalybeate_. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. According to M. Morin, the Male Fern root owes its -anthelmintic property to a fatty substance, capable of being saponified; -of a nauseous odour quite like that of the root; of a very disagreeable -taste, heavier than water, and distilling with water, and when burnt, -giving a dense aromatic smoke. The root, moreover, contains gallic and -acetic acids; uncrystallizable sugar; tannin; starch; a gelatinous -matter insoluble in water and alcohol; lignine; and various salts. M. -Morin considers the fatty matter as formed of a fixed and a volatile -oil, but farther experiments are required to make the characteristic -principle of this root better understood. (Ann. de Chim. xxvi. 219.) -DOSE, as an anthelmintic,[511] ʒj to ʒiij, followed by a cathartic; its -use however is superseded by more powerful and certain vermifuges. The -root is sometimes boiled in ale to flavour it. - - - GALBANI GUMMI RESINA. L.E.D. - - _Galbanum._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, variegated masses, of a yellowish brown colour; -_Odour_, fetid; _Taste_, bitter and acrid. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is -one of those vegetable products to which the name of _gum-resin_ has -been given, _see Elemi_. The latest analysis of galbanum by M. Meisner, -affords the following results, Resin 65·8; Gum 22·6; Cerasin 1·8; Malic -acid 0·2; Volatile oil 3·4; Vegetable Debris 2·8; loss 3·4. SOLUBILITY. -Water, wine, and vinegar, by trituration, take up one-fourth of its -weight, and form a milky mixture, which deposits its charge by rest; a -permanent suspension, however, may be effected by the intermedium of egg -or of gum arabic, for which purpose the galbanum will require half its -weight of gum. Alcohol takes up one-fifth of its weight, and a golden -yellow tincture results, which has the sensible qualities of the -galbanum, and becomes milky on the addition of water, but no precipitate -falls. A mixture of two parts of rectified spirit and one of water, will -dissolve all but the impurities. By distillation, galbanum yields half -its weight of volatile oil, which at first has a blue colour. MED. USES. -It is antispasmodic, expectorant, and deobstruent, and in a medical -classification, might be placed between ammonia and assafœtida. FORMS OF -EXHIBITION. No form is preferable to that of pill. OFFICINAL. PREP. -_Pil. Galbani comp._ L. _Pil. Assafœtid. comp._ E. (=B=) _Pil. Myrrh. -co._ D. _Tinct. Galb._ D. _Empl. Galb._ D. _Emplast. Galb. co._ L. -_Emplast. Assafœtid._ E. (=B=) _Emplast. Gummos._ E. - - - GALLÆ. L.E.D. - - (Cynips Quercus folli _Nidus_.) _Gall Nuts._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, excrescences, nearly round and of different -magnitudes, smooth on the surface, but studded with tuberosities; they -are heavy, brittle, and break with a flinty fracture. _Odour_, none; -_Taste_, bitter and very astringent. SOLUBILITY. The whole of their -soluble matter is taken up by forty times their weight of boiling water. -Alcohol, by digestion, dissolves .7, and æther .5 of their substance. -The watery infusion possesses all the properties of the gall-nut, and -reddens vegetable blues. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Is at present involved in -some obscurity; it contains tannin, gallic acid, a concrete volatile -oil, and perhaps extractive and gum. M. Braconnot has also lately -discovered in the gall-nut a new acid, which he calls _Ellagic acid_, -from the word _galle_ reversed, a nomenclature which it must be -confessed is at least free from the objections urged against that which -is founded upon chemical composition. (_See Annales de Chimie, vol. ix. -p. 187, new series_; also _Children’s Essay on Chemical Analysis, p. -276_.) INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. The infusion and tincture of galls -possess habitudes with which it is very important for the medical -practitioner to be acquainted, not only for the purpose of directing -their exhibition with success, but because the elements which impart to -them their characteristic traits, viz. _Gallic Acid_ and _Tannin_,[512] -are very widely diffused through the products of the vegetable kingdom, -and will be found to be constantly active in their chemical, medicinal, -and pharmaceutical relations. Metallic salts, especially those of iron, -produce precipitates with infusion of galls, composed of tannin, gallic -acid, and the metallic oxide; of these compounds the _tanno-gallate of -iron_ is the most striking, being of a black colour; those of -_sub-acetate_ and _acetate of lead_ are greyish; _tartarized antimony_ -produces a yellowish; _sulphate of copper_ a brown; _sulphate of zinc_ -reddish black; _nitrate of silver_, a deep olive; and _nitrate of -mercury_, a bright yellow precipitate; the _oxy-muriate of mercury_ -produces only an opacity. _Sulphuric acid_ throws down a yellowish curdy -precipitate, _muriatic_, a flaky and white one, and _nitric acid_ merely -modifies the colour of the infusion, although it destroys its -astringency; the solution of _ammonia_ occasions no precipitate but -renders the colour deeper, the _carbonate_ however throws down a -precipitate; the carbonates of the _fixed alkalies_ produce a yellowish -flaky, and _lime water_ a copious green precipitate. The _tannin_ in the -infusion of galls is precipitated by a solution of isinglass or of any -other animal jelly, by that of starch, and by many metallic oxides. -MEDICINAL USES. Galls are most powerfully astringent. The native -practitioners of India not only administer them as astringents in -dysentery, but as tonics in cases of intermittent fever. FORMS OF -EXHIBITION. In that of powder; and in combination with other astringents -(_Form. 51_,) or with aromatics and bitters. As a local remedy the -gall-nut enters into gargles and injections; for _blind_ piles, an -ointment composed of 2½ parts of finely powdered galls, and a small -portion of opium, with three parts of simple ointment as an excipient, -offers a very valuable resource. (_Form. 55._) In some cases of -hemorrhoids, prolapsus ani, and fluor albus, the application may be made -in the form of a fomentation, for which purpose two drachms of bruised -galls should be macerated for an hour in a pint of boiling water, which, -when cold, may be used in the usual manner. DOSE, for internal -exhibition, grs. x–℈ij, or more. OFFICINAL PREP. _Tinct. Gallarum_. E.D. -OBSERVATION. Those which are small, protuberant, bluish, and heavy, are -the best, being such as have been collected before the _larvæ_ within -them had changed to the state of fly, and eaten their way out; a white, -or a red hue indicates an inferior quality, and are those from which the -insect has escaped. Aleppo galls are the most valuable, as being the -most astringent. - - - GENTIANÆ RADIX. L.E.D. - - (Gentiana Lutea, _Radix_.) _Gentian Root._ - -QUALITIES. Form, wrinkled pieces of various length and thickness; -_Odour_, not particular; _Taste_, intensely bitter, but not nauseous. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, resin, a small portion of oil, bitter extractive, -and a proportion of tannin; it contains also mucilage, in consequence of -which the infusion frequently becomes ropy. Since the last edition of -this work, the continental chemists have announced the existence of an -alkaline principle, which they call _Gentia_ or _Gentiania_, and which -is said to concentrate within itself all the virtues of the Gentian -root; it does not appear to be in the least poisonous; _M. Majendie_ has -injected it into the veins without any obvious effects, and has himself -swallowed two grains without experiencing any sensation but that of -extreme bitterness, followed by gentle warmth in the region of the -stomach.[513] The root, moreover, contains saccharine matter, for when -fermented with water, it yields a spirit which is extensively used by -the Swiss. SOLUBILITY. The virtues of this root are extracted by water -and alcohol; proof spirit is perhaps its most perfect menstruum. See -_Infus. Gentian. comp._ MED. USES. It is tonic and stomachic, and its -use for such purposes is of ancient date;[514] in dyspepsia, hysteria, -and in all cases where a vegetable bitter is indicated, it will be found -a serviceable remedy. DOSE, in substance, from grs. x to ʒj. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Extract: Gentian_. L.E.D. _Infusum Gentianæ comp._ L.E.D. -_Tinct. Gentian. comp._ L.E.D.[515] _Vinum Gentianæ compositum._ E. - - - GERANIUM MACULATUM. - - (Spotted Geranium.) - - _Radix._ - -[This plant is very common in the United States, and is usually found in -the vicinity of moist, woody situations. From the analysis of Bigelow, -it appears to contain a very large proportion of tannin. It is -accordingly powerfully astringent, and has been used with advantage in -diarrhœa, chronic, dysentery and cholera infantum. In powder the dose of -the Geranium is from 20 to 30 grs.—in extract, 10 grs.—in tincture from -ʒj to ʒij—and in decoction from ℥j to ℥ij.] - - - GLYCYRRHIZÆ RADIX. L.E.D..nf c - - (Glycyrrhiza Glabra.) - - _Liquorice Root._ _Stick Liquorice._ - -QUALITIES. _Taste_, sweet and mucilaginous. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Gum, -with a peculiar modication of saccharine matter (_Glycion_), or sugar in -its purest form, for it is not fermentable; on which account it is added -to beer for the purpose of imparting a sweet taste, and at the same time -enabling it to keep better. SOLUBILITY. Water extracts both its -principles, but by long coction it becomes bitter; alcohol extracts only -its saccharine matter. MED. USES. It is principally employed as a -demulcent in combination with other mucilaginous vegetables; the root -will yield nearly half its weight of extract. Liquorice covers the taste -of some unpalatable medicines more effectually than any other substance, -and it has long enjoyed the reputation of assuaging thirst, whence the -Greeks distinguished this root by the term _Adipson_; and, perhaps, the -English word _Liquorice_ may be derived from the same belief. OFFICINAL -PREP. _Decoct: Sarsaparill: comp._ L.D. (=O=) Infus: _Lini_, L. (=B=) -_Extract: Glycyrrhizæ._ L.E.D. _Confectio Sennæ_[516] L.E. (=O=) -ADULTERATIONS. The powdered root is generally sophisticated with flour, -and sometimes with powdered guaiacum; the fraud may be detected by its -colour being a fine pale, instead of a brownish yellow, and by its -reduced or foreign flavour. - - - GRANATI CORTEX. L.E.D. - - Punica Granatum. _Pomorum Cortex._ - - _Pomegranate Bark._ - -What has been said respecting the Gall-nut, applies with equal truth to -this substance. The efficacy of the bark of the root of the pomegranate, -says Dr. Ainslie (_Mat. Med. of Hindostan_), as a remedy for the tape -worm is now well established in India; it is given in decoction, -prepared with two ounces of the fresh bark, boiled in a pint and a half -of water until only three quarters of a pint remain. - - - GUAIACI RESINA ET LIGNUM. L.E.D. - - (Guaiacum Officinale). - - _The Resin and Wood of Guaiacum._ - - - A. THE WOOD. - -QUALITIES. This wood is heavier than water, and emits when heated an -aromatic odour; _Taste_, bitterish and sub-acrid; to extract its virtues -long decoction is required. It has enjoyed great reputation as a -specific in the venereal disease; it was imported into Europe in 1517, -and gained immediate celebrity from curing the celebrated Van Hutten: -long before this period, however, it was used by the natives of St. -Domingo. Boerhaave, so late as the eighteenth century, maintained its -specific powers. It seems probable that the discipline which always -accompanied its exhibition, such as sweating, abstinence, and purgation, -might be the means, in the warmer climates, of effecting cures which -were attributed to the guaiacum. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Decoct: -Guaiaci comp:_ E. _Decoct: Sarsaparill: comp:_ L.D. - - - B. THE GUAIAC, or _Resin_. - -QUALITIES. _Form_; it has the aspect of a gum resin; _Colour_, greenish -brown; it is easily pulverized, and the powder, which is at first grey, -becomes green on exposure to air and light, which appears to depend upon -the absorption of oxygen: when heated, it loses its colour; it melts by -heat; and has a _sp. grav:_ of 1·2289. SOLUBILITY. _Water_ dissolves out -of it about 9 per cent. of extractive matter; _alcohol_ 95, and _æther_ -40 parts in a hundred. The _alkaline_ solutions and their _carbonates_ -dissolve it readily; _Sulphuric acid_ dissolves it with scarcely any -effervescence, and affords a solution of a rich claret colour; _Nitric -acid_ dissolves it with a copious extrication of nitrous fumes; -_Muriatic acid_ dissolves a small portion only; but in all these cases -the guaiacum is decomposed; the acids are therefore incompatible with -it. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The experiments of Mr. Hatchett demonstrate -that it is a substance _sui generis_, and not a resin, or gum-resin. -MED. USES. Stimulant, diaphoretic,[517] and in large doses, purgative. -FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In that of bolus; or diffused in water, by means of -one half of its own weight of gum arabic. DOSE, gr. x. to ʒss. OFFICINAL -PREP: _Mist: Guaiac:_ L. _Tinct. Guaiac._ L.E.D. _Tinct. Guaiac. -Ammoniat._ L.E.D. _Pulv. Aloes com._ L.D. (=O.M.=) ADULTERATIONS. -_Common resin_ may be detected by the turpentine emitted when the guaiac -is thrown upon hot coals; _Manchinal gum_, by adding to the tincture a -few drops of sweet spirit of nitre, and diluting with water; the guaiac -is thus precipitated, but the adulteration floats in white striæ. - - - HÆMATOXYLI LIGNUM. L.E.D. - - (Hæmatoxylon Campechianum). _Logwood._ - -QUALITIES. The wood is hard, compact, and heavy. _Odour_, none; _Taste_, -sweet, and astringent; _Colour_, deep red. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The -colouring matter of this wood has been very recently submitted to a -rigid examination; and the name of _Hematin_ has been given to it; it -affords small brilliant crystals of a reddish white colour, and slightly -astringent, bitter, and acrid flavour; sulphuretted hydrogen passed -through its solution in water, gives it a yellow colour, which -disappears in a few days. Gelatine throws it down in reddish flakes. The -habitudes of Logwood are curious with respect to mutability of colour. -The recent infusion, made with distilled water, is yellow, but that with -common water has a reddish purple colour, which is deepened by the -alkalies, and changed to yellow by the acids; various salts precipitate -it; _acetate of lead_; _alum_; the _sulphates of copper and iron_; -_tartarized antimony_; and _sulphuric_, _muriatic_, _nitric_, and -_acetic acids_, are on this account incompatible with it. MED. USES. It -is supposed to be astringent, and is therefore given in protracted -diarrhœas, and in the latter stage of dysentery. OFFICINAL PREP. -_Extract. Hæmatoxyli._ L. - - - HELLEBORI FŒTIDI FOLIA L. - - (Helleborus Fœtidus). HELLEBORASTER. D. - - _The Leaves of Fœtid Hellebore._ - -As this plant is merely retained in the list of materia medica on -account of its anthelmintic properties, it might be well dispensed with, -since we possess many others which are much more safe, as well as more -efficacious. - - - HELLEBORI NIGRI RADIX. L.E.D. - - _The Root of Black Hellebore._ _Melampodium._[518] - - _Christmas Rose._ - -QUALITIES. The fibres of the root are the parts employed; they are about -the thickness of a straw, corrugated, externally of a deep dark colour, -hence the epithet _black_; internally white, or of a yellowish hue. -_Odour_, unpleasant; _Taste_, bitter and acrid. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. An -analysis of this root has lately been effected by M. M. Feneulle and -Capron, from which it appears that its active principle, unlike that of -the White Hellebore (_Veratrum_) is not an alkali; the following -substances enter into its composition, viz. 1. A Volatile Oil.—2. A -Fatty matter.—3. A Resin.—4. Wax.—5. A Volatile Acid.—6. A bitter -principle.—7. Mucus.—8. Alumina.—9. Gallate of Potass.—10. Acidulous -Gallate of Lime.—11. A Salt, with an Ammoniacal base. SOLUBILITY. Both -water and alcohol extract its virtues, but the spirituous solution is -the most active; long coction diminishes its powers, hence the watery -extract acts more mildly than the root. MEDICINAL USES. This is one of -the most ancient articles of the materia medica. Ctesias, who lived in -the time of Plato, and anterior to Hippocrates, speaks of it as a -medicine of important virtues. By the Greek and Roman physicians it was -highly esteemed as a remedy in Mania (_see p. 8._) The extraordinary -cures performed at the island of Anticyrus, famous for its Hellebore, -are celebrated by the poets and historians of antiquity. It is a drastic -cathartic, and may prove therefore emmenagogue, and hydragogue, but in -this country, its reputation has been destroyed by the decided manner in -which Dr. Cullen reprobated its use. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. It is seldom -given in substance, but in the form of tincture or extract; or in that -of decoction, made with two drachms of the root to a pint of water. DOSE -of the powdered root, grs. x to ℈j; of the decoction, f℥j. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Tinct. Hellebori Nigri._ L.E.D. _Extractum Hellebori -Nigri._ E.D. ADULTERATIONS. The roots of the poisonous aconites are -often fraudulently substituted; this is easily discovered, for the -aconite is lighter coloured than the palest specimens of black -hellebore; it is safe therefore to choose the darkest. - - - HORDEI SEMINA. L.E.D. - - (Hordeum Distichon. _Semina, tunicis nudata._) - - Hordeum Perlatum. _Pearl Barley._ - -Barley is formed into _Pearl Barley_, by the removal of its husk or -cuticle,[519] and afterwards by being rounded and polished in a mill. -These well known granules consist chiefly of fecula, with portions of -mucilage, gluten, and sugar, which water extracts by decoction, but the -solution soon passes into the acetous fermentation; the bran of barley -contains an acrid resin, and it is to get rid of such an ingredient that -it is deprived of its cuticle. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Decoct. Hordei._ -L.E.D. _Decoct. Hordei. comp._ L.D. - - - - HUMULI STROBILI. L.E. - - (Humulus Lupulus. _Stroboli Siccati._) - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, fragrant, and sub-narcotic. _Taste_, bitter, -astringent, and aromatic. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Tannin, 5 grs.; -Extractive, 10 grs.; Bitter principle, 11 grs.; Wax, 12 grs.; Resin, 36 -grs.; Lignin, 46 grs. The fact, with respect to the residence of the -properties of the hop in the yellow grains scattered over its scales, -has been since confirmed by the observations of M. Payen and A. -Chevalier, who have moreover detected a volatile oil in the Lupulin, -amounting to 2 per cent.; its proportion, however, appears to vary in -the Hop of different countries; the French hop, for instance, has been -found to contain more than the Belgic, but less than the English; Hops, -moreover, soon after having been picked, yield, _cæteris paribus_, more -oil and less resin than the old; a circumstance which induced M. M. -Payen and Chevalier to suspect that the oil is capable of being -resinified. (_Journal de Pharmacie, Juin 1822._) This oil is similar in -odour to the hop, but much more penetrating, narcotic, and very acrid in -the throat. - -SOLUBILITY. Boiling water, alcohol, and æther, extract their virtues; -but their aromatic flavour is destroyed by decoction; like most -vegetable bitters, the cold is more grateful than the warm infusion; its -colour is deepened by alkalies, and rendered turbid by the mineral -acids; metallic salts also produce decomposition. MEDICINAL USES. Hops -have been said to be tonic, narcotic, and diuretic; they have been -recommended in the cure of rheumatism; and, like many articles in the -materia medica which have received the sanction of respectable -practitioners, they have been extolled far beyond their merit. They -undoubtedly possess the advantages of a pleasant bitter combined with a -feeble narcotic; the late Mr. Freake was very sanguine as to their -powers, and at his request I made a series of experiments at the -Westminster Hospital, but I confess that their results have not -established my confidence in their efficacy. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. -_Extract. Humili._ L. _Tinct. Humili._ L. Their use as a preservative of -beer is well known, and the philosophy of their agency is fully -described in the first part of this work, (_page 168_); it is equally -notorious, that various vegetable substances are daily substituted for -them, such as _Quassia_[520] and _Wormwood_, both of which are inferior -to the _Menyanthes Trifoliata_, or _Marsh Trefoil_. The people of Jersey -are said to use the wood-sage, _Teucrium Scorodonia_; it imparts however -a very high colour to the beer. During the first four years that the -Cape of Good Hope was in the possession of the British, more than -300,000 pounds of Aloes were imported into England; how could such a -quantity be consumed? except, as Mr. Barrow states, by the London Porter -brewers; it must however be allowed that a considerable quantity of this -article is used by the Varnish makers. - - - HYDRARGYRUM.[521] L.D. HYDRARCYRUS. E. - - Olim, Argentum vivum. _Mercury_, or _Quicksilver_. - -Mercury, in its metallic state, is never applied to any medical -use,[522] except in visceral obstruction, in hopes of forcing a passage -by its gravity; but under various forms of preparation, it affords a -series of very active remedies. ADULTERATIONS. With the exception of -Peruvian Bark, there is perhaps no active article in the materia medica -more shamefully adulterated; its impurity is at once indicated by its -dull aspect; by its tarnishing, and becoming covered with a grey film; -by its diminished mobility, in consequence of which its globules are -unable to retain the spherical form, and therefore _tail_, as it is -technically expressed. _Lead_ is discovered by dissolving it in nitric -acid, and adding to the solution water impregnated with sulphuretted -hydrogen, when, if lead be present, a dark brown precipitate will ensue. -_Bismuth_, by pouring the nitric solution into distilled water, when it -will appear as a white precipitate. _Zinc_, by exposing the mercury to -heat. _Tin_ is detected by a dilute solution of nitro-muriate of gold, -which throws down a purple precipitate. The presence of lead in mercury -is a most dangerous circumstance; I have once witnessed a case of -_cholica pictonum_ in consequence of it. The usual mode of purifying -quicksilver, by pressing it through chamois leather, will not separate -the lead, if it be, as is generally the case, in combination with -bismuth; for the manner in which the adulteration is effected, is by -melting with a gentle heat these two metals, and adding the alloy to the -mercury; and although this alloy should exceed one-fourth of the whole -bulk, it will pass, together with the mercury, through chamois leather. -On standing, the bismuth will be thrown upon the surface, in the form of -a dark powder, but the lead will remain in solution. The greatest part -of the mercury of commerce comes from Istria and Friuli, and from the -Palatinate, and as it passes through the hands of the Dutch, we must -expect to receive it in a state of alloy. On a superficial examination, -it ought not, when shaken with water, to impart to it any colour; when -agitated or digested with vinegar, it should not communicate a sweetish -taste; and when exposed in an iron spoon to heat, it ought to evaporate -entirely. The French are so well aware of the mischievous extent to -which this metal is falsified, that in their late Codex they direct the -reduction of the _red oxyd_ in order to obtain it; the process however -is too expensive for general adoption. The Italian Jews purify -quicksilver for their barometers, by digesting it in dilute sulphuric -acid, which is by no means an improper process. The mode directed for -the purification of mercury by the London College, (_Hydrargyrum -Purificatum_) is unable to separate it _completely_ from its more -deleterious contaminations. It is a general opinion in Germany, that -mercury, boiled in water, will impart to it an anthelmintic virtue;[523] -this, if it happens, can only depend upon the impurities of the mercury; -but large draughts of cold water are in themselves anthelmintic. -Although metallic mercury in its fluid form exerts no effect upon the -animal system, it, nevertheless, in a state of vapour, manifests -considerable powers; and it is necessary for the practitioner to be -informed that it assumes this condition at the ordinary temperature of -the atmosphere. I have stated several experiments in proof of this fact -in my work on Medical Jurisprudence, _Art_. “_Aerial Poisons_,” to which -the reader may refer. - - - HYDRARGYRUM PRÆCIPITATUM ALBUM. L. - - SUB-MURIAS HYDRARGYRI AMMONIATUM. D. - - _White Precipitate._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, an impalpable powder of a snowy whiteness; _Odour_ -and _Taste_, none. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is a triple compound of -oxide of mercury 81, muriatic acid 16, ammonia 3 parts. SOLUBILITY. It -is insoluble in water, and in alcohol; when triturated with lime water -it does not become black. It is now only used in combination with lard -as an ointment; formerly it was administered internally, and Boerhaave -strongly recommends it as a safe and mild mercurial, and as seldom, if -ever, exciting copious salivation. OFFICINAL PREP. _Unguent._ _Hydrarg. -præcipitati albi._ L.D. - - - HYDRARGYRUM CUM CRETA. L.D. - - _Mercury with Chalk._ - -This is mercury slightly oxydized by trituration, and mixed with chalk. -Grs. iij contain about one grain of mercury. DOSE, grs. v to ʒss. It is -a mild and excellent mercurial, and has been known to cure syphilitic -affections, when the constitution had proved rebellious to every other -form of preparation. Dr. George Fordyce committed a great error, when he -denied to this compound any mercurial efficacy. The peculiar mildness of -this preparation has been very justly attributed to the effects of the -carbonate of lime, in neutralizing acid matter in the primæ viæ. In -Mesenteric affections I have employed it with much advantage; in certain -forms of Dysentery it is also a very valuable medicine. - - - HYDRARGYRI NITRICO-OXYDUM. L. - - OXYDUM HYDRARGYRI RUBRUM PER ACIDUM NITRICUM. E. - - OXYDUM HYDRARGYRI NITRICUM. D. - - _Nitric Oxyd of Mercury—Red Precipitate._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, small scales of a bright red colour; _Taste_, acrid -and corrosive. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is strictly speaking a -_sub-nitrate_ of mercury, for if it be boiled for a short time with six -times its weight of water, the liquor when filtered yields a precipitate -with ammonia. SOLUBILITY. It is slightly soluble in water, but -extensively in nitric acid, without any effervescence. USES. It is used -only externally, as an escharotic. OFFICINAL PREP. _Unguent._ -_Hydrargyri Nitrico-oxyd._ L.E.D. ADULTERATIONS. _Red Lead_ may be -detected by digesting it in acetic acid, and adding sulphuret of -ammonia, which will produce a dark-coloured precipitate: it should be -totally volatilized by heat. - - - HYDRARGYRI OXYDUM CINEREUM. L.E. - - PULVIS HYDRARGYRI CINEREUS. D. - - _Grey Oxyd of Mercury._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, an impalpable grey coloured powder, which becomes -paler on exposure to air and light. _Odour_ and _taste_, none. CHEM. -COMPOSITION. When properly prepared it is protoxide of mercury; but, as -frequently found in the shops, it contains a mixture of the triple salt -consisting of oxide of mercury, ammonia, and nitric acid. It is rarely -used; although Dr. Saunders suggested it as a succedaneum for Plenck’s -remedy, and Mr. Abernethy considers it preferable to the red Sulphuret -for mercurial fumigation, on account of its not yielding any suffocating -vapour. OFFICINAL PREP. _Unguent._ _Oxyd. Hydrarg. ciner._ E. - - - HYDRARGYRI OXYDUM RUBRUM. L. - - OXYDUM HYDRARGYRI. D. - - _Red Oxyd of Mercury._ - - The _Precipitate per se_ of the older Chemists. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, minute crystalline scales, of a deep red colour, -inodorous, but acrid and caustic; it is soluble in several of the acids -without decomposition; it is also slightly soluble in water; from which -solution it is precipitated by ammonia. USES. It is very active as a -mercurial, and has been a favourite remedy with John Hunter (_Form. -141_) and other celebrated practitioners; it is however apt to affect -the bowels, and is therefore now rarely employed except as an external -application. DOSE, gr. j. combined with opium gss. ADULTERATIONS. It is -seldom adulterated, as it would be difficult to find a substance suited -to that purpose. If well prepared it may be totally volatilized by heat. - - - HYDRARGYRI OXY-MURIAS. L. - - MURIAS HYDRARGYRI CORROSIVUS. E.D. - - _Oxy-muriate of Mercury._ - - _Corrosive Muriate of Mercury._ _Corrosive Sublimate._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a crystalline mass, composed of very small prismatic -crystals, which is easily pulverized, and undergoes a slight alteration -by exposure to air, becoming on its surface opaque and pulverulent. -Light, however, has no effect upon it, although a different opinion has -existed, and it has accordingly been recommended to be kept in black -bottles. _Odour_, none. _Taste_, very acrid, with a metallic -astringency, occasioning a sensation of obstruction in the throat which -continues for some time. _Sp. gr._ 5·1398. When pulverised and thrown -upon burning coals, it is immediately volatilized, giving out a thick -white smoke of a very pungent smell, which irritates the mucous -membranes extremely, and is highly dangerous to those who inhale it. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. According to the latest views, it is a -_Bi-chloride_ of mercury, consisting of one proportional of mercury, to -two proportionals of chlorine. In the French codex, it is termed -“_Deuto-Chloruretum Hydrargyri_.” SOLUBILITY. It is soluble in eleven -parts of cold, and in three of boiling water, and in half its weight of -alcohol; it is also very soluble in æther; indeed this latter liquid has -the curious property of abstracting it from its solution in water, when -agitated with it. Its solubility in water is greatly increased by the -addition of a few drops of rectified spirit, or of muriatic acid. In a -solution of muriate of ammonia it is seventeen times more soluble than -in water, no decomposition however arises; it is therefore probable that -a triple salt is formed; it is also soluble in the sulphuric, nitric, -and muriatic acids, and may be obtained again unaltered, by simply -evaporating the solutions. Dr. Davy, in his late researches upon -corrosive sublimate states that with muriatic acid, common salt, and -some other muriates, it forms definite compounds remarkable for their -solubility. Its watery solution is said to change vegetable blues to -green, but this is an optical fallacy, (_see page 306_.) On exposure to -light this solution slowly undergoes decomposition; but Dr. Davy has -shewn that corrosive sublimate remains unaltered when exposed in -solution in media having a strong affinity for it, as in alcohol, æther, -muriatic acid, &c. and that decomposition only takes place under -circumstances of complicated affinities, as in the instance of _Liquor -Hydrargyri Oxymuriatis_, and in that of the aqueous solution; in which -cases Calomel and Muriatic acid appear to be formed, and oxygen to be -evolved. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. The _carbonates of the fixed_ alkalies -precipitate it of a yellow hue, but the precipitates are not pure -oxides; _ammonia_ forms with it a white triple compound. _Lime water_ -decomposes it more perfectly than any alkaline body, occasioning a -precipitate of a deep yellow colour,[524] which is a per-oxyd of mercury -containing a little muriatic acid; this result forms a useful lotion to -ill conditioned ulcers, and has been long known under the title of _Aqua -Phagadenica_; f℥j of lime water should be employed for the decomposition -of two grains of the salt. _Tartarized antimony_, _nitrate of silver_, -_acetate of lead_, _sulphur_, _sulphuret of potass_, and _soaps_, -decompose it. _Iron_, _lead_, _copper_, _bismuth_, and _zinc_, in their -metallic state, also decompose it, producing precipitates which consist -of an amalgam of the metal employed, except in those cases where the -metal in question refuses to amalgamate with mercury, when this latter -metal appears as a metallic dew, composed of very minute globules, with -calomel; hence mortars of glass or earthenware should be used for -dispensing this article; when triturated with olive oil, the oil becomes -white, and when boiled with it, _calomel_ is precipitated; the same -happens if sugar be substituted for oil. The volatile oils reduce it. -When Oil of Turpentine was used, some traces of artificial camphor was -discovered by Dr. Davy, and when the oils of Cloves and Peppermint, a -purple compound distilled over, consisting of the oil employed and -muriatic acid. The following vegetable infusions produce precipitates, -viz. _the infusions and decoctions of chamomile_, _horse-radish root_, -_calumba root_, _catechu_, _cinchona_, _rhubarb_, _senna_, _simarouba_, -_oak bark_, _tea_ and _almond emulsion_. Swediaur observes, that “many -authors have recommended _sublimate_ combined with bark, but that a -reciprocal decomposition is thus produced, by which the energies of both -remedies are alike annulled;” to this ignorance, however, he thinks that -many patients have been indebted for their lives; for, says he, “I see -every day examples of weak and very delicate persons of both sexes, to -whom ignorant practitioners prescribe, and sometimes in very large -doses, the _corrosive sublimate_, with a decoction of bark; certainly -without curing the syphilis, but at the same time without occasioning -those grave and dangerous symptoms, which that acrid medicine would -certainly produce, if given alone, or without that decoction.” We have -here presented the reader with the opinion of Swediaur; but it is just -to state, that the experience of this country has rather tended to -subvert, than to confirm, such a belief. That the corrosive sublimate of -mercury is actually decomposed by the vegetable principles of the bark -is sufficiently evident, but it would seem that the oxide thus -developed, and recombined with vegetable extractive, is a very active -mercurial, especially with respect to its alterative powers. The same -observation will, to a certain extent, apply to the results of its -decomposition by other agents; the fixed alkalies have been found by -actual experiment to be incapable of disarming this salt of its -virulence, because, as Orfila has stated, the oxide liberated is, in -itself, an active poison. Mr. Rose has lately transmitted to me a -formula for the preparation of “_Alterative Drops_,” which he states, -from ample experience, to possess very considerable powers as a -mercurial, and to excite ptyalism, with a quickness and certainty which -characterize but few preparations of the same class. The principal -ingredients are an alcoholic solution of _corrosive sublimate_ and a -vinous solution of tartarized antimony. It is scarcely necessary to -observe that upon admixture a mutual decomposition takes place; the -_peroxide of mercury_ is precipitated by the alkaline element of the -antimonial compound, whilst this latter salt, having its affinities thus -overthrown, parts with the _protoxide of antimony_; so that the -preparation holds a considerable quantity of insoluble matter in -suspension, and which is to be carefully incorporated with the liquid by -shaking the phial, whenever the drops are administered. Now there can be -but little doubt but that the activity of this preparation is owing to -the _peroxide of mercury_, thus diffused in a state of minute division, -while at the same time the antimonial protoxide very probably disposes -the stomach and system to be more readily influenced by it, for reasons -which have been fully discussed in the first part of this work, p. 152. -MED. USES. It is one of the most acrid and active of all metallic -preparations; in well directed doses, however, it is frequently of -service in secondary syphilis, and in cases of anomalous disease, when -it would be improper to administer the other forms of mercury.[525] In -obstinate cutaneous diseases its administration in small doses is often -very serviceable; I have, however, seen extreme emaciation and hectic -fever produced by its too long continued exhibition, although ptyalism -was never occasioned. Its application also as a lotion to leprous -affections, in the proportion of about one grain to a fluid-ounce and a -half of some liquid vehicle, I have frequently seen highly beneficial; -in directing the use of so acrid a lotion, we should caution the patient -not to touch his eyes until his hands have been washed; in consequence -of a neglect of this kind I have seen a very severe ophthalmia produced. -The practitioner should also remember that the system may become -affected by such external applications; a case stands recorded in which -a girl of five years old became salivated, and died, in consequence of -an application made to the head for the cure of _Tinea_, which consisted -of Pomatum rubbed up with a few grains of this salt. Its internal -exhibition should be accompanied with mucilaginous drinks; when an -overdose has been taken, the _white_ of egg, diluted with water, is the -best antidote, for Orfila has found that albumen decomposes it, reducing -it to the state of mild muriate, whilst the compound which it forms with -it is inert. Many examples are recorded of the success of this practice. -In the Transactions of the King and Queen’s College of Physicians in -Ireland, an interesting case of this kind is related by Dr. Lendrick; it -is, however, at the same time but justice to state, that there are -instances also of the failure of this antidote. In the 41st volume of -the _London Medical and Physical Journal_, p. 204, the reader will find -the case of a girl, who was poisoned by a drachm of Sublimate, and who, -notwithstanding the copious ingestion of albumen, died in ninety hours. -More recently vegetable gluten, as existing in wheat-flower, is said to -answer as well as albumen; for the administration of which all that is -required is to give wheat-flower and water. Dose, gr. 1/8 to ½, see -_Liquor Hydrargyri Oxymuriatis_, and _Form. 142_. ADULTERATIONS. It -ought to be volatilized by heat; it is frequently met with in commerce -contaminated with muriate of iron, sometimes with arsenic; the presence -of calomel is at once discovered from its insolubility. TESTS OF ITS -PRESENCE. If any powder be suspected to contain this salt, expose it to -heat in a coated tube, as directed in the treatment of arsenic, but -without any carbonaceous admixture, when corrosive sublimate, if -present, will rise and line the interior surface with a shining white -crust. This crust is then to be dissolved in distilled water, and -assayed by the following tests; 1st, _lime water_ will produce, if the -suspected solution contains this salt, a precipitate of an orange yellow -colour. 2d, a single drop of a dilute solution of _sub-carbonate of -potass_ will at first produce a white precipitate, but on a still -farther addition of the test, an orange-coloured sediment will be -formed. 3rd, _sulphuretted water_ will throw down a dark coloured -precipitate, which when dried and strongly heated may be volatilized -without any alliaceous odour. 4th, _ammonia_ produces a white -precipitate, which is an insoluble triple salt, composed of muriatic -acid, ammonia, and oxide of mercury, which, on being heated, grows -yellow; it passes afterwards to a red, and gives out ammoniacal gas, -nitrogen, calomel, and metallic mercury. In this operation the oxide is -supposed to be decomposed by the hydrogen which results from a portion -of the ammonia. 5th, _Nitrate of tin_, according to Dr. Bostock, is -capable of detecting the three-millionth part of a grain; a single drop -will occasion an immediate and copious dark-brown precipitate. All the -above precipitates, if rubbed on a bright plate of copper, will render -its surface very white. Where the salt is mixed with various coloured -liquids, we must proceed as directed under the head of Arsenic. A very -ingenious application of galvanic electricity has been also proposed by -Mr. Silvester, for the detection of _corrosive sublimate_, which will -exhibit the mercury in a metallic state. A piece of zinc or iron wire -about three inches in length, is to be twice bent at right angles, so as -to resemble the Greek letter Π, the two legs of this figure should be -distant about the diameter of a common gold wedding ring from each -other, and the two ends of the bent wire must afterwards be tied to a -ring of this description. Let a plate of glass, not less than three -inches square, be laid as nearly horizontal as possible, and on one side -drop some sulphuric acid, diluted with about six times its weight of -water, till it spreads to the size of a halfpenny. At a little distance -from this, towards the other side, next drop some of the solution -supposed to contain corrosive sublimate, till the edges of the two -liquids become joined; and let the wire and ring, prepared as above, be -laid in such a way that the wire may touch the acid, while the gold ring -is in contact with the suspected liquid. If the minutest quantity of -corrosive sublimate be present, the ring in a few minutes will be -covered with mercury on the part which touched the fluid. This -experiment may be beautifully simplified in the following manner; drop a -small quantity of solution containing corrosive sublimate on a piece of -gold, and bring into contact a key, or some piece of iron, so as to form -a galvanic circuit, when the gold will be immediately whitened. A -solution of nitrate of silver will, under similar circumstances, -occasion on the gold a white precipitate, but as no amalgamation takes -place, it is readily wiped off, and cannot possibly occasion any -fallacy.[526] - -Certain metals likewise decompose solutions of this salt, by virtue of -superior affinity; in those cases where the precipitating metal is -capable of forming a direct union with Mercury, we shall find the -precipitates to consist of an amalgam of the metal employed; where no -such combination takes place, the mercury will be frequently seen -standing on the surface as a metallic dew. This is particularly striking -where iron or steel has been employed; these metals are also at the same -time blackened by it. - -Brugnatelli[527] has proposed the following method of distinguishing -_corrosive sublimate_ from _arsenic_—Take a quantity of fresh wheat -starch, mix with water, and add a sufficient quantity of _iodine_ to -give the liquid a blue colour; if _corrosive sublimate_ or _arsenic_ be -added to this liquor, the colour is alike destroyed and it becomes -reddish, but if the change has been effected by the latter substance, a -few drops of sulphuric acid will restore the blue colour, but if by the -former it is not recoverable by such means.[528] - - - HYDRARGYRI SUB-MURIAS. L. - - SUB-MURIAS HYDRARGYRI SUBLIMATUM. D. - - SUB-MURIAS HYDRARGYRI MITIS. E. - - vulgo. _Calomel_.[529] - -This preparation has been known in pharmacy for upwards of two centuries -under a variety of fanciful names, such as _Draco mitigatus_; _Aquila -alba_; _Aquila mitigata_; _Manna metallorum_; _Panchymagogum minerale_; -_Panchymagogus quercetanus_; _Sublimatum dulce_; _Mercurius dulcis -sublimatus_; _Calomelas_; and yet there is not a name in this list that -is so objectionable as the one at present adopted by our colleges: for -whether we adhere to the theory of muriatic acid being the _simple_ -body, or accede to the new views of _chlorine_, the name is equally -inappropriate; if we regard it as a compound of muriatic acid and oxyd -of mercury, it is not a _sub_-muriate, but as much a _muriate_ as the -corrosive sublimate; the only difference depending upon the degree of -oxidizement of the mercury, which is at a _minimum_ in calomel, and at a -_maximum_ in sublimate. According to the new views respecting chlorine, -calomel must consist of one proportional of chlorine with one -proportional of metal, and is therefore a _chloride of mercury_. -(“_Proto-chloruretum Hydrargyri._” Codex Med. Paris.) - -QUALITIES. _Form._ A semi-transparent mass, consisting of short -prismatic crystals;[530] inodorous, insipid, and of an ivory colour, -which deepens by exposure to light. SOLUBILITY. It is considered as -being insoluble, since according to Rouelle, one part requires 1152 of -water, at 212° for its solution. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Alkalies_ and -_lime water_ decompose it and turn it black, in consequence of -precipitating the black oxyd of the metal; it is also decomposed by -_soaps_, _sulphurets of potass and antimony_; and by _iron_, _lead_, and -_copper_; hence it is improper to employ any metallic mortar for -dispensing medicines which contain it. There seems to be reason for -supposing that this preparation may undergo decomposition _in transitu_, -and that therefore some substances may be _chemically_, and yet not be -_medicinally_ incompatible with it. If calomel be boiled for a few -minutes in distilled water to which alcoholized potass has been added, -it is completely decomposed, a _muriate of potass_ and _black oxyd of -mercury_ being the new products. Calomel is not affected by sulphuric -acid in the cold, but, at a boiling temperature, corrosive sublimate, -and deuto-sulphate of mercury are formed. MEDICINAL USES.[531] This -mercurial preparation is more extensively and more usefully employed -than almost any other article of the materia medica. It is capable of -curing syphilis in every form, provided it does not run off by the -bowels; and in obstructions and hepatic affections, it is in -well-regulated doses a most valuable remedy; in combination, it probably -merits the appellation of _Dirigens_, more decidedly than any other -remedy with which we are acquainted, for when combined with certain -diuretics, it is diuretic, (_Form. 103, 104_) and in diaphoretic -arrangements, it is diaphoretic: it moreover imparts force to many of -the mild, and moderates the severity of drastic medicines: whenever we -wish a strong and permanent impression to be made on the alimentary -canal, and through it on the neighbouring viscera or the system -generally, Calomel by universal consent is adopted for such a purpose. -(_Form. 81, 88, 119, 161._) In larger doses it is one of the most -efficient purgatives which we possess, especially when in combination -with other cathartics: it appears to be particularly eligible in the -diseases of children; and it is singular that infants can generally bear -larger doses of it than adults. DOSE, as an alterative, from gr. ss to -j, night and morning; as a purgative, from gr. ij to gr. x, or in some -cases even to gr. xv, or ℈j. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. That of pill; its -insolubility and specific gravity render any other form ineligible. -OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Pil. Hydrargyri submuriat. comp:_ L. -IMPURITIES. _Corrosive sublimate_ may be detected by precipitation being -produced, by the carbonate of potass, in a solution made by boiling the -suspected sample with a small portion of muriate of ammonia, in -distilled water; calomel ought also, when rubbed with a fixed alkali, to -become intensely black, and not to exhibit any trace of an orange hue. - -HOWARD’S OR JEWEL’S _Hydro-sublimate_. Instead of subliming so as to -obtain the calomel in a concrete state, as directed by the Pharmacopœia, -the salt in the act of sublimation is exposed to aqueous vapour, and -received in water. Being in a state of very minute division, it is -lighter than common calomel in the proportion of three to five, and it -cannot contain any corrosive sublimate. The French in their late _codex_ -have introduced a similar formula, under the title of “Murias Mercurii -dulcis mediante aqua subtilissime divisus, _juxta Methodum Josiæ -Jewel_.” - -This _Patent Calomel_ of Howard is undoubtedly to be preferred, and -appears, in consequence probably of its minute division, to affect the -system more readily than that made according to the Pharmacopœias. - -SUB-MURIAS HYDRARGYRI PRÆCIPITATUS. E.D. This is produced by -precipitating a nitrate of mercury by muriate of soda; the preparation -will generally contain a small portion of _sub-nitrate_, and it is on -that account more liable to run off by the bowels in small doses: in -other respects it is essentially the same as that procured by -sublimation. - - - HYDRARGYRI SULPHURETUM RUBRUM. L. - - SULPHURETUM HYDRARGYRI RUBRUM. D. Olim, _Hydrargyrus Sulphuretus ruber_. - _P. L._ 1817—_Cinnabaris[532] factitia_, 1745. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a red crystalline cake, inodorous, insipid, and -insoluble in water, alcohol, acids, and alkalies, although these bodies -decompose it when melted with it; it is also decomposed by -nitro-muriatic acid, which unites with the metal, and disengages the -sulphur. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is a _bi-sulphuret of Mercury_, i. e. -it consists of two proportionals of sulphur and one of mercury. -USES.[533] It is now only used for the purpose of mercurial fumigation, -which is done by inhaling the fumes, produced by throwing ʒss of it on -red hot iron; the effect which is generally produced is violent -salivation; this however does not depend upon the action of the -substance as a _sulphuret_, but upon its decomposition, and the -volatilization of the metallic mercury with a portion of sulphate and -sulphureous vapour. Mr. Pearson observes that it is useful in those -cases of venereal ulcers in the mouth, throat, and nose, where it is an -object to put a _sudden_ stop to the progress of the disease, but that -mercury must at the same time be introduced into the constitution, by -inunction, just as much as if no fumigations had been made use of. -Ulcers and excrescencies about the pudendum and anus in women are -particularly benefitted by it; and in these cases it is conveniently -applied by placing a red hot heater at the bottom of a night-stool pan, -and after sprinkling on it a few grains of the sulphuret, placing the -patient upon the stool. ADULTERATIONS. _Red Lead_[534] may be discovered -by digesting it in acetic acid, and by adding sulphuret of ammonia, -which will produce a black precipitate; or by burning a small portion of -the suspected sample on a piece of bread in the candle, when metallic -globules will announce its presence; for the oxide of mercury, although -revived by this process, will at the same time be volatilized. The -bread, by combustion, affords the carbon by which the metallic reduction -is effected. _Dragon’s Blood_, by its giving a colour to alcohol when -digested with it; _Chalk_, by its effervescence, on the addition of an -acid. It is known in the arts under the name of _Vermillion_; and by the -following simple expedient its presence may, in very minute quantities, -be easily recognised; boil a portion with sulphuric acid in a platina -spoon, and lay the sulphate thus produced, in a drop of muriatic acid, -on a piece of gold, and bring a piece of metallic tin in contact with -both, when the white mercurial stain will be produced. - - - HYDRARGYRI SULPHURETUM NIGRUM. L.E. Hydrargyrus cum Sulphure. P.L. 1787. - Olim, _Ethiop’s Mineral_. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a very black, impalpable, insipid, and inodorous -powder. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is a _Sulphuret of Mercury_, i. e. it -consists of one proportional of sulphur, and one proportional of -mercury; when heated in contact with the air it is converted into a -_bi-sulphuret_. SOLUBILITY. It is entirely soluble in a solution of pure -potass, from which the acids precipitate it unchanged; it is insoluble -in nitric acid. MED. USES. It is supposed to be alterative, and has been -given for such a purpose, in doses from gr. v. to ʒss, but its medicinal -virtues are very questionable. ADULTERATIONS. It is frequently -imperfect, globules of mercury being still discoverable in it by a -magnifying glass, or by its communicating a whiteness to a portion of -gold upon which it is rubbed; _ivory black_ may be discovered by the -residue, after throwing a suspected sample on a red hot iron; it is also -sometimes mixed with equal parts of crude antimony. - - - HYOSCYAMI FOLIA ET SEMINA. L.E.D. - - (Hyoscyamus Niger.) _Henbane._ - -QUALITIES. This plant, when recent, has a strong fetid, and narcotic -odour; properties which are nearly lost by exsiccation. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. Resin, mucilage, extractive matter, gallic acid, and some -salts; an alkaline element (_Hyoscyama_) is said to constitute its -active principle. This principle differs from other vegetable alkalies, -in being able to resist a low red heat, without undergoing -decomposition. SOLUBILITY. Water freely extracts the narcotic powers of -this plant, and decoction destroys them; diluted alcohol is the best -menstruum. INCOMPATIBLES. Precipitates are produced by _acetate of -lead_, _nitrate of silver_, and _sulphate of iron_; vegetable acids -weaken its narcotic powers. The extract or inspissated juice is the best -form in which it can be exhibited; see also the _Tincture_; its leaves -form an anodyne cataplasm, and the smoke from its seeds, when applied by -a funnel to a carious tooth, is recommended in severe fits of -odontalgia. The root of this plant is poisonous.[535] In Dr. Molyneux’s -appendix to Threlkeld’s “SYNOPSIS STIRPIUM HIBERNICARUM” are related -several cases of its effects on persons who had eaten them instead of -_Skirrets_. OFFICINAL PREP. _Extract: Hyoscyam: Tinct: Hyoscyam:_ L.E.D. - - - ICHTHYOCOLLA. - - (Acipenser _Huso & Ruthenus_. _The great and small Sturgeon._) - - _Isinglass._ _Fish Glue._ - -The following kinds, imported from St. Petersburg, are found in the -market. _Short Staple_; _Long Staple_; _Book_; and _Leaf_. _Picking the -Staple_, as it is called, is a peculiar art practised by persons in this -town, who gain a very good livelihood by it; they engage to return the -same weight of isinglass in shreds, as they receive in _Staple_; this in -itself secures very fair profit, for by damping the isinglass in order -to pick it, it gains considerable weight; these persons moreover are in -the habit of adulterating it with pieces of bladder, and the dried skin -of soles; such frauds however are easily detected by their insolubility, -for pure isinglass will dissolve entirely, and yield a clear and -transparent jelly; a single grain will produce, with an ounce of water, -a solution of considerable thickness; it is also soluble in acids and -alkalies; and although insoluble in alcohol, yet it is not precipitated -by it from its watery solutions, unless when added in a very -considerable quantity; it is coagulated by the infusions and decoctions -of vegetable astringents; _carbonate of potass_ likewise throws down a -precipitate. 100 parts of good isinglass consist of 98 of gelatine, and -2 of the phosphates of soda and lime. Its solutions soon putrefy. USES. -It is now rarely used except as a nutrient; its mechanical application -in fining wines and turbid liquors is well known, and its mode of -operation is equally obvious, for by forming a skin, or fine network, -which gradually precipitates, it acts just like a filtre, with this -difference, that in this case the filtre passes through the liquor, -instead of the liquor through the filtre. - - - INFUSA. L.E.D. _Infusion._ - -These are _watery_ solutions of vegetable matter, obtained by -maceration, either in cold or hot[536] water without the assistance of -ebullition. In selecting and conducting the operation, the following -general rules should be observed. - - I. _Infusion should always be preferred to decoction, where the - medicinal virtues of the vegetable substance reside in volatile - oil, or in principles which are easily soluble; whereas, if they - depend upon resino-mucilaginous particles, decoction is an - indispensable operation._ - - II. _The temperature employed must be varied according to the - circumstances of each case;[537] an infusion made in the cold, is - in general more grateful, but less active, than one made with - heat._ - - III. _The duration of the process must likewise be regulated by the - nature of the substances, or the intention of the prescriber; for - the infusion will differ according to the time in which the water - has been digested on the materials; thus, the aroma of the plant - is first taken up, then, in succession, the colouring, astringent, - and gummy parts._ - -Infusions are liable to undergo decompositions by being kept, and -therefore, like decoctions, they must be regarded as _extemporaneous_ -preparations. Unless the dose of them be otherwise stated, it is -generally from f℥j to f℥ij. - - - I. _Simple Infusions._ - -INFUSUM ANTHEMIDIS. L.E. It is a good stomachic; and when exhibited -warm, is well calculated to assist the operation of emetics: (_Form. -66_): the cold infusion, i. e. made with cold water, is more grateful. -_Incompatibles._ All _soluble preparations of iron_; _nitrate of -silver_; _oxy-muriate of mercury_; _acetate_, and _sub-acetate of lead_; -_solutions of isinglass_; _infusion of yellow cinchona bark_. Dose, -f℥j-f℥ij. - -INFUSUM CALUMBÆ. L.E. See Calumbæ Radix. This infusion is more -perishable than that of other bitters; in twenty-four hours a copious -precipitation takes place in it, and in two days it becomes ropy, and -even musty. _Form. 155._ Dose, f℥i-f℥ij. - -_Infusum Caryophyllorum._ L. f℥j. of this infusion holds in solution the -active matter of grs. vj of cloves. _Incompatibles._ Precipitates are -produced by _sulphate of iron_; _sulphate of zinc_; _acetate of lead_; -_nitrate of silver_; _tartarized antimony_; _lime water_, and _yellow -cinchona_. Dose, f℥j-f℥ij. - -INFUSUM CASCARILLÆ. L. It is incompatible with the substances mentioned -under _Infus. Caryophyll: Form. 33._ Dose, f℥j-f℥ij. - -INFUSUM CINCHONÆ. L.E.D. We obtain in this preparation a feeble solution -of the active constituents of bark, which will agree with many stomachs -that are rebellious to the stronger preparations. Dose, f℥i-f℥iij. - -INFUSUM CUSPARIÆ. L. This is a judicious form of the bark, possessing -its stimulant and tonic properties. Dose, f℥j-f℥ij. - -INFUSUM DIGITALIS. L.E. This is the best form in which we can administer -the _foxglove_, where our wish is to obtain its diuretic effects as -speedily as possible. (_Form. 110._) Dose, fʒij to f℥ss, twice a day, -_see Digitalis_. _Incompatibles._ We shall counteract its effects by -endeavouring to obviate its nauseating tendency by _brandy and water_, -&c. Precipitates are produced by _sulphate of iron_, and the _infusion -of yellow cinchona_, &c. - -INFUSUM LINI COMPOSITUM. L.E. A cheap and useful demulcent; alcohol and -preparations of _lead_, are of course incompatible with it; the -_tinctura ferri muriatis_ produces a flocculent precipitate. - -INFUSUM QUASSIÆ. L.E. The proportion of Quassia directed for half a pint -of water, is that of ℈j by the London, and ʒss by the Edinburgh College; -the former is much too small, for, in order to obtain a saturated -infusion, ʒij are required for that quantity of water. _Incompatibles._ -_The salts of iron_ produce no change in it; nor is it affected by any -of those substances with which it is likely to come in contact in a -medical prescription. It is highly useful in debilities of the stomach -and intestinal canal, and in irregular and atonic gout, and it has been -observed, that in hysterical atony, to which the female sex is so prone, -the Quassia affords more vigour and relief to the system, than the -Peruvian Bark, especially when combined with a small portion of sulphate -of zinc. To this, as well as the other stomachic infusions, it is usual -to add at the time of prescribing them a small quantity of aromatic -tincture or spirit. _Form. 35; 144._ Dose, f℥ss-f℥iss. - -INFUSUM RHEI. L.E. The Edinburgh infusion is stronger than that of -London, and is rendered more grateful by the addition of spirit of -cinnamon; these infusions, however, when given without any _adjuvants_, -produce but a feeble effect. This is obvious, since ℈j of rhubarb in -substance, is at least equivalent in its effects to ʒiss when in -infusion. _Incompatibles._ The _stronger acids_; _the sulphates of iron -and zinc_; _nitrate of silver_; _tartarized antimony_; _acetate of -lead_; _oxy-muriate of mercury_, and the infusions of _cusparia_, -_cinchona_, _catechu_, _galls_, and some other _astringent_ vegetables; -the _alkalies_ deepen the colour, but produce no decomposition. Dose, -f℥j-f℥ij. - -INFUSUM SIMAROUBÆ. L. This infusion is inodorous, of a clear straw -colour, with a slightly bitter taste. It presents the best mode of -exhibiting _Simarouba bark_. Dose, f℥ij, beyond this it will prove -emetic. _Incompatibles._ _Alkaline carbonates_ and _lime water_ render -it milky; and it is precipitated by the following substances; _infusions -of catechu_; _galls_, and _yellow cinchona_; _oxy-muriate of mercury_; -_nitrate of silver_, and _acetate of lead_. See _Simaroubæ Cortex_. - -INFUSUM TABACI. L. It is never used but as an enema, in incarcerated -hernia, and in ileus. See _Tabaci Folia_. - - - 2. _Compound Infusions._ - -INFUSUM ARMORACIÆ COMPOSITUM. L. In this preparation the stimulant -property of the horse-radish is materially aided by the mustard; pure -alkalies, but not their carbonates, may form extemporaneous additions; -for the other incompatibles, see _Armoraciæ Radix_. Dose, f℥iss. _Form. -45._ - -INFUSUM AURANTII COMPOSITUM. L. A grateful stomachic, having the -agreeable compound taste of its several ingredients; it has the merit of -sitting easily on the stomach. Dose, f℥j-f℥iss. - -INFUSUM CATECHU COMPOSITUM. L.E. This infusion is a powerful astringent, -rendered grateful by the addition of cinnamon; it will keep for several -months, provided the directions of the Edinburgh College be not followed -in adding the syrup. In prescribing it, we must remember that it -contains a large proportion of _tannin_. See _Catechu_. Dose, f℥j-f℥iij. - -INFUSUM GENTIANÆ COMPOSITUM. L. An elegant tonic and stomachic infusion. -It affords a good example of the virtues of a natural substance being -enhanced by the additions of art, as discussed at page 164, for the -bitterness of the gentian is here subdued by the aromatic quality of the -lemon and orange peel. _Incompatibles._ _Acetate of lead_ throws down a -copious precipitate from the infusion, and _sulphate of iron_ strikes a -brown colour, but no precipitate takes place for several hours. - -INFUSUM ROSÆ COMPOSITUM. L.E.D. This is an infusion of the petals of the -red rose, rendered astringent and refrigerant,[538] by the addition of -dilute sulphuric acid. By referring to the DYNAMETER, it will be seen -that f℥j; does not contain more than four and a half minims of _dilute_ -acid, which are equivalent to three-sevenths of a minim of the strong -_concentrated_ acid. Wherever therefore we expect any advantage from -this latter ingredient, the quantity must be increased by extemporaneous -addition. _Incompatibles._ All those bodies which are decomposed by the -sulphuric acid; the _sulphates of iron_ and _zinc_ do not immediately -alter the infusion, but they _slowly_ decompose it, producing -precipitates of a dark colour. Dr. Clarke of Cambridge detected _iron_ -in the petals;[539] may not the presence of this metal enhance the tonic -powers of the infusion? It affords a most elegant vehicle for the -exhibition of cathartic salts. - -INFUSUM SENNÆ COMPOSITUM. L.E.D. A pint of water will take up the active -matter of ℥j of senna, but nothing beyond that proportion; hence there -is an unnecessary waste in the London process. The quantity of infusion -directed to be made at one time, is also injudicious, since by simple -exposure to the air for only a few hours, in consequence of the powerful -affinity of its extractive matter for oxygen, a yellow precipitate takes -place, and the infusion loses its purgative quality, and excites -_tormina_ in the bowels; in preparing it therefore, we see the necessity -of conducting the process in _covered_ vessels, and of making only such -a portion as may be required for immediate use; indeed, notwithstanding -every precaution, the extractive will to a certain extent become -oxidized, and the infusion have a tendency to gripe.[540] Dr. Cullen -used to say that Senna was one of the best purgatives, if it could only -be divested of its griping quality; this however he was unable to -obviate, because he was not aware of its cause, and therefore conjoined -it with various aromatics, instead of those salts[541] which might be -capable of increasing the solubility of its oxidized extractive, or the -purgative activity of the infusion; see page 150, and 161. _Soluble -tartar_ and _alkaline salts_ are its most useful adjuncts; it is however -rarely prescribed in practice without the addition of other cathartics. -(_Form. 70, 76, 90._) Sydenham’s favourite “_potio cathartica -lenitiva_,” consisted of an infusion of tamarinds, senna leaves, and -rhubarb, with the addition of manna and syrup of roses. The addition of -tamarinds renders the infusion more grateful but less active; when made -with _bohea tea_, it is in a great degree deprived of its nauseous -taste; a decoction of guaiacum increases its powers, and is said at the -same time to render it milder. Bitters also very considerably exalt its -efficacy, see page 153. A pint of the infusion with a drachm of jalap -forms an excellent combination for a purgative enema. _Incompatibles._ -The infusion is disturbed by _strong acids_; _lime water_; _nitrate of -silver_; _oxy-muriate of mercury_; _acetate of lead_; _tartarized -antimony_; and by an _infusion of yellow cinchona_. DOSE, f℥j-f℥ij. - - - IPECACUANHÆ RADIX. L.E.D. - - (Callicocca[542] Ipecacuanha.) _Ipecacuanha._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, tortuous pieces of the thickness of a goose-quill, -surrounded by numerous prominent rings, separated by deep grooves. This -root, when powdered, has a faint disagreeable _odour_, and a bitter -sub-acrid _taste_. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The late researches of M. M. -Majendie and Pelletier have detected the existence of a new vegetable -proximate principle in this root, to which ipecacuan is indebted for its -emetic properties; they have, accordingly, denominated it -_Emetine_.[543] It assumes the form of transparent brownish red scales, -which are nearly inodorous, but have a slightly bitter, acrid, but not -nauseous taste. _Emetine_ is decomposed by a heat higher than that of -boiling water; it is insoluble in water, in every proportion, without -undergoing the least change; and in a moist atmosphere it deliquesces; -it is also soluble in alcohol, but not in æther; _nitric acid_ dissolves -it, but at the same time decomposes it; _dilute sulphuric acid_ has no -action on it; _muriatic acid_ and _phosphoric acid_ dissolve it, without -altering its nature; _acetic acid_ dissolves it with great facility; -_corrosive sublimate_ precipitates it from its solutions, but -_tartarized antimony_ has no effect upon them; _gallic acid_, the -_infusion of galls_, and _acetate of lead_, precipitate it. A grain -excites violent vomiting, followed by sleep, and the patient awakes in -perfect health! It exerts also a specific action on the lungs and mucous -membrane of the intestinal canal; when taken in an overdose, its action -can be instantly paralysed by a decoction of galls. There seems to be no -great advantage in substituting this body for the ordinary powder of -Ipecacuanha, except perhaps that its taste being much less offensive, it -may very easily be given to children.[544] _Emetine_ appears to exist in -Ipecacuanha, combined in the following manner, _emetine_ 16, oils 2, wax -6, gum 10, starch 40, woody fibre 20. - -Since the discovery of _Emetine_, whose properties are described above, -Pelletier has extended his researches into its composition and nature; -and he has lately been enabled to state that this body, which in -conjunction with Majendie, he had formerly announced as “a new vegetable -proximate principle,” turns out to be a compound of a peculiar alkaline -basis, which may be called _Emeta_, and some acid, together with an -admixture of colouring matter; when compared with _Emetine_, it is what -white crystallized sugar is to moist sugar. Its ultimate elements are -oxygen, hydrogen and carbon; it is a white and friable substance, and -unlike Emetin, is not altered by exposure to air; it is slightly bitter, -and very sparingly soluble in water; with the mineral acids it forms -salts, from whose solutions the infusion of galls throws down white and -flocculent precipitates; the alcoholic solution of _Emeta_ acts upon -vegetable colour as an alkali. - -MEDICINAL USES OF IPECACUAN. It is unquestionably the most valuable of -the vegetable emetics, and in cases where the stomach is irritable it is -to be preferred to Tartarized Antimony, and it is also less liable to -act upon the bowels. In the form of decoction (made by boiling three -drachms of the bruised root in a quart of water down to a pint) it has -been found serviceable as an enema in Dysentery, and internal piles. -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. All vegetable astringents, as _infusion of -galls_, &c. _vegetable acids_, especially the _acetic_, weaken its -power; Dr. Irvine found that grs. xxx, administered in f℥ij of vinegar, -produced only some loose stools. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. The form of powder -is most energetic, although the vinous solution is both active and -convenient. DOSE. The medicinal operation of this substance varies with -its dose, thus grs. x to ʒss act as an emetic; (_Form: 65_,) grs. j to -ij, as an expectorant, (_Form: 134, 138_,)and in still smaller doses it -proves stomachic and diaphoretic; by combination with opium, this latter -quality becomes more powerful, (_Form: 28, 130_.) The primary effect of -this medicine is that of stimulating the stomach, and it is equally -obvious that its secondary ones depend on the numerous sympathies of -other parts with the organs of digestion. The action of this remedy upon -the pulmonary organs is extremely interesting; it would seem that in -certain conditions of these organs, attended with a dry, hard cough, it -promotes expectoration, while in affections attended with an inordinate -secretion of mucus, it as certainly represses it, and acts the part of -an astringent. In dysentery, and chronic diarrhœa, its astringent power -is also very decided. _Form: 58_. When combined with cathartics it aids -and accelerates their operation; _Form: 84_. In Hemorrhage from the -lungs and uterus, it is decidedly useful, when administered in such -doses as to excite a slight degree of nausea, by which the force of the -circulation is controlled; I have usually combined it, for such a -purpose, with the Acetate of lead in Hæmopthysis; and Bergius relates a -case of violent uterine hæmorrhage which was successfully treated by -giving half a grain every half hour. In certain forms of Dyspepsia it -proves highly beneficial, when administered as proposed by Daubenton, in -doses just sufficient to excite a slight sensation of vermicular motion -of the stomach, without carrying it to the point of nausea, which may be -generally effected by half a grain three times a day. Its peculiar -nauseous taste is completely covered by the addition of powdered Gum -Arabic. SOLUBILITY. Alcohol takes up four parts in twenty of Ipecacuan; -proof spirit six and a half; and boiling water rather more than eight -parts; one pint of good sherry wine will dissolve about 100 grains; the -alcoholic is more emetic than the aqueous solution; decoction destroys -the emetic property of the root. OFFICINAL PREP. _Pulvis Ipecacuanhæ -comp:_ L.E.D. _Vinum Ipecac_. L.E.D.[545] The powder is liable to become -inert by exposure to air and light. The root is refractory, and is -reduced to powder with difficulty, unless a few drops of oil, or an -almond or two, be previously added. It is a curious fact that the -effluvia of this root occasion in some persons the most distressing -sensations of suffocation. I am acquainted with a lady, who is -constantly seized with a violent dyspnœa, whenever the powder of -Ipecacuan is brought into her presence. ADULTERATIONS. There are several -varieties of Ipecacuan to be found in the market, which it is important -to distinguish; _viz._ 1, _The brown variety_, which is the best, -containing sixteen per cent. of emetin; 2, the _grey variety_, with -fourteen per cent. of emetin; 3, the _white variety_, with only five of -emetin. The two former varieties are those usually met with, being -imported into this country in bales from Rio Janeiro; the brown is -distinguished from the grey, in being more wrinkled; the white variety -has no wrinkles whatever. We are informed by Decandolle that the genuine -root is frequently mixed with those of _violets_, _Apocynæ_, -_Euphorbia_, &c. It is also sometimes mixed with the roots of several -species of _Ionidum_. - - - JALAPÆ RADIX. L.E.D. (Convolvulus Jalapa.) - - _Jalap._ - -QUALITIES. This root is pulverulent, furnishing a powder of a pale -brownish yellow colour. _Odour_, peculiar; _Taste_, sweetish and -slightly pungent. _Chemical Composition._ Resin, gum, extractive, -fecula, lignin, and some salts. The combination of the three first -principles appears requisite for the production of its _full_ cathartic -effect. The gum has been supposed to possess diuretic properties. Very -lately a saline principle has been obtained from Jalap by Mr. Hume, -jun.: but I am not aware that its medicinal properties have been -ascertained. It is procured by macerating the powdered root for twelve -or fourteen days in acetic acid, by which a solution is obtained, which -must be filtered, and then saturated with ammonia; the mixture is to be -shaken violently, when a _sabulous_ deposit will take place, and a few -crystals be collected on the sides of the vessel; both of these must be -collected, and washed in distilled water; and then redissolved in -concentrated acetic acid, and reprecipitated by ammonia added in excess. -By which means, small white acicular crystals are thrown down, to which -the name of _Jalapine_ has been given. SOLUBILITY. Proof spirit is its -appropriate menstruum. MED. USES. It is a cathartic of a stimulating -description, acting principally upon the colon, and, notwithstanding the -tormina it may sometimes induce, it is no less safe than efficacious; as -a hydragogue purgative it has been greatly extolled, but for such a -purpose it will answer better in combination, as in _Form. 73_. Its -action is said to be promoted by the addition of Ipecacuan, or -tartarized antimony. (_Form. 84._) In dropsy its union with -super-tartrate of potass is calculated to promote its beneficial -operation. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. That of powder is the most eligible, -especially when combined with some other powdered substance: -pulverization increases its activity, see _Pulveres_. Van Swieten -advised it to be pulverised, and mixed with sugar, and a small quantity -of some aromatic. The addition of Soap is supposed to render its -operation much milder, and the Prussian Pharmacopœia contains a formula -for such a combination, which is said to operate mildly and promptly. To -this preparation the name SAPO JALAPINUS[546] is given. DOSE, grs. x to -ʒss. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Pulv. Jalap. comp._ E. _Extract._ _Jalap_. -L.E.D. _Tinct. Jalap_. L.E.D. _Tinct. Sennæ comp._ E. (=B=). -ADULTERATIONS. _Briony root_ is sometimes mixed with that of jalap, but -it may be easily distinguished by its paler colour and less compact -texture; and by not easily burning at the flame of a candle. When the -_teredo_ has attacked it, it should be rejected. - - - JUGLANS CINEREA. - - Butternut. - - _Cortex._ - -[The Butternut tree is to be found in almost every part of the United -States. The inner bark is the part used in medicine. It yields, by -analysis, a large quantity of soluble matter, principally of the -extractive kind. Water extracts its virtues, and the Extract, which is -the form in which it is employed, has long been known and used in this -country as an excellent Cathartic. To obviate habitual costiveness, it -is one of the best articles that can be used. By the addition of -Calomel, its powers as an active Cathartic may be greatly increased. The -proper season for gathering the bark for medicinal purposes is in the -months of May and June. The dose of the Extract is from 10 to 30 -grains.] - - - JUNIPERI BACCÆ ET CACUMINA. L.E.D. - - (Juniperus Communis.) - - _Juniper Berries and Tops._ - -The principal constituents of these berries are mucilage, sugar, and -volatile oil; in the latter of which their diuretic virtues reside. -FORMS OF EXHIBITION. That of an infusion, made with ℥ij of the berries, -to oj of hot water. Unless pains however are taken, by strong contusion, -to bruise and break the seeds, the preparation will contain but little -of the juniper flavour. The bruised berries may be also triturated with -sugar or some neutral salt, and be thus exhibited in substance, Dose ℈j -to ℈ij. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Oleum Junip._ L.E.D. _Spirit. Junip. -Co._ L.E.D. The taste and diuretic properties of Hollands depend upon -this oil; English gin is flavoured by oil of turpentine. - - - KINO. L.E.D. _Kino._ - - (Pterocarpus Erinacea.[547] _Extractum._ L. Eucalypti Resiniferi. - _Succus Concretus._ E. Butea Frondosa. D.) - -There is very considerable obscurity with regard to the history and -chemical constitution of this substance; three varieties of it are met -with in the shops, viz. 1. _African Kino_, which bears the highest -price, and has all the appearance of a natural production, slender twigs -being often intermixed in its substance; it is of a reddish brown -colour, and has a bitterish astringent taste. 2. _Botany Bay Kino_, has -also the aspect of a natural production, it is in more solid masses than -the former species, is less brittle (for it contains a very small -proportion of resin) and, with its astringency, has a disagreeable -sweetish taste. 3. _Jamaica Kino_, this is the one most commonly met -with; it has the appearance of a dry extract, is in small fragments, of -a colour more nearly approaching to black than that of the others, and -has an astringent and slightly bitter taste. There is also a fourth -variety mentioned, viz. the _East India_ or _Amboyna_, but this does not -appear to differ from the African variety. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. In all -the varieties the predominant principles are tannin and extractive. -SOLUBILITY. The best menstruum is diluted alcohol. _Incompatible -Substances_, vide _Gallæ_. Mr. Thomson also states a fact which I have -reason to consider quite correct, that the alkalies destroy the -astringent properties of kino. All the varieties are soluble in -solutions of pure potass and ammonia, and no precipitation takes place -on the addition of water. MEDICINAL USES. It is principally employed as -an astringent, but from its liability to vary in strength, it has been -very generally superseded by Catechu.[548] FORMS OF EXHIBITION. Either -in substance or in the form of watery infusion, or in that of tincture. -DOSE, grs. x to ʒss. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Tinct. Kino._ L.E.D. -_Elect. Catechu._ E.D. _Pulvis Alum. co._ E. - - - KRAMERIÆ RADIX. L. (Krameria Triandra _Radix._) - - _Rhatany._ - -This root, although it has been for some time employed in medicine, has -only lately found its way into the Materia Medica of the London -Pharmacopœia. Its extract, which was some years ago imported into this -country, is supposed to have been employed for giving astringency to -Port wine. According to recent analysis the root contains a peculiar -modification of Tannin, with only a trace of Gallic acid; Gum; Fecula; -and certain salts of Lime. It may be used either in decoction, or -tincture, the latter of which may be made by dissolving two ounces of -the root in a pint of proof spirit. In all its forms it is eminently -astringent. I have used it with much success in Leucorrhæa, and in -uterine hemorrhages. The extract may be distinguished from Kino, to -which it bears a great resemblance in appearance and taste, by being -very fusible by heat, whereas Kino does not possess that character. - - - LICHEN. L.E.D. (Lichen Islandicus.) _Lichen._ - - _Iceland Liverwort._ _Iceland Moss._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, none; _Taste_, mucilaginous and bitter. SOLUBILITY. -The effect of water upon this vegetable substance is materially modified -by temperature; if cold, the lichen absorbs nearly its own weight by -maceration, but gives out to the menstruum little or none of its -virtues; if the water be warm, it soon acquires a bitter impregnation; -by ebullition, a decoction is obtained, which, as it cools, gelatinizes. -See _Decoct. Lichen_. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Proust has shewn by analysis -that 100 parts of this moss contain 64 parts of a substance bearing some -analogy to vegetable gluten, 33 of matter, soluble in hot water, and -resembling starch, and 3 parts of a bitter principle. MEDICINAL USES. -This vegetable was introduced to the notice of the profession by -Linnæus, who recommended its decoction, as having been administered with -great success for coughs in Sweden. Upon its introduction into this -country, its patrons bestowed so many extravagant eulogiums upon its -powers, that the less sanguine practitioner at once abandoned its use in -disgust, and it fell into unmerited disrepute. It would be idle to speak -of its specific effects in phthisis; but, as a demulcent, it is -certainly very superior to the mucilaginous mixtures in ordinary use, -and its simple bitter principle at the same time tends to produce a -tonic effect, which is frequently desirable in the debilitated condition -which characterizes the latter stages of this disease. There are -circumstances, however, which may render the removal of the bitter -advantageous; in which case, maceration in successive waters, or in a -weak alkaline ley, as recommended by Westring, will be found to answer -the intended purpose. OFFICINAL PREPARATION. _Decoct. Lichen. Island._ -E. D. Sir Alexander Crichton has offered some observations upon the -genuineness of this article which deserve attention. He says that there -are two varieties in the market; the best of which has a horny texture, -and yields a bitter mucilage. It is that which comes from Iceland, -Norway, Sweden, and Finland. The inferior kind has a membranous texture, -and yields little bitter or mucilage in comparison with the former. -Where it comes from he knows not, but he suspects it to be British, as -it is much cheaper than the other. - - - LIMONES. L.E.D. (Citrus Medica. _Baccæ._) - - _Lemons._ - -SUCCUS—THE JUICE consists of _Citric acid_, mucilage, extractive matter, -and small portions of sugar and water. _Specific gravity_, 1·0384. It -may be preserved for a considerable length of time, by covering its -surface with fixed oil. - -Its use in making saline draughts has been already noticed, see -_Acid. Citric._ Its principal medicinal value consists in its -antiscorbutic[549] virtues; indeed it may be fairly asserted that -this disease, so peculiarly incident to a sea life, has been nearly -eradicated by the juice of lemons. Sir Gilbert Blane, in speaking of -its efficacy, asserts that “those only who have made themselves -acquainted with the early part of the Naval history of this country, -or those who have perused the interesting, popular, and eloquent -narrative of Commodore Anson’s voyage, can duly appreciate the value -of this simple remedy.” Lemonade, as a beverage in putrid diseases, -was first introduced by the French physicians in the beginning of -the 17th century, and about the year 1660, an Italian from Florence, -having learnt a process of freezing confectionary, conceived the -happy idea of converting such beverage into ice. This found a ready -sale, and was the occasion of so great an increase in the number of -sellers of Lemonade, that in the year 1676, the _Lemonadiers_ of -Paris were formed into a company, and received a patent from the -government. - -CORTEX—THE RIND OR PEEL is composed of two distinct parts; the exterior, -which contains glands, filled with a fragrant volatile oil, upon which -all its properties depend, and the _interior coat_, which is tasteless -and indigestible. The flavour may be obtained by rubbing lump sugar upon -it, which will imbibe the oil, and if it be then dried by a very gentle -heat, may be preserved unimpaired for any length of time, and will be -preferable to the volatile oil obtained by distillation, for the fire -generally imparts an unpleasant or empyreumatic flavour.[550] - -It has been already stated, that “the different parts of the same plant -have frequently very different properties.” The Lemon offers a good -example of this fact, for its juice is _acid_, its seeds _bitter_, and -its peel _aromatic_. - - - LINIMENTA. L.E.D. _Liniments._ - -These are external applications, having the consistence of oil or -balsam. If we except the _Liniment. Æruginis_, all the officinal -liniments are decomposed by the substances which are incompatible with -soaps. - -LINIMENTUM ÆRUGINIS. L. _Oxymel Æruginis._ P.L. 1787. _Mel Ægyptiacum._ -P.L. 1745. _Unguentum Ægyptiacum._ P.L. 1720. Diluted with water, it has -been recommended as a gargle in venereal ulcerations, but its use is -hazardous; it is a detergent escharotic preparation. - -LINIMENTUM AMMONIÆ FORTIUS. L. _Oleum Ammoniatum._ E. _Linimentum -Ammoniæ._ D. It consists of _liquor ammoniæ one part, olive oil two -parts_, (oil eight parts, E.D.) The alkali forms with the oil a soap, -which is held dissolved by the water in the _liquor ammoniæ_. Is an -excellent rubefacient, and penetrating liniment. - -LINIMENTUM AMMONIÆ SUB-CARBONATIS. L. _Linimentum Ammoniæ._ P.L. 1787. -LINIMENTUM VOLATILE. P.L. 1745. The carbonic acid prevents the perfect -formation of soap in this liniment; unlike the former one, therefore, it -deposits the soapy matter on standing. It is much less stimulating than -the preceding one. - -LINIMENTUM CALCIS. E.D. _Oil and lime water, equal parts._ This is an -_earthy_ soap, formed by the combination of lime and oil; the soapy -matter separates on standing, it should therefore be _extemporaneous_. -In cases of burns and scalds where the cuticle has been destroyed, it is -an advantageous application. - -LINIMENTUM CAMPHORÆ. L. _Oleum Camphoratum._ E.D. Camphor one, olive oil -four parts. It is a simple solution of camphor in fixed oil, and forms a -very useful embrocation to sprains, bruises, glandular swellings, and in -rheumatic affections. - -LINIMENTUM CAMPHORÆ COMPOSITUM. L. _Camphor two, liquor ammoniæ six, -spirits of lavender sixteen parts._ It is highly stimulating.[551] - -LINIMENTUM HYDRARGYRI. L. A pound of this liniment contains nearly ℥iv -of mercury; it affects the mouth more rapidly than strong mercurial -ointment, although it will be seen by the _Medicinal Dynameter_ to -contain less Mercury. This effect is to be attributed to the stimulating -properties of its adjuncts, viz. Camphor and Ammonia. - -LINIMENTUM SAPONIS COMPOSITUM. L. _Hard soap_ iij, _camphor_ j, _spirit -of rosemary_ xvj parts. It is a stimulant and anodyne application, and -in local pains opium may be advantageously added to it. It is commonly -used under the name of _Opodeldoc_.[552] See _Sapo_. - -LINIMENTUM TEREBINTHINÆ. This liniment was introduced by Mr. Kentish of -Newcastle, as a dressing to recent burns, which he continued until the -eschars became loose. - - - LINUM CATHARTICUM. L.D. _Purging Flax._ - -The qualities of this plant reside in extractive matter, hence water -extracts, but long decoction injures them. MEDICINAL USES. It is -strongly purgative. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. ʒij of the dried herb infused -in oj of boiling water. DOSE, f℥ij. - - - LINI USITATISSIMI SEMINA. L.E.D. - - _Linseed, or Common Flax Seed._ - -These seeds contain a large proportion of mucilage, and one-sixth of -their weight of fixed oil; the former of which resides principally in -the cuticle, the latter, in the parenchymatous portion of the seed; by -infusion in boiling water, a clear, colourless, inodorous, and nearly -insipid mucilage is obtained; ℥ss of the unbruised seed is sufficient -for oj of water; cold water does not extract any mucilage from them when -unbruised; the farina of the seeds is well adapted for cataplasms. -OFFICINAL PREP. _Infus. Lini Comp:_ L. _Oleum Lini_. L. E. D. - - - LIQUOR ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS. L. - - _Aqua Aluminosa Bateana._ P. L. 1745. - -This is a compound solution of _alum_ and _sulphate of zinc_; a -fluid-ounce containing about seven grains of each ingredient, it is -powerfully astringent, and is successfully used as a detergent lotion to -old ulcers; as a collyrium, or as an injection in gleet and fluor albus; -it will also often answer in removing chilblains, and in curing slight -excoriations. - - - LIQUOR AMMONIÆ. L. AQUA AMMONIÆ. E. - - AQUA AMMONIÆ CAUSTICÆ. D. - - _Solution of Ammonia._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a limpid, colourless fluid; _specific gravity_, ·960, -or f℥j weighs about 438 grs. _Odour_, strong and pungent; _Taste_, -extremely caustic. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. A solution of ammoniacal gas in -water, which varies considerably in strength in the different -pharmacopœias. When prepared according to the London and Edinburgh -Colleges, it contains nearly 25 per cent. of ammonia, whereas the Dublin -preparation does not contain more than 16. SOLVENT POWERS. It is an -active solvent of many vegetable principles, e. g. _oils_, _resins_, &c. -With alcohol it unites in every proportion; it assists the oxidizement -of copper and zinc, and dissolves many of the metallic oxides. MED. -USES. Stimulant, rubefacient, and antacid. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In milk, -or any liquid vehicle; if in decoctions, or infusions, they must be -previously cooled; for at 130° the ammonia will escape in the form of -gas. DOSE, ♏︎x to xxx. OFFICINAL PREP. _Linimentum Ammoniæ._ L.D. _Oleum -Ammon._ E. _Spir. Ammoniæ_. L. _Spir. Ammoniæ comp._ L. _Spir. Ammon. -succinat._ L. _Liniment. Camphor. comp._ L. ADULTERATIONS. The presence -of other salts in the solution may be discovered by saturating a portion -with pure nitric acid, and applying the test for sulphuric acid, -(_Barytes_) and that for muriatic acid, (_Nitrate of Silver._) Carbonic -acid is detected by its effervescing with acids, or by its forming with -lime water, a precipitate, soluble with effervescence in nitric acid; it -ought to be free from all fetor; its strength can only be determined by -taking its specific gravity. It should be preserved in well closed -bottles, and their dimensions should be small, for when in large vessels -it often becomes carbonated before it is half used. - - - LIQUOR AMMONIÆ ACETATIS. L. AQUA ACETATIS AMMONIÆ. E.D. - - Solution of Acetate of Ammonia. - - olim, _Spirit of Mindererus_. - -This preparation is a solution of the neutral _acetate of ammonia_, with -a proportion of carbonic acid diffused through it; it is made by -saturating the sub-carbonate of ammonia with distilled vinegar, for -which purpose it will generally be found that ℥j of the alkali will -saturate oiss of the vinegar; since, however, the quantity of acid in -distilled vinegar as well the strength of the ammonia, are liable to -constant variation, the exact point of neutralization should be -ascertained by the alternate application of litmus and turmeric papers; -for if the proportions be not accurately adjusted, some of the metallic -salts, especially those of _antimony_, which are often prescribed in -conjunction with it, are decomposed, and thus rendered inefficacious; -and on this account an excess of alkali is to be feared more than that -of acid. This preparation is also not unfrequently employed as a -collyrium, when much serious mischief may arise from the carbonate of -ammonia predominating. It has been already stated that a very minute -proportion of extractive matter is rendered sensible on the addition of -an alkali; hence this preparation frequently derives from the vinegar a -brown hue, which may be removed by filtering the solution through a -little well burnt charcoal. It also deserves notice that the presence of -a trace of copper, derived from the copper cocks through which the -vinegar has passed, will impart a _brown_ tinge, whilst in larger -quantities this metal yields a _blue_ colour with ammonia. INCOMPATIBLE -SUBSTANCES. _Acids_; _fixed alkalies_; _alum_; _lime water_; _sulphate -of magnesia_; _corrosive sublimate_; _nitrate of silver_; and the -_sulphates of zinc, copper, and iron_. _Acetate of lead_ produces also a -copious precipitation, but this depends upon the presence of the -carbonic acid diffused through the solution, which decomposes the salt -and forms an insoluble carbonate of lead. _Magnesia_ likewise, contrary -to what might be supposed, decomposes the solution and renders it -pungent, from the extrication of ammoniacal gas; this phenomenon depends -upon the magnesia forming a triple acetate with one part of the ammonia, -and setting the remainder at liberty. MED. USES. When assisted by warmth -and plentiful dilution, it is an excellent diaphoretic, and produces its -effects without quickening the circulation: (_Form: 117, 126_,) by -keeping the surface of the body cool, its action is determined to the -kidneys, and it proves diuretic, especially when combined with remedies -of a similar tendency. (_Form: 111._) DOSE, fʒiv to fʒxij. Externally it -furnishes a lotion, valuable as a refrigerant, especially when combined -with some spirituous preparation. See _Form: 148_. - - - LIQUOR AMMONIÆ SUB-CARBONATIS. L. - - SOLUTIO SUB-CARBONATIS AMMONIÆ. E. - - AQUA CARBONATIS AMMONIÆ. D. - -This is merely a solution of the _solid_ sub-carbonate in distilled -water, see _Ammoniæ Sub-carbonas_. DOSE, fʒss to fʒj in any bland -liquid. ADULTERATIONS. There is frequently a deficient quantity of the -sub-carbonate in solution, its pungency being kept up by the addition of -_liquor ammoniæ_; this may be discovered by shaking it with twice its -bulk of alcohol, when a coagulum of considerable density should occur, -the absence of which will denote the sophistication of the article. Its -_specific gravity_ should be 1·150. The _Incompatibles_ are those -enumerated under the history of _Ammoniæ Sub-carbonas_. - - - LIQUOR ARSENICALIS. L. - - SOLUTIO ARSENICALIS. E. - -This is a solution of the _Arsenite of Potass_, coloured and flavoured -by the _Compound Spirit of Lavender_, fʒj of which contains gr. ½ of -_arsenious acid_. It was introduced into practice by Dr. Fowler of -Stafford, as a substitute for the empirical remedy known by the name of -“_The Tasteless Ague Drop_.” It is a powerful tonic, and has been very -successfully administered in the cure of intermittent and remittent -fevers, periodical headaches, and as an alterative in many anomalous -diseases of the skin. It has been also given, with decided effect, in -certain visceral obstructions; its use however is to a great degree -empirical, although we may observe, generally, that wherever strong -arterial action exists, arsenic will do harm. The addition of a few -drops of _Vinum Opii_ is said to render its operation safer and more -efficacious. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Lime water_; _nitrate of silver_; -_the salts of copper_; _hydro-sulphuret of potass_, and _the infusions -and decoctions of bark_. DOSE, ♏︎iv, gradually increased to ♏︎xxx, twice -a day. See _Arsenicum Album_. - - - LIQUOR CALCIS. L. AQUA CALCIS. E. D. - - _Lime Water._ - -It is a saturated solution of lime in water; f℥j of which contains 3/4 -of a grain.[553] INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _All alkaline and metallic -salts_; _borates_; _tartrates_; _citrates_; _acids_; sulphur; -_spirituous preparations_, and _the infusions of all astringent -vegetables_. It should be kept in close vessels, for if exposed to the -air, the lime will attract carbonic acid, and become an insoluble -carbonate; the addition of an _alkaline carbonate_ produces the same -effect instantaneously.[554] If animal charcoal be boiled with -lime-water, it will precipitate the whole of the lime, an effect which -is not produced by charcoal of vegetable origin. MED. USES. It is an -antacid, and is therefore useful in dyspepsia attended with acidity; -_Form. 149_. Mixed with an equal quantity of milk, it furnishes an -excellent remedy in infantile complaints connected with bowel -affections; it is likewise astringent in leucorrhæa, in the last stages -of dysentery, and in protracted diarrhœa. It dissolves also the slimy -mucus with which disordered bowels are so generally infested; on account -of this latter property, it has been exhibited in calculous -affections,[555] with the view of dissolving the cementing ingredient of -the concretion, and thereby of destroying its cohesion: see page 123. -Not being very nauseous, it is easily given under any circumstances, and -it is not liable to produce that irritability of stomach which -frequently attends the long continued use of the fixed alkalies. It also -frequently forms the basis of astringent gargles. Lime water moreover -affords a successful remedy in certain cutaneous affections, -particularly those affecting the face, as _Gutta Rosea_. Sir G. Blane -has also seen some remarkable cures of herpetic complaints of the legs -by large doses; he has also employed it with effect as a lotion. FORMS -OF EXHIBITION. Milk disguises its flavour, without impairing its -virtues. DOSE, f℥j to f℥vj. Sugar has the curious property of rendering -lime more soluble in water. See _Saccharum_. - - - LIQUOR CALCIS MURIATIS. L.D. - - _Solution of Muriate of Lime._ - -This solution is said to be tonic and deobstruent, and to have been -advantageously given in scrofula. It has also been found useful in -Urticaria, and several other forms of cutaneous disease. INCOMPATIBLES. -Sulphuric acid, and the Sulphates; the fixed alkalies and their -carbonates; ammonia produces no change in the solution, but its -carbonate decomposes it, and precipitates carbonate of lime. DOSE, ♏︎xx -to fʒij. - - - LIQUOR CUPRI AMMONIATI. L. - - _Solution of Ammoniated Copper._ - -This is a simple solution of the salt in distilled water. The -preparation, although perfectly transparent when first formed, soon -becomes turbid and deposits oxide of copper; this arises from the escape -of ammonia, and may be prevented by the occasional addition of a small -quantity of the volatile alkali. See _Cuprum Ammoniatum_. The Medicinal -Dynameter will show the proportion of salt in any given quantity of the -solution. - - - LIQUOR FERRI ALKALINI. L. - - _Solution of Alkaline Iron._ - -This preparation is nearly the same as Stahl’s _Tinctura Martis -Alkalina_. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is by no means ascertained. -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. It is a most injudicious preparation, for it -cannot be exhibited in any form without decomposition; _water_, -especially if not distilled, and _vegetable infusions_ and _decoctions_, -produce dense precipitates; _pure acids_, _alkalies_, and _spirit_, also -decompose it. I must confess my regret at the College having retained -this preparation in their Pharmacopœia; the committee agreed to reject -it, but their judgment was reversed by the votes of the _Comitia -Majora_. Should any practitioner be unable to procure this preparation, -I will give him an easy receipt for producing it, viz. _Let him keep the -Mistura Ferri composita in an open vessel, until it is entirely spoilt_! - - - LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI OXY-MURIATIS. L. - -This solution of corrosive sublimate is intended to facilitate the -exhibition of minute doses of the salt; f℥j contains gr. ½; when long -kept, or exposed to light, the oxy-muriate is decomposed, and _calomel_ -is precipitated; (see _Hydrag: Oxymuriatis:_) or, what is more -dangerous, it is sometimes deposited in crystals, without decomposition; -a small portion of muriatic acid, or muriate of ammonia in the solution, -prevents this precipitation. DOSE, fʒss to fʒij, in an infusion of -linseed. - - - LIQUOR PLUMBI SUB-ACETATIS. L. - - LIQUOR SUB-ACETATIS LITHARGYRI. D. - - _Aqua Lithargyri Acetati_, P. L. 1767. - - Solution of Sub-acetate of Lead: _olim, Extract of Saturn_. - -This preparation was introduced by M. Goulard of Montpellier, hence it -has been commonly known by the name of _Goulard’s Extract_. QUALITIES. -It is of a greenish straw colour, and has an austere, sweetish taste; -when kept it deposits a quantity of oxide, and becomes lighter coloured. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is a saturated solution of the sub-acetate of -lead, consisting, according to Berzelius, of one proportional of acid, -and three proportionals of oxide of lead; hence its name is correct. It -is the only instance with which we are acquainted of a real sub-salt -being soluble in water. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Alkalies_ and _their -carbonates_ precipitate a white sub-salt; _alkaline sulphates_ and -_sulphurets_; _mucilage_. _Spring Water_, from the salts which it -contains, produces with it a very milky and turbid appearance; and even -when _distilled_, in consequence of the carbonic acid diffused through -it, it occasions precipitation. The Surgeon will remember that the -_Linimentum Saponis_ cannot be mixed with it, without mutual -decomposition. _See Sapo._ MED. USES. It is only used externally, in -superficial and phlegmonic inflammations of the skin, and in herpetic -affections. It has been a question whether _Lead_, in any form, should -ever be applied to an open wound, or to an abraded surface;[556] as a -general rule, it should not certainly be applied to such as are recent, -nor to those whose character indicates a diminished state of vitality in -the parts, and exhibits a disposition to gangrene. The abuse of -Saturnine lotions has been frequently descanted upon by foreign writers, -and, among the evils which are supposed to be thus induced, impotence is -mentioned as one of not unfrequent occurrence. See _Institutioni di -Medicina Forens_: _di Tortosa, vol._ 1. p. 58. also _Fritze Compend: -sopra le Malat: Vener_: p. 189. and _Monteggia Annotat: sopra i Mali -Venerei_, p. 36. There is a paper in the third volume of the _Medical -Transactions_, by Dr. Reynolds, in which the case of a gentleman is -detailed, who brought on a temporary paralysis of the _Sphincter Ani_, -by freely using Goulard’s lotion for the cure of the Piles. The value of -Saturnine applications in common inflammation most probably arises from -a partial paralysis of the nerves of the part, produced by the sedative -agency of the lead. - - - LIQUOR PLUMBI SUB-ACETATIS DILUTUS. L. - -As the former preparation is very rarely employed in its concentrated -form, the College has directed its dilution, and added a portion of -spirit, with a view to accelerate its evaporation, and thus to produce a -refrigerating effect; but for such a purpose the quantity of spirit is -far too small, and should therefore be increased by extemporaneous -addition. - - - LIQUOR POTASSÆ. L. AQUA POTASSÆ. E. - - AQUA KALI CAUSTICA. D. - - _Aqua kali puri._ P.L. 1787. _Lixivium Saponarium_, 1745. - -QUALITIES. A limpid, dense, colourless solution; a pint should weigh -℥xvj; when rubbed between the fingers it feels soapy, in consequence of -a partial solution of the cuticle. The solution, as usually prepared, -contains small portions of muriate and sulphate of potass, silica and -lime; but these incidental impurities do not invalidate its virtues; it -ought not to effervesce with acids. MED. USES. Antacid, diuretic, -alterative, and lithonthryptic; and externally, when diluted, it acts as -a stimulating lotion,[557] and if concentrated, as a caustic; see -_Potassa Fusa_. The operation of this and other alkaline remedies, have -at different periods been celebrated as powerful lithonthriptics, and -whilst experience has in some cases confirmed the value of the practice, -it has in others proved no less decidedly its mischievous agency; these -contradictory results are at length capable of explanation, for -Chemistry has drawn aside the veil that has so long obscured the -history, origin, and cure of calculous diseases, and has demonstrated -that these extraneous bodies vary in composition, and are consequently -very differently affected by the same chemical solvents; but this -subject has already been so fully discussed in the first part of this -work, under the chapter on “_Antilithics_ and _Lithonthryptics_,” that -it is unnecessary to dwell upon it in this place. - -It has also been found highly useful in the cure of several species of -cutaneous affections; as in Lepra, Psoriasis, &c. which diseases -generally appear to have some connection with a morbid state of the -digestive functions; see _Form: 149_. DOSE of the solution of potass, -♏︎x to fʒss, in veal broth[558] or table beer; this latter vehicle -disguises its nauseous flavour completely. In many cases, the infusion -of some bitter tonic will be the most eligible liquor in which it can be -exhibited, especially where our object is to promote its absorption: the -theory of such a combination has been already explained in the first -part of this work, p. 153. OFFICINAL PREP. _Potassa fusa_, L.E.D. -_Potassa cum calce_, L.E.D. _Liquor Sulphureti Kali_, D. _Antimonii -Sulphuretum Præcipitatum_, L.E. - - - LIQUOR POTASSÆ SUB-CARBONATIS. L. - - AQUA SUB-CARBONATIS KALI. D. - - _Aqua Kali præparati_, P.L. 1787. - - _Lixivium Tartari._ 1745. - - _Oleum Tartari per deliquium_, P.L. 1720. - -QUALITIES. It is a clear, colourless, and inodorous solution; _Spec. -grav._ 1·446. DOSE, ♏︎x to fʒj. See _Potassæ Sub-carbonas_, and _Form: -39, 41_. The proportion of the salt contained in any quantity of the -solution may be learnt by referring to the _Dynameter_. - - - LIRIODENDRON TULIPIFERA. - - American Tulip bearing poplar. - - _Cortex._ - -[This is a native tree of America, and one of the most magnificent to be -found in our forests—distinguished no less by its great altitude than by -its beautiful foliage. It grows in almost every part of the United -States. The part used in medicine is the Bark. This has a rough, fibrous -appearance and is of a whitish colour. Its taste is bitter, astringent, -and somewhat acrid and aromatic. By analysis, it yields gum, resin, -muriatic acid, iron, mucus, &c. In its action on the system, it is -decidedly tonic, exhibiting at the same time, to a certain extent, -stimulant properties. If given in considerable quantities it acts also -on the skin and kidneys. It has been used with advantage and success in -intermittent fever, chronic rheumatism, gout, hysteria, and in -debilitated states of the stomach. It may be given in substance, which -is the most efficacious form of using it, in doses of from ʒss to ʒij.] - - - LOBELIA INFLATA. - - Indian Tobacco. Herba. - -[This is a plant very common in the United States. It has an acrid -taste, very similar to that of green tobacco. By analysis it is found to -contain an acrid principle, caoutchouc, and extractive. It is soluble -both in water and alcohol. In its medicinal effects, the lobelia is -analogous to common tobacco, and varies very much according to the dose -in which it is given. It may thus be made to act either as an emetic, -antispasmodic, expectorant, or diaphoretic. The diseases in which it has -been found useful are asthma, croup, hooping cough, and catarrh. The -tincture is the best preparation, and is prepared by digesting, for ten -days, ℥ij of the plant in a pint of diluted alcohol. The dose is from ʒj -to ʒiv—of the powder, the dose to prove emetic is from 10 to 20 grs.] - - - MAGNESIA. L. MAGNESIA USTA. D. - - _Calcined Magnesia._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a white, very light, soft powder; _Specific gravity_, -2·3; it turns to green the more delicate vegetable blues. SOLUBILITY. -Although it requires 2000 times its weight of water to hold it in -solution, yet it has the property of considerably increasing the -solubility of camphor, opium, and resins in the same fluid; it is -soluble in solutions of the alkaline carbonates, but not in those of -caustic alkalies. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is an oxide of a peculiar -metal. MEDICINAL USES. Antacid, and when acidity prevails, purgative; it -is preferable to the carbonate whenever the bowels are distended with -flatus, (_Form: 150_): in other respects, its virtues are the same. See -_Magnes. Carb_. The Medicinal Dynameter will shew the equivalent doses -of the pure earth and its carbonate; it will be seen for instance that -12 grains of the former will be as efficient, as an antacid, as 25 -grains of the latter. INCIDENTAL IMPURITIES. It ought not to effervesce -with acids, and if magnesia and muriatic acid be placed at one time in -separate cups, in a scale of a balance, no diminution of weight should -take place on mixing them. Lime is detected by its solution in dilute -sulphuric acid affording a precipitate with oxalate of ammonia; the -_sulphuret of lime_ betrays itself by yielding, when moistened, the -smell of sulphuretted hydrogen.[559] - - - MAGNESIÆ SUB-CARBONAS. L. - - CARBONAS MAGNESIÆ. E. MAGNESIA. D. - - Olim, Magnesia Alba. - - _Carbonate of Magnesia_, vulgo, _Common Magnesia_. - -This preparation was formerly considered by Mr. Phillips to be a mixture -of carbonate and sub-carbonate of magnesia, an opinion which he has -lately retracted; it is, says he, evidently a _carbonate_, i. e. -magnesia combined with one proportion of carbonic acid, or forty-eight -of carbonic acid to forty-three of magnesia. Dr. Thompson entertains a -different opinion, he observes that it seems to be a mechanical mixture -of carbonate of magnesia, caustic magnesia, and perhaps of hydrated -magnesia; he found too great a diversity in its composition to permit -the conclusion that it was a definite chemical compound; in a specimen -purchased at Glasgow, he also found six per cent. of _sulphate of lime_. -I take this opportunity of stating that in some specimens which I have -examined, I have also detected portions of _gypsum_; and from the -experiments of Dr. Percival, it appears that if _hard water_ be employed -for its preparation it will be less light, and will contain a portion of -lime. Magnesia will be also liable to contain traces of silicious earth, -derived from the alkali used in producing it. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. -_Acids, and acidulous salts; alkalies and neutral salts; alum; cream of -tartar; nitrate of silver; acetate of mercury; oxy-muriate of mercury; -acetate of lead; sulphates of zinc, copper, and iron._ MEDICINAL USES. -Antacid, and purgative. In cases of lithic calculi, carbonate of -magnesia, in doses of ℈j to ʒj, has been proposed by Mr. Hatchett, as a -valuable substitute for alkaline remedies. Its insolubility must render -its absorption equivocal; its beneficial operation must therefore -principally depend upon its neutralizing any excess of acid in the primæ -viæ, and in this way there can be no doubt of its lithonthryptic agency; -“but,” says Dr. Marcet, “such is the tendency which the public has to -over-rate the utility of a new practice, or to take a mistaken view of -its proper application, that there is every reason to believe that the -use of magnesia has of late years become a frequent source of evil in -calculous complaints.” _See_ page 124. OFFICINAL PREP. _Hydrarg. cum -Magnesia._ D. _Magnesia._ L.E.D. ADULTERATIONS. _Chalk_ may be detected -by adding dilute sulphuric acid to a suspected portion, when, should any -be present, the solution will be loaded with a white and insoluble -precipitate; _gypsum_, by boiling a sample in distilled water, and -assaying the solution by a barytic and oxalic test.[560] - - - MAGNESIÆ SULPHAS. L. SULPHAS MAGNESIÆ. E.D. - - Magnesia Vitriolata. Sal catharticum amarum. - - _Bitter purging Salt._ _Epsom Salt._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, small needle-like crystals. _Taste_, bitter and -nauseous; when pure, it effloresces. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. In its -crystallized state, it may be considered as composed of 1 proportional -of dry sulphate (Magnesia 18·5, and sulphuric acid 37·5) and 7 -proportionals of water. SOLUBILITY. f℥j of water dissolves ℥j, and the -solution measures fʒxj¼; it is insoluble in alcohol. INCOMPATIBLE -SUBSTANCES. _Muriates of ammonia, baryta, and lime_; _nitrate of -silver_; _sub-acetate_, and _acetate of lead_. _The fixed alkalies_ and -_their carbonates_, precipitate from it magnesia and its carbonate. -_Phosphate of soda_ occasions no immediate precipitate, unless ammonia -be present, in which case the triple _ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate_ -will be produced. The addition of ammonia, which in the form of -_Spiritus ammoniæ aromat_. is not unfrequently prescribed in conjunction -with a solution of this sulphate, forms also a triple salt, and a -portion of magnesia is precipitated: whenever therefore this ammoniacal -stimulant is ordered with a purgative salt, the scientific physician -will prefer a solution of the sulphate of soda. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. -Dissolved in the _Infusum Rosæ_, or in a suitable quantity of beef tea, -gruel, or any aqueous vehicle, its cathartic powers are increased by -dilution, as well as by the addition of a little common salt; _magnesia_ -renders the taste of its solution less nauseous; and tartarized antimony -quickens its operation. DOSE, ℥ss to ℥ij, taken either at once, or in -divided doses. _Form. 37, 69, 72, 76._ OFFICINAL PREP. _Enema -Catharticum._ _Enema Fœtid._ D. ADULTERATIONS. _Sulphate of Soda_ is -often substituted for this salt, which it may be made to resemble by -stirring it briskly at the moment when it is about to crystallize; the -fraud may be detected by a precipitation not ensuing on adding carbonate -of potass; if only a part of the salt be sulphate of soda, the degree of -sophistication can be learnt by the quantity of the precipitate formed; -100 parts of sulphate of magnesia, if pure, will yield between 30 and 40 -of the dry carbonate. Epsom salt, as it commonly occurs, contains -_muriate of magnesia_, which disposes it to deliquesce, but lately this -salt has appeared in the market in a state of great purity and beauty; -the mode of purification is founded upon the well known chemical law, -that _a saturated solution of one salt is still capable of dissolving -another_; in the present instance, therefore, the impure crystals are -washed in a saturated solution of the same sulphate, which, although -unable to act upon its kindred salt, can dissolve with facility the -muriate, and any other saline contamination. I confess, however, that I -am induced to regard this process as rather chemically ingenious than as -medicinally useful, for the usual saline impurities of Epsom salt are -not only harmless, but capable of increasing its purgative powers; the -_double refined_ sulphate is certainly less efficient as a cathartic. -The presence of the _muriate_ may be at once detected by dropping upon -the suspected sample some sulphuric acid, by which the disengagement of -muriatic acid vapour will be produced. Since the publication of the -fourth edition of the present work, I have received samples of the -sulphate of Magnesia, prepared by Mr. West of Lymington, and I can -confidently recommend the article to the profession; he contrives to -obtain them in large and beautiful crystals, which cannot be so easily -mistaken for those of oxalic acid, a circumstance of no small importance -to the drug vender; the form of these crystals is that of a square -prism, having its edges replaced, and commonly terminated by a pyramid -of four planes; the only cleavage is parallel to one of the diagonals of -the prism. The numerous accidents which so frequently occur from -mistaking Oxalic acid for Epsom Salts have given rise to many -suggestions for obtaining an easy and popular test which may at once -distinguish these bodies; it is evident that no test can be so simple as -that afforded by the taste; but if such accidents are in future to be -prevented, it must be done by imparting to the acid some external -character by which it may be at once recognised; if a test were even -discovered a hundred times more sensible than any which we possess, what -would it avail? - - - MANNA.[561] L.E.D. - - (Fraxinus Ornus. _Succus Concretus._) - - _Manna._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, flakes of a granular texture; _Colour_, whitish, or -pale yellow; _Odour_, slight but peculiar; _Taste_, nauseous sweet, with -some degree of bitterness. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. This concrete vegetable -juice, besides sugar, appears to contain mucilage and extractive, to -which its taste and other peculiar properties are owing. SOLUBILITY. It -is entirely soluble in water and alcohol. MED. USES. It is now merely -regarded as a laxative for children, or for weak persons. It generally -requires some laxative adjunct, as castor oil, with which it may be -combined by the medium of mucilage. DOSE, for children, from ʒj to ʒiij, -in warm milk. OFFICINAL PREP. _Confectio Cassiæ._ L.E.D. _Enema -Cathart._ D. _Enema Fœtid._ D. _Syrup. Sennæ._ D. ADULTERATIONS. There -are several varieties in the market, the best of which is flake manna, -_manna canulata_, in a stalactitic form. An article, entirely -factitious, consisting of honey or sugar, mixed with scammony, is -sometimes sold for genuine manna, but its colour, weight, transparency, -and taste, must instantly lead to its detection. - - - MASTICHE. L. - - (Pistachia Lentiscus. _Resina._) - - _Mastich._ - -The use of this resinous substance is to fill the cavities of carious -teeth; a solution of it in oil of turpentine is sold as an odontalgic. -The Turkish and Armenian women use it as a masticatory for cleaning the -teeth, emulging the salivary glands, and imparting an agreeable odour to -the breath. It forms a constituent of the _Dinner Pills_. See _Aloes_. -Sonnini tells us that, in Egypt, the smoke of Mastich is supposed to -kill any sick person that inhales it. - - - MEL. L.E.D. Honey. - -This well known substance appears to be merely collected from the -flowers, and not elaborated by the internal economy of the insect; when -properly diluted it undergoes vinous fermentation, the product of which -is the beverage well known by the name of _Mead_. The English honey is -more waxy than that from the south of Europe. _Virgin honey_ is that -wrought by young bees which have never swarmed, and permitted to run -from the comb without heat or pressure. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Sugar, -mucilage, wax, an acid, and occasionally some essential oil. _Clarified -Honey_, (_Mel Despumatum._ L.D.) has not the agreeable smell of crude -honey; it does not however ferment so readily, nor is it so apt to -gripe. USES. It is principally employed for forming several officinal -preparations, i. e. _Mellita_, viz. _Mel Boracis_. L. _Mel Ros._ L.D. -_Oxymel._ L.D. _Oxymel Colchici_. E. _Oxymel Scillæ_. L.D.[562] Sir John -Pringle considered it as useful in nephritic disorders; it possesses -also a laxative property, which renders it on many occasions preferable -to Syrup. ADULTERATIONS. _Flour_ may be detected by diffusing the honey -in tepid water, by which it will be separated, and, by subsequent -boiling, converted into a thick paste. - - - MELIA AZEDARACH. - - PRIDE OF CHINA. _Cortex radicis._ - -[This plant is a native of the East Indies, from whence it was -introduced into Europe and North America. The part used in medicine is -the bark of the root. It is a powerful anthelmintic, and affects the -system in a way very similar to the Spigelia Marylandica, producing not -unfrequently confusion of the head, stupor, trembling of the hands, &c. -This is particularly the case if it be used in the months of March and -April, when the sap rises in the tree. It is chiefly against the round -worm that the Melia has been found successful, though in some cases it -has proved effectual also against the Tænia. It is generally given in -the form of decoction: to prepare this, ℥iij or ℥iv of the bark of the -fresh root are put into a quart of water and boiled down to a pint, of -which ℥ss to ℥j may be given every two or three hours till it operates. -Administered in this way, it frequently causes both purging and -vomiting.] - - - MENTHA PIPERITA. L.E.D. - - MENTHA PIPERITIS. D. _Peppermint._[563] - -All the qualities of this plant depend upon an essential oil and -camphor; it readily and strongly impregnates either water or spirit, by -infusion; its infusion, and the water distilled from the plant, are -carminative and antispasmodic; they also serve as vehicles for other -medicines, to correct their operation, or to disguise their flavour. -OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Aq. Menth. Piperit_. L.E.D. _Spir. Menth. Pip_. -L.D. _Ol. Menth. Pip_. L.D. If this plant be cut in wet weather, it -turns black, and is worthless. - - - MENTHA VIRIDIS. L. MENTHA SATIVA. D. - - _Spearmint._ - -Cold water extracts the more agreeable and active parts of mint in a few -hours; a longer maceration extracts the grosser and less agreeable -portions; hot water more quickly extracts its virtues, but if it be -boiling it dissipates the aroma. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Aq. Menth. -virid._ L.D. _Infus. Menth. comp._ _D. Ol. Menth. virid._ L. D. _Spir. -Menth. virid._ L. - - - MEZEREI CORTEX. L.E.D. - - (Daphne Mezereum. _Radicis Cortex._) - - _Mezereon._ - -The inner bark of this plant, when fresh, is corrosive and even -vesicatory; the fruit is equally so, but neither have any smell; its -virulence is counteracted by camphor. It contains, besides extractive -matter, an acrid resinous substance, which, according to Plaff, bears a -strong resemblance to the active principle of Cantharides. It is now -seldom used except as an antivenereal remedy, or in cases of chronic -cutaneous disease. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In a decoction, made by boiling -℥ss of the bark, with an equal quantity of Liquorice root, in oiij of -water down to oij; of which f℥ss may be given twice a day. From its -pungency it is one of the substances used by fraudulent brewers to -communicate a strong flavour to their beer. Where a discharge from -issues cannot be kept up by the common means, it is said that the -introduction of a little of this bark, instead of the pea, will in a few -hours produce the desired effect. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Decoct. -Sarsaparill. comp_. L. _Decoct. Daphnes. Mezerei_. E. The _Daphne -Laureola_ is very generally sold for Mezereon. - - - MISTURÆ. L.E.D. _Mixtures._ - -The principles upon which this form of preparation is to be constructed, -are fully detailed in the first part of this work, page 199. - - - _Officinal Mixtures._ - -MISTURA AMMONIACI. L. This mixture is expectorant, and may be exhibited -with tincture of squills, &c. (_Form. 115, 136._) It is slightly curdled -by _vinegar_, _oxymel_, _æther_, and _oxy-muriate of mercury_. - -MISTURA AMYGDALARUM. L. _Emulsio Amygdali communis_. E. _Lac Amygdalæ_. -D. It is a useful demulcent and diluent, and forms an elegant vehicle -for more active medicines. _Incompatibles_—_Acids_, _Oxymel_, _Syrup of -Squill_, _Spirit_, _and Tinctures_, unless added in very small -quantities, decompose this mixture; _tartaric acid_, _super-tartrate of -potass_, and _oxy-muriate of mercury_, also disturb it. _Form. 137._ - -MISTURA ASSAFŒTIDÆ. L. A nauseous preparation; and where its use is -indicated, it will be more judicious to prescribe it as an -extemporaneous mixture. See _Assafœtida_. - -MISTURA CAMPHORÆ. L. This solution of camphor forms an elegant vehicle -for more active stimulants. The camphor is separated from the water by a -solution of pure potass, by sulphate of magnesia, and by several saline -bodies. See _Form. 7, 24, 25, 32, 47, 72, 116, 117, 123_. - -MISTURA CORNU USTI. L. _Decoctum Cornu Cervini_. D. This is nothing more -than a simple diffusion of phosphate of lime in a thin mucilage—_Cui -bono_? It was retained in the Pharmacopœia in deference to the opinion -of some experienced practitioners. - -MISTURA CRETÆ. L.D. A common and useful remedy in diarrhœa, and may be -combined with opium, catechu, or any other astringent. _Form. 52._ It is -of course incompatible with acids, and acidulous salts. - -MISTURA FERRI COMPOSITA. L. This is nearly the same as the celebrated -anti-hectic mixture of Dr. Griffith; to the result of the decompositions -which take place from the mixture of its ingredients, it is wholly -indebted for its medicinal energies; thus, a _proto-carbonate of iron_ -is formed, i. e. the iron combined with carbonic acid is at its -_minimum_ of oxidation, which renders it more active than the common -carbonate, and probably less stimulant than the sulphate; this product, -by means of the saponaceous compound formed by the union of the myrrh -with the excess of alkali, is _partly_ diffused and suspended in the -mixture, and _partly_ dissolved, whilst at the same time a _sulphate of -potass_ is formed, which serves to correct the astringent influence -which iron is apt to exert upon the bowels. The iron in this preparation -is disposed to combine with an additional proportion of oxygen, hence -its ingredients should be quickly mixed together, and it ought to be -considered as an extemporaneous preparation, and be preserved in a -closely-stopt vessel. Its change of colour will generally indicate its -loss of efficacy. This preparation must be regarded as permanently -serviceable in Chlorosis, and the numerous sympathetic affections -connected with it. In the painful swellings which infest the breasts of -chlorotic young women, I have found it almost a specific. DOSE, -f℥j-f℥ij. The proportion of _Proto-carbonate of iron_, contained in any -given quantity of this mixture, may be found by referring to the -Medicinal Dynameter; for instance, bring the preparation to 12, and we -shall perceive that this number of fluid-drachms contain 1 grain of -_Protoxide_, or rather more than gr. iss of _Proto-carbonate_ of iron; -and we shall, at the same time, perceive that to give an equivalent -quantity in the form of _Pil. Ferri comp_. we must prescribe ℈j. See -_Form. 96_. - -MISTURA MOSCHI. This is an eligible form for the administration of Musk. -_Dose_, f℥j-f℥ij, to which may be added extemporaneously, ammonia, -æther, and other diffusible stimulants. - -_The Dose_ of the above mixtures is f℥j-to f℥ij twice or thrice a day. - - - MOSCHUS. L.E.D. _Musk._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, grains concreted together, dry, yet slightly -unctuous. _Colour_, deep brown with a shade of red; _Odour_, aromatic, -peculiar, diffusive, and durable; and it has the curious property, when -added in a minute quantity, to augment the odour of other perfumes -without imparting its own; this renders it a valuable article in -perfumery, on which account it is a usual ingredient in lavender water. -_Taste_, bitterish and heavy. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Resin combined with -volatile oil, and a mucilaginous extractive matter, with small portions -of albumen, gelatine, muriate of ammonia, and phosphate of soda. -SOLUBILITY. Boiling water dissolves it perfectly; rectified spirit takes -up most of its active parts, although the odour is only discovered upon -dilution; sulphuric æther is its most complete menstruum. INCOMPATIBLE -SUBSTANCES. The solutions are decomposed by _Oxy-muriate of Mercury_; -_Sulphate of Iron_; _Nitrate of Silver_; and the _Infusion of Yellow -Bark_. MED. USES. Stimulant and antispasmodic. As early as the time of -Meade it was employed in typhus fever; Pringle administered it in gout -of the stomach, a practice which received the concurrence of Cullen; -conjoined with ammonia it has been celebrated for its powers in -arresting the progress of gangrene, and of imparting fresh excitement to -the nervous system. It has been also administered with success in -epilepsy, hooping cough, and other spasmodic affections. FORMS OF -EXHIBITION. The best form is that of bolus, combined with ammonia or -camphor, or some other similar remedy, (_Form. 21_); it may be also -administered in a mixture, for which purpose it requires five times its -weight of mucilage, consequently the London College has not directed a -sufficient quantity to retain the musk in suspension: by previously -triturating it with sugar, its minute division is much facilitated. -DOSE, grs. x to xxx. See _Form. 22, 30_. OFFICINAL PREP. _Mist. Mosch_. -L. _Tinct. Mosch_. D. ADULTERATIONS. The bag containing the musk should -have no appearance of having been opened: the presence of _dried blood_ -may be suspected, by its emitting, as it inflames, a fetid smoke; -_Asphaltum_ is discovered by its melting and running before it inflames: -the artificial bags are known from the deficiency of the membrane which -lines the real musk bags. To increase the weight of the musk, fine -particles of lead are frequently added; this is easily detected, for by -rubbing it with water the metallic particles will subside. - -MOSCHUS FACTITIUS. _Artificial Musk_, strongly resembling the real, may -be formed by digesting f℥ss of _Nitric Acid_, for ten days, upon ℥j of -fetid animal oil, obtained by distillation; to this is to be next -gradually added oj of _rectified spirit_, and the whole is then to be -left to digest for one month: or— - - 2. Drop fʒiiiss of nitric acid upon fʒj of rectified oil of amber; - after standing twenty-four hours, a black, resinous pellicle, - exhaling the odour of musk, will be formed. - - - MUCILAGO ACACIÆ. L.E. - - MUCILAGO GUMMI ARABICI. D. - -This preparation consists of one part of gum and two of water; in -preparing it, the dispenser is particularly recommended to pulverize the -gum, and never to employ that which is purchased in the state of powder, -as it is always impure and incapable of forming a pellucid and elegant -solution.[564] INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. Neither the _strong acids_ nor -_alcohol_, when considerably diluted, occasion any disturbance in it; -but _sulphuric æther_ and its _compound spirit_, _the tincture of -muriated iron_, and _sub-acetate of lead_, produce very dense -precipitates: the _acetate of lead_ only occasions decomposition, when -an alkaline salt is present in the formula; the _volatile alkali_ -curdles the mucilage, and _hard calcareous waters_ render the mixture -difficult and often impracticable. In the pharmaceutical application of -this mucilage, it should be remembered that it contains in its -composition an astringent principle, which is perhaps of but trifling -consequence except in the exhibition of some very few active metallic -salts, which are certainly decomposed by it (e. g. grs. x of _nitrate of -mercury_ are decomposed by ʒij of gum arabic.[565]) It contains also -lime in combination with some vegetable acid. USES. Diluted with four -times its bulk of water, this mucilage forms a demulcent mixture of -appropriate tenacity, which affords a convenient vehicle for several -efficient remedies; the pharmaceutical use of this mucilage depends upon -the fact of its rendering expressed and essential oils, balsams, resins, -gum-resins, resinous tinctures, and fatty bodies, miscible with water, -but if a syrup be added, the union will be more perfect; the proportions -necessary for this purpose vary according to the nature of the -substances; thus, _oils_ will require about three-fourths their weight, -_Balsams_ and _Spermaceti_ an equal part, _Resins_ a double quantity, -and _Musk_ five times its weight; the following _Formulæ_ illustrate -this property, 9, 19, 22, 135. - - - MUCILAGO AMYLI. L.E.D. - - _Mucilage of Starch._ - -This is a strong, insipid, inodorous mucilage, which is principally -employed as a vehicle for exhibiting Opium in the form of Enema, see -_Amylum._ - - - MUCILAGO ASTRAGALI TRAGACANTHÆ. E.D. - - _Tragacanth Mucilage._ - -Tragacanth is, strictly speaking, not soluble in water, but imbibes a -large portion of it and swells into a considerable bulk, forming a soft -but not a liquid mucilage; on the farther addition of water, a fluid -solution may be obtained by agitation, and the liquor is turbid; but on -standing, the mucilage subsides, the limpid water on the surface -retaining a little of the gum;[566] it differs from all gums in giving a -thick consistence to a larger quantity of water, its power in this -respect being to that of gum arabic as twenty to one; one part converts -twenty of hot water into a stiff mucilage. Tragacanth is not increased, -but actually diminished in solubility by the addition of any other gum, -it accordingly separates from water with much greater facility when gum -arabic is present. This preparation, according to the Edinburgh college, -consists of one part of gum and eight of water; the resulting mucilage -is stiff, and is principally employed for making _troches_. The Dublin -preparation contains four times that quantity of water. - - - MYRISTICÆ NUCLEI. L.E. - - Nux Moschata. D. _Nutmeg._ - -All the properties of this well-known substance depend upon an essential -oil, filling the dark coloured veins which run through its substance, -the other components are starch, gum, wax, and a fixed oil. The oil -obtained by expression is improperly called _oil of mace_, for it would -appear to be a triple compound of fixed oil, volatile oil, and wax, and -which, although limpid when first drawn, soon acquires on cooling the -consistence of spermaceti. _Mace_ is the involucrum of the nut. MED. -USES. Stimulant, and in large doses, as from ʒij to ʒiij, narcotic, -frequently producing delirium. _See Cullen Mat. Med. ii. 201._ OFFICINAL -PREP: _Spir: Myristicæ_. L.E.D. FRAUDS. Nutmegs are frequently despoiled -of their essential oil, by being punctured and submitted to the -operation of decoction, the orifices being subsequently closed by -powdered Sassafras; the imposition is detected by the comparative -lightness of the nutmeg, and by its extreme fragility; the holes may -also be discovered by carefully examining the surface of the nut, after -having steeped it in hot water. - - - MYRRHA. L.E.D. - - (Arboris nondum descriptæ, _Gummi-resina_.) - - _Myrrh._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, irregularly shaped pieces, translucent, of a reddish -yellow colour; _Odour_, peculiar and fragrant; _Taste_, bitter and -aromatic. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Resin, gum, essential oil, and some -extractive. SOLUBILITY. When triturated with soft, or distilled water, -nearly the whole appears to be dissolved, forming an opaque, yellowish -solution, but by rest the greater part is deposited, and not more than -one-third is actually dissolved; its solubility, however, in water may -be increased by trituration with camphor or an alkali; rectified spirit -dissolves it, and the resulting tincture, when diluted, becomes turbid, -although no precipitate occurs. MED. USES. Stimulant, as in _Form. 103_. -Expectorant, 132, 133, 138. Emmenagogue, 95, 98, 99. It is also tonic, -and agrees with some constitutions better than any of the bitters. FORMS -OF EXHIBITION. No form is so eligible as that of substance. DOSE, grs. x -to ʒj. The alkalies, in their crystalline state, when triturated with -myrrh, reduce it to the form of a tenacious fluid. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Tinct. Myrrh_. L.E.D. _Tinct. Aloes et Myrrh_. E. _Tinct. -Aloës Ætherea_. E. _Mist. Ferri comp_. L. (=G L=) _Pil. Aloes cum -Myrrha_. L.E.D. _Pil. Ferri cum Myrrha_. L. _Pil. Galb. comp_. L.D. -(=B=) _Pil. Assafœtid. comp_. E. (=B=) _Pil. Rhei, comp_. E. (=G=) -ADULTERATIONS. It is subject to a variety of frauds, being frequently -mixed with adventitious gums, which are to be detected by their foreign -odour, their white or dark colour, and by their opacity. - - - NUX VOMICA. (Strychnus Nux Vomica.) - - _Nux Vomica._ - -This seed has not at present a place in the British pharmacopœiæ; it -presents however several points of interest to the physiologist, the -physician, and the chemist. Its virulent action upon animals has been -long known; and it has been administered in combination with gentian in -intermittents.[567] (_Ludovic. Phar._ p. 113,) and as a narcotic in -mania; it also constituted an ingredient in the famous _Electuarium de -ovo_, (_Ph. Angl. p. 263._) Nux vomica has been said to produce benefit -in the plague; the German writers have strongly commended it in mania, -epilepsy, and hydrophobia; as well as in chronic rheumatism, gout, -scrophula, lues venera, and cutaneous eruptions; in Sweden it is stated -to have displayed very beneficial effects in Dysentery. Dr. Fourquier -has lately introduced its use in the Hopital de la Charité, in cases of -partial paralysis, and it is said, with very great success.[568] The -value of the practice has been since confirmed by the experiments of -Dumeril, Majendie, Hebreard, Husson, and Asselin. The dose is four or -five grains of the powder in pills, during the day. The French codex -contains two alcoholic extracts of this substance; the one prepared with -a strong spirit (22, 32, Beaumé, i. e. from sp. gr. ·915 to ·856,) is -much more active and powerful than that made with a weak spirit. (12, -22, Beaumé, i. e. from sp. gr. ·985 to ·915.) - -M. M. Pelletier and Caventou have discovered in this substance, a -peculiar proximate principle, to which its virulence is owing; it was -named _Vauqueline_, in honour of the celebrated French philosopher, but -in deference to the opinion of the French Academy of Sciences, the -discoverers have substituted the name _Strychnia_, because “a name -dearly loved, ought not to be applied to a noxious principle!”[569] -(_Annales de Chimie_, _vol._ 8 to 10.) Strychnia is highly alkaline, and -crystallizes in very small four-sided prisms, terminated by four-sided -pyramids; its taste is insupportably bitter, leaving a slight metallic -flavour, and is so powerful as even to be perceptible when a grain is -dissolved in eighty pounds of water;[570] it has no smell; is not -changed by exposure to the air, nor is it either fusible or volatile, -for when submitted to the action of heat, it only fuses at the moment of -its decomposition which takes place at a temperature inferior to that -which destroys most vegetable substances; it is so extremely active and -violent, that in doses of half a grain it occasions serious effects, and -in larger ones convulsions and death; it is perhaps the most -powerful,[571] and next to hydro-cyanic acid, the most rapid of poisons; -notwithstanding its strong taste, it is very sparingly soluble in water, -requiring 6667 parts of that fluid for its solution at 50, and 2500 at -212°. It is very soluble in alcohol, but unlike most of the other -vegetable alkalies, is nearly insoluble in æther; with acids it forms -neutral and crystallizable salts; these salts as well as their base, -have the singular property of becoming bloodred by the action of -concentrated nitric acid. The alcoholic solution of Strychnia has the -property of precipitating the greater number of metallic oxides from -their acid solutions. It is precipitated by alkalies and alkaline -earths. Strychnia exists in native combination in the Strychnus with an -acid which has some analogy with the malic, and which Pelletier and -Caventou propose to call the _Igasuric acid_, from the Malay name for -the bean of St. Ignatius,[572] (Strychnus Ignatius,) in which its -properties were first examined. In conformity with such views, the -active principle of the tribe of Strychni is an _Igasurate of -Strychnia_;—a fact which suggests the existence of a most singular and -striking analogy between the chemical constitution of these -narcotico-acrid bodies[573] and that of opium. The recent experiments of -Pelletier have shewn, moreover, that besides Strychnia, the Nux Vomica -contains _Brucia_, an alkaline body which had been previously discovered -in spurious Angustura. Its properties are similar to those of Strychnia, -but it is less active. Being much more soluble in alcohol than -_Strychnia_, if care be taken to crystallize the latter several times in -alcohol, it will be separated, the _Brucia_ remaining in the _mother -waters_. Strychnia has been given in doses of one-twelfth of a grain, -but it is a most dangerous remedy, and is liable to occasion tetanic -convulsions.[574] It has been said, however, to prove serviceable in -cases of Epilepsy that had resisted every other method of cure. Dr. -Fleming informs us that the Hindoos of upper India are in the habit of -adding Nux Vomica in the process of distilling Arrack, for the purpose -of rendering the spirit more intoxicating. The London Porter brewers -have been accused of the same pernicious practice. - - - OLEA DESTILLATA. L. OL. VOLATILIA. E. - - OL. ESSENTIALIA. D. - - _Distilled, Volatile, or Essential Oils._ - -The British pharmacopœiæ direct them to be obtained by distillation -only; the French codex orders several of them to be prepared by -expression. QUALITIES. _Form_, liquid, sometimes viscid; _specific -grav._ various; oil of turpentine, which is the lightest, being only -0·792, whilst the oil of cloves, cinnamon, and allspice, exceed 1·030, -and that of sassafras, which is the heaviest, amounts to 1·094; these -latter oils hold resin in solution, and of course sink in water. -_Odour_, penetrating and fragrant; _Taste_, acrid; they are volatilized -at a temperature somewhat below that of boiling water; they are very -inflammable. SOLUBILITY. Very soluble in alcohol, forming what are -termed in perfumery _Essences_; in water they are very sparingly -soluble; the solutions are known in pharmacy under the title of -_distilled waters_; they are also dissolved by æther, and the _fixed_ -oils; when digested with ammonia, some of the less odorous acquire a -considerable degree of fragrance, whilst on the contrary, fixed alkalies -universally impair their odour; they are rapidly decomposed by nitric -and sulphuric acids, and their action is sometimes attended with instant -inflammation. Volatile oils, from continued exposure to the air, absorb -oxygen, and become resinous, by which they lose their volatility, -fragrance, and pungency, hence they should be preserved in small opaque -phials, completely full and well stopped. MED. USES. They act as -powerful stimulants and aromatics; they remove nausea and flatulence, -correct the griping of certain purgatives, and cover the offensive taste -of various remedies. See _Aquæ destillatæ_. They, moreover, have the -property of defending certain animal and vegetable preparations from -mouldiness. This curious fact has been already noticed, see _page 177_. -The following is a list of the species admitted into our British -pharmacopœiæ; those designated in _italics_ are principally for internal -use. OLEA _Anisi_, _Anthemidis_, _Carui_, _Juniperi_. Lavandulæ, _Menthæ -Piperitæ_, _Menthæ viridis_, Origani, _Pimentæ_, _Pulegii_, _Rosmarini_, -L. OLEA VOLATILIA, _Juniperi communis_, Juniperi Sabinæ, Lavandulæ -Spicæ, Lauri Sassafras, _Menthæ Piperitæ_, _Myrtæ Pimentæ_, _Pimpinellæ -Anisi_, Rorismarini Officinalis. E. OLEA _Juniperi_, _Pimento_, Corticis -et Ligni Sassafras, _e Seminibus Anisi_, _Carui_, _Fœniculi dulcis_, -Florum Lavendulæ, Foliorum Sabinæ, _Herbæ florescentis Menthæ Sativæ_, -Origani, _Pulegii_, _Rorismarini_, _Rutæ_, D. ADULTERATIONS. _Fixed -Oils_ may be detected by moistening writing paper with the suspected -article and holding it before the fire: if the oil be entirely -essential, no stain of grease will remain; as castor oil is more soluble -in spirit than the others, it is the one generally selected for this -fraudulent purpose, and the addition of alcohol restores the -sophisticated oil to its proper degree of consistency. _Alcohol_ is -discovered by adding water, which, if it be present, occasions a -milkiness, and at the same time, an increase of temperature; a decrease -of bulk also takes place, which may easily be ascertained by measuring -the oil and water separately, and then transferring them, in a state of -mixture, into a tube of small diameter. _Cheaper oils_, as that of -turpentine, are recognised by their peculiar odour, which may be -developed by rubbing a drop upon the hand and holding it to the fire, -or, by the dense black smoke with which they burn. The oil of aniseed, -as it crystallizes at 50°, is frequently sophisticated with wax, -spermaceti, or camphor; the fraud is detected by warming the oil, when -the crystals, if genuine, will dissolve.[575] In some cases the -refractive power of the oil affords a test of its purity. _See my work -on Chemistry in its relations to Medicine, § 318._ - - - OLEA EXPRESSA. L.D. - - OLEA FIXA, SIVE EXPRESSA. E. - - _Expressed or Fixed Oils._ - -These are obtained from animal matter by fusion, and from vegetable by -expression, or decoction with water. QUALITIES. _Odour_, none; _Taste_, -mild; they boil at 600°, but undergo decomposition, becoming acrid and -empyreumatic; the oil, in this state, was formerly used in medicine -under the name of _philosopher’s oil_.[576] By exposure to air they -absorb oxygen and become rancid; they congeal at a temperature of 32°, -and some even above that. When the oil is expressed by heating the -plates of the press, or by previously roasting the seeds, it is more -disposed to become rancid; _cold drawn_ oils are on this account to be -preferred for the purposes of pharmacy. SOLUBILITY. They are insoluble -in water, and, except castor oil, nearly so in alcohol and æther; with -caustic alkalies they combine and form soaps; when aided by heat they -readily unite with oxide of lead, forming the solid compound well known -by the term _plaister_. They unite also very readily with each other, -and with volatile oils. SOLVENT POWERS. They dissolve sulphur, and form -a kind of balsam with it; they also possess the power of extracting and -dissolving the narcotic and acrid principles of several vegetable and -animal substances, in consequence of which, the French pharmacopœia -directs a series of preparations under the term “_Olea Medicata_;” thus -there are olea Cicutæ, Hyoscyami, Solani, Stramonii, Nicotianæ;[577] -which are made by digesting with a gentle heat, one part of the subject -in two parts of olive oil.[578] - - - OLEUM AMYGDALARUM. L.E.D. - - _Oil of Almonds._ - -This fixed oil, whether procured from the _sweet_ or _bitter_ almond, -has the same properties, for the bitter principle resides exclusively in -combination with a peculiar volatile oil attached to the mucilage;[579] -that from the latter keeps longer without rancidity. It is sometimes -made from old Jordan almonds, _by heat_, in which case it very soon -grows fetid. Nut oil, _Oleum nucum Coryli_, has been proposed as a -substitute for that of almonds; in China it is drunk with tea, instead -of cream. MEDICAL USES. For forming emulsions, in coughs, and other -pulmonary complaints. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. It may be formed into an -_emulsion_ by the intermedium of _mucilage_, the _yelk of an egg_, or by -that of an _alkali_. - -1. BY MUCILAGE. This is in general a more convenient medium than the -yelk of an egg; one part of gum, made into mucilage, will be sufficient -for the diffusion of four parts of oil, (see _Mucilago Acaciæ_) the oil -and mucilage must be carefully triturated together, and the water then -gradually added; the emulsion thus formed is permanent, and the addition -of a moderate quantity of acid, spirit, or tincture, will not produce -decomposition. _See Form. 73._ - -2. BY ALKALIES. This oil, by uniting with alkalies and water, forms an -elegant and grateful mixture, for which purpose the following -proportions are to be observed, every fʒj of oil requires ♏︎viij of -liquor potassæ, and f℥iss of distilled water. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. -_Acids_; _oxymel_; _syrups of poppies and squills_; _tartrate and -super-tartrate of potass_; _super-sulphate of potass_; _oxy-muriate of -mercury_; _resins_; _hard water_. _See Form. 166, 167._ - - - OLEUM AMYGDALÆ AMARÆ VOLATILE. - -QUALITIES. _Colour_, pale yellow; _Odour_, fragrant and pungent, having -the characteristic smell of prussic acid. _Taste_, pungent, bitter, and -peculiar. SOLUBILITY. Like other essential oils, its sensible properties -and medicinal effects are imparted to water; in alcohol it is very -soluble.[580] CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. A peculiar oil, combined with -hydro-cyanic acid. M. Vogel of Munich has lately succeeded in separating -these constituents, by agitating the whole in a concentrated solution of -potass, and distilling to dryness; the oil volatilized together with -water, while the residuum in the retort was found to contain _Cyanide of -Potassium_. The volatile oil, thus purified, is without odour, and -heavier than water. Its taste is extremely acrid and burning; by contact -with air it crystallizes rapidly; it dissolves easily in alcohol and -æther, but only in a very small proportion in water. The flame of its -combustion is very brilliant, and accompanied with much smoke. In order -to discover whether this oil, when freed from its hydro-cyanic acid, is -still poisonous, M. Vogel put a drop of it on the tongue of a sparrow; -when it died, after violent convulsions, in a few seconds; he also -poisoned a dog, two months old, with four drops of it; whence he -concludes that the volatile oil, divested of its hydro-cyanic acid, is -still a poison, although less energetic than the oil that has not -undergone such a change. _Med: Uses._ It has all the characteristic -effects of prussic acid, but is so powerful and dangerous as to preclude -its application. It is principally sold to perfumers and confectioners. - -It is generally obtained by distilling the expressed cake of bitter -almonds; the operation however requires considerable pharmaceutical -address, and is, moreover, attended with unpleasant consequences.[581] - - - OLEUM OLIVÆ. L.E.D. _Olive Oil._ - -QUALITIES. _Colour_, pale yellow, somewhat inclining to green; _Taste_, -bland; _Odour_, none; it ought to congeal at 38° _Fah_. With the -exception of the oil of Almonds, it is the lightest of the fat oils, its -specific gravity being only ·915. According to the recent observations -of Dr. Clarke of Cambridge, this oil crystallizes in rectangular -four-sided prisms with square bases. USES. Although much less laxative -than Castor oil, it is a useful aperient. It was long regarded, but -erroneously, as possessing antidotal powers against the bites of -venemous snakes and insects; and it has been confidently recommended, in -the form of liniment, as a remedy against the Plague. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Linimentum Ammoniæ Fortius_. L. ADULTERATIONS. It is not -unfrequently mixed with the oil of poppy seeds, (see _Papaveris -Capsulæ_), a fraud which may be easily discovered by exposing a sample -to the freezing temperature, when the olive oil will congeal, while that -of poppies will remain fluid; and since those oils which freeze with -most difficulty are most susceptible of rancidity, the admixture of -poppy oil must be regarded as injurious: it also deserves notice that -the peculiar habitudes of _Oil of Olives_, with the _Pernitrate of -Mercury_, offer a distinguishing character, by which the adulteration of -the oil may be satisfactorily detected; for if the _pernitrate_, made by -dissolving 6 parts of the metal in 7·5 of nitric acid, of sp. grav. -1·36, at a common temperature, be mixed with olive oil, the mixture, if -kept cold, will in the course of a few hours become solid, whereas if it -has any admixture of the oil of grains, it will not undergo such a -change. The contamination derived from lead, which is frequently -immersed in the oil for the purpose of removing its rancidity, may be -detected by shaking one part of the suspected sample with three parts of -water, impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, in a stopped phial. - - - OLIBANUM. L.D. - - Juniperus Lycia. _Gummi-resina._ - - Olibanum.[582] - -QUALITIES. _Form_, fragments of a translucent, whitish yellow, and -generally powdered with a whitish dust, occasioned by the friction of -the pieces against each other; _Odour_, when burning is fragrant; -_Taste_, bitterish and acrid. SOLUBILITY. When triturated with water, a -milky solution results, which after some time deposits the resinous -part, and retains not more than three-eighths dissolved. Alcohol -dissolves three-fourths of it, and forms a solution perfectly -transparent. Æther dissolves more than half, leaving a white opaque -residuum soluble in water. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The latest analysis of -this substance is by _Braconnot_, who found in 100 parts of it, of -volatile oil 8, resin 56, gum 39, and of an anomalous principle -resembling gum, but insoluble in water and alcohol, 5·2 parts. The oil, -in colour and smell, very strongly resembled that of lemons. MED. USES. -It is now less used than formerly; it is however stimulant and -diaphoretic. Pulverized it enters into several popular electuaries for -gleets, fluor albus, &c. and very probably acts by finding a passage -into the urine, without undergoing any change or decomposition. - - - OPIUM. L.E.D. (Papaver Somniferum.) _Capsularum immaturarum Succus - concretus._ (Turcicus.) - - _Turkey Opium._[583] - -Two kinds are found in commerce, distinguished by the name of _Turkey_ -and _East India_ Opium. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, Turkey opium occurs in flat pieces, of a solid -compact texture, and possessing considerable tenacity; _Sp. gr._ 1·336, -so that, when compared with the condensed juices of other plants, it is -heavy, being exceeded only in this respect by opoponax and gum-arabic. -By long exposure to the air it becomes hard, breaks with a glimmering -fracture, owing to the presence of a few saline particles, and affords a -yellowish powder. It is opaque, tenacious, plastic, adherent to the -fingers. _Colour_, a reddish-brown, or fawn. _Odour_, peculiar, heavy, -and narcotic. _Taste_, at first a nauseous bitter, which soon becomes -acrid with some degree of warmth. It is inflammable, but yields no -narcotic odour on burning. SOLUBILITY. It is partially soluble in water, -alcohol, æther, wine, vinegar, and lemon juice; when triturated with hot -water, five parts in twelve are dissolved, six suspended, and one part -remains perfectly insoluble and resembles _gluten_. By long boiling, its -soporific powers are impaired and ultimately destroyed: the alcoholic is -more highly charged with its narcotic principle than the aqueous -solution; but spirit, rather below proof, is its best menstruum. The -watery solution when filtered is transparent, and reddens the colour of -litmus; it undergoes no change on the addition of alcohol, but -precipitates occur from _pure ammonia_ and from the _carbonates of fixed -alkalies_; from the solutions of _oxy-muriate of mercury_, _nitrate of -silver_, _sub-acetate and acetate of lead_, the _sulphates of copper, -zinc, and iron_, and from an _infusion of galls_. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. -Resin, gum, bitter extractive, sulphate of lime, gluten, _Narcotine_ -(_see note_) and a peculiar alkaline body, to which the soporific -virtues of opium are owing, and to which the appropriate name of -_Morphia_ has been assigned; and it appears moreover that this new -alkaline body exists in combination with an unknown acid, which has -therefore been denominated the _Meconic Acid_; so that the narcotic -principle of opium is _Morphia_ in the state of a _meconiate_, or -perhaps of a _super-meconiate_. - -For these important facts we are indebted to the successive labours of -Derosne,[584] Seguin,[585] Sertuerner,[586] and Robiquet. And the French -codex contains, in its appendix, formulæ for the preparation of -morphia[587] according to the directions of these two latter chemists: -viz. _Robiquet’s_ process. Three hundred parts of pure opium are to be -macerated during five days, in one thousand parts of common water; to -the filtered solution, fifteen parts of perfectly pure magnesia -(carefully avoiding the _carbonate_,) are to be added; boil this mixture -for ten minutes, and separate the sediment by a filter, washing it with -cold water until the water passes off clear; after which, treat it -alternately with hot and cold alcohol, (12, 22, Bé.) as long as the -menstruum takes up any colouring matter; the residue is then to be -treated with boiling alcohol (22, 32, Bé.) for a few minutes. The -solution, on cooling, will deposit crystals of _Morphia_. - -_Rationale of the Process._ A soluble _Meconiate of Magnesia_ is formed, -whilst the sediment consists of _Morphia_ in the state of mixture, with -the excess of magnesia; the boiling alcohol with which this residuum is -treated, exerts no action upon the magnesia, but dissolves the -_Morphia_, and on cooling surrenders it in a crystalline form. A -repetition of the treatment with boiling alcohol will procure a fresh -crop of crystals, and the process should be continued until they cease -to appear. - -_Sertuerner’s_ method. It differs from the preceding, in substituting -ammonia for magnesia, and in adding to the sediment, separated as before -mentioned, as much sulphuric acid as is sufficient to convert the -_Morphia_ into a sulphate, which is subsequently decomposed by a farther -addition of ammonia; the precipitate thus produced is then dissolved in -boiling alcohol, which on cooling surrenders the _Morphia_ in a state of -crystalline purity. It appears however that the _Morphia_ produced by -this latter method, is less abundant and more impure and coloured, than -that which is furnished by the process of Robiquet. - -_Characters of Morphia._ When pure, it crystallizes in very fine, -transparent, truncated pyramids, the bases of which are either squares -or rectangles, occasionally united base to base, and thereby forming -octohedra. It is sparingly soluble in boiling water, but dissolves -abundantly in heated alcohol; and the solution is intensely bitter; in -æther it is far less soluble. It has all the characters of an alkali; -affecting test papers, tinged with turmeric or violets; uniting with -acids, and forming neutral salts, and decomposing the compounds of acids -with metallic oxides. It unites with sulphur by means of heat, but the -combination is decomposed at the same instant; it is incapable of -forming soap with an oxidized oil. It fuses at a moderate temperature, -when it resembles melted sulphur, and like that substance, crystallizes -on cooling; it is decomposed by distillation, yielding carbonate of -ammonia, oil, and a black resinous residue, with a peculiar smell; when -heated in contact with air, it inflames rapidly; the voltaic pile exerts -but little action upon it, yet, when mixed with a globule of mercury, -the latter appears to become increased in bulk, and to change -consistence. When analyzed by means of the deutoxide of copper, it -yields carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; and if ammonia has been employed, -as a precipitant in its preparation, we shall also obtain some nitrogen, -but not if prepared according to the improved process of Robiquet. Its -habitudes with different bodies have not hitherto been sufficiently -investigated, but they are highly important, in as much as they will -explain the operation of those various medicinal compounds, into which -opium enters as a principal ingredient. _Sertuerner_ has given us an -account of the effect of the alcoholic solution of Morphia on himself -and three of his pupils; he found, that repeated small doses of half a -grain produced at first decided excitation; then weakness, numbness, and -tendency to fainting; after swallowing vinegar while in this condition, -violent vomiting was excited, profound sleep intervened in one delicate -individual, and next day he suffered from nausea, vomiting, head-ache, -anorexia, constipation, and heaviness (_Ann. de Chim. et de Phys_. T. -v.) This case is sufficient to shew that although Morphia possesses the -characteristic powers of opium, its strength is by no means commensurate -with its supposed concentration. When uncombined it exerts little or no -action in consequence of its insolubility. The following history of its -saline compounds may be useful. - -The _Carbonate_ crystallizes in short prisms. - -The _Acetate_ in needles, very soluble, and extremely active. - -The _Sulphate_, in arborescent crystals, very soluble. - -The _Muriate_, in plumose crystals, much less soluble; when evaporated, -it concretes into a shining white plumose mass on cooling. - -The _Nitrates_, in prisms grouped together. - -The _Meconiate_, in oblique prisms, sparingly soluble. - -The _Tartrate_, in prisms. - -Morphia is separated from the above combinations by ammonia. - -Morphia is very soluble in olive oil, and according to the experiments -of M. Majendie, the compound acts with great intensity; with extractive -matter, it forms a compound which is almost insoluble in water, but very -soluble in acids. - -The solubility of Morphia in acids explains why the administration of -vinegar increases the powers of opium, (_see_ page 135.) _M. Majendie_ -considers Morphia to produce a more purely soporose effect than opium, -and that it is moreover exempt from the consecutive operation which so -generally renders opium objectionable. This opinion, however, has not -been confirmed by the trials made in this country; equally gratuitous is -the assertion of the same physiologist, that by ringing changes on the -salts of Morphia, its hypnotic effects may be kept up without increasing -its dose. - -As _M. Majendie_ considers the _after_ effects of opium to be -independent of Morphia, it was necessary for him to point out the -particular principle from which these noxious consequences arose, and he -accordingly ascribed them to the _Salt of Derosne_, now more usually -denominated _Narcotine_, and which may be entirely removed from the -extract of opium by macerating it in sulphuric æther; and in this way, -it is said, a preparation is obtained, which, like Morphia, is exempt -from the occasional bad consequences of the common drug; but no -satisfactory trials have as yet been made with it. - -The _Meconic acid_, when separated from the residuum of the magnesian -salt, as described above, does not appear to possess any medicinal -activity. Its distinguishing _chemical_ character is, that it produces -an intensely red colour in solutions of iron oxidized _ad maximum_. - -EAST INDIA OPIUM is an inferior species;[588] it differs from _Turkey -Opium_, in its _texture_ being less compact, and much softer; its -_colour_ darker; its narcotic _odour_ fainter, but combined with a -strong empyreuma, and in its _taste_ being more bitter, but less -acrimonious. According to the experiments of Mr. A. T. Thomson, _Turkey -Opium_ contains three times more morphia than the _East Indian_ variety. -This latter, when triturated with water, is taken up without any -residuum; hence it contains no gluten, but the sulphate of lime is more -abundant, as appears from the relative proportion of precipitate -produced by oxalic acid. The solution of the acetate of barytes, whilst -it occasions no disturbance in the solutions of the Turkey variety, -produces a copious precipitate with the East Indian. - -MED. USES. Are so well known that a few practical remarks will -suffice.[589] - -Chemistry, it appears, has developed the principle of its activity, and -accumulated experience has established the value and importance of its -medicinal applications, but Physiology is still unable to demonstrate -the manner in which it produces its effects. It must be admitted that -its primary operation is that of a powerful and diffusible stimulant, -but it is immediately followed by narcotic and sedative effects, which -are far greater than could have been inferred from the degree of -previous excitement, and hence much keen controversy has arisen in the -schools concerning its _modus operandi_, (_see_ page 76.) In large -doses, the primary excitement is scarcely apparent, but the powers of -life are instantly depressed, drowsiness and stupor succeed, and when -the dose is excessive, these are followed by delirium, stertorous -breathing, cold sweats, convulsions, and apoplectic death. Its stimulant -effects are apparent only in small doses, by which the energy of the -mind,[590] the strength of the pulse, and the heat of the body, are -considerably increased, but all the secretions and excretions, except -the cuticular[591] discharge, are diminished; for example, the fæces of -persons, after the use of opium, are not unfrequently clay-coloured, -from the suspension of the biliary secretion; this circumstance suggests -some important precautions with respect to its exhibition. Opium, when -properly directed, is capable of fulfilling two great indications; 1st, -of supporting the powers of life, and 2nd, of allaying spasm, pain, and -irritation, and of blunting that morbid susceptibility of impression, -which so frequently attends fever. Its use is contra-indicated in all -cases where inflammatory action prevails, as in pulmonary affections, -attended with an accelerated circulation and a dry hard cough.[592] It -is employed by some of the oriental nations for the same purposes that -we take spirituous potations: by the Turks especially, to whom our more -generous beverages are prohibited by religious prejudice, opium is -solicited to inspire courage, or to invigorate fortitude;—to soothe -sorrow;—or to dissipate the remembrance of misfortune;—to awaken the -fancy to more brilliant exertions; or to create that mild composure and -serenity of feeling, which is desirable after the cares and solicitudes -of an active, perplexing, and arduous scene: like spirituous liquors -among other people, it is, in short, the support of the coward,—the -solace of the wretched,—and the daily source of intoxication to the -debauchee. Notwithstanding all this, spirit and opium are by no means -parallel medicines; on the contrary, the latter substance offers the -best remedy for the _Mania a Potu_, and in cases of habitual drunkenness -from alcohol, where our wish is to abstract the spirit, but are for -obvious reasons unable so to do, we may frequently alternate its use -with that of opium, with considerable advantage. Many of the beneficial -effects of this remedy are to be referred to its power of allaying -irritability; Sir G. Blane has remarked, that in ill-conditioned ulcers -in the West Indies, opium was found superior to all other internal -medicines for producing a disposition to heal. Under the free use of it, -such ulcers would in place of a sanious discharge produce a healthy puss -succeeded by granulations and cicatrization. It appears to do this by -suspending irritation, and perhaps by promoting absorption. - -In combination, the medical powers of opium are wonderfully extended, so -that there is scarcely a disease in which it may not, during some of its -stages, be rendered useful. By diminishing the sensibility of the -stomach and bowels, it becomes a valuable and efficacious _corrigent_ to -many important medicines, and thus frequently favours their absorption -and introduction into the system, as for instance, in the exhibition of -mercurial alteratives, (_Form. 141,_) and in certain diuretic -combinations, (_Form. 100, 106, 107, 110,_) in combination with -antimonials, and with ipecacuan, its narcotic powers are obviated, and -sudorific results are obtained. See _Pulv. Ipecac. co_. (_Form. 117, -119, 124, 125, 127, 130._) FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In substance, or under -the form of tincture. When we wish to continue the operation of opium, -and not to obtain its full effect at once, it may be advantageously -combined with some substance capable of retarding its solution in the -stomach, as _gum resins_. See _Pilulæ_ and _Form. 10, 11, 12, 13_. A -watery infusion, made by infusing powdered opium in boiling water, will -often operate without producing that distressing nausea and head-ache -which so frequently follow the use of this substance. With respect, -however, to the best modes of correcting the operation of this remedy, -see pages 160 and 162. Dr. Porter of Bristol has introduced to our -notice a solution of opium in citric acid; his formula[593] for its -preparation is subjoined, because I am of opinion that it merits the -attention of the practitioner; I have lately submitted it to the test of -experience, and it certainly possesses the merit of a powerful anodyne, -operating with less disturbance than the more ordinary forms of this -substance. I also take this opportunity of stating, that the -_pyroligneous acid_ manufactured by Beaufoy was used as a menstruum, and -the effect of the solution was similar to that of Dr. Porter. When the -stomach rejects altogether the internal exhibition of opium it may be -successfully applied along the spine, by friction, with the camphor -liniment; a piece of solid opium introduced into the rectum, or -dissolved in some appropriate solvent, and injected as an enema, affords -also considerable relief in spasmodic affections of the bowels, and in -painful diseases of the prostate gland, or bladder, (_Form. 9._) When -thus introduced into the rectum, it cannot undergo that change which the -digestive organs produce upon it, and consequently it is more uniform in -its action than when presented to the stomach. Opium appears to be -readily absorbed into the system, when applied to the surfaces of sores; -considerable relief has been thus afforded to irritable stumps, after -amputation, on which occasions, all the characteristic effects of opium -have been produced upon the system, such as costiveness, head-ache, -nausea, &c. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Oxy-muriate of mercury_; _acetate -of lead_; _alkalies_; _infusions of galls_, and _of yellow cinchona_. -Orfila states that the decoction of _Coffee_ is less energetic as an -antidote, than the infusion. When we intend the opium to act as a -sedative, we should not combine it with stimulants. The Edinburgh -College certainly erred in this respect, when they made pepper an -ingredient in their _Pilulæ Opiatæ_. In combination with vegetable -acids, its narcotic powers are increased, in consequence of the -formation of soluble salts with _morphia_.[594] When the opium however -has passed out of the primæ viæ, vinegar and acids are then the best -remedies for counteracting its effects; (see _page 136_.) _Dose_, must -be varied according to the intention of the prescriber, the constitution -of the patient, and the nature of the disease. A quarter of a grain, -frequently repeated, will keep up its exhilarating influence; (_Form. -15_) from gr. j to ij acts as a narcotic; its power on the system soon -becomes weaker; and from habitual use it is so much impaired that very -large doses are required to produce its usual effects. Russell observes -that the effects of opium on those addicted to its use, are at first -obstinate costiveness, succeeded by diarrhœa and flatulence, with loss -of appetite and a sottish appearance; the teeth decay, the memory fails, -and the unhappy sufferer prematurely sinks into the grave. OFFICINAL -PREP. Gr. j of opium is contained in _Confect. Opii_. L. grs. 36. -_Elect. Opii_. E. grs. 43. _Elect. Catechu_. E. grs. 193. (=F.=) _Elect. -Catechu. comp_. D. grs. 199. (=F.=) _Pil. Saponis cum opio_. L. grs. 5. -_Pil. Opiat_. E. grs. 10. _Pil. e Styrace_. D. grs. 5. _Pulv. Corn. ust. -cum Opio_. L. grs. 10. _Pulv. Cret. comp, cum Opio_. L. grs. 40. _Pulv. -Ipecac. comp_. L.E. grs. 10. (=H.=) _Pulv. Kino. comp_. L. grs. 20. -(=F.=) _Tinct. Opii_. L. ♏︎19. _Tinct. Camphor. comp_. L. f℥ss. _Tinct. -Opii ammon_. E. fʒj. _Troch. Glycyrr. cum Opio_. E. ʒj. _Vinum Opii_. L. -♏︎17. The Medicinal Dynameter will at once shew the quantity of opium in -any proportion of the above preparations. ADULTERATIONS. The _Turkey -Opium_, when good, is covered with leaves, and the reddish capsules of -some species of _rumex_; the inferior kinds have none of these capsules -adhering to them. It is frequently adulterated with the extract of -liquorice; it should be regarded as bad when it is very soft and -friable, of an intensely black colour, or mixed with many impurities, -when it has a sweetish taste, or marks paper with a brown continuous -streak when drawn across it, or when it melts like wax, and makes a -yellow solution in water. It frequently happens that in cutting a mass -of opium, bullets and stones have been found imbedded in it, a fraud -which is committed by the Turks, from which the retailer alone suffers. -It is also adulterated with the extract of poppy capsules, or of the -whole plant; with that of _chelidonium majus_, with gum arabic or -tragacanth, with the oil of linseed, and even with the dung of oxen. - - - OVUM. L. (Phasianus Gallus. _Ovum._) - - _The Egg of the Domestic Fowl._ - -VITELLUS, The _Yolk_ or _Yelk_, is principally employed in -pharmaceutical operations, for rendering oils and balsams miscible with -water. It is gently laxative. - -_Oleum e vitellis_, Oil of Eggs. Obtained by boiling the yelks, and then -submitting them to pressure; fifty eggs yield about 5 oz. of oil. It is -introduced into the Paris Pharmacopœia, being much employed on the -Continent for _killing_ mercury. - -ALBUMEN. Used principally for clarifying turbid liquors. - -TESTA. Similar to other absorbents. - - - OXYMEL SIMPLEX. L.D. MEL ACETATUM. P.L. 1787. - - _Simple Oxymel._[595] - -This composition of honey and acetic acid has been long valued on -account of its detergent qualities, and has accordingly been much used -as the basis of gargles, and expectorant remedies. - - - OXYMEL SCILLÆ. L. D. OXYMEL SCILLITICUM. P.L. 1720. 1745. - - OXYMEL OF SQUILLS. - -This preparation certainly possesses considerable powers as an -expectorant; especially if allowed to pass slowly over the fauces, as -when applied in the form of a linctus, (_Form: 135,_) which by -stimulating the top of the trachea may possibly act, by a kind of -“_contiguous sympathy_,” upon the pulmonary structure,[596] and thereby -increase the activity of the exhalant vessels, and so dilute the mucus -contained in the follicles as to cause it to be poured out in a less -viscid form, and consequently in a state to be more easily brought up by -expectoration. Its action will also admit of another explanation, but -for this see page 102. DOSE from fʒss to fʒij. In larger doses it is -given for the purpose of exciting vomiting, especially in hooping cough. - - - PAPAVERIS CAPSULÆ. L.E.D. - - (Papaver Somniferum. _Capsulæ Maturæ._) - - _Poppy Capsules_, or _Poppy heads_. - -These capsules are employed in medicine for the purpose of affording a -decoction, to be applied as an anodyne fomentation, see _Decoctum -Papaveris_, and as a syrup of hypnotic qualities, see _Syrupus -Papaveris_. - -The seeds of the poppy capsules are not directly used for any medicinal -purposes, but they yield a fixed oil which is daily met with in the -market, and is frequently used to adulterate _Olive Oil_, which see. As -an article of trade it is considered very inferior to the other fixed -oils; it burns very badly, and yields a great quantity of smoke. To the -pharmaceutic chemist it is an article of interest from the controversies -to which it has given origin.[597] - - - PILULÆ L.E.D. _Pills._ - -For general instructions respecting the formation and administration of -pills, the practitioner must refer to the _first part_ of this work, -_page 193_. - - - OFFICINAL PILLS. - -PILULÆ ALOES COMPOSITÆ. L. Extract of Aloes, _two parts_, extract of -gentian, (=G=) _one part_, with oil of carraway; (=E=) to which syrup is -unnecessarily added. It is a useful pill in habitual costiveness. -_Dose_, grs. x to ℈j. - -PILULÆ ALOES ET ASSAFŒTIDÆ. E. Powdered aloes, assafœtida (=G=) and -soap, (=L=) _equal parts_. Anodyne and cathartic; a very useful -combination in dyspepsia attended with flatulence. _Dose_, grs. x. - -PILULÆ ALOES CUM MYRRHA. L. _Pilulæ Rufi._ P.L. 1745. Extract of Aloë, -_two parts_, saffron and myrrh, (=E=) _one part_, syrup, q. s. This is a -very ancient form of preparation, and is described by Rhazes. It is -stimulant and cathartic. (_Form: 11, 81, 98, 99._) _Dose_, grs. x to -℈j.[598] - -PILULÆ ALOES CUM COLOCYNTHIDE. E. This pill is known by the popular name -of _Pil. Cocciæ_, κοκκὶον signifies a seed, and the term was first -applied to this preparation by Rhazes. It consists of _eight parts_ of -aloes and scammony; _four_ of colocynth; and _one part_ of oil of -cloves, (=E=) and of sulphate of potass with sulphur, olim _Sal -Polycrest_. It is more powerful in its operation than the simple aloetic -pills. - -PILULÆ CAMBOGIÆ COMPOSITÆ. L. Gamboge, extract of aloe, and compound -powder of cinnamon _one part_; soap _two parts_; see _page 172_, and -_Form: 88_. - -PILULÆ FERRI COMPOSITÆ. L. This combination is analogous to that of -Griffith’s mixture. _Dose_, gr. x to ℈j. _Form: 99._ They become -extremely hard by keeping. If the practitioner consult the MEDICINAL -DYNAMETER, he will observe that in order to give the same quantity of -Proto-carbonate of Iron as is contained in f℥iss of _Mist: Ferri comp:_ -he must direct ℈j of this pill mass; which quantities will be seen to -contain, respectively, a grain and seven tenths of this of the -proto-carbonate, or, one grain of Protoxide, which is equivalent. It is -doubtful whether the former preparation will not prove more active, in -consequence of the saponaceous vehicle formed by the Myrrh and alkali in -a state of solution. - -PILULÆ GALBANI COMPOSITÆ. L. _Pil. Gummosæ_, _P.L._ 1745. We are here -presented with a combination of fœtid gums, in which assafœtida is the -most potent article. Antispasmodic, and emmenagogue. _Dose_, grs. x to -℈j. See _Form: 10, 27, 98_. - -PILULÆ HYDRARGYRI. L.E.D. _Pil. Mercuriales_. P.L. 1745, vulgo, The -_Blue Pill_. The mercury in this preparation, is not, as it was formerly -considered, in a state of mere mechanical division, but in that of a -black oxide, upon which its activity as a remedy undoubtedly depends; -for mercury in its metallic state is entirely inert with regard to the -living system. Various substances have at different times been -triturated with the mercury, for the purpose of _extinguishing_ or -_killing_ it, by effecting the mechanical division and subsequent -oxidation of its particles, as manna, melasses, &c. _Conserve of Roses_ -is now generally preferred for this purpose, although Swediaur suspects -that the astringent principle of this conserve invalidates the effects -of the mercury, “I have,” says he, “given these pills to several -patients for a long time, without any symptom of salivation.” Mr. -Abernethy observes in his surgical works, that the _Pilulæ Hydrargyri_ -are uncertain in their effects; and that some of the students at the -hospital on examining them, and different parcels of the conserve of -roses, say that the sulphuric acid may be discovered in each. Nor is it -improbable that in making the conserve for sale, some of this acid may -be added to brighten the colour; and if so, the mercurial pill which is -made from it may contain in varying proportions, some of that highly -deleterious compound, the _sub-sulphate of mercury_. When any of the -gums are employed for _killing_ the metal, the pills soon become hard -and brittle, and after some time the mercury is liable to run into its -metallic state. The pill-mass, when rendered thinner by the addition of -a little water, and extended on a piece of paper, ought not to exhibit -any metallic globules; in this examination, however, we must be careful -not to be betrayed by the fallacious appearance which is frequently -presented by small crystals of saccharine matter. The relative -proportion of mercury contained in the mass can be ascertained only by -its weight. The _blue pill_ is made at Apothecaries’ Hall by a very -ingenious machine actuated by steam, and which rubs as well as rolls the -materials, and it is said the pill thus made is more active than that -produced in the ordinary way. MED. USES. It is by far the best form for -the internal exhibition of mercury; where it is intended to act upon the -system as an alterative, it should be administered in doses of from grs. -iv to vj; if it occasion any action on the bowels, it may be conjoined -with opium; sometimes a few grains of rhubarb, exhibited every morning, -will impart such a tone to the intestines, as to enable them to resist -the mercurial irritation. In cases where the form of pill is -objectionable, it may be readily suspended by the aid of mucilage, in -some aqueous vehicle; when exhibited in doses of grs. x to ℈j, it acts -as a mild but efficient purgative. _Form: 79, 106._ One grain of mercury -is contained in three grains of the mass; the proportion of metal, or -oxide, in any other given quantity, is shewn at once by the Dynameter. -For the specific effects of mercury, see _Ung. Hydrarg_. - -PILULÆ HYDRARGYRI SUB-MURIATIS COMPOSITÆ. L.E. Olim _Plummer’s Pills_. -They consist of _one part_ of calomel and precipitated sulphuret of -antimony (=H=) and _two parts_ of guaiac (=E=) made into form with -spirit. It is a very useful alterative, especially in cutaneous -eruptions and in secondary syphilitic symptoms, particularly when -affecting the skin. _Dose_, grs. v to x. Should their exhibition affect -the bowels, the addition of a small proportion of Opium may be added. - -PILULÆ OPIATÆ. E. Opium _one part_; extract of liquorice, _seven parts_; -Jamaica pepper, _two parts_. It is however a compound of questionable -propriety. - -PILULÆ RHEI COMPOSITÆ. E. Rhubarb, Aloes, and myrrh, with oil of -peppermint. When such a combination is indicated, it is better to -prescribe it extemporaneously: for the mass, by being kept, will become -less efficacious. - -PILULÆ SAPONIS CUM OPIO. L. _Pil. Opii_. P.L. 1787. By substituting soap -for extract of liquorice, these pills are now rendered more soluble in -the stomach, and are consequently more efficient. Five grains contain -one of opium. - -PILULÆ SCILLÆ COMPOSITÆ. L. A stimulating expectorant: but as squill is -always impaired by keeping, it ought to be considered as an -extemporaneous combination. It is surely injudicious thus to multiply -our officinal formulæ, but it is difficult, on such occasions, to run -counter to popular opinion. _Form: 104._ - - - PIMENTÆ BACCÆ. L.E. Pimento. D. - - Myrtus Pymenta. _Baccæ._ - - _Pimenta Berries._ _Jamaica Pepper._ _All-spice._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, aromatic and agreeable, combining that of cinnamon, -cloves, and nutmegs; hence the term _all_-spice. _Taste_, warm and -pungent, resembling that of cloves. These qualities reside principally -in the cortical part of the berry. CHEMICAL COMP: It contains a volatile -oil, very like that of cloves, resin, extractive, tannin, and gallic -acid. SOLUBILITY. Water, alcohol, and æther, extract its virtues. MED. -USES. Principally to cover the disagreeable taste of other remedies; it -is also a very useful adjunct to dyspeptic medicines. OFFICINAL PREP. -_Aq. Piment_. L.E.D. _Ol. Piment_. L.E.D. _Pil. Opiat_. E. _Syrup. -Rhamni_. L. (=E=) - - - PIPERIS LONGI BACCÆ. L.E.D. - - _Long Pepper._ - -The chemical and medicinal properties of this substance are similar to -those of black pepper; _which see_. The varieties in the market are -distinguished by the names _short_ long pepper, and _long_ long pepper. -The native practitioners of India prescribe it in infusion, mixed with a -little honey, as a remedy in catarrhal affections, when the chest is -loaded with phlegm. - - - PIPERIS NIGRI BACCÆ. L.E.D. - - _Black Pepper._ - -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. An oily matter, fecula, and extractive; the acrid -principle of Pepper has been separated by Oersted in an alkaline form. -The following was the process by which it was procured. The pepper -having been digested in alcohol, muriatic acid and afterwards water were -added to the tincture, by which the resin was precipitated, while a -_muriate of Pipera_ remained in solution. The solution was then, after -having been submitted to a certain evaporation, decomposed by pure -potass, when a precipitation of _Pipera_ took place. This salifiable -base is nearly insoluble in cold, and only very slightly soluble in -boiling water. It dissolves in alcohol, and the solution has a -greenish-yellow colour, which by the addition of nitric acid is rendered -green. The capacity of the base for saturation appears very small. -SOLUBILITY. The virtues of pepper are entirely extracted by æther and -alcohol; and partially by water, 550 pints being required to extract all -the sapidity of ℔j of pepper. MED. USES. It appears to be a more general -and permanent stimulus than other species of equal pungency on the -palate; it may be combined with bitters, and exhibited in nausea, -dyspepsia, retrocedent gout, or as a stimulant in paralysis; it is also -a valuable coadjutor to bark, in obstinate intermittents. An infusion -made with black pepper that has been toasted, is often prescribed by the -natives of India in cases of cholera morbus; and I have known it, says -Dr. Ainslie, put a stop to the vomiting when many other remedies had -failed. DOSE, grs. v to ℈j, or more. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Emplast. -Meloes vesicat. comp_. E. _Unguent. piper. nig_. D. _White_ pepper is -made by separating the first skin of the berry, by soaking it in salt -and water. ADULTERATIONS. The powdered husk of the mustard seed is -universally mixed with powdered pepper, and is regularly sold for this -purpose by the mustard manufacturer, under the technical title of P.D. -(_Pepper Dust_;) there are besides other admixtures less -innocent.—_Whole Pepper_ is also frequently factitious; artificial -pepper-corns, composed of peas-meal, both white and black, are mixed -with real pepper-corns, and sold as genuine pepper; the method of -detecting the fraud is very simple; throw a suspected sample into water; -those that are artificial will fall to powder, or be partially -dissolved, while the true pepper-corns will remain whole. - - - PIX ABIETINA.[599] L. (_Pinus Abies. Resina Præparata._) - - PIX BURGUNDICA. E.D. _Burgundy Pitch._ - -This substance is procured by making incisions through the bark of the -Norway Spruce fir, and afterwards boiling the flakes so obtained in -water, and then straining the resin through coarse cloths under a press; -whereas _frankincense_ (Abietis resina) is a spontaneous exudation from -it. It is now entirely confined to external use, as a rubefacient spread -on leather; it is very adhesive. _Emplast: Picis comp_. L. _Emplast: -Picis Burgund_. D. ADULTERATIONS. A factitious sort, manufactured in -England, is often met with; it is to be distinguished by its friability, -and its want of viscidity and unctuosity, and by the absence of that -peculiar odour which characterises the genuine specimens. - - - PIX LIQUIDA. L.E.D. (Pinus Sylvestris.) _Tar._ - -This fluid is formed from the decomposition of the resinous juice of the -pine, during the slow and smothered combustion of its branches, and as a -summary definition of the substance, that by Pliny cannot be surpassed, -“_Pix nihil aliud quam combustæ resinæ fluxus._” _Lib. 23. c. 1._ -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is found to consist of empyreumatic oil, resin, -acetic acid, and some salts. SOLUBILITY. Water readily dissolves a -portion of Tar, and forms a solution of the colour of Madeira wine, with -a sharp empyreumatic taste. MED. USES. Tar water, under the auspices of -Bishop Berkley, was formerly considered a remedy of extraordinary -powers;[600] this opinion however has at length passed away, (_see page -27_.) and Tar is now particularly indebted for a place in the Materia -Medica, to an essay by Sir Alexander Crichton, entitled, “_An Account of -some Experiments made with the Vapour of boiling Tar,[601] in the cure -of Pulmonary Consumption_.” At the request of Sir Alexander, I was -induced to make a trial of its effects, and I do not feel any hesitation -in stating that the result has led me to believe that it may, in some -cases, be attended with benefit. In the application of the remedy -several precautions are necessary for its success. The Tar employed -should be that used in the cordage of ships; to every pound of which -half an ounce of sub-carbonate of potass must be added, in order to -neutralize the pyroligneous acid generally found mixed with the tar, the -presence of which will necessarily excite coughing; the tar thus -prepared is to be placed in a suitable vessel over a lamp, and to be -kept _slowly_ boiling in the chamber during the night as well as the -day; the vessel however ought to be cleaned and replenished every -twenty-four hours, otherwise the residuum may be burnt and decomposed, a -circumstance which will occasion increased cough and oppression on the -chest. The ancients entertained a high opinion of the efficacy of Tar in -pulmonary diseases, when internally administered; supposing it to -promote expectoration, relieve dyspnæa, and check spitting of blood; -Dioscorides particularly speaks of its utility in such cases; he also -recommends it to be applied to ulcers, which he says it fills up and -heals, whether they be situated on the surface of the body, or in the -ears, throat, and other internal parts. See the chapter on -“_Inhalations_,” _page 202_. OFFICINAL PREP. _Unguent._ _Picis Liquidæ._ -L. - - - PLUMBI SUB-CARBONAS. L. - - CARBONAS PLUMBI, vulgo _Cerussa_. E. - - CERUSSA, _Sub-acetas Plumbi_. D. - - _Cerusse_, or _White Lead_. - -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The composition of this substance has not until -lately been well understood, and hence the different appellations -bestowed upon it by the different colleges. SOLUBILITY. It is insoluble -in water, but soluble in pure potass. USES. It is only employed -externally, by sprinkling on excoriated parts; the safety of such a -practice however is questionable. OFFICINAL PREP. _Unguent._ _Ceruss._ -D. _Plumbi Acetas_ L.E.D. (=K=) ADULTERATIONS. _Chalk_ may be detected -by assaying its solution in cold acetic acid with oxalate of ammonia; -_Carbonate of barytes_, by adding to a portion of the same solution, -sulphate of soda very largely diluted with distilled water; and -_Sulphate of barytes_, or _Sulphate of lead_, by the insolubility of the -white lead in boiling distilled vinegar. - - - PLUMBI OXYDUM SEMI-VITREUM. L.E. - - LITHARGYRUM. D. _Litharge_.[602] - -It is a yellow protoxide of lead, which has been melted and left to -crystallize by cooling. It is only employed in pharmacy for forming -other preparations of lead, and the following officinal plasters, -_Emplast._ _Plumbi_, L. E.D. _Ceratum Saponis_. L. It is added to wines -to remove their acidity; for the detection of which, evaporate the -suspected liquor to a thick fluid, add charcoal, and calcine in a -crucible: in the space of an hour metallic points will be obtained, -consisting of lead surrounded by a quantity of yellow protoxide. - - - PLUMBI ACETAS. L. - - _Cerussa Acetata._ P. L. 1787. _Saccharum Saturni._ 1745. - - ACETAS PLUMBI. E. Acetas Plumbi. D. - - vulgo, Sugar of Lead. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, irregular masses resembling lumps of sugar, being an -aggregation of acicular four-sided prisms terminated by dihedral -summits, which are slightly efflorescent; by careful crystallization, it -may be obtained in quadrangular prisms. _Taste_, sweet and astringent. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Although it has been termed a _Super_-acetate, it -appears to be a neutral salt, and that its power of reddening valuable -blues is attributable to a partial decomposition; for when dissolved in -water containing the least portion of carbonic acid, a white carbonate -of lead is precipitated, and a corresponding portion of acetic acid is -necessarily disengaged. The College have therefore now designated it as -an _acetate_. According to the experiments of Berzelius, this salt, in -its anhydrous state, consists of one proportional of acetic acid, and -one proportional of oxide of lead; so that the proportion of the -metallic base is one-third of that in the _sub_-acetate. SOLUBILITY. It -is dissolved in 25 parts of water, hot or cold; it is also soluble in -alcohol. When common water is employed the solution is quite turbid, -unless a small proportion of acetic acid be previously added. -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _The alkalies, alkaline earths and their -carbonates_; _most of the acids_; _alum_; _borax_; the _sulphates, and -muriates_; _soaps_; _all sulphurets_; _ammoniated, and tartarized iron_; -_tartarized antimony_; _undistilled water_. The solution of _acetate of -ammonia_ decomposes that of this salt, in consequence of the carbonic -acid which is generally diffused through it. It has lately been -discovered that _Gallic acid_ and _Tannin_ are capable of combining with -lead in solution, and of forming a perfectly insoluble substance, which -falls to the bottom of the vessel; hence all vegetable astringents must -be considered as incompatible with this medicine. On this account, -liquors which have been kept in oak casks,[603] for a certain time, must -be freed from lead. This explains a fact, with respect to the effect of -new rum in the West Indies, of some importance. This spirit, when newly -distilled, is found to contain traces of lead, derived from the leaden -rims of the coppers, and the leaden worm, used for its condensation; -but, by being kept about twelve months in oaken casks, it loses its -deleterious properties, and no longer exhibits any traces of this -metal.[604] Certain bodies appear likewise to be incompatible with the -compounds of lead, not from the _chemical_ changes they induce, but from -the contrary effects they produce upon the body; thus mercury appears to -invalidate their powers and to counteract their effects, as we may have -observed in treating saturnine cholic. I suspect also that antimony -operates in the same manner; M. Merat relates the case of an apothecary -who was cured of a desperate saturnine cholic, after having taken, in -the course of eight days, eighty grains of tartarized antimony. MED. -USES. I feel no hesitation in pronouncing this salt of lead to be one of -the most valuable resources of physic; from the results of numerous -cases, I state with confidence that it is more efficient in stopping -pulmonary and uterine hemorrhage, than any other known remedy—“_nil -simile, nec secundum_,”—and that its application is equally safe and -manageable; but it must not be combined with substances capable of -decomposing it, nor must it be simultaneously administered with the -medicines which are frequently prescribed in conjunction with it, as an -_Infusion of Roses_, _Sulphate of Magnesia_, &c. Alum has also been in -some cases added to it, with the intention of increasing its -astringency. It is evident that under such circumstances an insoluble -and inert _Sulphate of Lead_ will be produced. The experiments of Orfila -confirm the truth of these views, and shew that such substances act as -counter-poisons for the salts of lead. According to my experience, those -vegetable acids which decompose the acetate of lead, and form insoluble -salts with its base, are not _medically_ incompatible, when administered -simultaneously with it, although no scientific physician would prescribe -such a mixture; this fact is shewn by the circumstance of potations, -containing malic and tartaric[605] acids, not having been found to -invalidate the efficacy of this salt. Whether the stomach in the first -instance prevents the decomposition, and its necessary results, or -allows the operation of the usual affinities, and then subsequently -decomposes the insoluble compound which results from them, by the -abstraction and _digestion_ of its vegetable constituent, are questions -for future inquiry, when the laws of gastric chemistry shall be better -understood, and more justly appreciated. I have also seen much benefit -accrue from this medicine in protracted diarrhœa, when it has checked -the bowels more effectually even than opium. M. Gaspard has communicated -to the public, through the medium of _Majendie’s Journal de -Physiologie_, (3 numéro Juillet, 1821,) a paper upon the operation of -_Acetate of Lead_, entitled “_Experiences Physiologiques et Medicales -sur L’Acetate de Plomb_,” in which he asserts that this metallic salt -cannot be administered without risk in any dose, unless indeed it be -given in vehicles which decompose it, and which, he adds, appears -generally to have happened in the prescriptions of those who have given -it extensively. He observes, that “it produces a slow and peculiar -inflammation of the bowels, as well as of the lungs; and that it, -moreover, occasions _Cholica Pictonum_.” No one, I apprehend, will deny -the poisonous quality of acetate of lead, any more than that of arsenic; -and yet both may, by proper management, be rendered therapeutical agents -of value and safety. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In that of pill, guarded by -opium; it will be prudent to recommend an abstinence from all potation, -except that of cold water, or draughts, composed of diluted acetic acid, -for at least an hour after the ingestion of the pill.[606] DOSE, gr. ½ -to gr. j. _Form. 57._ OFFICINAL PREP. _Cerat. Plumb. acetat_. L.[607] - - - PODOPHYLLUM PELTATUM. - - _May Apple._ _Radix._ - -[This plant is found in almost every part of the United States in low -and moist situations. It flowers in May and June, and the root is the -only part used in medicine. By analysis this is found to contain resin, -bitter extractive, fœcula, and a slight proportion of a gummy substance. -The root of the May Apple is an excellent active cathartic, operating in -a manner very similar to the common Julap. It is given in powder, in -doses of about grs. xx. The proper period for collecting the root for -medicinal purposes is the autumn, when the leaves of the plant have -turned yellow. It should be carefully dried and then pulverized.] - - - POTASSA CUM CALCE. L.E. - - KALI CAUSTICUM CUM CALCE. D. - -The addition of lime to potass renders it less deliquescent, and more -manageable, as an escharotic. - - - POTASSA FUSA. L. - - POTASSA. E. KALI CAUSTICUM. D. - - _Lapis infernalis_. P.L. 1720. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a white brittle substance, extremely caustic and -deliquescent, and possessing in an eminent degree all the properties -denominated _alkaline_. SOLUBILITY. f℥j of water dissolves ʒvij; it is -also soluble in alcohol. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. This preparation, -independent of its impurities, is the _hydrated protoxide of potassium_, -although in the state in which it is cast into sticks it generally -contains a little _Peroxide_,[608] and therefore evolves oxygen when -dissolved in water. MED. USES. It is a most powerful caustic (_causticum -commune acerrimum_), and is frequently employed to establish an ulcer; -or, instead of incision, to open a tumour. It has the advantage of other -caustics, from the circumstance of our being able to neutralize its -powers by touching it with vinegar, and thus to arrest its progress in -an instant; it is however more liable to produce a large eschar than -nitrate of silver, in consequence of the chemical action of the alkali -upon the skin. Within the last few years, surgeons have greatly -preferred the use of this caustic to that of _nitrate of silver_, in -cases of organic stricture of the urethra, as acting more powerfully, -and yet occasioning less irritation than the latter substance; it is -also said that the part which it destroys is sooner detached and more -easily eliminated. Its disposition, however, to extend its sphere of -action has occasioned such a destruction of the membrane as to allow the -urine to pass into the cellular substance, by which very serious effects -have been produced. For this reason there are cases in which the -_nitrate of silver_ is still to be preferred. As an internal remedy it -is only employed in solution. See _Liquor Potassæ_.[609] - - - POTASSÆ ACETAS. L. ACETAS POTASSÆ. E. - -ACETAS KALI. D. _Kali Acetatum._ P.L. 1787.—_Sal diureticus._ P.L. -1745.—_Terra foliata Tartari._—_Sal Sennerti._—_Magisterium Purgans -Tartari._—_Sal Essentiale vini._ _Oleum Tartari Sennerti._—_Sal -digestivus Sylvii, &c._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, masses of a foliated, laminar texture, extremely -deliquescent; _Odour_, slight and peculiar; _Taste_, sharp and pungent. -SOLUBILITY. f℥j of distilled water at 60° dissolves 404 grains, or 100 -parts of it are soluble in 105 parts of water; the solution soon -undergoes spontaneous decomposition; it is soluble in four times its -weight of alcohol.—CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It consists of one proportional -of each of its components, or 48 potass and 50 acetic acid. INCOMPATIBLE -SUBSTANCES. It is decomposed by _tamarinds_ and _most sub-acid fruits_; -by almost every acid, as well as every variety of neutral salt, whether -_alkaline_, _acid_, or _metallic_. MED. USES. In small doses, diuretic; -in larger ones, mildly cathartic. Dose, ℈j to ʒj to produce the former, -ʒij to ʒiij to excite the latter of these effects. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. -On account of its deliquescent property it is not admissible in powders -or pills, but should be always exhibited in solution. (_Form. 108, 110, -111._) In the former editions of this work, I introduced under the -present article, those views regarding the operation of saline bodies -upon the kidneys, and their decomposition by the digestive organs, which -I considered as capable of throwing some light upon the medicinal -operation of these bodies. Having, however, in the present edition of my -work devoted a chapter to the consideration of Diuretics, I have -necessarily removed all my general observations upon this subject to -that part of the work; I therefore entreat the reader to refer to the -first part, page 93. Alibert, in speaking of the diuretic virtues of -this salt, says that it is so well suited to the sensibility of the -Absorbents that its administration is frequently followed by very -salutary effects. (_Elémens de Thérapeutique_, _vol._ i. _p. 327_.) - -ADULTERATIONS. _Tartrate of potass_ is discovered by adding a solution -of tartaric acid, which will occasion with it a copious precipitate; the -_sulphates_, by their forming with acetate of lead, or muriate of -baryta, precipitates insoluble in acetic or muriatic acid. The brown -tinge which it frequently exhibits depends upon the same cause as that -which usually imparts colour to the _Liquor. Ammon. Acet._ This salt is -also sometimes contaminated with _lead_, which arises from its having -been prepared by decomposing the _acetate of lead_ by means of -_carbonate of potass_. - - - POTASSÆ CARBONAS. L.E. - - _Carbonate of Potass._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, crystals which are four-sided prisms with dihedral -summits, permanent in the air; _Taste_, slightly alkaline without -acrimony. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is a _bi-carbonate_, consisting of -two proportionals of carbonic acid and one proportional of potass; and -in its crystalline form, it also contains water equal to one -proportional. SOLUBILITY. It is soluble in 4 parts of cold, and in ⅚ths -of its weight of boiling water, in which it is partially decomposed, -carbonic acid being emitted during the solution; it is quite insoluble -in alcohol. MED. USES. In cases where an alkali is indicated, this -preparation offers an agreeable and efficient remedy; and experience has -shewn that its additional proportion of carbonic acid does not in the -least invalidate its alkaline agency. In disordered states of the -digestive functions, alkalies frequently act with surprising effect; in -calculous affections their value has been already noticed (see _Liquor -Potassæ_), and the stomach appears to bear the protracted exhibition of -the carbonate of potass or soda, with more temper than it does that of -any other alkaline combination; and on account of the increased quantity -of carbonic acid which this salt contains, it is preferable for -effervescing draughts. (See _Acid. Citric._ and _Form. 123, 168_.) -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Acids_ and _acidulous salts_; _borax_; -_muriate of ammonia_; _acetate of ammonia_; _alum_; _sulphate of -magnesia_; _lime water_; _nitrate of silver_; _ammoniated copper_; -_muriate of iron_; _sub-muriate and oxy-muriate of mercury_; _acetate of -lead_; _tartarized antimony_; _tartarized iron_; _the sulphates of -zinc_, _copper_, _iron_, &c. DOSE, grs. x to ʒss. - - - POTASSÆ NITRAS. L.E. NITRUM. D. - - _Nitre_ or _Salt Petre_. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, crystals which are six-sided prisms usually -terminated by dihedral summits. _Taste_, bitter and sharp with a -sensation of cold. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It consists of one proportional -of nitric acid, and one proportional of potass. SOLUBILITY. It dissolves -in seven parts of water at 60°, and in its own weight at 212°. Its -solubility is considerably increased by adding muriate of soda to the -water; its solution is attended with a great reduction of temperature; -it is quite insoluble in alcohol. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Alum_; -_sulphate of magnesia_; _sulphuric acid_; _the sulphates of zinc, -copper, and iron_; according to the usual laws of affinity, it should be -also decomposed by _sulphate of soda_; this however only takes place at -the temperature of 32°, and then but partially. MED. USES. Refrigerant, -in which case the draught should be swallowed immediately after the -solution of the salt is complete, for if it be allowed to stand for some -time, its effect with regard to cooling is not nearly so evident (see -_Form. 138, 144_); as a diuretic, its powers are too inconsiderable to -be employed, except in combination (_Form. 102, 109, 115, 170_); a -solution of ʒj to f℥vj of rose water forms a good detergent gargle, and -a small portion allowed to dissolve slowly in the mouth, will frequently -remove an incipient inflammation of the tonsils: for its _modus -operandi_ as a diuretic, see _Potassæ Acetas_. DOSE, grs. x to xv, as a -diuretic or refrigerant; grs. xxv to xl are aperient, and in large doses -it excites vomiting, bloody stools, convulsions, and even death. The -best antidotes are opium and aromatics. IMPURITIES. As it occurs from -the hand of nature it is far from pure, and even by art it is freed with -difficulty from sea salt; the presence and quantity of which in any -specimen, may be learnt by adding nitrate of silver to its solution as -long as any precipitate is produced. - - - POTASSÆ SUB-CARBONAS. L.E. - - SUB-CARBONAS KALI. E. - - _Kali Præparatum_, P.L. 1787. _Sal Absinthii._ - - _Sal Tartari._ 1745. - -Before the nature of this salt was well understood, it received various -appellations according to the different methods by which it was -procured, and it was supposed to possess as many different virtues, as -_Salt of Wormwood_, _Salt of Tartar_, _Salt of Bean Stalks_, &c. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, coarse white grains, so deliquescent, that by -exposure to air they form a dense solution, (_Oleum Tartari per -deliquium_, P.L. 1720.) _Taste_, alkaline and urinous.[610] CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. This salt, although far from being pure, is sufficiently so -for every pharmaceutical purpose. It consists of one proportional of -acid and one proportional of potass, with variable quantities of -_sulphate of potass_, _muriate of potass_, _siliceous earth_, _alumina_, -together with the _oxides of iron_, and _manganese_. SOLUBILITY. It is -dissolved by twice its weight of water; the residue, if any, may be -considered as impurity; it is insoluble in alcohol; with oils it -combines, and forms soaps. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. They are enumerated -under _Potassæ Carbonas_. MED. USES. Antacid, and diuretic, (_Form. 101, -107, 129_), but it is far less pleasant than the carbonate; it is -principally used for making saline draughts, see _Acid. Citric._ and -_Form. 107_. DOSE, grs. x to ʒss. OFFICINAL PREP. _Potassæ Acetas_, -L.E.D. (=I=) _Liquor Potassæ_ L.E.D. (=K=) _Potassæ Sulphuretum_ (=I=) -L.E.D. _Potassæ Tart._ L.E.D. (=I=) _Liquor Arsenicalis_ (=I.L.=) -ADULTERATIONS. Its degree of purity may be estimated by the quantity of -nitric acid, of a given density, requisite for the saturation of a given -weight. The purest _sub-carbonate_ is that obtained by incinerating -_cream of tartar_, since most of the impurities are decomposed by the -heat during the process, (_Sub-carbonas Potassæ Purissimus._ E.); it -however generally contains lime. - - - POTASSÆ SULPHAS. L.E. SULPHAS KALI. D. - - _Kali Vitriolatum_, P.L. 1787. - - _Tartarum Vitriolatum, 1745, and 1720._ - - _Sal de duobus_, &c. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, crystals which are right rectangular (but not square) -prisms, modified on the edges and angles; or double six-sided pyramids -with short intervening prisms, which are macles, or hemitrope crystals; -they are slightly efflorescent, and when heated they decrepitate. -SOLUBILITY. f℥j of water dissolves only grs. 24: the salt is insoluble -in alcohol. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. It is partially decomposed by the -nitric and muriatic acids, in which case, a portion of the base being -saturated, a corresponding portion of _bi-sulphate_ results; this fact -illustrates a chemical law of some importance, viz. _that a substance -less weakly attracted by another than a third, will sometimes -precipitate this third from its combination with the second, in cases -wherein a_ super, _or_ sub-_salt is readily formed_.[611] The history of -tartrate of potass will furnish farther illustrations. See _page 183_. -Sulphate of potass, when in solution, is entirely decomposed by _lime_ -and _its compounds_; by _oxy-muriate of mercury_; _nitrate of silver_; -and by _acetate_ and _sub-acetate of lead_. MED. USES. On account of its -insolubility, it does not possess much activity as a purgative, but is -said to be powerfully deobstruent; it should be exhibited in the form of -powder, and in conjunction with rhubarb, or some other purgative -medicine. DOSE, grs. x to ℥ss. _Form. 94._ From its hardness and -insolubility, it is a most eligible substance for triturating and -dividing powders. OFFICINAL PREP. _Pulv. Ipecac. co._ L.E.D. (=M=) Under -the name _Sulphas Potassæ cum Sulphure_, the Edinburgh college retains -the preparation formerly known by the name _Sal Polycrest_ (_Salt of -many virtues_); and as it is produced by deflagrating nitre with -sulphur, the product, besides sulphate of potass, contains _bi-sulphate_ -and _sulphuret of potass_. It possesses no superiority over the common -sulphate. - - - POTASSÆ SUPER-SULPHAS. L. - - _Sal Enixum_ of Commerce. - -QUALITIES. _Crystals_, long hexangular prisms; _Taste_, sour and -slightly bitter. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is a bi-sulphate, consisting -of two proportionals of acid, and one proportional of base. SOLUBILITY. -It is soluble in twice its weight of water, as well as in alcohol. MED. -USES. It affords a convenient mode of exhibiting sulphuric acid combined -with a saline purgative, in a solid form; as it is more soluble, so is -it more active than the sulphate. DOSE, grs. x to ʒij. It forms a -grateful adjunct to rhubarb. See _Form. 85._ - - - POTASSÆ SULPHURETUM. L.E. - - SULPHURETUM KALI. D. - - _Kali Sulphuretum_, P.L. 1787. _Hepar Sulphuris._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a hard brittle mass; _Colour_, liver brown, hence the -old name of _hepar_; _Taste_, acrid and bitter; _Odour_, none when dry, -but if moistened, it yields the stench of sulphuretted hydrogen. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. I consider this substance as a mixture of Sulphate -of Potass, with variable quantities of Sulphuret and Bi-Sulphuret of -Potassium.[612] INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. It is instantly decomposed by -water, the oxygen of which forms Potass with the Potassium; while its -hydrogen, combining with the sulphur, produces Sulphuretted hydrogen, -part of which escapes, and another part forms, with the excess of -Sulphur, Bi-Sulphuretted hydrogen; this latter body uniting with the -base, produces what has been termed an _Hydroguretted Sulphuret_, but -which might be more properly called an _Hydro-bi-Sulphuret_; upon adding -an acid to the solution, a quantity of Sulphur is thrown down, -Sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved, and a salt of Potass remains in -solution. Metallic salts also decompose it, the metal falling down as a -Sulphuret, or Hydro-sulphuret. MEDICINAL USES. It presents us with a -form in which sulphur is soluble in water; it is diaphoretic, and has -been found advantageous in cutaneous affections, (_Form. 118_,) and in -arthritic and rheumatic complaints; while, from its known chemical -action on metallic salts, it has been proposed as an antidote to such -poisons. Its solution has been lately recommended as a lotion for the -itch of infants, and in some cases it has been known to succeed after -the sulphur ointment had failed.[613] - - - POTASSÆ SUPER-TARTRAS. L.E. - - TARTARUM CRYSTALLI. E. - - _Super-Tartrate of Potass._ _Crystals of Tartar._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, small irregular brittle crystals, which when reduced -to powder are termed _cream of tartar_. _Taste_, harsh and acid. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is a _bi-tartrate_, consisting of two -proportionals of acid and one proportional of potass. _Solubility._ It -requires 120 parts of water at 60°, and 30 parts at 212°, for its -solution; it is slightly soluble in alcohol. The watery solution of this -salt was first observed by Berthollet to undergo a spontaneous -decomposition by keeping, during which a mucous matter is deposited, and -there remains a solution of carbonate of potass coloured with a little -oil. It has long been regarded a pharmaceutical desideratum to increase -the solubility of _cream of tartar_; Vogel discovered that it might be -accomplished by combining it with boracic acid, and accordingly a -formula has been introduced into the Codex Medicamentarius of Paris, for -preparing a “_Tartras Acidulus Potassæ Solubilis, admixto Acido -Boracico_.” The following is the process. Let thirty parts of boracic -acid, and twenty parts of distilled water be heated together in a silver -dish; as soon as this has been effected, add, in divided portions, 120 -parts of super-tartrate of potass, taking care to shake the mixture -continually; the whole will soon liquefy, (“_mire liquescent_,”) and by -continuing the heat, a pulverulent mass will result. As it is extremely -deliquescent it must be carefully preserved from the contact of the air; -it dissolves in its own weight of water at 55°, and in half its weight -at 212°. It is probable that the result is a new salt, in which the -boracic and tartaric acids exist in combination,[614] but grant even -that the chemical identity of the super-tartrate is preserved inviolate -in the compound, I would ask what medical advantage can possibly attend -the discovery? The peculiar value of cream of tartar depends doubtless -upon its comparative insolubility, as I have already stated at page 173; -modify this, and you will instantly change the medicinal effects of the -salt; for like the neutral tartrate it will act upon the bowels, and -therefore cease to undergo those changes _in transitu_ which are -essential to its characteristic operation. Alum also has been observed -by Berthollet to have in some measure the same effect in increasing the -solubility of cream of tartar. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Alkalies_ and -_alkaline earths_; the _mineral acids_, &c. MED. USES. In doses of ʒiv -to ʒvj, it acts as a hydragogue cathartic, producing a considerable -discharge of serous fluid into the intestines; when however it is often -repeated, it is liable to occasion debility of the digestive organs, and -consequent emaciation: in smaller doses it acts as a diuretic. (_Form. -112._) ʒj in oj of boiling water, flavoured with lemon peel and sugar, -forms when cool an agreeable beverage well known by the name of -_Imperial_. A _Cream of Tartar Whey_ may be made, by adding to a pint of -milk (when it begins to boil) ʒij of _Cream of Tartar_; the pan must -then be removed from the fire, the whole suffered to cool, and the -_whey_ separated from the curd by straining; this whey, diluted with -warm water, furnishes an excellent drink in Dropsy. As it decomposes the -carbonate of potass, the union of these salts will afford a very -pleasant purgative draught. (_Form. 82._) OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Pulv. -Jalap. comp._ E. (=BM=) _Pulv. Scammon_. E. _Pulv. Sennæ comp._ L. -_Ferrum Tartarizatum_, L. (=I=) _Antimonium Tartarizatum_ L.E. D. (_I_) -_Soda Tartarizata_, L.E.D. (=I=) ADULTERATIONS. Super-sulphate of potass -(_Sal Enixum_,) is the substance with which tartar is usually -adulterated; it may be detected by its superior solubility, and by the -solution affording with muriate of baryta a precipitate insoluble in -muriatic acid.[615] - - - POTASSÆ TARTRAS. L. TARTRAS POTASSÆ. - - Olim, Tartarum Solubile. E. TARTRAS KALI. D. - - _Kali Tartarizatum._ P.L. 1787. - - _Tartarum Solubile_. P.L. 1745. - -QUALITIES. _Form_; this salt, although ordered to be crystallized, is -generally kept in its granular form. _Taste_, bitter and cool. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. It consists of one proportional of acid, and one -proportional of base. SOLUBILITY. When in its crystalline form it is -soluble in its own weight of water, but in its ordinary granular form, 4 -parts are required for its solution; hence, compared with the insoluble -super-tartrate, it has justly acquired the name of _soluble_ tartar; -when long kept in solution, its acid is decomposed, and its alkali -remains in a state of a _sub-carbonate_. It is also readily soluble in -alcohol. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Magnesia_, _baryta_, and _lime_; -_acetate_ and _sub-acetate of lead_, and _nitrate of silver_ decompose -it. All acids, even the _carbonic_,[616] and _acidulous salts_, -_tamarinds_, and other _sub-acid vegetables_, by neutralizing a -proportion of the base, convert it into the state of super-tartrate; -this fact offers another illustration of the chemical law of affinity, -explained under the head of _sulphate of potass_. The practitioner -should bear this in his recollection, for I have frequently seen a dose -of _soluble tartar_ directed in the acidulated _infusion of roses_; the -result was of course very different from that which the author of the -prescription intended to produce. MED. USES. It is a mild and efficient -purgative, and forms a very valuable adjunct to resinous purgatives or -to senna, the griping properties of which it corrects by accelerating -their operation. _Form. 70._ DOSE, ʒj to ℥j, in solution. - - - PULVERES. L.E.D. _Powders._ - -For the administration and advantages of this form of preparation, see -page 190. The following Officinal Formulæ offer some valuable -combinations. - -PULVIS ALOES COMPOSITUS. L. Pulvis Aloes cum Guaiaco. D. It consists of -aloes _three parts_, guaiacum _two_ (=G=), and compound powder of -cinnamon _one part_ (=O=). It combines sudorific and purgative effects. -_Dose_, grs. x to ℈j. See _Form. 80_. - -PULVIS ALOES CUM CANELLA. D. and P.L. 1807. Aloes _four parts_, white -canella (=E=) _one part_. It is known in the shops by the name of _Hiera -Picra_. The compound is more adapted for the form of pills than that of -powder. It is very generally used by the lower classes, infused in gin. -_Dose_, grs. x to ℈j. - -PULVIS ANTIMONIALIS. L.D. Oxidum Antimonii cum phosphate Calcis. E. This -preparation was introduced into the Pharmacopœia, as the succedaneum of -the celebrated _fever powder of Dr. James_, the composition of which was -ascertained by Dr. George Pearson. (_Phil. Trans._ lxxxi. 317.) It -consists of 43 parts of the phosphate of lime, mixed, or perhaps -chemically combined, with 57 parts of oxide of antimony, of which a -portion is vitrified; and it is probable, that the difference of the two -remedies depends principally upon the quantity of oxide which is -vitrified: the specification of the original medicine is worded with all -the ambiguity of an ancient oracle, and cannot be prepared by the -process as it is described.[617] Experience has established the fact, -that _James’s Powder_ is less active than its imitation; it affects the -bowels and stomach very slightly, and passes off more readily by -perspiration; in general however the difference is so inconsiderable, -that we need not regret the want of the original receipt.[618] As it is -quite insoluble in water, it should be given in powder, or made into -pills. It is diaphoretic, alterative, emetic, or purgative, according to -the extent of the dose and the state of the patient; in combination it -offers several valuable resources to the intelligent practitioner. (See -_Form. 119, 121, 125, 129, 134_.) But it may be fairly questioned -whether this remedy has not been far too highly appreciated. Dr. James -was certainly very successful in its use, but it must not be forgotten -that he usually combined it with some mercurial, and always followed it -up with large doses of bark. - -PULVIS CINNAMOMI COMPOSITUS. L. Cinnamon bark _four_, cardamom seeds -(=B=) _three_, ginger root (=B=) _two_, long pepper (=B=) _one part_. It -is principally used to give warmth to other preparations, e. g. _Pulv. -Aloes. comp_. L.D. - -PULVIS CONTRAYERVÆ COMPOSITUS. L. Contrayerva, _five_, prepared shells, -_eighteen parts_ (=M=). Dose, grs. x. to xl. It is said to be stimulant -and diaphoretic. - -PULVIS CORNU USTI CUM OPIO. L. Opium _one part_, burnt hartshorn -_eight_, powdered cochineal _one part_. Ten grains contain one of opium. - -PULVIS CRETÆ COMPOSITUS. Prepared chalk twelve parts, tormentil root -(=G=), acacia gum (=M=), of each _six_, cinnamon bark _eight_ (=E=), -long pepper (=E=) _one part_. It is antacid, astringent, and -carminative. _Dose_, grs. v to ℈j. - -PULVIS CRETÆ COMPOSITUS CUM OPIO. L. Compound powder of chalk -_thirty-nine parts_, opium _one part_. _Form. 151._ - -Pulvis Ipecacuanhæ Compositus. L.E.D. Ipecacuan _one part_, opium (=H=) -_one part_, sulphate of potass (=M=) _eight parts_. This combination has -been long established in practice, as a valuable sudorific, under the -name of _Dover’s Powder_. It affords one of the best examples of the -power which one medicine possesses of so changing the action of another, -as to produce a remedy of new properties; in this combination the opium -is so modified, that it may be given with perfect safety and advantage -in inflammatory affections accompanied with increased vascular action: -it would seem that whilst the opium increases the force of the -circulation, the ipecacuan relaxes the exhalant vessels, and causes a -copious diaphoresis: the sulphate of potass is also an important -ingredient, for experience has fully proved that ipecacuan and opium, in -the same proportions, have not so powerful an effect without it; its -action must be purely mechanical, dividing and mixing the active -particles more intimately, and it appears that the success of the remedy -depends very much upon its being finely powdered. _Dose_, grs. v. to ℈j, -diffused in gruel, or in the form of a bolus. (See _Form. 120, 121, -122_.) The saline constituent in the original _Dover’s Powder_, was the -result of the deflagration of nitre, and was therefore deliquescent; its -dose was as much as from 40 to 70 grains. In the _Codex_ of Paris, this -compound is directed to be prepared by melting together _four parts_ of -sulphate of potass, with an equal proportion of nitrate of potass; to -which when nearly cold is to be added, and well mixed by triture, _one -part_ of pulverized extract of opium; the powders of ipecacuan and -liquorice root, of each _one part_, are to be added last. It is evident -that the proportions of opium and ipecacuan in this combination, are -less than those in ours, and yet it is said to be more powerfully -diaphoretic on account of the nitre. An arrangement, which is indebted -for its medicinal virtue to a similar mode of operation, is presented in -_Form. 130_. - -PULVIS SCAMMONIÆ COMPOSITUS. L. Scammony and hard extract of jalap, of -each _four parts_, ginger root (=E=) _one part_. The Edinburgh -preparation of the same name differs very materially in composition, its -ingredients being scammony and cream of tartar in _equal parts_. - -PULVIS TRAGACANTHÆ COMPOSITUS. L. Powdered Tragacanth, acacia gum, and -starch, of each _one part_; refined sugar, _two parts_. From what has -been already stated under the head of mucilage of tragacanth, it appears -to be a superfluous, if not an injudicious demulcent; and since starch -is insoluble in cold water, the object for introducing it is not very -obvious. _Form. 120._ - -Powders should be preserved in opaque green bottles, as they are -materially affected by the action of light and air. Many of the compound -ones should be considered as extemporaneous, and ought to be prepared -only when they are required. The practitioner is also cautioned against -purchasing any medicine in its powdered form, for so universal is the -system of adulteration, that regular formulæ are observed in the -wholesale houses for sophisticating powders, and Mr. Gray, in his -“_Supplement to the Pharmacopœias_,” has given several specimens, under -the title of “_Pulveres Reducti_.” - - - PYRETHRI RADIX. L.E.D. - - (Anthemis Pyrethrum. _Radix._) - - _Pellitory Root._ - -QUALITIES. The dried root is inodorous, but upon being chewed, it soon -produces a pungent and peculiar sensation. SOLUBILITY. Alcohol, æther, -and boiling water extract its virtues. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. _M. -Gautier_ has lately shewn that the peculiar pungency of the root depends -on a fixed oil, which resides in vesicles in the bark. MED. USES. As a -sialagogue, especially in cases of tooth-ache, and in paralysis of the -tongue and muscles of the throat. (_Form. 143._) It also constitutes the -basis of a very valuable gargle, in use at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, -for relaxation of the uvula and soft palate, as well as in certain cases -of deafness depending upon an enlarged state of the tonsils. It is made -by boiling ℥ss of the bruised root in oj of distilled water, until the -fluid is reduced to one half; to which, when strained and cold, fʒij of -_Liquor Ammoniæ_ are to be added. - - - PYROLA UMBELLATA.[619] _Ground Holly._ - -Although this plant has not yet found its way into the materia medica of -the Pharmacopœia, its credited virtues entitle it to some notice in the -present work. It was first brought into repute in this country by Dr. -Somerville (_Med: Chirug: Trans: Vol. 5_). It is bitter, and consists of -Resin, gum-resin, tannin, and bitter extractive. Alcohol and proof -spirit are its best menstrua, but the watery infusion appears to contain -all the virtues of the plant. MED. USES. It is said to be diuretic, -tonic, and deobstruent; there is, however, no evidence to shew that it -acts, specifically, on any other than the urinary organs. Dr. Ives, in -the American edition of the present work, says, that as a diuretic -medicine it has unquestionable merit, and that it will frequently -mitigate symptoms of gravel, and strangury proceeding from other causes; -he does not, however, agree with Dr. Barton, in considering it -_Antilithic_. He has also given it, alternately with the _Uva Ursi_, in -hæmaturia; the effects of severe and long continued gonorrhœal -inflammation, with the most obvious benefit, and he considers it very -analogous in its operation to the _Uva Ursi_. In some instances it has -appeared to afford great relief in chronic cutaneous diseases. Further -observation is necessary to define the mode and extent of its medicinal -operation, but there is no hazard in saying that it is a medicine -possessing considerable activity. Dr. Barton observes that this plant, -like Uva Ursi, occasionally imparts a black tinge to the urine. DOSE ʒi -to ʒij of the tincture; f℥ij to f℥iv of the infusion, prepared by -pouring a pint of boiling water upon ℥j of the stalks and leaves. - - - QUASSIA. L.E.D. (Quassia Excelsa. _Lignum._) - - _Quassia._ - -This wood owes all its properties to a peculiar bitter principle, which -has been examined by Dr. Thomson and named _Quassin_; it is solid, -slightly transparent, and of a yellowish-brown colour. (_See Infusum -Quassiæ_.) It is said to owe its name to a West Indian negro, called -Quassi, who first used it in fevers. - - - QUERCUS CORTEX. L.E.D. - - (Quercus Pedunculata. _Cortex._) - - _Oak Bark._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, none; _taste_, rough and astringent. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. We are indebted to Sir H. Davy for a knowledge of this -subject; he found that an ounce of the inner cortical part of young oak -bark afforded by lixivation 111 grains of solid matter, of which 77 were -_tannin_; and the cellular integument, or middle-coloured part, only -yielded 43 grains of solid matter, of which 19 were _tannin_; and the -epidermis furnished scarcely any quantity of _tannin_ or extractive; -hence the bark should be selected from the smaller branches of the oak -where the epidermis is still thin. Experience has, moreover, shewn that -the quantity of _tannin_ varies considerably, not only according to the -age and size of the trees, but according to the season at which they are -_barked_; thus, the bark cut in spring contains, according to -_Beguin_,[620] four times more of the astringent principle, than that -which is obtained in winter. MED. USES. All its properties depend upon -the presence of _tannin_, it is therefore only valuable as a powerful -astringent; it is accordingly employed to check inordinate discharges, -see _Decoctum Quercus_. Oak bark is sometimes administered in the form -of powder, combined with ginger and other aromatics, and bitters, for -the cure of intermittents, and it has frequently succeeded, but see page -167. Dose, ℈j to ʒss. In the form of poultice this powder is said to -have proved highly useful to gangrenous sores. Its inhalation has also -been supposed to prove beneficial in consumption; a striking case is -related by Dr. Eberle of a man who had laboured under the usual symptoms -of confirmed Phthisis, and who, at the time he went to grind in a -bark-mill, was extremely weak and emaciated; in a short time, however, -the cough, night sweats, and other hectic symptoms, began to abate -sensibly, and in less than three months he was perfectly restored to -health. - - - RHEI RADIX. L.E.D. _Rhubarb._[621] - -Two varieties of this root are known in the shops, viz. _Turkey_ or -_Russian_, and _East Indian_ or _Chinese_. - - - 1. TURKEY or RUSSIAN. (_Rheum Palmatum._) - -QUALITIES. _Form_, small round pieces, rather compact and heavy, -perforated in the middle; _Colour_, lively yellow with streaks of white; -it is easily pulverized, affording a powder of a bright buff-yellow -colour. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Gum, resin, extractive, tannin, gallic -acid, and a peculiar colouring matter, with traces of alumina and silex; -the white or flesh-coloured streaks pervading its substance, consist of -sulphate and oxalate of lime: according to the experiments of Mr. John -Henderson, there is besides a peculiar vegetable acid, to which he has -given the name of _Rheumic_ acid, but M. de Lassaignes has -satisfactorily proved that this is no other than the oxalic acid: the -purgative powers of the root appear to be intimately connected with its -extractive and resinous elements, but the subject is still involved in -considerable obscurity. SOLUBILITY. Water at 212° takes up 24 parts in -60, see _Infusum Rhei:_ by decoction, its purgative qualities are lost, -and it becomes more bitter and astringent; alcohol extracts 2·7 from 10 -parts, (see _Tinct. Rhei_.) MED. USES. In this substance, Nature -presents us with a singular and most important combination of medicinal -powers, that of an astringent, with a cathartic property; the former of -which never opposes or interferes with the energy of the latter, since -it only takes effect when the substance is administered in small doses, -or if given in larger ones, not until it has ceased to operate as a -cathartic; this latter circumstance renders it particularly eligible in -cases of diarrhœa, as it evacuates the offending matter before it -operates as an astringent upon the bowels. It seems to act more -immediately upon the stomach and small intestines, and therefore in -relaxed and debilitated states of these organs, it will prove an easy -and valuable resource; it may, for such an object, be exhibited in -conjunction with alkalies, bitters, and other tonics. Its cathartic -property is most efficient when given in substance. It was formerly -supposed that by toasting rhubarb we increased its astringency, but this -process merely diminishes its purgative force, so that a larger dose may -be taken. The colouring matter of rhubarb may be detected in the urine -of persons to whom it has been exhibited; it does not however appear to -possess any specific powers as a diuretic. DOSE, grs. vj to x as a -tonic; ℈j to ʒss as a purgative; the operation of which is considerably -quickened by the addition of neutral salts; the super-sulphate of potass -forms also a very useful adjunct, and its acidulous taste completely -covers that of the rhubarb. _Form. 83, 85._ Its powder, when sprinkled -upon ulcers, is found to promote their healthy granulation. OFF. PREP. -_Infus: Rhei_. L.E. _Vinum Rhei Palmati_. E. _Tinct. Rhei_. L.E.D. -_Tinct. Rhei. comp_. L. _Tinct. Rhei cum Alöe_. E. _Tinct. Rhei cum -Gentian_. E. _Pil. Rhei comp_. E. - -2. EAST INDIAN, OR CHINESE. (_Rheum Undulatum?_)[622] - -QUALITIES. _Form_, long pieces, sometimes flat, as if they had been -compressed; they are heavier, harder, and more compact than those of the -preceding species, and are seldom perforated with holes; _Odour_, -stronger; _Taste_, more nauseous; white streaks less numerous, and they -afford a powder of a redder shade than those of _Turkey_ rhubarb. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It differs from the _Turkey_ in containing less -tannin and resin, and according to the experiments of Mr. A. T. Thomson, -less oxalate of lime, in the ratio of 18 to 26. It contains however more -extractive and gallic acid. SOLUBILITY. Water takes up one half of its -weight, but the infusion, although more turbid, is not so deep coloured -as that of Russian rhubarb; alcohol extracts 4 parts in 10. It habitudes -with acids, alkalies, and neutral salts, differ likewise from those of -the Russian variety, as Mr. A. T. Thomson has exhibited in a very -satisfactory manner. (_London Dispensatory, Edit. 3, p. 474._) -ADULTERATIONS. The inferior kinds of _Russian_, _East Indian_, and even -_English_ rhubarb, are artfully dressed up and sold under the name of -Turkey rhubarb. I am well informed that a number of persons in this -town, known in the trade by the name of _Russifiers_, gain a regular -livelihood by the art of dressing this article, by boring, rasping, and -then colouring the inferior kinds; for which they charge at the rate of -eighteen-pence per pound. The general indications of good rhubarb are, -its whitish or clear yellow colour, and its possessing the other -characteristic properties as above mentioned; it ought also to possess -in an eminent degree the peculiar odour, for when this is dissipated, -the powers of the medicine are nearly destroyed. In the form of powder, -rhubarb is always more or less mixed with foreign matter; the detection -of which can be alone effected by a trial of its efficacy. - - - RICINI[623] OLEUM. L.E.D. (_Ricinus Communis._) - - _Castor[624] Oil._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a viscid and colourless, or pale straw-coloured oil; -it is nearly inodorous, but on being swallowed, excites a slight -sensation of acrimony in the throat. It has all the chemical habitudes -of the other expressed oils, except those which relate to its solubility -in alcoholic and ethereal menstrua. MED. USES. It is mildly cathartic, -and is particularly eligible in cases where stimulating purgatives would -prove hurtful, but in obstinate constipation, where copious evacuations -are required, this oil cannot be trusted, it will insinuate itself -through the intestinal canal, bringing with it a small portion of the -more fluid contents, but leaving behind it the collection of indurated -fæces. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. The most efficacious mode of administering -it is by floating it upon tincture of senna, or peppermint water, or -some other similar vehicle; it is also sometimes given with success in -coffee or mutton broth, or suspended in water by the intervention of -mucilage, yelk of egg (_Form. 75_,) or by honey, which at the same time -contributes to its laxative operation: alkalies, although they form an -emulsion with it, convert it into a saponaceous compound, and impair its -cathartic force. DOSE, f℥ss to f℥iss. ADULTERATIONS. It is usually -adulterated with olive oil or poppy oil, and when to a considerable -extent, scammony is added to quicken its operation. There is however a -peculiarity in castor oil which serves to distinguish it from every -other fixed oil, viz. its great solubility in rectified spirit; for -instance, f℥iv of alcohol of ·820 will mix uniformly with any proportion -of castor oil, whereas it will not dissolve more than fʒj of _Linseed -Oil_; and a still less proportion of the expressed oils of almonds and -of olives; when the spirit is diluted, its action on all these oils is -equally diminished, so that _common spirit of wine_ has but little power -even over castor oil; but here chemistry again interposes its aid, for -by the addition of camphor, in the proportion of one part to eight of -spirit, spirit of ·840 is enabled to dissolve castor oil, whilst it has -no influence upon the other fixed oils; castor oil is also soluble in -any proportion, in sulphuric æther of the specific gravity ·7563, while -four fluid-ounces of the same liquid will only dissolve a fluid-ounce -and a quarter of the expressed oil of _Almonds_; a fluid-ounce and a -half of that of _Olives_; and two fluid-ounces and a half of _Linseed -oil_. Vogel introduced a composition as a substitute for this oil, which -some practitioners have greatly extolled; it consisted of nine grains of -the extract of Jalap, and three grains of Venetian soap, triturated in a -mortar with an ounce and a half of Olive oil. - - - SABINÆ FOLIA. L. (Juniperus Sabina.) - - _Savine Leaves._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, heavy and disagreeable; _Taste_, bitter, hot, and -acrimonious. CHEM. COMP. Essential oil, which may be obtained by -distillation with water; fixed oil, bitter extractive, and resin. -SOLUBILITY. Both water and alcohol extract its active principles. MED. -USES. It possesses highly stimulating properties, and has been used as a -diaphoretic, anthelmintic, and emmenagogue. Rave, a German writer of -great respectability, speaks of its use in chronic rheumatism in the -highest terms; Alibert commends its anthelmintic powers, but its -reputation has principally rested upon its generally acknowledged -influence over the uterus. The testimony of Dr. Home of Edinburgh is -strong in favour of its emmenagogue powers, but the adverse opinion of -Dr. Cullen brought it into disrepute. It occasions a manifest flow of -blood to the uterus, but this is probably sympathetically produced by -its direct action on the large intestines; for if given in large doses -it occasions great heat in the primæ viæ, hæmorrhage, and inflammation -of the bowels. It is therefore inadmissible in all cases which are -attended with fever, or much vascular action. When amenorrhœa depends -upon a relaxed state of the general system, or on an inactive and torpid -condition of the uterine system, it may often be employed with -advantage. Wedekind, a German writer, extols it in the treatment of that -atonic or relaxed state of the uterus, attended with an unnatural -secretion and soft swelling of the uterus, which is sometimes met with -in women who have suffered much from repeated childbearing, and which is -so generally attended with a train of hysteric disturbances. Dr. Eberle -says that he has occasionally employed it in cases of Amenorrhœa, in -females of a relaxed habit of body; and although sometimes without -success, he has had sufficient evidence of its powers to establish its -claim to attention. In several cases, similar to those above stated, I -have employed the Savin with much success, but I have found it very -liable to disturb the stomach, and to produce head-ache. FORMS OF -EXHIBITION. Some practitioners have recommended that of powder, but it -is almost impossible to pulverize it without previously drying it at a -temperature which will dissipate the essential oil, upon which its -activity depends. The tincture affords a more convenient form, and a -compound tincture formerly occupied a place in the Pharmacopœia, but has -been abandoned. A decoction of an ounce of the leaves to a pint of -water, with the addition of syrup, has been also recommended; an -infusion, however, would be preferable. DOSE, of the powdered leaves -from grs. v to x; of the tincture fʒj; of the decoction f℥ss to f℥j. As -an external local stimulant, or escharotic, the dried leaves in powder -are applied to warts, flabby ulcers, and carious bones; and the -expressed juice diluted, or an infusion of the leaves, as a lotion to -gangrenous sores, scabies, and _tinea capitis_; or mixed with lard and -wax as an issue ointment. The German writers speak very highly of its -effects as a poultice to old and obstinate sores. OFFICINAL PREP. _Oleum -Volatile Juniperi Sabinæ_. E.D. (the dose of which is from one to three -minims.) _Extractum Sabinæ_. D. (a very inert preparation.) _Ceratum -Sabinæ_. L. - -The experiments of Orfila have shewn that Savine exerts a local action, -but that its effects depend principally on its absorption; through which -medium it acts on the nervous system, the rectum, and the stomach. It -still enjoys amongst the vulgar the reputation of being capable of -producing absorption. - - - SACCHARUM. L.E.D. _Sugar._[625] - -Sugar, as a pharmaceutical agent, is employed for accelerating the -pulverization of various resinous substances, and when exhibited with -the most acrid of them, it prevents their adhesion to the coats of the -intestines, by which they might irritate and inflame them; it is also -extensively used on account of its power in preserving animal[626] and -vegetable substances. (See _Conservæ_.) Milk boiled with fine sugar will -keep for a great length of time, and might be very conveniently employed -during a long voyage. Dr. Darwin also observes that fresh meat cut into -thin slices, either raw or boiled, might be preserved in coarse sugar or -treacle, and would furnish a very salutary and nourishing diet to our -sailors. Sugar exerts also some chemical affinities which are highly -interesting to the pharmaceutic chemist. Vogel has published a paper to -shew, that when sugar is boiled with various metallic oxides, and with -different metalline salts, it has the property of decomposing them; -sometimes reducing the oxide to the state of a metal, and at others -depriving the oxide only of one of the proportionals of oxygen; thus -_sulphate of copper_ and _nitrate of mercury_ are precipitated in a -metallic form, whilst _peroxide of mercury_ and _acetate of copper_ are -converted into protoxides; _corrosive_ sublimate is changed into -_calomel_, but _calomel_ is not susceptible of any further -decomposition. All those metallic salts which have the power of -decomposing water are not affected by sugar, as those of _iron_, _zinc_, -_tin_, and _manganese_. It appears, moreover, that sugar has the -property of rendering some of the Earths soluble in water. Sugar in -water, at the temperature of 50°, is capable of dissolving one half of -its weight of lime; the solution thus produced is of a beautiful -white-wine colour, and has the smell of fresh-slacked quick-lime. It is -precipitated from the solution by the _carbonic_, _citric_, _tartaric_, -_sulphuric_, and _oxalic_ acids; and it is decomposed, by double -affinity, by _caustic_ and _carbonated potass_ and _soda_, and by the -_citrate_, _tartrate_, and _oxalate of potass_, &c. The union of sugar -with the alkalies has been long known, and in the decomposition of the -solution of lime in sugar by the salts above mentioned, the acid unites -with the lime, and the alkaline base forms a compound with the sugar. - - - SAPO. L.E.D. _Soap._ - - - I. Durus. (_Hispanicus._) _Hard_, or Spanish Soap. - -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Oil 60·94, soda 8·56, water 30·50; the water is -partially dissipated by being kept, and the soap therefore becomes -lighter. Muriate of Soda is also an essential ingredient[627] of _hard_ -soap. SOLUBILITY. Water dissolves about one-third of its weight of -genuine soap, and forms a milky solution; alcohol also dissolves it, and -affords a solution nearly transparent, although somewhat -gelatinous.[628] INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. 1. All acids and acidulous -salts, which combine with the alkali, and develope the oil. 2. Earthy -salts, e. g. _Alum_; _muriate_ and _sulphate of lime_; _sulphate of -magnesia_. 3. Metallic salts. _Nitrate of silver_; _ammoniated copper_; -_tincture of muriated iron_; _ammoniated iron_; _acetate_, -_sub-muriate_, and _oxy-muriate of mercury_; _sub-acetate of lead_;[629] -_tartarized iron_; _tartarized antimony_; _sulphate of zinc_, _copper -and iron_. 4. All astringent vegetables. 5. Hard water. MEDICINAL USES. -In large doses it is purgative; in smaller ones, it is decomposed _in -transitu_, and its alkali is carried to the kidneys; in this way it may -act as a lithonthriptic; or it may produce its effects by correcting any -acidity which may prevail in the _primæ viæ_, for the weakest acid is -capable of decomposing soap, and of uniting with its alkaline base; a -solution of soap in lime water was long regarded as one of the strongest -solvents of urinary calculi that could be administered with safety, but -the result of such a mixture is an insoluble soap of lime, and a -solution of soda; in habitual constipation, and in biliary obstructions, -it is frequently prescribed in conjunction with rhubarb, or some bitter; -in which cases it can only act as a laxative, or as a chemical agent, in -increasing the solubility of the substance with which it is united. It -has been also given in solution as an antidote to metallic poisons, and -it is often successfully injected as a clyster, in unrelenting and -habitual costiveness; as an external application, it is used in the form -of liniment, (see _Linimenta_.) Its pharmaceutical value, in forming -pill-masses, has already been considered (_page 196_), and the following -_formulæ_ afford examples of such an application, viz. 14, 80, 105, 118, -165. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Pil. Saponis cum Opio_. L. (=L=). _Pil. -Scillæ comp_. _L._ (=M=). _Pil. Aloet_. E. (=L=). _Pil. Aloes et -Assafœtidæ_. E. (=I=). _Pil. Aloes cum Zinzib_. D. (=L=). _Pil. -Colocynth. comp_. D. (=L=). _Emplast. Saponis_. L.E. _Ceratum Saponis_. -L. _Liniment. Saponis. comp_. L. _Liniment. Saponis cum Opio_. L. -ADULTERATIONS. Pulverized Lime, Gypsum, or Pipe clay, are sometimes -added; but the fraud is easily detected by solution in alcohol, when the -earthy matters fall down. - - - II. SAPO MOLLIS. _Soft Soap._ - -This differs from _hard_ soap chiefly in its consistence, which is never -greater than that of hog’s lard: it is transparent, yellowish, with -small seed-like lumps of tallow diffused through it; the alkali employed -for its formation is a ley of potass, instead of that of soda. - - - SARSAPARILLA. L.E.D. - - (Smilax Sarsaparilla. _Radix._) - - _Sarsaparilla._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, long and slender twigs, covered with a wrinkled brown -bark; _Odour_, none; _Taste_, mucilaginous and slightly bitter. CHEMICAL -COMP. Its virtues appear to reside in fecula; it also contains a very -large proportion of vegetable albumen. SOLUBILITY. It communicates its -active principle most completely to boiling water. (See _Decoct. -Sarsaparillæ_). MED. USES. According to Monardes, it was imported by the -Spaniards into Europe in 1549, as a specific remedy for the venereal -disease; but it soon fell into disrepute, and so continued until about -the middle of the last century, when it was again brought into esteem by -Hunter and Fordyce, as a medicine calculated to assist the operation of -mercury, as well as to cure those symptoms which may be called the -_sequelæ_ of a mercurial course. DOSE, of the powdered root ℈j to ʒj, -three times a day. In selecting the roots, it will be right to choose -such as are plump, not carious, nor too dusty on breaking; but rough, -and which easily split longitudinally. OFFICINAL PREP. _Decoctum -Sarsaparillæ_. L.E.D. _Decoct. Sarsaparillæ comp:_ L.D. _Extractum -Sarsaparillæ_. L. _Syrupus Sarsaparillæ_. L. There are several species -of _Carex_ which are substituted for Sarsaparilla. The _C. villosa_ -(German Sarsaparilla) is very commonly employed for this purpose. - - - SASSAFRAS. L.E.D. - - (Laurus Sassafras. _Lignum, Radix, et Cortex._) - - _The Wood, Root, and Bark of Sassafras._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, fragrant; _Taste_, sweet and aromatic. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. The qualities of this plant depend upon an essential oil -and resin. SOLUBILITY. Its active parts are soluble in water and -alcohol. MED. USES. It is said to be diaphoretic, and diuretic; and has -been employed in cases of scurvy, rheumatism, and in various cutaneous -affections; it also formerly enjoyed the reputation of being an -antisyphilitic remedy. Its powers are very questionable. OFFICINAL PREP. -_Oleum Sassafras_. L.E.D. _Decoct: Sarsaparillæ comp_. L.D. _Decoct: -Guaiae:_ L.E.D. _Aqua Calcis comp:_ D.[630] - - - SCAMMONIA. L.E.D. - - (Convolvulus Scammonia _Gummi-resina_.) - - SCAMMONIUM. D. _Scammony._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, blackish-grey cakes; _Taste_, bitter and sub-acrid; -_Odour_, heavy and peculiar; when rubbed with water, the surface lathers -or _lactifies_. _Specific gravity_ 1·235. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Resin is -the principal constituent; 16 parts of good _Aleppo_ Scammony yield 11 -parts of resin, and 3½ of watery extract. That from _Smyrna_ contains -not more than half the quantity of resin, but more extractive, and gum. -SOLUBILITY. Water, by trituration, takes up one-fourth, alcohol -two-thirds, and proof spirit dissolves all, except the impurities. -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. Neither acids, metallic salts, nor ammonia, -produce any change in its solutions, but the fixed alkalies occasion -yellow precipitates; and yet they do not appear to be _medicinally_ -incompatible with it; thus Gaubius, “_Scammoneum acidi commixtio[631] -reddit inertius; alcali fixum, contra, adjuvat_.” The mineral acids -appear to destroy a part of the substance, without in the least altering -the rest. The discrepancy which exists in authors respecting the power -of this drug, seems to have arisen from its operation being liable to -uncertainty, in consequence of peculiar states of the alimentary canal; -for instance, where the intestines are lined with an excess of mucus, it -passes through without producing any action, but where the natural mucus -is deficient, a small dose of scammony may irritate and even inflame the -bowels. In this latter case, my practice has been to administer the -purgative in a mucilaginous draught, or emulsion. MED. USES. It is an -efficacious and powerful cathartic, very eligible in worm cases, and in -the disordered state of the bowels which so commonly occurs in children. -DOSE, grs. iij to xv, in the form of powders triturated with sulphate of -potass, sugar, or almonds; when given alone, it is apt to irritate the -fauces; it may be also administered as a solution, effected by -triturating it with a strong decoction of liquorice, and straining. -(_Form. 78, 83._) OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Confect: Scammon:_ L.D. -_Pulv: Scammon: co._ L.E. _Extract: Colocynth: co._ L. (=F=) _Pulv. -Sennæ, co_. L.[632] (=F=) ADULTERATIONS. Two kinds of Scammony are -imported into this country, that from _Aleppo_, which is the best; and -that from _Smyrna_, which is more compact and ponderous, but less pure: -it is commonly mixed with the expressed juice of the _cynanchum -monspeliacum_; it is also sophisticated with _flour_, _sand_, and -_ashes_; their presence may be detected by dissolving the sample in -proof spirit, when the impurities will sink, and remain undissolved; -carbonate of lime is moreover frequently added to Scammony, in which -case the sample will effervesce in acids: there is however a compound -bearing the name of Scammony, to be met with in the market, which is -altogether factitious, consisting of jalap, senna, manna, gamboge, and -ivory black. Good Scammony ought to be friable, and when wetted with the -finger, it should _lactify_, or become milky: and the powder should -manifest its characteristic odour, which has been compared to that of -old ewe milk cheese. - - - SCILLÆ RADIX. L.E.D. (Scilla Maritima.) - - _Squill Root._ (Bulb.) - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, none; _Taste_, bitter, nauseous, and acrid; when -much handled, it inflames, and ulcerates the skin. By drying, the bulb -loses about four-fifths of its weight, and with very little diminution -of its powers, provided that too great a heat has not been applied. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. According to Vogel, gum 6—tannin 24—sugar 6—bitter -principle (_Scillitin_, which is white, transparent, and breaks with a -resinous fracture) 35—woody fibre 30. SOLUBILITY. Squill gives out its -virtues so perfectly to any of the ordinary menstrua, as to render the -form of its exhibition, in that respect, a matter of indifference. -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Alkalies_ diminish their acrimony and -bitterness, and are probably _medicinally_ inconsistent with their -diuretic qualities, but farther experiments are required to decide this -question: _vegetable acids_ produce no effect upon their sensible -qualities, but are said to increase their expectorant power. MED. USES. -According to the dose, and circumstances under which it is administered, -it proves expectorant, diuretic, emetic, or purgative; as an -expectorant, it can never be employed where pulmonary inflammation -exists, for in such cases, instead of promoting, it will check any -excretion from the lungs; its combination with a diaphoretic will -frequently increase its powers, and generally be a measure of judicious -caution. See _Form, 133, 134, 135, 139_. For the philosophy of its -action, the reader must refer to the classification of Expectorants, -page 102. As a diuretic, it seems to act by absorption, and we -accordingly find, on the authority of Dr. Cullen, that _when the squill -operates strongly on the stomach and intestines, its diuretic effects -are less likely to happen_; he therefore found that by accompanying it -with an opiate, (_Form. 100)_ the emetic and purgative operation may be -avoided, and the squill be thereby carried more entirely to the kidneys. -Experience, moreover, has taught us the value of combining this medicine -with some mercurial preparation, by which its diuretic powers are very -considerably augmented; and it has been farther stated, that such a -combination is particularly efficacious in Hydrothorax, especially when -it produces inflammation of the gums, and of the glands about the -throat, by which action it is supposed to cause a derivation from the -exhalants of the pleura, and thereby to diminish the dropsical effusion. -(_Form: 102, 103, 106, 107, 109, 112, 115_,) but we must take care that -the remedy does not occasion purging. In the exhibition of squill, it -has been often delivered as a rule, to give it to the extent necessary -to induce nausea, as affording a test of the medicine being in a state -of activity; such a state of the system, moreover, may assist the -absorption of the remedy. Dr. Home, in opposition to the opinion of -Cullen, maintained that the powers of Squill as a diuretic, were -increased by combining it with bodies capable of promoting its full -emetic operation: after what has been observed, however, it is -unnecessary to dwell upon the mischievious tendency of such a practice. -By referring to our tabular arrangement of Diuretics, page 102, the -reader will find that I consider its action upon the urinary organs to -depend upon its bitter principle (_Scillitin_) being developed, and -carried, by the medium of the circulation, to the secreting vessels of -the kidneys, which it thus stimulates by actual contact. As an emetic, -it has been advised in solution, in cases of hooping cough, but its -extreme uncertainty renders it unfit for exhibition, unless as an -adjunct to emetic combinations, as in _Form: 65_. _Plenck_ makes mention -of a child which had convulsions in consequence of taking some Squill. -DOSE. Of the dried root gr.; to iv. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Acetum -Scillæ._ L.E.D. _Pil: Scill: comp:_ L.E.D. _Pulv: Scill:_ E.D. _Syrup. -Scill: maritim:_ E. _Tinct: Scill:_ L.D. - - - SECALE CORNUTUM. - - (Spurred Rye, or Ergot of Rye.) - -[Various opinions have been entertained in relation to the nature of -Ergot. The most probable is that it is a parasitic fungus, attached to -several species of the gramina, but more especially to the rye. It is -generally found most abundant in moist situations and in wet seasons. -Its taste, at first scarcely perceptible, becomes shortly disagreeable -and sub-acrid. By the analysis of Vauquelin, the ergot has been -ascertained to contain, 1. A fawn-yellow colouring matter, soluble in -alcohol, and having a taste resembling that of fish oil. 2. A white oily -matter, of a sweetish taste, which appears to be very abundant. 3. A -violet colouring principle, of the same shade as that of orchil, but -differing from it by its solubility in alcohol, and which can be readily -fixed on aluminated wool and silk. 4. A free acid, supposed to be partly -phosphoric. 5. A very abundant vegeto-animal substance, much disposed to -putrefaction, and which furnishes a considerable quantity of thick oil -and of ammonia by distillation. 6. A small quantity of free ammonia, -which can be obtained at the temperature of boiling water. As a -medicinal substance, ergot exerts a specific effect upon the uterus, and -is very generally used in this country for the purpose of facilitating -the process of parturition. From the powerful effects produced by the -ergot, it is obvious that it should be used with much caution. Dr. -Stearns, to whom the profession is indebted for the first introduction -of this article into practice, and who must be considered as our highest -authority on this subject, has laid down the following rules by which -its administration should be regulated: 1. It should never be -administered where nature is competent to a safe delivery. 2. It should -never be administered until the regular pains have ceased, or are -ineffectual, and there is danger to be apprehended from delay. 3. It -should never be administered until the rigidity of the os tincæ has -subsided, and a perfect relaxation has been induced. 4. It should never -be administered in the incipient stages of labour, nor until the os -tincæ is dilated to the size of a dollar. 5. It should never be -administered in any case of preternatural presentation that will require -the fœtus to be turned. 6. It should never be administered during the -continuance of one labour, in larger quantities than thirty grains by -decoction in half a pint of water. A table spoonful of this given every -ten minutes, generally succeeds better than a larger dose. While this -quantity produces its most favourable effects upon the uterus, it does -not affect the stomach with nausea or vomiting, which sometimes -interrupts its successful operation. - -The ergot is indicated, and may be administered, 1. When, in lingering -labours, the child has descended into the pelvis, the parts dilated and -relaxed, the pains having ceased, or being too ineffectual to advance -the labour, there is danger to be apprehended from delay, by exhaustion -of strength and vital energy, from hemorrhage or other alarming -symptoms. 2. When the pains are transferred from the uterus to other -parts of the body, or to the whole muscular system, producing general -puerperal convulsions. After premising copious bleeding, the ergot -concentrates all these misplaced labour-pains upon the uterus, which it -soon restores to its appropriate action, and the convulsions immediately -cease. 3. When in the early stages of pregnancy, abortion becomes -inevitable, accompanied with profuse hemorrhage and feeble uterine -contractions. 4. When the placenta as retained from a deficiency of -contractions. 5. In patients liable to hemorrhage immediately after -delivery. In such cases the ergot may be given as a preventive, a few -minutes before the termination of the labour. 6. When the hemorrhage or -lochial discharges are too profuse immediately after delivery, and the -uterus continues dilated and relaxed without any ability to contract.] - - - SENEGÆ RADIX. L.E.D. - - (Polygala Senega.) _Radix._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, the dried root is internally white; externally it is -covered with a brownish grey, corrugated, transversely cracked cuticle. -_Odour_, none. _Taste_, at first sweetish, but afterwards hot and -pungent, producing a very peculiar tingling sensation in the fauces. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Its virtues reside in resin. SOLUBILITY. Alcohol -extracts the whole of its active matter; hot water only partially. -MEDICINAL USES. As a stimulant; but it is rarely used. In America it is -used against the bite of the rattlesnake.[633] OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. -_Decoctum Senegæ_. L.E. - - - SENNÆ FOLIA. L.E.D. (Cassia Senna.) - - _Senna Leaves._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, faint and sickly; _Taste_, slightly bitter, -sweetish, and nauseous. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Extractive, resin, -mucilage, and saline matter; it contains within itself a purgative -principle and a bitter element; and although the latter is _per se_ -inert, yet in combination, its presence aids and exalts the efficacy of -the former. M. M. Lassaigne and Fenuelle have lately announced the fact -of their having procured the purgative principle of Senna in a separate -form, and to which they have given the name of _Cathartine_. It is said -to be an uncrystallizable substance, of a reddish-yellow colour, and of -a particular smell, and bitter nauseous taste, soluble in alcohol and -water, in all proportions; but farther experiments are required upon -this subject. SOLUBILITY. Both water and spirit extract the virtues of -Senna; to water and proof spirit the leaves communicate a brownish -colour, more or less deep according to the proportions employed; to -rectified spirit they impart a fine green colour. The powdered leaves of -senna are very apt to undergo a change by exposure to a humid -atmosphere, becoming covered with a kind of mouldiness which contains a -small proportion of potass. MEDICINAL USES. See _Infus: Sennæ_. -OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Confectio Sennæ_;, L.E.D. _Extract: Cassiæ -Sennæ. E. Infus: Sennæ._ L.D. _Infus: Tamarind: cum Senna._ E.D. _Pulv. -Sennæ comp:_ L. _Tinct: Sennæ._ L.D. _Tinct: Sennæ comp:_ E. _Syrup: -Sennæ._ L.D. ADULTERATIONS. The leaves of Senna are imported from -Alexandria in a state of adulteration, being mixed by the merchants of -Cairo with the leaves of _Cynanchum Oleafolium_, (Arguel) and with those -of _Colutea Arborescens_; the former are distinguished by their greater -length as well as by their structure, which differs from the leaves of -Senna in having a straight side, and being regular at their base, and in -not displaying any lateral nerves on the under disk; the latter are so -different from Senna leaves, that there is no difficulty in at once -recognising them. The _Tripoli Senna_ contains a much larger proportion -of _Cynanchum_, and of the other adulterations; as a general rule, those -leaves which appear bright, fresh, free from stalks and spots, that are -well and strongly scented, smooth and soft to the touch, thoroughly dry, -sharp pointed, bitterish, and somewhat nauseous, are to be preferred. - - - SERPENTARIÆ RADIX. L.D. - - (Aristolochia Serpentaria, _Radix._) - - _Serpentaria Root._ _Virginian Snake root, or Birthwort._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, of the dried root, aromatic, and somewhat resembling -that of Valerian; _Taste_, pungent and warm, with a degree of -bitterness, not very unlike that of camphor, or of the _pinus -canadensis_. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Resin and an essential oil constitute -its active ingredients. SOLUBILITY. Its virtues are extracted by water, -as well as by alcohol. The tincture has a bright green colour, which is -rendered turbid by water. It neither affects Tannin nor Gelatine, nor -does it precipitate the salts of iron. MEDICINAL USES. It has been -regarded as serviceable in cases that required the combined powers of a -diaphoretic and tonic, as in some of the stages of typhus and other low -fevers; it has also been found to exalt the febrifuge powers of the bark -in cases of protracted intermittents. It is likewise valued on account -of its efficacy in certain cases of dyspepsia, attended with a dry skin. -Its stimulating properties will of course prevent its application in the -inflammatory diathesis. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In substance, or in an -infusion, made by macerating ʒiv of the bruised root in f℥xij of boiling -water in a covered vessel for two hours, and straining. Decoction will -necessarily dissipate its essential oil, and impair its powers; whenever -therefore it is directed in combinations which require this process, it -should not be added until after the other ingredients have been boiled, -as illustrated by _Form: 40_. DOSE, of the powdered root ℈j to ʒss or -more; of the infusion f℥j-f℥ij. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Tinct: -Serpentariæ._ L.E.D.[634] _Tinct: Cinchonæ comp:_ L.D. _Electuarium -Opiatum._ E. - -The roots of the _Collinsonia præcox_ are frequently found mixed with -those of Serpentaria in the market. - - - SIMAROUBÆ CORTEX. L.E.D. - - (Quassia Simarouba _Cortex_.) - - _Simarouba Bark._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, long pieces a few inches in breadth, and folded -lengthwise; fibrous, rough, and scaly; and, when fresh, of a pale yellow -colour on the inside. _Odour_, none; _Taste_, bitter, without any -astringency. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Its virtues are principally connected -with extractive matter; it does not contain any tannin or gallic acid. -SOLUBILITY. Alcohol and water take up all its active matter. MEDICINAL -USES. It has been considered tonic, and has been used with advantage as -such in intermittent fevers. To _Dr. Wright_ we are principally indebted -for a knowledge of its powers. It has been much commended in the latter -stages of dysentery, after the fever has abated, and the tenesmus -continues with a sinking pulse. Alibert says that it has been used with -much success at the hospital of St. Louis, in diarrhœa, following -scurvy, and intermittent fever. DOSE, ℈i to ʒss, but it is more -conveniently given in the form of infusion, which see. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Infus: Simaroubæ._ L. - -The Dublin college has admitted the wood of this tree into their materia -medica, but it is perfectly inert. - - - SINAPIS SEMINA. - - (_Sinapis Nigra._ L. _Alba._ E.D.) - - _Mustard Seeds._ - -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Fecula, mucilage, an acrid volatile oil on which -their virtues depend, and which on standing deposits a quantity of -sulphur, a bland fixed oil, which considerably obtunds the acrimony of -the former constituent;[635] and an ammoniacal salt. SOLUBILITY. -Unbruised mustard seeds, when macerated in boiling water, yield only an -insipid mucilage, which like that of linseed, resides in the skin; but -when bruised, water takes up all the active matter, although it is -scarcely imparted to alcohol. MEDICINAL USES. It is a beneficial -stimulant in dyspepsia; chlorosis, and paralysis; for which purpose, a -tea spoonful of the bruised seeds may be administered; or a _whey_ may -be made, by boiling a table spoonful of the bruised seeds in oj of milk, -and straining; of which a fourth part may be taken three times a day, -(see _Form._ 46.) or it may be given in infusion. (_Form. 45._) The -farina made into a paste with crumbs of bread and vinegar, affords one -of the most powerful external stimulants which we can apply, and is -technically termed a _Sinapism_; it produces intense pain, and excites -an inflammation entering much more into the true skin than that which is -excited by the Lyttæ; it is therefore worthy attention in all internal -inflammations where bleeding is limited: if necessary it may be -quickened by the addition of oil of turpentine. If a table spoonful of -powdered mustard be added to oj of tepid water, it operates briskly as -an emetic. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Cataplasm: Sinap_. L.D. _Emplast: -Meloes com:_ E.[636] (_B_) _Infusum Armoraciæ comp:_ L. (=B=) -ADULTERATIONS. Fine powder, or flower of mustard, as it occurs in -commerce, contains only one-sixth part of genuine mustard, the remainder -consists of flour, coloured by turmeric, and made pungent by the -addition of powdered capsicum. - - -SODA TARTARIZATA. L. TARTRAS SODÆ ET POTASSÆ. E. TARTARUS SODÆ ET KALI. -D. olim. _Sal de Seignette._ _Sal Rupellensis_, or _Rochelle Salt_. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a right prism, with rhombic terminations, very -slightly efflorescent. _Taste_, rather bitter and saline. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. It is a triple salt, formed by neutralizing the excess of -acid in super-tartrate of potass, with soda, and consisting of 2 atoms -of acid + 1 of soda + 1 of potass. By a strong heat it is resolved into -a mixture of carbonate of potass and carbonate of soda. SOLUBILITY. It -is soluble in five parts of water at 50°. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. Most -_acids_, and _acidulous salts_ (except the Super-tartrate of potass) -which convert the tartrate of potass into bi-tartrate, or -super-tartrate. The _acetate_ and _sub-acetate_ of lead; _barytic -salts_, and the _salts of lime_ are decomposed by it. MED. USES. Similar -to those of _Potassæ Tartras_. See _Form. 77_, and 86, the latter of -which presents a very grateful and efficacious purgative. DOSE, ʒij to -℥j as a purgative. - - - SODÆ CARBONAS. L.E. _Carbonate of Soda._ - -This salt, when properly prepared, is a _bi-carbonate_, but so -delicately are the affinities of its constituent parts balanced, that -the application of a very moderate temperature is sufficient to subvert -them, and to occasion partial decomposition. Mr. Phillips states that -although he has seen what he believes to be real bi-carbonate in the -state of the moist crystals, yet he has never met with any that was dry -which had not lost one-fourth of its carbonic acid by exposure to heat; -it is then a white gritty powder, less soluble in water than the -sub-carbonate, like which it possesses an alkaline taste, and turns -vegetable yellows brown, but both in a less degree. This salt, which is -generally sold, as the carbonate of the pharmacopœia, and the -bi-carbonate of chemists, Mr. Phillips considers as a compound of an -atom of carbonate, (_sub-carbonate_) and an atom of bi-carbonate, -combined with four atoms of water. It is therefore, according to the -phraseology of some chemists, a _Sesqui-carbonate_,[637] as being equal -to an atom and a half of acid and one atom of base. The chemical -habitudes of this salt, as connected with its medicinal applications, -are similar to those of the _carbonate of potass_, which see. MED. USES. -As it is less nauseous, so is it more eligible than the _sub_-carbonate -of the same alkali; in other respects its effects are the same; _vide -Sodæ Sub-carbonas_. DOSE, grs. x to ʒss.[638] ADULTERATIONS. If the -salt, after super-saturation with dilute nitric acid, give a precipitate -with nitrate of baryta, it contains some sulphuric salt; and if with -nitrate of silver, we may infer the presence of a muriate. - - - SODÆ MURIAS. L.E. - - SAL COMMUNE, MURIAS SODÆ. D. - - _Muriate of Soda._ _Common Salt._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, that of regular cubes, which do not deliquesce unless -contaminated with muriate of magnesia.[639] CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It -consists, according to Berzelius, of 46·55 of muriatic acid, and 53·45 -of soda; according to the new theory, however, this salt must be -considered as a true _muriate of soda_, only while it remains in aqueous -solution; for when it is reduced to dryness, the muriatic acid and the -soda become both decomposed, and the hydrogen of the former uniting with -the oxygen of the latter, they pass off in the form of water, while the -chlorine of the muriatic acid unites with the metallic base of the soda, -to form _chloride of sodium_, which consists of an atom of each -constituent. It is perhaps difficult to believe that the same salt -should be chloride of sodium in the hand, and muriate of soda in the -mouth! but it is not the less true, nor is it more incredible than the -change which Sulphuret of potass undergoes by solution, the -decomposition of which is rendered evident to the senses by the evolved -sulphuretted hydrogen. Late researches have also detected both in _rock_ -and in other salt, the presence of _muriate of potass_, and _muriate of -magnesia_.[640] SOLUBILITY. It is equally soluble in cold and in hot -water, one part of the salt requiring rather more than 2½ parts. MED. -USES. The effects of salt upon the animal and vegetable kingdoms, are -striking and important,[641] and have furnished objects of the most -interesting enquiry to the physiologist, the chemist, the physician, and -the agriculturist; it appears to be a natural stimulant to the digestive -organs; and that animals are instinctively led to immense distances in -pursuit of it; for proof of this fact the reader is referred to “_Parkes -on the repeal of the Salt Laws_,” and to an interesting work by my late -lamented friend, Sir Thomas Bernard, entitled, “_Case of the Salt -Duties, with Proofs and Illustrations_.”[642] Salt, when taken in -moderate quantities, promotes,[643] while in excessive ones, it prevents -digestion; it is therefore tonic and anthelmintic, correcting that -disordered state of the bowels which favours the propagation of worms. -In Ireland, where, from the bad quality of the food, the lower classes -are greatly infested with worms,[644] a draught of salt and water is a -popular and efficacious anthelmintic. _Form: 162_, is a prescription by -Rush, who says that in this manner he has administered many pounds of -common salt with great success in worm cases. In the first volume of the -Medical Transactions we shall find an interesting account of a cure of -this disease by salt, after the failure of other remedies; I beg also to -refer the practitioner to another case illustrative of its anthelmintic -powers, published by Mr. Marshall, (_London Medical and Physical -Journal_, vol. xxxix. No. 231,) which is that of a lady who had a -natural antipathy to salt, and was in consequence most dreadfully -infested with worms during the whole of her life. In very large doses -_Salt_ proves purgative; it is also absorbed, and carried to the -kidneys, but it undergoes no decomposition _in transitu_, nor does it -appear to possess any considerable powers as a diuretic; its solution in -tepid water, in the proportion of ℥ss-℥j in oj of water, forms the -common domestic enema. DOSE, when intended to act as a cathartic, -from℥ss to ℥j very largely diluted; when to answer the other intentions, -from grs. x. to ʒj. - - - SODÆ SUB-BORAS. L.D. BORAS SODÆ. E. - - _Borax._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, irregular hexahedral prisms, slightly efflorescent. -_Taste_, alkaline and styptic; when heated it loses its water of -crystallization, and becomes a porous friable mass (_calcined borax_). -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Boracic acid, 34—soda, 17—water, 49. SOLUBILITY. -It is soluble in 20 parts of water at 60°, and in 6 parts at 212°. -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. It is decomposed by _acids_; _potass_; by the -_sulphates_ and _muriates_ of the _earths_, and by those of _ammonia_. -MEDICINAL USES. It is only applied in the form of powder mixed with 8 or -10 parts of honey, as a detergent linctus in aphthæ, &c. The Chinese -employ it in inflammatory sore throats; for which purpose they first -reduce it to an extremely fine powder, and then blow it through a reed -upon the inflamed surface. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Mel Boracis_. L. -ADULTERATIONS. _Alum_, and _fused muriate of soda_, are substances with -which it is sometimes sophisticated; to discover which, dissolve it in -distilled water, and after saturating the excess of the base with nitric -acid, assay the solution with nitrate of barytes and nitrate of silver. - - - SODÆ SUB-CARBONAS. L.E.D. - - _Sub-carbonate of Soda._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, octohedrons, truncated at the summits of the -pyramids; it effloresces when exposed to the air, and at 150° Fah. -undergoes watery fusion, its crystals containing as much as seven -proportionals of water; _Taste_, mild, alkalescent. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. Soda 29·5—carbonic acid 20·7. SOLUBILITY. It is soluble in -two parts of water at 60°, and in considerably less than its weight of -boiling water; it is insoluble in alcohol. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES are -enumerated under _Potassæ Carbonas_. MED. USES, are similar to those of -the sub-carbonate of potass, but it is preferable to it for internal -use, as being more mild and less nauseous; and moreover Fourcroy states -it as his opinion that soda is more eligible for medicinal purposes than -potass, on account of its analogy with animal substances, which always -contain it, while on the contrary, no portion of potass is found in -them. Sir Gilbert Blane assumes an opposite opinion, and observes that, -as far as he can judge of the comparative powers of the two fixed -alkalies, he should greatly prefer Potass to Soda, as a remedy for -gravel, one reason of which he thinks may be found in the fact that the -Soda is an element of the animal fluids, since it enters largely into -the composition of bile, so that it is more likely to be arrested in the -course of the circulation and diverted from the urinary organs. A -gentleman, says Sir Gilbert, who was subject to frequent fits of gravel, -and in the habit of making experiments on the small concretions which he -passed, found that Soda dissolved them, but that Potass did not; -nevertheless he experienced sensible relief, and even temporary cure, -from the internal use of the latter alkali, but no benefit from the -former. Are then the absorbents more disposed to take up soda than -potass? The results of experience do not appear to sanction such a -conclusion. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. It may be administered in solution, in -an electuary, or in pills; when exhibited in the latter form, it must be -previously deprived of its water of crystallization, (_Sodæ Sub-carbonas -exsiccata_. L.) or the pills will fall into powder as they dry; unless -where the water of crystallization is essential to the formation of the -pill, as to that of _Pill: Ferri comp_. DOSE, gr. x to ʒj, twice or -thrice a day. See _Form. 28, 143, 144_. - - - SODÆ SULPHAS. L.E.D. - - _Natron Vitriolatum_, P.L. 1787. _Sal Catharticus Glauberi_. P.L. 1745. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, transparent prismatic crystals, which effloresce; -when exposed to heat, they undergo watery fusion, that is, they melt in -their own water of crystallization. _Taste_, saline and bitter. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. Sulphuric acid 24·64,—soda 19·36—water 56. SOLUBILITY. f℥j -of water at 60° dissolves ʒiiiss; in boiling water it is considerably -more soluble; it is quite insoluble in alcohol. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. -The same as those which decompose _sulphate of magnesia_. MED. USES. A -common and useful purgative; its nauseous taste may be in a great degree -disguised by the addition of a small quantity of lemon juice, or _cream -of tartar_. DOSE, ℥ss to ℥ij. In an effloresced state it is just equal -in efficacy to double the weight of that which is in a crystalline form. -It is rendered more active by being combined with other purgative salts, -especially with sulphate of magnesia, and the compound is more soluble -and less nauseous; (_Form. 69, 72_.) A portion of triple salt, a -_magnesio-sulphate of soda_, probably results from the combination, a -salt which may be frequently detected in parcels of sulphate of -magnesia, and may be known by its crystals, which are regular rhomboids; -it is also contained, according to Dr. Murray, in the brine or _mother -liquor_ of sea-water; and it constitutes the whole of that salt which -was formerly sold under the name of “_Lymington Glauber’s Salts_”.[645] - - - SPARTIUM. L.E. GENISTA. D. - - Spartii _Cacumina_. L. _Summitates_. E. - - _The Tops of Broom._ - -QUALITIES. When bruised they yield an unpleasant _odour_, and a nauseous -bitter _taste_. Solubility. Water and alcohol alike extract their active -matter. MED. USES. They certainly act as a powerful diuretic, and even -prove so to animals that browse upon them. I have frequently exhibited -them in the Westminster Hospital, with very great success in the form of -decoction. By referring to my classification of diuretics, page 93, it -will be seen that the _Broom_ is placed under the second division of the -first class; for analogy sanctions the theory, that the bitter element -is separated by the powers of digestion, and carried to the kidneys by -the medium of the circulation. (See _Form. 113_.) The ashes of this -plant were extolled by Sydenham as a powerful diuretic, but the chemist -has shewn that it is merely a fixed alkaline salt. OFFICINAL -PREPARATIONS. _Extractum Cacuminum Genistæ_. D. - - - SPIGELIA MARYLANDICA. - - _Pink Root._ _Radix._ - -[This is an herbaceous plant, growing native in the Southern states. It -flourishes in rich, dry soils, and flowers from May to July. The root, -which is composed of numerous slender fibres, when fresh, is of a -yellowish colour, and has an insipid and nauseous taste. As it contains -on analysis no resin, its proper menstruum is water. It is exclusively -as an anthelmintic that the Pink Root is resorted to, and as such it -possesses unquestionable power. When given to any extent it proves -narcotic, and at the same time purgative. It is probably to this -combination of properties that its efficacy as a vermifuge is to be -attributed. It is chiefly against the Lumbrici that it has been used -with success. It may be given in powder, in doses of from grs. x to xx, -repeated every two hours. The more common and preferable mode of giving -it, however, is that of infusion, made by putting ℥j of the root into a -pint of boiling water. Of this, when cold, from ℥j to ℥iv may be given -every two or three hours, according to the age of the patient. It should -be recollected, that in its fresh state the Pink Root is much more -active than when dried and kept for any length of time.] - - - SPIRÆA TRIFOLIATA. - - _Indian Physic._ _Radix._ - -[This plant abounds in the woods of hills and mountains, in every part -of the United States. The root, which is the part used in medicine, is -of a bitter taste, and yields by analysis extractive matter and resin. -In its medicinal properties the Spiræa resembles the ipecacuanha of the -shops. The full dose in powder is 30 grs.] - - - SPIRITUS. L. SPIRITUS STILLATITII. - - _Distilled Spirits._ - -These are solutions of the essential oils of vegetables in diluted -alcohol or proof spirit; they are obtained by distilling spirit with -recent vegetables; or, according to the recent directions of the -Pharmacopœia, with their essential oils; sometimes however they are -extemporaneously made by at once dissolving the oils in the spirit, -without distillation. (See _Spiritus Tenuior_.) Med. Uses. Like the -_distilled waters_, they serve as vehicles for the exhibition of more -active medicines; they are also occasionally employed as grateful -stimulants. It is unnecessary to dwell on each of these simple spirits, -as their virtues are the same as those of the substances from which they -are extracted, united to the stimulus of the alcohol. The following are -officinal:—_Spirit: Anisi_. L. _Spir: Anisi comp:_ L.D. _Armoraciæ -comp:_ L. _Carui_. L.E.D. _Cinnamomi_ L.E.D. (_Form. 5, 40._) _Juniperi -comp:_ L.D. _Lavandulæ_. L.E.D. _Lavandulæ comp:_ L.E.D. _Menth:_ Pip: -L.D. _Menth: Virid:_ L. _Myristic:_ L.E.D. _Pimentæ_. L.D. _Pulegii_. L. -_Raphani comp:_ D. _Rosmarini_.[646] L.E.D. - - - SPIRITUS AMMONIÆ. L.D. - - ALCOHOL AMMONIATUM. E. - - _Spiritus Salis Ammoniaci dulcis._ P.L. 1745. _Spiritus Salis - Ammoniaci._ P.L. 1720. - -This is a solution of ammoniacal gas in spirit; in which a small portion -of the sub-carbonate is also generally present. It is not easy to -compare the strength of this preparation with that of the _Liquor -Ammoniæ_, or _Liquor Ammoniæ Sub-carbonatis_, so as to give their -medicinal equivalents, because the ammonia exists in a very different -state of combination. The first is a mere solution of ammoniacal gas in -water; in the second, as already stated, the ammonia exists as a -_sesqui-carbonate_, while in the one now under consideration the alkali -is in the state of a _carbonate_. This fact will explain the reason of -the present preparation being superior in pungency to the _Liquor -Ammoniæ Sub-carbonatis_. The Incompatibles are the same as those -enumerated under the head of _Ammoniæ Sub-carbonas_. It is a powerful -stimulant, but it is principally employed as the basis of the following -compounds; viz. _Spirit: Ammoniæ Aromat_. L.E.D. _Spirit: Ammoniæ -Succinatus_. L. _Tinctura Castorei Comp:_ E. _Tinct: Guaiaci comp:_ E. -_Tinct: Opii Ammoniat:_ E. - - - SPIRITUS AMMONIÆ AROMATICUS. L.D. - - ALCOHOL AMMONIATUM AROMATICUM. E. - - _Spiritus Ammoniæ Compositus._ P.L. 1785. _Spiritus Volatilis - Aromaticus._ P.L. 1745. _Spiritis salis volatilis oleosus._ P.L. 1720. - -This is a solution of several essential oils, (_Cinnamon_, _Cloves_, and -_Lemon_. L.—_Rosemary_ and _Lemon_. E. _Lemon_ and _Nutmeg_. D.) in the -spirit of ammonia. It is a valuable stimulant, and an agreeable adjunct, -and efficacious corrective to other remedies, see _Form._ 42, 45. DOSE, -fʒss to fʒj. INCOMPATIBLES. Acids, Acidulous Salts, Earthy and Metallic -Salts, and Lime Water. _Officinal Prep: Tinct. Guaiac: Ammoniat:_ L.D. -_Tinct. Valerian: Ammoniat:_ L.D. Its ammoniacal pungency is rather -inferior to that of the preceding preparations. - - - SPIRITUS AMMONIÆ FŒTIDUS. L.D. - - TINCTURA ASSAFŒTIDÆ AMMONIATA. E. - -This is a solution of the fœtid volatile oil of the Assafœtida in the -spirit of ammonia; as little else than the odour and flavour of the -gum-resin is taken up by the menstruum, it cannot be expected to possess -many virtues. Dose, fʒss to fʒi. - - - SPIRITUS AMMONIÆ SUCCINATUS. L. - -This preparation was probably introduced as a substitute of the _Eau de -luce_. It is stimulant and antispasmodic. It will be found, if properly -prepared, to retain its milkiness for a considerable time, a -circumstance by which its value is appreciated. The substances -enumerated under the head of _Spir: Ammoniæ Aromat:_ are also -incompatible with this preparation. - - - SPIRITUS COLCHICI AMMONIATUS. L. - -We have in this preparation the specific virtues of the Colchicum, with -the stimulant property of the Ammonia; a medicinal combination, which is -frequently indicated in practice. Dose fʒss to fʒi, in some aqueous -vehicle. The substances enumerated under the history of _Spiritus -Ammoniæ Aromaticus_, are likewise incompatible with this spirit. - - - SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS AROMATICUS. L. - - ÆTHER SULPHURICUS CUM ALCOHOLE AROMATICUS. E. - - _Elixir Vitrioli dulce._ P.L. 1745. - -This preparation, which was excluded from the London Pharmacopœia of -1787, is now restored. It consists of Sulphuric Ether _one part_, -rectified spirit _two parts_, impregnated with aromatics; the presence -of spirit is necessary in this preparation, since the volatile oils -would be insoluble in the æther without it. MED. USES. A grateful -stimulant. - - - SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS NITRICI. L. - - SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS NITROSI. E. - - SPIRITUS ÆTHEREUS NITROSUS. D. - - _Spiritus Nitri dulcis._ P.L. 1745. - -QUALITIES. A colourless fluid of the _specific gravity_ ·850. _Odour_, -extremely fragrant; _Taste_, pungent and acidulous; it is very volatile -and inflammable. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. A portion of nitric æther and -nitric acid, combined with alcohol. SOLUBILITY. It is soluble both in -water and alcohol. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. With a solution of _green -sulphate of iron_ it strikes a deep olive colour, owing probably to its -holding a portion of nitrous gas in solution; with the _tinctures of -guaiacum_ it produces a green or blue coagulum. MED. USES. When properly -diluted, it is refrigerant and diuretic; and has been long employed as a -grateful draught in febrile affections; as a diuretic, it frequently -proves a valuable auxiliary in dropsy, (see _Form. 113, 116_.) DOSE, ♏︎x -to xl. in any aqueous vehicle. By age and exposure to the air, it is -gradually decomposed, and gives rise to the reproduction of nitrous -acid. - - - SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS SULPHURICI. L. - - ÆTHER SULPHURICUS CUM ALCOHOLE. E. - - LIQUOR ÆTHEREUS SULPHURICUS. D. - - _Spiritus Ætheris vitriolici._ P.L. 1787. _Spirit. Vitrioli dulcis_. - 1745. - -QUALITIES. A fluid of the _specific gravity_ ·816, consisting of _two -parts_ (by measure) of rectified spirit, and _one part_ of sulphuric -æther. MED. USES. It has all the properties of æther, but in an inferior -degree. DOSE, fʒj to fʒiij. - - - SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS SULPHURICI COMPOSITUS. L. - -This is intended as a substitute for the _Liquor Anodynus_ of Hoffmann, -although its composition was never revealed by him. In addition to its -stimulating properties, it is supposed to add those of an anodyne -nature. DOSE, fʒss to fʒij. See _Form. 7_. - - - SPIRITUS CAMPHORÆ. L. - - _Spirit of Camphor_; vulgo, _Camphorated Spirits_. - -This preparation is principally useful as an external application. As an -embrocation to chilblains it is often of essential service; and it has -been found useful when thus applied to parts affected with chronic -rheumatism and paralytic numbness. It is instantly decomposed by water, -which precipitates the camphor. It furnishes an easy mode of forming -camphor mixture extemporaneously, and if a few drops be rubbed with -mucilage, we are thus enabled to form a stronger preparation than by the -ordinary process. - - - SPIRITUS RECTIFICATUS. L. - - ALCOHOL FORTIUS. E. SPIRITUS VINOSUS RECTIFICATUS. D. - -In this preparation, alcohol is nearly in the highest state of -concentration, in which it can be easily prepared in the large way for -the purposes of trade; its specific gravity however varies in the -different pharmacopœias, viz. the London and Edinburgh preparation is -stated to have that of ·835, while the rectified spirit of Dublin is -ordered to be only ·840. The former at the temperature of 60° _Fah._ -consists of 85 parts of pure alcohol and 15 of water, the latter only of -83 per cent. of alcohol. It is a most powerful stimulant, but is rarely -employed except in combination; as a pharmaceutical agent, its use is -highly valuable and extensive. (See _Tincturæ_.) During the evaporation -of spirit, a considerable reduction of temperature takes place, which -renders it a useful ingredient in refrigerating lotions. See _Form. 147, -148_. It has lately been ascertained by Mr. Ritchie of Perth, that “_the -degree of cold induced by the evaporation of spirit of different degrees -of strength are proportional to the strength of these spirits, reckoning -from the degrees of cold induced by the evaporation of water_.” The -application of this theorem will enable us to ascertain the strength of -a spirit by the “DIFFERENTIAL THERMOMETER” of Leslie. - - - SPIRITUS TENUIOR. L. - - ALCOHOL DILUTUM. E. - - SPIRITUS VINOSUS TENUIOR. D. - - _Weaker or Proof Spirit._ - -This is rectified spirit diluted with a certain proportion of water, and -it is to be regretted that the quantity ordered for this purpose, should -vary in the different Pharmacopœias; thus, according to the London and -Dublin Colleges, its specific gravity is ·930, while the College of -Edinburgh directs it to be of ·935. The former consists of 44 per cent. -of pure alcohol, and may be formed by mixing _four_ parts, by measure, -of rectified spirit, with _three_ of water; the latter contains only 42 -_per cent._ of pure alcohol, and may be made by adding together _equal -parts_ of rectified spirit and distilled water. Alcohol in this state of -dilution, is better adapted for taking up the principles of vegetables -than rectified spirit; indeed, diluted alcohol acts upon bodies as a -chemical compound, and will dissolve what neither the same proportion of -water nor of alcohol would, if separately applied; we perceive therefore -the importance of ensuring uniformity of strength in our spirits. (See -_Tincturæ_.) It is necessary to remark that almost all the spirit sold -under the name of “_Proof Spirit_,” is contaminated with empyreumatic -oil, and is unfit for the purposes of pharmacy; it ought therefore to be -extemporaneously prepared by mixing together rectified spirit and water, -in the proportions above stated. This however is rarely done, except the -liquors are intended for the toilet, and hence it has been observed, -that the cordials of the apothecary are generally less grateful than -those of the distiller, the latter being extremely curious in rectifying -and purifying his spirit. If common water be employed for the dilution -of alcohol, the resulting spirit will be turbid, owing principally to -the precipitation of sulphuric salts; this circumstance lately -occasioned considerable embarrassment to the Curators of the Hunterian -Museum at the College of Surgeons, who were compelled to prepare their -own spirit, in consequence of an excise regulation preventing the -distiller from sending out any spirit of that strength which is required -for their anatomical purposes. A curious fact has just been noticed in -the Laboratory of the Royal Institution, which is, that diluted spirit -_becomes stronger_ by being kept in vessels that are carefully closed by -bladder! whence it would seem, that alcoholic vapour transpires through -this animal membrane less freely than aqueous vapour; we are at present -unable to offer a satisfactory explanation of this anomalous case of -distillation, but it is probably connected with the different solvent -powers of these two liquids, in relation to the animal membrane. MED. -USES. Alcohol, although diluted to the degree of proof spirit, is still -too strong for internal exhibition; indeed, where its use is indicated, -it is more generally given in the form of wine, malt liquors, or ardent -spirits, which must be regarded only as diluted alcohol, although each -has a peculiarity of operation, owing to the modifying influence of the -other elements of the liquid; thus _Brandy_[647] is said to be simply -cordial and stomachic;[648] _Rum_,[649] heating and sudorific; _Gin_ and -_Whiskey_, diuretic; and _Arrack_,[650] styptic, heating, and narcotic; -it seems also probable that a modified effect is produced by the -addition of various other substances, such as sugar and acids, which -latter bodies, besides their anti-narcotic powers, appear to act by -favouring a more perfect combination and mutual penetration of the -particles of spirit and water. Foreign brandy derives its colour from -the oak cask, the intensity of which, therefore, affords some criterion -of its age. The English have been in the habit of colouring their -spirits with burnt sugar until lately, but now since the cause of the -foreign colour is discovered, the scrapings of gall-nuts are employed -for that purpose, whence the sulphate of iron is no longer a test of -brandy being genuine.[651] The effects, also, which are produced by the -habitual use of fermented liquors, differ essentially according to the -kind that is drunk; thus Ale and Porter, in consequence of the nutritive -matter, and perhaps the invigorating bitter with which they are charged, -and the comparatively small proportion of alcohol which they contain, -dispose to a plethora, which is not unfrequently terminated by apoplexy; -Spirits, on the other hand, induce severe dyspepsia, obstructed and -hardened liver, dropsy, and more than half of all our chronical -diseases; and Dr. Darwin moreover remarks that when they arise from this -cause, they are liable to become hereditary, even to the third -generation, gradually increasing, if the cause be continued, till the -family become extinct; with regard to Wine, Rush has truly observed that -its effects, like those of tyranny in a well formed government, are -first felt in the extremities, while spirits like a bold invader, seize -at once upon the vitals of the constitution; the different kinds of -wine, however, produce very different and even opposite effects, as -stated under the history of that article, (see _Vinum_.) The excise -officers frequently avail themselves of the peculiar power of the -sub-acetate of lead to precipitate colouring matter, in order to remove -from seized Holland Gin, the colour which it contains by being long kept -in the tubs in which it is smuggled over. This practice, however, -renders the gin liable to gripe. - - - SPIRITUS TEREBINTHINÆ. - - See _Terebinthinæ Oleum_. - - SPONGIA USTA. L. See _Carbo Ligni_. - - STANNI LIMATURA. L.E.D. - - _The filings of Tin._ - -The anthelmintic properties of Tin have been explained by three -different hypotheses, viz. 1. _That it acts mechanically by dislodging -the mucus from the intestines_; if this be true, it is difficult to -explain the fact of its activity being increased by pulverization. 2. -_That its efficacy depends upon the presence of arsenic_; if so, why -should the _purest_ specimens act with equal efficacy?[652] 3. _That it -operates by generating hydrogen gas in the intestinal canal:_ it has -been observed that this opinion is rendered probable by the fact, that -sulphur increases its powers.[653] Dose, ʒj or ʒji, mixed with honey, -treacle or conserve, and exhibited for several successive mornings, a -purgative medicine being occasionally interposed, (see _Form. 150_.) The -use of this remedy however is entirely superseded by the more -efficacious exhibition of oil of turpentine. - - - STATICE LIMONIUM. - - _Marsh Rosemary._ _Radix._ - -[This is a perennial plant found in all parts of the United States. It -flowers in the months of July and August. The root, which is the part -used in medicine, is astringent, and contains large proportions of -tannin and gallic acid. As a medicine it has been much used in this -country, and is prescribed with advantage in a number of diseases in -which astringents are required. In chronic dysentery, diarrhœa, and -cholera infantum, more especially, it has been found exceedingly -beneficial. It may be given in infusion or decoction, made by adding ʒij -of the root to ℥xij of water.] - - - SUCCI SPISSATI. E. See _Extracta_. - - SULPHUR SUBLIMATUM. L.E.D. - - _Sublimed Sulphur._ _Flowers of Sulphur._ - -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is probably a triple compound of oxygen, -hydrogen, and some unknown base. SOLUBILITY. It is insoluble in water -and alcohol, but soluble in oils, especially in that of linseed, which -is a powerful solvent of all sulphureous substances. In boiling oil of -turpentine it is entirely soluble. MEDICINAL USES. It is laxative and -diaphoretic; it acts principally upon the large intestines, and very -mildly, whence it proves useful in hæmorrhoidal affections (_Form. 74_); -and in consequence of the diaphoresis which it also excites, it is -useful in chronic rheumatisms, catarrhs, and in some cutaneous -affections.[654] To promote its purgative effects, _magnesia_ will be -found a serviceable adjunct in hæmorrhoids; it may be given in the form -of an electuary, or suspended in milk; its solution in oil (_Oleum -Sulphuratum_) is a most nauseous and acrid preparation. When sulphur is -combined with metallic remedies, it generally lessens their activity. -Its effects in curing psora are universally admitted, and the only -objection to its use is the disgusting smell which accompanies its -application; see _Unguent: Sulphuris_. Dr. Clarke of Dublin recommends a -lotion which he says contains a sufficient impregnation of sulphur for -the cure of psora in children, to be made by adding an ounce of broken -sulphur to a quart of boiling water, and allowing it to infuse for -twelve hours. In this process, the water probably takes up a small -portion of sulphurous acid; it is difficult to explain the efficacy of -the lotion in any other manner. When sulphur is internally administered, -it transpires through the skin in the state of sulphuretted hydrogen, -and blackens the silver in the pockets of those who take it. DOSE ʒj to -ʒiij. OFFICINAL PREP. _Sulphur Lotum._ L.E.D. _Sulphur Præcipitatum._ L. -_Unguent. Sulph._ L.E.D. _Unguent. Sulph. comp._ L. - -SULPHUR LOTUM. When sulphur is kept in loosely covered drawers its -surface is soon acidified, when it is said to operate with griping, -hence the common _flowers_ are directed to be washed with water to get -rid of any sulphurous acid; it is however rarely performed, and would -seem to be a useless subtlety. - -SULPHUR PRÆCIPITATUM. L. _Lac Sulphuris_, P.L. 1720. This, when pure, -differs in no other respect from sublimed sulphur than in its superior -whiteness, which it owes to the presence of a small proportion of water; -in consequence however of its mode of preparation, it always contains a -small quantity of sulphate of lime, and not unfrequently other -impurities; it may be assayed by pouring upon a suspected sample a -sufficient quantity of _liquor potassæ_ to cover it, and setting it -aside in a warm place to digest, when the sulphur will be dissolved and -the impurities remain; or it might be at once subjected to the operation -of heat; which would volatilize the sulphur, and thus separate it from -its contaminations. - - - SYRUPI. L.E.D. _Syrups._ - -These are solutions of sugar in water, watery infusions, or in vegetable -juices; the proportion of sugar is generally _two parts_ to one of the -fluid; if it exceeds this, the solution will crystallize, if it be less, -ferment, and become acescent.[655] The most certain test of the proper -consistence of a syrup is its specific gravity; a bottle that holds -three ounces of water at 55 _Fah._ ought to hold four ounces of syrup. -Syrups are introduced into medicinal formulæ for several purposes, viz. - -I. _To correct or disguise the flavour of disagreeable remedies._ Syrup: -Aurantiorum. L.D. (_Form, 48, 51, 107_.)—Limonum, L.E.D.—Simplex (124, -145).—Zingiberis (88, 95, 105.) Bitter infusions, and saline solutions -are rendered more nauseous by the addition of syrups. - -II. _To produce Medicinal Effects._ Syrup: Allii. D.—_Altheæ_. L.E. -(135)—_Acidi Acetosi._ E.—Colchici. E.—Sennæ. E.D. (70)—Scillæ Maritimæ. -E.—Rhamni. L. _Papaveris_. L.E.D. (5, 7, 75, 169, 170.)—Rosæ -(74)—Zingiberis (47, 150)—Sarsaparillæ. L. - -III. _To communicate peculiar forms._ - -Every syrup answers this purpose; for the necessary proportions, see -_Electuaria_. - -IV. _To communicate an agreeable colour._ Syrup. Croci: L.—Rhæados. L.D. -(166, 168.)—Caryophylli Rubri. D.—Violæ. E. Except that of Saffron, -these syrups are rendered green by alkalies, and red by acids. - -GENERAL REMARKS. The practitioner should never introduce syrups into -those medicines which are liable to be injured by the generation of -acids: I have frequently seen the _cretaceous mixture_, when charged -with syrup. Increase, instead of check, a diarrhœa; and the syrup of -poppies, from its disposition to become acescent, will often aggravate -rather than allay the cholic of infants. The syrup of Senna furnishes -the practitioner with a convenient purgative for children; that of -buckthorn is more violent, and is on that account but rarely used; -besides which, in preparing it the chemist not unfrequently substitutes -the berries of the _Cornus Sanguinea_, the Dogberry-tree, or those of -the _Rhamnus Frangula_, the Alder-buckthorn, for the Rhamnus -Catharticus; a circumstance which necessarily renders the efficacy of -this syrup variable and uncertain; it is moreover often sophisticated -with treacle and jalap. The syrup of the rose, when made with the leaves -of the _Damask_[656] rose, is gently laxative, and is well adapted for -weak children; it is however not unusual, _coloris gratia_, to -substitute the leaves of the _red_ rose, in which case the syrup will -possess astringent instead of laxative properties. In the preparation of -the syrup of poppies,[657] the directions of the College are frequently -not obeyed; it is sometimes made by dissolving the extract in syrup, -formed with coarse sugar, or even with treacle; at others, by adding -tincture of opium to a coarse syrup, in the proportion of ♏︎x to every -f℥j. In the preparation of the syrups of violets, the juice of red -cabbage is generally substituted; this is at least a harmless fraud. -NOTE. The syrups which are printed in _Italics_, are very susceptible of -decomposition, and should be kept in cool places. - - - TABACI FOLIA. L.E. - - (Nicotiana Tabacum. Folia Siccata. _Virginiana._) - - NICOTIANÆ FOLIA. D. - - _Tobacco._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, strong, narcotic, and fœtid; _Taste_, bitter, and -extremely acrid; _Colour_, yellowish green, (its brown appearance is -artificial, being produced by the action of _sulphate of iron_.) -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Mucilage, albumen, gluten, extractive, a bitter -principle, _an essential oil_, nitrate of potass, which occasions its -deflagration, muriate of potass, and a peculiar proximate principle upon -which the properties of the plant are supposed to depend, and which has -therefore been named _Nicotin_.[658] Vauquelin considers it as -approaching the volatile oils in its properties; it is colourless, has -an acrid taste, and the peculiar smell of tobacco, and occasions violent -sneezing; with alcohol and water, it produces colourless solutions, from -which it is thrown down by tincture of galls. SOLUBILITY. Tobacco yields -its active matter both to water and spirit, but more perfectly to the -latter; long coction weakens its powers. An oil of tobacco of a most -powerful nature, may be obtained by distilling the leaves and separating -it from the water, on the top of which it will be found to float.[659] -MED. USES. Tobacco is endued with energetic poisonous properties, -producing generally a universal tremor which is rarely the result of -other poisons; the experiments of M. Orfila moreover demonstrate, that -the action of Tobacco is much more energetic when the soluble portion is -injected into the anus, than when it is applied to the cellular texture, -and for a still stronger reason, than when introduced into the stomach. -Mr. Brodie, from the result of a well devised experiment, has deduced -the conclusion that the infusion of Tobacco acts upon the heart, -occasioning syncope, through the medium of the nervous system. USES. As -a powerful sedative, it is sometimes valuable in medical practice; the -leaves, when applied in the form of a cataplasm to the pit of the -stomach, produce an emetic operation; (_Form. 67._) In cases of -obstinate constipation, depending upon violent spasmodic constriction, -or in _ileus_, or _incarcerated hernia_, clysters of the smoke of -Tobacco, or of an infusion made according to the London College, produce -almost immediate relief, (_Form. 26._); the practice is not unfrequently -attended with severe vomiting, extreme debility, and cold sweats, -circumstances which render its administration highly dangerous in cases -wherein the patient has been already exhausted by previous suffering. I -remember witnessing a lamentable instance of this truth some years ago; -a medical practitioner, after repeated trials to reduce a strangulated -hernia, injected an infusion of Tobacco, and shortly afterwards sent the -patient in a carriage to the Westminster Hospital, for the purpose of -undergoing the operation; but the unfortunate man arrived only a few -minutes before he expired. Clysters of Tobacco were some years ago -recommended in America, for the purpose of forwarding difficult -parturition, by inducing relaxation and consequent dilatation of the _os -uteri_, but the alarming symptoms which followed the single case in -which Tobacco was thus employed, ought, says _Dr. Merriman_, to prevent -a repetition of the experiment.[660] It was also formerly proposed to -inject infusions of Tobacco, for the purpose of recovering persons in a -state of _asphyxia_ from drowning; it is difficult to explain how such -an idea could have entered into the mind of the rational physiologist. -Smoking or chewing Tobacco has been also advised in cases of spasmodic -asthma, and as a general sedative to relieve suffering; in the process -of _smoking_, the oil is separated, and being rendered empyreumatic by -heat, it is thus applied to the fauces in its most active state. As a -diuretic it was successfully exhibited by Dr. Fowler, but as its -operation is uncertain and violent, and appears to be very analogous to -that of Digitalis, which is far more safe and manageable, it has been -very judiciously discarded from practice. The external application of -Tobacco in the form of cataplasm or infusion, has been applied to -several species of cutaneous disease, but even in this state it is -liable to exert its virulent effects. A woman applied to the heads of -three children afflicted with _tinea capitis_, a liniment consisting of -powdered tobacco and butter, soon after which they experienced vertigo, -violent vomiting, and fainting. (_Ephemerides des Curieux de la Nature_, -Dec. ii. An: i. p. 46.) A case has just occurred in this country of a -child whose death was occasioned by her having swallowed a portion of -half-smoked tobacco, which was taken from the pipe of her father, and in -which there no doubt existed a quantity of essential oil, which had been -separated by the act of smoking. It is a curious fact, that the juice of -the green leaves instantly cures the stinging of nettles. - -ADULTERATIONS. When it exhales a fetid odour, we may infer that it has -been badly prepared, and not deprived of all its mucus; when pungent, -the presence of some deleterious drug is indicated: Cascarilla is very -usually added to impart a peculiar flavour; Nitre is also employed for -the sake of making it kindle more rapidly, and to impress a lively -sensation on the tongue; its vapour is of course very injurious to the -lungs: its presence may be detected by treating a suspected sample with -hot water, and after filtering the solution through charcoal, setting it -aside in order that it may yield its crystals by evaporation. Traces of -_Lead_, _Copper_, or _Antimony_, may be discovered by boiling the -Tobacco in strong vinegar, and, after filtering it as before, by -assaying it with appropriate tests. _Black Hellebore_, _Alum_, _Sugar_, -and _Corrosive sublimate_ are amongst the more usual sophistications. -_Dried Dock_ leaves are also sometimes substituted. OFFICINAL PREP: -_Infus: Tabacci_. L. _Vinum Nicotian: Tabac:_ E. - -SNUFF. This well known errhine is prepared from the dried leaves of -Tobacco; in its manufacture however, numerous additions are made which -are kept secret. _Salt_ is added for the purpose of increasing its -weight; _Urine_, Muriate of ammonia, and powdered Glass, to heighten its -acrimony. The varied flavour of different _Snuffs_ is owing to the leaf -being in greater or less perfection; or to its having undergone some -degree of fermentation; thus, for instance, the _Macouba Snuff_ of -Martinique is principally indebted for its acknowledged superiority to -the fermentation which the Tobacco undergoes, from being moistened with -the best cane juice; other kinds are excited into fermentation by -moistening them with melasses and water. - -Snuff possesses all the powers of Tobacco; the celebrated Santeuil -experienced vomiting and horrible pains, amidst which he expired, in -consequence of having drank a glass of wine, into which had been put -some Spanish snuff.[661] - - - TAMARINDI PULPA. L. (TAMARINDUS INDICA.) - - TAMARINDUS: FRUCTUS. D. - - FRUCTUS CONDITUS. E. - - The Pulp or preserved Fruit of the _Tamarind_.[662] - -QUALITIES. _Taste_, sweetish acid; _Odour_, none. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. -℥j of Tamarinds is composed of Citric acid grs. 45, Malic acid grs. 2, -Super-tartrate of potass grs. 15, together with sugar, gum, jelly, -fecula, and woody fibre. USES. A pleasant febrifuge may be formed by -infusing Tamarinds in water or milk; they improve the taste of the more -nauseous cathartics. OFFICINAL PREP: _Confectio Cassiæ_. L.E.D. _Infus: -Tamarind: cum Senna_. E.D. CAUTION. Copper vessels should never be -employed for the preparation of any compound which contains _Tamarinds_. - - - TARAXACI RADIX. L.E. - - (Leontodon Taraxacum.) Dens Leonis. - - _Dandelion._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, none; _Taste_, bitter, and somewhat sweet and -acidulous. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The active principles appear to consist -of extractive, gluten, a bitter principle (_not resinous_), and tartaric -acid. SOLUBILITY. Water extracts its virtues much better than spirit. -INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Infusion of Galls_, _Nitrate of Silver_, -_Oxy-muriate of Mercury_, _Acetate of Lead_, and _Sulphate of Iron_ -occasion precipitates in its solutions. MED. USES. It has long enjoyed -the reputation of proving beneficial in obstructions of the liver, and -in visceral diseases; Bergius extols its use in these complaints, and -recommends the recent root to be boiled in whey or broth. Dr. Pemberton -has more recently added his testimony to its value; he observes that he -has seen great advantage result from using the extract in chronic -inflammation, and incipient schirrhus of the liver, and in chronic -derangement of the stomach. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In that of extract, or -in decoction made by boiling ℥j of the sliced root in oj of water down -to oss, adding to the strained liquid ʒj of Cream of tartar; the recent -full grown root only should be used. DOSE f℥jj, twice or thrice a day. -OFFICINAL PREP: _Extract: Taraxaci_. The roots are roasted and used at -Gottingen by the poorer people for coffee, from which a decoction of -them properly prepared can hardly be distinguished.[663] The leaves of -this plant are blanched, and very commonly used on the continent as a -salad. - - - TEREBINTHINA. L.E.D. _Turpentine._ - -Most species of Pinus[664] may be made to yield (and many of them -produce spontaneously) a remarkable resinous juice, usually called -_Turpentine:_ an appellation, however, which more properly belongs to -the product of a different genus, called by Linnæus _Pistachia_, which -contains the true _Terebinthus_[665] of the ancients. - -QUALITIES. _Consistence_, semifluid and tenacious, but becoming more or -less concrete by age; _Odour_, aromatic; _Taste_, pungent, austere, and -astringent. It is inflammable. SOLUBILITY. It is entirely soluble in -rectified spirit, but not at all in water; although it becomes miscible -with that fluid, by the mediation of the yelk or the white of an egg, -but more elegantly by that of vegetable mucilage, and forms a milky -liquor. It is capable of entering into union with fixed oils. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. Resin, and an essential oil, the proportions of which vary -according to the species of Pine from which it is obtained. They all, -however, possess the same general chemical, as well as medicinal -properties, viz. When internally taken, says Dr. Maton, they seem to -warm the _viscera_, raise the pulse, and impart additional excitement to -the vascular system; applied externally, they increase the tone of the -part, counteract indolence of action, and deterge, as it were, -ill-conditioned ulcers. _Internal_ ulcerations indeed, especially of the -urinary passages, as well as laxities of the seminal and uterine -vessels, are supposed to be diminished by the exhibition of preparations -of this nature. They certainly appear to act in a peculiar manner on the -urinary organs, impregnating the water with a violet smell, and there -are strong grounds for believing that its volatile element, developed by -the powers of digestion, passes into the circulation, and is eliminated -by the kidneys, whose secreting vessels are thus stimulated _by its -contact_. (_Page 93._) Pulmonary complaints, as obstinate coughs and -asthmatic affections, have been said to give way to medicines of this -class; yet, in modern practice, recourse is rarely had to them in such -cases, and their exhibition is even considered hazardous. The ancients -were accustomed to medicate their wines with various Terebinthinate -substances, for the effect of which, see _Vinum_. - -The particular preparations of Turpentine most employed in medicine, -will be noticed under the different species. - -1. TEREBINTHINA CANADENSIS. L. (Pinus Balsamea. _Resina Liquida._) -_Canada Turpentine_, or _Canada Balsam_.[666] This is a transparent -whitish juice, brought to this country from Canada, and apparently, says -Dr. Maton, not very different in its qualities from the celebrated _Balm -of Gilead_,[667] so high in esteem among the eastern nations, and so -strongly recommended in a variety of complaints. Hitherto, however, it -has not been much employed in England. Its odour is agreeable, and its -taste strong and pungent. - -2. TEREBINTHINA CHIA. L. (Pistachia Terebinthus.) _Chio_, or _Cyprus -Turpentine_. The superiority of this species to all the products of the -pine tribe, was well known to, and described by, most of the ancient -writers on the materia medica. It is pellucid, with a bluish-green cast. - -3. TEREBINTHINA VULGARIS. L. (Pinus Sylvestris. _Scotch Fir._) _Common -Turpentine._ _Horse Turpentine._ This species is more coarse and dense -than any other kind, and has an opaque light brown colour; its -consistence may be compared to that of honey; the taste is very acrid, -hot, and disagreeable, and the smell much less pleasant than either the -_Venice_ or the _Strasburg_ turpentine. It is the kind which, as its -name implies, is most commonly employed, and although inferior in -quality to that of the turpentine tree, _Pistachia Terebinthus_ (Chio or -Cyprus), the Larch, _Pinus Larix_ (Venice Turpentine), and the Silver -Fir, _Pinus Picea_ (Strasburgh Turpentine), especially for internal use, -yet it is too often substituted for them in the shops of the druggist. -The Colleges of London and Edinburgh direct the common turpentine to be -used chiefly in external applications, for which it was also much -employed by the ancients. Celsus mentions, “_Resina liquida pinea_,” as -entering into the composition of many of his “_Malagmata_,” and the -“_Resina liquida_,” of other writers would appear to be of the same -kind. The _Unguentum Elemi compositum_ contains this resinous juice as a -principal ingredient. - -4. TEREBINTHINA VENETA. (Pinus Larix.)[668] _The Larch._ _Venice -Turpentine._ The resin is by most writers, and in the shops, esteemed -the best, after that of _Pistachia Terebinthus_, of those juices -commonly called _Turpentines_. It is usually thinner than any other -kind, of a pale yellowish colour, and of a hot, pungent, bitterish -taste; the smell is strong, and far from being agreeable. Although it -bears the name of _Venice Turpentine_, very little of it is exported -from the Venetian territories; but it is probable that the merchants of -that country were the first who substituted it for the genuine -Turpentine of Cyprus. The resinous juice of the Larch is said to remain -always, or at least a very long time, in a state of liquidity; a -property which is particularly adverted to by Pliny.[669] As a Diuretic, -the _Venice_ Turpentine has been generally preferred to all the other -kinds; and it is said to relax the bowels more, for which reason -_Riverius_[670] considers it as being safer than other irritating -diuretics. - -5. TEREBINTHINA ARGENTORATENSIS. (Pinus Picea.) _Strasburg Turpentine._ -This resin is generally of a middle consistence between that of the -_Terebinthus_ and the _Larix_; more transparent and less tenacious than -either; in colour yellowish brown; in smell more agreeable than any -other turpentine, except the Cyprian; in taste the bitterest, yet the -least acrid. - -_Form of Exhibition._ The Turpentines may be either made into Pills with -powdered liquorice root, or suspended in water by the intervention of -egg or mucilage; for which purpose, ℥j requires the yelk of one egg, or -ʒiss of gum arabic. _Dose_, gr. x to ʒj. - - - TEREBINTHINÆ OLEUM. L.E.D. - - _Oil of Turpentine._ - -QUALITIES. _Form_, a limpid and colourless liquid, whose specific -gravity is only ·792; _Odour_, strong, penetrating, and peculiar; -_Taste_, hot, bitter and pungent. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is an -essential oil, possessing, however, peculiar habitudes with respect to -alcohol, being readily dissolved by _hot_ alcohol, but separating again -in drops, as the spirit cools; in the cold it is sparingly soluble in -the strongest alcohol, and separates from it on standing; but it -dissolves completely in six parts of sulphuric æther. It is not acted -upon by the alkalies, except by long triture, when it is converted into -a species of resin.[671] MED. USES. It acts according to the dose, -either on the _primæ viæ_ producing catharsis, or on the kidneys, -exciting diuresis; thus its operation offers another illustration of the -views which I have so frequently urged during the progress of the -present work; it furnishes a striking example of the important influence -of quantity, or _dose_, in determining the specific operation of a -remedy; thus _two fluid-drachms_ of the oil may so excite the urinary -organs as to produce even bloody urine, and the other ill effects -described by Boerhaave and Lange; whereas _six fluid-drachms_, or a -_fluid-ounce_, will stimulate the bowels, and produce scarcely any -apparent effect upon the kidneys. - -As a medicine acting powerfully on the first passages, its value seems -only to have been lately appreciated; in Tænia, it may be said to act -almost as a specific remedy, discharging it in all cases, _dead_. In -obstinate constipation, depending on affections of the brain, I have -lately had several opportunities or witnessing its beneficial effects; -in an unfortunate instance of _Hydrocephalus acutus_ in a boy of -thirteen years of age,[672] it brought away an accumulation of feculent -matter almost incredible as to quantity, after the total failure of the -strongest doses of ordinary purgatives; and, I believe, if its dose be -sufficiently large, that it may generally be administered with perfect -safety and confidence. Dr. Latham has long regarded it as a valuable -medicine in Epilepsy, in which cases it may in the first instance prove -beneficial by unloading the bowels, and subsequently in producing an -affection of the head peculiar to its use; and, which generally succeeds -a large dose, it is an approach to intoxication, but is unaccompanied -with that hilarity and elevation of thought that so usually follow the -potation of spirituous liquors. In small doses it produces diuresis, and -is used with much advantage in sciatica and lumbago.[673] Its use in -diseases of the kidneys originating from ulcerations and obstructions in -those organs has been very highly extolled. Cheyne, in his Essay on the -gout, recommends it as a specific in Sciatica; upon this subject my own -experience so completely confirms the truth of Dr. Maton’s observations, -that I shall here insert them. “If,” says he, “I may be allowed to offer -the result of my own practice, its effects are in a few instances -successful in the removal of that disease; and even those cases which I -have seen cured under its use, appeared to be rather of the symptomatic -than idiophatic kind; it is reasonable to presume that the sciatic -nerve, from its origin and course, may owe some of its morbid affections -to an obstructed ureter, as well as to a rheumatic diathesis.” _Form: -50._ Hunter spoke of oil of turpentine as a styptic, and it has been -administered in the Almond emulsion in cases of internal hemorrhage of -an active nature. We should however be very careful how we make such an -experiment. This oil has the effect of communicating the odour of -violets to the urine of those who take it, and what is still more -extraordinary, to those even who merely expose themselves for a short -time to its effluvia:[674] a mixture of ♏︎x of this oil with f℥j of -almond oil, introduced upon cotton into the ears, is serviceable in -cases of deafness resulting from a diseased action of the ceruminiferous -glands; it is also employed as a local stimulant in a variety of cases: -and in cholic, and obstinate constipation, it is sometimes exhibited in -the form of an enema. In America, oil of Turpentine, in doses of a -drachm every hour or two, has been successfully administered in cases of -Yellow fever, when, says Dr. Chapman, it appears to be soothing in its -effects, removing the sense of heat and irritation in the stomach, -subduing the force of vascular action and general excitement, and -inducing at once a condition of more comfort and security. Orfila also -recommends it as the best corrective of inflammation in the stomach from -acrid poisons. In this country it has been very successfully employed in -cases of Melæna, and in Puerperal fever. As a stimulating liniment its -advantages are considerable, see _Liniment: Terebinth:_ In Germany, -Norway, and some parts of the Russian Empire, this essential oil is -frequently used as a remedy for lesions of the tendons, and other -bruises.[675] DOSE as an anthelmintic, f℥ss-f℥ij, repeated every eight -hours until the worm is ejected; in these large quantities it is more -convenient, as well as more efficacious, to administer it like castor -oil, floating upon some liquid aromatic vehicle:[676] by rubbing up Oil -of Turpentine with mucilage, we do but render it more pungent, and -difficult to swallow. As a diuretic or stimulant it may be given in the -form of an electuary, in doses of from ♏︎x to fʒj. It may be also -employed as a very active clyster, made by carefully incorporating one -or two table spoonsful of the oil with the yelk of an egg, and adding to -it a pint of thin mucilage. This terebinthinate clyster is well -calculated to relieve a paroxysm of flatulent cholic. OFFICINAL PREP. -_Liniment. Terebinth_. L. The Pharmacopœias direct the rectification of -the oil by redistillation,[677] when it is commonly called _Spirit_ of -turpentine, but it appears to be an unnecessary refinement. Dr. Nimmo -has proposed the following process for purifying the oil intended for -medicinal use, by which it is said to have its disagreeable flavour -lessened without sustaining any loss of efficacy. To eight parts of the -oil, add one part of the strongest alcohol, and let them be well -agitated together. In a few minutes a separation takes place; the oil, -unless very impure, falls to the bottom, and the alcohol, having -discharged the impurities, floats at the top. Pour off the alcoholic -portion, add a similar quantity of alcohol, and proceed as before. If -this be repeated three or four times, the oil will become nearly -tasteless, almost inodorous, and when evaporated will leave no residuum. -But pure as the oil may be thus rendered, it speedily returns to its -original condition. - - - TIGLII OLEUM. L. Oil of Tiglium. - - Croton Tiglium. _Oleum e Seminibus expressum._ - -The _Croton Tiglium_ is a native of the island of Ceylon, and is found -in Malabar, China, Cochinchina, and the Molucca Islands. Every part of -the plant would seem to be endowed with medicinal activity; the _root_ -acts as a drastic purgative, and when pulverized, and exhibited in the -dose of a few grains, is considered at Amboyna and Batavia, as a -specific for dropsy; the _wood_ (_lignum Pavanæ_) produces, when -administered in small doses, a diaphoretic effect, and in larger ones it -proves drastic; the _leaves_ are also purgative, and when dried and -powdered are supposed to afford an antidote against the bite of the -_cobra del Capella_. The _seeds_, however, are the parts which have been -more generally employed in medicine, the effects of which appear to have -been well known for nearly a thousand years.[A] They were early -introduced into Europe, and long known under the names of _Grana -Molucca_—_Tilii Grana_—and _Grana Tiglia_.[678] It appears that they -were at first very frequently administered, but their extreme acrimony -and violence,[679] and probably the accidents which arose from their -injudicious use, soon banished the article from medical practice; in -India, however these seeds are still employed as an effectual purgative, -after first undergoing the process of roasting, or baking, for the -purpose of removing the shell, rendering the nut pulverulent, and at the -same time of moderating the acrimonious qualities.[680] The expressed -oil of these seeds does not appear to have been obtained in a separate -form until a later period; Lemery speaks of it, and Geoffroy in -directing its dose cautions us against giving more than ʒj!—he probably -meant a drop. Its use has very lately been revived, and there can be -little doubt but that under proper restrictions, it may become a -valuable acquisition to the practitioner. The profession is indebted for -its late introduction, or rather revival, to Mr. E. Conwell, of the East -India Company’s Medical Service, on the Madras Establishment, who,[681] -having for many years prescribed it with advantage, introduced a -quantity of it for trial in London, through the medium of his friend, -Mr. Short, of Ratcliffe Highway. - -QUALITIES. This expressed oil has a yellow colour, a faint odour, and an -acrid taste; these qualities however will be found to vary in different -samples; but the fact, as Dr. Nimmo[682] has justly observed, may be -fairly explained, without suspecting the existence of any fraud, by -supposing that the seeds have undergone a different degree of -torrefaction, in order to separate the oil from the farinaceous part. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The recent experiments of Dr. Nimmo have very -satisfactorily shewn that this oil consists of 45 parts of an _Acrid -purgative principle_, and 55 of a fixed oil resembling that of olives, -and not possessed of any cathartic property. The acrid principle appears -to reside in a resinous matter soluble in alcohol and sulphuric æther, -and in volatile and fixed oils. I have lately repeated some of Dr. -Nimmo’s experiments on a recently imported sample of oil, and with -similar results. The acrid principle appears to bear a strong analogy to -that which I separated from elaterium, and as I gave to this latter -principle the term _Elatin_, it seems to me that we might with much -propriety, apply the name _Tiglin_ to the former, especially as it does -not appear to possess any of the characters and habitudes of a -salifiable basis; at all events the adoption of such a term will obviate -the necessity of circumlocution in our descriptions. SOLUBILITY. By -alcohol the oil undergoes a ready decomposition; the _Tiglin_ is -dissolved together with a very minute quantity of the oily part. Ether -and oil of turpentine dissolve the whole; a fact which enables us, by -digesting the seeds in these menstrua, to obtain the article in as -genuine, and certainly in a much more uniform, condition, than by the -processes of torrefaction and expression, as practised in India; for -this fact we are also indebted to Dr. Nimmo. MED. USES. As far as I have -been able to ascertain the fact, this oil does not appear to produce any -effects which cannot be commanded by other drastic purgatives; its value -depends upon the facility with which it may be administered; in some -cases it is amply sufficient to touch the tongue, in others, a drop or -two will be required. In maniacs, and in cases where the administration -of bulky medicines is extremely difficult, it would seem to offer a -decided advantage.[683] FORMS OF EXHIBITION. It has been usually given -in this country in the proportion of from one to two drops, in the form -of pills. Dr. Nimmo’s discovery with respect to the chemical composition -of the oil, very naturally suggested to him the mode of administering it -in the form of an alcoholic tincture, (_Tinctura Tiglii_,) and he has -found by experience that such a preparation furnishes the means of -readily apportioning the dose to the various circumstances of the case; -thus he found that in administering a tincture[684] in doses equivalent -to the number of drops decomposed, the same effects were produced as -have been attributed to the entire oil. ADULTERATIONS. Much has been -said upon the fraudulent admixture of this comparatively expensive -article with the cheaper fixed oils; and we believe with much truth; a -circumstance which will of necessity prevent the general use of the -article; and occasion very different reports with respect to its value -and activity. Dr. Nimmo however proposes a method of detecting such -adulteration, by a process suggested by the results of his experiments -upon its composition, and whose rationalé will be easily understood -after the chemical history that has been just presented. - -“Let a very light phial be counterpoised in an accurate balance; pour -into it 50 grains of the suspected oil, add alcohol (which has been -previously digested[685] upon olive oil,) agitate them well, pour off -the solution and add more alcohol as before, until the dissolved portion -is diffused in such a proportion of alcohol that each half drachm -measure shall contain equal to one dose of the oil of _Tiglium_ for an -adult. By afterwards placing the phial near a fire, to evaporate what -remains of the alcohol in the bottle, _if the residuum be to that which -has been abstracted by the alcohol as_ 55 to 45, _the oil is genuine_. -If olive, or any other oil little soluble in alcohol, has been employed -as the adulterating agent, it is evident that the residuum will be in a -larger proportion; but should _Castor Oil_ have been employed for that -purpose, the proportion of the residuum will be smaller even than in the -genuine medicine.” - - - TINCTURÆ. L.E.D. _Tinctures._ - -These consist of alcohol, proof spirit, or spirit of greater or less -density, holding in solution one or more of those proximate principles -of vegetable or animal matter which are soluble in that menstruum, viz; -_Sugar_, _resin_, _extractive_, _tannin_, _cinchonia_, _camphor_, -_volatile oils_, _morphia_, _emetin_, _conein_, _elatin_, _tiglin_, and -_several acids_. The proper solvent of those bodies, termed gum-resins, -appears to be proof spirit. The compilers of the _Codex Medicamentarius_ -of Paris, have defined the different degrees of spirituous strength -requisite for the full and perfect extraction of the active elements of -different bodies with great truth and nicety; thus they direct for these -purposes a spirit of three different standards, viz. 36 (_Sp._ _gr._ -·837,) 32 (·856) 22, (·915) of Beaumé’s hydrometer; with the first are -prepared the _resinous_ tinctures; with the second those wherein the -_resinous_, _extractive_, or _gummy_ elements, hold nearly an equal -place; and with the third those in which the latter predominate. We are -moreover indebted to this committee for having set at rest a question -which has been long doubtful, whether the addition of alkaline agents -increases the extractive powers of the spirit? They have indeed -ascertained by experiment, that the reverse not frequently obtains; for -instance, they found that a smaller proportion of _guaiacum_ was -dissolved by the spirit of ammonia, than by alcohol of the same -strength, and that the quantity of matter dissolved from the _root of -Valerian_ was the same in both cases. Very active substances, soluble in -alcohol, are those which are particularly adapted for tinctures, since -they furnish preparations which are efficient in small doses, and very -manageable in extemporaneous prescription, such are the tinctures of -_Opium_, _Digitalis_, _Hyoscyamus_, _Scilla_, _&c._ and from the -chemical analysis of _Elaterium_, there can be no doubt but that a very -active and useful tincture of that substance might be introduced into -practice; while Dr. Nimmo has very clearly proved that the active matter -of the _Croton Tiglium_ may be thus concentrated, see _Tiglii Oleum_. On -the contrary, substances of little activity, except in large doses, are -the least adapted for this form of exhibition, as in such cases the -solvent will act more powerfully on the living system, than the -principles which it may hold in solution, and when continued for any -length of time, will lay the foundation of the pernicious custom of dram -drinking; such tinctures, however, are not without their value in -combination; they sometimes increase the efficacy, and often correct the -operation or disguise the flavour, of the medicines with which they may -be united; for example, the cathartic tinctures in _Formula 70_, augment -the purgative powers of the combination, at the same time that they -correct its unpleasant operation; many other illustrations are presented -in the different formulæ, for the explanation of which I must refer the -student to the _Key Letters_. The addition of a tincture has likewise -the effect of preserving decoctions and infusions from spontaneous -decomposition, the _compound tincture of Cardamoms_ answers such an -object in the _compound decoction of Aloes_. Tinctures are sometimes -made with æther, but they are generally more strongly characterised by -the nature of the menstruum than by that of the substance dissolved in -it; indeed, æther is used in these cases, not to dissolve substances -which would resist the action of alcohol and water, but for the sake of -its own direct action on the body; thus the Edinburgh pharmacopœia -directs an _Æthereal Tincture of Aloes_, which is more penetrating and -stimulant than the alcoholic tinctures; the London College, with the -exception of the _Aromatic Spirit of Æther_, does not recognise any -preparation of this nature: I have already alluded to the _Æthereal -Tincture of Digitalis_ of the French Codex, than which nothing can be -more injudicious, for the digitalis does not amount to more than 1⁄70th -part of the tincture, and must therefore be entirely counteracted by the -stimulant effects of the menstruum. The same objection cannot be urged -against the æthereal tinctures of _Castor_, _Musk_, and _Amber_, since -in these cases, the subject and the menstruum concur in their mode of -operation. - -Tinctures derive their names from the substances which impart activity -to them, and as the medicinal history of each substance is detailed -under its proper head, it will be unnecessary to dwell at any length -upon the individual virtues of these tinctures. - - - 1. _Prepared with Rectified Spirit_. - -TINCTURA ASSAFŒTIDÆ. L.D. _Dose_, fʒss to fʒj. - -—— BENZOES COMP. L.E.D. _Balsamum Traumaticum_, P.L. 1745. This is a -combination of Benzoin, Storax, and Tolu, with aloes; it is regarded as -a stimulating expectorant, and has been used in chronic catarrh and -confirmed asthma, but it is now very rarely employed, except as an -application to wounds and languid ulcers. It is sold under the name of -_Friar’s Balsam_; and with respect to the use of this preparation as a -_Styptic_, the public have fallen into a serious error; fresh wounds it -must necessarily injure, not only by its stimulating qualities, but by -the separation of the resins which take place on its intermixture with -the blood; these form a substance, which absolutely prevents what is -most desirable in such case,—the sides of the wound coming in contact -and uniting by the first intention. Dose. As an internal remedy from -fʒss to fʒij, triturated with yelk of egg, or mucilage, to suspend it in -water. - -TINCTURA CASTOREI. L.E. _Dose_, ♏︎xx to fʒij. See Form 20, 23, 25, 76, -97, 136. - -TINCTURA CASTOREI COMPOSITA. E. This is much more active than the -preceding tincture, as it contains assafœtida, and its menstruum is -ammoniated alcohol. Dose ♏︎xv to fʒj. - -TINCTURA CINCHONÆ AMMONIATA. L. In this preparation we have the tonic -powers of the bark combined with the stimulus of the Ammonia. _Dose_, -fʒss to fʒij. Acids and Acidulous Salts are of course incompatible with -it. - -TINCTURA GUAIACI. L.E.D. A simple solution of guaiac. _Dose_, fʒi-fʒiij. - -TINCTURA GUAIACI AMMONIATA. This is a solution of the guaiac in the -aromatic spirit of ammonia, and is consequently more stimulating than -the preceding one, and more efficacious as a sudorific: after arterial -action is properly reduced, it is certainly one of our best remedies in -rheumatism. _Dose_, fʒj to fʒij, at bed time, and its effects should be -promoted by some warm beverage. It is worthy of remark, that nitrous -acid and the spirit of nitric æther occasion an extraordinary -decomposition of these tinctures, separating the guaiacum into -coagulated masses, and imparting to the whole an intense bluish green -colour. I find that _chlorine_ has the same effect;[686] but the -sulphuric and muriatic acids produce no disturbance, although all acids -and acidulous salts must be considered as incompatible with it. If equal -parts of quick-lime and powdered guaiacum be rubbed together, and a -quantity of water be poured over them, and the mixture be allowed to -stand until it becomes fine, we shall obtain a solution of this -substance, which will mix in any proportion with aqueous vehicles -without decomposition, and to which the aromatic spirit of ammonia may -be subsequently added with effect. - -TINCTURA TOLUIFERÆ BALSAMI. E.D. This is only useful as an adjunct, to -impart agreeable flavour and fragrance to other remedies. - -The above tinctures, when added to water, are instantly decomposed, the -practitioner must therefore remember that when he prescribes them in -aqueous vehicles, it will be necessary to direct them to be triturated -with some viscid liquor, as mucilage, previous to the addition of the -water, in order to suspend the resinous precipitate. - - - 2. _Tinctures prepared with Spirit above Proof._ - -TINCTURA ALOES COMPOSITA. L.D. _Elixir Proprietatis._ P.L. 1720. -Tincture of Myrrh is the menstruum of the Aloes in this preparation, to -which Saffron is added. Dose, fʒj to fʒij. _Form. 16, 97._ - -TINCTURA MYRRHÆ. L. The strength of the spirituous solvent has been very -judiciously increased in the _Editio Altera_ of the London Pharmacopœia, -by which means a brighter tincture is obtained. It is rarely used except -in astringent and detergent gargles, or as an external application to -foul ulcers; diluted with water it presents us with an excellent lotion -for spongy gums.[687] - - - 3. _Tinctures prepared with Proof Spirit._ - -TINCTURA ANGUSTURÆ. D. See _Cuspariæ Cortex._ - -TINCTURA AURANTII. L.D. An agreeable adjunct to bitter infusions. -_Dose_, fʒij to fʒiij. - -TINCTURA CALUMBÆ. L.D. A valuable stomachic. _Form. 32, 35, 154, 155, -159._ _Dose_, fʒi-fʒiij. - -TINCTURA CAMPHORÆ COMPOSITA. _Tinctura Opii Camphorata._ P.L. 1787. -_Elixir Paregoricum._[688] P.L. 1745. This preparation had undergone -both change of name and composition in the last Pharmacopœia; its old -name was thought improper from its similarity to that of _tincture of -opium_, and the _oil of aniseed_ has been omitted on account of its -disagreeable flavour; still, however, these perpetual changes are most -distressing; the tincture, as it is now prepared, is very different from -that which has been so long and so generally sold under the name of -_Paregoric Elixir_, and the chemist is therefore obliged to keep both -the preparations, and to send the one or the other, according as it may -be required by the old or new name. One fluid-ounce contains nearly two -grains of Opium and of benzoic acid, and about one grain and a quarter -of camphor. In _doses_ of fʒj to fʒiij, it is anodyne. - -TINCTURA CANTHARIDES. D. This tincture is highly stimulating, acting -with great energy upon the urinary organs; it therefore offers a -resource in gleets, fluor albus, incontinence of urine, &c. it has also -proved serviceable as a highly stimulating diuretic, in cases of -_Hydrops Ovarii_. See _Form. 116_. _Dose_, ♏︎x to fʒj, given in some -demulcent infusion; it is likewise employed with advantage as a -stimulating embrocation and rubefacient, in conjunction with _soap_ or -camphor _liniment_. Externally it has been used in the cure of Sinuses, -and fistulous openings, in the proportion of three fluid-drachms to a -pint of water.[689] - -TINCTURA CAPSICI. L. It is an excellent stimulant. See _Capsici Baccæ_. -_Dose_, ♏︎x to fʒi. - -TINCTURA CARDAMOMI COMPOSITA. L. An agreeable cordial, and adjunct to -bitter infusions. See _Form. 47, 51_.[690] _Dose_, fʒi to fʒij. - -TINCTURA CASCARILLÆ. L.D. It is added with much effect to different -stomachic infusions. See _Form. 33, 39, 41_. _Dose_, fʒi to fʒiij. - -TINCTURA CATECHU. L.E.D. A warm and grateful astringent; very useful as -an adjunct to cretaceous mixtures in diarrhœa, &c. See _Form. 51, 52, -58_. _Dose_, fʒi to fʒiij. - -TINCTURA CINCHONÆ. L.E.D. Used as an adjunct to the decoction or -infusion of the bark. See _Form. 126, 127_. _Dose_, fʒj to f℥ss. It -should be preserved in a place which is not very cold; for a low -temperature precipitates the Morphia; this inconvenience, however, is -obviated by the addition of a little acetic acid, without diminishing -the efficacy of the tincture. - -TINCTURA CINCHONÆ COMPOSITA. This resembles the celebrated tincture of -Huxham, and although it contains less cinchona than the simple tincture, -yet from the addition of aromatics it is more grateful and stomachic. -_Dose_, fʒj to f℥ss. - -TINCTURA CINNAMOMI. L.D. See _Form. 101_. - -TINCTURA CINNAMOMI COMPOSITA. L.E.D. As this is a combination of -aromatics with cinnamon, it is more grateful and stomachic than the -simple tincture. _Dose_, fʒ to fʒij. - -TINCTURA CONII MACULATI. E. As _Conein_ is perfectly soluble in spirit, -this tincture constitutes a very elegant and efficient form for the -exhibition of _Hemlock_; I have frequently experienced its effects, when -added to febrifuge mixtures, with satisfaction. The London college has -not hitherto admitted it into the list of tinctures, which is to be -regretted. - -TINCTURA CROCI. E.D. It has no medicinal use, independent of its colour. - -TINCTURA DIGITALIS. L.E.D. It is a very useful form for the exhibition -of this valuable plant. _Dose_, ♏︎x, cautiously increased. See -_Digitalis Folia_, and _Form. 32_. - -TINCTURA GENTIANÆ COMPOSITA. L.E. An elegant stomachic bitter, but less -eligible as a remedy than the infusion. Dose, fʒi-fʒij. - -TINCTURA HELLEBORI NIGRI. This preparation was strongly advised by Dr. -Mead, in uterine obstructions. _Dose_, ♏︎xxx to fʒj. See _Hellebori -Radix_. - -TINCTURA HUMULI. L.E. It is supposed to possess the tonic and narcotic -properties of the hop. _Dose_, fʒss to fʒiij. - -TINCTURA HYOSCYAMI. L. This is a much more powerful narcotic than the -preceding tincture; and it is not liable to affect the head, nor to -produce that disturbance in the biliary secretions which so inevitably -follows the use of opium. _Dose_, fʒss to fʒij. - -TINCTURA JALAPÆ. L.E. As the activity of Jalap does not reside in any -one principle, but depends upon the combination of its gum, extractive, -and resin, _proof_ spirit is of course its appropriate solvent; and the -resulting tincture is therefore an active purgative, but it is rarely -administered except as an _adjuvant_ to cathartic combinations. _Dose_, -fʒj to f℥ss. See _Form. 70, 76_. - -TINCTURA KINO. L.E.D. This is little else than a solution of _Tannin_; -it is however less astringent than the tincture of Catechu. _Dose_, fʒi -to fʒij. - -TINCTURA OPII. L.E.D. This is at once a most convenient and elegant form -for the exhibition of opium; ♏︎xix contain one grain of opium. See -_Opium_, and _Form. 5, 7, 8, 20, 28, 52, 75, 76, 107, 110, 117, 127, -136, 156, 172_. As an external application, when rubbed upon the skin it -produces anodyne effects, and it is said that these effects are very -much increased by combining it with acetic acid; an _acetate of morphia_ -is probably thus produced. - -TINCTURA QUASSIÆ EXCELSÆ. E.D. The bitter principle of this root, -Quassin, is completely extracted by proof spirit. _Dose_, fʒj. - -TINCTURA RHEI. L.E.D. Less purgative, but more astringent and aromatic -than the infusion. That made with the East Indian variety is of a deeper -colour, with a tinge of brown. _Dose_, f℥ss to f℥j. - -TINCTURA RHEI COMPOSITA. L. A cordial, used principally as an adjunct to -saline purgatives. _Dose_, fʒvj to f℥j, to produce purgative effects; -from fʒj to fʒij, to act as a stomachic. - -The Edinburgh Pharmacopœia directs two compound tinctures of Rhubarb for -similar purposes, viz. _Tinct. Rhei et Aloes_; and _Tinct. Rhei et -Gentianæ_. - -TINCTURA SCILLÆ. L.E.D. _Dose_, ♏︎x to xxx. See _Form. 65, 109, 139_. - -TINCTURA SENNÆ. L.E. _Dose_, fʒij to ℥j. See _Form. 70_. _Dose_, fʒij to -f℥j. - -TINCTURA SENNÆ COMPOSITA. E. In this tincture, the Senna is quickened by -Jalap. _Dose_, fʒij to f℥j.[691] - -TINCTURA SERPENTARIÆ. L.E.D. Dose, fʒij to fʒiij. It is principally -employed as a stimulating adjunct to the infusion or decoction of -Cinchona, in typhoid fevers. OFFICINAL PREP. _Tinct. Cincon. comp. L. -Dose_, fʒi to fʒiij. - -TINCTURA VALERIANÆ. L.D. It is only used as an adjunct to the infusion -of Valerian. - -TINCTURA VALERIANÆ AMMONIATA. L.D. This tincture is not more highly -charged with the principles of the Valerian than the foregoing one, but -as the Ammonia corresponds with it in virtue, it is probably more -powerful. _Dose_, fʒi to fʒij. See _Form. 23, 25_. - -TINCTURA ZINGIBERIS. L.D. A highly stimulating preparation. See _Form. -33_. _Dose_, fʒss to fʒij. - - - TINCTURA FERRI AMMONIATI. L. - -As this is merely a spirituous solution of the _Ferrum Ammoniatum_, the -title of tincture is improperly applied to it; it seems moreover to be a -very superfluous preparation. - - - TINCTURA FERRI MURIATIS. L.E.D. - -QUALITIES. _Colour_, brownish yellow; _Taste_, styptic; _Odour_, very -peculiar. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is an alcoholic solution of muriate -of iron; the iron being in the state of _peroxide_. INCOMPATIBLE -SUBSTANCES. _Alkalies_ and their _carbonates_; _the infusions of -astringent vegetables_; _mucilage of gum arabic:_ by this latter -substance it is precipitated in gelatinous flakes. MED. USES. It is one -of the most active preparations of iron which we possess, and it -moreover appears to exert a specific influence upon the urinary -organs.[692] Mr. Cline informs us that ♏︎x, given every ten minutes, -until some sensible effect is produced, afford in dysuria speedy relief; -in hemorrhage from the bladder, kidneys, or uterus, its acts as a -powerful styptic. See _Form. 35, 60, 97, 114_. Externally, it is very -efficacious in destroying venereal warts, either used alone, or diluted -with a small portion of water. _Dose_, ♏︎x to fʒss, or fʒj.[693] - - - TORMENTILLÆ RADIX. L.E.D. - - Tormentilla Officinalis. - - _Tormentil Root._ - -QUALITIES. This root is knotty, externally blackish, internally reddish; -_Odour_, slightly aromatic; _Taste_, austere and styptic. CHEMICAL -COMPOSITION. Its active matter is chiefly _Tannin_, and except galls and -catechu, it appears to contain a larger proportion than any other -vegetable astringent.[694] SOLUBILITY. Boiling water extracts all its -virtues, as also does spirit. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Solutions of -Isinglass_, _the Salts of Iron_; _Alkalies_ and _Alkaline Earths_. MED. -USES. It has been chiefly used in diarrhœa, and it is very efficacious -in that which is so frequently attendant on Phthisis. Dr. Fordyce -recommends its union with Ipecacuan, by which combination, he observes, -we shall astringe the vessels of the intestines, and at the same time -relax those of the skin. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In substance, or in -decoction made by boiling ℥j of the root in oiss of water until reduced -to oj. DOSE, of the substance in powder, ʒss to ʒj; of the above -decoction f℥j thrice a day. OFFICINAL PREP. _Pulv. Cret. Comp._ L. - - - TOXICODENDRI FOLIA. L.E. - - (Rhus Toxicodendron.) - - _Sumach Leaves_, or _Poison Oak_. - -QUALITIES. Its leaves are inodorous, but have a sub-acrid taste. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Gallic acid, tannin, and a certain acrimonious -matter, upon which the virtues of the plant depend, and which, according -to Van Mons, is disengaged from the leaves in the state of gas during -the night, or while they do not receive the direct rays of the sun. MED. -USES. Dr. Alderson of Hull introduced the leaves of this plant to -notice, in whose hands they proved successful in several cases of -Paralysis; the same results however have not been obtained by other -physicians; the plant has therefore fallen into disuse, and might, in -deference to public opinion, be removed from the materia medica. When -applied externally it has been known to produce an erysipelatous -affection of the skin; a remarkable instance of which lately occurred at -the Botanic garden at Chelsea, where a person merely rubbed his eye -after having casually touched the plant in question. - - - TUSSILAGO. (Tussilago Farfara—_Folia_, _Flores_.) _Coltsfoot_.[695] - -This plant has been regarded as a powerful expectorant from the earliest -ages; it is at present only valued for the mucilage which it affords; a -handful of the leaves boiled in oij of water, until reduced to oj, will -furnish, by the addition of a little sugar candy, a very grateful -demulcent. - - - VALERIANÆ RADIX. L.E.D. - - (Valeriana Officinalis. _Sylvestris._) - - _Valerian Root._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, strong, peculiar and unpleasant; _Taste_, warm, -bitter, and sub-acrid. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Extractive, gum, resin, -fecula, tannin, and a peculiar essential oil which seems to contain -camphor, and on which its virtues probably depend. SOLUBILITY. Its -active matter is extracted by boiling water, alcohol, and the solutions -of the pure alkalies. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _The salts of iron._ MED. -USES. It is antispasmodic, tonic, and emmenagogue; and it is highly -beneficial in those diseases which appear to be connected with a morbid -susceptibility of the nervous system, as in hysteria, hemicrania, and in -some species of epilepsy; and it would appear that its virtues in such -complaints may be frequently increased by combining it with cinchona. -FORMS OF EXHIBITION. The form of powder is the most effectual, and next -to this a strong tincture made with proof spirit; by decoction its -powers are considerably impaired, and consequently the extract is an -inefficient preparation. DOSE of the powder ℈j to ʒj; when the flavour -disgusts, the addition of a small portion of mace or cinnamon will be -found to disguise it. See _Form. 25, 31, 38_. OFFICINAL PREPARATION. -_Infus. Valerian._ D. _Tinct. Valerian._ L.D. _Tinct. Valerian. -ammoniat._ L.D. ADULTERATIONS. The roots of a species of _crowfoot_ are -sometimes mixed with those of valerian; they may be distinguished by a -caustic taste on chewing them; the roots have also often a disagreeable -smell from the urine of cats, who are allured and delighted by their -odour; and they are sometimes inert, from not having been taken up at a -proper season, or from not having been carefully preserved. - - - VERATRI RADIX. L.E. (Veratrum Album.) - - HELLEBORUS ALBUS. D. - - _White Hellebore Root._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, strong, and disagreeable; _Taste_, bitter, and very -acrid; by drying, the odour is dissipated, and in this state it is found -in the shops. SOLUBILITY. Its active principles are soluble in water, -alcohol, and the alkalies. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Pelletier and Caventou -have lately discovered in this vegetable a new alkaline principle, -white, crystalline, and acrid, to which they have given the name of -_Veratria:_ it appears to exist in combination with gallic acid. MED. -USES. The effects of this root are extremely violent and poisonous; the -ancients employed it in various obstinate cases, but they generally -regarded it as their last resource; it acts as a violent emetic and -cathartic, producing bloody stools, great anxiety, tremors, and -convulsions. Etmuller says, that the external application of the root to -the abdomen, will produce vomiting; and Schroeder observed the same -phenomenon to take place in a case where it was used as a suppository, -and its juice has been applied to the purpose of poisoning arrows; -notwithstanding these effects however the veratrum has been very safely -and successfully administered in cases of mania, epilepsy, lepra, and -gout:[696] but the most ordinary use of white hellebore is as a local -stimulant; as an adjunct to errhine powders; or in the form of -decoction, as a lotion; or mixed with a lard, as an ointment in -scabies,[697] and herpetic eruptions: great caution however is required -in its application, for several authors affirm that as an errhine, it -has caused abortions, floodings which could not be restrained, and fatal -hemorrhages from the nose. DOSE, gr. iij to v, obtunded by the addition -of twelve times its weight of starch, a pinch of which may be taken for -several successive evenings; for internal administration it ought not to -exceed gr. ij. OFFICINAL PREP. _Decoct. Veratri._ L. _Tinct. Veratri -albi._ E. _Unguent. Veratri._ L. _Unguent. Sulphur. comp._ L. - - - VINUM. _Wine._ - -The term wine is more strictly and especially applied to express the -fermented juice of the _Grape_, although it is generally used to denote -that of _any_ sub-acid fruit. The presence of _Tartar_ is perhaps the -circumstance by which the grape is most strongly distinguished from all -the other sub-acid fruits that have been applied to the purpose of wine -making. The juice of the grape, moreover, contains within itself all the -principles essential to vinification, in such a proportion and state of -balance as to enable it at once to undergo a regular and complete -fermentation, whereas the juices of other fruits require artificial -additions for this purpose; and the scientific application and due -adjustment of these means, constitute the art of making wines.[698] It -has been remarked, that all those wines that contain an excess of malic -acid are of a bad quality, hence the grand defect that is necessarily -inherent in the wines of this country, and which leads them to partake -of the properties of cider, for in the place of the _tartaric_, the -_malic acid_ always predominates in native fruits. - -The characteristic ingredient of all wines is _Alcohol_, and the -quantity of this, and the condition or state of combination in which it -exists, are the circumstances that include all the interesting and -disputed points of medical enquiry. Daily experience convinces us that -the same quantity of alcohol, applied to the stomach under the form of -natural wine, and in a state of mixture with water, will produce very -different effects upon the body, and to an extent which it is difficult -to comprehend; it has, for instance, been demonstrated that Port, -Madeira, and Sherry, contain from one-fourth to one-fifth their bulk of -alcohol, so that a person who takes a bottle of either of them, will -thus take nearly half a pint of alcohol, or almost a pint of pure -brandy! and moreover that different wines, although of the same specific -gravity, and consequently containing the same absolute proportion of the -spirit, will be found to vary very considerably in their intoxicating -powers; no wonder then that such results should stagger the philosopher, -who is naturally unwilling to accept any tests of difference from the -nervous system, which elude the ordinary resources of analytical -chemistry; the conclusion was therefore drawn, that alcohol must -necessarily exist in wine in a far different condition from that in -which we know it in a separate state, or in other words, that its -elements only could exist in the vinous liquor, and that their union was -determined, and consequently alcohol produced, by the action of -distillation. That it was the _product_, and not the _educt_ of -distillation, was an opinion which originated with Rouelle, who asserted -that alcohol was not completely formed, until the temperature was raised -to the point of distillation; more lately the same doctrine was revived -and promulgated by Fabbroni, in the memoirs of the Florentine Academy. -Gay Lussac has, however, silenced the clamorous partisans of this -theory, by separating the alcohol by distillation at the temperature of -66° _Fah._ and by the aid of a _vacuum_, it has since been effected at -56°: besides, it has been shewn that by precipitating the colouring -matter and some of the other elements of the wine by _sub-acetate of -lead_, and then saturating the clear liquor with _sub-carbonate of -potass_, the alcohol may be completely separated without any elevation -of temperature; and by this ingenious expedient Mr. Brande has been -enabled to construct a table, exhibiting the proportions of combined -alcohol which exist in the several kinds of wine: no doubt therefore can -remain upon this subject, and the fact of the difference of effect, -produced by the same bulk of alcohol, when presented to the stomach in -different states of combination, adds another striking and instructive -illustration to those already enumerated in the course of this work, of -the extraordinary powers of chemical combination in modifying the -activity of substances upon the living system. In the present instance, -the alcohol is so combined with the extractive matter of the wine, that -it is probably incapable of exerting its full specific effects upon the -stomach, before it becomes altered in its properties, or, in other -words, _digested:_ and this view of the subject may be fairly urged in -explanation of the reason why the intoxicating effects of the same wine -are so liable to vary in degree, in the same individual, from the -peculiar state of his digestive organs at the time of its potation.[699] -Hitherto we have only spoken of _pure_ wine, but it is essential to -state that the stronger wines of Spain, Portugal, and Sicily, are -rendered remarkable in this country by the addition of _Brandy_, and -must consequently contain _uncombined_ alcohol, the proportion of which -however will not necessarily bear a ratio to the quantity added, -because, at the period of its admixture, a renewed fermentation is -produced by the scientific vintner, which will assimilate and combine a -certain portion of the foreign spirit with the wine: this manipulation, -in technical language, is called _fretting-in_. The free alcohol may, -according to the experiments of Fabbroni, be immediately separated by -saturating the vinous fluid with _sub-carbonate of potass_, while the -combined portion will remain undisturbed: in ascertaining the -fabrication and salubrity of a wine, this circumstance ought always to -constitute a leading feature in the inquiry; and the tables of Mr. -Brande would have been greatly enhanced in practical value, had the -relative proportions of _uncombined_ spirit been appreciated in his -experiments, since it is to _this_, and not to the _combined_ alcohol, -that the injurious effects of the wine are to be attributed. “It is well -known,” observes Dr. Macculloch, “that diseases of the liver are the -most common, and the most formidable of those produced by the use of -_ardent_ spirits; it is equally certain that no such disorders follow -the intemperate use of _pure_ wine, however long indulged in: to the -concealed and unwitting consumption of spirit, therefore, as contained -in the wines commonly drunk in this country, is to be attributed the -excessive prevalence of those hepatic affections which are comparatively -little known to our continental neighbours.” Thus much is certain, that -our ordinary wines contain no alcohol, but what is disarmed of its -virulence by the prophylactic energies of combination. - -The odour, or _bouquet_, and flavour which distinguish one wine from -another, evidently depend upon some volatile and fugacious principle, -soluble in alcohol; this in sweet and half fermented wines, is -immediately derived from the fruit, as in those from the _Frontignan_ -and _Muscat_ grapes; but in the more perfect wines, as in _Claret_, -_Hermitage_, _Rivesaltes_, and _Burgundy_, it bears no resemblance to -the natural flavour of the fruit, but is altogether the product of the -vinous process; and in some wines it arises from the introduction of -flavouring ingredients, as from almonds in Madeira wines, as well as in -those of Xeres and Saint Lucar, and hence their well known nutty -flavour. Among the ancients it was formerly, and in modern Greece it is -to this day, the fashion to give a resinous flavour, by the introduction -of Turpentine into the casks.[700] These wines are supposed to assist -digestion, to restrain ulcerous, and other morbid discharges, to provoke -urine, and to strengthen the bowels; but Dioscorides also informs us -that they were known to produce vertigo, pain in the head, and many -evils not incidental to the same quantity of vinous liquor when free -from such admixtures.[701] - -Wines admit of being arranged into four classes.[702] - -1. SWEET WINES; which contain the greatest proportion of extractive and -saccharine matter, and generally the least ardent spirit, though this is -often rather disguised than absent; as in these wines a proportion of -sugar has remained unchanged during the process of vinification, they -must be considered as the results of an imperfect fermentation, and are -in fact mixtures of wine and sugar; accordingly, whatever arrests the -progress of fermentation, must have a tendency to produce a sweet wine; -thus boiling the _must_ or drying the fruit will, by partially -separating the natural leaven and dissipating the water, occasion such a -result as is exemplified by the manufacture of the wines of Cyprus, the -_vino cotto_ of the Italians and the _vinum coctum_ of the ancients, by -that of _Frontignac_, the rich and luscious wines of _Canary_, the -celebrated _Tokay_, _Vino Tinto_ (Tent of Hungary) the Italian -_Montefiascone_, the Persian _Schiras_, the _Malmsey wines of Candia_, -_Chio_, _Lesbos_, and _Tenedos_, and those of the other islands of the -Archipelago. The wines of the ancients, as Chaptal observes, were so -concentrated by boiling, that they rather deserve the name of extracts -or syrups, than that of wines; they, must have been very sweet, and but -little fermented; apparently to remedy this, they were kept for a great -length of time; according to Aristotle and Galen, seven years was the -shortest period necessary for keeping wine before it was fit to drink, -but wines of a century old were not uncommon at the tables of the -luxurious citizens of ancient Rome, and Horace boasts of his drinking -_Falernian_, born as it were with him, or which reckoned its age from -the same consuls.[703] - -2. SPARKLING OR EFFERVESCING WINES, as Champagne, are indebted for their -characteristic properties to the presence of carbonic acid; they rapidly -intoxicate, in consequence of the alcohol, which is suspended in, or -combined with the gas, being thus applied in a sudden and very divided -state to a large extent of nervous surface; for the same reason, their -effects are as transitory as they are sudden.[704] - -3. DRY AND LIGHT. These are exemplified by the more esteemed German -wines, as _Hock_, _Rhenish_, _Mayne_, _Moselle_, _Necker_, and _Elsass_, -and those highly flavoured wines, _Burgundy_, _Claret_, _Hermitage_, &c. -They contain a very inconsiderable degree of ardent spirit, and combine -with it the effect of an acid. - -4. DRY AND STRONG, as _Madeira_, _Port_, _Sherry_, &c. The name _Sec_, -corruptly written Sack, signifies dry; the _Sec_ wine prepared at -Xeres[705] in Spain, is called according to our orthography, _Sherris_, -or _Sherry_. In the manufacture of Sherry, _Lime_[706] is added to the -grapes, a circumstance, observes Dr. Macculloch, apparently conducive to -its well known dry quality, and which probably acts by neutralizing a -portion of _malic_ or _tartaric_ acid. - -By the adulteration and medication of wines, three principal objects are -attempted, viz. 1. _To give them strength_, which is effected by adding -any ardent spirit; but the wine is slowly decomposed by it. 2. _To -perfect or change their colour._ It is very usual to change _white_ -wines, when they have grown brown or rough, into _red_ wines, by means -of sloes, or other colouring matter. 3. _To lessen, or remove their -acidity._ It is well known that lead in different forms has frequently -been employed for this purpose; the practice, however, is attended with -most dangerous consequences; but which Dr. Macculloch is inclined to -believe has been over-rated, since the compounds which this metal forms -with the tartaric and malic acids are insoluble; but against this -argument, the decisive results of experience may be opposed, and -Fourcroy conceived that by the addition of Vinegar, a soluble triple -salt, an _aceto-tartrate_ of lead, was produced. The fraud may be easily -detected by the test[707] invented by Dr. Hahnemann. The ancients, it -appears, were acquainted with this property in lead, for according to -Pliny, the Greeks and Romans improved the quality of their wines by -immersing a plate of lead in them.[708] Wine, as a pharmaceutical agent, -has been employed to extract several of the principles of vegetables, -and to dissolve certain mineral bodies: as a solvent, however, it is -liable to many serious objections, as inequality of strength, and -uncertainty of composition; thus sound and perfectly fermented dry wine, -as _Sherry_, is frequently unable to dissolve iron, while tartarized -antimony is instantly decomposed by every other. As a menstruum, to -obtain an extract, it is quite inadmissible on account of the residuum -which it leaves by evaporation. From such considerations the London -College have at length substituted a weak spirit, for the wine formerly -employed, although the term “_Vinum_” is still retained in the -Pharmacopœia, to obviate those embarrassments which must ever attend a -change of name, with a corresponding change of properties. The Committee -were fully prepared to expect the captious objections which are urged -against this measure, but as the name is _chemically_ and _medicinally_ -correct, the etymologist may be fairly allowed to enjoy his assumed -triumph without molestation. - -VINUM ALOES. L.E.D. This solution contains all the virtues of the Aloes, -and is more agreeable than the tincture. It is a warm stomachic in doses -of fʒj to fʒij, and a stimulating purgative when given from f℥j to f℥ij. - -By referring to the Pharmacopœia, it will be perceived that alcoholic -menstrua of different strengths, have been employed for the different -preparations. The proportions were deduced from careful experiments, and -are adapted to the composition of the substances which the spirit is -intended to dissolve: _e. g._ - - Proof Spirit. Water. - Vinum Aloes 1 part 1. - —— Antimonii Tartariz: 1 ditto[709] 1. - —— Colchici 1 ditto 2. - —— Ferri 1 ditto 1½. - —— Ipecacuanhæ 1 ditto 1⅔. - —— Opii 1 ditto 1⅔. - —— Veratri 1 ditto 1½. - - - VINUM ANTIMONII TARTARIZATI. L. - - LIQUOR ANTIMONII TARTARIZATI. P.L. 1809. - - _Antimonial Wine._ - -During the period that I was Censor of the College, I took considerable -trouble, in conjunction with my colleagues, to ascertain the state in -which this preparation was to be generally met with in the wholesale and -retail shops of the metropolis. We were satisfied, during our official -visitations, that where _sound_ Sherry wine had been employed as a -solvent, an efficient and permanent solution was obtained, and that no -precipitation of Antimony took place, the sediment which occurred being -merely _Tartrate of Lime_, an incidental impurity derived from the -_Cream of tartar:_ but in a majority of instances an inferior wine of -British manufacture was substituted, in which case the Antimonial Oxyd -was universally found in a copious precipitate, in combination with -vegetable extractive matter; and I have even seen this decomposition so -complete, that the supernatant liquor would not yield any trace of the -antimonial salt. This report has been confirmed by successive Censors, -and the College have accordingly endeavoured to remedy the evil, by -superseding the use of wine altogether, and of introducing a spirit of -equivalent strength. The virtues of this solution are those detailed -under the history of _Antimonium Tartarizatum_; of which two grains are -contained in every fluid-ounce of the preparation. The Medicinal -Dynameter will shew the proportion of salt in any other given quantity. -DOSE, ♏︎x to fʒj, in any suitable vehicle, repeated every three or four -hours, in which case it acts as a diaphoretic. As an emetic, it may be -given to infants in the dose of a tea-spoonful, every ten minutes, until -the desired effect is produced. See _Form: 69_, and 117.[710] - -VINUM COLCHICI. This medicated wine is made as follows: Take of the -recent bulb of the Colchicum, sliced and bruised, [pound]j; of Proof -Spirit, f℥iv; of water, f℥viij; let them infuse for fourteen days, and -filter for use. There is perhaps no form better calculated to ensure the -medical effects of the plant than the one we are now considering. Its -dose may be stated to be from ♏︎xx to fʒiss. The virtues of Colchicum -have been already noticed, see _Colchici Radix_. - -VINUM FERRI. L.D. When prepared according to the London College (P.L. -1809.) each pint is stated to contain 22 grains of the red Oxide of -Iron; the strength however must in such a case depend upon the quantity -of _tartar_ contained in the wine. Very dry Sherry is frequently -incapable of acting upon the iron until a small proportion of Cream of -Tartar be added to it; would it not therefore be adviseable to direct at -once a given portion of _ferrum tartarizatum_ to be dissolved in wine? -The Dublin formula is more eligible than that of the former London -Pharmacopœia, since it directs the use of _Rhenish_ wine instead of -Sherry as a solvent, and iron wire in preference to iron _filings_; this -last circumstance is important, for the purest iron can only be drawn, -and this is most easily acted upon by the super-tartrate of potass. -These observations are offered to those who still prefer to make the -preparation with wine. They can have no relation to the present _Vinum -Ferri_ of the London College, which is prepared with a weak spirit, and -which contains tartrate of potass and iron, with an excess of -super-tartrate which supplies the place of the acid contained in the -wine, and ensures the solution of the tartarized iron in the Spirit. -According to the experiments of Mr. Phillips, which I have every reason -to believe accurate, the present preparation contains less peroxide of -iron than the former did; it will be seen by the Dynameter that f℥j -contains exactly one grain, which is exactly equivalent to five grains -of Tartarized Iron, whereas an equal quantity of the former wine held in -solution 1–4/10 gr, which was equivalent to seven grains of the salt. -_Med. Uses._ It is the least unpleasant of all the preparations of iron, -and its medicinal activity is supported by the testimony of ages, for it -is one of the oldest preparations with which we are acquainted. _Dose_, -fʒij to f℥ss. - -VINUM IPECACUANHÆ. L.E.D. The virtues of this root are completely -extracted by dilute spirit. _Dose_, as an emetic, from fʒij to f℥ss: as -a diaphoretic, from ♏︎xx to xl. _See Form. 63, 137._ - -VINUM OPII. L.E.[711] This is a spirituous solution of the _extract_ of -Opium combined with various aromatics, which are supposed to modify the -effects of the opium, while by the substitution of the extract for the -crude opium, it is considered as being less likely to disturb the -nervous system. I submit whether the views offered under the history of -Wine, respecting the relative effects of combined and uncombined -Alcohol, might not lead us, by analogy, to prepare a more efficient -_vinum opii_, and a preparation less likely to affect the stomach: by -adding the opium to the wine during its state of fermentation, it would -enter into intimate union with its elements, in the same way that brandy -is incorporated by the technical manipulation of _fretting-in:_ this -suggestion is also sanctioned by the generally acknowledged superiority -of the _Black Drop_, which I have little doubt is indebted for its -peculiar efficacy to the state of combination in which the _acetate of -morphia_ exists in the vinous menstruum. The preparation, when made with -wine, as directed in the late Pharmacopœia, is nearly analogous to the -celebrated _Liquid Laudanum_[712] of Sydenham, and its degree of -narcotic power is nearly the same as that of the ordinary tincture, as -may be seen by referring to the _Medicinal Dynameter_. - -VINUM VERATRI. L. Since the discovery of the real nature of the _Eau -Medicinale_, this preparation has fallen into comparative disuse, and -might have been removed, as we have now introduced the _Vinum Colchici_. -It is however a singular circumstance that both these preparations -should owe their medicinal powers to the same elementary principle, viz. -_Veratria_; and as some practitioners are still addicted to its use, the -Committee agreed to let it remain. - - - ULMI CORTEX. L.E.D. (Ulmus Campestris.) - - _Elm Bark._ - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, none; _Taste_, slightly bitter and mucilaginous. -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Gum, extractive, gallic acid, and super-tartrate -of potass. SOLUBILITY. Water is its appropriate solvent. MED. USES. It -has been commended in herpetic eruptions, but in the hands of Dr. Willan -and others it has not proved successful; it is one of those articles -that might be discarded from our Pharmacopœia with much propriety. -OFFICINAL PREP. _Decoct: Ulmi_. L.D. - - - UNGUENTA. L.E.D. _Ointments._ - -These are unctuous substances analogous to _Cerates_ except in -consistence, which is much less firm, and scarcely exceeds that of -butter: formerly, ointments were numerous and complicated in their -composition, and surgeons adapted with much technical formality -different ointments to answer different indications: this practice -however has undergone a very judicious reform, and it is now well -understood that _in general_ all that is required in an ointment is a -suitable tenacity and consistence, to keep the parts to which it may be -applied soft and easy, and at the same time to exclude from them the -atmospheric air; in some cases, however, these simple compositions are -made the _vehicles_ of more active remedies, as in the following -preparations, _viz._ - -UNGUENTUM CANTHARIDIS. L. As the active ingredient in this ointment is -derived from an infusion of the Cantharides, it is extremely mild, and -frequently inefficacious. The _ceratum cantharidis_ furnishes a more -certain application. - -UNGUENTUM ELEMI COMPOSITUM. L. The elemi and turpentine in this -ointment, render it stimulant and digestive. - -UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI FORTIUS. L. The precise nature[713] of this -compound does not appear to have been known until the late -researches[714] of Mr. Donovan, (_Annals of Philosophy_, _November, -1819_,) which promise to lead to a more uniform, efficacious, and -economical mode of preparing it; for they[715] shew that in the -officinal ointment, the mercury exists in two different conditions,—in -the state of metal, _mechanically mixed_, as asserted by Vogel, and in -that of an oxide, _chemically combined_ with the lard, and that the -medicinal activity of the ointment exclusively resides in this latter -portion, the presence of metallic mercury not only being useless but -injurious, by obstructing the absorption of the active compound of the -oxide. Mr. Donovan accordingly formed a direct chemical combination, by -continually agitating together lard and black oxide of mercury at the -temperature of 350° _Fah:_ for two hours. At the end of the process it -appeared that every ounce of lard had dissolved, and combined with 21 -grains of oxide; and from the trials which have been made respecting its -activity, it would seem to be as efficient as the officinal ointment, -and moreover that it may be introduced by inunction in one third of the -time. The investigation is highly important, for it not only offers the -means of preparing a mercurial ointment more œconomically, but one more -active and manageable, and less liable to that want of uniformity in -strength, which must always attend a preparation in which so much labour -is required for its completion; for independent of that variation in -strength which will arise from imperfect triture, it is by no means an -uncommon practice to use chemical means, which are not admissible, to -facilitate the process, such as the addition of _Sulphur_, which is -found to abridge very considerably the labour requisite for the -extinction of the mercury, but it converts a portion of the metal into a -_Sulphuret_, and diminishes the power of the unguent. There is however a -method of facilitating the process, which is not liable to any apparent -objection, but the theory of its operation is obscure; it consists in -adding to the half-prepared ointment a portion of that which has been -long kept; which appears to act as a _leaven_ to the whole mass. - - -The following table exhibits the relative quantity of mercury contained -in each of the different ointments directed by the British Pharmacopœia, -and in that prepared according to the process of Donovan. - - One Drachm { _stronger ointment_ contains of Mercury 30 grs. - of the Lond: { _weaker ointment_ 10 —— - of the Edinb: _common ointment_ 12 —— - of the Dub: { _stronger ointment_ 30 —— - { _weaker ointment_ 20 —— - of that prepared according to Donovan 2½ —— - -Mercurial ointment furnishes the most prompt, and least exceptionable -mode of impregnating the system. The external method of administering -mercury, says Mr. John Hunter, is always preferable to the internal, -because the skin is not nearly so essential to life as the stomach, and -therefore is capable in itself of bearing much more than the stomach. -The inunction is generally performed by rubbing ʒss to ʒj on some part -of the body where the cuticle is thin, generally on the inside of the -thigh, except perhaps in cases of chronic hepatitis, when it is more -usually applied to the region of the liver, care being taken that the -friction is continued until every particle of the ointment disappears; -and for obvious reasons, the operation ought if practicable to be -performed by the patient himself. Where it has been an object to -saturate the system with mercury as quickly as possible, I have -witnessed the advantage of confining, by means of slips of bladder, a -drachm of mercurial ointment in each axilla, in addition to the -mercurial friction. Camphor, turpentine, and other stimulants, have been -sometimes added to the ointment, with a view of promoting its -absorption; this however is an erroneous practice, since these acrid -ingredients soon produce pustules on the skin, which prevent the -continuance of the friction; the warm bath is a more certain, and less -objectionable _adjuvant_, many practitioners therefore advise the body -to be immersed in a warm bath, once and again, before the course is -commenced, and to repeat it once or twice a week during its continuance: -the length of time to be employed in a course of mercury, and the -quantity to be given, are circumstances that must in every case be left -to the discretion of the practitioner. Mercury, when introduced into the -body, acts as a powerful stimulant, and pervades every part of the -system; hence it is the most powerful evacuant belonging to the Materia -Medica; from its stimulant operation, exerted directly or indirectly, we -are able to explain its utility in the cure of disease, and it may be -made to act according to management and circumstances, as a tonic, -antispasmodic, diuretic, cathartic, sialogogue, emmenagogue, or -alterative; but its most important operation is that displayed in -removing the diseases induced by the syphilitic poison, although its -_modus operandi_ is still buried amongst the many other arcana of -physic. The mode of directing and controlling the influence of mercury -in the cure of the venereal disease, is now very generally understood, -and it is to be hoped that a full confidence in its antisyphilitic -powers is as universally maintained, in spite of the late opinions which -tended to depreciate its value and to question its necessity; there is -however no advantage to be gained, as was once imagined, by exciting -profuse salivation. On its next important application, that of curing -chronic affections of the liver and dropsy, a remark which has been -suggested to me by the results of practice, may not be unacceptable. I -think I have generally observed, that when the remedy has been pushed to -such an extent as to excite the salivary glands to excessive secretion, -the urinary organs cease to participate in its stimulating action, and -_vice versa_, for the mouth is rarely affected when the mercury runs off -by the kidneys; this may suggest a precaution of some practical moment -in the treatment of dropsy, and it will be generally judicious to -accompany the administration of this metal with certain diuretics, in -order to direct its operation to the kidneys;[716] and it would seem, -that for such an object those diuretic medicines should be preferred -that act _primarily_ on the organs, as alkalies and their combinations, -squill, &c. the success of such a plan of treatment will also depend -greatly upon the exact period at which these remedies are administered; -it will for instance be right to wait until the system is, to a certain -degree, under mercurial influence. It is hardly necessary to observe, -that if the mercury runs off by the bowels, we shall be deprived of all, -or of a great share of, the benefit to be expected. In certain cases, -the lymphatic vessels seem to resist the admittance of mercury, and to -refuse the conveyance of it to the general circulation: I have already -thrown out some vague hints upon the subject, at page 156, and I must -refer the reader to some farther remarks, which I apprehend bear upon -this question under the following article. - -UNGUENTUM OXIDI HYDRARGYRI CINEREI. E. This consists of a mixture of -_one part_ of grey oxide of mercury, and _three parts_ of axunge: it was -reasonable to suppose, _a priori_, that, as the whole of the mercury in -this ointment is oxidized, its adoption would supersede the necessity of -the labour required for the preparation of the common mercurial -ointment, and at the same time afford a combination of equal if not -superior efficacy; but experience has not justified the conclusion, for -it has been found to possess little or no activity; the consideration of -it is therefore introduced into this work, not on account of its -utility, but as an object upon which I may pause with advantage, to -offer those observations which its history is so well calculated to call -forth and illustrate. The circumstance which renders this preparation -inert, will now receive a satisfactory explanation from the experiments -of Mr. Donovan, as related in the preceding article; in short, it is a -_mechanical mixture_ instead of a _chemical combination_; and I beg -again to urge the importance of this distinction, and to offer the -present example as a farther illustration of the views I have already -submitted upon the subject. By subjecting this ointment for some hours -to a heat of 300°, it would without doubt become an active preparation. -It is probable that the lymphatics offers less resistance to the ingress -of a mineral body into the system when it is presented to them in -combination with some animal substance, which must alone be regarded as -their peculiar stimulus, and the only matter which they are destined -perpetually to receive and convey; for the same physiological reason, -the lacteals may probably take up iron with greater readiness when in -combination with vegetable matter, than when introduced into the stomach -in a more purely mineral form. - -UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI MITIUS. L. This weaker preparation is sometimes -preferred, as it irritates the skin less; it is however principally used -as a topical dressing to venereal sores, and as an application to kill -vermin on the body. - -UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI NITRATIS. L.E.D. vulgo _Citrine Ointment_. It is -stimulant, detergent, and alterative; when diluted with an equal -quantity of simple ointment or almond oil, it may be almost regarded as -a specific in ophthalmia tarsi, smeared upon the cilia every night at -bedtime. - -UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI NITRICO-OXYDI. L. An excellent stimulant -application, well adapted for giving energy to indolent ulcers. If mixed -with any ointment containing resin, it loses its red colour, passing -through olive green to black, which depends upon the conversion of the -_red_ into the _black_ oxide of mercury. - -UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI PRÆCIPITATI ALBI. L. Stimulant and detergent. It is -said to be very efficacious in certain inveterate forms of the Itch. -With the addition of Carbonate of Potass, it has been much extolled in -various cutaneous affections.[717] - -UNGUENTUM PICIS LIQUIDÆ. L.E.D. _Tar Ointment._ This ointment has been -much extolled for the removal of tetter, and for the cure of tinea -capitis. - -UNGUENTUM RESINÆ NIGRÆ. L. olim, _Ung. Basilicum[718] nigrum._ Digestive -stimulant. - -UNGUENTUM SAMBUCI. L.D. It possesses no advantage over the simple -ointment. - -UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS. L.E.D. This ointment is a mechanical mixture of -Lard and Sulphur, although it would appear that a small proportion of -the latter exists also in a state of chemical combination. MED. USES. A -specific in the itch. Dr. Bateman proposes a combination, equally -efficacious, but which has not the same disagreeable smell; _viz_. “Take -of sub-carbonate of potass, _half an ounce_; rose water, _one ounce_; -red sulphuret of mercury, _one drachm_; essential oil of Bergamot, half -a _fluid-drachm_; sublimed sulphur, hog’s lard, of each _eleven ounces_. -Mix them.” Jasser’s Ointment also, as altered in the Prussian -Pharmacopœia, is an excellent application in Psora, _viz._ ℞._Sulphur: -Sublim:_ ℥ij, _Zinci Sulphat:_ ℥ij, _Ol:_ _Lauri, et Axung. q, s, ut -fiat Unguentum_. - -UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS COMPOSITUM. L. More stimulating than the simple -ointment, from the addition of white hellebore; it is however frequently -found to excite too much irritation. - -UNGUENTUM VERATRI. L.D. It is used for the cure of scabies, but is less -certain than the ointment of sulphur. - -UNGUENTUM ZINCI. L.E.D. Astringent and stimulant; very beneficial in -some species of ophthalmia, smeared upon the tarsi, every night. - -Very efficient preparations may be also constructed by adding together -equal weights of lard and narcotic vegetable powders, as those of -_Conium_, _Digitalis_, _Belladonna_, &c. - -The addition of a small quantity of powdered white sugar will frequently -prevent ointments becoming rancid. - - - UVÆ URSI FOLIA. L.E.D (Arbŭtus Uva Ursi.) - - _Uva Ursi_, _Bear-berry_, or _Trailing Arbutus_. - - _Bear’s Whortle-berry_, _Wild Cranberry_, &c. - -QUALITIES. _Odour_, slight, resembling that of hyson tea; _Taste_, -bitterish and sub-astringent. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Tannin, mucilage, -gallic acid, extractive, resin, and traces of lime. SOLUBILITY. Both -water and alcohol extract its virtues. MED. USES. The ancients employed -it on account of its astringency, the moderns however have exhibited it -for various diseases, more especially for those affecting the bladder -and urinary organs, and, it would seem, without any theory respecting -its _modus operandi_; but it has at length fallen into disrepute, and -probably with justice: it occasionally renders the urine of a blackish -colour, a fact which is not easy to be explained. When it is -administered, the form of powder is preferred, and in doses from ℈j to -ʒj. The leaves of the _Vaccinium Vitis Idæa_ (Red Whortle-berry,) are -sometimes substituted for those of _Uvæ Ursi_; but they may be easily -distinguished; _botanically_, by the net work appearance of their veins -above, and by their dots underneath; _chemically_, by their infusion -neither precipitating the solution of isinglass, nor that of sulphate of -iron. - - - ZINCI OXYDUM. L.E.D. - - _Oxide of Zinc._ - -This is occasionally used internally as a tonic, and may be exhibited in -the form of pill. It is however principally employed externally, as a -mild but efficient astringent; viz. _Ung: Zinci_. ADULTERATIONS. Dr. -Roloff of Magdeburg has lately discovered the casual presence of -_Arsenic_[719] in this oxide; by boiling the substance in distilled -water, and assaying the solution with the ammoniaco-nitrate of silver, -its presence may be instantly recognised; _Chalk_ may be detected by -sulphuric acid exciting an effervescence; and _White Lead_, by its -forming an insoluble sulphate of lead. It ought to be volatile. - - - ZINCI SULPHAS. L.E.D. - - _Sulphate of Zinc_, olim, _White Vitriol_. - -QUALITIES. _Form_, crystals, which are four-sided prisms, terminated by -four-sided pyramids; they are slightly efflorescent; _Taste_, styptic, -metallic, and slightly acidulous. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. One proportional -of oxide, and one proportional of acid; its crystals contain seven -proportionals of water. SOLUBILITY. It is soluble in 2.5 times its -weight of water at 60°, and in less than its own weight of boiling -water, but is quite insoluble in alcohol. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. -_Alkalies_; _earths_; _hydro-sulphurets_; _astringent vegetable -infusions_; _Milk_. MED. USES. Tonic, astringent, and, in large doses -emetic, (_Form. 66._) As an emetic it operates directly, and offers -therefore a prompt resource in cases of poison, or where an immediate -discharge from the stomach is required; it appears to differ from most -remedies of this nature, in not proving diaphoretic in smaller doses: in -spasmodic[720] coughs it is administered with the best effects, -especially when combined with camphor or myrrh, (_Form. 59:_) in -affections of the chest attended with inordinate secretion, I have -witnessed much benefit from its exhibition, particularly when presented -in the form of lozenge; and, when dissolved in water, in the proportion -of grs. ij to f℥j, it forms a useful injection in fluor albus, &c.; in -small doses its internal exhibition is also useful in Leucorrhæa. When -combined with opium it is well calculated to obviate that atony, and -those frequent discharges of fæces, without pain, that take place in the -protracted stages of dysentery. As an external application it is very -generally employed in the proportion of grs. x to eight fluid-ounces of -water. The supposed ill effects consequent on the application of -preparations of lead to a great surface, have determined some -practitioners to substitute in their place, solutions of sulphate of -zinc, but not with the same effect; for to that very property, which may -occasionally render saturnine lotions dangerous, is their virtue to be -attributed; see _Liquor Plumbi Sub-acetatis_. DOSE, as an emetic from -grs. x. to ʒss—as a tonic, and astringent, from grs. j. to ij. OFFICINAL -PREP. _Liquor: Alum: comp:_ L. (=B=) _Solutio Sulphatis Zinci._ _Solutio -Acetatis Zinci._ E. (=I=). _Tinct: Acetatis Zinci_. D. (=I=). -ADULTERATIONS. The _white vitriol_ of commerce ought never to be used in -medicine without previous purification, since it generally contains the -sulphates of copper and iron. - - - ZINGIBERIS RADIX. L.E.D. (Zingiber Officinale.) _Ginger_. - -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Volatile oil, fecula, and resino-extractive -matter; on the first of these principles its well known flavour and -odour depend; but its pungency resides in the last. SOLUBILITY. Water, -alcohol, and æther, extract its virtues. MED. USES. It is highly -stimulant and is therefore frequently beneficial in flatulant cholic, -dyspepsia, and gout; it is however more generally employed as an adjunct -to other remedies, to promote their efficacy or to correct their -operation, (see _Form. 92, 94, 112, 153_,) and it is found, that it does -not produce the ill effects of those spices, whose virtues reside in an -acrid oil. DOSE, of the powders grs. x. to ℈j. OFFICINAL PREP. _Syrup: -Zingib:_ L.E.D. _Syrup: Rhamni:_ L. (=E=) _Tinct: Zingib:_ L.D.[721] -_Tinct: Cinnamom: comp:_ L. (=B.=) _Acid_. _Sulphuric: aromat:_ E. -_Confectio Opii_. L. _Confectio Scammon:_ L.D. (=E=) _Infus_. _Sennæ_. -_co._ L. (=E=) _Pulvis Cinnamom: comp:_ L.E.D. (B) _Pulv: Scammon: -comp:_ L.D. (=E=) _Pulv_. _Sennæ_. _comp:_ L. (=E=) _Pil: Aloes:_ D. -_Pill: Scillæ comp:_ L.D. _Vinum Aloes_. L.E.D. ADULTERATIONS. The -powder is rarely met with in any tolerable degree of purity: there are -two varieties of ginger in the market, viz. _Black_, produced by -scalding the root, and afterwards hastily drying it in the sun; and the -_White_, being that which has been carefully washed, scraped, and -gradually dried. - - - FINIS. - - - - - INDEX. - - - A - - Abortion, prevented by suppositories of Opium, page 197. - - Absolute and Relative remedies, meaning attached to the terms, 68. - - Absorbent medicines, why they check diarrhœa, 82. - - Absorbent system, specifically stimulated by Mercury, 96. - - Acetate of Potass, decomposed _in transitu_, and its alkaline base - developed, 94. - - Acetification of Milk by a thunder storm bears some analogy to the - operation of depraved digestion, 56 (_note_.) - - Acids, ingenious explanation of their modus operandi, as Refrigerants, - 113. - - ——, vegetable, undergo decomposition in the digestive organs, and are - elaborated into chyle, 94. - - ——, their effects in cases of Narcotic poisoning, 136. - - Acrid, or Rubefacient poisons, the classification of, 128. - - Acridness, Galen’s notion respecting the origin of, 21. - - Adjuvans, the, in a medicinal formula, 178. - - Advice to the ultra chemist, which it is hoped may not be lost, 55. - - Adulteration of medicines, how extensively it is practised, 62. - - —— —— —— constitutes a regular branch of trade, 62. - - Aërial poisons, nature of, 127. - - Ætius collected a multitude of nostrums, 19. - - Affinities usual of bodies, suspended, modified, or subverted, by the - powers of digestion, 55. - - Afzelius, Dr. describes a shrub of the natural family of _Contortæ_ - which affords a curious exception to botanical affinities, 41. - - Ague, the celebrated Dutch remedy for the, 166. - - Air, its state in relation to moisture an important consideration in - the cure of asthma, 105; - its power of conducting heat affected by moisture, 106. - - Alcohol, its poisonous effects upon a rabbit, 131. - - ——, whether absorbed into the circulation or not, still remains a - question, 77. - - ——, large doses of, act directly sedative, 77. - - Ale, the supposed lithonthryptic properties of, 121 (_note_.) - - Alexander Trallianus, his prescription for a gout medicine, 32. - - —— ——, his just notions on the subject of medicinal combination, 63. - - Alexandrian library, the lamentable consequence of its destruction, 45. - - —— ——, burnt by the Caliph Omar, the cotemporary and companion of - Mahomet, 46 (_note_.) - - Alexipharmics, Alexiterials, Counter-poisons, or Antidotes, true - meaning of the terms, 125. - - Alkali, original signification of the term, 38. - - ——, Volatile, discovered by Basil Valentine, 49. - - Alkalies, distinction between the vegetable and mineral first - established by Avicenna, 48. - - ——, fixed, formerly supposed to vary according to the plants from which - they were produced, 52. - - ——, their agency as diuretics considered, 96. - - ——, the great utility of in calculus, often independent of their - chemical agency, 123. - - Alkaline salts, how conveyed to the kidneys, 68. - - Almond, the wild parent of the peach, 61. - - Aloes, the chemical and medicinal influence of Alkalies upon, 178. - - ——, their insolubility determines their specific action upon the - intestines, 172. - - Aloëtic preparations well calculated to correct the consequences of - Opium, 162. - - Alterative medicines lose their efficacy by acting violently as - evacuants, 161. - - Alternation of similar remedies recommended by Dr. Chapman, 149. - - Alvine evacuation suspends the process of intestinal absorption, 94. - - Alum, first used by Van Helmont in the cure of Uterine hemorrhage, 50; - why advantageously combined with Nutmeg, 161. - - Ambergris, the odour of increased by Musk, 155 (_note_.) - - Ambiguity of Nomenclature, a fertile source of error, 36. - - Ammonia lends its volatility to certain bodies with which it is - combined, 155 (_note_.) - - _Ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate_, how formed in the urine, by the - decomposition of that fluid, 122. - - Amulets, the early origin of, 9; - Galen’s testimony respecting, 7. - - Amulets of Arsenic used in the plague of London, 26; - their use prohibited by the Emperor Caracalla by a public edict, 8. - - Amylum, Starch, derivation of the word, 38 (_note_.) - - Analogy, a powerful instrument in the hands of the medical philosopher, - 6; - the numerous fallacies to which it is exposed, 6. - - An Analytical inquiry into the more remarkable causes which have, in - different ages and countries, operated in producing the revolutions - that characterise the history of medicinal substances, 3. - - Analysis of the objects of medicinal combination, 146. - - Analysis of vegetables by the French academicians; - its unsatisfactory nature, 52. - - Anasarca, sometimes cured by diaphoretics, 101. - - Ancient charms, frequently chaunted, 7. - - Ancient empirics, reason why their labours proved so barren, 6. - - Andes, a journey over them furnishes a good illustration of the effect - of heat and cold upon the animal body, 5. - - Antacids, remarks upon the action of, 114; - under what circumstances they may be advantageously administered in - conjunction with tonics, 166. - - Anthelmintics, their modus operandi considered, 138. - - Anthemis Nobilis, essentially changed by cultivation, 60. - - Antidotes, derivation and meaning of the term, 125. - - _Antidotum Mithridatium_, the history of, 28. - - Anti-hectic mixture of Dr. Griffith, the composition of the, 85. - - Antilithics and Lithonthryptics, definition of, 115; - —belong to the class of vital as well as chemical agents, 115. - - Antimonial Remedies, the unjust prejudices against, 51; - proscribed by the Supreme Council of Paris, 51. - - Antimony, a case related by Dr. James, wherein it occasioned - salivation, 188; - a conjecture respecting the origin of the term, 48. - - Antimony and Opium accelerate the effects of Mercury upon the system, - 152. - - Antimony, experiments concerning, by Basil Valentine, 48; - restored to public favour by a French decree, 51; - its sudorific powers increased by Opium, 153. - - Antiseptics, origin of remedies so called, 75. - - Antispasmodics, how they differ from Narcotics, 78; - must be considered as both absolute and relative agents, 78; - may be frequently combined with Tonics, or Narcotics, 164. - - Antispasmodics, definition of, 78. - - ΑΝΤΙΘΗΡΙΑΚΑ, by W. Heberden, M. D., 38 (_note_.) - - Antionius Musa cured Augustus by the cold bath, 30. - - Apoplexy, use of suppositories in producing counter-irritation in a - paroxysm of, 197; - the supposed powers of Sternutatories in preventing an attack of, - 109. - - Apothecaries’ Hall, the ingenious machinery at, 52 (_note_.) - - Arabians, the improvement of the Materia Medica greatly indebted to - their zeal and industry, 46. - - _Archæal_ remedies introduced by Stahl, 22. - - Argonauts, the golden fleece of the, a chemical allegory, 45; - one of them cured by the rust of iron, 8. - - Aristides, the unhappy dupe and victim of quackery, 20 (_note_.) - - Arnoldus de Villa Nova invented Tinctures, 48. - - Aromatics Oriental, introduced into practice by the Arabians, 46; - definition of the term, 81. - - Aromatic and Tonic qualities often found in conjunction, 81. - - Aroma, M. Robiquet’s important experiments respecting, 155 (_note_.) - - Arsenic, and other corrosive poisons require very different antidotes, - 129. - - Arsenic, Amulets of, used in the plague of London, 27; - in its metallic state quite inactive, 170. - - Arsenic, derivation of the term, 37. - - Art, importance of discriminating its operations from those of Nature, - 34. - - ——, the processes of, may be often improved by imitating those of - Nature, 146. - - Artichoke, Jerusalem, origin and meaning of the term, 38. - - Ascarides, cured by Suppositories, 197. - - Asclepiades, the, a company of empirics, 20. - - Asclepiades used the Trumpet in the cure of Sciatica, 8 (_note_.) - - Ashes of a Witch, a superstitious remedy against Witchcraft, 26 - (_note_.) - - Asia, East Indiaman, its crew, how cured of dropsy, 97. - - Assafœtida, its specific controul over spasm, 78; - the virtues of vary according to station and soil, 57. - - _Assarum_ formerly confounded with the Baccharis, 39. - - _Assara-bacca_, origin of the term, 39. - - Astral influence, the supposed powers of, 10. - - Astringents must be considered as relative agents, 82; - definition of the term, 81; - a combination of with Tonics, frequently indicated in passive - hemorrhage, 165; - they act through the sympathetic medium of the primæ viæ, 82; - for what purpose they should be combined with narcotics and - absorbents, 165; - when they should be conjoined with diaphoretics, 165. - Astringent poisons, 128. - - Astringency, no chemical test exists for, 81. - - Astruc, his practice of premising a course of Mercury with venesection, - 155 (_note_.) - - Athenian Poison, doubts respecting its nature, 37. - - Attenuant medicines, how supposed to act, 23. - - Avicenna, the first person who describes the process of distillation, - 47. - - Avicenna’s alarm at the internal use of iron, 24. - - Augustus restored to health by the cold bath, 31. - - Azote, contained in alimentary substances, and supposed by Majendie to - give origin to the Lithic acid, 117. - - - B - - Bacon, Roger, the father of chemistry in England, 48. - - Bacon, Lord, believed in the power of charms and amulets, 13; - his opinion concerning mythological fables, 44. - - Bagdat, its connection with India facilitated the introduction of - oriental aromatics into medicine, 46. - - Baker, Sir George, the remarks of respecting the combinations of Bark - with other medicines, 166. - - Baldwin, Dr. found the wild parent of the potatoe plant at Monte Video, - 80 (_note_.) - - Bark, its virtues discovered by accident, but confirmed by reason, 8; - the original meaning of the term, 37; - its adulteration mentioned by Sydenham, 61; - its combination with Rhubarb recommended by Dr. Mead, 165; - its combination with Muriate of Ammonia recommended by Boerhaave, - 165. - - Bark and Steel, not equivalent tonics as some have considered, 151. - - —— Peruvian, a new alkaline body detected in it, and called - _Cinchonia_, 172. - - Barry’s extracts made _in vacuo_; - his discovery of Phosphoric acid in a variety of cultivated - vegetables, 118 (_note_.) - - Baryta, its modus operandi as a poison considered, 136. - - Base, meaning of the epithet as applied to metals, 46. - - Base of vegetable salts eliminated by the digestive process, 97. - - Basil Valentine, the father of metallic medicine, 48. - - “_Basilica Medica_,” Calomel first mentioned in, 51. - - Basis of a medicinal formula, its object, 178; - its efficacy increased by uniting it with some medicine which may - render the system susceptible of its action, 152; - the action of, promoted by combination, 146. - - Bath, hot and cold, mechanical notions respecting their operation and - effects, 22. - - Bathing wisely considered as an act of religion, 18. - - Bath, the use of the, prohibited by certain Priestesses in Greece, 31 - (_note_.) - - Beer how preserved by hops, 167. - - Beguin describes Calomel under the name of _Draco Mitigatus_, in his - “Tirocinium Chemicum,” 51. - - _Belladonna_, its sympathetic influence upon the Iris, by contact with - the cornea, 69. - - Benediction bestowed on those who sneeze, the supposed origin of the, - 109. - - Berkley’s “Siris” happily ridiculed by Reeve, 27 (_note_). - - Berries of Juniper, unless bruised, will not yield their virtues to any - menstruum, 184. - - Berthollet’s important law of affinity highly useful to the physician, - 182. - - Besnier expelled the faculty of medicine, for having administered - Antimony, 51. - - _Bezoar_, often administered in conjunction with active remedies, and - has thus acquired unjust credit, 63; - derivation of the term, 63 (_note_). - - _Bezoardics_, a name given to a certain tribe of medicinal substances, - 63 (_note_). - - _Bi-chloride of Mercury_, the new name for corrosive sublimate, 40. - - Bile, the, undergoes decomposition in certain states of disease, 112 - (_note_). - - Bischoff introduces Gelatin, as a remedy, into Germany, 56 (_note_). - - Bitter extractive, its necessity as an alimentary stimulant in an - inverse ratio with the nutritive power of the ingesta, 79; - important use of to man, 79; - passes through the alimentary canal without undergoing any change, - 80; - essential to the digestive powers of herbivorous quadrupeds, 79. - - —— Principles, how supposed to enter the circulation, 68. - - Bitterness in plants, what it indicates, 42. - - ——, Galen’s notion respecting the cause of, 21; - does not exclusively reside in any peculiar principle, 79 (_note_). - - “_Black Drop_,” an unscientific attempt to imitate it attended with - explosion!, 181. - - _Black Wash_, upon what its efficacy depends, 171. - - Blackall, Dr. his important remarks on Diuretics, 150; - his valuable work on dropsy, 96. - - Blair, Dr. opinion of, concerning the botanical knowledge of the - Ancients, 41 (_note_). - - Blane, Sir Gilbert, his definition of the term “_Sympathy_,” 68 - (_note_); - his attempt to explain the sialogogue powers of Mercury, 108; - his ingenious hypothesis respecting the fœtid breath of salivated - persons, 152, (_note_); - his remarks on medicinal activity, 67. - - “_Blistering Point_” of Dr. Rush, 110. - - Blisters first proposed by Archigenes and Aretæus, 46. - - Blisters, the primary and secondary effects of considered, 110; - cure inflammation, through the influence of “_contiguous sympathy_,” - 110. - - _Blood Stone_, or Heliotrope, its supposed powers, 26. - - Blood, viscidity of the, a supposed cause of disease, 22; - the red globules of, formerly supposed to depend upon iron, 23. - - —— of a Gladiator, an ancient remedy in Epilepsy, 16. - - —— of the Goat, curious conceit respecting, 47 (_note_). - - Blood-vessels divided, substances enter, 70. - - Bodies undergo decompositions in the stomach, independent of their - ordinary affinities, 55. - - Boerhaave, a passage in, recommended to the attention of Professor - Brande, 57; - Boerhaave, Kaw, treatment of epileptics in the poor-house at Haerlem, - 16. - - Boorde, Dr. Andrew, the origin of Merry Andrews, 33 (_note_). - - Boracic acid, increases the purgative powers of Cream of Tartar, and - why, 173. - - Botanical science, its progress and uses, 41; - its importance in reforming our nomenclature, 39. - - Boyle recommends as a powerful remedy the thigh bone of an executed - criminal, 13. - - _Bracing_ and _Relaxing_, import of the terms, as applied to medicines, - 22. - - Brain, odour of alcohol recognised in the, 77; - its influence not directly necessary to the action of the heart, 131. - - Brande, Mr. Professor, his attack upon the English Universities - answered, 53; - his opinion respecting the red globules of the blood confirmed by - Vauquelin, 23 (_note_). - - ——, Mr. E. his case of obstruction from the habitual use of magnesia, - 93; - his account of an unscientific combination having produced mischief, - 181. - - Bread, crumb of, its value as a vehicle for pills, 195. - - Breda, celebrated siege of, epidemic during, cured by inspiring - confidence, 16. - - Bride-cake, origin of the custom of, 148. - - Bree, Dr. his practice of combining Diaphoretics and Tonics, 164. - - Brodie, Mr. his enlightened views respecting the operation of poisons, - 131. - - Brown, Dr. John, his system noticed, 24. - - Brown Bread acts mechanically, and promotes the peristaltic motions of - the primæ viæ, 89. - - Buffon, his opinion concerning the origin of wheat, 60. - - - C - - Cabbage, the cultivated offspring of the Colewort, 61. - - Cabinet of Materia Medica in possession of the College of Physicians, 3 - (_note_). - - _Cactus Opuntia_, or Indian fig, reddens the urine, 68 (_note_). - - Cæsalpinus, the father of botanical system, 41 (_note_). - - Caloric, latent state of, symbolically represented by Vulcan, 45; - free, symbolically represented by Vesta, 45. - - _Calomel_, speculations respecting the origin of the term, 40 (_note_). - - —— and Antimony are mutually changed by combination with each other, - 169. - - Culpepper, Turner, and Lovel, the three Astrological herbarists of the - seventeenth century, 13. - - Camboge, why liable to affect the stomach, 172. - - Cambridge, its discipline vindicated against the aspersions of - Professor Brande, 53. - - Camphor, of Arabian origin, 46; - propriety of administering it in a state of minute division, 190 - (_note_). - - Caracalla issues an edict against the use of amulets, 8. - - Carbonic acid gas, its effects in increasing the powers of cathartic - medicines experienced, 155. - - Cardinal de Lugo, a Spanish Jesuit, intercedes with the Pope, and - obtains his countenance and support for the Peruvian bark, 31. - - Carlisle, Sir Anthony, detects gin in the brain, 77. - - Castalian Fountain, its prophetic nature considered, 15. - - Castille, John, King of, poisoned by medicated boots, 130 (_note_). - - Castor Oil, origin of the name, 39. - - Catamenia, the suppression of, may depend upon very different causes, - and require very different remedies, 91. - - _Cataplasmata_ Poultices, calculated to fulfil several indications, as - _Stimulants_—_Antiseptics_—_Sedatives_—_Refrigerants_—_Emollients_, - 205. - - Catharsis suspends the process of alimentary absorption, 90. - - Cathartic medicines, observations respecting their abuse, 91. - - Carthartics, definition of, 88. - —Classed under two divisions, viz. _Laxatives_ and _Purgatives_, 88. - - Cato, the Censor, his incantation for the reduction of a dislocated - limb, 17. - - Cattle ruminate less in wet seasons, and why, 58. - - Cayenne pepper and opium used by the French as a restorative, 77 - (_note_). - - Celery, its origin from the _Apium graveoleus_, 61. - - _Cerussa_, less active than the precipitate produced by the - decomposition of the sub-acetate of lead, 171. - - Chaldeans and Babylonians exposed their sick in the markets, in order - that they might obtain the advice of travellers, 8. - - Chamomile, flowers of, changed by cultivation, 41. - - Chapman, Dr. his assertion respecting the operation of _Kino_ and - _Columba_ refuted, 169; - his opinion respecting Combination confirmed, 149. - - Charms for stopping a hemorrhage, 17. - - Cheltenham water a natural combination of an instructive character, - 164. - - Chemists, the manufacturing, errors daily committed by, 155; - —the sect of, and their false theories, 23. - - Chemistry, importance of, in reforming medical nomenclature, 39; - —not alluded to in the medical writers of Greece or Rome, 45. - - Chemical Nomenclature, the fallacies of, 40; - Chemical Science, the antiquity of, examined, 44; - the application and misapplication of, considered, 44; - Chemical action, the advantages obtained by it in the formation of - new remedies, 171; - Chemical doctrines, influence of, upon the popularity of certain - remedies, 74; - Chemical Remedies, reflections concerning their operation upon living - bodies, 112; - Chemical hypothesis to explain the operation of iron as a tonic, 23. - - Cherry-brandy, remarks upon the supposed efficacy of, 63 (_note_). - - Chifletius, the phillippic of, against the bark, 31. - - Chinese Mandarin, his absurd treatment by twelve physicians, 178. - - Chorea and Hysteria cured by purgatives, 90. - - _Cicuta_, the term not indicative of any particular plant in ancient - authors, 37. - - Circulation, how influenced by nausea, 86; - —through what avenues foreign substances enter it, 68. - - Citois attributes the epidemic of Poitou to the appearance of a new - Star, 10 (_note_). - - Citrate of Potass acts upon the urinary organs like an uncombined - alkali, 94. - - Clarified Glue, substituted for bark in the cure of fevers!, 56. - - Clarke, Dr. his gas blow-pipe, 54 (_note_). - - Classification of medicinal bodies, 72; - —extreme difficulty of the subject, and why, 70. - - Climate, the influence of upon medicinal plants, 57. - - Cloves, their qualities entirely changed by vegetable developement, 62. - - Clysters, _Enemata_, calculated to fulfil several important - indications, 200. - - “Codex Medicamentarius Parisiensis,” 27; - remarks on the extravagant nomenclature which it exhibits, 40. - - Colchester Oysters of a green colour, and why, 44. - - Colchicum, a caution respecting its panegyric, 21; - its vinous infusion acts more violently when acid is present, 162; - its virtues changed during the progress of its growth, 62; - its bitter principle separated by the assimilative functions, and - transmitted to the kidneys, 68. - - Cold Water, a general application to gun-shot wounds, 15. - - Cold, the external application of, proves diaphoretic, and why, 99. - - Colewort, the parent of the cabbage tribe, 61. - - College of Physicians of London, their first Pharmacopœia, 52 (_note_). - - Colocynth, remarks respecting the solubility of, 172; - the drastic properties of, mitigated by camphor, 161. - - Colour of Flowers, how modified by cold, 58. - - Colour, taste, and smell of plants, indicate their virtues, 42; - indications of, erroneously appreciated by Linnæus, 42. - - Columella, his statement respecting the deleterious properties of the - peach, 61. - - Collyrium of Danaus, 19. - - Combination of medicines, a fatal source of medical fallacy, 62. - - Combinations of Nature afford instructions for the arrangements of Art, - 145. - - Compound medicines, divisible into two classes, 180. - - Concentration may diminish, instead of increase, the powers of a - medicinal substance, 172. - - Consecutive Phœnomena in cases of poisoning are always to be attended - to, 137. - - _Constituens_ the, in a medicinal formula, what, 179. - - Contagion, the matter of, modified in activity by the degree of - moisture in the atmosphere, 275 (_note_). - - Controversy between the Galenical and Chemical sects, 51. - - Conticiri introduces gelatin, as a remedy into Italy, 56 (_note_). - - _Contiguous Sympathy_ of Hunter explained, 69. - - Contra Indication, a momentous error in the Art of Prescribing, 166. - - Cooke, Dr. his observation on the absorption of alcohol, 77. - - Copaiba, Balsam of, an improper constituent for pill-masses, and why, - 194. - - Coral, remarks on the superstitious use of, as an amulet, 13 (_note_). - - Cordus, Valerius, first composed a Pharmacopœia, 52 (_note_). - - Correcting the operation of a medicine, an object of scientific - combination, 110. - - Corrigens the, in a medicinal formula, what, 178. - - _Corrosive Sublimate_, the manner in which it destroys life considered, - 129; - the acrid action of, mitigated by mucilaginous drinks, 161; - observations upon the term, 40. - - Corrosive or Escharotic poisons, the enumeration of, 129. - - “_Contoriæ_,” the natural family of, medicinal remarks upon the, 41. - - Coventry, the member for, his exceptionable conduct, 33 (_note_). - - Coughs, humid of old Persons, cured by sulphate of zinc & myrrh, 165; - aggravated by the transition from frost to thaw, 106. - - “Counterblaste to Tobacco,” by King James the first, 29 (_note_). - - Crab, the wild parent of the golden pippin, 61. - - Cream of Tartar, rendered more purgative by _Boracic Acid_, and why, - 173; - how it derives a characteristic action from its insolubility, 173; - its origin in the fermented juice of the grape accounted for, 183 - (_note_); - proposed by Mr. Brande as a remedy for calculus, and objected to by - the author, 123. - - Credulity, definition of, 19; - more mischievous than superstition, 19. - - Crichton, Sir Alexander, his observations upon simplicity of - Prescription, 64; - his experience in the utility of Tar fumigation, 202. - - Crollius, his work on Signatures referred to, 26. - - Cromwell, Oliver, fell a victim to an intermittent, through the - timidity of his physician, 24. - - _Cruciform_ Plants, their medicinal characters, 41; - degenerate within the tropics, 58. - - Crucible, derivation of the term, 12 (_note_). - - Cullen’s classification of the Materia Medica, 72; - founded on an hypothetical basis, 74; - —his theory of the operation of narcotics, 76. - - Culture, the influence of upon medicinal plants, 57. - - Cumæan Sibyll, supposed by Darwin to have taken the juice of the - _Cherry-laurel_, 4. - - Cure, by sympathy, attended to by the poets, 14. - - Currie, Dr. his judicious advice respecting the period at which opium - should be administered in fevers, 187. - - “_Currus Triumphalis Antimonii_,” by Basil Valentine, 48. - - Cutaneous discharge materially modified by the state of the atmosphere, - 98 (_note_). - - _Cytisus Laburnum_, the seeds of, violently emetic, 41. - - - D - - Darwin, Dr. his interpretation of the fable of Proserpine, 44. - - _Datura_, gloomy aspect of, indicates its poisonous nature, 42; - Davy, Sir H. his experiments have shewn that vegetable astringents - pass unchanged through the body, 82, 182; - his researches into the nutritive value of grass, 79; - his opinion concerning the allegorical interpretation of the Arabian - Nights’ Entertainment, 47. - - Davy, Dr. John, undertakes a series of experiments with _Kino_ and - _Calumba_, at the request of the author, 169; - his experiments on the specific gravity of the blood after - venesection, 140. - - Debility, the result of a change in the tension of the fibres of the - body, 78. - - Decoction frequently destroys the efficacy of medicinal bodies, 184. - - Delivery expedited by nauseous medicines, 16 (_note_). - - Demulcents, their supposed mode of operation, 139. - - Deposites mechanical, from the urine, divisible into three classes, - 113. - - Derry-down, Druidical origin of the chorus of, 13. - - Design of the Pharmacologia, 3. - - Developement of active elements one of the objects of Pharmaceutic - chemistry, 171. - - Devotion to authority, the mischievous tendency of, 27. - - Diaphoretics, definition of, 98; - a new classification of proposed, 99; - when combined with tonics offer resources in continued fever, 164; - may cure dropsy, 101. - - Diaphoresis, frequently follows nausea, 86. - - Diarrhœa checked by remedies of a different nature, 82. - - Dictator, his election and duties, during a pestilence in Rome, 16. - - Diest’s absurd preparation of opium, 28. - - Diet and Habits, the importance of changing them in disease considered, - 157; - important practical remarks upon, 158. - - Diet Vegetable, the supposed refrigerating effect of, explained, 113. - - Diffusible and permanent stimulants, 75. - - Digby, Sir Kenelm, the “_Sympathetic Powder_” of, 14. - - Digestion, sometimes quickened by the operation of an emetic, 86; - how materially it is affected by mental disturbance, 158; - imperfect, diseases arising from, how treated by the author, 159. - - Digestive Functions, their influence upon certain remedies, 68. - - Digitalis and Potass, although not similar as diuretics, are compatible - with each other, 163. - - _Digitalis_, Dr. Withering’s observation respecting its accumulation in - the system 188; - its utility exaggerated, 21; - why it acts as a sorbefacient, 96. - - Digitalis and Mercury, dissimilar as diuretics, 150. - - _Digitalis_ and _Verbascum_, although medicinally opposed to each - other, belong to the same natural family, 41. - - Diluents, their extensive use in the cure of disease, 139. - - Dionysius of Mytilene, his explanation of the Golden Fleece of the - Argonauts, 45. - - Dioscorides, many of his plants not to be recognised in the present - day, 36; - —the Commentary of Mathiolus upon, passed through seventeen - editions!, 36 (_note_). - - _Dirigens_ of ancient authors, 179 (_note_). - - Discoveries in Materia Medica, rarely more than the revival of ancient - practices, 31. - - Disease, its type and character altered by climate and season, 57. - - Dispensatories of London and Edinburgh, their merits, 52 (_note_). - - Dispensatory of Wecker contains several preparations in which the - magnet is an ingredient, 24 (_note_). - - Distention, the stimulus of, increases the efficacy of emetics, 155. - - Distillation, the operation of not noticed by Hippocrates or Galen, 45. - - Division, the mechanical state of, modifies the operation of medicinal - bodies, 174. - - Diuretics, new views respecting their _modus operandi_, 92; - definition of, 92; - how to be managed with respect to dilution, 175; - Tabular arrangement of, 92. - - Diuresis occasioned by diminishing arterial action, 96. - - Dose of a powder, rules respecting the, 189. - - Doses of medicines are specific with respect to each substance, 184; - in Italy, 59. - - Doses, when excessive, rather produce a local than a general effect, - 185. - - _Draco Mitigatus_, calomel described under this name, by Beguin in - 1608, 51. - - Draughts, how they differ from mixtures, 199; - when to be preferred, 199. - - Dropsy, a case of cured by well fermented bread, 97; - may be occasionally cured by venesection, 96; - Dr. Blackall’s ingenious work on, 150. - - Duhamel’s cases of dropsy cured by sweating, 101 (_note_). - - Drummond, Sir William, his opinions concerning certain allegories, 44. - - Dryden’s allusion to cures by sympathy, 14. - - “Dry vomit of Marriott,” of what it consisted, 134 (_note_). - - Dubois, Mr. his report of the progress of vaccination in the east, 15. - - Dugald Stewart’s remark respecting scepticism, 21. - - Dunning, the celebrated barrister, how affected by a blister, 110 - (_note_). - - Dyspepsia of sedentary person, how cured by the author, 159. - - - E - - Early origin of Amulets, 7. - - —— history of the Materia Medica involved in fable, 7. - - Ear-rings, buried by Jacob, were Amulets, 7. - - Ear, the bitter secretion of the, protects it from insects, 138 - (_note_). - - Earth of Lemnos, only dug on a particular day, 12. - - “Eaton’s Styptic,” of what composed, 83 (_note_). - - “Eau Medicinale,” the active ingredient of, known to the ancients, 32. - - Eberle, Dr. of Philadelphia, how he accounts for the fact of Nauseants - expediting mercurial salivation, 156 (_note_); - his theory objected to, (_ibid._). - - Echo, beautifully allegorized as the daughter of air and earth, 44 - (_note_). - - Edward the Confessor, first _touched_ for the evil, 16 (_note_). - - Effervescence, a caution respecting the administration of a remedy in - the state of, worthy attention, 177. - - Efficacy of Hemlock, exaggerated by Stöerck, 21. - - Egypt, the ancient physicians of, obliged to prescribe according to a - fixed code, 180. - - “_Elatin_,” a new vegetable principle discovered by the author, 38. - - Elaterium forms with soap an active suppository, 197; - value of as a hydragogue, 97; - contains two principles of activity, 153; - meaning of the term according to Hippocrates, 38. - - Electricity, lately employed as a Lithonthryptic, 124. - - _Electuaria_, electuaries, definition of, 198; - general rules to be observed in selecting and prescribing this form - of medicine, 198. - - “_Electuarium Opiatum Polupharmacum_” of the Codex Parisien, 27; - Electuary of the Queen of Colein, 47 (_note_). - - Elixir universal, a belief in its efficacy entertained by Roger Bacon, - 48. - - Emetics, various uses of, in the cure of disease, 86; - the activity of, why occasionally increased by Narcotics, 152; - quickened in their action by venesection, 156; - in what cases they may prove dangerous, 87; - definition of, 83; - practical precaution respecting, 85. - - “_Emetin_,” a new principle developed from Ipecacuan, 172. - - Emmenagogues, definition of, 91; - can only be relative agents, 91. - - Emollients, definition of, 141. - - Empirics, ancient sect of, their labours barren, and why, 6. - - _Emplastrum Nigrum_ of Augsburg, 24 (_note_). - - _Emplastra_, plasters, great importance of in the cure of local as well - constitutional affections, 207. - - _Emplastrum Divinum Nicolai_, 24 (_note_). - - _Enemata_, Clysters, calculated to fulfil five great indications, 200. - - England falsely called the _Paradise of Quacks_, 19. - - English hops, why superior to those of foreign growth as preservatives - of beer, 168 (_note_). - - Epidemics, arrested in their progress by moral impressions, 16. - - Epispastics, the definition of, 109; - the modus operandi of, considered, 110; - see Blisters, 110. - - Erasistratus protests against medicinal combination, 63. - - Errhines, or Sternutatories, definition and use of, 108; - Dr. Cullen’s testimony respecting their value, 109. - - Errors, chemical and pharmaceutical, which may be committed in writing - prescriptions, 180. - - Erythric acid, how obtained from Lithic acid, 117. - - Escharotics, definition of, 137; - the operation of is generally chemical, 138. - - Essences of Dioscorides and Galen, were simple extracts, 45. - - Essential oils, certain of them enter the circulation, 68. - - Esculapius, Temple of, remedies first recorded there, 8. - - Ether instantly relieves vertigo, and why, 69; - the production of from Alcohol first noticed by Basil Valentine, 49. - - Evacuants, why classed as local stimulants, 83. - - Euphrasia, or eye-bright, its supposed virtues derived from the - doctrine of signatures, 25, 27 (_note_). - - Excrements of insects, a popular remedy in Italy, 11. - - Exhalation from the lungs, modified by certain medicines, 102. - - Expectorants, definition of, 101; - a new classification of proposed, 102; - under what circumstances they may be usefully associated with - stimulants, 166. - - Experience, false application of the term, 6. - - Experiments with different medicines on inferior animals, the great - importance of 69. (_note_). - - Experiment and Observation, Professor Leslie’s definition of, 4 - (_note)_. - - Experimental mode of investigation allegorized in the fable of Proteus, - 45. - - Extemporaneous Formulæ, the nature and necessity of, 180. - - External remedies, divisible into two classes, 203; - how they act on the constitution, 204. - - Extract of Logwood, why not to be administered in the form of pill, 196 - (_note_). - - Extract, meaning of the term, 38. - - Eye-lids, ancient custom of astringing the, 49. - - Eye of Typhon, the ancient name of Squill, 9. - - - F - - Fables of Antiquity, supposed meaning of the, 44. - - Factitious Bezoars, 63 (_note_). - - Fallacies to which medicinal experiments are liable, 6. - - Fashion gives names to diseases, and reputation to remedies, 33. - - Fear, the agency of, in increasing the effects of absorption - illustrated, 156. - - “_Febrifugi Peruviani Vindiciæ_,” by Sturmius, 24 (_note_). - - Fecula, original meaning of the term, 38. - - Fibres, a due tension of essential to life, 78. - - Fleece, the Golden, a chemical allegory, 45. - - Flesh, human, in epilepsy, 16. - - Flooding, after child-birth, how to be treated, 83. - - Florentine Quack, illustrative story of the, 34 (_note_). - - Flowers, the strong scent of, affect pregnant women, 58 (_note_); - the perfume of, why most sensible in the evening, 175 (_note_). - - Fluids of the body, few medicines act upon the, 74. - - Food, green colour of, disgusting to some, 43. - - Fordyce, Dr. his valuable paper on the combination of medicines, 64; - his combination of Camboge and Aloes, 173; - his important views respecting the vital energies of the stomach, 112 - (_note_). - - Form of a remedy, how to impart a convenient, agreeable, and - efficacious one, 178. - - Formula, a scientific one may contain two corrigents, 162. - - —— Medicinal, consists of four parts, 178. - - Formulæ, in illustration of the subject of Medicinal Combination, 209. - - Fourcroy, the theory of, respecting aroma, 155 (_note_); - his mechanical explanation of the operation of Mercury, 22. - - Fox’s Lungs, a specific for Asthma, and why, 25. - - Fritze, Professor, his remarks on the effects of a diet of mucilage, - 80. - - - G - - Galbanum, its specific control over spasm, 78. - - Galen’s celebrated hypothesis respecting the virtues of medicines, 21. - - Gallic acid strikes a black colour with the salts of iron, 82. - - Gar fish, or sea needle, not poisonous, 43. - - Garlic, its modus operandi as an expectorant considered, 102. - - Gascoigne’s powder and ball, 63 (_note_). - - Gastric chemistry, its singular powers illustrated, 56; - its laws very imperfectly understood, 182. - - Gaubius, his observation respecting the influence of pulverization upon - the specific effects of a plant, 191. - - Gay-Lussac’s opinion respecting the composition of Tartar Emetic, 40. - - Geber, the earliest alchemist on record, 47. - - Gelatin, substituted for Peruvian bark, in the cure of fevers, 56. - - General Stimulants, what classes are comprehended under the head of, - 76. - - Gerard, his remarks on the Potatoe, 38 (_note_). - - Gibberish, origin and meaning of the term, 47. - - Gin, odour of, detected in the brain, 77. - - Gin drinkers liable to become fat, 141. - - Gingerbread why less disposed to mouldiness than plain bread, 177 - (_note_). - - Gladiator, the warm blood of, in Epilepsy, 16. - - Glauber recommends Muriatic Acid in sea scurvy, 33; - his apparatus for distilling acids, 33. - - Globules red, of the blood, a distinct animal principle, 23 (_note_). - - Glue, clarified, why substituted for Peruvian bark in the cure of - fevers, 56. - - Gluten, its proportion in wheat varies in different climates, 58. - - Goat, the blood of, conceit respecting its lithonthryptic virtues - explained, 47 (_note_). - - Golden Fleece of the Argonauts, a chemical allegory, 45. - - _Governing Power_ of the stomach, meaning of the term as employed by - Dr. Fordyce, 112. - - Gout, Portland powder for the, 32 (_note_). - - Grafting, extraordinary changes produced by, 60. - - Grasses, coarse texture of in moist situations a wise provision, 89. - - Greatracks, Valentine, wonderful cures of, 17. - - Greek Physicians, their complicated prescriptions, 63. - - Griffith’s mixture, the supposed unchemical nature of, refuted, 55. - - Guaiacum, how it acts in exciting diaphoresis, 100; - loses its anti-arthritic virtues by purging, 161. - - Gum, indigestible nature of considered, 80. - - - H - - Haerlem, Boerhaave’s treatment of the epileptics in the poor-house at, - 16. - - Halford, Sir Henry, his practice of combining Henbane and Colocynth - judicious, 161. - - _Halitus_, or watery vapours, their uses, 203. - - Halliday, Dr. of Moscow, his letters to the author on the subject of - the Eau Medicinale, 59. - - Hamilton, Dr. his valuable remarks on purgatives, 90; - his observations respecting the time of the day at which purgatives - should be administered in fevers, 187. - - Harmattan, a wind characterised by excessive dryness, opposes the - propagation of epidemics, 175 (_note_). - - Harrison, Dr. his attempt to emulate the effects of Bark, by medicinal - combination, 167; - Dr. Richard, his modification of Majendie’s theory with regard to the - act of vomiting, 84; - his communications to the author respecting the influence of climate - upon the efficacy of medicines, 59. - - Healing by the _first intention_, practice of suggested by - superstition, 15. - - Heat destroys the virtues of many vegetables, 191 (_note_); - its stimulus acts as a diaphoretic, 99. - - Heat, cold, moisture, and dryness, Galen’s notion respecting, 21. - - Hellebore used as a purge by Melampus, 8. - - Heliotrope or blood-stone, its supposed powers, 26. - - Helvetius’s Styptic, of what composed, 83 (_note_); - introduces Ipecacuan into practice, 28. - - Hemlock, doubtful whether the modern plant of that name is the one used - at the Athenian executions, 37; - its powers exaggerated by Stöerck, 21. - - Hemorrhage, why sometimes stopped by a nauseating medicine, 69; - great skill required in the treatment of, 83. - - Henbane, a remedy for nephritic irritation, 166. - - Henry IV, poisoned by medicated gloves, 125. - - Herbage, less nutritive in cold and wet seasons, 58. - - _Herba Britannica_ of Dioscorides and Pliny, unknown, 37. - - Herbena, herbs employed in the rites of sacrifice, 37. - - Herbivorous quadrupeds, on the necessity of bitter to, 79. - - Hermodactyllus, supposed to be a species of colchicum, 32. - - Hindoo “ordeal of rice,” physiologically reasonable, 157 (_note_). - - Hippocrates, his opinion respecting the benefit to be derived from - emetics, 86; - advice to his son Thessalus, 10 (_note_). - - Historical Introduction, 3. - - Hoffman, his advice to suspend the administration of remedies during a - protracted disease, 150. - - Homer’s Allegory accounts for the plague of the Grecian camp, 44 - (_note_.) - - Honey of Cane, the Arabian title for sugar, 46. - - Honey, superstitious opinions respecting, 11. - - Hop, upon what its superiority as an ingredient in malt liquors - depends, 167; - the English, why superior, as a preservative of beer, to that of - foreign growth, 168 (_note_). - - Horncastle dispensary, ague cured in the, by a combination of bitter - and astringent roots, 167. - - Horse-flesh, a remedy in epilepsy, 16. - - Horse the, when debilitated, is easily destroyed by Opium, 69 (_note_); - very easily affected by diuretics, and why, 95. - - Hortus Gramineus Woburnensis, experiments of Mr. Sinclair recorded in - the, 79. - - Human flesh a remedy in epilepsy, 16. - - Humoral Asthma, the pathology of examined, 104. - - —— Pathology, its influence upon medical opinions, 74. - - Hunter, Dr. his remarks on the vital powers of the stomach, 56. - - Hutchison, Mr. Copland, his opinion concerning the comparative rarity - of Calculus amongst seamen, 121. - - Huxham, the complexity of his prescriptions, 64. - - Hydragogues, Cholagogues, &c. opinion respecting, 90. - - —— modus operandi explained, 90. - - Hydromancy, its incidental utility, 15. - - Hydrophobia, the hairs of the rabid animal formerly supposed to be an - antidote to, 26. - - Hypnotics, synonymous with Soporifics and Narcotics, 76. - - Hyoscyamus, gloomy aspect of, indicative of its poisonous qualities, - 42. - - - I - - Iatropa Manihot, its leaves esculent, its root poisonous, 42. - - Identity of bodies formerly considered different, established by - Chemistry, 52. - - Idiosyncrasies, several remarkable instances of related, 188. - - Incantation, origin of the term, 7 (_note_). - - Inhalations, an important class of remedies, 202. - - Indian fig, when eaten renders the urine of a bloody colour, 68 - (_note_). - - Indians, American, their expedient to retard the solution of tobacco, - 176. - - Ink, its mouldiness prevented by cloves, 177 (_note_). - - Inoculation in India, Turkey, and Wales, first practised from a - superstitious belief, 15. - - Insects destroyed by vegetable bitters, 188 (_note_). - - Intestinal absorption suspended by Catharsis, 90. - - Intervals between each dose of a medicine, how to be regulated, 188. - - Interesting report from Mr. Dubois, a Missionary in India, on the - practice of vaccination, 15. - - Introduction, Historical, to the Pharmacologia, 3. - - Intoxicating tea of the Siberians, 59. - - Ipecacuan, why a dose of diminishes the force of the circulation, 69; - how it operates in arresting hemorrhage, 69. - - Ipecacuan, a new principle (_Emeta_) discovered in, 172; - introduced into practice by Helvetius under the patronage of Louis - XIV, 28. - - Ireland, its population increased by the introduction of Potatoes, 30 - (_note_). - - Iron, its virtues explained upon mechanical principles, 22; - rust of, a very ancient remedy, 8; - the sulphate of, its virtues first described by Basil Valentine, 49. - - Ischia, the celebrated baths in the island of, 59. - - Issues, 111. - - - J - - Jalap, the purgative operation of increased by Ipecacuan, 153. - - James I, King, his counter-blaste to tobacco, 29. - - James, Dr. his fever powder of Italian origin, 32. - - Jerusalem Artichoke, origin of the term, 38. - - Jews, their practice of applying astringents to the eye-brows, 49. - - John of Gaddesden, his extraordinary treatment of the son of Edward the - First, 26. - - Johnson, Dr. Samuel, his definition of Physic, 4 (_note_). - - Julius Cæsar, the soldiers of, cured by an unknown plant, 37. - - Jupiter, the astrological symbol of, prefixed to receipts, 12. - - —— and Juno, by whose union the vernal showers were said to have been - produced, interpretation of the fable by Dr. Darwin, 44. - - Jezebel, her custom of painting the eye-brows, 49. - - - K - - _Kermes Mineral_, the secret of its preparation purchased by the French - government, 51. - - Kidd, Dr. his reply to Mr. Brande’s charge against the University of - Oxford, 53. - - Kidneys stimulated by alkaline salts, 92 (_note_). - - Kino and Calumba, experiments respecting their operation by Dr. John - Davy, 169. - - Knight, Andrew, Esq. his conjecture respecting the _Tuberes_ of Pliny, - 61. - - - L - - La Legerie communicates the secret of _Kermes_ Mineral to the French - government for a sum of money, 51. - - Lacteals, the natural sensibility of, altered by Mercury, 152 (_note_). - - Lactuca Sativa, its sedative powers known to the ancients, 9. - - Langelott’s Laudanum, 32. - - Lapis Œtites, or eagle stone, supposed virtues of, 25. - - _Lathyrus Stativus_, supposed deadly properties of the seeds of, 41. - - Lavender, the odour of increased by Musk, 155 (_note_). - - _Laudanum Cydoniatum_ of Van Helmont, 32. - - Laurel water used by the Dutch in consumptions, 32. - - Laxatives and Purgatives, distinction between, 89. - - Lead, the _Acetate_ of, rendered inefficacious by conjunction with - Sulphuric salts, 181. - - Lectures delivered before the Royal College of Physicians, 1. - - Lectures, Chemical, high importance of those delivered at Cambridge, - 54. - - _Leguminous_ plants, Linnæus’s observation upon, 41. - - Lemnos, celebrated earth of, described by Galen, 12. - - Lemon, its different parts possess different virtues, 42. - - Lentor and viscidity of the blood, a supposed cause of disease, 22. - - Lettuce, it soporific powers recommended by Galen, 9. - - Leopold, Archduke of Austria, the failure of the bark in the cure of, - 31. - - Leyden, memorable fever of, a lamentable illustration of ultra-chemical - doctrines, 23. - - Libavius, his opinion of Paracelsus, 50. - - Lichen Islandicus, its bitterness useful, 80. - - Limestone, the operation of burning to quick-lime accelerated by a - moist atmosphere, 176 (_note_). - - Lime water, its lithonthryptic agency considered, 123. - - Linnæus, his system corresponds in a surprising manner with the natural - properties of plants, 42. - - ——, Ray, and Virey, their observation respecting the influence of - pulverization upon the medicinal activity of a plant, 174. - - Linseed, mischievous tendency of, when used as a sole article of diet, - 80. - - Lithate of Ammonia constantly present in urine, 117. - - Lithic acid, Majendie’s theory respecting the formation of, 117; - generated by the action of the kidneys, and constantly present in - healthy urine, 117. - - —— —— Diathesis, Dr. Philip’s views respecting the, 121. - - Lithonthryptics, the great advantage of combining them with Opium in - cases of calculous irritation, 166. - - Lithonthryptic powers of Galvanic Electricity, 124. - - Living fibre, medicines act upon the, 75. - - Liquorice, why objectionable as an envelope of pills, 96 (_note_). - - _Liquor Ammoniæ Acetatis_, why decomposed by Magnesia, 183. - - Local stimulants, 83; - meaning of the term, 83. - - London College of Physicians, their first Pharmacopœia, 52 (_note_). - - Lotions, Embrocations, Liniments, Fomentations, Collyria, &c., 204. - - Louis XIV introduced the potatoe into general cultivation, 30. - - Luridæ, the dark and gloomy aspect of the, indicates their poisonous - properties, 42. - - Lymphatics, medicines enter the circulation through the, 70. - - - M - - Macbride, Dr. his unsuccessful attempt to improve the art of tanning by - the introduction of lime-water, affords an important lesson to the - Pharmaceutist, 182 (_note_). - - Maccaroni of Italy, why so superior to that made in other countries, - 58. - - MacCulloch, Dr. his observations upon the effects of Perfumes in - preventing mouldiness, 177; - on the sweetness of pure and impure sugar, 154. - - Mace and Nutmeg of Arabian origin, 46. - - Macer’s Herbal abounds with the superstitions of the middle ages, 12. - - Macleod, Dr. his observation respecting the Sialogogue power of - Hydro-cyanic acid, 108. - - Magistral Formulæ, the nature and necessity of, 180. - - _Magisterium of Ludovicus_, a preparation of Opium, 32. - - Maglia, the name given to the wild potatoe by the Indians, 80 (_note_). - - Magnesia, its use in mitigating the severity of Colchicum explained, - 162. - - ——, the carbonate of, proposed by Mr. Hatchett as a remedy in the - Lithic diathesis, 123. - - Magnenus, his signature of Tobacco, 25. - - _Magnes Arsenicalis_, Formula for, by Angelus Sala, 26. - - Magnet, its use as an antidote to iron, 24; - formerly entered into the composition of certain Plaisters, 24 - (_note_). - - MAH-RY UMMA, a mischievous deity, supposed by the Indians to occasion - the natural small-pox, 15. - - Majendie, his important views upon the mechanism of absorption, 87 - (_note_); - his views respecting vomiting, 84. - - Male Fern, its anthelmintic properties known to Galen, 31; - retailed as a secret nostrum in France, the secret of which was known - to Louis XV, 31. - - Malt Liquors, the utility of the bitter in, 79. - - Manna, of Arabian origin, 46. - - Manufacturing Chemists, the errors daily committed by, 154 (_note_). - - Marcellus killed by the cold bath, 31. - - Marcet, Dr. his views respecting the treatment of calculus, 115. - - Marshes, animals in the, defended from disease by the ingestion of - bitter plants, 80. - - Masticatories, or acrid Sialogogues, the nature and operation of - considered, 106. - - Materia Medica, its early history involved in fable, 7; - its progressive improvements slow and unequal, 4; - composed of a motley group of substances, 3; - how its progress has been influenced, by caprice, prejudice, - superstition and knavery, 4; - the arrangement of by Cullen, Murray, and Young, 72. - - May Apple, its different parts possess different virtues, 42. - - Mayerne, Sir Theodore, absurd and disgusting remedies of, 13. - - Mead, Dr. recommended Melampodium as an Emmenagogue, 91 (_note_); - his practice of combining alkalies with opium judicious, 161; - his opinion concerning the nature of the Athenian poison, 37 - (_note_). - - Mechanical deposites from the urine divisible into three classes, 118; - mechanical remedies, considerations respecting, 138; - mechanical action of certain expectorants, 105; - mechanical purgatives, 89; - mechanical theory, some account of the, 22. - - Medical Boards of the present day, 20. - - Medicinal Substances, certain ones enter the circulation, 68; - Combination, the extent of limited by several circumstances, 149; - medicinal prescription, its perfection defined in three words, 178; - similarity, conventional acceptation of the term, 138; - incompatibility, meaning of the term, 70; - medicinal bodies, on the operation of, 67; - definition of, 67; - medicinal combination, on the theory and art of, 145. - - Medicines corrected in their operation by _mechanically_ separating, or - _chemically_ neutralizing the offending ingredient, 160; - by adding to them some substance capable of guarding the stomach, or - system, against their deleterious effects, 161; - their effects modified by the age of the patient, and various other - circumstances, 186; - substituted for each other, v.; - cardinal virtues of, according to Galen, 21; - calculated to produce the same ultimate result, by different modes of - operation, may be combined, 163; - their operations modified by the state of vital susceptibility of the - patient, 5; - are frequently but relative agents, 67; - may act through the instrumentality of the nerves, 70; - conveyed to distant parts of the body by absorption, 6; - the ignorant preparation of, 61; - their fraudulent adulteration, 61; - differ only from poisons in their dose, 184. - - Melampodium recommended as an emmenagogue by Dr. Mead, 91 (_note_). - - Melampus of Argos administered rust of iron, 8. - - _Menyanthes Trifoliata_, a cure for the rot in sheep, 80 (_note_). - - Mercurial salivation known in the twelfth century, 49. - - —— ointment, a true chemical compound, 170. - - Mercury, the only constitutional sialogogue, 106; - its operation as a sialogogue attempted to be explained, 107; - supposed to act from its weight, 107; - its power of entering the lacteals, 68; - its efficacy increased by antimony and opium, 152; - a case wherein its effects were suddenly developed by fear, 156; - a powerful stimulant, 155 (_note_). - - Merriman, Dr. an interesting case, in illustration of the influence of - the mind upon the digestive organs, communicated by him to the - author, 158. - - Merry Andrews, their origin, 33 (_note_). - - Metals, a query respecting their peculiar smell, 155 (_note_); - why named after the planets, 12; - all of them inert unless in a state of combination, 170. - - Methodic Sect, founded by Themison, 22. - - Miraculous gift attributed by Herodotus to the Priestesses of Helen, - explained, 18. - - Missletoe, Druidical superstitions respecting the, 11 (_note_). - - _Mistura Ferri composita_, composition of, 55. - - _Misturæ_, Mixtures, general rules to be observed in selecting and - prescribing this form of medicine, 199. - - Mithridate, its history and composition, 27 (_note_). - - Miner, after inanition, killed by stimulants, 6 (_note_). - - Mineral waters, the virtues of discovered by Hydromancy, 15; - sometimes prove diuretic, the reasons why, and how prevented, 95 - (_note_). - - Mineral Acids, first described by Avicenna, 48. - - Milman, Sir Francis, his valuable remarks on the importance of diluents - in dropsy, 175. - - Milner, Dr. his synthetic proof of the composition of nitrous acid, 54 - (_note_). - - Mixture and Chemical Combination, an essential distinction between, - 170. - - Modus Operandi of Medicines, a new classification in illustration of - the, 70. - - Moisture and Dryness, its effects upon vegetable productions, 58. - - Molasses, why sweeter than pure sugar, 154. - - Molina, his observations on the potatoe, 80 (_note_). - - Monardes, his belief in the efficacy of the Bezoar explained, 63. - - Morley’s remedies for Scrofula, 17. - - Morphia, a new principle developed from opium, 172. - - Morton’s Pyretologia contains an account of Oliver Cromwell’s death, - 24. - - Mouldiness prevented by Perfumes, 177. - - Mountain Ash, an object of Druidical veneration, 14. - - Mulberry, contains two colouring principles, 44. - - Muriatic Acid recommended by Glauber in sea scurvy, 33. - - Murray, principles of arrangement adopted in his _Apparatus - Medicaminum_, 41 (_note_). - - Murray’s arrangement of the Materia Medica, 74. - - Music, an ancient remedy, 7 (_note_). - - Musk, of Arabian origin, 46; - its specific controul over spasm, 78; - the odour of increased by exposure to the atmosphere of privies, 155 - (_note_). - - Mustacea of the Romans gave origin to the modern bride-cake, 148 - (_note_). - - Mustard, the unbruised seeds of commended by Dr. Mead in ascites, 184. - - Mythological Fables, antiquity of chemistry deduced from the, 44. - - - N - - Naples, experiments at, with Hyoscyamus, 59. - - Narcotics, synonymous with Sedatives, Hypnotics, and Soporifics, 76; - assume the character of Astringents, 82; - their operation increases vascular action, 76; - their superior efficacy in Italy, 59; - how they differ from ordinary stimulants, 76; - Cullen’s theory respecting, 76; - their stimulant operation denied, 76. - - Narcotico-acrid Poisons, 128; - an ill-defined class, 129. - - Narcotic Poisons, 128. - - Narcotic odour, a distinct indication, 42. - - Natural Compounds, may be regarded as the prescriptions of Nature, 145. - - Natural Family of Plants, often contain species of very different - medicinal virtues, 41. - - Nausea, origin and cause of, 85. - - Nauseating Emetics, - why to be avoided in certain cases of poisoning, 134; - why they prove diaphoretic, 87; - doses of antimony increase the effects of mercury, 152. - - Nauseous remedies supposed to expedite delivery, 16 (_note_). - - Necklace of Pæony, for the cure of epilepsy, 17. - - Nechepsus, his amulet for the stomach, 7. - - _Nepenthe_ of Helen was probably opium, 8. - - Nerves, the media through which certain medicines act upon the body, - 70. - - Nestor’s Cataplasm, 9. - - New arrangement of diuretic medicines, 92. - - Nicolaus, his powder for the stone, 47 (_note_). - - Nicostratus, Cholical antidote of, 19. - - Nitrate of Silver, its successful effect in Epilepsy, 59; - its bitterness connected with its virtues, 80; - rendered inert by muriatic salts, 175. - - Nitric acid, its power of producing ptyalism denied, 108. - - Nomenclature medical, reformed by Botany and Chemistry, 39. - - Nostrum, Definition and meaning of the term, 19 (_note_). - - Nostrums, a multitude of collected by Ætius, 19. - - Nouffleur, Madame, her receipt, 31. - - Nuremburg, the first Pharmacopœia published at, 52 (_note_). - - Nutmeg corrects the operation of alum, 161. - - Nutmeg and Mace of Arabian origin, 46. - - Nutriment, deficiency of in plants, how compensated for by nature, 58. - - Nutritive, and Medicinal powers of plants often opposed to each other, - 58. - - - O - - Objections to Cullen’s arrangement of medicines, of a fatal nature, 74. - - Observation, analogy and experiment, form the only true basis of - research, 5; - Professor Leslie’s definition of, 5 (_note_). - - Obstacles to the progress of the Materia Medica, 6. - - Officinal preparations, the nature and necessity of, 180. - - Old men, the humid coughs of, cured by Sulphate of zinc, 104. - - Oliver Cromwell fell a victim to an intermittent, 24. - - Operation of medicinal bodies, on the, 67. - - Operation of two medicines in one formula, 163. - - Opiologia of Wedelius contains many formulæ which have been perverted - to empirical uses, 32. - - Opium, remarks upon the best mode of correcting its operation, and - obviating its deleterious effects, 136; - has extensive powers as a _Corrigent_, 137; - whether absorbed into the circulation, 77; - modern preparations of derived from ancient receipts, 32; - primitive import of the term, 37; - its powers vary with the climate, 58; - known in early ages, 8; - stimulating effects of, 77; - Galen’s hypothesis concerning, 22. - - Oporinus, his opinion of his master Paracelsus, 50. - - Orange, the Prince of, his success in curing an Epidemic at Breda, 16. - - Oribasius, his just notions respecting medicinal combination, 63. - - Order, a general rule for that of the ingredients of a medicinal - formula, 179. - - Origin of Amulets of very ancient date, 7. - - Organs of sense, sensibility of, changed by artificial habits and - cultivation, 43. - - —— of the body, how excited into action by the administration of - particular remedies, 70. - - Oswald Crollius, first mentions calomel, 51. - - Otho Tachenius, embraced the doctrines of Van Helmont, 50. - - Oxygen, how far it may be considered the source of animal heat, 114. - - Oysters, the green colour of, explained, 44 (_note_). - - - P - - Paley’s remark on the influence of habit, 27. - - Panacea Glauberiana, the secret of its preparation purchased by the - French Government, 51. - - Paracelsus, some account of his character and doctrines, 49; - his false reasoning, 50 (_note_). - - Paris, Supreme Council of, proscribe antimonial remedies, 51. - - Particular forms of remedies, and the general principles upon which - they should be constructed, 190. - - Passive hemorrhage, to be treated by a combination of astringents and - tonics, 165. - - Peach, its deleterious properties, when first introduced into the Roman - empire from Persia, explained, 61; - its kernel, the supposed efficacy of, 61. - - Pearl, compound powders of, 22. - - Percival, Dr. the judicious observations of respecting diet, commended, - 157. - - Perfumes, their extraordinary effects at Rome, 58; - vegetable, Savages insensible of, 43; - prevent mouldiness, 177. - - Pericles pronounced insane for wearing an amulet, 7. - - Peruvian Bark, prejudices respecting, 24; - the adulteration of brought it into discredit, 61. - - Pestilence at Rome, superstitious ceremony during the, 16. - - Peter Lord, his exposition of his father’s will, 33. - - Petiver, the medico-botanical researches of, 41 (_note_). - - Petro de Maharncourt, an inventor of the supposed Universal Elixir, 48. - - Pharmacopœia, how its import differs from that of Pharmacologia, ii; - original institution of, 52 (_note_); - why an object of abuse, 53. - - Philippic of Chifletius against the Peruvian Bark, 31. - - Phillips, Mr. his attack upon the London Pharmacopœia noticed, 54. - - Philosopher’s Stone, Arabian conceit respecting the, 46. - - Philosophy of History, definition of the term, 4. - - Phosphoric Salts, the origin and history of, as they occur in urine, - 118. - - Physiognomy Botanical, its utility, 42. - - Pills containing calomel, should not be enveloped in magnesia, and why, - 196. - - _Pilulæ e Styrace_ of the Dublin College, a very scientific - combination, 194. - - _Pilulæ_, rules respecting their formation into masses, 194. - - Pimento, the berries of, lose their aromatic warmth in coming to - maturity, 62. - - Pink and Lateritious sediments in urine, Dr. Prout’s opinion respecting - the nature of, 117 (_note_). - - Plague of London, superstitious belief respecting the origin of the, 10 - (_note_); - in Egypt, most common after the inundation of the Nile, 175 (_note_). - - Plaister containing soap and muriate of ammonia, the chemical theory of - its operation considered, 171. - - Planetary influence on the virtues of plants, 11. - - Plants medicinal, influenced by soil, culture, climate, and season, 57; - the sensible properties of, have a relation to their medicinal - properties, 41; - the virtues of, discoverable by botanical characters, 41. - - Pliny, his aphorism respecting poisons paraphrased by Linnæus, 184. - - Plum, the cultivated offspring of the sloe, 61. - - Plumbum, a generic term among the ancients, 48. - - Podalirius employed venesection, 8. - - Podophyllum Peltatum, the different parts of possess different virtues, - 42. - - _Poculum Absinthiatum_, its supposed antidotal powers, 79. - - Poisons secret and slow, 125; - absurd notion respecting their possessing a mutual attraction for - each other, 26; - differ essentially from each other, 127; - the classification of, according to their physiological action - attempted, 131; - a belief in the mechanical operation of, not founded in truth, 126; - have ever been the objects of extravagant credulity, 125. - - Poisoning, in cases of, there are three important indications of cure, - 134. - - Poitou, colic of, supposed to have arisen from the appearance of a new - star, 10 (_note_). - - Poly-pharmacy of our predecessors, the influence of the, on the - practitioners of the present day, 64; - of ancient physicians, the mischievous influence of, upon modern - practice, 64. - - Pope Innocent the Tenth countenances the use of the bark, 31. - - Pope Clement VII. poisoned by fumes of a taper, 126 (_note_). - - Poppies supposed to relieve the head, and why, 25. - - Porsenna’s stipulation with the Romans not to employ iron, except in - agriculture, the reason of, 24. - - Portland, Duke of, his powder for the gout, 32. - - Potatoe, the wild parent of the, found at Monte Video, 80 (_note_); - loses its bitterness by cultivation, 79; - its various useful applications enumerated, 30; - mentioned by Gerard, 38 (_note_); - extraordinary and romantic history of the, 30; - introduced into favour by Louis XIV. 30; - origin of the name, 38; - the effect of its introduction into Ireland, 30 (_note_). - - Potassium, curious anecdote connected with the discovery of, 43 - (_note_). - - Poultice, Yeast, its modus operandi explained, 171. - - Powder of Nicolaus, 47 (_note_). - - Powders, individually dry, become liquid by being rubbed together, 192. - - Powders, Compound, canons respecting, 191. - - Powell, Dr. his observations upon compound medicines, 64. - - Practice of Physic, perverted by superstition, 10. - - Precious Stones, an Arabian superstition respecting, 10; - their introduction into medicine, 10. - - Prescriptions ancient, their complicated nature, 63. - - Prescribing, on the theory and art of, 143. - - Prescott, Miss, persons of the first respectability became the dupes - of, 13. - - Prevost and Dumas, their experiments upon the effects of Electricity on - Calculi, 124. - - Priests of the American Indians intoxicated by tobacco, 9. - - Priests of Esculapius, artifices of the, 8 (_note_). - - Priesthood, Pagan, addicted to the use of narcotics, 9; - their characteristic cunning, 18. - - Primary operation of a remedy, meaning of the term, 68. - - Pringle, Sir John, his experiments on the effects of salt, when used in - different quantities, 185; - his opinion respecting the combination of alkalies and bitters, 153. - - Proserpine, the fable of, a chemical allegory, 41. - - Proteus, the fable of, an allegory, 45. - - Prout, Dr. his valuable researches into the history of Gravel and - Calculus, 115. - - Prussic Acid, proposed by Majendie for the cure of phthisis, 32. - - Ptyalism excited by mercury, and hydro-cyanic acid, 107–8. - - Pulmonary exhalation, how modified by certain expectorants, 103. - - _Pulveres_, general principles for their administration, 190. - - Pulverization, how it assists the operation of a medicinal substance, - 190. - - _Pulvis Helvetii_, philosophy of its combination, 192. - - _Pulvis ipecacuanhæ Compositus_, the operation of it affords a striking - illustration of the advantages of medicinal combination, 168. - - Purgatives differ essentially from each other, 89; - combined with antispasmodics, 164; - to be considered as _Absolute_ Agents, 68; - their effects increasing the action of various medicines, 156; - their several modes of operation explained by Lord Bacon, 42 - (_note_); - may act by three different modes, 92; - act as Emmenagogues, 92; - combined with tonics, 164; - combined with mercurial alteratives, 164. - - Purgatives and Laxatives, essential difference between, 88. - - Purpuric Acid, a curious modification of the Lithic, discovered by Dr. - Prout, 117. - - Putrid exhalations recognised by the Savage at a considerable distance, - 43. - - Pyramus and Thisbe, the fable of, curiously illustrated by a late - chemical discovery, 44. - - Pyretologia of Morton, account of Cromwell’s death in, 24. - - - Q - - Quackery countenanced by the member for Coventry, 33 (_note_). - - Quadrupeds Herbivorous, require bitter food, 79. - - Qualities Cardinal, which distinguish all bodies, 21. - - - R - - Rachitis, a disease of the assimilative functions, 118 (_note_). - - Rabbit, its insusceptibility of the powers of opium explained, 69 - (_note_). - - Raleigh, Sir Walter, said to have introduced smoaking tobacco, 29 - (_note_.) - - _Ranting Peters_, a new name for Merry Andrews, 33 (_note_). - - Rape Oil, its proposed improvement by Rozier, 57. - - Rawleigh’s Confection and Pearl Cordial, 33. - - Ray, his attempt to enumerate the virtues of plants _from experience_, - completely failed, 6. - - Ray, Linnæus, and Virey, the observation of, respecting the influence - of pulverization upon the medicinal activity of plants, 174. - - _Recipe_, astrological origin of the symbol that is prefixed to - prescriptions, 12. - - Refrigerants, definition of, 113; - the ingenious chemical theory proposed for explaining their effects, - 113. - - Relative and Absolute remedies, meaning of the terms, 68. - - _Relaxing_ and _Bracing_, import of the terms as applied to Medicines, - 22. - - Religious Ceremonials often intended to preserve useful customs, 18. - - Remedies, the immediate impression of on the body, 68; - of a disgusting nature, how they may operate, 16; - nature of many ancient ones now unknown, 8; - how classed by the Methodic Sect, 22; - discovered by accident, 8; - those that act mechanically considered, 138; - those of external application, 203. - - Remedy, how to obtain by combination a new and active one, not afforded - by any single substance, 168. - - Resinous Purgatives, why apt to gripe, and how to be corrected, 173. - - Reviewers, their unworthy flattery, 20 (_note_). - - Review, a respectable medical one much wanted, 21 (_note_). - - Revolutions of the Materia Medica, prominent causes of the, 9. - - Revolutionary history of the Materia Medica, 3. - - Rhases and Avicenna were the first to introduce pharmaceutical - preparations, 47. - - Rhododendron, the properties of liable to vary with the soil, 57; - its efficacy in Russia, 59. - - Rhubarb, of Arabian origin, 46; - its effects upon the urine when internally administered, 68 (_note_); - its watery infusion rendered purgative by the addition of Calumba, - 154; - combines within itself the double property of a purgative and - astringent, 168. - - Ricotia Ægyptiaca, how made to flower, 57. - - Roasted Swallow, its efficacy believed by Vogel, 6. - - Roasted Toad, its powers as a remedy in Gout, believed by Vogel, 6; - a receipt for the preparation of, 6 (_note_). - - Roger Bacon, excommunicated and imprisoned by the Pope for witchcraft, - 48. - - ——, the father of Chemistry in England, 48. - - Roman custom of erecting altars near the dead body, 18. - - Rome, extraordinary effects of perfumes at, 58. - - Rose Beads, or Rose Pearls, from Turkey, imported into Europe through - Austria—nature of their composition, 196 (_note_). - - Rot in Sheep, cured by the _Menyanthes Trifoliata_, 80 (_note_). - - Rousseau’s observation respecting Scepticism, 21. - - Routine, a devotion to, the great bane of philosophy, 27. - - Royal touch, cures performed by, 16. - - Rozier, his proposal for the improvement of Rape Oil, 57. - - Rubefacients, in what they differ from blisters, 109. - - Rust of the Spear of Telephus, a cure for the wounds it inflicted, 15. - - Russia Leather, why not subject to mouldiness, 177 (_note_). - - - S - - Saline Cathartics, a mixture of, more efficacious than an equivalent - dose of any single one, 173; - increased in force by carbonic acid, 158; - Salts, the proper stimuli of the urinary organs, 93 (_note_); - Saline bodies into which vegetable acids enter, are decomposed _in - transitu_, when taken internally, 94. - - Saliva, its secretion influenced by passions of the mind, 158 (_note_). - - Salivation by Mercury, why attended with a fœtid breath, 152 (_note_); - known in the twelfth century, 49. - - Saltness, Galen’s notions respecting the cause of, 21. - - Salts, Alkaline, when taken may be detected in the urine, 68. - - Salt, Culinary, operates very differently in different quantities, 185. - - Salts, certain of them pass into the circulation, and undergo - decomposition in _transitu_, 94. - - Sandy soil, strongly smelling plants become inodorous in a, 57. - - Saracens, their treaty with the Greek Emperors, respecting the literary - works of the ancients, 46 (_note_). - - Scammonia Convolvulus, the root alone contains any virtue, 42. - - Scepticism, mischievous tendency of, in physic, 21; - definition of the word, 20. - - Schroeder, his chemico-medical Pharmacopœia, 96 (_note_). - - Scribonius Largus, his writings afford ample evidence of the empirical - spirit of those days, 20. - - Sea Needle, the green bones of, not poisonous, 43. - - Seamen, the extraordinary immunity of from calculous disorders, 121. - - Season, the influence of upon medicinal plants, 57. - - Secondary operation of a remedy, meaning of the term, 68. - - —— Diuresis to be distinguished from the result of a primary action on - the kidneys, 95 (_note_). - - Sedatives, meaning of the term, 76. - - Sedentary persons, their mistaken notions respecting diet and exercise, - 159. - - Sediments of health, meaning of the expression, according to Dr. Prout, - 118. - - Seeds, hot and cold, origin of the epithets, 22. - - Seguin, the experiments of, relative to the astringent principle of - vegetables, 153; - his curious error respecting the tonic principle of Peruvian bark, - 56. - - Senna, why apt to gripe, 173; - its composition changed by transplantation, 153; - of Arabian origin, 46; - undergoes a remarkable change by transplantation into the south of - France, 153; - its fruit and pods contain no bitter, 153. - - Sennertus, his interesting history of surgical superstitions, 17 - (_note_). - - Septic poisons, species of enumerated, 128. - - Setons, the modus operandi, 111. - - Sheep die, if deprived of bitter food, 79. - - Sialogogues, definition of, 106; - comprehend two orders of medicines, 106. - - Siberians, their remedies for rheumatism, 60. - - Signatures, the doctrine of, 24. - - Similarity, as applied to medicinal operation, conventional meaning of - the term, 150—70—147 (_note_). - - Simons, William, Esq. his laudable zeal in improving the pharmaceutic - machinery at Apothecaries’ Hall, 52 (_note_). - - Simple and living solids, Cullen’s distinction between the, 75. - - Simplicity always a desideratum in a medicinal formula, 178. - - Sinapisms in frequent use with the Greeks and Romans, 46. - - Sinbad the sailor, his adventures on the desert island, a beautiful - allegory, 47. - - Sinclair, Mr. his very interesting experiments on the necessity of - bitter extractive to herbivorous quadrupeds, 79. - - Single flowers, how changed by cultivation, 60. - - Slare, Dr. his pamphlet in vindication of sugar, 24 (_note_). - - Sloe, the wild parent of the plum, 61. - - Small Pox, supposed by the Indians to be a visitation of their goddess - MAH-RY UMMA, 15. - - Smell, taste, and colour of plants indicate their virtues, 42. - - Smithson, Mr. his curious discovery of two colouring principles in the - Mulberry, 44. - - Smoking tobacco introduced by Sir Walter Raleigh, 29 (_note_). - - Sneezing, a case of apoplexy produced by, related by Morgagni, 109. - - Snow, Mrs. Elizabeth Woodcock buried in the, for eight days, 6 - (_note_). - - Snuff, the Pope’s decree of excommunication against all those who - should take it, 29 (_note_); - custom of mixing together its different varieties, accounted for, - 148. - - Soap, when combined with Aloes, performs the duty of the _corrigens_ - and the _adjuvans_, 179; - its value as a constituent in pills, 195; - restored to the _Extract: Colocynth: Comp:_ in the new Pharmacopœia, - 55 (_note_). - - Socrates and Phocion poisoned by Cicuta, 37. - - Soil, its influence upon medicinal plants, 57. - - Solanum Tuberosum, extract of, an anodyne, 30. - - Solids, simple and living, how distinguished by Cullen, 75. - - Solomon’s ring for the cure of Epilepsy, 7 (_note_). - - Solution of poisonous substances in the stomach should be avoided, 135. - - Solubility of a body influences its effects upon the organ of taste, - 43; - solubility of a purgative determines its specific action, 172; - solubility of a medicinal body, how it may be modified by - _mechanical_ and _chemical_ expedients, 173. - - ——, its great importance in reference to the activity of a medicinal - substance, 172. - - Soporifics, synonymous with Narcotics and Hypnotics, 76. - - Soranus, his superstitious belief in the virtues of honey, 11. - - Southern countries, some vegetables more energetic in, than in northern - ones, 58. - - Spalding, Mr. the celebrated diver, his observation respecting the - comparative influence of vegetable and animal diet, 113. - - Spasm, connected with the most opposite states of the system, 78. - - Spasmodic action controlled by certain medicines, 78. - - Spleen, schirrus of, said to be cured by iron, and why, 22. - - Squil, its bitter principle separated by the assimilative functions, - and transmitted to the kidneys, 68; - its powers invalidated by alkalies, 153 (_note_); - its action directed to the kidneys by calomel, 152; - its action as an expectorant often requires the aid of a diaphoretic, - 152; - loses its diuretic virtues by purging, 161. - - —— and Digitalis, dissimilar as Diuretics, 150. - - ——, or sea onion, administered in dropsy by the Egyptians, 9. - - Stahl’s Ideal System, mischievous tendency of, 22. - - Steam Laboratory at Apothecaries’ Hall, 52 (_note_). - - Steel medicines accelerated in their operation by purgatives, 157. - - Steller’s testimony with respect to the liability of the Rhododendron - to vary in its virtues, 57. - - Stephens, Mrs. her remedy for the stone, 34; - Parliamentary reward to, 34 (_note_). - - Stimmi, or Stibium of the ancients, whether the Antimony of the present - day, 49. - - Stimulants, local, comprehend evacuants, 83; - general, what classes are comprehended under the division of, 75. - - Stimulant operation of Narcotics denied, 76. - - Stoll and Warren, Drs. their judicious treatment of _Cholica Pictonum_, - 164. - - Stomach, it exercises a universal sympathy and control over every organ - of the body, 69; - a certain chemical condition of it sometimes opposes medicinal - action, 162; - in what its powers consist, 56; - has a chemical code of its own, 55. - - Stone, Sarah, her cases of Midwifery, 16 (_note_). - - Strabo’s explanation of the fable of the golden fleece, 45. - - Sturmius, his anecdote respecting the scarcity of bark, 24 (_note_). - - Styptic, Eaton’s, 83 (_note_); - of Helvetius, _ibid._; - nature of styptics as remedies, _ibid._ - - Substances not affecting the body in health, whether they can be active - remedies in disease, 67; - substances chemically compatible, may be medicinally inconsistent - with each other, 55; - suitable for pills, 193; - not adapted for pill-masses, 193. - - Substantive and adjective constituents, meaning of the terms, 154 - (_note_). - - Substitution of one medicine for another, a common but mischievous - practice, v. - - Sudorifics, see Diaphoretics. - - _Suffitus_, or dry fumes, their uses in the cure of disease, 202. - - Sugar, the sweetness of, modified by vegetable extractive, 154; - absurd prejudices respecting, 24. - - —— and Sugar Candy of Arabian origin, 46. - - Sugared Plums, sold to children, contain plaister of Paris, 193 - (_note_). - - Sulphate of Zinc, - the combination of with Myrrh, a valuable remedy in the humid coughs - of old persons, 165; - an excellent remedy in humoral asthma, 104; - as an emetic, case of death from, 85. - - ——————, or Sulphate of Copper, why to be preferred to Antimony as - emetics in certain cases of poisoning, 134. - - Sulphate of Potass, the medicinal action of, modified by its - insolubility, 94; - affords an excellent example of the powers of combination in - destroying the identity of the ingredients, 169. - - —————— Magnesia, rarely diuretic, and why, 95. - - Sulphur, its agency in producing odour, 155 (_note_). - - Superstition, a prominent source of error in physic, 10. - - Superstitious practices have sometimes led to useful results, 14. - - _Suppositoria_, Suppositories, the nature of, 197; - calculated to fulfil two great indications, 197. - - Swallow roasted, esteemed as a remedy by Vogel, 6. - - Sweet Potatoe, alluded to by Shakespeare, 38. - - Swiss Peasants delight in bitter beverage, 79. - - Sydenham’s case of poisoning by corrosive sublimate cured by diluents, - 135 (_note_); - his observation respecting the practice of combining bark with other - medicines, has less of reason than of severity, 166; - his extraordinary treatment of a hypochondriac, 36. - - Sylvius de la Boe succeeded Van Helmont, 50; - consigns two-thirds of the population of Leyden to an untimely grave, - 23. - - Sympathy, conventional meaning of the term, 68 (_note_). - - Sympathetic Powder of Sir Kenelm Digby, 14. - - Syncope, produced at Rome by perfumes, 58. - - Synoptical view of Murray’s arrangement of the Materia Medica, 74. - - Syrup of Roses, underhanded substitution in the preparation of it, - _Pref_. - - Syrups, Juleps, and Conserves, introduced by the Arabian Physicians, - 46. - - - T - - Tables of chemical affinity may lead the practitioner into error, and - why, 183. - - Tabular view of diuretics, arranged according to their supposed modes - of operation, 93; - Cullen’s arrangement of the Materia Medica, 72. - - Tannin generally exists in combination with Gallic acid, 82 (_note_); - present in grasses of _aftermath_ crops, 82; - does not enter the circulation, 82; - is the vegetable principle of astringency, 82; - but is increased in effect by Gallic acid, 153. - - Tar water, epidemical madness respecting, 27 (_note_). - - Tartar soluble, remarks on the operation of, 173. - - Tartarized Antimony, the term defended, 40. - - Tartrate of Potass, a solution of, decomposed by a current of Carbonic - acid passing through it, 183 (_note_); - decomposed by all sub-acid vegetables, 183. - - Taste, colour, and smell of plants indicate their virtues, 42. - - Tea, the general introduction of, in England, owing to the eulogy of - Queen Katharine, 29. - - Tea and turtle soup, whether their admixture in the stomach may not - form leather, 182 (_note_). - - Telephus, the rust of the spear of, a cure for the wounds it inflicted, - 15. - - Temple, Sir William, his aphorism respecting diet more facetious than - philosophical, 158. - - Temples, ancient, dedicated to health, and in airy situations, 39. - - Tench, curious mistake respecting the medicinal use of the, 11 - (_note_). - - Tension of fibres, the necessity of the, 78. - - Terms new, proposed by the author to explain the operation of certain - native combinations, 159 (_note_). - - Thaddæus of Florence, not the inventor of Tinctures, 48. - - Thaw after a hard frost, aggravates certain coughs, and why, 105. - - Thebaic Tincture, derivation of the term, 9 (_note_). - - Themison, the ill success of his practice recorded by Juvenal, 22 - (_note_). - - Theories false, mischievous influence of, 21. - - Theriaca Andromachi, the great celebrity of, 27. - - Theriaca, Heberden’s remarks upon, 28 (_note_). - - Thessalus, the Roman empiric, described by Galen, 20. - - Thirst, the irritation of, keeps up febrile action, 140. - - Thoracic Duct, medicines enter into the circulation through its - branches, 70. - - Time of the day at which remedies are to be administered, forms a - subject of interest, 187. - - Tin, formerly called _Plumbum Album_, 48. - - Tinctures invented by Arnoldus de Villa Nova, 48. - - Tirocinium Chemicum, calomel described in, 51. - - Toad roasted, its supposed powers in allaying the pains of the gout, 6; - Receipt for baking it alive, 6 (_note_). - - Tobacco, its nauseating operation explained, 85; - romantic history of, 29; - its essential oil acts very differently from the infusion of its - leaves, 132 (_note_); - its Signatures, 25. - - Tonics, vegetable, their effects modified by alkalies, and other - solvents, 174. - - ——, in what cases their combination with purgatives becomes eligible, - 164; - reasons for combining them with diffusible stimulants, 165; - are absolute or relative in their operation, 78; - they frequently require the aid of Diaphoretics to modify - their powers, 164; - their operation in healthy and debilitated habits, 78; - are vital agents, 78; - definition of, 78. - - —— Topical Refrigerants, 110. - - _Tormentil_ in pastures said to prevent the rot in sheep, 80 (_note_). - - Tournefort, his mode of ascertaining medicinal properties in - vegetables, 23. - - Tortosa, his opinion respecting the solubility of Opium in the stomach - questioned, 136 (_note_). - - Transition from diffusible stimulants to tonics imperceptible, 81. - - Treacle, its powers in preserving vegetable powders, 195. - - Triple Salts, their formation often affords apparent exceptions to the - usual law of affinity, 183. - - _Trochisci_—Lozenges, observations respecting their _modus operandi_, - 197. - - Trumpet the, used by Asclepiades in the cure of Sciatica, 7 (_note_). - - _Tuberes_ of Pliny, Knight’s conjectures respecting, 61. - - Turmeric, an ancient remedy for Jaundice, 25. - - Turner, Culpepper, and Lovel, properly denominated the Astrological - Herbalists, 13. - - Turner, Mr. why he escaped from the dose of arsenic administered to - him, in yeast dumplings, 195. - - Turnips, yellow, contain little, or no bitter principle, 79. - - Turpentine, oil of, acts on the kidneys only when given in small doses, - 95. - - - V - - Vaccination, superstitious notions entertained respecting it in the - East, 15. - - Van Helmont, his chemical zeal, 50; - his chemical doctrines espoused by Sylvius de la Boe, 50; - his mischievous doctrines, 100. - - Van-Swieten, his opinion respecting the effect of sneezing in loading - the vessels of the head, 109. - - Valentine, Basil, the father of Metallic Medicine, 48. - - Valerian, its antispasmodic virtues, 78. - - Valisnieri, his observations upon combination, 147. - - Vapours, a fashionable disorder in the reign of Queen Anne, 33. - - Variable activity of a medicine, a fact not to be overlooked by the - practitioner, 187. - - Vegetable analysis, the great improvements in, 52. - - Vegetable acids rarely the vehicle of poisons, 136 (_note_); - undergo decomposition in the digestive organs, 94. - - —— astringents, whether they may not be incompatible with lime water, - 182. - - Vegetable diet, the supposed refrigerating effect of, explained, 113. - - —— diuretics, generally bitter, 94. - - —— eaters, less affected by vegetable poisons than carnivorous animals, - and why, 69 (_note_). - - Vehicle of a remedy, how to be selected, 176. - - Vena Portarum, one of the avenues through which medicinal substances - enter the circulation, 70. - - Venesection increases the effects of Cathartics, 156; - of Mercury, 156; - when it ought to be avoided in cases of poisoning, and why, 137; - frequently promotes vomiting and why, 85; - a remedy of very early origin, 8; - may act as a tonic, 78. - - Verbena, a word of general import (quasi Herbena), 37. - - Verdegris, the virulent effects of increased by vinegar, 136. - - Vertigo, instantly relieved by ether, and why, 69. - - Vervain, Morley’s recommendation of, 17; - druidical superstitions respecting it, 11 (_note_). - - Vienna Gout Decoction, 32 (_note_). - - Views, Synoptical, of the arrangement of the Materia Medica, according - to Cullen, Murray, and Young, 72, 73, 74. - - Vinegar of Wood described by Glauber, 33. - - Vine twigs, a fixed alkali procured from, recommended by Basil - Valentine in the gravel, 49. - - Villerobel relates that the bark remained for seven years in Spain - before any trial of its efficacy was instituted, 31. - - Virgil, his allusion to the anti-narcotic influence of vegetable acids, - 136. - - Virey, his observations upon the growth of plants, 57. - - ——, Ray, and Linnæus, their observation respecting the influence of - pulverization upon the medicinal activity of a plant, 174. - - Vis Medicatrix, its supposed agency, 76. - - Viscus Quercinus, or Missletoe, druidical history of the, 13. - - Vitriol, original meaning of the term, 37. - - Vogel, believed in the efficacy of roasted toad, 6; - his attempt to class medicines according to their virtues, 6. - - Voltaire’s illustrative fable of the Voluptuary Ogul, 35. - - Vomiting, why it cannot be excited during profound intoxication, 84; - phenomena and pathology of, 83; - not effected by the stomach alone, 84. - - - U - - Ulysses, hæmorrhage of, cured by a charm, 17. - - Ultra-Chemistry, its mischievous tendency in medicine considered, 56. - - _Umbelliferæ_, medicinal analogies between their species, 41. - - Unseasonable collection of vegetable remedies, a great source of - fallacy, 62. - - Uranus, discovery of that planet, by Herschel, 5. - - Urea, the nature and habitudes of, considered, 116; - Dr. Prout’s opinion regarding the origin of, 116. - - Urinary organs stimulated by saline bodies, 93 (_note_). - - —— calculi, a tabular view of the different species of, 120. - - Urine, analysis of, by Berzelius, 116; - its colour changed by the administration of rhubarb, and Indian fig, - 68 (_note_). - - —— of the husband, supposed to expedite labour pains, 16 (_note_). - - - W - - Warburton, Dr. his error respecting the origin of amulets, 7. - - Warren’s Blacking described in the Hecuba of Euripides, 33 (_note_). - - Warm bath, mechanical notions respecting its operation and effects, 22. - - Water, the potation of, promotes the action of the kidneys, 94; - sometimes sufficient to form vegetable powders into masses of pill, - 196; - whether decomposed by the digestive organs, 141. - - Waters of plants, formerly meant simple decoctions, 46. - - Waters, mineral, a probable cause of their activity as remedies, 185. - - Watering places, observations upon their efficacy, 35. - - Watson, Bishop, his eloquent appeal on the importance of chemical - science, 54. - - Wedelius, his Opiologia, 32. - - Wecker’s Dispensatory contains several preparations in which the magnet - is an ingredient, 24 (_note_). - - Wells, Dr. his opinion respecting the colouring matter of the blood, 25 - (_note_). - - Wesley, John, medical credulity of, 35; - cured by sulphur and supplication, 36. - - Wheat, the relative proportions of Gluten in, vary in different - countries, 58. - - Willis, Dr. his prejudice against sugar, 24. - - Wine glass, to be estimated as containing f ℥ iss, 199. - - Wiseman’s history of cures by the royal touch, 16. - - Witch, the ashes of, a remedy against witchcraft, 26 (_note_). - - Woulf’s apparatus originally described by Glauber, 33. - - Wormwood, formerly supposed to be an antidote to drunkenness, 79. - - Wood, vinegar obtained from, by Glauber, 33. - - Woodcock, Elizabeth, buried in the snow for eight days, 6 (_note_). - - Worms, four species of, generated in the human body, 138 (_note_). - - Wounds inflicted by iron instruments formerly supposed to be fatal, 23. - - - Y - - Yeast poultice, its modus operandi explained, 171. - - Yellow turnips contain little or no bitter principle, 79. - - Yellow fever, errors respecting the use of mercury in the, 34. - - Young, Dr. his rule for apportioning doses according to different ages, - 189; - his arrangement of the Materia Medica, 73. - - - Z - - Zealanders supported, during a scarcity, by Linseed, 80. - - Zinc, the _acetate_ of, to be preferred to the _sulphate_ as an - ophthalmic application, 170; - sulphate of, an excellent remedy in humoral asthma, 104. - - - - - INDEX - TO THE - PATENT MEDICINES, AND NOSTRUMS, - DESCRIBED IN THIS WORK. - - - “_Arcana revelata fœtent._”—Boerh: - - - “_Nullum Ego cognosco remedium nisi quod_ Tempestivo usu _fiat - tale_.”—Ibid. - - Ague Drop, 411 - - Almond Paste, 277 - - Anderson’s Pills, 271 - - Anodyne Necklaces, 13 & 397 - - Anti-Pertussis, 522 - - Anti-Venereal Drops, 390 - - Aromatic Lozenges of Steel, 374 - - Aromatic Vinegar, 253 - - - Bailey’s Itch Ointment, 520 - - Balsam of Honey, 314 - - Balsam of Horehound, 438 - - Balsam of Liquorice, 380 - - Barclay’s Antibilious Pills, 363 - - Bark, essential Salt of, 332 - - Bateman’s Pectoral Drops, 326 - - Bate’s Anodyne Balsam, 408 - - Battley’s _Liquor opii Sedativus_, 440 - - Beaume de Vie, 271 - - Black Drop, 440 - - Blaine’s Powder, 487 - - Boerhaave’s Red Pill, 395 - - Brodum’s Nervous Cordial, 379 - - - Cephalic Snuff, 492 - - Chamberlain’s Restorative Pills for Scrofula, 395 - - Chamomile Drops, 279 - - Charcoal, Concentrated solution of, 322 - - Chelsea Pensioner, 381 - - Cheltenham Salts, 480 - - Cheltenham Salts, the original combined, 480 - - Cheltenham Salts, the efflorescence of, 480 - - Ching’s Worm Lozenges, 394 - - Cochrane Major, his Cough Medicine, 490 - - Colley’s Depilatory, 452 - - Corn Plaister, 359 - - Cough Drops, 438 - - Court Plaister, 359 - - Crespigny Lady, her Pills, 271 - - - Daffy’s Elixir, 505 - - Dalby’s Carminative, 418 - - Davidson’s Remedy for Cancer, 298 - - De La Motte’s Golden Drops, 506 - - Delcroix’s Depilatory, 298 - - Dinner Pills, 271 - - Dixon’s Antibilious Pills, 271 - - Dutch Drops, 497 - - - Eaton’s Styptic, 83 - - Eau Medicinale de Husson, 339 - - Economical Breakfast Powder, 493 - - Edinburgh Ointment, 509 - - Elixir of Longevity, 271 - - Elixir of Vitriol, 265 - - Essence of Vitriol, 265 - - Essence of Bitter Almonds, 431 - - Essence of Coffee, 325 - - Essence of Coltsfoot, 314 - - Essence of Mustard, 475 - - Essence of Mustard Pills, 475 - - Essence of Peppermint, 421 - - Essence of Senna, 401 - - Essence of Spruce, 495 - - Essential Salt of Bark, 331 - - Essential Salt of Lemons, 407 - - Everlasting Pills, 280 - - - Ford’s Laudanum, 515 - - Ford’s Balsam of Horehound, 438 - - Fothergill’s Pills, 271 - - Freeman’s Bathing Spirits, 408 - - Friar’s Balsam, 314 - - Fumigating Pastiles, 313 - - - Godbold’s Vegetable Balsam, 442 - - Godfrey’s Cordial, 468 - - Godfrey’s Smelling Salts, 275 - - Golden Drops, 506 - - Golden Ointment, 298 - - Golden Spirits of Scurvy Grass, 317 - - Gout Tincture, Wilson’s, 340 - - Gowland’s Lotion, 390 - - Green’s Drops, 390 - - Greenough’s Tincture, 503 - - Grindle’s Cough Drops, 438 - - Guestonian Embrocation for the Rheumatism, 497 - - - Hannay’s Lotion, 415 - - Hatfield’s Tincture, 381 - - Hill’s Essence of Bardana, 381 - - Honey Water, 421 - - Hooper’s Pills, 271 - - Hudson’s Preservative for the Teeth, 503 - - Huiles Antiques, 430 - - Hungary Water, 482 - - Hunt’s Breakfast Powder, 493 - - - Ipecacuanha Lozenges, 403 - - - James’s Powder, 458 - - James’s Analeptic Pills, 458 - - Jesuit’s Drops, 314 - - Jackson’s Bathing Spirits, 408 - - - Keyser’s Pills, 247 - - - Lancaster or Black Drop, 440 - - Lardner’s Prepared Charcoal, 322 - - Lemons, Essential Salt of, 407 - - Liquor Opii Sedativus, 440 - - Lynch’s Embrocation, 408 - - - Madden’s Vegetable Essence, 400 - - Magnesian Cheltenham Salts, 480 - - Marsden’s Antiscorbutic Drops, 390 - - Marseilles Vinegar, 253 - - Marshall’s Cerate, 329 - - Matthew’s Pills, 382 - - Matthew’s Injection, 504 - - Mock Arrack, 486 - - Moseley’s Pills, 462 - - - Necklaces, Anodyne, 13 - - Norris’s Drops, 284 - - Norton’s Drops, 390 - - Nouffleur’s Vermifuge, 31 - - - Opodeldoc, Steer’s, 408 - - Oxley’s Essence of Jamaica Ginger, 522 - - - Pastilles, 313 - - Pate Arsenicale, 298 - - Peter’s Pills, 271 - - Pectoral Balsam of Honey, 314 - - Pectoral Balsam of Liquorice, 380 - - Permanent Ink, 293 - - Portland Powder, 32 - - Plunkett’s Ointment, 297 - - - Radcliffe’s Elixir, 271 - - Refined Liquorice, 364 - - Remedy for the Tooth-ache, 318 - - Remedies various for the Hooping Cough, 522 - - Riga Balsam, 495 - - Rob Antisyphilitique, 390 - - Roche’s Embrocation for the Hooping Cough, 430 - - Royal Preventive, 450 - - Ruspini’s Tincture, 503 - - Rymer’s Cardiac Tincture, 321 - - - Scouring Drops, 497 - - Seidlitz Powders, 476 - - Senna, Prepared Essence of, 401 - - Singleton’s Eye Salve, 298 - - Sirop de Cuisiniere, 390 - - Smellone’s Eye Salve, 267 - - Snuff Cephalic, 452 - - Sodaic Powers, 476 - - Solomon’s Anti-Impetigines, 390 - - Solomon’s Balm of Gilead, 504 - - Speediman’s Pills, 271 - - Spilsbury’s Antiscorbutic Drops, 390 - - Squire’s Elixir, 438 - - Starkey’s Pills, 382 - - Starkey’s Soap, 496 - - Steer’s Opodeldoc, 408 - - Sterry’s Plaister, 357 - - Stephens’s Mrs. Remedy for the Stone, 412 - - Storey’s Worm Cakes, 394 - - Stroughton’s Elixir, 379 - - Struve’s Lotion, 430 - - Sulphur Lozenges, 488 - - Swinton’s Daffey’s Elixir, 505 - - - Taylor’s Remedy for Deafness, 269 - - Taylor’s Red Bottle, 486 - - Thieves’ Vinegar, 254 - - Thompson’s Cheltenham Salts, 480 - - Tolu Lozenges, 312 - - Transparent Soap, 467 - - - Velno’s Vegetable Syrup, 390 - - Virgin’s Milk, 414 - - - Wade’s Drops, 314 - - Walker’s Jesuit Drops, 381 - - Ward’s Essence for the Head-ache, 408 - - Ward’s Paste, 312 - - Ward’s White Drops, 390 - - Ward’s Red Drops, 514 - - Ward’s Sweating Powder, 508 - - Warner’s Cordial, 462 - - Webster, Lady, her Pills, 271 - - Whitehead’s Essence of Mustard, 475 - - Wilson’s Gout Tincture, 340 - - Worm Cakes, 394 - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - The College of Physicians may now be said to possess one of the most - complete collections of Materia Medica in Europe. That collected by - Dr. Burgess, and presented to the College after his death by Mr. - Brande, to whom it was bequeathed, has lately been collated with the - cabinet of Dr. Coombe, purchased for that purpose. Its arrangement has - been directed by a feeling of convenience for reference, rather than - by any theoretical views relative to the natural, chemical, and - medicinal histories of its constituent parts. Under proper - regulations, it is accessible to the studious and respectable members - of the profession. - -Footnote 2: - - A late foreign writer impressed with this sentiment has given the - following flattering definition of our profession. ‘Physic is the art - of amusing the patient, while Nature cures the disease.’ This is a - sarcasm which can only be equalled by the churlish and ill-humoured - apostrophe of our own Dr. Samuel Johnson, who, in speaking of the - profession of physic, exclaims ‘It is a melancholy attendance on - misery; a mean submission to peevishness; and a continual interruption - of pleasure.’ - -Footnote 3: - - Observation, says professor Leslie, is the close inspection and - attentive examination of those phenomena which arise in the course of - Nature; Experiment, as the term implies, consists in a kind of trial, - or artificial selection and combination of circumstances, for the - purpose of searching after the remote results. - -Footnote 4: - - The refractive power of an inflammable body bears also a proportion to - its perfection, whence it may be sometimes used as a test of its - purity; thus Dr. Wollaston found that genuine Oil of Cloves had a - refractive power of 1.535, while that of an inferior quality did not - exceed 1.498. - -Footnote 5: - - Elizabeth Woodcock, who was buried in the snow for the space of eight - days, in the neighbourhood of Cambridge, and whom I frequently - visited, died in consequence of the stimulants which she could not - resist, and which in her peculiar state of excitement she was unable - to bear. In the first volume of the Memoirs of the Philosophical - Society of Manchester, a case of a Miner is recorded, who after - remaining for eight days without food, was killed by being placed in a - warm bed, and fed with chicken-broth. - -Footnote 6: - - For this purpose it appears that the toad was baked alive. The - following is the receipt in Colborne’s Dispensatory; ‘Bufo - Præparatus.’ “Put the toads alive into an earthen pot, and dry them in - an oven moderately heated, till they become fit to be powdered.”! - -Footnote 7: - - The application of the reeking entrails of a recently slain animal, - appears to have been one of the earliest methods adopted for the - relief of pain. - -Footnote 8: - - The words ‘Incantation,’ and ‘Charm,’ appear to have been derived from - the ancient practice of curing diseases by Poetry and Music. (Carmen) - Thus Cœlius Aurelianus, decantare loca Dolentia. Democritus says that - many diseases are capable of being cured by the sound of a flute, when - properly played. Marianus Capellus assures us, that fevers may be - cured by appropriate songs; Asclepiades actually employed the trumpet, - for the relief of Sciatica, and tells us that it is to be continued - until the fibres of the part begin to palpitate, when the pain will - vanish. - -Footnote 9: - - similar superstition is still practised by the Indians. There is a - species of green jasper found in many parts of America, particularly - in New Spain, to which the Spaniards have given the name of Piedra de - la Hyada, and is used for curing the Cholic by being applied to the - navel. - -Footnote 10: - - Lib. viii. c. 2. 5. - -Footnote 11: - - From this Art of Solomon, exhibited through the medium of a ring, or - seal, we have the eastern stories which celebrate the SEAL OF SOLOMON, - and record the potency of its sway over the various orders of Demons, - or of Genii, who are supposed to be the invisible tormentors or - benefactors of the human race. - -Footnote 12: - - Let the tradition respecting the discovery of the virtues of the bark - serve as an illustration. We are told, that an Indian being ill of a - fever, quenched his thirst at a pool of water, strongly impregnated - with the bark from some trees having accidentally fallen into it, and - that he was in consequence cured. - -Footnote 13: - - As these persons were ambitious to pass for the descendants of - Esculapius, they assumed the name of The ASCLEPIADES. The writings of - Pausanius, Philostratus, and Plutarch, abound with the artifices of - those early physicians. Aristophanes describes in a truly comic manner - the craft and pious avarice of these godly men, and mentions the - dexterity and promptitude with which they collected, and put into - their bags, the offerings on the altar. The patients, during this - period, reposed on the skins of sacrificed rams, in order that they - might procure celestial visions. As soon as they were believed to be - asleep, a priest, clothed in the dress of Esculapius, imitating his - manners, and accompanied by the daughters of the god, that is, by - young actresses, thoroughly instructed in their parts, entered, and - delivered a medical opinion. - -Footnote 14: - - Odyss Δ. - -Footnote 15: - - Hence, the Tincture of Opium has been called _Thebaic_ Tincture. - -Footnote 16: - - The Laurel was sacred to Apollo, with plantations of which his temples - were surrounded. Lucan informs us (Pharsal. lib. v.) that the speedy - death of the priestess was often occasioned by the ceremony. - -Footnote 17: - - Allusions to this plant frequently occur in the medical writings of - antiquity; we are told that Galen, in the decline of life, suffered - much from morbid vigilance, until he had recourse to eating a lettuce - every evening, which cured him. - -Footnote 18: - - Iliad Δ. - -Footnote 19: - - The Plague of London was supposed to have arisen from such a cause, as - we learn from the writers of that period. I shall quote a passage from - a pamphlet by W. Kemp, M. A. dedicated to Charles the Second. ‘One - cause of breeding the pestilence is that corruption of the air, which - is occasioned by the influence of the Stars, by the aspects, - conjunctions, and oppositions of the Planets, by the eclipses of the - Sun and Moon, and by the consequences of Comets.’ ‘Astra regunt - homines, sed regit astra Deus.’ Hippocrates advises his son Thessalus - to study numbers and geometry, (‘Epist. ad Thessalum.’) because, says - he, the rising and setting of the Stars have a great effect upon - Distempers. Citois, the historian of the celebrated Colic of Poitou - (Colica Pictonum), which raged with such epidemic fury in that - province during the Sixteenth century, drops a hint, apparently with a - view to account for the origin of the disease, viz. that to the great - astonishment of Astrologers, ‘a new Star had, in the same year made - its appearance in the constellation of Cassiopeia’.—(Diatriba de novo - et populari, apud Pictones, dolore colico bilioso.) - -Footnote 20: - - The precious stones were, at first, only used as Amulets, or external - charms, but like many other articles of the Materia Medica, they - passed, by a mistake in the mode of their application, from the - outside to the inside of the body, and they were accordingly powdered - and administered as specifics. An analogous case of the perverted - administration of a popular remedy is afforded in the history of the - Tench; which Sennertus describes as a remedy capable of curing the - Jaundice, which he allows is effected ‘by secret attraction, and the - power of Amulets.’ In the course of time, it became a reputed food in - the cure of that disease, and Tench broth was prescribed upon all such - occasions. - -Footnote 21: - - Mystery is the very soul of Empiricism; withdraw the veil, and the - confidence of the patient instantly languishes; thus Pliny, ‘Minus - credunt quæ ad suam salutem pertinent, si intelligunt.’ - -Footnote 22: - - It was this historian who said, that Medicine was invented by Apollo, - improved by Esculapius, and brought to perfection by the physician of - Cos. - -Footnote 23: - - Paracelsus exclaims, ‘Stellas terrenes esse Plantas, quæ celestes - plantas, i. e. Stellas, respiciant, ita ut quævis planta suam habeat - stellam specificam.’ - - The Druids of Gaul and Britain, who were both priests and physicians, - gathered and cut the _Missletoe_ with a golden knife, only when the - Moon was six days old, and being afterwards consecrated by certain - forms, it was considered as an antidote to poisons, and a preventive - of sterility. Plinii. Lib. xvi, c. 44. - - The _Vervain_, (Verbena Officinalis,) after libations of honey, was to - be gathered at the rising of the dog-star, when neither sun nor moon - shone, with the left hand only; when thus prepared, it was said to - vanquish fevers, and other distempers, was an antidote to the bite of - serpents, and a charm to conciliate friendship. Plin. Lib. xxv. c. 9. - I shall however hereafter shew that the medicinal reputation of this - herb derived its origin from a source more ancient even than that of - Druidism. Magnenus (Exercitat. de Tabaco,) has given us the following - precept,—‘Tabacum seratur luna _crescente_, colligatur autem - _decrescente_ luna.’ - -Footnote 24: - - In later times these heathen symbols were dropped, and others were - adopted to propitiate the favour and assistance of heaven; for this - purpose the Alchemists stamped the figure of the cross upon the vessel - in which they were to obtain their long sought for prize; a - superstitious practice, from which the term _crucible_ derived its - origin. I am well aware that another explanation has been given, and - that the word has been derived from _Crucio_, since in the language of - the Alchemists, the crucible was the vessel in which the metals were - _tortured_ to force them to assume the form of gold. - -Footnote 25: - - Mr. Boyle was pre-eminently credulous with respect to _specifics_, and - contributed very greatly to the encouragement and diffusion of - empiricism, by publishing many prescriptions as affording infallible - remedies, which were communicated to him by a variety of persons, who - either from ignorance or design vouched for their efficacy. - -Footnote 26: - - The Soothsayers attributed many mystic properties to the Coral, and it - was believed to be capable of giving protection against the influence - of ‘_Evil Eyes_;’ it was even supposed that Coral would drive away - Devils and Evil Spirits; hence arose the custom of wearing amulets - composed of it, around the neck, and of making crowns of it. Pliny and - Dioscorides are very loud in their praises of the medicinal properties - of this substance, and Paracelsus says that it should be worn around - the necks of infants as an admirable preservative against fits, - sorcery, charms, and even against poison. It is a curious - circumstance, that the same superstitious belief should exist among - the Negroes of the West Indies, who affirm that the colour of Coral is - always affected by the state of health of the wearer, it becoming - paler in disease. In Sicily it is also commonly worn as an amulet. - -Footnote 27: - - See “Sir Kenelm Digby’s Discourse upon the Cure by Sympathy, - pronounced at Montpellier, before an assembly of Nobles and learned - men. Translated into English, by R. White, Gentleman, and published in - 1658.” King James the First obtained from Sir Kenelm the discovery of - his secret, which he pretended had been taught him by a Carmelite - Friar, who had learned it in America or Persia. - - The _Sympathetic Powder_ was, as we learn from cotemporary physicians, - ‘_calcined green vitriol_.’ - -Footnote 28: - - This superstitious practice is repeatedly alluded to by the poets: - thus Sir Walter Scott, in the Lay of the Last Minstrel— - - “But she has ta’en the broken lance, - And wash’d it from the clotted gore, - And salved the splinter o’er and o’er. - William of Deloraine, in trance, - Whene’er she turn’d it round and round, - Twisted, as if she gall’d his wound, - Then to her maidens she did say, - That he should be whole man and sound.”—_Canto_ iii. _St._ xxiii. - - Dryden has also introduced the same superstition in his Enchanted - Island. Act. v. Scene ii. - - _Ariel._ Anoint the sword which pierced him with this - - Weapon salve, and wrap it close from air - - Till I have time to visit it again. - - Again, in Scene 4th, Miranda enters with Hippolito’s sword, wrapt up:— - - _Hip._ O my wounds pain me, - - [_She unwraps the sword._] - - _Mir._ I am come to ease you. - - _Hip._ Alas I feel the cold air come to me; My wound shoots worse - than ever. - - _Mir._ Does it still grieve you? - - [_She wipes and anoints the sword._] - - _Hip._ Now, methinks, there’s something laid just upon it: - - _Mir._ Do you find no ease? - - _Hip._ Yes, Yes; upon the sudden all this pain - - Is leaving me—Sweet heaven, how am I eased! - -Footnote 29: - - At the same time it must be acknowledged that many of these revolting - applications have actually produced benefit by a physical operation; - we need only mention the nauseous remedies recommended by many writers - on Midwifery to expedite delivery, which induced the desired effect by - producing nausea, or vomiting. Hartman says (Opera. Fol. p. 72) that - he has often witnessed amongst the poor, that difficult labour has - been accelerated by a draught of the husband’s urine! and, he adds, - that horse dung infused in wine is efficacious in expelling the - Placenta. Sarah Stone, a midwife who published some cases in 1737, - mentions several instances of women in labour, to whom was given the - juice of leeks, mixed with their husband’s urine, in order to - strengthen the pains. Nauseous remedies have always enjoyed the - confidence of the vulgar; this prejudice would seem to be the result - of a species of false reasoning, by no means uncommon, that as every - thing medicinal is nauseous, so must every thing that is nauseous be - consequently medicinal. - -Footnote 30: - - Edward the Confessor was the first English king who _touched_ for the - Evil, but the foolish superstition has been wisely laid aside ever - since the accession of the House of Hanover. - -Footnote 31: - - This superstitious notion is not confined to the ancients, but is even - cherished at this day, in some of the more remote districts of the - kingdom; and we find frequent allusions to it in the popular poetry of - the seventeenth century. - - “Tom Pots was but a serving man, - But yet he was a doctor good; - He bound his ’kerchief on the wound, - And _with some kind words_ he staunch’d the blood.” - - Sir Walter Scott, in his “Lay of the last Minstrel”— - - “She drew the splinter from the wound, - And with a _charm_ she staunch’d the blood.” - - The reader will also find the enumeration of several charms for this - purpose, in Reginald Scot’s Discoverie of Witchcraft, p. 273. - - We learn also from Sennertus, that the older Surgeons had recourse to - prayers and magic for the extraction of foreign bodies from wounds; a - very interesting summary of their superstitions, and peculiar notions - concerning wounds, will be found in this author, under the head, “De - Rebus alienis e vulnere eximendis.” Lib. v. Pars, iv. Practicæ - Medicinæ. - -Footnote 32: - - The reader will find this subject treated more fully in the - Introduction to our work on “MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE.” - -Footnote 33: - - See a Tour through England, by Dr. Nemnich of Hamburgh. - -Footnote 34: - - _Nostrum_, (our own.) This word, as its original meaning implies, is - very significant of this characteristic attribute of quackery. See the - note under the article ‘Liquor Opii Sedativus.’ - -Footnote 35: - - Aristides was the dupe and victim of the Asclepiades for ten - successive years; he was alternately purged, vomited, and blistered; - made to walk bare-footed, under a burning sun in summer, and in winter - he was doomed to seek for the return of health, by bathing his feeble - and emaciated body in the river. All this severity, he was made to - believe, was exercised towards him by the express directions of - Esculapius himself, with whom he was persuaded to fancy that he - conversed in his dreams, and frequently beheld in nocturnal visions. - Upon one occasion, the god, fatigued with the importunities of his - votary, ordered him to lose 120 lbs. of blood; the unhappy man not - having so much in his body, _wisely_ took the liberty of interpreting - the oracle in his own way, and parted with no more than he could - conveniently spare. - -Footnote 36: - - As we are here investigating the follies of Physic, it will not be - foreign to the subject to state, that the above observation may with - as much truth and force be applied to medical writings as to medical - substances. Nothing is more fatal to the permanent success and - character of an author, than the extravagant and unmerited encomiums - of time-serving reviewers. It would be invidious to illustrate this - truth by examples, or we might adduce some striking instances where - the inappropriate wreath has strangled the object which it was - intended to adorn. It is a matter of deep regret that the _Magnates_ - of our profession do not combine in supporting a respectable medical - Review.—‘Manus Apolline dignum.’ - -Footnote 37: - - This theory is still cherished in the preservation of the formula for - Pilulæ Opiatæ, in the Edinburgh Pharmacopœia. - -Footnote 38: - - The practice of this physician does not appear to have been very - successful, if we may credit Juvenal.— - - “Quot Themison ægros autumno occiderit uno.” - -Footnote 39: - - See ‘An Experimental Enquiry into the effects of Tonics, and other - Medicines, on the cohesion of the Animal fibre.’ By Dr. Crawford. - -Footnote 40: - - Van Swieten, in his Commentaries on the Venereal disease, has an - aphorism founded on the same hypothesis, ‘Render the blood and lymph - more fluid, and you will have destroyed the virus.’ Sect. 1477. - - In the first volume of the Transactions of the Royal College of - Physicians, there is a paper to the same effect, entitled, ‘On the - Operation of Mercury, in different diseases and constitutions, by - Edward Barry, M.D. F.R.S.’ Read at the College, July 13, 1767. - -Footnote 41: - - Genesis ix. 23. - -Footnote 42: - - The animal nature of the colouring matter of the blood was first - pointed out by Dr. Wells, but Fourcroy and Vauquelin considered it to - be owing to subphosphate of iron. Mr. Brande, in 1812, demonstrated - the fallacy of this opinion, and proved, by satisfactory experiments, - its title to be considered as a peculiar animal principle; the - subsequent experiments of M. Vauquelin have confirmed Mr. Brande’s - results. - -Footnote 43: - - The Magnet, or Loadstone, in powder, entered also as an ingredient in - several plaisters, to draw bullets, and heads of arrows, out of the - body, as in the ‘Emplastrum Divinum Nicolai,’ the ‘Emplastrum Nigrum’ - of Augsburg, the ‘Opodeldock’ and ‘Attractivum,’ of Paracelsus, with - several other preparations, to be found in the Dispensatory of Wecker, - and in the practice of Sennertus. - -Footnote 44: - - PYRETOLOGIA, p. 17, A. D. 1692. - -Footnote 45: - - Sturmius, in his ‘Febrifugi Peruviani Vindiciæ,’ published in 1658, - observes that he saw twenty doses of the powder sold at Brussels for - sixty florins, in order to be sent to Paris, and that he would - willingly have been a purchaser of some doses, even at that price; but - the Apothecary was unable to supply him: an anecdote not more - illustrative of the reputation of the bark, than of the honesty of the - vender. - -Footnote 46: - - This produced a pamphlet from Dr. Slare, entitled ‘A Vindication of - Sugars against the Charge of Dr. Willis and others: dedicated to the - Ladies.’ 1715. - -Footnote 47: - - This conceit did not escape the notice of the metaphysical poets of - the seventeenth century; Cowley frequently availed himself of it to - embellish his verse. - -Footnote 48: - - Genesis xxx. 14. - -Footnote 49: - - This mineral derives its name from the ancient belief that it was - found in the nest of the eagle. It is a variety of iron ore. - -Footnote 50: - - ‘Chrysost. Magneni Exercit. de Tabaco.’ - -Footnote 51: - - For a further account of this conceit, see Crollius, in a work - appended to his “BASILICA CHYMICA,” entitled, ‘De Signaturis internis - rerum, seu de vera et viva Anatomia majoris et minoris mundi.’ - -Footnote 52: - - In various black-letter works on Dæmonology we are assured that three - scruples of the ashes of the witch, when she has been _well and - carefully burnt_ at a stake, is a sure Catholicon against all the evil - effects of Witchcraft! The popular author of WAVERLEY alludes to this - superstition in his ABBOT. - -Footnote 53: - - Massaria, a learned Professor of Pavia in the sixteenth century, - absolutely declares that he would rather err with Galen than be in the - right with any other physician! - -Footnote 54: - - This practice of Bishop Berkeley has been ridiculed with great point - and effect, in a pamphlet entitled ‘A cure for the Epidemical Madness - of drinking Tar Water,’ by Mr. Reeve; in which, addressing the Bishop, - he says, “thus, in your younger days, my Lord, you made the surprising - discovery of the unreality of matter, and now in your riper age, you - have undertaken to prove the reality of a universal remedy; an attempt - to talk men out of their reason, did of right, belong to that author - who had first tried to persuade them out of their senses.” Tar water - was also at one period considered to possess very considerable - efficacy in Syphylis. - -Footnote 55: - - The Euphrasia Officinalis, or Eye-bright, which is indebted for its - celebrity to the doctrine of Signatures, as before stated, is actually - employed at this time in cases of dimness of sight. See a Paper upon - the efficacy of this plant by Dr. Jackson, in the London Medical and - Physical Journal, vol. 23, p. 104. - -Footnote 56: - - Its rejection was proposed by the late Dr. Heberden, and upon the - College dividing on the question, there were found to be _thirteen_ - votes for retaining, and _fourteen_ for rejecting it. - -Footnote 57: - - This preparation consists of 72 ingredients, which are arranged under - 13 heads—viz. ACRIA, of which there are 5 species. AMARA, of which - there are 8. STYPTICA vulgo ASTRINGENTIA, 5 in number. AROMATICA - EXOTICA, 14. AROMATICA INDIGENA, 10. AROMATICA EX UMBELLIFERIS, 7. - RESINOSA ET BALSAMA, 8. GRAVE-OLENTIA, 6. VIROSA, _seu quæ Narcosin - inducunt_, under which head there is but one species, viz. Opium. - TERREA INSIPIDA ET INERTIA; this comprises only the _Lemnian Earth_. - GUMMOSA, AMYLACEA, &c. 4 species. DULCIA, _liquorice and honey_. - VINUM, _Spanish_. - - Upon no principle of combination can this heterogeneous farrago be - vindicated. It has, however, enjoyed the confidence of physicians for - many ages, and is therefore entitled to some notice. It was supposed - to have been invented by Mithridates, the famous king of Pontus, the - receipt for which was said to have been found among his papers after - his defeat by Pompey, at which time it was published in Rome under the - title of ‘Antidotum Mithridatum;’ but the probability is, says Dr. - Heberden, that Mithridates was as much a stranger to his own antidote - as several eminent physicians have since been to the medicines that - are daily advertised under their names. It was asserted, that whoever - took a proper quantity in the morning, was insured from poison during - the whole of that day, (Galen de Antidot. Lib. 1.) and it was further - stated, that Mithridates himself was so fortified against all baneful - drugs, that none would produce any effect when he attempted to destroy - himself. (Celsus, lib. 5. c. 23.) In the course of ages it has - undergone numerous alterations. According to Celsus, who first - described it, it contained only 35 simples; Andromachus, Physician to - Nero, added vipers, and increased the number of ingredients to 75; and - when thus _reformed_, he called it γαλήνη—but in Trajan’s time it - obtained the name of _Theriaca_, either from the vipers in it, or from - its supposed effect in curing the bites of venomous animals. - Damocrates gave a receipt for it in Greek Iambics, which has been - preserved by Galen. It appears then that its composition has hardly - remained the same for a hundred years; it is, says Dr. Heberden, a - farrago, that has no better title to the name of Mithridates than, as - it so well resembles, the numerous undisciplined forces of a barbarous - king, made up of a dissonant crowd collected from different countries, - mighty in appearance, but in reality, an ineffective multitude, that - only hinder each other. ANTIOPIAKA, by W. Heberden, M. D. 1745. - -Footnote 58: - - The consumption of Tea has greatly increased in England during the - last thirty years. In 1787 the total amounted to sixteen millions of - pounds, whereas in 1821, it exceeded twenty-two millions. - -Footnote 59: - - Hernandez de Toledo sent this plant into Spain and Portugal in 1559, - when Jean Nicot was Ambassador at the Court of Lisbon from Francis II, - and he transmitted, or carried either the seed, or the plant to - Catherine de Medicis: it was then considered as one of the wonders of - the new world, and was supposed to possess very extraordinary virtues; - this seems to be the first authentic record of the introduction of - this plant into Europe. In 1589 the Cardinal Santa Croce, returning - from his nunciature in Spain and Portugal to Italy, carried thither - with him Tobacco, and we may form some notion of the enthusiasm with - which its introduction was hailed, from a perusal of the poetry which - the subject inspired; the poets compare the exploit of the holy - Cardinal with that of his progenitor who brought home the wood of the - true cross. - - ————————————————————“Herb of immortal fame! - Which hither first with Santa Croce came, - When he, his time of nunciature expired, - Back from the Court of Portugal retired; - Even as his predecessors, great and good - Brought home the cross.”—— - - In England, it is said that the smoking Tobacco was first introduced - by Sir Walter Raleigh on his return from America. James the First - wrote a philippic against it, entitled a “COUNTERBLASTE TO TOBACCO,” - in which the royal author, with more prejudice than dignity, informs - his loving subjects that ‘it is a custome loathsome to the eye, - hatefull to the nose, harmefull to the braine, dangerous to the lungs; - and in the blacke stinking fume thereof, neerest resembling the - horrible Stigian smoake of the pit that is bottomlesse.’ In 1604 this - monarch endeavoured by means of heavy imposts to abolish its use in - this country, and in 1619 he commanded that no planter in Virginia - should cultivate more than 100 lbs. It must be confessed that some - legislative enactment was necessary at this period for restricting the - custom of smoking Tobacco; for we are told in the _Counterblaste_, - that many persons expended as much as five hundred pounds per annum in - the purchase of this article, which in those days was an enormous - amount. - - In 1624 Pope Urban the VIIIth published a decree of excommunication - against all who took snuff in the church. Ten years after this, - smoking was forbidden in Russia, under the pain of having the nose cut - off; in 1653 the Council of the Canton of Appenzel cited smokers - before them, whom they punished, and they ordered all innkeepers to - inform against such as were found smoking in their houses. The police - regulations of Bern made in 1661 was divided according to the Ten - Commandments, in which the prohibition of smoking stands immediately - beneath the command against adultery; this prohibition was renewed in - 1675, and the Tribunal instituted to put it into execution—viz.; - CHAMBRE AU TABAC—continued to the middle of the eighteenth century. - Pope Innocent the XIIth, in 1690 excommunicated all those who were - found taking snuff or tobacco in the church of St. Peter at Rome; even - so late as 1719 the Senate of Strasburgh prohibited the cultivation of - Tobacco from an apprehension that it would diminish the growth of - corn; Amurath the IVth published an edict which made smoking Tobacco a - capital offence; this was founded on an opinion that it rendered the - people infertile. Those who are curious to learn more of the history - of this extraordinary plant, I beg to refer to a very interesting - paper by ‘Medicus,’ in the 24th volume of the ‘London Medical and - Physical Journal,’ page 445. - -Footnote 60: - - What other discovery or invention ever produced such political - consequences as the introduction of the Potatoe as an article of food? - From its operation as the main constituent of national sustenance the - population of Ireland has advanced from little more than one million - to near seven millions, within the last century and a half! - -Footnote 61: - - Med. Trans. of the College of Physicians, vol. vi. p. 92. - -Footnote 62: - - That the _warm_ and not the _cold_ bath was esteemed by the ancient - Greeks, for its invigorating properties may be inferred from a - dialogue of Aristophanes, in which one of the characters says, ‘I - think none of the sons of the gods ever exceeded Hercules in bodily - and mental force,’—upon which the other asks ‘Where didst thou ever - see a _cold_ bath dedicated to Hercules?’ - -Footnote 63: - - The prohibition of the bath was numbered amongst the mortifications to - which certain priestesses in Greece were bound by the rigid rules of - their order. - -Footnote 64: - - T. Bartholini Hist. Anat. et Med. cent v. Hafniæ. Med. Transactions, - vol. 3, p. 177. - -Footnote 65: - - MADAME NOUFFLEUR’S RECEIPT is as follows. Three drachms of the root of - the _Male Fern_, reduced to a fine powder, and mixed with water—this - constitutes one dose. Two hours after taking the powder, a bolus of - Calomel, Scammony, and Gamboge, is to be administered. - -Footnote 66: - - DUKE OF PORTLAND’S POWDER FOR THE GOUT.—Equal quantities of the roots - of _Gentian_, and Birthwort (_Aristolochia rotunda_) the tops and - leaves of Germander (_chamædrys_) Ground Pine (_Chamæpitys_) and - lesser Centaury, (_Chironea Centaurium_) powdered and mixed - together.—As this is a combination of bitters, it might, without - doubt, be serviceable in certain cases of Gout. - -Footnote 67: - - This medicine was brought into vogue by M. Husson, a military officer - in the service of France, about fifty years ago. - -Footnote 68: - - So popular was this plant that it acquired the title of ‘Anima - articulorum.’ It formed the basis of the Dia Articulorum, the Pulvis - Arthriticus Turneri, and the Vienna Gout Decoction. - -Footnote 69: - - Alexander’s Prescription consisted of Hermodactyllus, Ginger, Pepper, - Cummin seed, Aniseed, and Scammony; which, says he, will enable those - who take it to walk immediately. - -Footnote 70: - - “Magisterium Opii fit solvendo Opium in aceto, et præcipitando cum - sale tartari.——” - -Footnote 71: - - This was the favourite remedy of Dr. Andrew Boorde, who practised - physic in Hampshire, and in his work printed in the black letter in - London, entitled a ‘Breviarie of Health,’ he advises for a tooth-ache - depending upon worms, ‘a candell of waxe with Henbane seeds, which - must be lighted so that the perfume of the candell do enter into the - tooth.’ This said Dr. Andrew Boorde is too important a personage to be - passed over without some farther notice in this place, being no less - than the Founder of that dignified class of the medical fraternity, - better known by the name of _Merry Andrews_. Dr. Andrew Boorde lived - in the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Queen Mary, and was in the - constant habit of frequenting fairs and markets, at which he harangued - the populace publicly: his speeches were extremely humourous and - occasioned considerable mirth; his successors in this same line - naturally endeavoured to imitate his bright example, and hence this - class of itinerant quacks obtained the generic appellation of MERRY - ANDREWS. Since the humiliating triumph of Quackery displayed at the - Freemason’s tavern, under the presidency of the member for Coventry, - and more recently at Margate, there is reason to believe that this - class of itinerant mountebanks will assume a new and more dignified - appellation, and that in commemoration of the services of their - _philosophical_ president, the worthy member above stated, they will - in future be designated by the name of RANTING PETERS. - -Footnote 72: - - I have been lately much amused with the lucubrations of a classical - friend, who by way of casting ridicule upon such researches, - undertakes to prove to my satisfaction that WARREN’S BLACKING is no - other than the νασμος μελαναυγες “_Black flowing Splendour_,” - described in the Hecuba of Euripides. - -Footnote 73: - - This species of delusion, from mistaking the _Post hoc_, for the - _Propter hoc_, always reminds me of the story of the Florentine Quack, - who gave the countryman six pills which were to enable him to discover - his lost Ass,—the pills beginning to operate on his road home, obliged - him to retire into a wood, where he found his ass. The clown soon - spread a report of the wonderful success of the empiric, who in - consequence, no doubt, reaped an ample reward from the proprietors of - strayed cattle. - -Footnote 74: - - The grant of £5000 to Joanna Stephens, for her discovery of certain - medicines for the cure of the Stone, is notified in the London Gazette - of June, A. D. 1739. See _Liquor Calcis_. - -Footnote 75: - - Wesley’s Journal, vol. xxix. 290–293. - -Footnote 76: - - Soon after the invention of the art of Printing, the works of - Dioscorides, Theophrastus, and Pliny, were published in various forms, - and Commentators swarmed like locusts. The eagerness with which this - branch of knowledge was cultivated may be conceived, when it is stated - that the Commentary of Matthiolus on Dioscorides, which was first - printed in 1554, passed through seventeen editions, and that 32,000 - copies had been sold before the year 1561; and he tells - us in this work, that he received in its execution the - assistance and reward of Emperors,—Kings,—Electors of the Roman - Empire,—Arch-dukes,—Cardinals,—Bishops,—Dukes, and Princes, ‘which,’ - says he, ‘gives greater credit to our labours than any thing that - could be said.’ In very many cases, however, says Dr. Pultney, ‘this - learned Commentator mistook the road to truth, and did but perplex the - science he so industriously laboured to enlighten.’ - -Footnote 77: - - Turner, the father of English Botany, was of opinion, that it was the - Polygonum Bistorta; Munting, a Dutch physician, that it was the - Hydrolapathum Magnum, or Rumex Aquaticus or Great Water Dock, an - opinion which received the sanction of Ray. Others have supposed it to - have been Polygonum Persicaria, and some have considered it as the - Primula Auricula. This one example is adduced to shew the mortifying - uncertainty that involves the history of ancient plants. - -Footnote 78: - - Meade thinks that the Athenian poison was a combination of active - substances,—perhaps that described by Theophrastus as the invention of - Thrasyas, which, it was said, would cause death without pain, and into - which Cicuta and Poppy entered as ingredients. - -Footnote 79: - - “Verbenasque adole pingues, et Mascula Thura.”—_Virg. Eclog._ viii. - - “Ex Ara hac sume Verbenas tibi.”—_Terent. Andria._ - - “ara castis - vincta Verbenis.”——_Hor. Od._ xi. _Lib._ iv. - - It is a curious fact that in Tuscany the word _Vervena_ is applied to - denote _any_ kind of slips, shoots, suckers, or bundles of plants, at - this very day. - -Footnote 80: - - AMLYUM, the Starch of wheat, originally denoted a powder that was - obtained without the application of a mill, from α, not, and μυλος, a - mill; thus Dioscorides “Αμυλον ὡνόμασται δἷα τὸ χωρὶς μυλου - κατασκευαζεσθαὶ”—i. e. _because it is prepared without a mill_. - -Footnote 81: - - Gerard in his Herbal (1597) denominates it, by way of distinction, - Potatoe of _Virginia_, and he recommends it to be eaten as a - _delicate_ dish, not as common food; indeed some time elapsed after - its introduction before it became general, and it was cultivated as an - article of diet in Ireland several years before it was common in - England. - -Footnote 82: - - The inhalation of the fumes of _Orpiment_ is a practice attributed to - Galen; and one of the most distinguished of his disciples, Rhazes, - recommends it to be inhaled by consumptive patients, in combination - with stimulant and resinous substances, such as _Storax_, _Myrrh_, - _Galbanum_, and _Aristolochia root_. Bennet recommends the same - practice in such cases. Willis informs us that a similar custom - prevailed among certain empirics of his day, and asserts that they - took such pieces of carpet as were dyed with _Orpiment_, and having - cut them into small pieces, exposed them to heat, and, by means of an - inverted funnel, made the patients inhale the vapour. Sir Alexander - Crichton seems disposed to believe that such applications might prove - useful by changing the action of any ulcer to which they were applied. - -Footnote 83: - - Calomel.—There is some doubt respecting the original meaning of this - word, it literally signifies, _fair_, _black_, καλος, μελας. Sir - Theodore Mayerne is said to have given the name to it, in consequence - of his having had a favourite black servant who prepared it; but is it - not more probable, that its name was derived from the change of colour - which it undergoes from _black_ to _white_, during its preparation? - Another explanation has been also given, viz. quòd _nigro_ humori sit - _bonum_—a _good_ (καλος) remedy for _black_ (μελας) bile. This Theory - derives much support from the black appearance of the stools, which is - usually produced by the use of Calomel, and which was erroneously - attributed to the searching and efficacious nature of the purgative. - The Calomel of Riverius was a compound of _Hydrargyri Sub-muriat:_ ℈j - and _Scammoneæ_ gr. vij, and Mr. Gray thinks that the term Calomel was - first applied to this remedy, as being a mixture of a white and dark - coloured powder. - -Footnote 84: - - For further information upon this subject the reader may consult my - work on “the Elements of Medical Chemistry.” - -Footnote 85: - - Dr. Blair thinks that the ancients were led in many instances by the - comparison of habit, to ascribe similar virtues to plants; there does - not however appear to be a trace of what may be called System, in the - writings of Theophrastus, Dioscorides, or Pliny. Cæsalpinus was the - father of botanical system, and he was probably the first who - suggested the idea that the virtues of plants were discoverable by - their structure and alliance to each other. In his preface to his - work, “De Plantis,” he says ‘Quæ enim generis societate junguntur, - plerumque et similes possident facultates.’ This idea was pursued by - Petiver, an apothecary in the city of London, a name well known in the - annals of Botany; there is a paper by him on this subject, in the 21st - volume of the Philosophical Transactions, entitled, “Some attempts to - prove that herbs of the same make and class, for the generality, have - the like Vertue, and Tendency to work the same Effects.” Dr. Murray - has adopted an arrangement founded upon natural character in his - celebrated work entitled, “Apparatus Medicaminum”. - -Footnote 86: - - Russell’s Nat. Hist. of Aleppo. - -Footnote 87: - - The student will find an interesting dissertation upon this subject in - a late work, entitled “L’Histoire Naturelle des Medicamens.” Par J. J. - Virey, 1820. - -Footnote 88: - - Lord Bacon attributes the operation of purgatives to three causes, - viz. 1. to _extreme bitterness_, as in Aloes, 2. to _loathsomeness and - horrible taste_, as in Agaric and black Hellebore, and 3. to _a secret - malignity_, as in Antimony, &c. - -Footnote 89: - - This might be illustrated by the recital of numerous fallacies to - which our most simple perceptions are exposed from the powers of - association, but I will relate an anecdote, which to my mind - elucidates the nature and extent of such fallacies more strikingly - than any example which could be adduced. Shortly after Sir Humphry - Davy had succeeded in decomposing the fixed alkalies, a portion of - _Potassium_ was placed in the hands of one of our most distinguished - chemists, with a query as to its nature? the philosopher observing its - aspect and splendour, did not hesitate in pronouncing it to be - metallic, and uniting at once the idea of weight with that of metal, - the evidence of his senses was even insufficient to dissever ideas so - inseparably associated in his mind, and, balancing the specimen on his - fingers, he exclaimed, “it is certainly metallic, and _very - ponderous_?” Now this anecdote is not related in disparagement to the - philosopher in question. Who could have been prepared to meet with a - substance, so novel and anomalous as to overturn every preconceived - notion?—A METAL SO LIGHT AS TO SWIM UPON WATER, AND SO INFLAMMABLE AS - TO CATCH FIRE BY THE CONTACT OF ICE! - -Footnote 90: - - Virey, “Essai d’Histoire Naturelle et Physicolog: sur la - perfectibilité de l’homme.” - -Footnote 91: - - Second Voyage of Captain Cook, vol. 4. - -Footnote 92: - - The cause of the green colour of oysters is sometimes an operation of - nature, but it is more generally produced by art, by placing them in - situations where there is a green deposit from the sea, which appears - to consist of the vegetating germs of marine _Confervæ_ and _Fuci_, - and which impart their colour to the oysters. For this object the - Dutch formerly took oysters from beds on our coasts, and deposited - them on their own. Native oysters transported into the Colchester beds - soon assume a green colour. It is unnecessary to refute the popular - error which attributed this change of colour to the operation of - copper. - -Footnote 93: - - We must admit that some of these allegories are too obvious to be - mistaken. Homer attributes the plague that prevailed in the Grecian - camp to the darts of Apollo; what was meant by this, but that it arose - from the action of a burning sun, upon the marshes and slimy shores of - Troas? and what, again, can be more obvious than the allegory by which - Echo is made the daughter of air and earth? - -Footnote 94: - - Bacon’s works, vol. 5, p. 470. 4th Edit. London, 1778. - -Footnote 95: - - Leslie’s Elements of Natural Philosophy. - -Footnote 96: - - Virg. Georg. iv. 392–402. - -Footnote 97: - - Dioscorides and Pliny describe a process, which may be considered that - of distillation in its infancy; it consists in obtaining oil from - pitch, by spreading over it while boiling, fleeces of wool, which - receive the vapour and afterwards yield it by expression. In this - country the art of distillation was unknown at the time when the - Romans had possession of it. It is said to have been introduced in the - early part of HENRY II. - -Footnote 98: - - It was destroyed in the sixth century, by the CALIPH OMAR, the - cotemporary and companion of Mahomet. - -Footnote 99: - - The Saracens, in their treaty with the Greek Emperors, demanded, by - express articles, the works of the ancients. - -Footnote 100: - - Garcias as well as Geoffroy and Hill say that Ætius mentions camphor, - but it cannot be found, as Dr. Alston has observed, in that, or in any - other Greek author. There is a _Camphoræ herba_ in Myrepsus; but this - is evidently a different thing. - -Footnote 101: - - The Records of Physic, if I am not deceived, will afford numerous - instances of similar error, from mistaking figurative expressions for - literal truths. A knowledge of this species of fallacy will explain - the origin of several very extraordinary receipts. I shall select the - following instance, by way of illustration. In many of the ancient - works on Physic, we find the _blood of the goat_ extolled for its - efficacy in dissolving stones, and, from this supposed lithontriptic - virtue, it forms the principal ingredient of the POWDER OF NICOLAUS, - and of the ELECTUARY OF THE QUEEN OF COLEIN. The expression which gave - origin to this belief was evidently allegorical, signifying that the - blood of the goat, by which our Saviour was typified, was capable of - softening the stony hearts of his enemies, or, according to others, - that by his influence, the stony rocks, and veil of the temple were - shatterd. _Browne’s Vulgar Errors._ - -Footnote 102: - - Silver, Mercury, Copper, Iron, Tin, Lead. - -Footnote 103: - - Agricola de veteribus et novis metallis: Lib. 1. - -Footnote 104: - - 2 Kings, chap. ix. verse 30. - -Footnote 105: - - It has been already stated, that we are indebted to an Indian for the - discovery of Bark, and it now appears we derived our knowledge of - Mercury to the wildest of the alchemists. May it not then be said that - we are indebted to a _savage_, and a _madman_, for two of our most - powerful remedies? - -Footnote 106: - - Erasmus, the friend, the correspondent, and the patient of our own - Linacre! Had not modern times, says Sir George Baker, furnished - similar instances, it would have been a matter of astonishment to us - to have heard that Erasmus should have deserted an accomplished - physician whom he so greatly extols in his Epistles, in order to - consult so wild and illiterate an enthusiast as Paracelsus. - -Footnote 107: - - Paracelsus maintained that the human body is composed of salt, - sulphur, and mercury, and that in these “_three first substances_,” as - he calls them, health and disease consist: that the mercury, in - proportion to its volatility, produces tremors, mortifications in the - ligaments, madness, phrensy, and delirium, and that fevers, phlegmons, - and the jaundice, are the offspring of the _sulphureous_ principle, - while he supposed that the cholic, stone, gravel, gout, and sciatica - derive their origin from salt. - -Footnote 108: - - Amongst the writers engaged in this contest, no one was more animated - with party spirit than GUY PATIN, who was profuse in his personalities - against those who defended the use of Antimony; he drew up a long - register of the unsuccessful cases in which this medicine had been - employed, which he published under the title of “ANTIMONIAL - MARTYROLOGY.” - -Footnote 109: - - In the year 1644 Schroeder published a _Chemico_-medical Pharmacopœia, - which delineates with accuracy the pharmacy of these times, and - enumerates almost all the chemical medicines that were known towards - the close of this period. - -Footnote 110: - - The Dispensatories of London and Edinburgh, the former by Mr. A. T. - Thomson, and the latter by Dr. Duncan, are works which reflect credit - on the age and country in which they were written. - -Footnote 111: - - The first Pharmacopœia was published at Nuremburg, under the sanction - of its Senate, in the year 1542; for this important act we are - indebted to Valerius Cordus, a young student, who during a transient - visit at that place, accidentally produced a collection of medical - receipts which he had selected from the works of the most esteemed - writers, and with which the physicians of Nuremburg were so highly - pleased that they urged him to print it for the benefit of the - apothecaries, and obtained the sanction of the Senate to the - undertaking; so casual was the circumstance to which we owe the - institution of Pharmacopœias. The London College were among the last - to frame a standard Code of Medicines; most cities in Europe having - anticipated us in the performance of this task; our first Pharmacopœia - was not published until the reign of James the first, A. D. 1618, - exactly a century after the College had received their Charter from - Henry. Successive editions appeared in the following years, viz. in - 1650; 1677; 1721; 1746; 1787; 1809. - -Footnote 112: - - What would be the surprise and gratification of the Pharmaceutist who - lived a hundred years ago, if he could now visit Apothecaries Hall? - the application of steam for the various purposes of pharmacy, and for - actuating machinery, for levigation, trituration, and other mechanical - purposes, is no less useful, in ensuring uniform results, than it is - in abridging labour and economising time. The greatest credit is due - to the gentlemen under whose guidance this national laboratory is - conducted, and more especially to their worthy and public spirited - Treasurer, William Simons, Esq. whose zeal and liberality suggested - and promoted the fitting up of the Steam Laboratory, as well as the - ingenious machine for triturating mercury with lard, or conserve. - -Footnote 113: - - Since the publication of the last edition of this work, Mr. Archdeacon - Wollaston has paid the debt of nature; his name will be cherished in - grateful remembrance by those who had the good fortune to have been - his pupils; as one of that number I will venture to say, that there - never existed a lecturer on Experimental philosophy, who was more - eminently gifted with those qualifications, upon which the success of - a public teacher must depend. He possessed a peculiar method of - demonstration, a singular vivacity in the manner of conducting the - experiments, and of keeping awake the attention of his auditors during - their progress; while those details of manipulation which would have - proved, in other hands, a source of tedium, he converted into subjects - of the most lively interest. - -Footnote 114: - - The Chemical Laboratory at Cambridge has produced some valuable - discoveries. _Ex pede Herculem_, let me remind the chemist of the - formation of Nitrous Acid, by passing a current of ammoniacal gas - through the heated Oxyd of Manganese, for which we are indebted to Dr. - Milner. I mention it merely as a whimsical circumstance, that the - greatest degree of cold ever produced, was effected at Oxford, and the - highest temperature, lately, at Cambridge. The researches of Dr. Clark - are highly interesting and important, a succinct account of which has - been published in a small work, entitled, “The Gas Blowpipe, or the - Art of Fusion, by burning the Gaseous constituents of Water.” - -Footnote 115: - - These views have prevailed upon the Committee of the College, and they - have accordingly restored the Soap to the formula, in the present - edition of the Pharmacopœia; so that the above objection no longer - exists. - -Footnote 116: - - The only chemical phenomenon which in any manner resembles this, - appears to be that of the rapid acetification of milk, and other - fluids, by the agency of a thunder storm. - -Footnote 117: - - This practice was introduced into France by Seguin, into Italy by - Couticini, and into Germany by Bischoff. - -Footnote 118: - - A very ingenious Dissertation has been lately published by M. Virey, - on the ‘Degeneration of Plants in foreign soils,’ which he says may - depend upon 1, _Climate and Station_; 2, _Nutriment_; 3, _Culture_; 4, - _Factitious Mutilation_; 5, _Hybrid Generation_. - -Footnote 119: - - Women during the period of gestation frequently experience such an - increased irritability as to be affected even in England by various - odours, which at other times would produce no extraordinary - impression. - -Footnote 120: - - This plant was first described by Gmelin in his _Flora Siberica_, iv. - 121. It has obtained a place in the Edinburgh Pharmacopœia. Besides - the effects stated by Dr. Halliday, it is said by different authors to - excite a peculiar creeping sensation in the pained part. - -Footnote 121: - - Journal Complementaire du Dict. des Sciences Medicales, tom. II. - -Footnote 122: - - Dr. Murett in his “Short view of Frauds and Abuses,” (A. D. 1669) - charges the Apothecary with “falsifying Medicines;” “They shewed the - Censors,” says he, “_Myrtles leaves_ for _Senna_; a _Binder_ for a - Purger; _Mushrooms_ rubbed over with chalk for _Agaric_; _Hemlock_ for - _Pæony_; _Sheep’s lungs_ for _Fox’s lungs_; and the bone of an _Ox’s - heart_, for that of a _Stag’s heart_.” - -Footnote 123: - - The editors of the _American Medical Recorder_ (vol. 1, p. 471), in - descanting upon the efficacy of Prussic Acid, very gravely remark, - that they are acquainted with a lady, subject to hysteric affections, - who _always_ derives relief from a dose of CHERRY BRANDY, in which - _Peach kernels_ have been digested; the stimulus of the brandy then - goes for nothing with these blockheads! Zimmerman not unaptly compares - a man who is intoxicated with a favourite opinion, to a passionate - lover, who sees and hears nothing but his mistress. - -Footnote 124: - - BEZOAR, (from _Pa-zahar_, Persian, a destroyer of poison.) A morbid - concretion formed in the bodies of land animals. Several of them were - formerly highly celebrated for their medicinal virtues; they were - considered as powerful _Alexipharmics_, in so much so, that other - medicines, possessed of alexipharmic powers, were called _Bezoardics:_ - so efficacious were these substances formerly considered that they - were bought for ten times their weight of gold. Avenzoar, an Arabian - physician, who practised at Seville in Spain about the year One - Thousand, first recommended it in medicine. A composition of Bezoar - with absorbent powers, has been extensively used under the name of - _Gascoigne_ powder, and _Gascoigne’s Ball_; but the real bezoar was - rarely used on this occasion; Gypsum, or pipe-clay tinged with - ox-gall, proved a less expensive ingredient. - -Footnote 125: - - ORIBASIUS, a native of Sardes, lived in the fourth century; he was the - friend and favourite of the Emperor Julian, under whom he had great - authority, and acquired considerable wealth. It would be well for the - profession of Physic, and for the public, if crowned heads generally - evinced as much discrimination in the appointment and patronage of - physicians. - -Footnote 126: - - Three-fourths at least of the QUACK MEDICINES of the present day are - remedies of this description, and are compounded according to such - receipts. - -Footnote 127: - - Medical Logic. Edit. 2nd, p. 92. - -Footnote 128: - - The term _sympathy_ has often been objected to, as being too - figurative; it is certainly a metaphor taken from an affection of the - mind, but, as Sir Gilbert Blane very justly remarks, the import of - words ought either to be assumed conventionally according to a - definition, or to be adhered to in the sense affixed to it by - established usage; “by _animal sympathy_,” says he, “is not meant the - intelligible principle of Stahl’s hypothesis, but that mutual - influence of distant parts, so subtle and rapid as in some instances - to be compared to thought or lightning; while in other instances it is - an action more tardy and habitual.” _Medical Logic_, _Edit._ 2nd, p. - 123. In the present work, I wish the reader to understand the term - _sympathy_, wherever it may occur, in conformity with the above - definition. - -Footnote 129: - - _Colchicum_, _Squill_, and many other vegetable diuretics, are of this - nature. - -Footnote 130: - - The Indian Fig, (_Cactus Opuntia_,) when eaten, renders the urine of a - bloody colour. - - Rhubarb has likewise an effect upon the colour of this secretion. - -Footnote 131: - - This is probably the reason of many bodies producing but little effect - upon the inferior animals. The vegetable eaters are certainly less - affected by vegetable poisons than those animals who exclusively live - upon animal substances: it is thus, that a rabbit can take a very - large dose of opium without any ill effects, while half the same - quantity would poison a dog. It is a curious fact, that a sound horse - can take a very considerable portion of opium with impunity, but if he - be weakened by previous disease, by strong purgatives, or by excessive - bleeding, he is speedily destroyed by a much less dose; (_See Bracy - Clarke’s Reformed Pharmacopœia for Horses._) In this latter case, does - it not appear that the fatal result depends upon the fact of the - digestive organs having been disabled, by debility, from effecting - that decomposition by which under ordinary circumstances, the drug is - disarmed of its potency? What important lights might not be obtained - by the institution of a series of well devised experiments upon the - comparative effects of medicinal bodies upon man and other animals? - The Physiologist has thus availed himself of the resources of the - comparative anatomist, and I feel persuaded, that results equally - beneficial to science would follow a similar inquiry in relation to - the operation of medicines. - - In the course of the present work, I hope to shew the truth of this - position by some appropriate illustrations. - -Footnote 132: - - That the Vena Portarum constitutes one of the avenues through which - certain extraneous bodies enter the circulating current, there cannot - exist a doubt; but a series of well-devised experiments are greatly - wanted for the elucidation of the subject. The Professors of - Veterinary Medicine might on this occasion render us an important - service by some comparative researches. - -Footnote 133: - - See _Unguent_. _Hydrarg._ - -Footnote 134: - - Treatise on the Materia Medica, vol. I. p. 191. - -Footnote 135: - - Medical Literature, Edit. 2. (_Pharmacology_,) p. 454. - -Footnote 136: - - System of Mat. Med. vol. I. p. 132. - -Footnote 137: - - A system of Materia Medica and Pharmacy, vol. 1. p. 131. - -Footnote 138: - - _Narcotics_, from νάρκη _Torpedo_; an animal which has the power of - _stupefying_ any thing that it touches. - -Footnote 139: - - During the severe campaigns of the late war, the Surgeons of the - French army were in the practice of administering Opium and Cayenne - Pepper to the soldiers who were exhausted by fatigue. - -Footnote 140: - - Treatise on Nervous Diseases, vol. 1. p. 221. - -Footnote 141: - - Bitterness in vegetables has been supposed to reside in a peculiar - proximate principle, which has been accordingly named the _Bitter - Principle_. Such an opinion, however, does not appear to rest on - sufficient evidence; on the contrary, experiment has shewn that it is - very generally connected with the extractive matter of the plant, as - it is obtained equally by the action of water and alcohol; it is not - volatile, nor are its energies impaired by decoction. - -Footnote 142: - - Thus Sir H. Davy, in comparing the composition of the soluble products - afforded by different crops from the same grass, found in every trial, - the _largest quantity_ of truly nutritive matter in the crop cut when - the seed was ripe and _the least bitter extractive_, and saline - matter; while in the autumnal crops these relations were found - inverted. Elem. of Agricult. Chem. - -Footnote 143: - - Molina, in his history of Chili, speaking of the Potatoe, says, “It is - indeed found in all the fields of this country, but the plants that - grow wild, called by the Indians _Maglia_, produce only very small - roots of a bitter taste.” Dr. Baldwin also found the wild parent of - the potatoe plant at Monte Video, and Mr. Lambert informs us that this - statement has been confirmed by Captain Bowles, who has not long since - returned from the South American station; he says, “it is a common - weed in the gardens, bearing small tubers, but _too bitter_ for use.” - Royal Institution Journal, No. XIX. - -Footnote 144: - - Discourses on the Elements of Therapeutics and Materia Medica, by N. - Chapman, M. D. Philadelphia, 1819. - -Footnote 145: - - Thus it has been found by experiments, that the Menyanthes Trifoliata, - (the Water Trefoil,) which on account of its bitterness has been used - as a substitute for Hops, is a cure for the rot in sheep, when given - in doses of a drachm of the powdered leaves; and Dr. William Bulleyn, - the cotemporary of Turner, the father of English Botany, observes in - his work, entitled “THE BULWARK OF DEFENCE,” that _Tormentil_, in - pastures, prevents the rot in sheep. - -Footnote 146: - - αρωμα, which is compounded of αρι, very, and οδμη, or οσμη, smell. - -Footnote 147: - - The origin of this term is derived from the superstitious custom of - curing such complaints by incantations in verse (_Carmina_), or - perhaps it may be understood metaphorically as expressive of the - instantaneous relief which these medicines are capable of affording; - operating, as it were, _like a charm_. - -Footnote 148: - - When tannin is present in grasses, as Sir H. Davy found in that of - _aftermath crops_, it is voided in the excrement by animals who feed - upon it, together with the bitter extractive, saline matter, and woody - fibre. (Elem. of Agricult. Chem. Appendix, p. lxi.) We may therefore - infer by analogy that it does not enter into the circulation. - -Footnote 149: - - Various combinations, into which different metallic salts have - generally entered as ingredients, have at different periods been - extolled for their efficacy as _Styptics:_ Helvetius published an - account of a preparation composed of the filings of iron and tartar, - mixed to a proper consistence with French brandy, and it was long used - in France, Germany, and Holland, under the name of HELVETIUS’S - STYPTIC. - - EATON’S STYPTIC. After the styptic of Helvetius had been discarded - from the Continent, it was brought into this country, and for a long - time continued to be employed with confidence, under the new title of - Eaton’s Styptic. It is now made in several different modes, and - consists chiefly of an alcoholic solution of _sulphate of iron_, with - some unimportant additions. - -Footnote 150: - - This theory, however, did not originate with Dr. Majendie, for - Chiarac, a French Physician of the 17th century, drew the same - conclusion from an experimental enquiry (Histoire de l’Academie Royale - des Sciences, p. 12. An. 1700.) - -Footnote 151: - - Upon the very same principle, a person may die from suffocation, in - consequence of an injury in the brain; the respiratory muscles being - unable to sustain the function of breathing, for want of a due supply - of nervous influence. This happens in cases of Apoplexy, and in - poisoning by Narcotics. - - Those who wish for farther information upon this subject may consult - the chapter on “THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CAUSES AND PHŒNOMENA OF SUDDEN - DEATH,” in my work on “MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE,” Vol. 2. p. 16. - -Footnote 152: - - Hippocrat. de Diœta. lib. iii. et alibi passim. - - This predilection of the ancients for Emetics is the more - extraordinary, as they were acquainted with those only which were of - the most violent and unmanageable description; the Veratrum or White - Hellebore, was sometimes fatal. - -Footnote 153: - - Few discoveries in physiology have thrown greater light upon this - important subject than that of M. Majendie, published in his JOURNAL - DE PHYSIOLOGIE EXPERIMENTALE, (1^{er} numero—Janvier, 1821) in a paper - entitled, “Memoir sur le Méchanisme de L’Absorption.” The results - contained in this essay are the more interesting to me, as they were - read at the Academy of Sciences at Paris, some time after the - publication of the Third Edition of my PHARMACOLOGIA, and it will be - observed, in what a satisfactory manner they confirm the views which I - offered at that time, respecting the influence of venesection in - accelerating the absorption of Mercury. In the Fourth Edition - (published in October, 1820, p. 115,) these views were farther - extended, and as I could not have been influenced by the experiments - of M. Majendie, which were not published until some time afterwards, - it is very fair to conclude, that when two persons arrive at the same - result by different trains of investigation, such a result must be - correct. The conclusions established by the experimental inquiries of - M. Majendie, with regard to absorption, appear to me to be so - important, in reference to the object of the present work, that I - shall pause, in this place, for the purpose of furnishing the reader - with a short account of them. M. Majendie states, that while - performing the experiment of injecting warm water into the veins of a - living animal, he first conceived the idea of observing what effects - would be produced upon the function of absorption by the artificial - plethora, thus occasioned; having accordingly injected a quantity of - water into the venous system of a middle-sized dog, he introduced a - small portion of an active substance, whose effects were well known, - into his side, when he was surprised to find that its usual operation - was not manifested until after an interval much longer than usual; the - same experiment was afterwards repeated upon another animal, and with - similar results. In a third experiment, as much water (about two - pounds) was injected, as the animal could sustain without destruction, - in which case the poisonous substance produced no effect whatever, the - powers of absorption appearing to be entirely suspended: and having - waited during half an hour for the occurrence of those symptoms which, - under ordinary circumstances, would have manifested themselves in two - minutes, M. Majendie concluded that if vascular congestion be the - cause of the suspension of absorption, the function ought to be - restored by the removal of this artificial condition, an opinion which - he proceeded to verify by experiment; the jugular vein of the animal, - under trial, was accordingly opened, and the ingenious operator had - the satisfaction to observe the effects of the poison gradually - developing themselves in proportion as the blood flowed. M. Majendie - next proceeded to confirm the truth of his position, by an experiment, - the converse of those above related; an animal was bled, to the amount - of about half a pound, and the poisonous substance applied to the - pleura of the animal, as in the foregoing experiments, when it - appeared that those effects which, under ordinary circumstances, were - not evident until after a period of twelve minutes, manifested - themselves after an interval of only thirty seconds. In order to shew - that these results actually arose from vascular distention, and not - from the artificial state of dilution in which the blood was placed, - M. Majendie instituted the following experiment: a considerable - quantity of blood was drawn from the vein of a dog, and replaced by a - similar quantity of warm water, after which a measured quantity of Nux - Vomica in solution was introduced into the side, when the poisonous - effects were found to take place with the same rapidity as if the - blood had not been mixed with water. - -Footnote 154: - - The practical application of this fact may be useful, and digestion, - in certain cases, may be thus promoted by the simple expedient of - changing the quality of our bread. - -Footnote 155: - - Since the publication of this opinion, in the 5th edition of the - Pharmacologia, Dr. Hamilton has honoured me by a letter on the - subject, but I am still bound to confess that my sentiments remain - unaltered. - -Footnote 156: - - The Melampodium, or Black Hellebore, was recommended as an agent of - this description in the strongest terms, by Mead; Savin (Juniperus - Sabina) is another vegetable which has been generally considered as a - specific Emmenagogue; with some authors, the Rubia Tinctorum, Madder; - with others, the Sinapis alba have been regarded as remedies of this - nature; and lately Polygala Senega has been extolled by the American - practitioners; in modern times, however, few substances have been more - confidently recommended as uterine stimulants than the Secale - Cornutum, or Ergot, but of which I have no practical knowledge. - -Footnote 157: - - Saline bodies would appear to be the peculiar stimuli of these organs, - the principal use of which is to separate such saline matter from the - blood, as would otherwise accumulate in the system. That these saline - diuretics actually pass off by the kidneys, may be satisfactorily - shewn by an examination of the urine, in which the bodies in question - may be chemically detected. Let any person swallow several doses of - Nitre, taking care that the bowels are not disturbed by the medicine, - and he will find by dipping some paper into his urine, and afterwards - drying it, that it will deflagrate, and indicate the presence of - nitre. - -Footnote 158: - - The _Secondary_ Diuresis which sometimes takes place under such - circumstances, and succeeds Catharsis, may offer an apparent exception - to this law; but this must not be confounded with that which is the - result of a _Primary_ action upon the urinary organs by the - absorption, and consequent contact, of a specific Stimulant. - -Footnote 159: - - Certain mineral waters, containing cathartic salts in a state of - extreme dilution, if insufficient to excite the bowels, sometimes pass - off by the kidneys; an effect which can always be prevented by - accompanying their exhibition with some laxative. - -Footnote 160: - - See Sir Gilbert Blane’s Medical Logic, Edit. 2, page 190. - -Footnote 161: - - The cutaneous discharge is very materially modified by the state of - the atmosphere, in its relations to moisture and dryness: when the air - contains much moisture it is a bad conductor of the perspirable - matter, which therefore, instead of being carried off in an insensible - form, is condensed upon the surface; hence we appear to perspire - greatly upon the slightest exercise, whereas the cuticular discharge - is at such times absolutely less. We have all experienced the - sensation of heat, and disposition to sweating, during the moist - weather which so frequently occurs in this country in April and May, - the wind being at the time stationary at south-west or south. On the - contrary, during the prevalence of an east wind, the most violent - exercise will scarcely prove diaphoretic, and yet the quantity of - cutaneous exhalation is far greater than during that state of - atmosphere when the slightest exercise deluges us with perspirable - matter. - -Footnote 162: - - LOMMIUS de Febribus. - -Footnote 163: - - De Medicina. Lib. iii. c. 7. - -Footnote 164: - - This practice is still cherished by the vulgar, especially in some of - the more remote districts of the kingdom. It is with this view that - the Cornish nurse continues to keep down the excess of population, by - administering Gin and Treacle, in her smoky chimney corner, to - children labouring under measles, in order to _throw out_ the - eruption. - -Footnote 165: - - _M. Du Hamel_ has recorded the cases of two countrymen, considerably - advanced in life, who were cured of Dropsy by remaining for some time - in a baker’s oven, soon after the bread had been drawn. _Varikbillan_, - ninth Caliph of the race of the Abassides, is said to have been cured - by a nearly similar method. His physician caused him to enter a - lime-kiln soon after the lime had been removed, when in the course of - a few days he was totally cured of his dropsy. The ancients excited - sweating in this disease, by burying the patient up to the neck in - heated sand or ashes (_Celsus_, Lib. iii. c. 30.), and Lysons cured - cases by placing his patients in rooms heated to a very high - temperature. - - In the history of the Royal Academy of Sciences, for 1703, a case is - related of a woman, who, tired out by the protracted Dropsy under - which her husband laboured, _charitably_ administered to him a very - large dose of opium, with the intention of despatching him, but the - medicine immediately produced such a copious sweat that it restored - him to health! - -Footnote 166: - - σιαλος, saliva; et αγω, excito. - -Footnote 167: - - I of course except its application in the form of vapour, in which - state it proves extremely active. See Hydrargyrum. - -Footnote 168: - - Medical Logic, Edit. 2. p. 75. - -Footnote 169: - - Transactions of a Society for the Improvement of Medical and - Chirurgical knowledge, Vol. iii. p. 119. London, 1822. - -Footnote 170: - - Medical and Physical Journal for October, 1811. - -Footnote 171: - - De Sed. et Caus. Morb. Epist. xiv. art. 27. - -Footnote 172: - - Comment. ad Aph. 271. - -Footnote 173: - - This is one of the most ancient superstitions which have descended to - us. It was customary in Greece, when any one sneezed, to exclaim Ζῆθὶ, - ‘May you live;’ or Ζευ σῶσον, ‘God bless you.’ Aristotle, in his - problems, has attempted to account for the origin of the custom, but - unsatisfactorily; Pliny, (Nat. Hist. lib. 28. c. 2) asks—“Cur - Sternutantes salutentur?” - -Footnote 174: - - Eberle’s Treatise on the Materia Medica. - -Footnote 175: - - It is said that whenever Dunning, the celebrated barrister, was called - upon to make the finest display of his eloquence, whether forensic or - parliamentary, he constantly applied a blister to his chest, which he - found to have the effect of imparting an unusual tone and vigour to - his body, and elevation to his mind. - -Footnote 176: - - From Setum a Horse hair, a substance which was formerly used for the - accomplishment of this object. - -Footnote 177: - - It sometimes happens that the stomach and digestive organs are so - weakened by disease as to lose their control, or what Dr. Fordyce - called their ‘governing power,’ in which case they would appear to be - unable to prevent the matters which they contain from acting - chemically upon each other, and occasioning decompositions and new - combinations: in such cases substances are sometimes developed in the - internal organs by the action of disease, which are capable of - producing a chemical effect upon the fluids; for instance,—an acid is - not unfrequently generated in the bowels of children which decomposes - the bile and produces a green precipitate, and green stools are the - consequence; in other cases the acid combines with the _Soda_ of the - bile, and the precipitate thus occasioned is thick, viscid, very - bitter, and inflammable, and we have stools looking like pitch. In - Yellow Fever, and in several other diseases, the bile which is brought - up by vomiting is frequently of a vivid green colour, and some writers - have attributed the phenomenon to a morbid condition, or action of the - liver or gall bladder; the fact however is, that the bile itself - undergoes a chemical change in the Duodenum and Stomach. That bile - does undergo such a change from decomposition, is proved by a variety - of facts observed to take place _out_ of the body; it is well known, - for instance, that the fæces of infants, although yellow when voided, - frequently become green after some time, and Dr. Heberden observes, in - his Commentaries, that the urine of a certain jaundiced patient, which - was of a deep yellow, became after a few hours green: in such cases it - is probable that an acid is generated by the reaction of the elements - of which the bile consists. - -Footnote 178: - - System of Materia Medica, vol. 1. p. 453. - -Footnote 179: - - The same fact has been long known by the Divers in the Indian - Pearl-fisheries; see my Work on Medical Jurisprudence, Introduction, - Vol. 1. p. v. - -Footnote 180: - - See a paper upon this subject by Mr. Brodie, Phil. Trans. 1811. - -Footnote 181: - - Medical Logic, Edit. 2. p. 50. - -Footnote 182: - - From αντὶ against, and λὶθος a stone. - -Footnote 183: - - From λὶθος, and θρυπτω to break. - -Footnote 184: - - The kidneys have a more obtuse sensibility, and not such energetic - activity as other glands possess; vital action is less concerned in - the secretion they carry on, and their functions more easily fall - under chemical and hydraulic explanations.—(Richerand.) - -Footnote 185: - - An Inquiry into the Nature and Treatment of Gravel, Calculus, and - other diseases connected with a deranged operation of the Urinary - Organs; by W. Prout, M. D. F. R. S. - -Footnote 186: - - On the Chemical History and Medical Treatment of Calculous Disorders, - by A. Marcet, M. D. F. R. S. - -Footnote 187: - - Journal of the Royal Institution, Vol. VI. - -Footnote 188: - - Medical Transactions of the College of Physicians, Vol. VI. - -Footnote 189: - - The ancients considered the urine as a kind of extract of animal - substances, a true lixivium, by which every thing impure in the animal - economy was washed away, and hence they gave it the name of Lotium. - -Footnote 190: - - Mr. Brande first stated the existence of this acid in urine; but - Berzelius expressed his doubts respecting the fact. The experiments of - Dr. Marcet, however, are certainty favourable to the conclusion of the - former chemist, and Dr. Prout informs us that he has himself seen - small calculi discharged from the bladder composed principally of the - carbonate of lime. - -Footnote 191: - - The reader will find some interesting observations upon this subject - in Dr. Prout’s Treatise, p. 22. - -Footnote 192: - - The name of Uric Acid was suggested by Dr. Pearson: it is, however, as - Dr. Marcet very justly remarks, objectionable, on account of the close - resemblance which the term bears to that of Urea, a substance totally - distinct from Lithic Acid. - -Footnote 193: - - Recherches physiologiques et médicales sur les causes, les symptomes, - et le traitement de la gravelle, 8vo. Paris. 1818. - -Footnote 194: - - ULTIMATE PRINCIPLES OF LITHIC ACID. - - According to M. Berard, and adopted by M. According to Dr. Prout. - Majendie. - Azote 39·16 31·12 - Carbon 33·61 40·00 - Oxygen 18·89 26·26 - Hydrogen 8·34 2·22 - —————— —————— - 100·00 100·00 - -Footnote 195: - - This fact derives its pathological interest from the probability that, - in certain states of disease, the Lithic acid assumes this peculiar - modification, giving to the sediments of urine those beautiful hues - which were formerly considered by Proust, as the effect of an acid, - which he named the Rosacic; now as the Purpuric acid, or rather the - Purpurate of Ammonia, says Dr. Prout, is nothing more than Lithic acid - modified by the action of Nitric acid, and as I have already shewn - that the Pink and Lateritious sediments occasionally contain nitric - acid in some peculiar state of combination, the nature and origin of - the colouring matter cease to be problematical. - -Footnote 196: - - Whence is derived the large quantity of Phosphoric acid which is daily - evacuated from the system?—The researches of modern chemistry have - furnished a very satisfactory solution of this problem, by - demonstrating its presence in those animal and vegetable substances - which are used by us as food. Mr. Barry, in prosecuting his - interesting and important experiments on the preparation of - Pharmaceutical Extracts _in vacuo_, discovered the curious fact, that - Phosphoric acid is to be found in all the extracts in a soluble state; - and on extending the investigation, says he, it was ascertained that - this acid, besides that portion of it which exists as phosphate of - lime, is contained in a vast variety of vegetables, and more - especially in those which are cultivated. Medico-Chirug. Trans. Vol. - 10, p. 240. - -Footnote 197: - - The urine of infants and nurses contains very little phosphate of lime - and phosphoric acid; it is not until after ossification is finished, - that these elements are found in abundance in the urinary fluid. That - of old men, on the contrary, contains a great quantity of them; the - bony system, already overcharged with phosphate of lime, refuses to - admit more of it. This saline substance would ossify every part, as it - does sometimes in the arteries, ligaments, cartilages, and membranes, - if the urine were not to remove the greater part of this superabundant - portion. In Rachitis it is by the urine that the phosphate of lime - passes off, the absence of which causes the softness of bones. - (Richerand). If we might be allowed to theorise, I should say, that - this disease depends upon a deficient action in the powers of - assimilation, in consequence of which the phosphoric acid is incapable - of entering into its assigned combinations, and is therefore - eliminated as excrementitious. Dr. Glisson considered the disease to - depend upon some fault in the spinal marrow, whence he termed it - Rachitis, from ῥακὶς Spina Dorsi. - -Footnote 198: - - Transactions of Stockholm. - -Footnote 199: - - CYSTIC OXIDE, discovered by Dr. Wollaston in 1815: it does not affect - vegetable colours, and has all the chemical habitudes of an oxide. - -Footnote 200: - - Dr. Marcet discovered two calculi, which were not referable to any of - the known species; but they are not introduced into the following - table, as they may never again occur; at all events, from their - extreme rarity, they cannot be considered as objects of practical - interest. To one of these he has given the name of Xanthic Oxide, - because it forms a lemon coloured compound when acted upon by Nitric - acid. To the other nondescript calculus he has bestowed the - appellation of Fibrinous, from its resemblance to Fibrine. - -Footnote 201: - - I am by no means disposed to reject altogether, as a popular fallacy, - the general opinion in favour of the anti-lithic virtues of malt - liquor; the observations which have been already offered (page 79) - will explain how such agents may occasionally operate in assisting - digestion. In the observations made upon the Bills of Mortality in the - year 1662, by an ingenious citizen, concerning the increase of some - diseases, and the decrease of others, it is observed “The Stone and - Strangury decreaseth, from the drinking of Ale.” - -Footnote 202: - - In consultation with Dr. Baillie, some few months before his death, he - said to me “although I have never published the opinion, I am - satisfied that after a patient has long laboured under diseased liver, - the blood becomes surcharged with alkaline matter.” - -Footnote 203: - - See an explanation of this term in the note, at page 112. - -Footnote 204: - - It is, says Dr. Prout, a very old observation, that injuries of the - back produce _alkaline urine_; “it also appears,” continues this - author, “to hold in other animals as well as in man; thus I have - frequently observed jaded and worn-out horses pass great quantities of - lime in their urine; I have known the same also to take place in dogs, - and particularly of the sporting kinds; and in both these instances - have thought it probable, that the circumstance was connected with - some strain or injury of the back produced by over-exertion, or other - causes.” - -Footnote 205: - - I have in my possession a splendid specimen of this triple salt, in - large and well defined crystals, covering a portion of a decayed beam; - it was sent to me by my friend Mr. Marshall, from whom I learnt that - it had been taken from a privy belonging to a public house in - Southwark. I lent the specimen to the late Mr. Wilson, in order that - he might exhibit it in his lectures before the College of Surgeons, - and he has published a description of it in his work on the Urinary - and Genital Organs. - -Footnote 206: - - A question has arisen respecting the comparative efficacy of the two - fixed alkalies upon these occasions. See _Sodæ Sub-carbonas_. - -Footnote 207: - - For an account of the celebrated remedy of Mrs. Stephens, see _Liquor - Calcis_. - -Footnote 208: - - Journal de Physiologie; Juillet, 1823. - -Footnote 209: - - For a farther account of this extraordinary law of Electro-Chemistry, - the reader may consult my work on the ELEMENTS OF MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. - -Footnote 210: - - These experiments have been repeated at the Jardin des Plantes, with - similar results; it farther appears that a certain quantity of - _Nitrate of Potass_ added to the water injected into the bladder will - expedite the decomposition. - -Footnote 211: - - This, it must be confessed, is singularly unfortunate, if the opinion - already expressed be true (page 121) viz. that at least two-thirds of - the whole number of calculi originate from this acid. - -Footnote 212: - - The word _Antidote_ is derived from αντὶ, _against_, and διδωμὶ, _I - give_; as being a medicine given _against_ poison, either by way of - cure or preservative. The word is also sometimes used in a more - general sense, for any compounded medicine; thus _Peter Damian_ speaks - of a person who in his whole life never took an antidote. It is - likewise used by some authors in a less proper sense, for any remedy - against any disease, chiefly if it be inveterate, and arise from some - ulcer or abscess; and lastly, the term has been used to signify a - perpetual form of medicines, otherwise called _Opiates_, or more - properly _Confections_. - -Footnote 213: - - The reader will find this subject treated more fully in the second - volume of my work on MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. - -Footnote 214: - - See the history of _Theriaca_ at page 28 note. - -Footnote 215: - - JOHN, king of Castille, as Tissot relates, was poisoned by a pair of - boots, prepared by a Turk; HENRY IV, by gloves; LOUIS XIV fearing a - project to poison PHILIP V, prohibited his opening letters, or putting - on gloves (_Tissot Traité des Nerfs_, _T. 1._ _P. 11._ _page 13_;) - Plouquet has the following remark upon this subject, “Huc et ignota - illa venena pertinent, quibus epistolæ chirothecæ, et ejusmodi infici, - et vim adeo toxicam induere dicuntur, ut lectio ejusmodi epistolæ, - indutus chirothecæ subitam mortem causentur.” (_Comment. Med. super - Homicid._ page 184.) POPE CLEMENT VII is said by Zacchias to have been - poisoned by the fumes of a taper, (_Quæst. Med. Leg._); and a priest - is reported to have offered to destroy QUEEN ELIZABETH by poisoning - her saddle. (_Sir Edward Coke, in the trial of Sir John Hollis._) - Bishop Burnet, in the history of his own times (vol. 2. p. 230.) says, - that some believed CHARLES the Second to have been poisoned through - the medium of snuff. - -Footnote 216: - - This conceit does not appear to have been confined to the ignorant - alone, for we learn from Spratt’s History of the Royal Society, that - very shortly after the institution of that learned body, a series of - questions was drawn up by their direction, for the purpose of being - submitted to the Chinese and Indians, which clearly shews their belief - in the possibility of such an operation, viz. “Whether the Indians can - so prepare that stupifying herb, Datura, that they make it lie several - days, months, years, according as they will have it, in a man’s body, - without doing him any hurt, and at the end kill him without missing - half an hour’s time?” - -Footnote 217: - - Dr. Mead adopted this opinion, but he became so convinced of its - inadequacy that, in the later editions of his work on Poisons, he - withdrew the hypothesis. It is hardly necessary to observe that upon - its abandonment, a host of popular antidotes at once fell into disuse; - for as long as the injury was supposed to arise from mechanical - irritation, oils, fats, and other similar remedies were held capable - of obtunding the acrimony. So has the abandonment of other conceits - and hypotheses cleared away many absurd articles from the list of - Antidotes; see page 26. - -Footnote 218: - - The introduction of poisons into the body through the medium of the - circulation of the blood is frequently alluded to by the physiologists - of the seventeenth century. I have lately met with a curious passage - in a work entitled “Popular Errours in Physick, first written in - Latine by the learned physitian, James Penrose, Doctor in Physick. - London, 1651.” “The venome is carried by the veines and arteries, as - appeares in that all the blood of them that have been bitten by a - viper doth turne into a pale greennesse. And seeing that the veines in - the papps are so very slender, and doe not come unto the heart, but - with a great many long windings, I affirme, and it is more probable, - that if the viper be applyed to the feet, which are farthest remote - from the heart, it will sooner infect the heart than if to the papps, - but soonest of all if it be applied to the armes. And now the story of - CLEOPATRA comes to my minde. PETRUS VICTORIUS blames the painters, - that paint Cleopatra applying the aspe to her papps, seeing it is - manifest out of PLUTARCH in the life of ANTONIUS, and out of PLINIE - likewise, that she applyed it to her arme. ZONARAS relates that there - appeared no signe of death upon her, save two blew spots on her arme. - CÆSAR also in her statue which he carryed in triumph, applyed the aspe - to her arme; for in the armes there are great veines and arteries, - which doe quickly, and in a straight way convey the venome to the - heart, whereas in the papps the vessels are slender. And therefore in - SAINT PAUL the miracle was so much the greater, in that he felt no - harme from the viper, which layd hold on his hand, for if it had - assailed him on the breast, he had had respite enough to take some - antidote.” - -Footnote 219: - - There can be no doubt but that death has been produced by the - mechanical operation of various insoluble bodies; although we cannot - believe the numerous tales recorded on the subject of diamond dust - (supposed to constitute the basis of the celebrated “Powder of - Succession”) or of powdered glass, &c. Numerous cases are recorded - where life has been destroyed by the lodgement of substances in the - intestines; and we have lately heard of the fatal effects produced by - alvine accumulations from the habitual use of Magnesia. With respect - to the danger from the ingestion of glass and enamel in powder, there - still exists much difference of opinion; Caldani, Mandruzzato, and M. - Le Sauvage, report experiments made upon men and animals, in which no - bad consequences followed; on the other hand, Schurigius (Chylologia) - and Cardanus (De Venenis) cite instances where persons have died of - ulcerations of the stomach from such causes; and M. Portal, Foderé, - (Medicine Legale) Plouquet (Comment. super Homicid.) Stoll, (Ratio - Medendi, part vi. p. 60) Gmelin (Hist. General de Ven. mineral.) Frank - (Man. de Toxicol.) furnish testimony in support of the opinion which - assigns to such bodies a highly deleterious action. - -Footnote 220: - - This mark denotes that the substance, against which it is placed, may - also act by being absorbed. - -Footnote 221: - - Signifies that the article has also a local action. - -Footnote 222: - - See “Experiments and Operations on the Different Modes in which Death - is produced by certain Vegetable Poisons.” By B. C. Brodie, Esq. F. R. - S. in the 181st Volume of the Philosophical Transactions for the year - 1811. - -Footnote 223: - - M. ’Lallemand has published the history of a fœtus, in which the brain - and spinal marrow were equally deficient, notwithstanding which, it - even exceeded the usual size, the heart was also perfect, and it was - evident that the circulation had been properly performed. No sooner - however was the monster born than it perished, because the diaphragm - and other muscles of respiration were unable to perform their - functions without the aid of nervous excitement; no air was therefore - inhaled into the lungs, and in a few minutes the heart ceased to - contract from the deficient supply of oxygenized blood. See MEDICAL - JURISPRUDENCE, Vol. ii. “On the Physiological Causes, and Phœnomena of - Sudden Death.” - -Footnote 224: - - It is a very curious fact, that the _Oil_ of Tobacco should differ so - essentially in its physiological action from the Infusion of that - vegetable poison; the former we have stated, affects the brain only, - the latter we now learn, when taken into the alimentary canal, - suspends the action of the heart. This apparent anomaly at first led - Mr. Brodie, as he has since informed me, to suspect the accuracy of - his experiments: and I suggested to him, whether a probable - explanation might not be derived from the late chemical researches - into the composition of tobacco, which have shewn the existence of two - active principles, viz. _Nicotin_, and an _Essential Oil_? Where an - infusion is employed, we seem to obtain the influence of the former, - and the effects are displayed upon the heart; but where the oil is - applied, the _Nicotin_ has been removed, and the brain is the organ - principally affected—see Tabaci Folia. - -Footnote 225: - - Dry Vomit of Marriott. This once celebrated vomit, called Dry, from - its being exhibited without drink, consisted of equal proportions of - Tartarized Antimony and Sulphate of Copper. - -Footnote 226: - - Sydenham relates a case of poisoning by Corrosive Sublimate; which was - successfully treated by copious draughts of water, and repeated - vomiting (Opera Medica, Epist. 1, p. 200); and Orfila, in his - laborious work on poisons, presents us with a mass of satisfactory - evidence upon the same subject. - -Footnote 227: - - Circumstances, however, may occur, which will render it even - judicious, with certain precautions, to administer a solvent, in order - to remove the particles of the substance, which sometimes adhere with - such obstinacy to the coats of the stomach as to defy the exertions of - an emetic to detach them, especially if the poison be arsenic; but let - the practitioner remember that this practice can never be allowed - until all that can be ejected by vomiting or purging has been - previously removed; then perhaps the ingestion of Magnesia, or an - Alkaline Salt, as proposed by Mr. Marshall, might be admissible, but - it should be quickly followed up by fresh emetics and purgatives. - -Footnote 228: - - London Medical Repository, August, 1817. - -Footnote 229: - - The truth of this statement has been very satisfactorily established - by the experiments of ORFILA (Toxicologie générale considerée sous les - Rapports de la Physiologie, de la Pathologie, et de la Medicine - légale) as well as by several that have been performed in this - country. - - TORTOSA (Istituzioni di Med. For.) has remarked that Opium may act - mortally without losing much of its weight in the stomach—I should - question the truth of this assertion. - -Footnote 230: - - Vegetable acids are in Nature rarely the vehicles of poisons, the most - deleterious plants being inert in those parts that are impregnated - with acid; the pulp of the fruit of the Strychnus, amongst many - others, offers an illustration of this fact. Virey. - -Footnote 231: - - Notwithstanding this fact, we find Venesection recommended in works on - Toxicology, as a safe precaution to be used against the inflammatory - action produced by arsenic. - - The application of a ligature above an abraded surface to which a - poison has been applied, prevents its effects upon the constitution, - not so much by obliterating the capacity of the vessels, as by - inducing a local plethora, and so suspending the process of - absorption. - -Footnote 232: - - _Escharotic_ from ἐσχαρόω, _crustam_ induco, to scab over, to burn - into a crust. - -Footnote 233: - - Or in a still more striking manner, by holding over the surface of the - sore a piece of white paper moistened by the mixed solutions of - Nitrate of Silver and Arsenious Acid, when the disengaged Ammonia will - by the operation of double affinity enable the Arsenious Acid to - decompose the salt of Silver, and to display the presence of the - Arseniate of that metal by its characteristic yellow indication. I am - not acquainted with any test for Ammonia so summary and satisfactory - as this. See Arsenicum in Vol. 2 of this work. - -Footnote 234: - - There are four species of worms generated in the human intestines, - viz. The Tænia, or tape-worm—Tricocephalus, or Trichuris—Ascaris - Vermicularis, or Ascarides—and Lumbricoides. - -Footnote 235: - - It is a very curious fact that vegetable bitter should be so essential - to the wellbeing of the higher order of animals, as explained at page - 79, and yet prove so generally destructive to insects. Flies are - almost immediately destroyed by an Infusion of Quassia, and Nature has - protected the ear from the invasion of insects by providing an - intensely bitter secretion. - -Footnote 236: - - The reader is also referred to an account of Majendie’s experiments as - related at page 86 of this volume. - -Footnote 237: - - Fish, especially those of the cetaceous tribe, constantly decompose - water, and live upon its hydrogen. - -Footnote 238: - - Rumford’s Essays, Vol. 1. p. 194–202. - -Footnote 239: - - I selected it as the exclusive subject of my Lectures before the Royal - College of Physicians, during the year 1820. - -Footnote 240: - - It was wisely said by Lord Bacon, “that Man should observe all the - workmanship, and the particular workings of Nature, and meditate which - of those may be transferred to the Arts.” Advancement of Learning, - Book v. 148. For a further illustration of these views, the partiality - of an author may perhaps be excused if he refer the reader to his - paper “On the Recent Sandstone,” published in the first volume of the - Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. - -Footnote 241: - - The practitioner must receive the term _similar_, conventionally, as - expressed at page 71. Many of those substances which we are at present - bound to consider _similar_, will no doubt, require to be transplanted - into other classes as the progress of physiological knowledge shall - elucidate their modes of action. In this attempt to teach the Art of - Medicinal Combination, I have endeavoured to reduce the propositions - it comprehends to the greatest degree of generality of which they are, - at present, susceptible. - -Footnote 242: - - Numerous isolated statements of the same tendency may be adduced, but - these cannot invalidate the claim of Dr. Fordyce, as the first person - who generalized the fact, and applied it with success to practice. - DIEMERBROECK, in his notes upon the Theriaca Andromachi, observes that - the composition is a more efficacious medicine from the concurrent - powers of so many ingredients, alike in virtue: and Quincy, in his - Lectures on Pharmacy, which were published by Dr. Shaw in 1723, says - “those fetid gums which are generally prescribed in Hysteria, as - Ammoniacum, Galbanum, &c. may be conjoined with advantage, because - from a concurrence of properties, they all conspire to the same end.” - -Footnote 243: - - Such was the nature of the “Mustacea” of the Romans, which were a - species of cake, used at weddings, and consisted of meal, aniseed, - cummin, and several other aromatics; their object was to remove or - prevent the indigestion which might be occasioned by eating too - copiously at the marriage entertainment. It must be acknowledged that - this compound was better adapted for such a purpose than the modern - Bride-cake, to which it gave origin. Cato (de R. R. c. 121) has given - us a receipt for the Roman bride-cake. - -Footnote 244: - - Dr. Majendie goes so far even as to assert, that by varying the - different preparations of the _same_ Narcotic, we shall be better able - to keep up its action on the animal œconomy, without an increase of - its dose. He adds, “Some English writers have denied the truth of this - observation: but they have not given any reasons for their - scepticism.—Why should it not be true?” - -Footnote 245: - - It would even appear probable that in some cases mercurial influence - has, after its subsidence, been renewed by doses of Opium: a - remarkable instance of this kind is related in Hufeland’s Journal - (vol. ix.) in which an old woman is said to have fallen into a - considerable salivation after every dose of Opium; she had previously - applied to the physician for an extensive ulceration over her body, - and had taken a considerable quantity of mercury; but the effects had - subsided, until renewed by the opium. - -Footnote 246: - - It has been observed under the history of Emetics (p. 84), that in - cases of profound intoxication, or in those of violent wounds and - contusions of the head, vomiting will not take place, however forcibly - the stomach may be goaded by an emetic, whereas if the brain be only - partially influenced, as by incipient intoxication, or by a less - violent blow on the head, its irritability is increased instead of - being paralysed, and that vomiting under such circumstances is excited - by the slightest causes; just so is it with regard to Narcotics, a - powerful dose so paralyses the nervous system, that the stomach cannot - be made to reject its contents, as every one must have observed in - cases of narcotic poisoning, while smaller doses, like lesser injuries - of the head, dispose the stomach to sickness. - -Footnote 247: - - Sir Gilbert Blane has advanced an ingenious hypothesis to explain the - cause of the fœtid breath of persons under the influence of mercury; - which might perhaps also shew why certain remedies are rendered more - efficient by combination with mercury. One of the active effects of - mercury, says Sir Gilbert, is to _alter the natural sensibility of the - Lacteals_, so that when under its influence, they absorb - indiscriminately that which is excrementitious and nutritive; hence - the smell of the breath, since the fœtid particles are carried into - the circulation, and thrown off in the halitus of the lungs, or by the - salivary glands, in consequence of the mouth of the lacteals losing - that selecting tact, whereby in their sound state they reject whatever - is offered to them, except the chyle. Now if mercury acts as the - “_Soporata Offa_” to the lacteals, it is evident that its combination - with active matter may, on some occasions, facilitate the absorption - of the latter. - -Footnote 248: - - In some cases, however, the energy of an active bitter would seem to - be diminished by an alkali; and it may therefore be more prudent to - administer such substances at different periods. I apprehend that the - powers of _Squill_ are thus invalidated by a fixed alkali. - -Footnote 249: - - The Arabian and Greek physicians scarcely noticed the leaves, but - always employed the pods of Senna; a fact which will explain the - operation of this plant, as observed by them. - -Footnote 250: - - Mac Culloch on Wine. Edit. 2. p. 42. - -Footnote 251: - - If the facts stated in this section be true, we are bound to recognise - two orders of medicinal elements,—the one comprehending those that - possess an inherent and independent activity,—the other, those that - are in themselves inert, but which are capable of imparting impulse - and increased energy to the former when combined with them. As this is - a new view of the subject of vegetable combinations, no apology is - necessary for the introduction of new terms for its explanation; I - therefore propose to designate the former of these SUBSTANTIVE, and - the latter, ADJECTIVE constituents. When the structure of vegetable - remedies shall have been thoroughly examined upon this principle of - combination, much medicinal obscurity will be removed, and probably - some pharmaceutical improvements of value suggested; at all events it - will teach a lesson of prudent caution to the pharmaceutic chemist; it - will shew the danger of his removing this or that element from a - vegetable compound, merely because he finds, upon its separation, that - it is inert. I dwell the more upon this point, because I feel that - there never was a period in the history of medicine, at which such a - caution was more necessary; for while the poly-pharmacy of our - ancestors has driven the physician of the present day into a - simplicity of prescription that on many occasions abridges his powers - and resources, the progress of chemical knowledge has diffused through - the class of manufacturing chemists a bold spirit of adventure and - empiricism,—a mischievous propensity to torture our best remedies, in - order to concentrate or extract the parts which they consider to - constitute their essential ingredients. - - A Memoir has lately been presented to the PHILOMATIC SOCIETY OF PARIS, - by M. Robiquet, on the subject of _Aroma_, which affords some - important analogies in proof of the law of combination, which I am now - endeavouring to elucidate. From the experiments of this laborious - chemist it would appear, that odours are not as Fourcroy supposed, - _the effect of the simple solution of certain bodies in air_, but that - for their developement, some third body (coinciding in its office with - my ADJECTIVE constituent) possessing in itself none of the - characteristic odour, is absolutely necessary as an intermede, varying - in its nature according to that of each odorous body, in the same way - that the mordant requires to be varied by the dyer, according to the - nature of the colouring matter which it is intended to fix on the - cloth;—thus Ambergris has in itself very little odour, but the - addition of Musk developes a very strong and decided one; this also - happens in a less degree with Lavender, and the perfumers therefore - add a small quantity of musk to the distilled water of this plant. In - other cases, Ammonia lends, as it were, its volatility to bodies, the - odour of which without such an auxiliary, would be scarcely sensible; - this is exemplified by the practice of perfumers exposing their musk - and other substances to the atmosphere of privies when they lose their - power: (_Paul Amman: Manduct: ad Mat: Med:_) so again in order to give - pungency to snuff it is made to suffer the commencement of - fermentation, in which case ammonia is generated; and it is a curious - fact that the odour of the best snuff may be destroyed by mixing with - it a little tartaric acid, by which its ammoniacal salt is - neutralized. In some instances the _adjective_ ingredient seems to be - Sulphur, as in the essential oils of some cruciform plants, and - particularly in that of mustard seed, for M. Robiquet found that this - oil lost its odour by being kept in contact with a metallic surface, - and that an inodorous oil remained, while the metal became a - sulphuret: perhaps, adds M. Robiquet, it may be sometimes necessary - for the full and exquisite developement of odour in these bodies to - add another vehicle, thus the addition of a little Acetic acid - heightens the odour of Mustard. - - Iron has little, or no odour; but when volatilized with hydrogen, its - odour is very powerful. The smell of copper and brass must depend upon - some circumstance not well understood. - -Footnote 252: - - Astruc, and other practitioners of the same school, always premised a - mercurial course with venesection: it is probable that many of the - anomalies observed in the modern application of this remedy may have - arisen from an inattention to the diet of those who are under - mercurial influence. Mercury is in itself a most powerful stimulant, - and ought therefore to be accompanied with depletion and low diet; - besides which, the experiments of Majendie have shewn how greatly such - a state of the system will expedite the effects of the mercurial - remedy. - -Footnote 253: - - Dr. Eberle, of Philadelphia, in a work lately published, has quoted - the above passage, and remarks, that he has long been acquainted with - the fact which it announces; although he proposes to account for it by - a different train of reasoning; he considers that Nauseants encourage - mercurial ptyalism, by favouring an afflux to the salivary glands. The - learned author must allow me to congratulate him upon this fortunate - discovery; unless his patients be blessed with as much apathy as was - ever assumed by the Gilbertine order of Benedictines, he need never in - future despair of influencing them by mercury. He has only to condemn - the refractory to meagre fare, and then to tantalize them, as poor - Sancho was, in his government, with the sight, or rather smell, of a - savoury dish, and he will without doubt secure his object,—but, to be - serious, if Dr. Eberle’s views be correct, how will he explain the - modus operandi of _fear_, as related in the text? for the tendency of - fear is to _diminish_ the salivary secretion, as will be hereafter - mentioned. - -Footnote 254: - - Fear, contrary to joy, decreases, for a time, the action of the - extremities of the arterial system, as is seen by the sudden paleness - which succeeds, and the shrinking or contraction of the vessels of the - skin. M. de Haen relates the case of a painter who suffered - convulsions, which were succeeded by a return of his colic. In this - case the poison which had been, for a long time, admitted into his - constitution in consequence of his daily employment, was, by the - passion of anger, immediately brought into action. It was formerly - observed by Citois, that the inhabitants of the province of Poitou, - who had suffered anxiety of mind on account of any misfortune to - themselves or family, were particularly susceptible of the disease. - -Footnote 255: - - How admirably do the results of Majendie’s experiments coincide with - this reasoning; see page 84; and yet Dr. Eberle, in the work quoted - below, appears unwilling to admit such a theory. - -Footnote 256: - - A treatise of the Materia Medica, and Therapeutics, by J. Eberle, M.D. - In two volumes. Philadelphia, 1822. - -Footnote 257: - - In the same manner is the salivary secretion immediately influenced by - the operation of the mind; the sight of a delicious repast to a hungry - man is not more effectual in exciting it, than is the operation of - fear and anxiety in repressing and suspending it. Whence we are led to - believe, that the Hindoo Ordeal by Rice may have occasionally assisted - in the ends of Justice. This ordeal was conducted in the following - manner. The persons suspected of any crime being assembled in a ring, - a certain portion of dried rice was given to each, which they were - directed to chew for some minutes, and then to turn it out of their - mouths upon the leaves or bark of a tree. Those who were capable of - returning it in a pulpy form were at once acquitted, while those from - whose mouths it came out dry, were pronounced guilty. See Medical - Jurisprudence, Introduct. Vol. 1. p. viii. - -Footnote 258: - - The capacity of our digestive organs sufficiently testifies that - nature never intended them for the reception of highly concentrated - food, while this idea is farther strengthened by perceiving how - sparingly she produces concentrated aliment; the saccharine matter of - esculent fruits is generally blended with acidulous and mucilaginous - ingredients; and the oleaginous principle of seeds, kernels, and other - similar substances, is combined with farinaceous matter: the capacity - observable in the organs of graminivorous animals evidently shews that - they were also designed for a _large bulk_ of food, and _not_ for - provender in which the nutritive matter is concentrated; the - gramineous and leguminous vegetables do not present their nutritive - matter in a separate state, nor is the animal furnished with an - apparatus by which he can separate the chaff and straw from the - grain,—the obvious inference is, that he was intended to feed - indiscriminately on both. - - Some years ago I constructed a Logometric scale of Equivalents, - analogous in principle to that which I have now introduced under the - title of the “MEDICINAL DYNAMETER,” to shew the relative nutritive - strength of different vegetables, and to work problems connected with - them; I soon found, however, that unless _bulk_ was taken into - calculation, it was incapable of furnishing even an approximation to - truth. - -Footnote 259: - - Med. Repos. Nov. 1822. - -Footnote 260: - - A Practical Inquiry into Disordered Respiration, p. 243. - -Footnote 261: - - D. Young’s Medical Literature, Edit. 2. p. 570. - -Footnote 262: - - The vegetable kingdom presents us with many natural compounds of this - kind; several of which might be pressed into the service of medicine - with much advantage. With respect to the number and variety of such - substances, it must be confessed that our Pharmacopœia contains but a - meagre bill of fare. - -Footnote 263: - - The same reasoning will explain why English hops, that contain more - Gallic Acid and Tannin than those imported from the Continent, are - found to be superior as preservatives of beer. - -Footnote 264: - - Therapeutics, vol. 2. p. 470. - -Footnote 265: - - This subject has been ably illustrated by Mr. R. Phillips, in his - translation of the London Pharmacopœia, by a series of vary striking - and instructive diagrams. - -Footnote 266: - - See my work on Medical Chemistry: Sect. Precipitation. - -Footnote 267: - - An ingenious application of this law has been made for the purpose of - purifying Epsom Salts. See _Magnesiæ Sulphas_; and also my work on - Medical Chemistry, _Art: Solution_. - -Footnote 268: - - Amœnitates Academ; T. 7. p. 307. - -Footnote 269: - - See also a paper in the MEDICAL TRANSACTIONS, vol. 2. entitled, - “Several extraordinary instances of the cure of Dropsy, by GEORGE - BAKER, M. D. Read September 9, 1771.” - -Footnote 270: - - The most subtle of all poisons,—_the matter of febrile contagion_,—is - certainly modified in activity by the degree of moisture in the - atmosphere influencing its solubility; the Plague is said to be most - common in Egypt after the inundation of the Nile, a period at which - the atmosphere is necessarily saturated with water; according to the - account of Sir Robert Wilson, the English and Turkish armies that - marched to Cairo escaped contagion, while the troops that remained - stationary on the moist shore of Aboukir, were very severely visited. - On the other hand, the _Harmattan_, a wind experienced on the western - coast of Africa, between the Equator and fifteen degrees _North - Latitude_, blowing from north-east towards the Atlantic, and which, in - consequence of its passage over a very extensive space of arid land, - is necessarily characterized by excessive dryness, puts an end to all - Epidemics, as the Small Pox; and infection at such a time does not - appear to be easily communicable even by art. _Philosophical - Transactions_, vol. 21. - - The difficulty of communicating infection to animals during a dry - state of the air, as remarked on the Western Coasts of Africa, during - the blowing of the _Harmattan_, agrees with some observations on - Plague by the French physicians, as this complaint first made its - appearance in the French army during a moist state of the air in - Syria, when it lay under the walls of Jaffa in February, 1800. - - It is a well known fact that volatile bodies are sooner converted into - a gaseous state by the presence of water in the atmosphere; this is - strikingly exemplified by the greater rapidity with which _Limestone_ - is burnt and reduced to quick-lime in moist weather, and by the - assistance which is rendered in a dry season, by placing a pan of - water in the ash-pit; so again the perfume of flowers is most sensible - when the air is humid, as during the fall of the evening dew, or in - the morning when the dew evaporates, and is dissipated by the rays of - the rising sun; for the same reason the stench of putrid ditches and - common sewers, is conveyed to the organs of smell much more speedily - in summer previous to rain, when the air is charged with moisture. - -Footnote 271: - - They are previously calcined, but not burnt to lime, to an extent only - that may destroy their tenacity, and render them fit for levigation. - -Footnote 272: - - A similar custom is common to the Indians of the whole of Asia, and of - America; for the practice of the South American Indians, see - _Humboldt’s Personal Narrative_. In India, Betel, variously - compounded, is employed for the purpose above stated. The mixture more - commonly used in Ceylon consists of quick-lime, Arecanut, and Tobacco, - wrapped in Betel leaf. On ordinary occasions it is only masticated; - but to repress the painful calls of hunger, the juice is swallowed. - -Footnote 273: - - Vol. viii. p. 33. - -Footnote 274: - - Dr. MacCulloch, in illustration of this subject, states, that ink, - paste, and seeds, are among the common articles which suffer from such - a cause, and to which this remedy is easily applicable. With respect - to articles of food, such as bread, cold meats, or dried fish, it is - less easy to apply the remedy, on account of the taste; cloves, - however, and other spices whose flavours are grateful, may sometimes - be used for this end. It is notorious that gingerbread, and bread - containing caraway seeds, are far less liable to mouldiness than plain - bread. The effect of cloves in preventing the mouldiness of ink is - generally known; and the same result may be obtained by oil of - lavender in a very minute quantity, or by any other of the perfumed - oils. Russian leather, which is perfumed with the tar of the Birch - tree, is not subject to mouldiness, as must be well known to all who - possess books thus bound; they even prevent it from taking place in - books which are bound in calf, and near which they may happen to lie. - Paste is another perishable article, and although _Alum_ which is used - by the book-binder will certainly preserve it longer than it would - remain useful without it, still it is not very effectual. _Rosin_, - sometimes used by the shoemaker, answers the purpose better, and - appears to act entirely on this principle; it is however far less - effectual than even oil of turpentine; _Lavender_, and the other - strong perfumes, as _Peppermint_, _Anise_, and _Bergamot_, are - perfectly effectual, even in a very small quantity, and paste may be - thus preserved for any length of time. - -Footnote 275: - - Medical Logic, Edit. 2. p. 192, _note_. - -Footnote 276: - - It appears from what has been stated under Section I. B. with respect - to DIURETICS, that some medicines not only assist, but actually DIRECT - the operation of the substances with which they may be associated, and - that many remedies act in unison with those they are joined with; thus - _Nitre_ in conjunction with _Squill_ is diuretic; in conjunction with - _Guaiacum_, diaphoretic; for these reasons I hesitated whether I ought - not to have added a fifth _constituent_, and restored the “_Dirigens_” - of ancient authors; enough, however, has been said to enable the - practitioner to appreciate the importance of such a law of medicinal - combination. - -Footnote 277: - - Dr. Percival in his Essays, ingenuously exemplifies this error by - stating a case which occurred in his own practice. “I ordered,” says - he, “a combination of Camphor and Balsam of Copaiba in the form of - pills, but the apothecary informed me that he was unable to form them - into a mass, since they liquefied like treacle.” I may here observe - that the addition of a small portion of the coagulated yolk of an egg, - would have rendered the mixture practicable. - -Footnote 278: - - This would occur, if in making the Pilulæ Ferri Compositæ, we were to - substitute the Liquor Potassæ for the Sodæ Sub-carbonas. - -Footnote 279: - - The “Pharmacopœia Bateana” contains a Formula for a “Tinctura - Antiphthisica,” which is stated to be “a truly good medicament in - those consumptions which proceed from ulcers of the lungs.” The - following is the Receipt—℞. Sacch: Saturn: ℥ij—Sal Martis ℥j—Infus: - Spir: Vin: ℔j—Dose from twenty to forty drops. In this case an - insoluble Sulphate of Lead must be formed, which will render the - medicine, as far at least as its saturnine effects are concerned, - completely inert! - -Footnote 280: - - This fact has been very satisfactorily proved by the failure of the - practical attempts which were made by Dr. Macbride of Dublin, to - improve the art of tanning leather by the use of Lime-water, instead - of plain water, which he conceived would extract the virtues of Oak - Bark more completely. The reader who is desirous of a more detailed - account of this plan must refer to Phil. Trans. Vol. lxxiii. part 1, - Art. 8. - -Footnote 281: - - We trust these observations will not create any alarm in the worthy - Citizen; he may, with as much safety as pleasure, continue the - laudable practice of regaling himself and friends with a cup of strong - tea, in spite of the Turtle soup they may have taken, and that too - without the least danger of converting their stomachs into tanneries, - or their food into leather. - -Footnote 282: - - For a highly ingenious, and important extension of these views, see - Aqua Marina. (Note.) - -Footnote 283: - - M. Dive, an apothecary of Mont de Marson, has lately announced that a - current of carbonic acid, when passed through a solution of Tartrate - of Potass, partly decomposes it; and he ascribes to the same agent the - production of the Bi-tartrate in the juice of the grape during its - fermentation: accordingly, by mixing neutral tartrate with fermentable - materials, we shall produce Cream of Tartar in the fermented liquor. - Journal de Pharm. Octob. 1821. p. 487. - -Footnote 284: - - In one remarkable case related by this Physician, the operation of the - unbruised mustard-seed is stated to have been promoted by combining it - with a decoction of _Broom-tops_. Query, Was not the adjunct in this - case the only efficient part of the remedy? - -Footnote 285: - - The word “_Venenum_,” was employed by the ancients to signify both a - _poison_ and a _medicine_; in the former of these acceptations it is - used by Virgil in the following passage: - - “Picus equum domitor, quem capta cupidine conjunx - Aurea percussum virga, versumque VENENIS, - Fecit avem Circe, sparsitque coloribus alas.” - Æneid. Lib. vii. - - In the latter sense it is used by Plautus— - - “Quia sorbitione faciam ego te hodie mea - Item, ut Medea Peliam concoxit senem, - Quem medicamentis, et suis VENENIS dicitur - Fecisse rursus ex sene adolescentulum - Item ego te faciam.” - -Footnote 286: - - See the dissertation on the operation of _Emetics_, page 84. - -Footnote 287: - - Cases and Observations, illustrating the influence of the Nervous - System, in regulating animal heat, by H. Earle, Esq.; published in the - 7th volume of the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. - -Footnote 288: - - By the use of this word I wish to be distinctly understood as - expressing only certain _effects_, without any regard to the causes - that may produce them. The phenomena of _Accumulation_ may on some - occasions depend upon the absolutely increased quantity of the - substance in the body, as in the instance of mercurial action, while - in others they may perhaps arise from the system becoming more and - more sensible to its stimulus. The history of Poisons would afford - some interesting illustrations of these views, and in another work - (Medical Jurisprudence, Vol. 2, p. 148), I have proposed a subdivision - of these bodies, under the title of “_Accumulative_ Poisons.” - -Footnote 289: - - “Diary of an Invalid.” - -Footnote 290: - - Med. Transact. Vol. 1, p. 5. - -Footnote 291: - - See Historical Introduction. - -Footnote 292: - - The Mechanical Physicians attempted to adjust the doses of medicines - according to the constitution, by a mathematical rule; thus they say, - “the doses are as the squares of the Constitution.” And in the - Edinburgh Medical Essays, there is actually a formal attempt to - correct the errors of this rule. See “An Essay towards ascertaining - the doses of vomiting and purging Medicines, by Dr. CHARLES BALGUY, - Physician at Peterborough.” Vol. 1. 167. - -Footnote 293: - - While this sheet was passing through the press, an anecdote was - related to me, which is well calculated to illustrate the mischief - that may arise from abbreviated prescriptions. One of our most eminent - surgeons having occasion to direct the application of a Lead Plaster - (Emplast: Lythargyi. P. L. 1787), he abbreviated the term as - follows—_Emp. Lyth:_ in the haste of compounding, the _h_, perhaps - carelessly written, was easily mistaken for _t_, and the chemist - accordingly sent the _Emplast: Lyttæ_! As it was applied to the - Pudenda, it is not necessary to state the distress of the patient, and - the dismissal of the practitioner, which followed. - -Footnote 294: - - Camphor, unless it be presented to the stomach in a state of minute - division, is liable to occasion heat and uneasiness in that organ. - Fothergill’s Med. Observ. vol. i. p. 432. - -Footnote 295: - - In some cases the subject to be pulverized has been previously exposed - to heat, but the doubtful influence of exalted temperature upon - vegetable bodies, ought to afford us a lesson of extreme caution; the - astringency of the stalks of the Artichoke is entirely destroyed by - being gently heated in an oven, for after this operation they no - longer strike a black colour with the salts of iron: another example - is afforded us in the effects of heat upon Starch, which is thus - changed into a species of gum, no longer producing a blue colour with - Iodine, and which is known in commerce under the name of “British - Gum.” - -Footnote 296: - - It is perhaps not generally known, that the sugared plumbs sold to - children consist very frequently of Plaister of Paris; the - introduction of such a substance into the intestines may often prove a - source of mischief. I also understand, that it is no uncommon fraud to - adulterate biscuits with the same substance. I confess I felt a great - inclination to oppose the practice, lately suggested, of improving bad - flour by the addition of Magnesia; I object to the introduction of any - foreign and insoluble substance into our daily bread, and I am - satisfied that the result of medical experience will sanction such an - objection. - -Footnote 297: - - Edition 2. 1823.—I shall avail myself of the present opportunity to - recommend this work to the perusal of every student who is ambitious - to become acquainted with the Literature of his profession. - -Footnote 298: - - Dr. Davy informs me that the _Veddahs_, a savage race inhabiting the - wilds of Ceylon, even in that hot climate, effectually preserve their - venison in honey. - -Footnote 299: - - There is one circumstance which sometimes renders the powder of - liquorice objectionable upon such occasions; it is liable to irritate - the fauces and occasion coughing: for this reason I always avoid its - use in cases of pulmonary irritation. - -Footnote 300: - - Some extracts become so hard, that in the state of pill they pass - unchanged; this has occurred to me with the _extract of logwood_. - Astringent vegetable matter, in combination with iron, is frequently - characterised by a hardness that is not exceeded by ebony, and which - is perfectly insoluble; the action of iron upon the petals of the red - rose furnishes a very striking instance of this fact; if the petals be - beaten in an iron mortar, for some hours, they ultimately become - converted into a paste of an intensely black hue; which, when rolled - into beads and dried, is susceptible of a most beautiful polish, still - retaining the fragrance of the rose. I have seen a necklace of this - description; indeed these beads form an article of extensive commerce - with the Turks, and are imported into Europe, through Austria, under - the name of _Rose Beads_ or _Rose Pearls_. - -Footnote 301: - - Crell’s Annals, 1798. vol. 1. - -Footnote 302: - - A remedy may even owe its virtues to a precipitation, produced by - admixture, as I have already stated. - -Footnote 303: - - See my work on MEDICAL CHEMISTRY, Sect. Cohesion. - -Footnote 304: - - Clyster from κλύζω eluo, to wash out. - -Footnote 305: - - Practical Observations on the Treatment and Cure of several Varieties - of Pulmonary Consumption; and on the Effects of the Vapour of Boiling - Tar in that Disease. By Sir A. Crichton, M. D. F. R. S. &c. London, - 1823. - -Footnote 306: - - Pliny (Nat Hist. Lib. xxiii. cap. 6.) has the following interesting - allusion to the subject of Tar fumes, “Silvas eas duntaxat quæ picis - resinæque gratia raduntur, utilissimus esse phthisicis aut qui longa - ægritudine non recolligent vires, satis constat; et illum cæliaëra - plus ita quam navigationum Ægyptiani proficere, plus quam lactes - herbedos per montium æstiva potus.” - -Footnote 307: - - Εμβροκη, from βρεκω, _irrigo_. - -Footnote 308: - - _Illinire_, to besmear. - -Footnote 309: - - κολλυρὶον. This term was formerly applied to any medicament, solid or - liquid, employed to restrain defluxions; from κωλύω, _inhibo_ to stop, - and ῤοῦς _fluxio_, a running. - -Footnote 310: - - καταπλασσω _illino_, to besmear. - -Footnote 311: - - See _Pharmacopœia Chirurgica_. - -Footnote 312: - - Annales de Chimie, vol. xxxiii. p. 52. - -Footnote 313: - - A respectable Oilman of the name of STERRY, in the Borough, prepares a - plaster of this description, which is sought after with great avidity. - What a blessing it would be upon the community if every nostrum were - equally innocuous! - -Footnote 314: - - Persons who are exposed to fatigue by the standing posture, such as - washerwomen, &c. are particularly liable to sores of the legs, which - may be prevented and cured by affording this artificial support. - -Footnote 315: - - In my Lectures I have usually employed different colours for the - purpose of expressing the objects of each ingredient in a formula; in - this manner very useful and instructive charts might be constructed: - this hint may perhaps induce the industrious student, who is anxious - to become a master in the art of prescribing, to attempt a synopsis - upon this plan. - -Footnote 316: - - _In these Formulæ the Bark is decomposed, by the alkali; the - combination of the_ Kinic acid _and_ Cinchonia _being torn asunder; - but as the preparation is not filtered, the febrifuge principle is - taken into the stomach in a state of activity._ - -Footnote 317: - - _This formula is introduced, as a combination supported by authority, - although it may be questioned whether its adoption can be sanctioned - upon principle. Let us decypher the intention of the different - ingredients by their_ KEY LETTERS. _The basis is Squill, to which - Digitalis is added, for the purpose we perceive of acting in unison - with it, and Calomel, which succeeds it, is intended to promote and - direct the diuretic Basis; two fœtid gums next present themselves to - our notice, and these are shewn by the bracket to exert a combined - action, depending, as the Key Letter announces, upon the medicinal - similarity, but acting in the general scheme of the formula, as shewn - by the exterior letter, for the purpose of fulfilling a second - indication, distinct and different from that which the Basis is - designed to answer, i. e. to produce, not a diuretic, but an - antispasmodic and stimulant effect; an important question then arises - for our consideration—Is the latter part of the formula consistent - with the former, or is the stimulant effect of the Gums compatible - with the sedative operation of Digitalis?_ - -Footnote 318: - - Abĭes ab abeo, quod in cœlum longe abeat. - -Footnote 319: - - Dr. Maton, in his appendix to Mr. Lambert’s work on the genus _Pinus_, - observes that the _Thus_ of the ancients, (λὶβανος) does not appear to - have been the product of any species of Pinus, although we are - informed by Dioscorides (Lib. 1. c. 7.) that Pine resin was often - substituted for it. He describes, moreover, a method of distinguishing - between the two kinds; “Resin of the Pine,” says he, “when thrown into - the fire dissipates itself in smoke, whereas Frankincense burns with a - brisk flame, and with an odour that serves to detect the imposition.” - “Some authors, adds Dr. Maton, have considered the genuine λὶβανος - (_Thus_) to have been obtained from the Juniperus Lycia, and to - constitute the Olibanum of our shops, but I cannot find any passage in - the ancient authors sufficiently precise to corroborate this - conjecture.” Op: citat: - -Footnote 320: - - From α not, and ψὶντος pleasure. - -Footnote 321: - - Mouldiness is a peculiar plant, propagated by seeds, infinitely small; - Reaumur found the interior of an addled egg mouldy, hence the seeds - must have passed through the pores of the shell! Dr. Macculloch has - lately announced the curious fact, that the propagation of mouldiness - may be prevented by the presence of aromatic substances. See p. 177, - _Note._ - -Footnote 322: - - This fact has enabled the Chemist to prepare an indelible ink, not - affected by acids. - -Footnote 323: - - KEYSER’S ANTIVENEREAL PILLS consist of this mercurial salt, triturated - with Manna. - -Footnote 324: - - Vinegar quenches the thirst, and is particularly refreshing after much - bodily exertion. It was this property that invigorated the soldiers of - Hannibal in their progress over the Alps; it is absurd to imagine that - Livy meant to assert that the rocks were _dissolved_ by Vinegar: the - expression is only metaphorical. See Sodæ Murias. - -Footnote 325: - - The varieties of vinegar known in commerce, are three, viz. _Wine_ - Vinegar, _Malt_ Vinegar, and _Sugar_ Vinegar; to which may now be - added that from wood, and which is described under the title of ACIDUM - ACETICUM FORTIUS, or Acidum Aceticum, _e ligno destillatum_. - -Footnote 326: - - I apprehend that the superior power of animal charcoal, over that of - vegetable origin, in removing colouring matter, depends upon the - peculiar texture of the former. At the same time it must be - acknowledged, that there are certain phenomena which would appear to - indicate the existence of a chemical difference in these substances; - thus if Lime water be boiled with _animal_ charcoal, the whole of the - lime will be abstracted from the water, whereas the same effect is not - produced by the action of charcoal of _vegetable_ origin. See Liquor - Calcis. - -Footnote 327: - - The Sulphuric acid is added for the purpose of preserving the vinegar - from decomposition. - -Footnote 328: - - This quantity includes the alkali necessary to saturate the Sulphuric - acid which is allowed to be added. 145 grains of alkali is the - standard fixed by act of Parliament, which will be found to coincide - with the atomic weights of these bodies. - -Footnote 329: - - By _real_ Acetic acid is meant such an acid as occurs in a dry - acetate; it cannot exist uncombined with water, or a base. - -Footnote 330: - - This is a very ancient preparation, thus Ausonius, - - “Scillato decies si cor purgeris aceto - Anticipitesque tuum Samii Lucomonis acumen.” - -Footnote 331: - - In following the directions of the College the first pint is rejected, - and this, according to Mr. Phillips (Remarks on the Pharmacopœia) - contains a notable quantity of acid. Hence Distilled Vinegar can never - be so strong as the Vinegar from which it is distilled. - -Footnote 332: - - Or it may be detected, in very minute quantities, by the elegant test - lately employed by Dr. Marcet, and which I have frequently repeated in - my Lectures with considerable satisfaction. It consists in adding a - little sulphuric acid with a small quantity of muriate of soda, and - then immersing a little gold leaf in the mixture, when after boiling - it, if any nitric acid should have been present, the gold leaf will be - dissolved. - -Footnote 333: - - It had been long known that by the destructive distillation of any - kind of wood, an acid is obtained, which was formerly considered of a - distinct and peculiar nature, and termed Acid Spirit of Wood, and - afterwards Pyroligneous Acid. Glauber appears to have been the first - chemist who was aware of its true nature, for he speaks of it as the - “Vinegar of Wood.” It was however reserved for Fourcroy and Vauquelin - to demonstrate its composition by experiment, and they have - accordingly proved beyond doubt that it is merely the Acetic acid, - contaminated with Empyreumatic oil and Bitumen. The address of modern - chemists has at length enabled them to get rid of every trace of these - latter ingredients, and to furnish an acid perfectly devoid of any - foreign flavour. The crude pyroligneous acid, as it is first received, - is rectified by a second distillation in a copper still, in the body - of which about 20 gallons of viscid tarry matter are left from every - 100. It has now become a transparent brown vinegar, having a - considerable empyreuma; it is then redistilled and saturated with - quick-lime, and the liquid acetate is evaporated to dryness and - submitted to gentle torrefaction, in order to dissipate the - empyreumatic matter, and lastly the calcareous salt is decomposed by - sulphuric acid, when a pure, perfectly colourless, and grateful - vinegar rises in distillation. - -Footnote 334: - - This instrument was invented by Messrs. Taylors for this particular - purpose; the principle consists in forming a neutral salt with dry - hydrate of lime and the acid to be examined, and then taking the - specific gravity of the solution. Act 58. G. III. c. 65, § 8. - -Footnote 335: - - It may be necessary to state, that the Pharmaceutist should never - purchase acetic acid of greater strength than that of 75° of the - Acetometer, when it is intended for dilution, for although he might - thus avoid the expense of carriage, the saving will be more than - counterbalanced by the excessive duty levied upon acids above that - standard. There is moreover a great loss in the preparation of strong - acids, so that the manufacturer cannot afford to sell them at a price - which is merely proportional to their strength. Acid of 75° is - regularly kept by Messrs. Beaufoy for dilution, and if mixed with - eleven parts of pure water is equivalent to the common distilled - vinegar of the Pharmacopœia. - -Footnote 336: - - It ought to have been 1·048 of 55° Fah: but the error lies in the - scale of Taylor’s Acetometer, which appears to be incorrect at this - point. - -Footnote 337: - - I believe that no manufacturer, except Messrs. Beaufoy, makes an acid - stronger than this; the College sample was obtained from that house. - -Footnote 338: - - The Reviewer of Mr. Phillip’s Translation of the Pharmacopœia, in the - Royal Institution Journal for July, 1824, has fallen into an important - error upon this subject, against which it may be necessary to caution - the reader; he says, “the term ‘_diluted acetic acid_’ is properly - enough applied to Distilled Vinegar, but the process of distillation - might well have been rejected; for all medical purposes a dilute acid, - composed of one part of the concentrated acid, contained in the - Materia Medica, and four parts of water, is preferable. Of this - mixture, or of distilled vinegar, the specific gravity should be - 1·009, and 1000 grains should saturate 145 grains of Sub-carbonate of - Soda.” The reviewer has mistaken the acid of sp. gr. 1·043 mentioned - by Phillips, as the strongest he has met with, for the Pharmacopœia - acid of sp. gr. 1·046; for, should he dilute the latter with only four - times its weight of water, he would produce a compound containing - 5·686 per cent. of real acid, or one considerably stronger than the - strongest malt vinegar, and twice the strength of distilled vinegar. - The reviewer takes this occasion to indulge his favourite passion for - abusing the Pharmacopœia, and he asks with an air of sarcasm, Where - was Dr. Paris during the late revision? I answer—engaged in the - discharge of my duty as a humble member of the Committee, and I can - assure him that nothing which he has yet urged has convinced me that I - have failed in its fulfilment, or erred in its execution:—but it is - now my turn to enquire, and I do so with perfect good humour, where - the reviewer could have been when he composed the above passage? that - he was _not at home_, is I think sufficiently evident from the - statement which I have just offered. - -Footnote 339: - - A very useful practical application has been made of the Pyroligneous - Acid, for the purpose of correcting the excessive fœtor attendant upon - mortification. Dr. Samuel W. Moore of this city, (to whom we are - indebted for the suggestion,) has detailed the particulars of a case - of extensive mortification of the cheek, resulting from the use of - mercury, in which the acid was applied, and with the happiest success. - In a case of cancerous breast, it was also used with the same object, - and with similar effect. The mode of using it is simply to apply - pieces of lint or linen wet with the acid to the part affected. See - New-York Medical Repository, Vol. 22. p. 237.—_Ed._ - -Footnote 340: - - AROMATIC VINEGAR is merely an acetic solution of camphor, oil of - cloves, of lavender, and of rosemary. The acetic acid used for this - purpose is about 145° of the acetometer, containing 68·5 per cent. of - real acid. A preparation of this kind may be extemporaneously made by - putting ʒj of Acetate of Potass into a phial with a few drops of some - fragrant oil, and in m xx of Sulphuric Acid. - - THIEVES VINEGAR, or MARSEILLES VINEGAR, is a pleasant solution of - essential oils and camphor, in vinegar; the Edinburgh Pharmacopœia has - given a formula for its preparation under the title of “Acetum - Aromaticum.” The repute of this preparation as a prophylactic in - contagious fevers is said to have arisen from the confession of four - thieves, who, during the plague of Marseilles, plundered the dead - bodies with perfect security, and, upon being arrested, stated on - condition of their lives being spared, that the use of Aromatic - Vinegar had preserved them from the influence of contagion. It is on - this account sometimes called “Le Vinaigre des quatre voleurs.” It was - however long used before the Plague of Marseilles, for it was the - constant custom of Cardinal Wolsey to carry in his hand an orange, - deprived of its contents, and filled with a sponge which had been - soaked in vinegar impregnated with various spices, in order to - preserve himself from infection, when passing through the crowds which - his splendour or office attracted. The first Plague raged in 1649, - whereas Wolsey died in 1531. The French Codex has a preparation of - this kind, consisting of an acetic infusion of various aromatic herbs - and camphor, which is termed “Acetum Aromaticum Alliatum,” seu - “Antisepticum” _vulgo_ “des Quatre Voleurs.” p. 108. The German - Dispensatories abound with Medicated Vinegars, chiefly aimed against - Pestilential Diseases. - -Footnote 341: - - The more familiar of these are _Bitter Almonds_, the _Cherry Laurel_ - (Lauro Cerasus,) the leaves of the _Peach tree_, the kernels of fruit, - pips of apples, &c. The prussic acid would appear to be most abundant - in the thin pellicle that envelopes the kernel; the fleshy parts of - these fruits do not contain it, and even the berries of the _Lauro - Cerasus_ may be eaten with impunity; and yet the distilled water, and - oil of this plant are the most destructive of all narcotic poisons, as - was evinced by the murder of Sir Theodosius Broughton, by Laurel - Water; and by the untimely fate of Dr. Price, of Guildford, in the - year 1782, who professing to convert Mercury into Gold, offered to - repeat his experiments before an adequate tribunal, but put a period - to his existence before the appointed day, by a draught of Laurel - Water. Consistent with theory, the watery extract of Laurel is - harmless, a fact easily explained, since the narcotic acid is entirely - volatilized before the fluid can assume the consistence of an extract. - The Laurel Water as a medicinal agent appears to have been long known. - Linnæus, informs us that it was frequently used in Holland, in - pulmonary consumption. (_Amænitat. Academ._ vol. iv. p. 40.) The Bark - of the _Prunus Padus_, or Bird Cherry Tree, was ascertained to contain - Prussic acid, by M. Bergemann, in 1811, and it is certainly a curious - fact, as Dr. Granville has observed, that superstitious people should - have selected the berries of this shrub to form necklaces, which are - hung round the neck of children to prevent fits and allay cough from - teething. For farther information upon this subject, the reader may - consult “The Chronological recapitulation respecting the Introduction - of the Prussic acid into the Practice of Physic,” in the work of Dr. - Granville, above cited. - -Footnote 342: - - See Journal of Science and the Arts, No. xxv. - - The following table comprehends their results. - - Quantity of liquid Acid. Specific Gravity. Real Acid per Ct. - ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── - 100·0 0·9570 16 - 66·6 0·9768 10·6 - 57·0 0·9815 9·1 - 50·0 0·9840 8·0 - 44·4 0·9870 7·3 - 40·0 0·9890 6·4 - 36·4 0·9900 5·8 - 33·3 0·9914 5·3 - 30·8 0·9923 5·0 - 28·6 0·9930 4·6 - 25·0 0·9940 4·0 - 22·2 0·9945 3·6 - 20·0 0·9952 3·2 - 18·2 0·9958 3·0 - 16·6 0·9964 2·7 - 15·4 0·9967 2·5 - 14·3 0·9970 2·3 - 13·3 0·9973 2·1 - 12·5 0·9974 2·0 - 11·8 0·9975 1·77 - 10·5 0·9978 1·68 - 10·0 0·9979 1·60 - -Footnote 343: - - For a detailed account of this poison, see my work on Medical - Jurisprudence, vol. ii. p. 398. - -Footnote 344: - - It seems to be a contest for a shadow. - -Footnote 345: - - We agree with our author in the general estimate which he forms of the - Prussic Acid. The experience of practitioners in this country has by - no means confirmed the high expectations originally entertained of - this article. _Ed._ - -Footnote 346: - - The only mineral substances in which this acid has been found is the - _Fer Azuré_ of Haiiy, and a new substance which is found accompanying - Welsh Culm, and of which I have given an account in the first volume - of the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, - although in this latter instance it is probably a product, not an - educt. - -Footnote 347: - - The following is the chemical reasoning upon which this process is - founded. “The prime equivalent of prussic acid is exactly one-eighth - of that of the mercurial peroxide. But as the prussiate of mercury - consists of two primes of acid to one of base, or is in its dry - crystalline state a _By-cyanide_, we have the relation of one to four - in the formation of that salt, when we act on the peroxide with cold - prussic acid.” Hence is derived the above simple rule of analysis. - (Journal of Science and the Arts.) Upon the same principle it has been - already stated, that the quantity of real acetic acid, in any given - sample of distilled vinegar may be discovered by the test of carbonate - of lime, see _Acid. Acetic. Fort._ They furnish beautiful - illustrations of the practical importance of the doctrine of Definite - Proportions. - -Footnote 348: - - This offers a striking example of the confusion produced by the - constant changes in chemical nomenclature; in the former editions of - this work, the term _Hydro_ was prefixed to _Muriatic Acid_, as an - epithet expressive of the presence of _water_, whereas the same word - is now used to denote the existence of _Hydrogen_ as one of its - elements. - -Footnote 349: - - Dr. Powell directs only _two_ parts of acid; but this is evidently too - little, for it appears by Dr. Wollaston’s scale, that 3 parts of salt - require 2½ of oil of vitriol for their decomposition; and in addition - to this, the oxide of manganese will require a farther addition to - convert it into a sulphate. - -Footnote 350: - - As Chlorine is by pressure condensable into a liquid, tubes containing - a small quantity of it, and hermetically sealed, might be very - usefully employed for this purpose, since by breaking off the - extremity, the chlorine would instantly assume the gaseous state, and - diffuse itself through the apartment. - -Footnote 351: - - There is a curious illustration of this fact in the German - “_Ephemerides_;” the case of a person is described who had taken so - much Elixir of Vitriol that his keys were rusted in his pocket, by the - transudation of the acid through his skin! - -Footnote 352: - - Nitric acid may be considered as one of the most efficient agents in - our possession for exciting prompt vesication. For this purpose, we - believe it was first used in the epidemic Cholera of the East Indies, - and the success which attended it in that fatal disorder suggested its - application in a variety of other diseases. The mode of using it is to - rub the surface intended to be vesicated, with the pure acid, and as - soon as pain is produced, to neutralize the acid by washing the part - with a solution of salt of tartar. If the object is to continue the - irritation, a common blister may be laid upon the part. _Ed._ - -Footnote 353: - - _Nitrous acid gas_ is a combination of nitrous gas and oxygen. - -Footnote 354: - - ELIXIR OF VITRIOL. The preparation sold under this name is the Acid: - Sulph: Aromat: E. and is imperfectly ætherial in its nature. It is a - grateful medicine. A spurious article is often sold for it, which is - nothing but the diluted acid, coloured by the addition of a tincture. - - I will take this occasion to state, that the term Elixir is of Arabian - origin, viz. Elechschir, or Elikscir, i. e. an Essence, or pure mass - without any dregs. - -Footnote 355: - - The Dublin college, on the authority of Willdenow, admits the A. - Neomontanum, as the species of Aconite which has always been used in - medicine; although the other colleges, in consequence of a botanical - error of Stöerck, who introduced it into practice, direct the A. - Napellus. - -Footnote 356: - - See note under the article opium. - -Footnote 357: - - Axunge, from its being used as the grease of wheels, ab Axe rotarum - quæ unguuntur. - -Footnote 358: - - DR. SMELLONE’S OINTMENT FOR THE EYES. It consists of half a drachm of - Verdigris finely powdered and rubbed with oil, and then mixed with an - ounce of yellow Basilicon, (Ceratum Resinæ, P. L.) - -Footnote 359: - - Alcohol is a term of Alchemical origin, and signified the pure - substance of bodies, separated by sublimation from the impure - particles, as Alcohol Antimonii, &c. - -Footnote 360: - - Garlic, leeks, and onions constitute a tribe of culinary vegetables - that has undergone great vicissitudes in reputation: amongst the - Egyptians the onion and leek were esteemed as divinities, thus - Juvenal, - - “O sanctas gentes quibus hæc nascuntur in hortis - NUMINA!” - - while by the Greeks, garlic was detested, although their husbandmen - had been from the most remote antiquity in the habit of eating it, - which Æmilius Macer explains by supposing that its strong odour was - useful in driving away the venomous serpents and insects by which they - were infested. - - Horace alludes to this custom in his 3d Epode, which he composed in - consequence of having been made violently sick by garlic at a supper - with Macænas. - - “Cicutis Allium nocentius - O dura Messorum ilia!” - - The most powerful antidotes to the flavour of this tribe of vegetables - are the aromatic leaves and seeds of the UMBELLIFERÆ; thus the - disagreeable odour of a person’s breath after the ingestion of an - onion is best counteracted by parsley; and if leek or garlic be mixed - with a combination of aromatic ingredients, its virulence will be - greatly mitigated and corrected, nor does the fact seem to have - escaped the observation of the husbandman in Virgil, - - “Allia, Serpyllumque, herbas contundit olentes.” - Eclog. 2. line 11. - - And the fact itself offers an additional illustration of the important - principle of combination, discussed at page 148. - -Footnote 361: - - TAYLOR’S REMEDY FOR DEAFNESS. Garlic infused in oil of almonds, and - coloured by alkanet root. - -Footnote 362: - - Dr. Sibthorpe, in his Flora Græca, states that the Aloe Vulgaris is - the true Aloe described by Dioscorides. - -Footnote 363: - - From the action which aloes exercises over the large intestines it has - long been supposed that the continued use of it caused the production - of hemorrhoids. It would seem hardly possible that an opinion, so - generally received, could be without some foundation; and, no doubt, - in many cases it may produce such an effect. In my own experience, - however, I do not recollect to have met with it in a single instance, - even where its use had been continued for several months in - succession. - - _Ed._ - -Footnote 364: - - ANDERSON’S PILLS consist of the Barbadoes Aloes with a proportion of - Jalap, and Oil of Aniseed. - - HOOPER’S PILLS.—Pil. Alöes cum Myrrha, (Pil. Rufi) Sulphate of Iron, - and Canella Bark, to which is added a portion of Ivory Black. - - DIXON’S ANTIBILIOUS PILLS.—Aloes, Scammony, Rhubarb, and Tartarized - Antimony. - - SPEEDIMAN’S PILLS.—Aloes, Myrrh, Rhubarb, Extract of Chamomile, and - some Essential Oil of Chamomile. - - DINNER PILLS—LADY WEBSTER’S, OR LADY CRESPIGNY’S PILL. These popular - pills are the “Pilulæ Stomachicæ,” vulgo, “Pilulæ ante cibum” of the - Codex Medicamentarius Parisiensis. Editio Quinta, A.D. 1758. viz. ℞. - Aloes optimæ ʒvj, Mastiches, et Rosarum rubrarum āā ʒij, Syrupi de - Absinthio q, s, ut fiat massa,—the mass is divided into pills of 3 - grains each. The operation of this pill is to produce a copious and - bulky evacuation, and in this respect experience has fully established - its value. It is difficult to explain the modus operandi of the - Mastiche, unless we suppose that it depends upon its dividing the - particles of the Aloes, and thereby modifying its solubility. - - FOTHERGILL’S PILLS.—Aloes, Scammony, Colocynth, and Oxide of Antimony. - - PETER’S PILLS.—Aloes, Jalap, Scammony, and Gamboge, equal part - ʒij—Calomel ʒi. - - RADCLIFFE’S ELIXIR—℞. Aloes Socot: ʒvi, Cort:—Cinnamon et Rad: Zedoar: - āā ʒss—Rad: Rhei ʒi.—Coccinel: ʒss—Syrup: Rhamni f℥ij—Spirit: Tenuior: - oj—Aquæ Puræ f℥v. - - BEAUME DE VIE, see Decoct: Aloes compositum. - - THE ELIXIR OF LONGEVITY, of Dr. Jernitz of Sweden. This is an aromatic - tincture, with Aloes. - -Footnote 365: - - The best mode of using alum as a styptic is that of a _tepid saturated - solution_. In this form it proves much more efficacious in arresting - hemorrhage than in the usual way of applying it. Dr. Scudamore, to - whom we are indebted for this observation, has detailed some striking - and interesting experiments satisfactorily proving its correctness. - See “Scudamore on the Blood.” p. 157.—_Ed._ - -Footnote 366: - - GODFREY’S SMELLING SALTS. This highly pungent preparation is obtained - by resubliming the common sub-carbonate of ammonia with pearlash, and - a proportion of rectified spirit. The sub-carbonate of potass in this - case, abstracts a fresh portion of carbonic acid from the ammoniacal - salt. Its atomic composition has not yet been ascertained, but it will - probably be found to consist of equal atoms of carbonic acid and - ammonia, and must therefore be a true Carbonate. - -Footnote 367: - - It appears that this is not the only article that has suffered in its - quality by the cheap materials which have been brought into the market - from those works. I understand that the practical chemist can obtain - little or no Naphtha from the Barbadoes Tar, owing to its adulteration - with the residue of the gas light process. - -Footnote 368: - - NOYAU.—Crème de Noyau. Bitter Almonds blanched 1 oz. Proof spirit half - a pint, Sugar 4 oz. It is sometimes coloured with cochineal. The - foreign Noyau, although differently prepared, is indebted to the same - principle for its qualities. It is a liqueur of a fascinating nature, - and cannot be taken to any considerable extent without danger; the - late Duke Charles of Lorraine nearly lost his life from swallowing - some “Eau de Noyau,” (water distilled from Peach kernels) too strongly - impregnated. Journal des Debats, 22, Decembre, 1814. - -Footnote 369: - - ALMOND PASTE. This Cosmetic for softening the skin and preventing - chaps, is made as follows: Bitter almonds blanched 4 oz.; the white of - an egg; rose water and rectified spirit, equal parts, as much as is - sufficient. - -Footnote 370: - - For the derivation of this term, and remarks thereon, see p. 38. - (Note). - -Footnote 371: - - The fecula of various grains are employed as articles of diet for the - sick, e. g. SAGO, prepared from the pith of the Cycas Circinalis, its - granular form is imparted to it by passing it, when half dry, through - a coarse sieve. SALOP, from the Orchis Mascula. TAPIOCA from the root - of the Jatropa Manhiot. By expressing the root of this plant, the - juice of which is extremely acrid, and baking the cake that is left, - an alimentary substance is prepared called CASSAVA, the peculiar merit - of which, like tapioca, is to swell and soften in water, and thus to - make an excellent pudding. ARROW ROOT is from the Maranta Arundinacea. - The arrow root however, usually sold, is the fecula of potatoes; 100 - lbs. of which would yield about 10 lbs. of fecula, and it is worthy of - remark that for this purpose frozen potatoes answer as well as those - not spoiled by the frost. Dr. Ainslie, in his Materia Medica of - Hindostan, informs us that “an excellent Arrow root, if it may be so - called, is now prepared in the Travancore country from the root of the - Curcuma Angustifolia, no way inferior to that obtained from the - Maranta Arundinacea.” - -Footnote 372: - - The method of deducing the value of seeds, from their relative - weights, appears to have been one of the earliest instances of the art - of taking specific gravities; thus Pliny (Nat. Hist. lib. xviii.) - estimated the relative weights of several species of grain. - -Footnote 373: - - CHAMOMILE DROPS. The nostrum sold under this name is a spirit - flavoured with the essential oil of Chamomile. It is very obvious that - it cannot possess the bitter tonic of the flowers. - -Footnote 374: - - THE EVERLASTING PILL of the ancients consisted of _metallic_ Antimony, - which being slightly soluble in the gastric juice was supposed to - exert the property of purging as often as it was swallowed. This was - economy in right earnest, for a single pill would serve a whole family - during their lives, and might be transmitted as an heir-loom to their - posterity. We have heard of a Lady who having swallowed one of these - pills, became seriously alarmed at its not passing; upon sending - however for her physician, he consoled her with the assurance that it - had already passed through a hundred patients with the best effect. - -Footnote 375: - - The manner of doing it among the Turks, is described by Shaw and - Russel. Chateaubriand also remarks, “The women of Athens appear to me - smaller and less handsome than those of the Morea, their practice of - painting the orbits of the eyes blue, and the ends of the fingers red, - is disagreeable to the stranger.” Dr. Badham has also given us an - interesting note upon this subject in his learned Translation of - Juvenal. Sat. II. 1. 141. See also the present work, p. 49. - -Footnote 376: - - The Sulphuret of Antimony is an ingredient in SPILSBURY’S DROPS. See - Hydrargyri Oxy-murias. Dr. Duncan also observes that it seems to - constitute a quack remedy which has acquired some reputation in - Ireland for the cure of cancer, where it is used as an external - application to the sore. - -Footnote 377: - - This saline body was first made known by Adrian de Mynsicht in his - Thesaurus Medico-chymicus, published in 1631; although it appears - probable that the preparation was suggested by a treatise, entitled - “Methodus in Pulverem,” published in Italy in 1620. This book, written - by Dr. Cornachinus, gives an account of a method of preparing a powder - which had been invented by Dudley, Earl of Warwick, and which had - acquired considerable celebrity in Italy; this powder was composed of - Scammony, Sulphuret of Antimony, and Tarter, triturated together. - -Footnote 378: - - There is a Tartrate of Antimony, but it can scarcely be made to - crystallize; it easily assumes a gelatinous form; and it may be here - observed that Antimony is one of those metals whose oxides seem to - combine with difficulty, and to form compounds of little permanency - with acids, unless there be present at the same time an alkali or - earth; and their solutions, in most cases, yield, on dilution, a white - precipitate. - -Footnote 379: - - The compound of Tartarized Antimony and Bark, is said to purge, and to - constitute the “Bolus ad Quartanas” of the French physicians. - -Footnote 380: - - The Sugar is added with a view to prevent the ointment from becoming - rancid. - -Footnote 381: - - NORRIS’S DROPS. A solution of tartarized antimony in rectified spirit, - and disguised by the addition of some vegetable colouring matter. I am - credibly informed that the original recipe contained opium, but that - which I have examined, and which was procured from a respectable - agent, yielded no indications of its presence. - -Footnote 382: - - Hard water has a tendency to produce diseases in the spleen of certain - animals, especially sheep: this is the case in the eastern side of the - island of Minorca, as we are informed by Cleghorn. The mischievous - tendency of bad water, where it cannot be corrected by some chemical - process, would seem to be best counteracted by bitter vegetables. - Virey supposes that this circumstance first induced the Chinese to - infuse the leaves of the tea plant. - -Footnote 383: - - Alpini informs us that Elephantiasis is endemial in Egypt; Galen - ascribes it to the impure waters of the Nile, and Lucretius adopted - the same opinion. - - “Est Elephas morbus, qui propter flumina Nili - Gignitur Ægypto in Medio.” - -Footnote 384: - - Dr. Percival observes that bricks harden the softest water, and give - it an aluminous impregnation; the common practice of lining wells with - them, is therefore very improper, unless they be covered with cement. - -Footnote 385: - - The same strumous affection occurs at Sumatra, where ice and snow are - never seen; while, on the contrary, the disease is quite unknown in - Chili and Thibet, although the rivers of these countries are chiefly - supplied by the melting of the snow with which the mountains are - covered. The trials of Captain Cook, in his voyage round the world, - prove the wholesomeness of _Ice water_ beyond a doubt; in the high - southern latitudes he found a salutary supply of fresh water in the - ice of the sea; “this melted ice,” says sir John Pringle, “was not - only sweet but soft, and so wholesome as to shew the fallacy of human - reasoning unsupported by experiments.” - -Footnote 386: - - I take this opportunity of observing that I have made analyses of - several of those springs in Cornwall, which have from time immemorial - enjoyed a reputation in the neighbourhood for curing diseases, amongst - which were the waters of Holywell, so named from its supposed virtues, - and those of Permiscen Bay, equally extolled for their medicinal - qualities. But I have only been able to detect minute quantities of - carbonate of lime, derived from infiltration through banks of - calcareous sand. See Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of - Cornwall, Vol. I. - -Footnote 387: - - See “Remarks on the Pump water of London,” by W. Heberden, M. D. in - the 1st. vol. of the Medical Transactions; also, Acad. Royale des - Scienc. 1700, Hist. pag. 58. Perrault Vitruve. L. VIII. c. 5. - -Footnote 388: - - I am informed by a respectable chemist in this town, that he sells a - large quantity of alum for this very purpose, as well as to publicans - for the sake of clearing their spirituous liquors; for the same end, - we are told, that the wine merchants in Paris put into each cask of - wine as much as a pound of alum. - -Footnote 389: - - This is particularly the case with respect to the water of the River - Thames; for as it contains but a small proportion of saline matter, it - is remarkably soft, although it holds suspended mud, and vegetable and - animal debris, which occasion it to undergo a violent change on being - kept: a large volume of carburetted and sulphuretted hydrogen gases is - evolved, and it becomes black and insufferably offensive; upon racking - it off however into large earthen vessels, and exposing it to the air, - it gradually deposits a quantity of black slimy matter, and becomes as - clear as crystal, and perfectly sweet and palatable, and is - exceedingly well adapted for sea store. “THE NEW RIVER WATER” contains - a small proportion of muriate of lime, carbonate of lime, and muriate - of soda; it differs also in its gaseous contents: 100 cubic inches of - New River Water contain 2·25 of carbonic acid, and 1·25 of common air, - whereas the water of the Thames contains rather a large quantity of - common air, and a smaller proportion of carbonic acid. - -Footnote 390: - - The law which determines such combinations has been investigated with - singular ingenuity and success by Dr. Murray, (Transactions of the - Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1816). Berthollet had already established - the important fact, that combinations are often determined by the - force of cohesion, in such a manner, that in principles acting on each - other, those on which this force operates most powerfully, in relation - to the fluid which is the medium of action, are combined together; - hence from a knowledge of the solubility of the compounds which - substances form, we may predict what combinations will be established - when they act on each other, those always combining which form the - least soluble compounds. It is for the extension of these views, and - for the useful application of them, that we are indebted to Dr. - Murray, who justly observes that if the force of cohesion can so far - modify chemical attraction, as to establish among compound salts - dissolved in any medium, those combinations whence the least soluble - compound are formed, we are entitled to conclude that the reverse of - this force, i. e. the power of a solvent, may produce the opposite - effects, or cause the very reverse of these combinations to be - established, so that in a concentrated medium the least soluble will - be formed, and in a dilute one, the more soluble compounds will be - established. Hence follows the simple rule by which the actual state - in which saline bodies exist in a solution may be determined, viz. - that in any fluid containing the elements of compound salts, the - binary compounds existing in it will be generally those which are most - soluble in that fluid, and the reverse combinations will only be - established by its concentration favouring the influence of cohesion. - It appears that by simply evaporating a saline solution we may produce - changes in its composition, and obtain products which never existed in - its original state of dilution; thus, suppose muriate of magnesia and - sulphate of soda to be dissolved in water, as is actually the case in - the water of the ocean, and the solution to be concentrated by - evaporation from heat; the combinations of sulphate of magnesia and - muriate of soda, being on the whole less soluble in water, this - circumstance of inferior solubility, or the force of cohesion thus - operating, actually determines the formation of these compounds; and - the production of sulphate of magnesia from the bittern is to be - explained upon this principle. Since it appears therefore that the - influence of solubility is most important, temperature, to whose - dominion it is under all circumstances subject, must necessarily be - alike powerful; let us exemplify this fact by the action of the very - salts under consideration; it has been just stated that muriate of - magnesia and sulphate of soda decompose each other in a concentrated - solution at a high temperature, producing muriate of soda and sulphate - of magnesia, but at temperatures below 32° the reverse actually takes - place, muriate of soda and sulphate of magnesia reacting, and being - converted into sulphate of soda and muriate of magnesia; a fact - evidently owing to the relation of the solubility of these salts to - temperature. Muriate of soda has its solubility scarcely altered, - either by heat or cold; sulphate of soda is, in these respects, - completely the reverse; hence at an elevated temperature, muriate of - soda is the least, and sulphate of soda the most soluble salt, whilst - at a low temperature, the reverse of this happens. All the - circumstances of this investigation are most interesting; the medical - practitioner will at once perceive its importance, as enabling him to - appreciate the real nature of saline solutions, and even in many - instances to preserve their identity. See Aquæ Minerales. - -Footnote 391: - - There is a precaution respecting the preservation of these waters for - analysis with which the chemist ought to be acquainted; it will be - fully explained by the relation of the following anecdote. M. Wurza, - on examining some bottles of Chalybeate water, could detect no signs - of iron in them, and on seeking for the cause of this circumstance, he - discovered it in the astringent nature of the corks which had combined - with the metallic substance, and abstracted it from the water. - -Footnote 392: - - The Mineral Springs in the United States more especially deserving of - notice, are those of Saratoga and Ballston in the State of New-York, - and of Schooley’s Mountain in New-Jersey. Of the two first, various - analyses have been published by different chemists, but with so little - uniformity of result as to leave their true chemical character still - in a state of uncertainty. An account of these discrepancies may be - seen in the New-England Journal of Medicine and Surgery for 1817. As - the analyses of Dr. Steel appear upon the whole to be most - satisfactory, we shall quote them. One gallon of the water was the - quantity used in the experiments. - - - BALLSTON. - - 1. _Public Spring._ Temperat. 50° Fahr. - - Muriate of Soda, 159. - Carbonate of Soda, 9. - Carbonate of Lime, 75.5 - Carbonate of Magnesia, 2.5 - Carbonate of Iron, 7. - ————— - 253. grs. - - Carbonic Acid 210 cubic inches. - - 2. _Low’s Spring._ Temperat. 52°. - - Muriate of Soda, 142. - Carbonate of Soda, 10. - Carbonate of Lime, 64.5 - Carbonate of Magnesia, 1.5 - Carbonate of Iron, 6. - ————— - 224. grs. - - Carbonic Acid 220 cubic inches. - - 3. _New Spring._ Temperat. 50°. - - Muriate of Soda, 145. - Carbonate of Soda, 12. - Carbonate of Lime, 61.5 - Carbonate of Magnesia, 9. - Carbonate of Iron, 7.5 - ————— - 235. grs. - - Carbonic Acid 159.5. cubic inches. - - - SARATOGA. - - 1. _Congress Spring._ Temperat. 50°. - - Muriate of Soda, 471.5 - Carbonate of Lime, 178.476 - Carbonate of Soda, 16.5 - Carbonate of Magnesia, 3.356 - Carbonate of Iron, 6.168 - ——————— - 676. grs. - - Carbonic Acid 343 cubic inches. - - More recently this Spring has been analyzed by the late Professor DANA, - and, according to him, the constituents in one quart of water are the - following: - - Bi-carbonate of Lime, 51.080 grs. - Bi-carbonate of Soda, 18.478 - Chloride of Sodium, (common salt,) 97.080 - Chloride of Magnesium, (Mur. of 9.140 - Magnesia,) - Silex, with a trace of Iron, 1.500 - ——————— - 177.278 grs. - - Uncombined Carbonic Acid Gas, 36.90 cubic inches. - Azote, 1.80 - ————— - 38.70[393] - - 2. _Columbian Spring._ Temperat. 50°. - - Muriate of Soda, 201.5 - Carbonate of Soda, 22.5 - Carbonate of Lime, 121. - Carbonate of Magnesia, 1.5 - Carbonate of Iron, 7.5 - ————— - 354. grs. - - Carbonic Acid 236 cubic inches. - - 3. _High rock Spring._ Temperat. 48°. - - Muriate of Soda, 210. - Carbonate of Soda, 18. - Carbonate of Lime, 115. - Carbonate of Magnesia, .5 - Carbonate of Iron, 4.5 - ————— - 348. grs. - - Carbonic Acid 243 cubic inches. - - - SCHOOLEY’S MOUNTAIN. - - According to the analysis of Dr. M‘Nevin, these waters consist of - - Extractive, 0.92 - Muriate of Soda, 0.43 - Muriate of Lime, 2.40 - Muriate of Magnesia, 0.50 - Carbonate of Lime, 7.99 - Sulphate of Lime, 0.65 - Carbonate of Magnesia, 0.40 - Silex, 0.80 - Carbonated Oxyd of Iron, 2.00 - Loss, 0.41 - ————— - 16.50 - - The diseases in which the Ballston and Saratoga waters have been - recommended are dyspepsia, hypochondriasis, hysteria, dropsy, - paralysis, chronic gout, rheumatism, chlorosis, suppression of the - menses, and diseases of the bladder and kidneys. The waters of - Schooley’s Mountain, besides their general utility in diseases of the - digestive organs, have proved eminently successful in calculous - affections. _Ed._ - -Footnote 393: - - New-York Med. and Phys. Journal, No. 21. p. 73. - -Footnote 394: - - For the same purpose the French employ a pomatum prepared with the - oxide of bismuth, and it is said to answer the intention. - -Footnote 395: - - PERMANENT INK FOR MARKING LINEN. This preparation is a solution of - nitrate of silver, thickened with sap green, or cochineal. The - preparing liquid, or Pounce liquid, as it is technically called, with - which the linen to be marked is previously wetted, is a solution of - soda, boiled with gum, or some animal mucilage. It is a curious - circumstance, that if potass be used for this purpose, the marking ink - will run. - -Footnote 396: - - Nitrate of Silver is commonly called an Escharotic. This, however, - gives no just idea of the properties of this valuable article, or of - the uses to which it may be applied. As a local application in cases - of external inflammation, punctured wounds, and ulcers, I have found - it a remedy of surpassing utility. It is to Mr. Higginbottom that we - are indebted for the full developement of this subject.—See “An Essay - on the use of Nitrate of Silver, in the cure of Inflammation, Wounds, - and Ulcers.” _Ed._ - -Footnote 397: - - Horse-radish; horse-mint; bull-rush; &c. These epithets are Grecisms; - ιππος and βους, i. e. horse and bull, when prefixed to any word, - signified no more than great; thus the great Dock, Hippo-lapathum, and - the horse of Alexander from the size of his head was named Bucephalus. - -Footnote 398: - - An infusion of horse-radish is a very ancient remedy in disorders of - the stomach. In Paulus Ægineta we shall find a letter written by - Carytius Antigonus, in which it is highly recommended for such a - purpose. - -Footnote 399: - - The chemist may satisfy himself of this fact by heating some arsenious - acid on a piece of platinum foil, and alternately raising and - depressing it into the blue flame of the spirit, when corresponding - changes in odour will take place. - -Footnote 400: - - It will probably afford a satisfactory explanation of the circumstance - mentioned by Dr. Percival, that the workmen who solder silver - filligree with an arsenical alloy, are never affected by the fumes. - Dr. Percival does not appear to have been in the least aware of the - probable reason of this fact; he says, “This solder is melted by the - flame of a lamp directed by a blow-pipe; the greatest part of the - arsenic is evaporated by the blast and flame, and some part also of - the rest of the solder, and yet the men appear to enjoy as good - health, and to live as long as other artists! Amongst other examples - of the truth of this observation, I lately saw in the manufactory at - the Soho at Birmingham, a man of more than fifty years of age, who had - soldered silver filligree for thirty-five years, and had regularly, - during that period, passed from eight to ten hours daily in his - occupation, and yet he was fat, strong, active, cheerful, and of a - complexion by no means sickly; neither he nor his brother artists use - any means to counteract the effect of their trade.” Dr. Rotheram, in a - letter to Dr. Percival, comments upon this fact, and says, “how far - the fluxes used in soldering the filligree may fix the parts of the - arsenic, or from what cause these workmen might escape, I dare not - say, but I should notwithstanding strongly suspect the fumes of this - very volatile and caustic mineral to be very prejudicial.”—I have - shewn above that arsenious acid is readily decomposed when heated in - contact with an oxidable metal, and I apprehend that this fact will - explain the reason why the fumes of the alloy in question are disarmed - of their virulence. - -Footnote 401: - - In my work on Medical Jurisprudence, (Vol. ii. p. 216) the reader will - find a very full account of the symptoms produced by this poison. - -Footnote 402: - - PLUNKETT’S OINTMENT, consists of arsenious acid, sulphur, and the - powdered flowers of the Ranunculus Flammula, and Cotula Fœtida, - levigated and made into a paste with the white of an egg, and applied, - on a piece of pig’s bladder, to the surface of the cancer. - - PATE ARSENICALE. This favourite remedy of the French surgeons consists - of 70 parts of cinnabar, 22 of sanguis draconis, and 8 of arsenious - acid, made into paste with saliva, at the time of applying it. This - combination, observes a periodical writer, is similar, with the - exception of the ashes of the soles of old shoes, to that recommended - by Father Cosmo under the name of “Pulvis Anti-carcinomatosa.” - - DAVIDSON’S REMEDY FOR CANCER, arsenious acid, and powdered hemlock. - -Footnote 403: - - In the Journal de Medicine, the following case of a woman is related - who was killed by her husband having insinuated powdered arsenic into - the vagina, at the moment of enjoying the conjugal rites. “A woman at - Leneux, department de l’Ourthe, aged 40, having died after a short - illness, attended with considerable tumefaction of the genital parts, - uterine hemorrhage, vomiting, and purging, the body was inspected by - order of the mayor, when the surgeons reported that they found the - vulva in a state of gangrene, the abdomen much distended with air, and - the intestines inflamed and gangrenous. The culprit was arrested, - convicted, and executed.” In the Acts of the Society of Medicine of - Copenhagen, a similar crime is recorded, committed also by a peasant; - in this latter case, although some small pieces of arsenic were found - within the vagina, yet, some doubting the possibility of this species - of poisoning, the magistrates consulted the College of Medicine of - Copenhagen, who decided the question in the affirmative, by - instituting a series of experiments upon horses. - - SINGLETON’S EYE SALVE, OR GOLDEN OINTMENT. Under this name is sold a - preparation which consists of sulphuret of arsenic (orpiment) with - lard, or spermaceti ointment. The Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitrico Oxydi - of the London College is also sold under the same title. - - DELCROIX’S POUDRE SUBTIL, “for removing superfluous hair in less than - ten minutes.”! This fashionable depilatory appears upon examination to - consist of Quick-lime and Sulphuret of Arsenic, with some vegetable - powder. It is, however, so unequally mixed, that in submitting it to - analysis, no two portions afforded the same results. It can scarcely - be necessary to state, that such a composition is incapable of - fulfilling the intention for which it is so confidently vended. - - In Paris, arsenic forms the basis of several blistering cerates. Such - applications cannot be safe. - -Footnote 404: - - This substance may be considered as consisting of charcoal, in a state - of extremely minute division, and the sub-carbonate of potass. It is - prepared by deflagrating, in a crucible, two parts of Super-tartrate - of Potass with one part of Nitrate of Potass. - -Footnote 405: - - In order to close the end of the tube, where a blow-pipe is not to be - procured, the end is to be placed in a common fire, until it is - completely softened, and a pair of small tongs being at the same time - made red hot, the tube is to be withdrawn from the fire, and then - heated and pinched by the tongs, and at the same time bent up at an - acute angle, so as to be brought parallel to the body of the tube. The - tube is then to be heated a second time, and being again firmly - pinched by the hot tongs, the end will be found to be completely - impervious. Where a glass is not at hand Mr. R. Phillips says a common - draught phial may be made to answer the purpose, especially a _ten - drachm_ phial, for it is long in proportion to its diameter. In using - it, however, care must be taken that the suspected powder and black - flux do not reach the bottom, for, on account of its thickness, it - will readily break on the application of heat. The phial must - therefore be heated laterally by means of a spirit lamp. - -Footnote 406: - - Dr. Bostock has informed us that the best proportions for this coating - are one part of common pipe clay, to three parts of fine sand; which - are to be well kneaded together, and reduced to such a state of - tenacity that the lute will readily adhere to the tube, and its - different parts unite, without forming a visible seam, (Edinb. Med. & - Surg. Journ. April, 1809.) - -Footnote 407: - - Should the operator be unable to procure a spirit lamp, a very - convenient substitute may be provided in the following manner. Let a - piece of tin plate, about an inch long, be coiled up into a cylinder - of about ⅜ths of an inch in diameter, and, if the edges be well - hammered, it is not necessary to use solder. Perforate a cork, - previously fitted to a phial, and put a cotton wick through the short - tin tube, and the tube through the cork. The lamp is now complete, and - will afford a strong flame, taking care of course not to prevent the - rise of the spirit by fitting the cork too closely. - -Footnote 408: - - In the celebrated case of Kesler, who was tried in the state of - New-York some few years ago, for having poisoned his wife with - arsenic, this very question was agitated, and gave rise to much - learned controversy. The physicians originally called to examine the - body of the deceased, found, on dissection, the stomach and intestines - highly inflamed, and on the inner surface of the stomach, particles of - a vitreous appearance. These particles were subjected to various - chemical tests, all of which very strikingly concurred in confirming - the suspicion that they were arsenic. Upon this, in connexion with the - other testimony adduced in the case, the prisoner was found guilty and - condemned to death. The minutes of the trial were transmitted by the - presiding judge (Yates) to Governor Clinton, who submitted the - professional part of them to Dr. M‘Nevin of New-York, for his opinion - in relation to it. Thus called upon, Dr. M. seems to have considered - that his only duty was to find fault. Objections were accordingly - raised against every test hitherto employed by the best chemists for - the detection of arsenic. They were all pronounced to be uncertain, - and “_the only thing to be relied on_,” according to him, was “_the - exhibition of the metal itself in its metallic lustre and state_.” In - consequence of this difference of opinion, the execution of Kesler was - suspended by the Governor, and the whole case referred by him to the - Legislature. That distinguished body appointed a committee to - investigate the business, and the result was that the original verdict - of the jury was confirmed by the Legislature, and the criminal was - executed. It must furnish a source of the purest gratification to the - medical witnesses concerned in this case, to find their opinions so - unequivocally and so justly confirmed by an authority so high as Dr. - Paris. For a detailed account of this trial we refer to Beck’s Medical - Jurisprudence, vol. 2, p. 239.—_Ed._ - -Footnote 409: - - If any trifling opacity occur in a simple solution of arsenic, when - assayed by the nitrate of silver, it may be considered as the effects - of some casual impurities; this is further demonstrated by bringing - over the surface of the arsenical liquid, a piece of blotting paper, - or a stopper, moistened with a solution of ammonia, when there will - instantly form a copious yellow precipitate of arsenite of silver. If - this experiment be performed on a surface of glass, laid over white - paper, the result is very striking and beautiful. - -Footnote 410: - - Annals of Philosophy, vol. x, p. 60. - -Footnote 411: - - London Medical and Physical Journal, January, 1818. - -Footnote 412: - - In Wine and Porter, the solvent is probably Tartaric acid, for the - Arsenite of Silver is soluble in this as well as in the acetic and - nitric acids. In Tea the solvent would appear to be Tannin. The - Arsenite of Silver is likewise dissolved by the Tartaric acid, and - also, but not so readily, by the Citric and Acetic acids. - -Footnote 413: - - This opinion has lately received ample confirmation from the - experiments of Dr. Christison, (Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journal, July, - 1824) who has shewn that the process of Orfila is objectionable on the - three following grounds, viz. - - 1st. The colour is very seldom so entirely destroyed but that the - precipitates produced by some of the tests still deviate to a certain - degree from their characteristic tints; and although the colour of the - fluid be even destroyed entirely, it often re-appears in the - precipitates. - - 2d. Although the Chlorine destroys the colour, it does not also take - from the fluid its solvent action on the arsenical precipitates. - - 3d. In fluids decolorized by Chlorine, and containing no Arsenic, some - of the tests produce precipitates, not only precisely the same with - those which they cause in the decolorized solutions of Arsenic, but - likewise very similar in appearance to those caused in a pure aqueous - solution of Arsenic. - -Footnote 414: - - The experiments by which I ascertained this fact were made soon after - the publication of Mr. Phillips’s paper, and long before I saw Dr. - Christison’s communication in the Edinburgh Journal. I merely mention - this circumstance to add greater weight to the experimental evidence, - for when different persons arrive at the same conclusion without any - communication with each other, the strongest possible testimony is - afforded. I may also add that my suspicions were raised to the - probability of the fact by a knowledge of the action of charcoal upon - lime water. In a philosophical point of view the fact is one of great - interest; it seems to connect the phenomena of mechanical and chemical - attraction. We have evidently a body removed from the state of - solution by mechanical means. - -Footnote 415: - - The following is the formula for its preparation. Dissolve ten grains - of lunar caustic in ten times its weight of distilled water, to this - add, _guttatim_, liquid ammonia, until a precipitate is formed: - continue cautiously to add the ammonia, repeatedly agitating the - mixture until the precipitate is nearly redissolved. The object of - allowing a small portion to remain undissolved is to guard against an - excess of ammonia. Wherever the test is used, the liquid to which it - is added ought to be quite cold. - -Footnote 416: - - This is very important, for an excess of ammonia redissolves the - yellow precipitate, and therefore defeats the object of the test. The - fixed alkalies, in excess, have not such a property. - -Footnote 417: - - The great impression made upon the public mind in Cornwall, by the - above trial, produced a disposition to regard the cause of every - sudden death with more than usual jealousy. See a Report of this trial - in the Appendix of our work on Medical Jurisprudence. - -Footnote 418: - - In consequence of a report having arisen that a young woman had died - after an illness of forty-eight hours, and been hastily buried at - Madron, the magistrates of that district issued their warrant for the - disinterment of the body, and requested my attendance at the - examination. It appeared upon dissection that the immediate cause of - death had been inflammation of the intestines; the stomach was found - to contain a considerable portion of liquid, which was carefully - collected and examined; no solid matter could be discovered in it. It - appeared to consist principally of the remains of a quantity of - penny-royal tea, which had been the last thing administered to the - deceased. This was divided into several portions, and placed in - separate wine glasses, and submitted, in the presence of the sheriff - and other gentlemen, to a series of experiments, amongst which the - following may be particularized, as bearing upon the question at - issue. - - 1st. A few drops of a solution of sub-carbonate of potass were added - to the liquid, in one of the glasses, when its colour, which was - before of a light hazel, was instantly deepened into a reddish yellow; - the sulphate of copper was then applied, when a precipitate fell down, - which every one present immediately pronounced to be of a _vivid - green_ hue, but in pouring off the supernatant liquid, and - transferring the precipitate upon white paper, it assumed a blue - colour, without the least tinge of green; the explanation of the - phenomenon, and the fallacy to which it gave rise, was obvious: the - yellow colour, imparted to the liquid by the alkali, was the effect of - that body upon vegetable extract, and will generally take place on - adding it to the infusions of vegetable substances. - - 2nd. To another portion of the liquid, the ammoniaco-nitrate of silver - was added; a slight turbidness arose, but no yellow precipitate - occurred. - - 3rd. After adding a fixed alkali, the surface of the liquid was - touched with a stick of lunar caustic, but no yellow precipitate was - produced. - - 4th. The liquid was next assayed in a watch-glass, for a phosphate of - soda, by endeavouring to form a triple salt with magnesia and ammonia, - as suggested by Dr. Wollaston; the result proved that phosphate of - soda was not present. It is unnecessary to pursue the relation of the - experiments; I conceive that sufficient evidence has been adduced to - establish the truth of the explanation. I have frequently repeated the - first experiment, substituting for the gastric infusion, a decoction - of onions, and with similar results. - -Footnote 419: - - This explanation applies equally to the objection lately advanced by - Dr. Porter, of the University of South Carolina, who in observing on - the tests for arsenic, remarks, that an appearance similar to - Scheele’s Green, is produced by the carbonate of potass when added to - a solution of copper containing coffee, but without arsenic, more - striking than if a weak solution of arsenic be used. Silliman’s - Journal, iii. 365. - -Footnote 420: - - Annals of Philosophy, New Series, No. III. for March, 1821. - -Footnote 421: - - The habitudes of arsenious acid with the nitrates were first observed - by Kunkel; nitrous vapour is disengaged, part of the oxygen being - absorbed by the arsenious acid, by which an arsenite of potass is - formed. - -Footnote 422: - - Dr. Bostock confesses that where less than three-fourths of a grain - were used, he could not say that the metallic crust was clearly - perceptible; and Dr. Black considered that one grain was the smallest - quantity which could be distinctly recognised by such a process. Dr. - Jaeger (Dissertatio Inauguralis, Stuttgard, 1808) also observes, that - he has been enabled to recognise the tenth of a grain of arsenious - acid, although mixed with sugar, by its odour, when thrown upon - burning coals! I must be allowed to question this fact; Dr. Jaeger, no - doubt, believed that he recognised the alliaceous odour, but it must - have been the effect of imagination. Dr. Bostock observes that, if - Arsenic be mixed with either an animal or vegetable substance, the - smoke and smell arising from those bodies, when heated, will - altogether prevent our recognising its odour. He found that when a - quantity of Arsenic was mixed with an equal weight of flour, and - placed upon iron at a low red heat, so as not to cause the flour to - inflame, the suffocating smoke that arose from the latter could be - alone perceived; nor was it possible to discover that any thing had - been mixed with it (Edinb. Med. Journal.) This objection of Dr. - Bostock is true in fact, although it admits of a different - explanation, for at a low temperature the Arsenious acid would be - volatilized without decomposition; in which case no alliaceous odour - can be developed. Dr. Traill has lately asserted (Annals of - Philosophy, Feb. 1824) that he has recognised the alliaceous odour - during the volatilization of 1/78th of a grain of the metal. I do not - question the truth of this assertion, but there must have been an - address in the manipulation which we cannot expect to find in ordinary - experimenters. - -Footnote 423: - - Assafœtida was used by the ancients as a condiment, under the name of - σιλφὶον, _Laserpitium_, (Pliny); and according to Kempfer, the - Persians use it for the same purpose. The Arabian writers on the - materia medica class this article among their Mobehyat - (_Aphrodisiaca_). The term Assafœtida is derived from the monks of the - Salernian school; some of the writers of the middle ages call it Opium - Cyrenaicum, i. e. the Juice from Cyrene. - -Footnote 424: - - TOLU LOZENGES. Sugar 8 oz. Cream of Tartar 1 oz. Starch 2 drachms. - Tinct. Toluiferæ Balsami E. one fluid-drachm, mucilage of Gum - Tragacanth q. s. - -Footnote 425: - - _Belladonna_, so called from the juice of its berries being used as a - cosmetic by the Italian women, to make their faces pale. - -Footnote 426: - - The root of this plant seems to partake of the same qualities as the - leaves, but is perhaps less virulent: - - “Or have we eaten of the insane root, - That takes the reason prisoner.” - _Macbeth._ - - The Belladonna is supposed by Sauvage to be the plant that produced - such extraordinary effects upon the Roman Soldiers during their - retreat, under the command of Anthony, from the Parthians, when they - are said to have “suffered great distress for want of provisions, and - were urged to eat unknown plants; among others they met with a herb - that was mortal: he that had eaten of it lost his memory and his - senses, and employed himself wholly in turning about all the stones he - could find, and after vomiting up bile, fell down dead.” (Plutarch’s - Life of Anthony.) The Scotch historian Buchannan relates, “that the - Scots mixed a quantity of the juice of the Belladonna (_Solanum - Somniferum_) with the bread and drink which by their truce they were - to supply the Danes with, which so intoxicated them that the Scots - killed the greater part of Sweno’s army.” - -Footnote 427: - - FUMIGATING PASTILLES. Benzoin generally constitutes the chief - ingredient in these compositions, to which may be added any variety of - odoriferous substances; the following formula may be offered as a - specimen: ℞. Benzoin ʒj, Cascarillæ ʒss, Myrrh ℈j, Olei nuc. moschat. - ol. Caryophyll. āā gr. x. potassæ nitratis ʒss, carb. ligni ʒvj. - mucilag. gum. Trag. q. s. - -Footnote 428: - - VIRGIN’S MILK. A spirituous solution of Benzoin mixed with about - twenty parts of rose water, forms a cosmetic long known by this name. - Under the same title also a very different preparation is sold, vid. - Liquor Plumbi sub-acetatis. - - FRIAR’S BALSAM, WADE’S DROPS, JESUIT’S DROPS.—These preparations are - nothing more than the Tinctura Benzoini composita. - - PECTORAL BALSAM OF HONEY.—Is merely the tincture of Benzoin, or that - of Tolu. - - ESSENCE OF COLTSFOOT.—This preparation consists of equal parts of the - Balsam of Tolu, and the Compound Tincture of Benzoin, to which is - added double the quantity of rectified Spirit of Wine; and this - forsooth is a Pectoral for Coughs! If a patient with a pulmonary - affection should recover during the use of such a remedy, I should - certainly designate it as a lucky Escape, rather than as a skilful - Cure. - -Footnote 429: - - The Pearl Powder of Perfumers is obtained from the nitric solution of - Bismuth, by adding a proportion of muriatic acid, and then - precipitating by a small quantity of water. In this way it is obtained - in the form of minute scales of a pearly lustre. - -Footnote 430: - - The gas which arises from the combustion of mineral coal will produce - the same effect. It is related of a lady of fashion, who had - incautiously seated herself too near the fire, at a quadrille party, - that her countenance changed on a sudden from a delicate white to a - dark tawney, as though by magic. The surprise and confusion of the - whole party had such an effect upon the disfigured _fair one_, that - she was actually dying from apprehension, when the physician dispelled - their fears by informing his patient that nothing more was necessary - than for her to abstain from the use of mineral cosmetics, and to - trust in future to those charms which Nature had bestowed upon her. - -Footnote 431: - - L. F. Jacobi de Bismutho. Erford, 1697. - -Footnote 432: - - Journal de Medicine, 1786, T. 68. p. 49. - -Footnote 433: - - Vol. iv. p. 156. - -Footnote 434: - - In this country Bismuth has enjoyed for some years a reputation - exceedingly high. Dr. Samuel W. Moore, of New-York, was the first to - call the attention of the American medical public to it, in a valuable - dissertation which was published in the year 1810. In this Essay are - recorded a number of cases illustrative of the salutary effects of - this medicine in spasmodic pain and other troublesome affections of - the stomach. In addition to its use in gastric disorders, Dr. - Carmichael, of Virginia, has administered it with success in the - treatment of Intermittents. _Ed._ - -Footnote 435: - - Very lately our attention has been particularly called to this plant - by Dr. E. G. Ludlow of New-York, who speaks of it in terms of high - commendation. He says “the diseases in which I have used it are - exclusively those of the Chylopoietic viscera, as dyspepsia, diarrhœa - and cholera. For the removal of pain and flatulence in the bowels, - which may be enumerated among the most frequent and distressing - symptoms of the first stage of indigestion, Calamus is superior to any - other carminative; by virtue of its aroma it creates a strong - sensation of warmth in the stomach, increasing its action without - sensibly augmenting the force of the circulation, while its powerful - bitter principle gives permanent tone to the relaxed state of the - fibres.” New-York Med. & Phys. Journal, No. 11. p. 321. The Tincture - is the preferable form of administering the Calamus. The dose is from - ℥ss to ℥j. _Ed._ - -Footnote 436: - - THE SPECIFIC OF HERRENSCHWAND, which formerly excited so much interest - in Germany, consisted of 10 grains of Camboge with 20 of Sub-carbonate - of Potass; although it is said, that on its being analyzed by order of - Elizabeth of Russia, there were also found in it both Mercury and - Arsenic. - - Camboge is also the basis of the SPECIFIC OF CLOSSIUS. - - GOLDEN SPIRIT OF SCURVY GRASS. This is merely a solution of Camboge in - the Spir: Armoraciæ comp: - -Footnote 437: - - Although the Camphor of commerce is generally furnished by the Laurus - Camphora, yet it is abundantly yielded by many other plants. It is - said that what is imported from Sumatra is the product of the - Dryobobans Camphora. It is also contained in the roots of the - Cinnamon, Cassia, and Sassafras laurels, and in those of Galangale, - Zedoary, and Ginger; in Cardamom seeds and Long Pepper. The essential - oils of Lavender, Sage, Thyme, Peppermint, Rosemary, and those of many - other labiate plants yield camphor by distillation. Camphor may be - also artificially formed by driving a stream of muriatic gas through - oil of turpentine; this factitious product, however, is to be - distinguished from native camphor in not being soluble in weak nitric - acid, and also in not being precipitated by water from its solution in - strong nitric acid. - -Footnote 438: - - The collection of the Materia Medica at the College of Physicians - contains a beautiful specimen of native Camphor in the wood: having - selected from it as perfect a crystal as I could find, I requested my - friend and publisher Mr. W. Phillips, well known for his researches in - crystallography, to undertake its examination; and he observes that - “The crystal of native Camphor (in the wood) appears as a flat - octohedron; but the primary form is a right rhombic prism of 51° 36′ - and 128° 24′. by measurement with the reflective goniometer on - cleavage planes: the octohedral appearance arises from the deep - replacement of four of the solid angles of the prism, by as many - planes.” - -Footnote 439: - - AN ODONTALGIC REMEDY in great repute consists of a solution of camphor - in oil of turpentine; a fluid-ounce of which will dissolve two - drachms. - -Footnote 440: - - Although the London College, for reasons sufficiently weighty, were - induced on a former occasion to transfer the Blistering fly from the - genus Cantharis to that of Lytta, the Committee for revising the late - Pharmacopœia determined, on the authority of Latreille, to restore it - to its former genus. The work of Latreille, “Genera Crustaceorum et - Insectorum” holds the highest rank in Entomology of any hitherto - published. - -Footnote 441: - - Cantharidin may be obtained by the following process: Boil the - cantharides in water until all the soluble parts are extracted; filter - the decoction, and evaporate to the consistence of an extract. Digest - this extract in concentrated alcohol, then pour off the alcohol and - evaporate it; if sulphuric acid be then added to this extract, it will - take up the Cantharidin, which may be obtained in a tolerably pure - state by evaporation. The crystalline plates may be afterwards freed - from the adhering colouring matter by alcohol. - -Footnote 442: - - Annales de Chémie, tom. lxxvi. - -Footnote 443: - - It forms the basis of the once celebrated diuretic of Tulpius, called - Lithonthrypticum Tulpii, from its supposed efficacy in stone. The - other ingredients were Cardamoms, made into a Tincture with Rectified - Spirit, and Spirit of Nitric Æther. - -Footnote 444: - - He was cited before the censors of the College of Physicians in 1693, - and committed to Newgate by a warrant from the President; but he was - acquitted upon the plea that—bad practice must be accompanied with a - bad intention to render it criminal. He published his vindication in a - small tract, entitled “De tuto Cantharidum usu interno.” The issue, - says Dr. Quincey (Pharm: p. 152) ruined the unhappy Doctor, but taught - his prosecutors the safety and value of his practice. The following - was his formula. Of egg-shells calcined ʒss; Camphor ℈j; Spanish flies - ℈ss; and Venice turpentine q, s, to make nine pills; three of which - were to be swallowed every three hours. - -Footnote 445: - - Not less than sixteen species of the genus Cantharis have already been - discovered in this country, by the industry of our Entomologists; - most, if not all, of which possess vesicating powers. Of these the - most common is the Lytta vittata, or potatoe fly. The medicinal - virtues of this insect were first discovered in 1797, and found to be - fully equal to those of the Spanish fly. Dr. Barton says “from - frequent employment of the two articles, I cannot hesitate to prefer - the American to the foreign fly. Long keeping, provided it be - carefully kept, does not materially impair the blistering property of - the Lytta vittata. At the end of three or four years after being - collected, I have found it equal in power to the shop Cantharides.” By - the late Dr. Dana, Prof. of Chemistry in the College of Physicians and - Surgeons of New-York, the Lytta vittata was made the subject of - analysis, and found to contain _Cantharidin_. _Ed._ - -Footnote 446: - - Journal de Physique, p. 173, 1820. - -Footnote 447: - - RYMER’S CARDIAC TINCTURE. In the earlier editions of this work an - erroneous account of this medicine has been given, in consequence of a - spurious specimen having been examined: the following analysis is now - confidently presented to the profession. It is an infusion of - Capsicum, Camphor, Cardamom seeds, Rhubarb, Aloes, and Castor in Proof - Spirit, with a very small quantity of Sulphuric acid. - -Footnote 448: - - LARDNER’S PREPARED CHARCOAL consists of cretaceous powder, or chalk - finely powdered, rendered grey by the addition of charcoal, or Ivory - black. - -Footnote 449: - - CONCENTRATED SOLUTION OF CHARCOAL. A preparation is sold under this - absurd name for cleaning the teeth, and is nothing more than a - tincture of Catechu. The name was probably suggested by the - experiments of Mr. Hatchett, who succeeded in producing artificial - tannin by the action of Nitric acid upon Charcoal. - -Footnote 450: - - In cases of obstinate constipation of the bowels, charcoal is one of - the most efficient remedies in the whole Materia Medica. Many cases - have yielded to it which had resisted every other cathartic medicine - previously used. Dr. Daniell, of Savannah, to whom we are indebted for - an interesting paper on this subject, states as the result of his - experience, “that the most speedy, as well as the most certain relief, - is to be obtained from the free use of Charcoal. If it does not wholly - relieve, it always very much mitigates the pain in six or eight hours - from the period of its first administration; and within my - observation,” he adds, “the patient has always been entirely composed - before the operation of the medicine upon the bowels.” “In relation to - the dose of this medicine,” he states that “the rule which I have - pursued is to give it as freely and as frequently as the stomach will - allow. The quantity required is considerable. It has a happy influence - in lulling the irritability of the stomach, when nothing else which I - have used, would control the nausea and vomiting of the patient; thus - fulfilling the double intention of first alleviating a very - distressing symptom, and then removing the disease itself. I usually - give from one to three table-spoonsful of Charcoal every half hour or - hour: whenever the stomach becomes overcharged with the medicine, the - excess is thrown off, and the stomach is again quiet. I give it in - lime water, milk, or water alone—the vehicle having appeared to me - unimportant.” Philadel. Journal of Med. and Phys. Science, Vol. 5. p. - 120. Ed. - -Footnote 451: - - See an account of Charcoal, as a test for Arsenic, and remarks - thereon, p. 308. - -Footnote 452: - - Dr. Maton in a learned critical and botanical note to a paper on the - Cardamom, by Mr. White, Surgeon of Bombay, (Trans: Lin: Soc: v. x, - 229,) called the genus, of which it consists, Elettaria, a - nomenclature which was accordingly adopted by the College in their - late Pharmacopœia; but, says Sir James Smith, as this name is of a - barbarous origin, (viz. from Elettaria, the Malabar name of the - plant.) we should greatly prefer that of Matonia; a suggestion which - has been since adopted by Mr. Roscoe of Liverpool, in his description - of the Scitamineœ. The College has therefore the gratifying task of - erasing the term Elettaria from their Materia Medica, and of - substituting for it a name no less known than respected by the Medical - profession. - -Footnote 453: - - ESSENCE OF COFFEE. The Cassia pulp is said to form the basis of this - article. - -Footnote 454: - - The ancients erroneously considered them as the testicles of the - beaver, and Æsop relates that the animal bit them off, when pursued by - the huntsman, whence some have derived its name, _a castrando_; the - true origin however of the word is from γαστωρ, i.e. animal - _ventriculosum_, from his swaggy and prominent belly. - -Footnote 455: - - BATEMAN’S PECTORAL DROPS consist principally of the Tincture of - Castor, with portions of camphor and opium, flavoured by anise seeds, - and coloured by cochineal. - -Footnote 456: - - It was formerly supposed to be a mineral production: and hence the - term Terra Japonica. Hagedorn and Boulduc were among the first who - opposed this error, and who established the fact of its vegetable - origin (Mem. de l’Acad. des Sciences de Paris, A. 1709. p. 228.) - -Footnote 457: - - So called from Chiron the Centaur, who is said to have employed it to - cure himself of a wound accidentally received by letting one of the - arrows of Hercules fall upon his foot. - -Footnote 458: - - KIRKLAND’S NEUTRAL CERATE. Is formed by melting together ℥ viij of - Lead Plaster with f℥iv of olive oil, into which are to be stirred ℥iv - of prepared chalk; when the mixture is sufficiently cooled f℥iv of - acetic acid, and ʒiij of pulverized Acetate of lead are to be added, - and the whole is to be stirred until nearly cold. - - MARSHALL’S CERATE. ℞. Palm. Oil ℥v. Calomel ℥i, Acetate of Lead ℥ss, - Nitrate of Mercury ℥ij. - - COLD CREAM (Ceratum Galeni.) Ol: Amygdal: ℔j, Ceræ alb: ℥iv; melt, - pour into a warm mortar, and add, gradually, Aq: Ros; oj. It should be - very light and white. Gray’s Supplement. - -Footnote 459: - - There are no less than twenty-five distinct species of Cinchona, - independent of any additions which we may owe to the zeal of Humboldt - and Bonpland; and Mr. A. T. Thomson, in his London Dispensatory, - states that in a large collection of dried specimens, of the genus - Cinchona, in his possession, collected in 1805, both near Loxa and - Santa Fé, he finds many species which are not mentioned in the works - of any Spanish botanist. - -Footnote 460: - - See London Medical and Physical Journal. Vol. v. p. 33. - -Footnote 461: - - ESSENTIAL SALT OF BARK. It is highly necessary that the public should - know that the preparation sold under this empirical title, has no - relation whatever to the late discoveries of Pelletier. It is merely - an extract prepared by macerating the bruised substance of bark in - cold water, and submitting the infusion to a very slow evaporation. - -Footnote 462: - - The designation of Cinchonin, consistent with the principles of - chemical nomenclature, must now have a termination in _a_, and the - name Cinchonia appears preferable to that of Cinchonina. - -Footnote 463: - - The following is the process by which Cinchonia may be prepared. Take - a pound of Pale Bark, bruised small, and boil it for an hour in three - pints of a very dilute solution of pure Potass. After the liquid has - cooled, it must be strained through a fine cloth with pressure, and - the residuum be repeatedly washed and pressed. The cinchona, thus - washed, is to be slightly heated in a sufficient quantity of water, - adding muriatic acid gradually until litmus paper is slightly - reddened. When the liquid is raised nearly to the boiling point, it is - to be strained, and the cinchona again pressed. To the strained - liquor, while hot, add an ounce of sulphate of magnesia, and after - this add a solution of potass, till it ceases to occasion any - precipitate. When the liquor is cold, collect the precipitate on a - filtre, wash and dry it, and dissolve it in hot alcohol. On - evaporation of the spirit, the cinchona will crystallize. - -Footnote 464: - - Thus, as we have stated, 100 parts of Cinchonia unite with 13·021 of - Sulphuric acid, while the same weight of Quina requires for saturation - not more than 10·91 of the same acid. - -Footnote 465: - - SULPHATE OF QUINA. As this preparation is considered the most active - form of the salifiable principle of bark, I have subjoined the most - approved formula for its preparation. Boil for half an hour two pounds - of the appropriate bark in powder, in sixteen pints of distilled - water, acidulated with two fluid-ounces of sulphuric acid; strain the - decoction through a linen cloth, and submit the residue to a second - ebullition in a similar quantity of acidulated water; mix the - decoctions, and add by small portions at a time, powdered lime, - constantly stirring it to facilitate its action on the acid decoction. - (Half a pound is near the quantity requisite.) When the decoction has - become slightly alkaline it assumes a dark brown colour, and deposits - a reddish brown flocculent precipitate, which is to be separated by - passing it through a linen cloth. The precipitate, is to be washed - with a little cold distilled water and dried. When dry it is to be - digested in rectified spirit, with a moderate heat for some hours; the - liquid is then to be decanted, and fresh portions of spirit added till - it no longer acquires a bitter taste. Unite the spirituous tinctures, - and distil in a water-bath till three fourths of the spirit employed - has distilled over. After this operation there remains in the vessel a - brown viscid substance covered by a bitter, very alkaline and milky - fluid. The two products are to be separated and treated as follows. To - the alkaline liquid add a sufficient quantity of sulphuric acid to - saturate it; reduce it by evaporation to half the quantity; add a - small portion of charcoal, and after some minutes ebullition, filter - it whilst hot, and crystals of Sulphate of Quina will form. The brown - mass is to be boiled in a small quantity of water, slightly acidulated - with sulphuric acid, which will convert a large portion of it into - Sulphate of Quina. The crystals are to be dried by bibulous paper. Two - pounds of bark will, it is said, yield 5 to 6 drachms of the sulphate; - of which eight grains are considered equivalent to an ounce of bark. - It has been prepared in this country by several manufacturing - chemists, especially by Mr. Pope of Oxford Street, whose zeal and - industry in Pharmaceutic experiments entitle him to great - commendation. The superior price of the bark, however, from the duty - in this country, as well as that of alcohol, must prevent us from - entering into competition with the French in its manufacture, and it - has accordingly been found more œconomical to import, than to prepare - it. - -Footnote 466: - - Journal de Physiologie. No. 1, p. 90. - -Footnote 467: - - Upon this point however a difference of opinion has existed; M. Halle - entertained considerable fears on the subject, which were supported by - M. M. Larrey, Emery, Duponchel, and others, who communicated to the - Société Médicale d’Emulation, facts which excited their apprehensions. - The question, however, has been set at rest both in this country and - on the Continent. They are perfectly harmless. - -Footnote 468: - - Cinchonia has been detected in other vegetables besides the Bark, as - in the root of Cusparia, and in the berries of Capsicum, while in the - bark of Cascarilla, a substance bearing a much nearer relation in - medicinal effect to the Bark, its presence has not yet been - discovered. It is said that experiments have been lately made by M. M. - Robiquet and Petroz on the Bark of the Carapa, which has been - successfully used in several parts of America in the cure of agues, - and that they have found in that bark a salifiable basis analogous to - Quina. - -Footnote 469: - - In Brande’s Journal for January 1830, it is announced that Serturner - has discovered other vegeto-alkalies in the Bark, besides the - Cinchonia and Quinia.—One in particular he has ascertained, which he - calls _Chinioidia_, existing in combination with a resinous sub-acid - substance. This exists in the red and yellow bark with the Cinchonia - and Quinia. It has more alkaline power and capacity of saturation, as - well as greater medical power than any other vegeto-alkali in the - Cinchona, but it resembles them in its insolubility in water, its - colour and taste. According to Serturner, the febrifuge power of the - _Chinioidia_ is as superior to that of the Cinchonia and Quinia as - these are to the Bark.—In his hands it succeeded in many cases where - the Sulphate of Quinia had failed. _Ed._ - -Footnote 470: - - It was under this form that the celebrated empiric Talbor used to - administer it in the paroxysms of Intermittents, and so successful was - his practice, that Louis XIV. was induced to purchase at a large price - the secret of his specific; and Charles the Second very unjustly - protected him against the power of the College, and appointed him one - of his physicians. - -Footnote 471: - - Mr. Thompson has suggested the probability of this circumstance having - arisen from the admixture of a species of bark, lately introduced into - Europe from Martinique, resembling the Cinchona Floribunda, and which, - by an analysis of M. Cadet, was found to contain iron. (London Disp. - Edit. 3. p. 247.) - -Footnote 472: - - This plant is found in abundance in Piedmont, principally in the - marshes, where of course it is most needed. Nature is very kind in - this respect, for the particular situation which engenders endemic - diseases, is generally congenial to the growth of the plants that - operate as antidotes to them. - -Footnote 473: - - Dr. Davy, in a letter to me upon this subject, says, “there are two - kinds of oil of cinnamon procured in Ceylon, one of greater, the other - of less specific gravity than water. In distillation they come over - together. On what the difference depends I do not know, nor am I aware - that the subject has yet been investigated.” - -Footnote 474: - - From experiments made with _Veratria_, it appears that its effects on - the human system are analogous to those of the Colchicum itself. In - chronic rheumatism comparative trials to a great extent were - instituted by Dr. Bardsley, and with very similar results. The - _Veratria_ was generally administered in doses of from 1/4 gr. to ½ - gr. three times a day. _Ed._ - -Footnote 475: - - With this opinion Mr. A. T. Thomson coincides, for in the 3d edition - of his Dispensatory, he says, “the thick old bulb begins to decay - after the flower is perfectly expanded, and the new bulbs, of which - there are always two formed on each old bulb, are perfected in the - following June; from which time until the middle of August, they may - be taken up for medicinal use.” - -Footnote 476: - - EAU MEDICINALE DE HUSSON. After various attempts to discover the - active ingredient of this Parisian remedy, it is at length determined - to be the colchicum autumnale which several ancient authors, under the - name of hermodactyllus, have recommended in the cure of gout, as - stated in the historical preface to this work. The following is the - receipt for preparing this medicine. Take two ounces of the root of - colchicum, cut it into slices, macerate it in four fluid-ounces of - Spanish white wine, and filter. See Veratri Radix (_note_). - - Dr. WILSON’S TINCTURE FOR THE GOUT. This is merely an infusion of - colchicum, as Dr. Williams of Ipswich has satisfactorily shewn. Since - the discovery of colchicum being the active ingredient of the Eau - medicinale, numerous empirical remedies have started up, containing - the principles of the plant in different forms. - - The expressed juice of the colchicum is used in Alsace to destroy - vermin in the hair: it is very acrid, and excoriates the parts to - which it is applied. - -Footnote 477: - - Dr. Davy, however, informs me that he is acquainted with a fatal - instance from an excessive dose of these seeds, viz. ʒj, taken by a - medical man for gout. On dissection, most of the viscera, more - especially the brain and intestines, exhibited great sanguineous - turgescence, and appearances of inflammation. - -Footnote 478: - - This preparation, or the Seeds, may be procured for trial, from the - house of Savory, Moore, and Davidson, of New Bond Street. - -Footnote 479: - - WARD was originally a footman, and, during his attendance upon his - master on the Continent, obtained from the Monks those receipts which - afterwards became his nostrums. It may be observed that this - Confection appears to be well adapted for the cure of that species of - Piles which probably attended the sedentary and luxurious habits of - the monks. - -Footnote 480: - - Dr. Chapman recommends the liberal use of the Copaiva in the very - commencement of Gonorrhœa, disregarding ardor ruinæ, chordee, and - every other symptom of inflammation that may be present. Than this, we - do not know a medical precept more erroneous in theory, or more - mischievous in practice. We are convinced that a great majority of - gleets may be traced to the premature use of balsam Copaiva, and other - stimulating articles in the inflammatory stage of the disease.—_Ed._ - -Footnote 481: - - Cūbĕba—Indis Cubab; Avicennæ Kebâba. It makes short the penultima, - because Actuarius and other modern Greeks call it κουπεπερ, κόμπεπερ, - and κομβεβα. - -Footnote 482: - - See “Practical Observations on the use of Cubebs, in the cure of - Gonorrhœa,” by H. JEFFREYS, Esq. - -Footnote 483: - - It is very questionable whether Cubebs is entitled to any other - preference over the copaiva, than that it is not so liable to derange - the digestive organs. As a specific for gonorrhœa it has received - praise altogether too unqualified. The most convenient form in which - it can be given is that of Tincture. _Ed._ - -Footnote 484: - - Cŭminum makes long the penultima, thus— - - “Rugosum Piper et pallentis grana Cumini:” - Pers: Sat: v. - - This line of the satirist also records an opinion which is worthy - notice, that Cumin will make those who drink it, or wash themselves - with it, or as some say, who smoke it, of a pale visage. This belief - is mentioned by Dioscorides; and Pliny informs us that the disciples - of Porcius Latro, a famous master of the art of speaking, were - reported to have used Cumin, in order to imitate that paleness which - their master had contracted by his studies; thus too Horace, - - ——Proh si - “Pallerem casu, biberent exsangue Cuminum.” - Epist. 19. Lib. 1, lin: 18. - -Footnote 485: - - It may be here observed that Copper, in its metallic form, exerts no - action on the system. A most striking instance of this fact occurred - during my hospital practice, in the case of a young woman who - swallowed six copper penny-pieces with a view of destroying herself; - she was attended by Dr. Maton and myself in the Westminster Hospital - for two years, for a disease which we considered visceral, but which - was evidently the effect of mechanical obstruction, occasioned by the - coin. After a lapse of five years she voided them, and then confessed - the cause of her protracted disease, during the whole course of which - no symptom arose which could in any way be attributed to the poisonous - influence of copper. Dr. Baillie, in his morbid anatomy, relates a - case, in which five halfpence had been lodged in a pouch in the - stomach, for a considerable time, without occasioning any irritation; - and Theodore Gardelle, after his conviction for the murder of Mrs. - King, in Leicester Square, swallowed a number of halfpence, for the - purpose of destroying himself, but without producing any ill effects. - Mr. A. T. Thomson relates also two cases of halfpence being swallowed - by children, in one of which the copper coin remained six months in - the intestines, and in the other two months. The filings of copper - were formerly a favorite remedy in rheumatism, a drachm of which has - been taken with impunity for a dose. It appears therefore that - metallic copper does not undergo any change in the digestive organs by - which it is converted into a poison, notwithstanding the presence of - substances, which, out of the body, would at once render it - destructive, as we have too many cases to shew, from the careless use - of copper utensils in cookery. It is, however, a very important fact, - that copper cannot be dissolved while tin is co-existent in the - mixture, hence the great use of tinning copper utensils; and farther, - it is asserted that untinned coppers are less liable to be injurious - when pewter spoons are used for stirring, than when silver ones are - employed for that purpose; the explanation of this fact is to be - sought for in the well-known principle of Electro-Chemistry, and which - has lately been applied with so much ingenuity by the illustrious - President of the Royal Society, for the protection of copper on the - bottom of ships, by the juxta-position of small discs of Tin or - Iron.[486] For the same reason, M. Proust has shewn that the tinning - of kitchen utensils, which consists of equal parts of tin and lead, - cannot be dangerous from the presence of the latter metal, since it is - sufficient that the lead should be combined with tin, in order to - prevent it from being dissolved in any vegetable acid. M. Guersent - therefore is wrong when, speaking of the tinning of copper vessels, he - says, “it is a light veil, which conceals the danger, instead of being - a true preservative, and that it only inspires a security often - fatal.” Some recent experiments however, of Dr. Bostock, have shewn - that, in consequence of the volatility of acetic acid, copper is not - protected by the juxta-position of discs of tin; since the acid under - such circumstances ceases to form a part of the galvanic circle. The - poisonous effects of the _salts_ of Copper have been strikingly - illustrated during the prosecution of Sir H. Davy’s experiments above - alluded to, for it is found that when the copper sheathing of ships is - not protected by the contact of another metal, they are uniformly free - from marine animals, but that where the solution of the copper is - prevented by galvanic action, the bottoms soon become covered with - every species of sea insect. - -Footnote 486: - - For a further explanation of this curious fact the student may consult - my work on Medical Chemistry. - -Footnote 487: - - BATES’S AQUA CAMPHORATA.—Sulphate of copper is the base of this - preparation, which was strongly recommended by Mr. Ware. The following - was his recipe: ℞. Cupri Sulph. Boli Gallic, a. a. gr. xv. Camphoræ - gr. iv. solve. in aq. fervent. f℥iv, dilueque cum aquæ frigidæ oiv ut - fiat Collyrium. - -Footnote 488: - - It is said to have been introduced into this country from Ceylon. See - the observations made upon the subject of the narcotics used by the - Indians, _page 9_. - -Footnote 489: - - The seeds undoubtedly contain, in an eminent degree, all the - properties of the plant. It was in the seeds that Brandes first - discovered the Daturia. - -Footnote 490: - - The oriental beverage, Sherbet, from the Arabic word Sherb, to drink, - so celebrated in eastern song, is a decoction of barley-meal and - sugar, perfumed with roses, orange flower, violet, or citron. - -Footnote 491: - - LISBON DIET DRINK. Decoctum Lusitanicum.—℞. Sarsap: concis: Rad: - Chinæ, āā ʒj—Nucum Jugland: Cortice Siccatarum, No. xx. Antimonii - Sulphureti ℥ ij. Lapidis Pumicis pulverisat;—Aquæ distillat: lib: - x.—The powdered antimony and pumice stone are to be tied in separate - pieces of rag, and boiled along with the other ingredients. The use of - the pumice stone is merely mechanical, to divide the antimony. - -Footnote 492: - - It is said that M. Royer has lately succeeded in obtaining from - Digitalis its active basis; to which he has given the name of - _Digitalin_. It was procured by digesting the plant in æther, and - treating the solution with hydrated oxide of lead. It appears as a - brown pasty substance, capable of slowly restoring the blue colour of - reddened litmus paper; very bitter, and deliquescent. It was difficult - to obtain it crystallized, but a drop of its solution in alcohol, - evaporated on glass, over a lamp, when examined by the microscope, - exhibited abundance of minute crystals. (Bib. Univ. xxvi. 102.) - Farther experiments, however, are required to establish the truth of - this statement. - -Footnote 493: - - See London Medical Repository, Vol. xii. No. 67. - -Footnote 494: - - A person of the name of STERRY, in the Borough, prepares a plaster of - this description, which is sought after with great avidity. What a - blessing it would be upon the community, if every nostrum were equally - innocuous! - -Footnote 495: - - Pharmacopœia Chirurgica, p. 89. - -Footnote 496: - - Diachylon, a δὶα et χυλος succus, i. e. a Plaster prepared from - expressed juices. It has been asserted that all the pharmaceutical - names beginning with _Dia_, are of Arabian origin, this however is not - the fact; we frequently meet with the expression in Galen, η δὶα - δικτάμνου ὴ δια δυοἷν ἁριστολοχιοὶν ἠ δι, &c. &c. - -Footnote 497: - - At Apothecaries’ Hall, this plaster, as well as others, is made in a - steam apparatus which is so well regulated, that a uniform temperature - of 210° Fah. is insured during the whole process. - -Footnote 498: - - BAYNTON’S ADHESIVE PLASTER. (Strapping.) Differs only from this - preparation in containing less resin, six drachms only being added to - one pound of the litharge plaster. This excellent plaster is sold - ready spread on calico. - - COURT PLASTER. Sticking Plaster. Black Silk is strained and brushed - over ten or twelve times, with the following preparation. Dissolve ℥ss - of Benzoin in f℥vi of rectified spirit: in a separate vessel, dissolve - ℥j of Isinglass in oss of water; strain each solution, mix them, and - let the mixture rest, so that the grosser parts may subside; when the - clear liquor is cold, it will form a jelly, which must be warmed - before it is applied to the silk. When the Plaster is quite dry, in - order to prevent its cracking, it is finished off with a solution of - _Terebinth: Chia_, ℥iv, in _Tinct: Benzoes_ f℥vj. - - CORN PLASTER. The green coloured plaster sold under this title is - usually composed of 3 parts of wax, 4 of Burgundy pitch, and 2 of - common turpentine; to which is added one part of verdegris. - -Footnote 499: - - Mystery is rarely practised but as the cloak of imposture; it is - therefore unnecessary to add, that Mr. Barry made no difficulty in - stating the following to be the formula by which it was prepared. - - A tincture of Bark, made with rectified spirit, was distilled until - the whole of the spirit was driven off, the remaining solution was - then left to cool, after which the resin that floated on the surface - was removed, and the residuum inspissated at a low temperature. - -Footnote 500: - - BARCLAY’S ANTIBILIOUS PILLS. Take of the Extract of Colocynth ʒij, - Resin of Jalap (extract Jalap) ʒj, Almond Soap ʒjss, Guaiacum ʒiij, - Tartarized Antimony, grs. viij, essential oils of Juniper, Carraway, - and Rosemary, of each gtt. iv, of syrup of Buckthorn, as much as will - be sufficient to form a mass, which is to be divided into sixty-four - pills. - -Footnote 501: - - REFINED LIQUORICE. This article, which is sold in the form of - cylinders, is made by gently evaporating a solution of the pure - extract of liquorice with half its weight of gum arabic, rolling the - mass, and cutting it into lengths, and then polishing, by rolling them - together in a box: many impurities however are fraudulently introduced - into this article, such even as glue, &c. - -Footnote 502: - - The juices of the Iris root, and Bryony root, and those of many other - plants, allow their medicinal elements to separate and subside in a - similar manner, leaving the supernatant liquid perfectly inert; if we - must have a generic name to express such a substance, it should be - termed a feculence, rather than a fecula. - -Footnote 503: - - “Observations on the nature and preparation of the Elaterium,” read at - the Medical Society of London, April 24, 1819, and which were - published in the Medical Repository, vol. xii, No. 67. - -Footnote 504: - - When it has a dark green colour, approaching to black, is compact, and - very heavy, and breaks with a shining resinous fracture, we may reject - it as an inferior article. - - Since the publication of my experiments upon the ordinary Elaterium of - Commerce, I have been favoured by Mr. Barry with the results of his - trials upon the Elaterium made by W. Allen &. Co. according to the - improved process of Dr. Clutterbuck; of the first sample, he found - that out of ten grains, 5·5 were soluble in spirit of the specific - gravity ·809, of the second 6·2, and of the third 6·4; of that - prepared by the same process at Apothecaries’ Hall, 6 grs. were - soluble. The residue, insoluble in the spirit, was administered to a - patient, and ascertained to be perfectly inert. This report confirms - beyond a doubt the great superiority of the Elaterium when prepared, - without pressure, according to the suggestion of Dr. Clutterbuck. - -Footnote 505: - - “I have the Cos Lettuce planted about eight inches asunder in rows, - between which there is sufficient space to enable persons to pass up - and down without injuring the plants. I commence my operations just - before the plant is about to flower, by cutting off an inch of the - stem; the milky juice immediately exudes, and is collected on pieces - of Wove Cotton, about half a yard square. As soon as this becomes - charged, it is thrown from time to time into a vessel containing a - small quantity of water, which when sufficiently impregnated is - evaporated at the common temperature of the atmosphere, by exposure in - a number of shallow dishes. The LACTUCARIUM, in a few hours, is found - adhering to the vessels in the form of an Extract, but differing from - every other in all its sensible properties: this method enables me to - collect LACTUCARIUM with great facility and dispatch, but it is still - attended with considerable expense, as the proportion of milky product - is necessarily very small, and the price of the medicine consequently - high, and therefore not within the reach of general practice. This - consideration led me to make farther experiments, for the purpose of - ascertaining whether an EXTRACT might not be obtained from the plant - possessing all the properties of LACTUCARIUM, when administered in - large doses, and which could be introduced at a comparatively trifling - cost. In prosecuting this enquiry, I found that the plants contain - most of the milky juice when they have flowered and the leaves are - beginning to assume a yellow hue, and I observed that when cut down, - the milky juice assumes for the most part a concrete form, having - subsided in the bark of the stalk and in the old leaves, a - circumstance which accounts for the extreme bitterness of these parts. - I was naturally led from these circumstances to choose the above - period for my operations, and to select those parts only of the plant - for my extract, rejecting the substance of the stalk, and the young - sprouts. My method of procuring the extract is as follows. I first - macerate the parts in water, for twenty-four hours, and then boil them - for two, after which I allow the clear decoction to drain through a - sieve, without using any pressure; this is then evaporated, as far as - it can be done with safety, and the process is finished in shallow - dishes, in the manner above described, for obtaining Lactucarium. This - extract, which I have called “EXTRACTUM LACTUCÆ CONCENTRATUM,” is of - course less powerful than Lactucarium, but it possesses all the - properties in larger doses, and it has been found equally useful in a - number and variety of cases, and is not more than a sixth part of the - price.” - - Mr. Probart has retired from trade, but I have just learnt that the - same article is now prepared, by a similar process, by Mr. Selway, - Chemist, of New Cavendish Street, and the specimens which I have - received authorise me to recommend it for trial. A concentrated - tincture is also prepared. - - The “Succus Spissatus Lactucæ sativæ,” of the shops, must of necessity - be almost inert, since it is commonly prepared at that period when the - plant contains none, or very little of the milky juice; and even if - the Lettuce be employed at a more mature season, it must still fail to - afford an extract of any strength, as it is merely the expressed - juice, and that too of the whole plant indiscriminately, and will be - found to contain a very minute proportion of Lactucarium, the great - bulk being nothing more than inspissated green juice. - -Footnote 506: - - Doctor Eights of Albany has related two cases of Neuralgia, in which - the use of the Carbonate of Iron was attended with complete success. - See New-York Medical and Physical Journal, Vol. I. p. 323. - - ED. - -Footnote 507: - - This fact furnishes the Pharmaceutic Chemist with an easy and - effectual mode of cleansing the green crystals from the yellow - peroxide which forms upon their surface, viz. by washing them in - spirit. - -Footnote 508: - - By a parity of reasoning, Mr. Carmichael is led to prefer the - phosphate of iron to any other preparation of that metal, in cancer, - because he thinks iron, combined with an animal acid, enters the - system in greater quantity, and unites more intimately with the - juices. - - AROMATIC LOZENGES OF STEEL. These consist of sulphate of iron with a - small proportion of the tincture of Cantharides. - -Footnote 509: - - FORGE WATER. This popular remedy as a lotion for Aphthæ and other - similar diseases, I am well satisfied possesses considerable efficacy. - It may, perhaps, be necessary to state that Forge-water is that in - which the Blacksmith has plunged his hot iron, for the purpose of - refrigeration. It is to be taken early in the morning, when, all the - mechanical impurities having had time to subside, it is beautifully - limpid. Upon examining some of this water I found it to contain - sulphate of iron. The sulphuric acid was probably derived from the - sulphur of the coals. - -Footnote 510: - - Besides the preparations of Iron mentioned by our author, there is - another which has recently been introduced into practice, by Dr. - Zollickhoffer of Maryland, and this is the _Prussiate of Iron_, or - _Prussian Blue_. Like the other forms of iron it acts as a powerful - tonic, and as a remedy in intermitting and remitting fevers, Dr. Z. - conceives it to possess many advantages over Cinchona. These he states - to be the following: “1. It is void of taste, and may therefore be - much more readily exhibited than the Cinchona Officinalis, which to - some is extremely unpleasant. 2. It may be given in every stage of the - disease, while the administration of bark is confined to the apyrexiæ. - 4. The dose is much smaller, being from four to six grains twice or - thrice in twenty-four hours; or at morning, noon and night; while - bark, to be effectual, must be given in much larger doses. 4. It never - disagrees with the stomach, or creates nausea, even in the most - irritable state of this viscus; while bark is not unfrequently - rejected. 5. In its effects as a remedy calculated to prevent the - recurrence of future paroxysms, it is more certain, prompt, and - effectual, than the justly celebrated Cort. Peruvian. 6 and lastly, A - patient treated with this article will recover from the influence of - intermitting and remitting fevers, in the generality of cases, in much - less time than is usual in those cases in which bark is employed.” In - using the Prussiate of Iron, Dr. Zollickhoffer directs that care - should be taken to select that which is of a very dark blue colour, - approaching to a black, having a shining coppery fracture, and - adhering firmly to the tongue. - - ED. - -Footnote 511: - - MATHIEU’S VERMIFUGE. This consisted of two distinct Electuaries, the - one for _killing_, the other for _expelling_ the Tapeworm. The former - of these was composed of an ounce of Tin Filings, six drachms of the - Fern root, half an ounce of Semina Santonici, a drachm of the resinous - extract of Jalap, and of Sulphate of Potass, and a sufficient quantity - of Honey to make an Electuary, of which a tea-spoonful was taken every - three hours for two days; after which the latter electuary was given - in the same dose, and consisted of two scruples of powdered Jalap, and - Sulphate of Potass, one scruple of Scammony, and ten grains of - Gamboge, made into an Electuary with Honey. The inventor of this - receipt received the title of Counsellor of the Court, as well as a - large pension for life, from the King of Prussia, for making it - public! - -Footnote 512: - - Seguin first proved that gallic acid, and tannin or the astringent - principle, are different substances; it is to the former that the - property of giving a black colour to the solutions of iron is owing. - - Mr. Hatchett has shewn that tan or tannin may be artificially produced - by the action of nitric acid upon various vegetable substances. - -Footnote 513: - - By Dr. Bardsley the same quantity was taken and with similar results. - In many cases of Dyspepsia, attended with an irritability of stomach - that does not admit of the employment of bulky medicines, _gentiania_ - may be used with much advantage. The preferable form is that of pill, - given in doses of one grain to be repeated two or three times a day. - Unlike the plant from which it is obtained, Gentiania has no tendency - to keep the bowels open. _Ed._ - -Footnote 514: - - It takes its name from GENTIUS, king of Illyria, its discoverer, who - was vanquished by Anicius the Roman Prætor, A. U. 585. i. e. A.C. 167, - so that it is neither to be found in Hippocrates nor Theophrastus. - -Footnote 515: - - BRODUM’S NERVOUS CORDIAL consists of the tinctures of Gentian, - Calumba, Cardamom and Bark, with the Compound Spirit of Lavender, and - Wine of Iron. - - STROUGHTON’S ELIXIR. Is a tincture of Gentian, with the addition of - Serpentaria, Orange Peel, Cardamoms, and some other aromatics. - -Footnote 516: - - PECTORAL BALSAM OF LIQUORICE. The proprietor of this nostrum gravely - affirms that f℥iss contains the virtues of a whole pound of Liquorice - root; but upon investigation it will be found to consist principally - of Paregoric Elixir, very strongly impregnated with the Oil of - Aniseed. - -Footnote 517: - - THE CHELSEA PENSIONER. An empirical remedy for the rheumatism is well - known under this name; it is said to be the prescription of a Chelsea - Pensioner, by which Lord Amherst was cured; the following is its - composition—Gum Guaiac ʒj—Powdered Rhubarb ʒij—Cream of Tartar - ℥j—Flowers of Sulphur ℥j.—One Nutmeg finely powdered; made into an - Electuary with one pound of Clarified Honey. Two large spoonsful to be - taken night and morning. - - WALKER & WESSEL’S JESUIT DROPS. This is nothing more than the Elixir - Antivenereum of Quincey, consisting of Guaiacum, Balsam of Copaiba, - and Oil of Sassafras, made into a Tincture by Spirit. - - HATFIELD’S TINCTURE. Guaiac and Soap, equal parts, ʒij—Rectified - Spirit oiss. - - HILL’S ESSENCE OR BARDANA. Guaiac ℥j—Spirit f℥iij. - -Footnote 518: - - MATTHEW’S PILLS,—STARKEY’S PILLS. Of the Roots of Black Hellebore, - Liquorice, and Turmeric, equal parts, purified Opium, Castille Soap, - and Syrup of Saffron, the same quantity, made into pills with Oil of - Turpentine. - - BACHER’S TONIC PILLS. These are composed of equal parts of the Extract - of Hellebore, and Myrrh ℥j, with ʒiij of powdered Carduus Benedictus: - which are made into a mass, and divided into pills, each weighing one - grain; from two to six of which may be given three times every day, - according to the effects they produce. - -Footnote 519: - - Whence the decoctions of this substance have been termed Ptisans, from - πτὶσσω decortico, to peel. - -Footnote 520: - - A Compound, consisting of Extract of Quassia and Liquorice, is used by - fraudulent brewers to economise both malt and hops, and is technically - called “MULTUM.” An Extract of Cocculus Indicus is sold under the name - of “BLACK EXTRACT,” for imparting an intoxicating quality to the Beer. - -Footnote 521: - - Ὑδραργυρος of the Greeks, from its fluidity and colour. - - Quicksilver. Quick in the old Saxon tongue signifies living, an - epithet derived from its mobility. - - Mercury. Mythologists inform us that he was the winged messenger of - the Gods, and the Patron of Thieves,—What name therefore could be more - appropriate for the metal in question than that of this Deity? for it - is not only distinguished from all other metals by its mobility, but - its universal agency has rendered it the resource of those worst of - Thieves—Quacks and Nostrummongers. - -Footnote 522: - - There is indeed another purpose to which pure quicksilver has been - applied that deserves notice. Its administration has been proposed in - cases where silver coin has been swallowed, with a view of forming - with it an amalgam that would speedily pass through the alimentary - canal. - -Footnote 523: - - Foderé (Med. Leg. T. iii. p. 455) states that he has seen water, in - which mercury has been boiled, become purgative and vermifuge; and yet - the metal, in such cases, has not lost any of its weight. - -Footnote 524: - - If the quantity of Lime water be small, the precipitate will assume a - red colour, and will be found to be a Submuriate of the peroxide. - -Footnote 525: - - As this salt has been supposed to arrest the progress of syphilis more - rapidly, and at the same time, to excite the salivary glands less than - any other preparation of mercury, it generally forms the basis of - those dangerous nostrums, which are advertised for the cure of - Syphilis without Mercury. The contrivers hope also to elude detection - by the density and colour of the preparation. - - GOWLAND’S LOTION, Is a solution of sublimate in an emulsion formed of - bitter almonds, in the proportion of about gr. jss to f℥j. A solution - of this mercurial salt in Spirit of Rosemary, is also sold as an - empirical cosmetic. - - NORTON’S DROPS. A disguised solution of corrosive sublimate. - - WARD’S WHITE DROPS. This once esteemed Anti-Scorbutic was prepared by - dissolving mercury in nitric acid, and adding a solution of carbonate - of ammonia; or frequently it consisted of a solution of sublimate with - carbonate of ammonia. - - SPILSBURY’S ANTISCORBUTIC DROPS. Of Corrosive Sublimate ℥ij, Prepared - Sulphuret of Antimony ʒj, Gentian root and Orange peel, equal parts - ʒij, Shavings of Red Saunders, ʒj, made with a pint of proof spirit - into a tincture, which is to be digested and strained. - - “THE ANTIVENEREAL DROPS,” so famous at Amsterdam, were analysed by - Scheele, who found they were composed of muriate of iron, with a small - proportion of corrosive sublimate. - - MARSDEN’S ANTISCORBUTIC DROPS. A solution of sublimate in an infusion - of Gentian. - - GREEN’S DROPS. The basis of these also is sublimate. - - SOLOMON’S ANTI-IMPETIGINES. A solution of sublimate. - - ROB ANTI-SYPHILITIQUE, par M. Laffecteur, Medicin Chemiste. This - popular nostrum of the French contains as a principal ingredient, - corrosive sublimate. A strong decoction of Arundo Phragmitis (the bull - rush) is made, with the addition of sarsaparilla and aniseeds towards - the end, which is evaporated, and made into a rob, or syrup, to which - the sublimate is added. - - SIROP DE CUISINIERE. This consists of decoctions of sarsaparilla, - burrage flowers, white roses, senna, and aniseed, to which sublimate - is added, and the whole is then made into a syrup with sugar and - honey. - - TERRE FEUILLETEE MERCURIELLE of Pressavin. This is Tartarized Mercury, - for it is made by boiling the oxyd of mercury (obtained by - precipitating it from a nitric solution, by potass) with cream of - tartar. - - VELNO’S VEGETABLE SYRUP. There has been a great obscurity with respect - to the genuine composition of this nostrum; it has generally been - supposed to consist of sublimate rubbed up with honey and mucilage. I - have lately received from my friend Mr. Brodie a formula, by which a - medicine perfectly analogous in its sensible characters, and medicinal - properties, to the Syrup in question, may be prepared; and I am - assured that, wherever it has been tried, its effects are in every - respect similar to those produced by the original nostrum. Take of - Burdock root (young and fresh) sliced, ℥ij; Dandelion root ℥i; Spear - Mint (fresh) ℥j; Senna Leaves, Coriander Seeds (bruised), Liquorice - Root (fresh) of each ʒiss; Water oiss: boil gently until reduced to - oj; then strain, and, when cold, add ℔ of lump sugar, and boil it to - the consistence of a syrup, and add a small proportion of the solution - of Oxy-muriate of Mercury. Swediaur says that volatile alkali enters - into this nostrum as an ingredient; this alkali was proposed by Dr. - Peyrile, as a substitute for mercury, and it constitutes the active - ingredient of the following composition, which was proposed by Mr. - Besnard, Physician to the King of Bavaria. - - TINCTURA ANTISYPHILLITICA. Sub-carb. potass, ℔j. dissolved in Aq. - Cinnam, oj. Opii puri, ℥ij. dissolved in Spir. cinnamom. f℥iv. mix - these separate solutions, and put them on a water-bath for three - weeks, taking care to shake the vessel frequently; to this add Gum - arabic ℥ij, Carb. Ammoniæ ℥j, dissolve in Aq. Cinnamomi; mix, filter, - and keep for use. Dose, twenty-four drops three times a day, in a - glass of the cold decoction of Marsh Mallow root. - - The external use of these drops is also advised for local syphilitic - complaints! - -Footnote 526: - - By this simple and beautiful test, the late Mr. Archdeacon Wollaston - identified the presence of Sublimate in the yeast dumplings by which - Michael Whiting was poisoned at Ely; a case which I have recorded in - my work on Medical Jurisprudence, Vol. II. p. 265. - -Footnote 527: - - Ann. de Chimie et Phys. iv. 334. - -Footnote 528: - - For a more elaborate account of the various tests of Corrosive - Sublimate, see Beck’s Medical Jurisprudence, Vol. 2, p. 267.—_Ed._ - -Footnote 529: - - For the origin of the term Calomel, see note, page 40. - -Footnote 530: - - Mr. William Phillips has favoured me with a model of this crystal cut - in wood; it is a rectangular prism whose solid angles are deeply - replaced by planes. - -Footnote 531: - - Many of the nostrums advertised for the cure of worms, contain Calomel - as the principal ingredient, combined with scammony, jalap, gamboge, - or some other purgative; they are uncertain and dangerous medicines; - the method of exhibiting them in the form of lozenges (worm cakes,) is - also attended with inconvenience, for the sugar and the gum generating - an acid, by being kept in damp places, may considerably increase the - acrimony of the mercury; besides which, the calomel is frequently - diffused very unequally through the mass, one lozenge may therefore - contain a poisonous dose, whilst others may scarcely possess any - active matter. - - CHING’S WORM LOZENGES. These consist of yellow and brown lozenges, the - former are directed to be taken in the evening, the latter the - succeeding morning. - - THE YELLOW LOZENGES. Take of Saffron ℥ss, of water oj, boil, and - strain; add of White Panacea of Mercury (Calomel washed in spirit of - wine) ℔j, white sugar, 28℔, mucilage of Tragacanth as much as may be - sufficient to make a mass, which roll out of an exact thickness, so - that each lozenge may contain one grain of Panacea. - - THE BROWN LOZENGES. Panacea ℥ vij, resin of jalap, ℔iijss, white sugar - ℔ix, mucilage of tragacanth q. s. each lozenge should contain gr. ½ of - panacea. - - STORY’S WORM CAKES. Calomel and jalap made into cakes and coloured - with cinnabar. - -Footnote 532: - - For the origin of this term see page 39. - -Footnote 533: - - CHAMBERLAIN’S RESTORATIVE PILLS. “The most certain cure for the - Scrofula, or King’s Evil, Fistula, Scurvy, and all Impurities of the - Blood.” - - My attention has been particularly directed to these pills, in - consequence of having lately seen, during the course of my - professional duty, several highly respectable persons, who had been - induced to make trial of their efficacy. Their inventor, if I am - rightly informed, resides at Ipswich, where, for the benefit of - suffering humanity, he prepares these wonderful pills, and, with the - alacrity of his patron deity, Mercury, transmits them to every corner - of the United Kingdom. It appears from the printed directions which - accompany the “Restorative Pills,” that their use must be continued - for a very long period; but upon this occasion we must allow the - Doctor to speak for himself. “It may be necessary to observe, that in - some cases of Scrofula, especially when the seat of the disease is in - the feet, ancles, or hands, it may take a long time to effect a cure, - even two years, and it may be twelve or sixteen months, with seeming - little or no improvement, yet the cure is certain by perseverance.” - What—two years! and to be taken during a period of sixteen months - without any sensible benefit! Is it possible that persons can be found - with sufficient credulity and resolution to submit to so preposterous - a proposal? we have no doubt that Mr. Chamberlain can produce as great - a portion of cures _after_ such an ordeal, as was adduced in former - times, in proof of the efficacy of the Royal Touch, and for the same - obvious reason. (See page 16.) - - Upon examining these said pills, I find them to consist of Cinnabar, - Sulphur, Sulphate of Lime, and a little vegetable matter, perhaps gum. - Each pill weighs a fraction less than three grains; upon dividing one - with a penknife, and examining the cut surface through a lens, it - exhibited the appearance of scoriæ of a brick red colour, having small - yellowish masses imbedded in its substance. When exposed on a piece of - platinum foil to the action of the blow-pipe, it yielded vapours of a - strong sulphureous smell, and left a residuum of a pearly white - matter, which consisted almost entirely of Sulphate of Lime. Upon - submitting a portion of the pill, in a glass tube, to the heat of a - spirit lamp, two distinct sublimates were produced, the first - consisting of Sulphur, the second of Cinnabar; and a small - carbonaceous deposit remained. The Pill was then assayed, _via - humida_; distilled water dissolved the Sulphate of lime, which was - identified by appropriate tests, and left sulphur and cinnabar on the - filtre. By the above experiments I feel warranted in considering the - composition of this pill as fully ascertained. - - BOERHAAVE’S RED PILL. The basis of this nostrum is Cinnabar. - -Footnote 534: - - The anatomist employs it for giving colour to his injections; for this - purpose it is very essential that it should be quite free from red - lead, or his preparations will in a short time lose their splendour, - and ultimately become black. This has unfortunately happened with some - preparations which Dr. Baillie presented to the College of Physicians. - Mr. Accum, in his work entitled “Death in the Pot,” states a case of - poisoning from cheese which had been coloured with adulterated - Vermillion. I am ready to admit, however, that the source of this - information is of very doubtful authority; never did a work appear - which so little merited the attention it received; even the title, - which seemed to have some claim to originality, was borrowed from a - work by Mouchart, called “Mors in Olla.” - -Footnote 535: - - ANODYNE NECKLACES. The roots of Hyoscyamus are commonly strung in the - form of beads, and sold under this name, to tie round the necks of - children, to facilitate the growth of their teeth, and allay the - irritation of teething. The application of medicated necklaces is a - very ancient superstition. See page 13. Such remedies were sometimes - called Periapts, περιαπτον. - -Footnote 536: - - In many cases it is essential that the water should be at the boiling - point, a few degrees even less than this will often prove a source of - failure; this is well exemplified by the familiar fact of the weakness - of our Tea, when made by water that does not quite boil. The Monks of - St. Bernard, in the Alps, complain that they cannot make good - Bouillie; the case is simply this, that from the altitude of their - monastery, the water boils before it can arrive at a sufficiently high - temperature. Whence we may deduce this important inference, that the - solvent powers of water are affected by a very slight range of - temperature. See a fuller account of this subject in my work on - “Medical Chemistry.” - -Footnote 537: - - Where the vegetable matter contains much starch, if the water be of a - temperature higher than 165°, instead of dissolving, it will coagulate - the starch, and produce a very untractable mass. This fact is well - known to Brewers, who are extremely cautious in avoiding a too high - temperature. - -Footnote 538: - - MADDEN’S VEGETABLE ESSENCE. Is little else than the Infusum Rosæ comp: - with an increased proportion of Acid. - -Footnote 539: - - This fact has been lately confirmed by M. F. Cartier, who found 4 gr. - of oxide of iron in 1000 gr. of red roses. - -Footnote 540: - - A valuable paper upon this subject is to be found in the first volume - of “The Reports of the Philomatic Society of Paris:” by Bouillon La - Grange. It has been lately supposed, but without much probability, - that the griping property of Senna depends upon its admixture with - some foreign leaf. - -Footnote 541: - - SELWAY’S PREPARED ESSENCE OF SENNA. This is a concentrated infusion of - Senna, in combination with an alkali. - -Footnote 542: - - The plant yielding the Ipecacuanha of the shops, is more probably a - species of Viola than that of Callicocca. According to Linnæus, it is - not unfrequently obtained from the Psycotria Emetica. The word - Ipecacuanha signifies _any_ emetic substance. - -Footnote 543: - - A formula for its preparation is introduced into the new CODEX of - Paris, being the one used by M. Pelletier; it is as follows. Let ℥i of - the powder of Ipecacuan be macerated in ℥ij of æther with a gentle - heat for some hours, in a distilling apparatus; let the portion which - remains be triturated and boiled with ℥iv of alcohol; it having been - previously macerated in it; filter and let the remainder be treated - with fresh portions of alcohol, as long as any thing is taken up from - the root; mix these alcoholic solutions and evaporate to dryness; let - this alcoholic extract be macerated in cold distilled water, in order - that every thing soluble in that menstruum may be dissolved; filter, - and evaporate to dryness; this extract is _Emetine_. In this state - however it contains a small quantity of gallic acid, but which is too - inconsiderable to affect its medicinal qualities. - -Footnote 544: - - We agree with the author in his estimate of the value of _Emetine_. As - a general remedy, it possesses no advantage over the Ipecacuanha - itself, and will probably never supersede it. Cases may occur, - however, in which its use will be desirable, and it may then be given - in the following doses. As an Emetic, from four to five grains - dissolved in a couple of ounces of some aromatic water; as a - Diaphoretic, about half a grain repeated every four hours; and as an - Expectorant, one-fifth or one-fourth of a grain repeated every two or - three hours. These doses apply only to the impure or coloured Emetine, - the form in which it is commonly found. _Ed._ - -Footnote 545: - - IPECACUANHA LOZENGES. Each Lozenge contains half a grain of - Ipecacuanha. - -Footnote 546: - - SAPO JALAPINUS. It is prepared by taking equal parts of Castille Soap - and of resinous extract of Jalap, and digesting them in a sufficient - quantity of alcohol, with moderate heat, and evaporating to the - consistence of a conserve. - -Footnote 547: - - The plant which yields Kino is at length satisfactorily proved to be - the Pterocarpus Erinacea; the London College have accordingly made the - alteration which I anticipated in the former edition of this work. - -Footnote 548: - - Dr. Pemberton makes the interesting statement in relation to the - operation of Kino upon the system, that unless Diarrhœa be actually - present, “it appears to have no tendency to confine the bowels. In - this drug, therefore,” he adds, “you have a medicine which exerts its - powers to restrain the discharges of the glands when they are - secreting too much, without exerting any such powers over them when - they are acting naturally.” Practical Treatise on the various diseases - of the abdominal viscera, p. 112, Am. Ed. - - ED. - -Footnote 549: - - It was known to be a remedy for this disorder at least two hundred - years ago; for, in a work entitled, “The Surgeon’s Mate, or Military - and Domestic Medicine,” by John Woodall, master in Surgery, London, - 1636, the author concludes his eulogium of lemon juice, by saying, “I - dare not write how good a sauce it is at meat, lest the chief in the - ship should waste it in the great cabin to save vinegar.” - -Footnote 550: - - ESSENTIAL SALT OF LEMONS. See Potassæ Super-tartras. - -Footnote 551: - - WARD’S ESSENCE FOR THE HEAD-ACHE.—Nothing more than Liniment. Camph. - Comp. - -Footnote 552: - - STEER’S OPODELDOC.—Castille Soap ℥j, Rectified Spirit, f℥viij, Camphor - ʒiiiss, Oil of Rosemary fʒss, Oil of Origanum fʒj. Solution of Ammonia - fʒvj. - - BATES’S ANODYNE BALSAM.—It consists of one part of Tincture of Opium, - and two of Opodeldoc, i. e. Liniment. Sapon. comp. - - FREEMAN’S BATHING SPIRITS.—Liniment. Saponis comp. coloured with - Daffy’s Elixir. JACKSON’S BATHING SPIRITS differs from the former in - the addition of some essential oils. - - LYNCH’S EMBROCATION.—Olive oil impregnated with Bergamot and some - other essences, and coloured with Alkanet root. - -Footnote 553: - - Since the last edition of this work, Mr. Dalton has discovered the - very curious fact, that lime is more soluble in cold than in hot - water, and has given a table of quantities from which he concludes - that the quantity held in solution by water at 32° Fah: is nearly - double that retained by water at 212°. Mr. Phillips has lately taken - up the subject, and confirmed the statement of Mr. Dalton. - - thus 10.000 gr. of water, at 212°, dissolve 7.8 of lime - 10.000 gr. of water, at 32°, ———— 15.2 ———— - - Mr. Phillips attempts to account for this apparent anomaly “from the - effect which heat sometimes produces of increasing instead of - diminishing the attraction of cohesion. In the present case, he - continues, the affinities which are brought into play are, the - attractions of aggregation of the particles of the lime upon each - other, the attraction of the lime to form a hydrate with a small - portion of the water, and the mutual affinity existing between that - hydrate and the water of solution.” And at the high temperature he - thinks that the former affinities may be so heightened as to overpower - the latter. - -Footnote 554: - - Upon this fact Dr. Alton founded his ingenious process for preserving - water from putrefaction; in the first place he impregnated the water - with lime, which from its antiseptic property answered the purpose of - keeping it most completely, and then, in order to get rid of the lime, - he merely added the carbonate of magnesia, which by transferring its - carbonic acid, rendered the lime insoluble, and consequently the water - tasteless and fit for economical purposes. Mr. Henry, however, - proposed the introduction of a current of carbonic acid into the cask, - and this expedient has been found equally effective, and far more - economical. - -Footnote 555: - - MRS. STEPHEN’S REMEDY FOR THE STONE consisted of lime, which was - produced by calcining the shells of eggs and snails, and made into - pills with Soap. A decoction was also administered, consisting of - Chamomile, Fennel, Parsley and Burdock, together with a portion of - Alicant Soap. This is a very rational practice, and is very much what - the practitioners of the present day depend upon: the observations of - Mrs. Stephens respecting their administration, are equally judicious. - “If,” says she, “these medicines produce pain, it will be necessary to - give an opiate with them, and it must be at all times a principal care - to prevent a looseness, for if this should happen it would carry off - the medicines; under such circumstances the quantity of the Decoction, - since it is laxative, must be diminished, and other suitable means - must be taken by the advice of a Physician.” The credit of introducing - alkaline medicines for the cure of calculous disorders, does not - however rest with MRS. STEPHENS. It has been before stated in this - work, that Basil Valentine employed a fixed alkaline salt in such - cases; and I may here add, that SENNERTUS, in his Praxis Medica, - mentions a lithonthryptic that was in great esteem and general use in - his time, which consisted of one ounce of Salt of Tartar dissolved in - a pint of parsley water, and afterwards tinged yellow with orange - peel. - -Footnote 556: - - VIRGIN’S MILK. A preparation is sold under this name, which is a - Sulphate of Lead, and is prepared as follows. To a saturated solution - of Alum, add of Goulard’s extract one third part. Shake them - together;—see Benzoinum for a very different cosmetic bearing the same - name. - -Footnote 557: - - HANKAY’S LOTION, OR PREVENTIVE WASH. This famous nostrum for the - prevention of venereal infection, was nothing more than a solution of - caustic potass. - -Footnote 558: - - DR. CHITTICK’S REMEDY FOR THE STONE. This celebrated nostrum consisted - of a fixed alkali in veal broth; the broth was usually made by his - patients, and sent to him fresh every day, in order to be medicated. - A. D. 1766. - -Footnote 559: - - Magnesia was originally a general term, expressive of any substance - which had the power of attracting some principle from the air, from - Magnes, the Loadstone. The peculiar body which we now denominate - Magnesia, was first sold as a panacea, by a canon at Rome, in the - beginning of the seventeenth century, under the title of Magnesia - alba, or Count Palma’s Powder. - -Footnote 560: - - DALBY’S CARMINATIVE. This consists of carbonate of magnesia ℈ij, oils - of Peppermint, ♏︎j, of Nutmeg, ♏︎ij, of Aniseed ♏︎iij, of the - tinctures of Castor ♏︎xxx, of Assafœtida ♏︎xv, Tincture of Opium, ♏︎v, - Spirit of Pennyroyal ♏︎xv, of the Compound Tincture of Cardamoms - ♏︎xxx, Peppermint water f℥ij. There are cheaper compositions sold - under the same name. In examining the pretensions of this combination, - it must be allowed that it is constructed upon philosophical - principles; this however is no reason why the physician should - recommend it; the mischievous tendency of a quack medicine does not - depend upon its composition, but upon its application; we ought to - remember, says an eminent physician, that in recommending this nostrum - we foster the dangerous prejudices of mothers and nurses, who are - unable to ascertain the circumstances under which it should be given, - or even the proper doses; if its composition is judicious, why do not - physicians order the same in a regular prescription, rather than in a - form in which the most valuable remedy will be abused? - -Footnote 561: - - “Manna, vox chaldaica est, admirantis interjectio, deducta ab Hebraico - Manhu, sive quid est hoc?” Chrystom. Magneni Exercitat. de Manno. - -Footnote 562: - - HONEY WATER.—The article usually sold under this name is a mixture of - Essences coloured with Saffron; some add a small quantity of Honey, - the effect of which is to communicate a clamminess which retains the - scent longer. - -Footnote 563: - - ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT.—A spirituous solution of the Essential Oil, - coloured green by Spinach leaves. - -Footnote 564: - - If the Gum arabic be adulterated with that of the Cherry-tree, the - solution will be ropy, in consequence of the presence of CERASIN. See - Mucilago Tragacanthæ. (Note.) - -Footnote 565: - - The mucilage is at the same time converted by this salt into a - beautiful peach blossom colour. - -Footnote 566: - - This variety of gum, which is characterised by its gelatinizing, but - not dissolving, in water, occurs in several vegetable substances; and - as it predominates in the Cherry-tree, Dr. John has distinguished it - by the name of CERASIN; but as Tragacanth consists almost entirely of - this substance, the term TRAGACANTHIN would have been much more - appropriate. Although Cerasin will not dissolve in pure water, it - undergoes solution in that menstruum, at the temperature of - ebullition, provided a portion of a mineral acid be added. - -Footnote 567: - - Sir Hans Sloane published a Paper in the Philosophical Transactions, - No. 249, Vol. xxi. p. 44, entitled “An account of the Nux Pepita, or - St. Ignatius’s Bean (Ignatia Amara, Lin.) A Simple in common use in - the Philippine Islands, as a Tonic medicine.” - -Footnote 568: - - That the active principle of the Nux Vomica expends its virulence upon - the spinal marrow has been already noticed. Page 133. - -Footnote 569: - - M. Henry has given us the most simple formula for the preparation of - this substance. It consists in boiling Nux Vomica in water, and - evaporating the decoction until it acquires the consistence of Syrup; - lime is then added, which unites with the acid, and liberates the - Strychnia; which may then be separated by means of alcohol, from which - it may be obtained by crystallization. - -Footnote 570: - - Ann: de Chimie et de Phys. x. 153. - -Footnote 571: - - M. Majendie has killed a dog with one eighth of a grain, and the - editor of the Edinburgh Med: & Surg: journ: has seen one die in two - minutes after the injection of one sixth of a grain into the cavity of - the pleura. The celebrated Java poison owes its activity to Strychnia. - -Footnote 572: - - Strychnia was obtained from the beans of St. Ignatius by the following - process: a portion of the beans being grated was heated in a close - vessel, under pressure, with sulphuric æther, by which an oily matter - was dissolved; the residuum then yielded by the action of alcohol, a - yellowish brown, very bitter substance, which being boiled in pure - magnesia and filtered, the colouring matter was washed out, and the - Strychnia and magnesia, in a state of mixture, remained on the filtre. - The Strychnia was then separated by alcohol, and thus obtained in a - state of great purity. - -Footnote 573: - - See note under the article Opium. - -Footnote 574: - - With regard to the use of Strychnia in paralysis, experiments - sufficiently numerous have now been made to enable us to judge of its - true value and efficacy. Like all other remedies it is by no means - infallible. In some cases it does no good, while in others it causes - effects which no other remedy is capable of producing. Every thing - depends upon the nature of the case. Whenever paralysis is the result - of some organic derangement of the brain, such as tumors pressing upon - the substance of that organ, diseased alterations in its structure, or - extravasations of fluid which cannot be absorbed, then this remedy - will be of no avail. On the other hand, where the paralysis depends - upon _simple diminished nervous excitement_, it may and has been - completely cured by the use of this article. In paraplegia it has - generally been found more successful than in hemiplegia. The first - effects of the remedy in all cases are convulsive twitchings of the - paralyzed parts, and no benefit is derived from its use until this - effect is produced and continued for some time. If plethora should be - present, this is to be corrected by venesection, purgatives, and other - appropriate treatment. It is a great advantage attending the use of - this powerful agent that it does not at all impair the tone of the - stomach; on the contrary, it has a tendency to increase the appetite - and promote digestion. In having recourse to the Strychnia, the best - way is to commence with small doses, increasing them gradually - according to the effect produced—one-eighth of a grain twice a day is - sufficient to begin with. This may be cautiously increased to 1/6, - 1/4, or even ½ a grain twice a day. Should any unpleasant symptoms - occur, of course its use should be discontinued; and when the symptoms - subside, it may again be resumed. By observing these general - precautions there is no danger in using this otherwise potent agent. - The best form of giving it is in that of pill, made up with conserve - of roses. - - From experiments made with _Brucia_, it is found to exert an influence - analogous to that of the _Strychnia_, only less energetic—one-fourth - of a grain of the latter equals in effect about six grains of the - former. It occasions violent tetanic attacks, and acts upon the nerves - without affecting the brain or the intellectual functions. From the - inferior energy of the Brucia, it may be used in cases where the - Strychnia would not be proper. The dose to begin with is gr. j. twice - a day, increased to three or four times a day. Unless it does some - good in five or six weeks its use should be discontinued.—ED. - -Footnote 575: - - HUILES ANTIQUES. The basis of the best of these oils, is the oil of - Ben, from the nuts of the Guilangia Moringa, or oil of hazel, which is - a very good substitute, since it is inodorous, colourless, and may be - kept for a considerable period without becoming rancid: it is - therefore well adapted to receive and retain the odour of those - vegetables that yield but a small proportion of essential oil. - -Footnote 576: - - OIL OF BRICKS. So called because this empyreumatic oil was sometimes - obtained by steeping hot brick in oil, and submitting it to - distillation. - -Footnote 577: - - ROCHE’S EMBROCATION FOR THE HOOPING COUGH. Olive oil mixed with about - half its quantity of the oils of cloves and amber. - - STRUVE’S LOTION FOR THE HOOPING COUGH. This once famous nostrum - consisted of ʒj of Tartarized Antimony, dissolved in f℥ij of water, to - which was added f℥j of Tincture of Cantharides. - -Footnote 578: - - The editors have also unaccountably retained the Oleum de Lumbricis! - -Footnote 579: - - If the plates of the press be heated, the fixed oil from the bitter - almond will be odorous. - -Footnote 580: - - ESSENCE OR BITTER ALMONDS. The preparation sold under this name, for - the purposes of perfumery, &c. consists of one part of this essential - oil, and seven parts of Rectified spirit. - -Footnote 581: - - For such reasons there are but few wholesale houses who profess to - distil it. I have, however, through the civility and attention of Mr. - Johnson, chemist in Oxford-street, who frequently conducts the process - on a large scale, had several opportunities of witnessing the - interesting phenomena to which it gives rise. So powerful is the odour - developed upon these occasions that it fills the premises with an - almost insupportable atmosphere, occasioning head-ache, sickness and - cough; so that we may safely observe, that, whatever miracles the - prussic acid may perform, when applied to the coats of the stomach, - its application in the form of vapour to the lungs proves highly - irritating to those organs. - - The concentrated vapour of this essential oil is almost instantly - destructive to animal life. I have seen flies drop lifeless to the - floor as they have passed over the still; thus, as it were, realizing - in miniature the fabled powers of Avernus. - - “Quam super haud ullæ poterant impune volantes - Tendere iter pennis: talis sese halitus atris - Faucibus effundens supera ad convexa ferebat.” - Æn. VI. v. 239. - -Footnote 582: - - Some authors have considered the olibanum as the Λιβανος quasia Oleum - Libani, (_Thus_) of the ancients, but Dr. Maton has observed that he - cannot find any passage in the ancient authors sufficiently precise to - corroborate this conjecture. See Abietis Resina. - -Footnote 583: - - The Greeks and Romans attached a very different meaning to the terms - OPIUM and MECONIUM. The former signified the pure juice (οπος succus) - that flowed from the scarified poppies; the latter, the juice obtained - by bruising and pressing the poppy heads. - -Footnote 584: - - Annales de Chimie, vol. 45. Derosne first obtained a crystalline - substance from Opium in the year 1803, which dissolved in acids; but - he did not determine its nature or properties. - -Footnote 585: - - In 1804 Seguin (Ann. de Chim. vol. 92) discovered another crystalline - body in opium, and although he described most of its properties he - never hinted at its alkaline nature. - -Footnote 586: - - Sertuerner at Eimbeck, in Hanover, had at the same time as Derosne and - Seguin, obtained these crystalline bodies, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phy. - T. v.) but it was not until the year 1817, that he first unequivocally - proclaimed the existence of a vegetable alkali, and assigned to it the - narcotic powers which distinguish the operation of opium; to this body - he gave the name of Morphia, and it appears to be the same as the - essential salt noticed by Seguin. The salt of Derosne, now more - usually denominated Narcotine, is quite a different principle, - although it was constantly mistaken for one of the salts of Morphia, - till M. Robiquet (Ann. de Chim. & de Phy. T. v.) pointed out its - distinctive properties. It is an azotized substance, crystallizing in - beautiful pearly prisms or tables; soluble in fixed oil, and still - more so in æther and the acids; insoluble in water, and little soluble - in alcohol; destitute of action on the vegetable colours, and - incapable of neutralizing acids. There still exists, however, very - considerable confusion with respect to this salt, and farther - experiments are required to ascertain its chemical nature, as well as - its physiological action. - -Footnote 587: - - The discovery of an alkaline body in opium induced the French and - German chemists to examine the composition of other active - vegetables, with a view to detect the existence of an analogous - principle; and their labours have been rewarded with unexampled - success. They have accordingly obtained STRYCHNIA from the nut of - the Strychnos nux vomica;—BRUCIA from the bark of the Brucea - Anti-dysenterica (False Angustura Bark) VERATRIA from the Veratrum - album, V. Sabadilla and Colchicum Autumnale;—CINCHONIA from the bark - of the Cinchona Oblongifolia (Red Bark);—QUINA (or Kina) from that - of the Cinchona Cordifolia (Yellow Bark);—EMETA from the Callicocca - Ipecacuanha;—DELPHIA, from the Delphinium Staphisagria;—PICROTOXA - from the Menispermum Cocculus;—SOLANA from the Solanum Nigrum, and - S. Dulcamara; GENTIA, from Gentiana lutea;—ATROPIA from the Atropa - Belladonna;—HYOSCYAMA, from Hyoscyamus Niger. Besides which, - Capsicum, Piper nigrum, and SENNA, have been said to yield analogous - principles of a salifiable character. With respect to most of these - alkaline bodies farther experiments are required to establish our - confidence; it is more than probable that several of them will turn - out to be disguised modifications of each other; it has already been - questioned whether QUINA and CINCHONIA be not varieties of one - alkali; indeed it is possible that all these bodies may have the - same alkaline base, and that they differ from each other in - consequence of their combination with other principles, derived from - the vegetable in question, and impressing upon the salt its - characteristic virtues; and this idea receives material support from - the fact, that they are neutralized by a very small proportion of - acid. (See a paper on this subject in the 70th number of the - Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journ.) - - They have all many properties in common, such as a degree of - bitterness varying in intensity in different species; they are - inodorous; are not altered by air or light, but are decomposed by a - moderate heat; most of them enter into fusion, but at different - temperatures, some for instance at below 212° Fahr. others not until - they are about to be decomposed; HYOSCYAMA will even resist a low red - heat. They are very sparingly soluble in water, but they are in - general rendered more so by the presence of resinous matter. They are - nearly all highly soluble in alcohol. Æther readily dissolves DELPHIA, - VERATRIA, EMETA, QUINA, and GENTIA; but MORPHIA, CINCHONIA, and - PICROTOXA, are very sparingly soluble: and STRYCHNIA and BRUCIA are - nearly insoluble in it; they combine with the acids; and, in general, - form neutral salts; but it appears that VERATRIA and EMETA always - unite with an excess of acid. All the combinations with the mineral - acids, excepting the salts of PICROTOXA, are exceedingly soluble in - water; and, with the exception of NITRATE OF CINCHONIA, and all the - salts of VERATRIA, they are crystallizable. The acetates too, with a - few exceptions, are also soluble, and they are disposed to form - super-salts. All the oxalates, except that of PICRATOXA, which is the - most soluble of its salts, and all tartrates, are rather insoluble, - and have likewise a tendency to unite with an excess of acid. The - action of concentrated nitric acid on these alkaline bodies is very - peculiar, converting the greater number of them into artificial - tannin; but it appears to peroxidate MORPHIA, STRYCHNIA, and BRUCIA, - rendering them less powerful as salifiable bases, and diminishing or - destroying their action on the animal body. See Edinburgh Med. & Surg. - Journ. supra citat. - - By analysis, with the deutoxide of copper, these alkalies yield - carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; but no azote, unless they have been - obtained by precipitation with ammonia, as in the process of - Sertuerner. - - It would appear that these bodies exist in their native plants, in - combination with peculiar acids; some of them are found in the state - of Malates. - - With respect to their physiological action it may be stated, that they - would appear to concentrate in themselves the characteristic - properties of the vegetables to which they belong, and yet, although - their effects are much greater than those of the undecomposed - vegetables, the same quantity of alkali is not so powerful in its pure - form, as in its natural state of combination. Thus one grain of - morphia produces no more effect than two grains of Turkey opium, which - do not contain more than a sixteenth part of the alkali. To explain - this loss of efficacy which usually attends our attempts at - concentration, the reader is referred to the observations which have - been already offered upon this subject in the first part of this work, - page 153. - -Footnote 588: - - The manufacture, however, of Indian Opium has been of late years - greatly improved by Dr. Fleming, under whose superintendance that - important department was placed by the Marquis Wellesley. - -Footnote 589: - - Forty thousand pounds weight of Opium are annually imported into the - Port of London. - -Footnote 590: - - It has been stated in the Historical Introduction to this work, (page - 8) that the nepenthe, which Helen mixed with wine, and gave to the - guests of Menelaus, was probably opium; such was the opinion of - Sprengel, expressed in his History of Botany. Other authors have - entertained a different belief. Delile, in his “Flora Egyptiaca,” - considers it to have been a preparation of hyoscyamus albus. Dr. - Christen, in his late elaborate Dissertation on Opium, agrees with - Forbes, who states, in his Oriental Memoirs, that in Hindostan - Bendsch, i. e. nepenthe is prepared from the cannabis sativa of - Linnæus. Linder informs us that bangue is prepared from the dried - leaves of the wild cannabis, the smoke of which is said to be more - narcotic than even that of opium. There seems, however, to be good - reason for supposing that Indian bangue is a compound of several - ingredients. Ray says that he learned from Sir Hans Sloane, that the - principal ingredient was not hemp, but a plant somewhat like it. - -Footnote 591: - - The operation of Opium is not unfrequently attended with an itching, - or sense of pricking of the skin, which is sometimes terminated by a - species of miliary eruption. - -Footnote 592: - - Opium is the Quack’s sheet anchor. The various nostrums advertised as - “Cough Drops, for the cure of colds, asthmas, catarrhs, &c.” are - preparations of Opium very similar to paregoric elixir. PECTORAL - BALSAM OF LIQUORICE, and ESSENCE OF COLTSFOOT, are combinations of - this kind. GRINDLE’S COUGH DROPS, are a preparation of the same - description, only made with Rectified, instead of Proof Spirit, and - consequently more highly charged with stimulant materials. “The - mischief,” says Dr. Fothergill, “that has proceeded from the healing - anodynes of quacks can be scarcely imagined; for in coughs, arising - from suppressed perspiration or an inflammatory diathesis, Opiates - generally do harm.” - - SQUIRE’S ELIXIR. Opium, camphor, serpentaria, sub-carbonate of potass, - anise and fennel seeds, made into a tincture, and coloured with - cochineal. - - FORD’S BALSAM OF HOREHOUND. This nostrum may very properly be classed - under the present head. It consists of an aqueous infusion of - horehound and liquorice root, with double the proportion of proof - spirit or brandy; to which is then added, opium, camphor, benzoin, - squills, oil of aniseed, and honey. - -Footnote 593: - - LIQUOR MORPHII CITRATIS. ℞.Opii Crudi Optimi ℥iv; Acidi Citrici - (Cryst:) ℥ij; semel in mortario lapideo contunde, dein aquæ distillatæ - bullientis oj affunde; et intime misceantur; macera per horas viginti - quatuor; per chartam bibulosam cola. - -Footnote 594: - - THE BLACK DROP, or The Lancaster, or Quaker’s Black Drop. This - preparation, which has been long known and esteemed, as being more - powerful in its operation and less distressing in its effects than any - tincture of opium, has until lately been involved in much obscurity; - the papers however of the late Edward Walton, of Sunderland, one of - the near relations of the original proprietor, having fallen into the - hands of Dr. Armstrong, that gentleman has obliged the profession by - publishing the manner in which it is prepared, and is as - follows:—“Take half a pound of opium sliced; three pints of good - verjuice (juice of the wild crab,) and one and a half ounce of - nutmegs, and half an ounce of saffron. Boil them to a proper - thickness, then add a quarter of a pound of sugar, and two spoonsful - of yeast. Set the whole in a warm place near the fire, for six or - eight weeks, then place it in the open air until it becomes a syrup; - lastly, decant, filter, and bottle it up, adding a little sugar to - each bottle.” One drop of this preparation is considered equal to - about three of the Tincture of Opium. P. L. It would appear that an - Acetate of Morphia is formed, which is more active, and less - distressing in its effects, than any other narcotic combination. - - The French Codex contains directions for preparing a compound very - similar to the Black Drop; viz. - - VINUM OPIATUM FERMENTATIONE PARATUM, or Guttæ seu Laudanum Abbatis - Rousseau. Take of white honey twelve ounces; warm water, three pounds; - dissolve the honey in the water, pour it into a matrass, and set it - aside in a warm place: as soon as fermentation has commenced, add four - ounces of good opium, having previously dissolved, or rather diffused - it in twelve ounces of water; allow them to ferment together for a - month, then evaporate until ten ounces only remain, filter, and add - four ounces and a half of alcohol. - - LIQUOR OPII SEDATIVUS. Under this name, Mr. Battley, a manufacturing - druggist, of Fore-street, London, has offered for sale a narcotic - preparation, which it is generally supposed owes its efficacy to the - acetate of morphia; on being kept, however, I found that it underwent - some important change, during which so much air was disengaged as to - blow out the cork from the bottle with violence. This is an objection - to its admission into practice, unless we can ensure recently prepared - portions as often as they may be required. - - In publishing the above statement, I have unfortunately been the cause - of much unnecessary INK-SHED. A letter, by Mr. Battley, has been - industriously circulated through the different ranks of the - profession, purporting to be an apology for his preparation, but after - a careful perusal of it, instead of being able to discover any - argument in its favour, we receive a full acknowledgment of the - validity of the objection above stated. “I explained to Dr. Paris, - that the liability of the solution to undergo change, WAS A DEFECT in - the preparation, but that the addition of a little spirit would - prevent decomposition,” and yet in the next sentence he tells us that - in those cases in which it is most beneficial, “the addition of spirit - would be highly improper.” See Medical Repository, vol. xiii, p. 273. - - But the circumstance which has excited the greatest indignation in the - mind of Mr. Battley, is my having applied the term NOSTRUM to his - preparation. Every medicine that is prepared by a secret process, and - sold for the private advantage of an individual, is properly - designated a NOSTRUM. And I am at a loss to discover any feature in - the present case that can entitle it to be considered as an exception - to this general rule; but perhaps Mr. Battley is inclined to be - hypercritical, and as the preparation is not indebted to him, but to - Wedelius or Le Mort, for its origin, is prepared to exclaim with the - Roman Poet: - - “Quæ non fecimus ipsi vix ea NOSTRA VOCO.” - - Mr. Battley also complains bitterly of my having inserted his - preparation under so odious a motto as “Arcana Revelata fætent,” for - my own part I cannot conceive any thing more appropriate to the case, - viz. Arcana, _these secret preparations_, revelata, _exposed to the - air_, fætent, _grow fœtid_. But, notwithstanding the objections which - I have thus felt it my duty to offer, I am disposed to speak - favourably of its mild and uniform effects, and in justice to Mr. - Battley, I will further state the same opinion has been formed by a - great number of respectable practitioners. The late Mr. Haden, who - during his protracted illness took a large quantity of this - preparation, states, in his Translation of the Formulary of Dr. - Majendie, that it is devoid of exciting, and almost of constipating, - properties. He made a very good substitute, “by macerating the dregs, - remaining after making tincture of opium, in a solution of Tartaric - acid.” The preparation formed a tolerably deep tincture, and 40 drops - acted, he thought, in all respects, like 20 of the liquor opii - sedativus. It neither stimulated, nor produced costiveness. - -Footnote 595: - - GODBOLD’S VEGETABLE BALSAM. In the specification of the Patent for - this nostrum forty-two different vegetables are directed to be - distilled “for the purpose of extracting their essences, which are to - be preserved separately and apart from each other, in syrups, and are - to be mixed with the following gums and drugs, viz. Gum Dragon, Gum - Guaiacum, Gum Arabic, and Gum Canada, these being dissolved in double - distilled vinegar, with a quantity of Storax dissolved in Spirits of - Wine and Oil of Cinnamon. It is to be bottled off, and kept three - years before it is fit to be administered for the CURE of Consumption, - or any Asthmatic Complaint.” It is hardly necessary to observe, that - no such directions ever are, or indeed ever could be followed; in - short the “BALSAM” is little else than simple oxymel. It is, however, - not a little curious that amongst the forty-two plants enumerated, - there should be several that would on distillation yield Prussic acid, - such as the Bays. We wonder that this accidental circumstance has not - been noticed, and turned to account, by some of those worthy disciples - of Esculapius who live by the credulity of mankind, and, as Falstaff - expresses it, “Turn diseases to a commodity.” - -Footnote 596: - - “It is in this manner, I apprehend, that stimulating syrups will - frequently remove hoarseness.” - -Footnote 597: - - Although it has been long known that the seeds of the poppy, and the - oil obtained from them by expression, do not possess any of the - narcotic properties of the plant, and that they were even baked into - cakes and used as an article of food by the ancients, yet has there - been in later times very considerable contention respecting the - propriety and safety of using such oil. The cultivation of the Poppy - for the sake of the oil of its seeds, as an article of food, has been - long carried on in France, Brabant, and Germany; and more recently in - Holland. At about the beginning of the 17th century, the opposition to - this use of the Poppy manifested itself in France, and became so - violent, that the Lieutenant General of the Police of Paris ordered - the medical faculty of that city to make the strictest examination - concerning this point, and they accordingly reported that, as there is - nothing narcotic or prejudicial to health in the oil, the use of it - might be permitted. But this decision was unsatisfactory; and popular - clamour determined the Court to pass a decree in 1718, prohibiting the - sale of Poppy Oil, whether mixed or unmixed! The sale of the article, - however, notwithstanding this most singular decree, was clandestinely - encouraged, and it gradually increased until the year 1735, when the - Court issued a severe decree, enjoining the superintendent to mix a - certain quantity of the extract of Turpentine, with every cask - containing 1100 lbs. of this oil, of which no less than 2000 casks - were consumed in Paris alone. But the secret demand for it increased - until 1773, when a Society of Agriculture undertook to examine the - question, and the result of their labours had the effect of reversing - the prohibition, and of convincing the multitude that their fears were - entirely unfounded, and that there was really no narcotic power, nor - any secret mischief in the article. - -Footnote 598: - - As these pills are liable to become hard and insoluble by being kept, - it is better to keep the ingredients in powder, and to form them - extemporaneously with a little syrup. - -Footnote 599: - - The Pix Arida of the late Pharmacopœia. - -Footnote 600: - - Tar water was also at one period celebrated as an antisiphylitic - remedy. M. Acharius, in his work “On the Use and advantages of Tar - Water in Venereal Complaints,” enumerates the cases of a number of - patients cured by this remedy alone in the Hospital of Stockholm, - without any Mercury. - -Footnote 601: - - Dr. Mudge in the year 1782 had recommended the fumigation of balsams, - in a pamphlet on the subject of his Inhaler; little or no notice - however was taken of this recommendation, a circumstance which cannot - excite our surprise when we consider the extravagant terms in which - the pretensions of the remedy were supported. “I believe,” says he, - “that much of the benefit which consumptive persons experience from - sea voyages, is derived from the tar vapour constantly present on - board a ship!” - - A Radical and Expeditious Cure for a recent Catarrhous Cough. By J. - Mudge, Plymouth, 1783. - -Footnote 602: - - Litharge. The word is derived from λὶθος, _Lapis_, a stone, and - ἄργυρος, _Argentum_, Silver; from the fact of the lead being thrown - off in this state during its application for the refinement of Silver. - -Footnote 603: - - That the oak cask imparts astringent matter to the contained spirit, - is shewn by the facts enumerated under the history of Brandy, see - Spiritus Tenuior. - -Footnote 604: - - Sir George Baker considered the dry-belly-ache, which is common to - drinkers of new Rum, in the West Indies, entirely referable to its - contamination with Lead. - -Footnote 605: - - See next Note. - -Footnote 606: - - I uniformly adopt this plan; the acetic acid is the best guard that - can be selected to protect the salt from decomposition; even the - Tartrate of Lead, which is so insoluble in water, forms with vinegar a - soluble triple salt. - -Footnote 607: - - ROYAL PREVENTIVE.—This pretended prophylactic against venereal virus - is a solution of Acetate of Lead. - -Footnote 608: - - Peroxide of Potassium is produced by heating the metal in a - considerable excess of oxygen. It is an orange-coloured body, which, - upon being put into water effervesces, and gives off oxygen, and is - thus reduced to the state of protoxide. - -Footnote 609: - - Potass forms the basis of many of those preparations, sold as - Depilatories; in some instances combined with Lime. COLLEY’S - Depilatory appears to consist of Quick-lime, and a portion of - Sulphuret of Potass. - -Footnote 610: - - Sal Prunelle. Nitre, when coloured purple like a plum, has been long - esteemed in Germany as a powerful medicine, under this name. - - M. Chevreul supposes the urinous taste attributed to fixed alkaline - bases not to belong to these substances, but to the ammonia, which is - set at liberty by their action on the ammoniacal salts contained in - the saliva; the proofs of which, he says, may be derived from the - facts that the sensation disappears upon pressing the nostrils; and - that the same odour is perceived when we smell to a mixture of recent - saliva and fixed alkali, made in a small glass or porcelain capsule. - (See my work on Medical Chemistry, § 8.) - -Footnote 611: - - See my “Elements of Medical Chemistry,” p. 157. - -Footnote 612: - - Ibid. p. 605. - -Footnote 613: - - I may take this opportunity to state that Sulphuretted Hydrogen, in a - state of simple solution, or in combination with other bodies, - possesses considerable powers as a remedy in many cutaneous disorders - of a chronic character. The “Gas-Water,” or that which remains after - the gas, used for illumination, has passed through the purifier, and - which consists of Hydro-Sulphuret and Hydro-bi-Sulphuret of Lime, has - been used with great success in such cases. - -Footnote 614: - - It may be termed a Boro-tartrate. - -Footnote 615: - - ESSENTIAL SALT OF LEMONS. The preparation sold under this name, for - the purpose of removing iron moulds from linen, consists of cream of - tartar, and super-oxalate of potass, or salt of sorrel, in equal - proportions. - -Footnote 616: - - See page 183. - -Footnote 617: - - His specification, lodged in Chancery, is as follows. “Take Antimony, - calcine it with a continued protracted heat, in a flat unglazed - vessel, adding to it from time to time, a sufficient quantity of any - animal oil and salt, dephlegmated; then boil it in melted nitre for a - considerable time, and separate the powder from the nitre by - dissolving it in water.” - - JAMES’S ANALEPTIC PILLS. These consist of James’s powder, gum - ammoniacum, and the pill of aloes with myrrh, (Pil. Rufi) equal parts, - with a sufficient quantity of the tincture of castor to make a mass. - -Footnote 618: - - In consequence of the antimonial powder having proved inert in the - hands of Dr. Elliotson, although exhibited to the amount of a hundred - grains for a dose, Mr. Phillips was induced to examine more - particularly into the nature of the oxide which enters into its - composition. “After the well established fact,” says he, “that - peroxide of antimony is nearly or totally inert, it appears to me, - that if proof could be obtained, that the oxide of antimony is in this - state, the deficiency of power in the Pulvis Antimonialis would be - accounted for.” He then proceeds to detail his experiments, from which - he deduces the composition of this preparation to be as follows: - - Peroxide of Antimony 35 - Phosphate of Lime 65 - ——— - 100 - - which exist together in a simple state of mixture. Until the subject - be elucidated by farther experiments, it will be difficult for the - chemist to persuade the physician, that he can never have derived any - benefit from the exhibition of Antimonial Powder, although I am by no - means inclined to concede to it that extraordinary degree of virtue, - which many practitioners are so eager to maintain. - -Footnote 619: - - This plant is esteemed by the American Indians as a universal remedy, - and is always carried about with them. The members of the profession - have doubtless heard of an irregular practitioner, who has persuaded a - certain number of persons in this metropolis, that he possesses - remedies, obtained from the American Indians, by which he is enabled - to _cure_ Scrofula in its worst forms; it is to this Empiric that I - alluded in the note at page 33; and it may be worthy of notice that - the plant upon which he relies for success, is the Pyrola Umbellata. - -Footnote 620: - - Philosophical Transactions, 1799. - -Footnote 621: - - WARNER’S CORDIAL. Rhubarb bruised ℥j; Sennæ ℥ss; Saffron ʒj; Powdered - Liquorice ʒiv; Raisins pounded ℔j; Brandy oiij; digest for a week and - strain. - - MOSELEY’S PILLS. The stomachic Pills which are sold under this name, - consist merely of Rhubarb and Ginger. - -Footnote 622: - - Dr. Rehman asserts that it is the root of the same species as that - which produces the Turkey variety, but that it is prepared with less - care. - -Footnote 623: - - The seeds of this plant, from which the oil is expressed, are - variegated with black and white streaks, resembling in shape as well - as colour, the insect RICINIS or Tick, whence the name. These seeds, - from the acrid juice in their skins, are very drastic and emetic; they - were however used by HIPPOCRATES. MATHIOLUS attempted to correct their - emetic quality by torrefaction, but without success. GULIELMUS PISO - proposed a tincture of them, but the preparation is not only - uncertain, but unsafe in its operation. See Tiglii Semina. - -Footnote 624: - - For the derivation of the name _Castor_ oil, see p. 39. - -Footnote 625: - - The sugar cane is called in Arabic _Lukseb_. The produce of it, - _Assakur_, hence _Sugar_. Some authors have attempted to derive the - word from _Succus_ a juice; this is obviously an error. - -Footnote 626: - - For this purpose it may be added to certain ointments to prevent their - becoming rancid. For the reasons, however, above stated, it must not - be boiled with the ingredients, but added after they are cold. - -Footnote 627: - - In those districts where Soap is generally made from wood ashes, or - from Russian or American potass, unless Salt were added in large - quantities, it would not have any consistence. As Kelp and common - Barilla contain a sufficient quantity of it, no further addition is - required. - -Footnote 628: - - TRANSPARENT SOAP is made by carefully evaporating the alcoholic - solution. The solution itself is sold under the name of SHAVING - LIQUID, or “ESSENCE ROYALE POUR FAIRE LA BARBE.” - -Footnote 629: - - When a solution of soap and sub-acetate of lead are added together, - the potass of the former combines with the acetic acid of the latter, - and the fat and oxyd of lead are disengaged; the one rising to the - surface, while the other is precipitated; and yet notwithstanding this - complete decomposition, some surgeons are in the habit of using an - application which consists of a drachm of the Liquor Plumbi - Sub-Acetatis, and two ounces of the Linimentum Saponis! We cannot have - any hesitation in deciding upon the inefficacy of such a mixture. - -Footnote 630: - - GODFREY’S CORDIAL. The following receipt for this nostrum was obtained - from a wholesale druggist, who makes and sells many hundred dozen - bottles in the course of a year. There are however several other - formulæ for its preparation, but they are not essentially different. - Infuse ℥ix of Sassafras, and of the seeds of Carraway, Coriander, and - Anise, of each ℥j, in six pints of water, simmer the mixture until it - is reduced to four pints; then add ℔vj of Treacle, and boil the whole - for a few minutes; when it is cold, add f℥iij of the tincture of - Opium. The extensive and indiscriminate use of this nostrum in the - nursery, is a subject of national opprobrium, and is so considered by - foreign writers. See Fodéré, Medicine Legale, vol. iv. p. 22. - -Footnote 631: - - M. Virey says, “On observe que des acides châtrent, pour ainsi parler, - tout l’energie de la Scammonée.” - -Footnote 632: - - COUNT WARWICK’S POWDER. The purgative long known and esteemed under - this name, consisted of Scammony, Oxide of Antimony, and Cream of - Tartar. It is much extolled by Baglivi, and by Van-Swieten, as an - efficacious purgative in intermittent fevers. - -Footnote 633: - - The English physicians do not do justice to this valuable article. In - this country it enjoys a high and deserved reputation. As a remedy in - Croup it has long been esteemed as one of our most efficient - resources, and more recently it has been very warmly recommended as a - powerful emmenagogue. In Croup, it should not be given until after the - use of venesection and other evacuants. It may then be administered in - the form of decoction, prepared from half an ounce of the bruised root - boiled in eight ounces of water down to four. Of this a tea spoonful - is to be taken every hour or half hour as circumstances may require. - When used as an emmenagogue, the decoction is to be prepared by - simmering in a close vessel ℥j of the bruised root in a pint of - boiling water, until it is reduced about one third—of this four ounces - are to be taken daily, and to be increased as far as the stomach will - bear, at the menstrual period. _Ed._ - -Footnote 634: - - It enters into the composition of Stoughton’s Elixir, for which see - Gentianæ Radix. - -Footnote 635: - - It is for this reason that the cake left after expression is so much - more pungent than the seeds, for the fixed oil can be easily separated - by pressure. - -Footnote 636: - - WHITEHEAD’S ESSENCE OF MUSTARD.—This consists of oil of turpentine, - camphor, and a portion of spirit of rosemary; to which is added a - small quantity of flour of mustard. - - WHITEHEAD’S ESSENCE OF MUSTARD PILLS.—Balsam of Tolu, with resin! - - READY MADE MUSTARD.—This is made up with currant wine, and sugar; - formerly Must, or grape juice, was employed for this purpose, whence - the name _Mustard_. - -Footnote 637: - - This term is also applied to the Sub-carbonate of Ammonia. The - objection to its use depends upon the solecism which it involves; the - division of an atom, which, according to chemical principles, is - indivisible; but this objection may be answered by stating, that the - term is one merely of convenience, and serves to express the - proportions of the acid and its base. The chemical difficulty is at - once solved by multiplying each by two, which will make the - proportions as 3 to 2. instead of 1½ to 1. - -Footnote 638: - - SODAIC POWDERS.—Contained in two distinct papers, one of which is - blue, the other white; that in the former consists of ʒss of the - carbonate of soda, that in the latter of grs. xxv of tartaric acid. - These powders require half a pint of water. It is very evident that a - solution of these powders is by no means similar to “Soda Water,” - which it is intended to emulate; for in this latter preparation, the - soda is in combination only with carbonic acid; whereas the solution - of the “Sodaic Powders” is that of a neutral salt, with a portion of - fixed air diffused through it. - - PATENT SEIDLITZ POWDERS.—These consist of two different powders; the - one, contained in a white paper, consists of ʒij of Tartarized Soda, - and ℈ij of Carbonate of Soda; that in the blue paper, of grs. xxxv of - tartaric acid. The contents of the white paper are to be dissolved in - half a pint of spring water, to which those of the blue paper are to - be added; the draught is to be taken in a state of effervescence. The - acid being in excess renders it more grateful, and no less efficacious - as a purgative. This preparation cannot be said to bear any other - resemblance to the mineral water of Seidlitz, than in being purgative. - The water of this spring, which was discovered by Hoffman about a - century ago, contains Sulphate of Magnesia as its active ingredient, - together with Muriate of Magnesia, and Sulphate, and Carbonate of - Lime. In the Codex Medicamentarius of Paris there are two formulæ for - the preparation of a water which may resemble that of Seidlitz, the - one differing from the other merely in the proportion of its Sulphate - of Magnesia. - -Footnote 639: - - Our English Salt is generally thus contaminated; for which reason it - is unfit for the curing of several kinds of fish; this will not appear - strange, says Mr. Parkes, when it is considered that merely its own - weight of water is all that is necessary for the complete solution of - muriate of magnesia; a circumstance which renders it impossible to - preserve such salt for any length of time in a dry state. This muriate - however might be separated from common salt, on a large scale, for one - shilling per cwt. By exposing the salt to a gentle heat in - reverberatory furnaces, the muriatic acid of the magnesian muriate - will fly off, and the magnesia (on a subsequent solution of the salt) - will be precipitated. It is well known that muriate of magnesia begins - to part with its acid at a temperature a little higher than that of - boiling water. - -Footnote 640: - - The annual quantity of salt raised from the Salt Mines and Springs in - Europe, is estimated at from 25 to 30 millions of cwt. - -Footnote 641: - - The respect paid to Salt amongst Eastern nations is very remarkable, - and may be traced to the highest antiquity. Homer gives to it the - epithet of θεὶον, Il. ix. p. 214. - -Footnote 642: - - In addition to the numerous instances cited by these authors, I may - here introduce one which has been just communicated to me by my friend - Mr. John Taylor, the agent of the London Company for working the Real - del Monte Silver Mines in Mexico. He states that the ore, which - consists of the Sulphuret of Silver, is, together with Mercury, - amassed in heaps with iron pyrites and common salt; and that such is - the greediness of the Mules employed in the works for the Salt, that - they are constantly licking the materials; the consequence is that a - portion of the Silver Amalgam is introduced into their stomachs; the - animals, however, suffer no inconvenience; but, after death, on - opening their stomachs, it is not unusual to find considerable masses - of Silver, the mercury having escaped, or been dissolved by the - gastric juice. - -Footnote 643: - - The celebrated Indian Tonic for Dyspepsia and Gout, called Bit laban, - is prepared by fusing together muriate of soda and some other - ingredients. See Dr. Fleming’s Catalogue of Indian Medicinal plants - and drugs, p. 54, 55. - -Footnote 644: - - I have myself witnessed the bad effects of a diet of unsalted fish; - and in my examination before a Committee of the House of Commons in - 1818, appointed “for the purpose of inquiring into the laws respecting - the Salt Duties,” I stated the great injury which the poorer classes - in many districts sustained in their health, from an inability to - procure this essential article. Lord Somerville (in his address to the - Board of Agriculture) gave an interesting account of the effects of a - punishment which formerly existed in Holland. “The ancient laws of the - country ordained men to be kept on bread alone, UNMIXED WITH SALT, as - the SEVEREST punishment that could be inflicted upon them in their - moist climate; the effect was horrible: these wretched criminals are - said to have been DEVOURED BY WORMS, engendered in their own - stomachs.” - - SALT was an object of taxation at a very early period in this country; - Ancus Martius, 640 years before our era ‘_Salinarum Vectigal_ - instituit.’ This tribute was continued on the Britons when our Isle - was possessed by the Romans, who worked the Droitwich Mines, and who - made salt part of their soldiers _Salarium_, or salary. Hence the - custom at the Eton Montem of asking for salt. - - The great advantages which must ultimately accrue to this nation in - its fisheries, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, from a late - remission of the odious and impolitic tax upon salt, are incalculable. - The government of France appears to have been as impolitic with regard - to this tax as the English. Buonaparte abolished the collection of - turnpike dues; and imposed a tax on salt, payable at the Salt-pans, in - its stead. It is not perhaps generally known, that by the aid of this - tax he was enabled to complete the grand entrance into Italy, over the - Simplon; so that it may be fairly observed, that if HANNIBAL was - enabled to cross the Alps by the aid of VINEGAR—BUONAPARTE, by the - assistance of SALT, succeeded in constructing a public road over the - same mountains. - -Footnote 645: - - CHELTENHAM SALTS.—A factitious compound has been long vended, as a - popular purgative, under this name; it is formed by triturating - together the following salts. Sulphate of Soda, grs. 120. Sulphate of - Magnesia, grs. 66. Muriate of Soda, 10. Sulphate of Iron, gr. ½. As a - purgative it is very efficacious, and superior probably to that which - is actually obtained by the evaporation of the Cheltenham water - itself; for notwithstanding the high pretensions with which this - latter salt has been publicly announced, it will be found to be little - else than common Glauber’s Salt. This fact has been confirmed by the - experiments of Mr. Richard Phillips, (Annals of Philosophy, No. lxi,) - who observes, that the “REAL CHELTENHAM SALTS contain no chalybeate - property, but are merely sulphate of soda, mixed with a minute - quantity of soda, and a very small portion of common salt.” It could - not be imagined that the salt should contain oxide of iron even in a - state of mixture, much less in combination, for carbonate of iron is - readily decomposed by ebullition, and the oxide of iron is - precipitated before the salt can be crystallized. A preparation, under - the name of Thomson’s Cheltenham Salts, is accordingly manufactured in - London, by evaporating a solution consisting of sulphate of soda and - sub-carbonate of soda. - - “EFFLORESCENCE OF REAL CHELTENHAM SALTS.” The preceding salt deprived - of its water of crystallization. - - “EFFLORESCENCE OF REAL MAGNESIAN CHELTENHAM SALTS,” MADE FROM THE - WATERS OF THE CHALYBEATE MAGNESIAN SPA. This is asserted to be a - sub-sulphate from nature, which combines both a pure and a - sub-sulphated magnesia in its composition; “but,” says Mr. Phillips, - “neither nature nor art has ever produced such a combination; in - truth, it consists of Epsom Salt, with small portions of magnesia, and - muriate of magnesia or muriate of soda.” - - MURIO-SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA AND IRON. The preparation thus named by Mr. - Thomson, was found by Mr. Phillips to consist of Epsom Salt, deprived - of part of its water of crystallization, and discoloured by a little - rust of iron, and containing a small portion of muriate of magnesia. - - Thus it appears, that not one of these preparations is similar to the - water which is drank at the Spa; in order to remedy this difficulty, - Mr. Thomson prepared the “ORIGINAL COMBINED CHELTENHAM SALTS,” by - evaporating the waters to dryness: but a very small share of chemical - penetration is required to satisfy us that no process of this - description can remedy the defect described, for as Mr. Phillips has - observed, the chalybeate properties of the water must be essentially - altered by such an operation. - -Footnote 646: - - HUNGARY WATER. Aqua Reginæ Hungariæ. This article, when genuine, is a - pure spirit distilled from the Rosemary, and is strongly scented with - the rich perfume of that aromatic plant. - -Footnote 647: - - I apprehend that the peculiar flavour of Cogniac depends upon the - presence of an æthereal spirit, formed by the action of Tartaric or - perhaps Acetic acid upon Alcohol; it is on this account that Nitric - Æther, when added to Malt spirits, gives them the flavour of French - Brandy. The same flavour is also successfully obtained by distilling - British spirits over wine lees, or by distilling a spirit obtained - from Raisin Wine, which has become acescent. - - In new brandy there also appears to be an uncombined acid, giving to - it a peculiar taste and quality, which are lost by age. This explains - the reason why the addition of five or six drops of “liquor ammoniæ,” - to each bottle of new brandy, will impart to it the qualities of that - of the oldest date. - -Footnote 648: - - TAYLOR’S RED BOTTLE, commonly called the Whitworth Doctor. British - Brandy coloured with Cochineal, and flavoured with oil of Origanum. - -Footnote 649: - - Mr. Parkes, in his Chemical Essays, has the following remark: “an - ingenious friend assures me that if new rum be exposed for a night to - a severe frost, and then removed to a heated room, and thus - alternately treated for a week or two, it will in that short time have - acquired a flavour equal to fine _old_ spirits.” The mischievous - effects of new rum, as drank in the West Indies, would seem to depend - upon the presence of Lead; see Plumbi Acetas. - -Footnote 650: - - _Mock Arrack._ The author of ‘Apicius Redivivus,’ directs, for the - purpose of making a mock Arrack, that two scruples of Benzoic acid be - added to every quart of Rum. By a receipt of this kind the celebrated - Punch of Vauxhall is prepared. - -Footnote 651: - - The famous Helvetian Styptic, described in page 83, depended wholly on - this accidental contamination for its colour, and it was no small - mortification to our chemists, when this nostrum was first introduced - amongst us, that they could not prepare it with our own spirits, but - were obliged to be at the expense of true French Brandy. Our own - Spirits, although equally coloured, would never produce a violet - tincture; at length, however, the mystery was discovered, and the gall - nut imparted to the tincture that characteristic colour which was so - long considered essential to its efficacy; but the discovery threw - discredit upon the nostrum, and it fell into disuse. - -Footnote 652: - - If any additional argument were necessary, we might repeat, that - Arsenic in its metallic state is not poisonous. As it is almost - impossible to reduce metallic arsenic to a state of powder, without - its becoming oxidized, M. Renault had recourse to its alloys for - deciding the question; and he found that Mispickel (an alloy of iron - and arsenic,) when given to the extent of two drachms, had no apparent - effect; this result agrees with the conclusion of Bayen in his work on - Tin, and proves that the arsenic which may be contained in that metal - cannot produce any medicinal effect, as it exists in its metallic - state. Recherches Chimiques sur l’Etain, par Bayen et Charlard, 1781. - -Footnote 653: - - GUY’S POWDER OR ETHIOPIA. This once celebrated remedy consisted of - pure rasped Tin, Mercury, and Sublimed Sulphur, triturated together. - - BLAINE’S POWDER FOR THE DISTEMPER IN DOGS. The basis of this nostrum - is the Aurum Musivum, or Sulphuret of Tin, and which has been said to - be more efficacious in cases of Tænia than the simple metal. - - MATHIEU’S VERMIFUGE was indebted to Tin for its efficacy, see Filicis - Radix. - -Footnote 654: - - SULPHUR LOZENGES. Sublimed Sulphur one part, sugar eight parts, - Tragacanth mucilage q. s. used in Asthma, and in Hæmorrhoids. - -Footnote 655: - - Sugar, perfectly free from the extractive matter with which it exists - in combination in nature, and which constitutes that compound to which - the name of Sweet Principle has been given, will not, however diluted, - undergo any kind of fermentation; for it is the presence of this - peculiar extractive matter, the natural leaven of fruits, that enables - it to undergo that process; since, however, all clayed sugars, or - modifications of sugar which are short of perfect purity, still - contain a small proportion of this extractive, they are capable of - fermenting, when sufficiently dilute; Dr. Maccullough, in his essay on - the art of making wine, observes, that by the addition of a very small - quantity of the Sulphite of Potass, the fermentation of syrups and - preserves may be effectually prevented; he states also, that the same - object may generally be attained by the use of Oxy-muriate of Potass, - a salt absolutely tasteless, and easily procured. - -Footnote 656: - - The Damask Rose, Rosa Centifolia, of which this Syrup is composed, was - imported into this country by Linacre, on his return from Italy. - -Footnote 657: - - MAJOR COCHRANE’S COUGH MEDICINE. White poppy heads without seeds, are - made into a decoction, which is strained, and boiled again with - vinegar and brown sugar, until it assumes the consistence of syrup, - which is then acidified by elixir of vitriol. - -Footnote 658: - - It would appear that there are two principles of activity in Tobacco, - an essential oil, and nicotin, either of which are, individually, - capable of producing death, but by a very different physiological - action, the former by its effects on the brain, the latter by its - influence on the heart! See page 132. - -Footnote 659: - - It seems very probable that the “juice of cursed hebenon,” by which, - according to Shakespeare, the king of Denmark was poisoned, was no - other than the essential oil of Tobacco:— - - ——“Sleeping within mine orchard, - My custom always of the afternoon, - Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole, - With juice of cursed hebenon in a vial, - And in the porches of mine ears, did pour - The leperous distilment.” - - In the first place, the learned commentator Dr. Grey, observes that - the word here used (hebenon), was more probably designated by a - metathesis, either of the poet or transcriber, for henebon, i. e. - henbane. Now it appears from Gerarde, that “tabaco” was commonly - called henbane of Peru, (hyoscyamus Peruvianus,) and when we consider - how high the public prejudice ran against this herb in the reign of - James, it seems very likely that Shakespeare should have selected it, - as an agent of extraordinary malignity. No preparation of the - hyoscyamus, with which we are acquainted, would produce death by - application to the ear, whereas the essential oil of Tobacco would, - without doubt, occasion a fatal issue. The term distilment has also - called forth a remark from Steevens, which is calculated to support - this conjecture; surely, says he, this expression signifies, that the - preparation was the result of a distillation. - -Footnote 660: - - See “An Essay on the means of lessening Pain, and facilitating certain - Cases of difficult parturition, by W. P. Dewes, M.D. 1806. also Med. - Journ. vol. xviii.” - -Footnote 661: - - CEPHALIC SNUFF. The basis of this errhine is powdered Asarum, diluted - with some vegetable powder. - -Footnote 662: - - Tamarind, from _Timmer_ a Date, and _Hend_ India, Timmerhend, i. e. - Date of India. - -Footnote 663: - - Various substances have been proposed at different times as - substitutes for Coffee. In the “Fourth Century of Observations” in the - “Miscellanea Curiosa,” we find a critical dissertation on the (Cahve) - Coffee of the Arabians; and on European Coffee, or such as may be - prepared from grain or pulse. Dillenius gives the result of his own - preparations made with Pease, Beans, and Kidney Beans, but says that - that made from Rye comes the nearest to true Coffee, and was with - difficulty distinguished from it. This fact is curious, in as much as - a spurious Coffee has been lately vended, which is nothing more than - roasted Rye. The article is well known by the name of “HUNT’S - ŒCONOMICAL BREAKFAST POWDER.” - -Footnote 664: - - See “Some account of the Medicinal and other Uses of various - Substances prepared from Trees of the genus Pinus, by W. G. MATON, - M.D. &c. being a Supplement to Mr. Lambert’s splendid work on that - genus.” - -Footnote 665: - - The Τερμὶνθος of Theophrastus (lib. 3. c. 3.) and Dioscorides; (lib. - 1, c. 76) from which the word Terebinthus seems to have been derived. - -Footnote 666: - - The term Balsam is very improperly applied to this substance, since it - contains no Benzoic Acid. - -Footnote 667: - - The product of the Amyris Gileadensis, and probably the Balsamum - Judaicum, Syriacum e Mecca, Opobalsamum, &c. of the older writers. - -Footnote 668: - - A fluid extract, prepared by decoction from the twigs of this species - of Fir, is the well known Essence of Spruce, which, when fermented - with melasses, forms the popular beverage, called “Spruce Beer,” - (Cerevisia Pini Laricis.) - - TRUE RIGA BALSAM, Beaume de Carpathes, from the shoots of the Pinas - Cembra, previously bruised, and macerated for a month in water. - - This same fir also affords BRIANÇON TURPENTINE. - - HUNGARIAN BALSAM.—A spontaneous exudation from the P. Pumilio, or - Mugho Pine. - -Footnote 669: - - Lib. 16, c. 10. - -Footnote 670: - - Prax. Med. Lib. 14. c. 1. - -Footnote 671: - - STARKEY’S SOAP. This compound is effected by a long and tedious - trituration of alkali and oil of turpentine. - -Footnote 672: - - This case was occasioned by a violent whirling of the body in a - frolic! the circumstances attending it are so interesting, that I - shall take an opportunity of submitting the details to the profession. - See Dr. Yeat’s work on Hydrocephalus. - -Footnote 673: - - See “A Memoir on the employment of Terebinthinous Remedies in Disease, - by James Copland, M.D.” in the Medical and Physical Journal for 1821, - p. 185. - -Footnote 674: - - Kaauw de Persp. N. 430. - -Footnote 675: - - THE GUESTONIAN EMBROCATION FOR RHEUMATISM. ℞. Ol. Terebinth: f℥iss—Ol: - Oliv: f℥iss—Acid: Sulph. dilut: fʒiij. - -Footnote 676: - - SCOURING DROPS. The peculiar odour which distinguishes oil of - turpentine, may be destroyed by the addition of a few drops of some - fragrant volatile oil, as that of lemons: a combination of this kind - is commonly sold under the name of Scouring Drops, for the purpose of - removing paint, oil, or grease from cloth. - -Footnote 677: - - DUTCH, or HAERLEM DROPS. The basis of this nostrum consists of the - residue of this redistillation, which is a thick, red, resinous - matter, to which the name of Balsam of Turpentine has been given; a - preparation, however, is frequently vended as “Dutch Drops,” which is - a mixture of oil of turpentine, tincture of guaiacum, spirit of nitric - ether, with small portions of the oils of amber and cloves. Serapion, - the younger, one of the earlier Arabian writers on the Materia Medica, - describes them as bearing some analogy to “Pine nuts.” - -Footnote 678: - - The reader will find an account of the Botanical Literature of this - plant, by J. Frost, Director of the Medico-Botanical Society, in the - 17th volume of the Medical Repository, p. 461. - -Footnote 679: - - Rumphius, (Herb: Amboinense) in speaking of the Grana Molucca, - observes that women who are desirous of getting rid of their husbands, - give them four grains at one dose. - -Footnote 680: - - See Ainslie’s Materia Medica of Hindostan. - -Footnote 681: - - I state this fact on the authority of a communication made by order of - the Court of Directors of the East India Company, to the College of - Physicians, enclosing the extract of a letter from Mr. Conwell. - -Footnote 682: - - Journal of Science and Arts. No. xxvi. - -Footnote 683: - - I understand that to the Veterinary Surgeon this oil has proved an - article of great utility, as it uniformly purges the horse, and may be - employed, for that purpose, in those cases in which Aloes would be - inadmissible. - -Footnote 684: - - In making such a tincture we should employ a fluid-drachm of Rectified - Spirit, to two drops of the oil. They should be digested for some time - and then filtered. With all the care that can be used, a certain - portion of the spirit will be evaporated, and half a fluid-drachm of - the tincture may be thus considered as nearly equivalent to a drop and - a half of the oil. - -Footnote 685: - - The object of this preliminary step is to saturate the alcohol with a - fixed oil, that it may not dissolve any portion of that in the - Tiglium, and thus confuse the results. The quantity of fixed oil which - alcohol is capable of dissolving is extremely small, and will not in - the least degree injure the alcoholic solution for subsequent - medicinal use. - -Footnote 686: - - The change of colour which Guaiacum undergoes by admixture with other - bodies, not only affords a test by which we may appreciate its purity, - but at the same time it becomes a reagent by which we may assay the - virtues of other vegetable substances. According to the experiments of - M. Taddey and Rudolphi, it appears that GUAIACUM in powder, is an - excellent test for vegetable gluten, forming with it a fine blue - colour, whence it affords the means of determining the quality of - wheat flour. From the experiments of M. Planche, it moreover appears - that there is a series of vegetable roots which, when fresh, are - capable of producing a blue colour, if introduced into an alcoholic - solution of Guaiacum: so that we may hereafter be furnished with a - chemical test that will at once appreciate their freshness, which is - undoubtedly one of the greatest desiderata of pharmaceutical science. - - A communication has appeared from Mr. A. T. Thomson, in which he - proposes Guaiacum as a test for the freshness of Colchicum. I have, - however, never been able to succeed with it, to my satisfaction. - -Footnote 687: - - HUDSON’S PRESERVATIVE FOR THE TEETH AND GUMS. Equal parts of Tincture - of Myrrh, Tincture of Bark, and Cinnamon water, to which are added - Arquebusade and Gum Arabic. - - GREENOUGH’S TINCTURE FOR THE TEETH. The following receipt is given on - the authority of Mr. Gray. Of Bitter Almonds, 2 oz. Brazil Wood and - Cassia Buds, equal parts, half an ounce; root of the Florentine Iris, - 2 dr.: of Cochineal, Salt of Sorrel, and Alum, equal parts, one - drachm; Rectified Spirit, 2 pints; Spirit of Horse Radish, half an - ounce. - - RUSPINI’S TINCTURE FOR THE TEETH. This consists of the root of the - Florentine Iris, eight ounces; Cloves, one ounce; Rectified Spirit, - two pints; Ambergris, one scruple. - -Footnote 688: - - From παρηγορέω lenio, to assuage pain. - -Footnote 689: - - MATTHEW’S INJECTION. This once celebrated remedy for Fistula in Ano, - was nothing more than a diluted Tincture of Cantharides. - -Footnote 690: - - SOLOMON’S BALM OF GILEAD. An aromatic tincture, of which Cardamoms - form a leading ingredient, made with brandy. Some practitioners have - asserted that Cantharides enter its composition. - -Footnote 691: - - DAFFY’S ELIXIR. This is the Tinctura Sennæ Composita, with the - substitution of treacle for sugar candy, and the addition of aniseeds - and elecampane root. Different kinds of this nostrum are sold under - the names of DICKY’S DAFFY, and SWINTON’S DAFFY; but they differ - merely in some subordinate minutiæ, or unimportant additions. - -Footnote 692: - - The following remarks, with which I have lately been favoured by Dr. - Davy, appear interesting. “In the few cases which I have tried this - remedy for the retention of urine, I have seen no good effects - produced, until it excited nausea. For this purpose I have found it - advantageous to give it in a little tepid water: upon chemical - examination I could not discover that it ever passed off by the urine; - the fæces, however, are uniformly coloured black by it, whence I - conclude it must be evacuated through the bowels. In order to prevent - its tendency to constipate the bowels, I have found it necessary to - give some aperient, as castor oil, speedily after its exhibition.” May - not this latter circumstance explain the reason of his not having - detected it in the urine? (See p. 95.) - -Footnote 693: - - DE LA MOTTE’S GOLDEN DROPS. An Æthereal solution of Iron. - -Footnote 694: - - It has, for this reason, been substituted for oak bark in the tanning - of leather. - -Footnote 695: - - BRITISH HERB TOBACCO. The basis of which is Coltsfoot; this appears to - have had a very ancient origin, for the same plant was smoaked through - a reed in the days of Dioscorides, for the purpose of promoting - expectoration, and was called by him βηγὶον, from βηξ, tussis, whence - Tussilago. - - ESSENCE OF COLTSFOOT. For an account of this nostrum, see page 314. - -Footnote 696: - - In the first edition of this work, I stated the probability of the - Veratrum being the active ingredient of the EAU MEDICINALE, and, upon - the authority of Mr. James Moore, I inserted a formula for its - preparation; subsequent enquiry, however, has shewn the fallacy of - this opinion; but the fact of the medicinal efficacy of the Veratrum, - when combined with opium, in the cure of gout, remains - incontrovertible. One of the two Sweating Powders of WARD was a - combination of the Veratrum and Opium, it is certainly a very singular - coincidence, that recent experiments should have shewn that the active - principle of colchicum is identical with that which gives efficacy to - the hellebore, viz. Gallate of Veratria. The fact itself offers a - striking instance of medical experience having anticipated the - discoveries of chemistry, while it affords a powerful case in support - of the arguments which I have urged in the first part of this work, p. - 55. - -Footnote 697: - - EDINBURGH OINTMENT. The principal ingredients of which are the White - Hellebore and Muriate of Ammonia. - -Footnote 698: - - For an account of which the reader is referred to a most ingenious and - interesting Essay by Dr. Macculloch, entitled “Remarks on the Art of - making Wine, with suggestions for the application of its principles to - the improvement of Domestic Wines.” - -Footnote 699: - - This may also explain why bitters, under certain circumstances, have - been found to counteract the effects of wine, as in the instance of - the “Poculum Absinthiatum,” of which the ancients entertained so high - an opinion. See page 68. - -Footnote 700: - - “Resinata bibis vina, Falerna fugis.—Martial.” - - Pliny (lib: 14. c. 14.) mentions a Wine under the name of Myrrhina, - which was so called on account of its being impregnated with Myrrh. - - This custom explains the origin and meaning of the Thyrsus of Bacchus, - which appears to have been a spear entwined with leaves or a fillet, - and surmounted with a _Fir_ cone; thus, - -[Illustration] - -Footnote 701: - - See Dioscorides, lib. 5, c. 35, 36, 37, 38, 39. - -Footnote 702: - - An interesting and highly embellished work upon the subject of Wines, - has lately been published by Dr. Henderson. - -Footnote 703: - - “O Nata mecum consule Manlio.”—Od: xxi. Lib: 3. - - The Odes of Horace abound with manifestations of the same taste, thus, - - “I pete—— - Et Cadum Marsi memorem duelli.”—Od: xiv. Lib: 3. - - Here Horace sends his Slave for a cask of the wine on which the Marian - war was recorded, and which must therefore have been sixty-eight years - old. - - In ode xxviii. book 3, we find him calling for - - “Bibuli Consulis amphoram.” - - Now as the poet was born in the Consulate of Manlius, as above stated, - which happened A. U. C. 688, and Bibulus was Consul in 694, the wine - must have been hoarded from the time Horace was six years of age. - - Wine however might, according to the opinion of our Poet, be too old; - he terms wine of this description “Languidiora Vina,” and Plautus - compares old wine which has lost its relish and strength, to a man who - has lost his teeth by age, “Vinum vetustate edentulum.” - - Nestor’s wine was eleven years old. Od. γ. 390. - - The Romans had their wine cellars at the top of their houses; thus - Horace, - - “descende Corvino jubente.” - - The object of such an arrangement was that the wine might ripen sooner - by the smoke, for their fires were made in the middle of their rooms, - with an opening above to let out the smoke, which is described as - rolling to the top of the house, in the Eleventh Ode of the Fourth - Book. - - “Rotantes vertice fumum.” - -Footnote 704: - - From the noxious effects which some persons experience from potations - of Champagne, it has been conjectured that this wine must possess some - narcotic principle like that which exists in many species of Fungi. - This, however, is extremely improbable. - -Footnote 705: - - ξηρος signifies dry. This is a curious coincidence. - -Footnote 706: - - The Sack of Shakespeare was probably Sherry; a conjecture which - receives additional strength from the following passage. - - Falstaff.—“You rogue, here’s _lime_ in this Sack too: There is nothing - but roguery to be found in villainous man: yet a coward is worse than - a cup of sack with lime in it; a villainous coward.” - - Huldrick Van Speagle, in his “Famous Historie of most Drinks”, says - “Sack is no hippocrite, for any man who knows what an Anagram is will - confesse that it is contained within the litteral letters and limmits - of its own name, which is to say. CASK, i. e. Sack.” See Taylor’s - Translation of the “Work of the painful and industrious Huldricke Van - Speagle, a grammatical Brewer of Lubeck. A.D. 1637.” - -Footnote 707: - - Expose equal parts of sulphur and powdered oyster shells to a white - heat for fifteen minutes, and when cold, add an equal quantity of - cream of tartar; these are to be put into a strong bottle with common - water to boil for an hour; and the solution is afterwards to be - decanted into ounce phials, adding 20 drops of muriatic acid to each. - This liquor will precipitate the least quantity of lead from wines in - a very sensible black precipitate. As iron might be accidentally - contained in the wine, the muriatic acid is added to prevent its - precipitation. - -Footnote 708: - - Lead will not only correct the acidity of wines, but remove the - rancidity of oils: a property which is well known to Painters, and - which affords an expedient for making an inferior oil pass for a good - one. - -Footnote 709: - - The quantity of rectified spirit and water ordered will be found on - admixture to produce a spirit nearly of the above strength. - -Footnote 710: - - WARD’S RED DROP. A strong vinous solution of Tartarized Antimony. - -Footnote 711: - - FORD’S LAUDANUM. This is similar to the Vinum Opii of the present - Pharmacopœia. - -Footnote 712: - - Laudanum. Paracelsus first bestowed the term Laudanum upon a - preparation of Opium, a LAUDATA ejus efficacia, LAUDATUM medicamentum. - -Footnote 713: - - According to the experiments of M. Vogel, Annales de Chimie, (t. lxiv. - p. 220) this ointment is nothing more than metallic mercury mixed with - grease, the division of which has been carried to such an extent as to - impart a blackish colour to the mixture. - -Footnote 714: - - It is to be hoped that a quantity of the ointment will be prepared - according to these views, and be submitted to a more extended series - of experiments. The oxide may be procured by decomposing Calomel by a - solution of pure potass, or by pouring a solution of the nitrate of - mercury into a caustic alkaline solution; this oxide should be at - first triturated with a little lard, in the cold, to make the - penetration complete, taking care that the lard be quite free from - common salt, or else Calomel will be the ultimate result: the mixture - is then to be submitted to the action of heat, and it is very - important to attend to the necessary temperature, for at 212° the - oxide and lard will not unite, at 600° the oxide will be decomposed - and the mercury volatilized, at 500° and 400° the oxide is partially - decomposed, some red oxide being formed and mercury reduced; the - proper temperature is between 300° and 320°, at which it should be - maintained for an hour, and the ointment should be stirred until cold. - -Footnote 715: - - Four ounces, troy, of mercurial ointment, prepared six months before, - were kept at 212°, when it separated into two distinct strata, viz. - the upper one which was light grey, and extremely active as a - medicine, and the under one, which upon being triturated with - magnesia, yielded a large proportion of metallic mercury, and which - was not found to possess any activity. - -Footnote 716: - - Whenever it is our object to direct the mercurial impression to any - particular organ, we should if possible rouse its excitability by some - specific stimulus. An exception, however, to this doctrine would seem - to offer itself in the fact, that children at the period of dentition - are not readily salivated; _a priori_, we should have certainly - supposed that a predisposition to a flux of saliva would have produced - a contrary effect. As it is, we can only conclude that those organs - are not disposed to take on any action that may be incompatible with, - or adverse to, that of dentition. - -Footnote 717: - - The Unguentum Werholfii, so long celebrated on the Continent, was a - combination of this kind. - -Footnote 718: - - Basilicon, i. e. the _Royal_ Ointment. - - BAILEY’S ITCH OINTMENT. This is a very complicated combination; - containing Nitre, Alum, Sulphate of Zinc, and Cinnabar, made into an - ointment with Olive oil and Lard, and perfumed with the essential oils - of Anise Seeds, Origanum, and Lavender; and coloured with Alkanet - root. - - The Indians use an ointment in inveterate itch, which is said to prove - very successful, and consists of finely powdered Cocculus Indicus - mixed with a little warm Castor oil. - -Footnote 719: - - I have been lately informed by a practical chemist, that he has - occasionally found his hydrogen, when produced by zinc and dilute - acid, to contain a portion of Arsenuretted hydrogen; a fact which - confirms the assertion of Roloff. - -Footnote 720: - - The various quack remedies advertised for the cure of the hooping - cough are either Opiates, or medicines composed of sulphate of zinc. - The nostrum, sold under the name of Anti-pertussis, contains this - metallic salt as its principal ingredient. - -Footnote 721: - - OXLEY’S CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF JAMAICA GINGER.—A mere solution of - Ginger in Rectified spirit. - - GINGER BEER POWDERS.—White sugar, ʒj ℈ij, ginger grs. v. sub-carbonate - of soda grs. xxvj, in blue paper. Tartaric acid grs. xxx, in each - white paper. These proportions are directed for half a pint of water. - - GINGER BEER.—The following is the receipt by which this popular - beverage is prepared. Take of lump sugar half a pound; of cream of - tartar half an ounce; Bruised Ginger an ounce; boiling water one - gallon. Ferment for twenty-four hours with yeast. - - PRESERVED GINGER.—That from India is almost transparent, while that - manufactured in Europe is always opaque and fibrous. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. P. ix, changed “notorius Quack Medicines” to “notorious Quack - Medicines”. - 2. P. 21, changed “antisyphylitic powers” to “antisyphilitic powers”. - 3. P. 28, changed “Ipecacuhan had been imported” to “Ipecacuan had been - imported”. - 4. P. 82, changed “absosolute and relative remedies” to “absolute and - relative remedies”. - 5. P. 174, changed “mucus of the uretha” to “mucus of the urethra”. - 6. P. 189, changed “erysipelatous efflorence” to “erysipelatous - efflorescence”. - 7. P. 279, changed “brused seeds” to “bruised seeds”. - 8. P. 298, changed “Desgrangès (Recueil Period: de la Societé” to - “Desgranges (Recueil Period: de la Société”. - 9. P. 302, changed “alkaline phospate” to “alkaline phosphate”. -10. P. 307, “1⁄000,000” is unchanged from the original. -11. P. 311, changed “Myroxylon Pruiferum” to “Myroxylon Peruiferum”. -12. P. 329, “Sp. Grav. 9·433” is grossly overstated. -13. P. 333, changed “opothecary at Annecy” to “apothecary at Annecy”. -14. P. 386, changed “forms of Desentery” to “forms of Dysentery”. -15. P. 398, changed “tatarized antimony” to “tartarized antimony”. -16. P. 403, changed “when administed” to “when administered”. -17. P. 414, changed “Saturine applications” to “Saturnine applications”. -18. P. 434, split the three part footnote with three anchors into three - distinct footnotes. -19. P. 454, changed “iron, and maganese” to “iron, and manganese”. -20. P. 467, changed “suphate of zinc” to “sulphate of zinc”. -21. P. 476, changed “hexaedral prisms” to “hexahedral prisms”. -22. Table of Contents added by transcriber. -23. Silently corrected punctuation errors and variations in spelling. -24. Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as printed. -25. Footnotes were re-indexed using numbers and collected together at - the end of the last chapter. -26. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. -27. Enclosed bold font in =equals=. -28. 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